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23,601 | The number **π** (/paɪ/; spelled out as "**pi**") is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, approximately equal to 3.14159. The number π appears in many formulae across mathematics and physics. It is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of two integers, although fractions such as
22
7
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {22}{7}}}
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {22}{7}}} are commonly used to approximate it. Consequently, its decimal representation never ends, nor enters a permanently repeating pattern. It is a transcendental number, meaning that it cannot be a solution of an equation involving only sums, products, powers, and integers. The transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge. The decimal digits of π appear to be randomly distributed, but no proof of this conjecture has been found.
For thousands of years, mathematicians have attempted to extend their understanding of π, sometimes by computing its value to a high degree of accuracy. Ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians and Babylonians, required fairly accurate approximations of π for practical computations. Around 250 BC, the Greek mathematician Archimedes created an algorithm to approximate π with arbitrary accuracy. In the 5th century AD, Chinese mathematicians approximated π to seven digits, while Indian mathematicians made a five-digit approximation, both using geometrical techniques. The first computational formula for π, based on infinite series, was discovered a millennium later. The earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by the Welsh mathematician William Jones in 1706.
The invention of calculus soon led to the calculation of hundreds of digits of π, enough for all practical scientific computations. Nevertheless, in the 20th and 21st centuries, mathematicians and computer scientists have pursued new approaches that, when combined with increasing computational power, extended the decimal representation of π to many trillions of digits. These computations are motivated by the development of efficient algorithms to calculate numeric series, as well as the human quest to break records. The extensive computations involved have also been used to test supercomputers.
Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses and spheres. It is also found in formulae from other topics in science, such as cosmology, fractals, thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetism. In modern mathematical analysis, it is often instead defined without any reference to geometry; therefore, it also appears in areas having little to do with geometry, such as number theory and statistics. The ubiquity of π makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants inside and outside of science. Several books devoted to π have been published, and record-setting calculations of the digits of π often result in news headlines.
Fundamentals
------------
### Name
The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is the lowercase Greek letter π, sometimes spelled out as *pi.* In English, π is pronounced as "pie" (/paɪ/ *PY*). In mathematical use, the lowercase letter π is distinguished from its capitalized and enlarged counterpart Π, which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how Σ denotes summation.
The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section *Adoption of the symbol π*.
### Definition
π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference *C* to its diameter *d*:
π
=
C
d
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}}
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}}
The ratio
C
d
{\textstyle {\frac {C}{d}}}
{\textstyle {\frac {C}{d}}} is constant, regardless of the circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle, it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio
C
d
{\textstyle {\frac {C}{d}}}
{\textstyle {\frac {C}{d}}}. This definition of π implicitly makes use of flat (Euclidean) geometry; although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curve (non-Euclidean) geometry, these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula
π
=
C
d
{\textstyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}}
{\textstyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}}.
Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which can be formally defined independently of geometry using limits—a concept in calculus. For example, one may directly compute the arc length of the top half of the unit circle, given in Cartesian coordinates by the equation
x
2
+
y
2
=
1
{\textstyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1}
{\textstyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1}, as the integral:
π
=
∫
−
1
1
d
x
1
−
x
2
.
{\displaystyle \pi =\int \_{-1}^{1}{\frac {dx}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}.}
{\displaystyle \pi =\int _{-1}^{1}{\frac {dx}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}.}
An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass, who defined it directly as an integral in 1841.
Integration is no longer commonly used in a first analytical definition because, as Remmert 2012 explains, differential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum, so it is desirable to have a definition of π that does not rely on the latter. One such definition, due to Richard Baltzer and popularized by Edmund Landau, is the following: π is twice the smallest positive number at which the cosine function equals 0. π is also the smallest positive number at which the sine function equals zero, and the difference between consecutive zeroes of the sine function. The cosine and sine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series, or as the solution of a differential equation.
In a similar spirit, π can be defined using properties of the complex exponential, exp *z*, of a complex variable *z*. Like the cosine, the complex exponential can be defined in one of several ways. The set of complex numbers at which exp *z* is equal to one is then an (imaginary) arithmetic progression of the form:
{
…
,
−
2
π
i
,
0
,
2
π
i
,
4
π
i
,
…
}
=
{
2
π
k
i
∣
k
∈
Z
}
{\displaystyle \{\dots ,-2\pi i,0,2\pi i,4\pi i,\dots \}=\{2\pi ki\mid k\in \mathbb {Z} \}}
{\displaystyle \{\dots ,-2\pi i,0,2\pi i,4\pi i,\dots \}=\{2\pi ki\mid k\in \mathbb {Z} \}}
and there is a unique positive real number π with this property.
A variation on the same idea, making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts of topology and algebra, is the following theorem: there is a unique (up to automorphism) continuous isomorphism from the group **R**/**Z** of real numbers under addition modulo integers (the circle group), onto the multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value one. The number π is then defined as half the magnitude of the derivative of this homomorphism.
### Irrationality and normality
π is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers. Fractions such as 22/7 and 355/113 are commonly used to approximate π, but no common fraction (ratio of whole numbers) can be its exact value. Because π is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation, and does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several proofs that π is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the *reductio ad absurdum* technique. The degree to which π can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of *e* or ln 2 but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers.
The digits of π have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness, including tests for normality; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits (of any given length) appear equally often. The conjecture that π is normal has not been proven or disproven.
Since the advent of computers, a large number of digits of π have been available on which to perform statistical analysis. Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of π, and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequencies of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found. Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem. Thus, because the sequence of π's digits passes statistical tests for randomness, it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non-random, such as a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of π. This is also called the "Feynman point" in mathematical folklore, after Richard Feynman, although no connection to Feynman is known.
### Transcendence
In addition to being irrational, π is also a transcendental number, which means that it is not the solution of any non-constant polynomial equation with rational coefficients, such as
x
5
120
−
x
3
6
+
x
=
0
{\textstyle {\frac {x^{5}}{120}}-{\frac {x^{3}}{6}}+x=0}
{\textstyle {\frac {x^{5}}{120}}-{\frac {x^{3}}{6}}+x=0}.
The transcendence of π has two important consequences: First, π cannot be expressed using any finite combination of rational numbers and square roots or *n*-th roots (such as
31
3
{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{31}}}
{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{31}}} or
10
{\displaystyle {\sqrt {10}}}
{\sqrt {10}}). Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to "square the circle". In other words, it is impossible to construct, using compass and straightedge alone, a square whose area is exactly equal to the area of a given circle. Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity. Amateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and claim success—despite the fact that it is mathematically impossible.
### Continued fractions
As an irrational number, π cannot be represented as a common fraction. But every number, including π, can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:
π
=
3
+
1
7
+
1
15
+
1
1
+
1
292
+
1
1
+
1
1
+
1
1
+
⋱
{\displaystyle \pi =3+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{7+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{15+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{292+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
{\displaystyle \pi =3+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{7+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{15+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{292+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\textstyle {\cfrac {1}{1+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a rational approximation for π; the first four of these are 3, 22/7, 333/106, and 355/113. These numbers are among the best-known and most widely used historical approximations of the constant. Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational approximation; that is, each is closer to π than any other fraction with the same or a smaller denominator. Because π is transcendental, it is by definition not algebraic and so cannot be a quadratic irrational. Therefore, π cannot have a periodic continued fraction. Although the simple continued fraction for π (shown above) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern, several generalized continued fractions do, such as:
π
=
3
+
1
2
6
+
3
2
6
+
5
2
6
+
7
2
6
+
⋱
=
4
1
+
1
2
2
+
3
2
2
+
5
2
2
+
⋱
=
4
1
+
1
2
3
+
2
2
5
+
3
2
7
+
⋱
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\pi &=3+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {7^{2}}{6+\ddots }}}}}}}}={\cfrac {4}{1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{2+\ddots }}}}}}}}={\cfrac {4}{1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{3+{\cfrac {2^{2}}{5+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{7+\ddots }}}}}}}}\end{aligned}}}
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\pi &=3+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {7^{2}}{6+\ddots }}}}}}}}={\cfrac {4}{1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{2+\ddots }}}}}}}}={\cfrac {4}{1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{3+{\cfrac {2^{2}}{5+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{7+\ddots }}}}}}}}\end{aligned}}}
The middle of these is due to the mid-17th century mathematician William Brouncker, see § Brouncker's formula.
### Approximate value and digits
Some approximations of *pi* include:
* **Integers**: 3
* **Fractions**: Approximate fractions include (in order of increasing accuracy) 22/7, 333/106, 355/113, 52163/16604, 103993/33102, 104348/33215, and 245850922/78256779. (List is selected terms from OEIS: A063674 and OEIS: A063673.)
* **Digits**: The first 50 decimal digits are 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510... (see OEIS: A000796)
**Digits in other number systems**
* The first 48 binary (base 2) digits (called bits) are 11.001001000011111101101010100010001000010110100011... (see OEIS: A004601)
* The first 38 digits in ternary (base 3) are 10.0102110122220102110021111102212222201... (see OEIS: A004602)
* The first 20 digits in hexadecimal (base 16) are 3.243F6A8885A308D31319... (see OEIS: A062964)
* The first five sexagesimal (base 60) digits are 3;8,29,44,0,47 (see OEIS: A060707)
### Complex numbers and Euler's identity
Any complex number, say z, can be expressed using a pair of real numbers. In the polar coordinate system, one number (radius or r) is used to represent z's distance from the origin of the complex plane, and the other (angle or φ) the counter-clockwise rotation from the positive real line:
z
=
r
⋅
(
cos
φ
+
i
sin
φ
)
,
{\displaystyle z=r\cdot (\cos \varphi +i\sin \varphi ),}
{\displaystyle z=r\cdot (\cos \varphi +i\sin \varphi ),}
where i is the imaginary unit satisfying
i
2
=
−
1
{\displaystyle i^{2}=-1}
i^{2}=-1. The frequent appearance of π in complex analysis can be related to the behaviour of the exponential function of a complex variable, described by Euler's formula:
e
i
φ
=
cos
φ
+
i
sin
φ
,
{\displaystyle e^{i\varphi }=\cos \varphi +i\sin \varphi ,}
{\displaystyle e^{i\varphi }=\cos \varphi +i\sin \varphi ,}
where the constant *e* is the base of the natural logarithm. This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of *e* and points on the unit circle centred at the origin of the complex plane. Setting
ϕ
=
π
{\displaystyle \phi =\pi }
\phi =\pi in Euler's formula results in Euler's identity, celebrated in mathematics due to it containing five important mathematical constants:
e
i
π
+
1
=
0.
{\displaystyle e^{i\pi }+1=0.}
{\displaystyle e^{i\pi }+1=0.}
There are *n* different complex numbers z satisfying
z
n
=
1
{\displaystyle z^{n}=1}
{\displaystyle z^{n}=1}, and these are called the "*n*-th roots of unity" and are given by the formula:
e
2
π
i
k
/
n
(
k
=
0
,
1
,
2
,
…
,
n
−
1
)
.
{\displaystyle e^{2\pi ik/n}\qquad (k=0,1,2,\dots ,n-1).}
{\displaystyle e^{2\pi ik/n}\qquad (k=0,1,2,\dots ,n-1).}
History
-------
### Antiquity
The best-known approximations to π dating before the Common Era were accurate to two decimal places; this was improved upon in Chinese mathematics in particular by the mid-first millennium, to an accuracy of seven decimal places.
After this, no further progress was made until the late medieval period.
The earliest written approximations of π are found in Babylon and Egypt, both within one percent of the true value. In Babylon, a clay tablet dated 1900–1600 BC has a geometrical statement that, by implication, treats π as 25/8 = 3.125. In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650 BC but copied from a document dated to 1850 BC, has a formula for the area of a circle that treats π as
(
16
9
)
2
≈
3.16
{\textstyle {\bigl (}{\frac {16}{9}}{\bigr )}^{2}\approx 3.16}
{\textstyle {\bigl (}{\frac {16}{9}}{\bigr )}^{2}\approx 3.16}. Although some pyramidologists such as Flinders Petrie have theorized that the Great Pyramid of Giza was built with proportions related to π, this theory is not widely accepted by scholars.
In the Shulba Sutras of Indian mathematics, dating to an oral tradition from the first or second millennium BC, approximations are given which have been variously interpreted as approximately 3.08831, 3.08833, 3.004, 3, or 3.125.
### Polygon approximation era
The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of π was a geometrical approach using polygons, devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes. This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1,000 years, and as a result π is sometimes referred to as Archimedes's constant. Archimedes computed upper and lower bounds of π by drawing a regular hexagon inside and outside a circle, and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a 96-sided regular polygon. By calculating the perimeters of these polygons, he proved that 223/71 < π < 22/7 (that is, 3.1408 < π < 3.1429). Archimedes' upper bound of 22/7 may have led to a widespread popular belief that π is equal to 22/7. Around 150 AD, Greek-Roman scientist Ptolemy, in his *Almagest*, gave a value for π of 3.1416, which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga. Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached 39 digits of π in 1630, a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71 digits.
In ancient China, values for π included 3.1547 (around 1 AD),
10
{\displaystyle {\sqrt {10}}}
{\sqrt {10}} (100 AD, approximately 3.1623), and 142/45 (3rd century, approximately 3.1556). Around 265 AD, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon-based iterative algorithm and used it with a 3,072-sided polygon to obtain a value of π of 3.1416. Liu later invented a faster method of calculating π and obtained a value of 3.14 with a 96-sided polygon, by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4. The Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi, around 480 AD, calculated that
3.1415926
<
π
<
3.1415927
{\displaystyle 3.1415926<\pi <3.1415927}
{\displaystyle 3.1415926<\pi <3.1415927} and suggested the approximations
π
≈
355
113
=
3.14159292035...
{\textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {355}{113}}=3.14159292035...}
{\textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {355}{113}}=3.14159292035...} and
π
≈
22
7
=
3.142857142857...
{\textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {22}{7}}=3.142857142857...}
{\textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {22}{7}}=3.142857142857...}, which he termed the *Milü* (''close ratio") and *Yuelü* ("approximate ratio"), respectively, using Liu Hui's algorithm applied to a 12,288-sided polygon. With a correct value for its seven first decimal digits, this value remained the most accurate approximation of π available for the next 800 years.
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his *Āryabhaṭīya* (499 AD). Fibonacci in c. 1220 computed 3.1418 using a polygonal method, independent of Archimedes. Italian author Dante apparently employed the value
3
+
2
10
≈
3.14142
{\textstyle 3+{\frac {\sqrt {2}}{10}}\approx 3.14142}
{\textstyle 3+{\frac {\sqrt {2}}{10}}\approx 3.14142}.
The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced nine sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424, using a polygon with
3
×
2
28
{\textstyle 3\times 2^{28}}
{\textstyle 3\times 2^{28}} sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years. French mathematician François Viète in 1579 achieved nine digits with a polygon of
3
×
2
17
{\textstyle 3\times 2^{17}}
{\textstyle 3\times 2^{17}} sides. Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places in 1593. In 1596, Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits, a record he later increased to 35 digits (as a result, π was called the "Ludolphian number" in Germany until the early 20th century). Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621, and Austrian astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 1040 sides. Christiaan Huygens was able to arrive at 10 decimal places in 1654 using a slightly different method equivalent to Richardson extrapolation.
### Infinite series
Comparison of the convergence of several historical infinite series for π. *Sn* is the approximation after taking *n* terms. Each subsequent subplot magnifies the shaded area horizontally by 10 times. (click for detail)
The calculation of π was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th and 17th centuries. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence. Infinite series allowed mathematicians to compute π with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques. Although infinite series were exploited for π most notably by European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the approach also appeared in the Kerala school sometime in the 14th or 15th century. Around 1500 AD, a written description of an infinite series that could be used to compute π was laid out in Sanskrit verse in *Tantrasamgraha* by Nilakantha Somayaji. The series are presented without proof, but proofs are presented in a later work, *Yuktibhāṣā*, from around 1530 AD. Several infinite series are described, including series for sine (which Nilakantha attributes to Madhava of Sangamagrama), cosine, and arctangent which are now sometimes referred to as Madhava series. The series for arctangent is sometimes called Gregory's series or the Gregory–Leibniz series. Madhava used infinite series to estimate π to 11 digits around 1400.
In 1593, François Viète published what is now known as Viète's formula, an infinite product (rather than an infinite sum, which is more typically used in π calculations):
2
π
=
2
2
⋅
2
+
2
2
⋅
2
+
2
+
2
2
⋯
{\displaystyle {\frac {2}{\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}}\cdot {\frac {\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2}}}}{2}}\cdot {\frac {\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2}}}}}}{2}}\cdots }
{\displaystyle {\frac {2}{\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}}\cdot {\frac {\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2}}}}{2}}\cdot {\frac {\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2+{\sqrt {2}}}}}}{2}}\cdots }
In 1655, John Wallis published what is now known as Wallis product, also an infinite product:
π
2
=
(
2
1
⋅
2
3
)
⋅
(
4
3
⋅
4
5
)
⋅
(
6
5
⋅
6
7
)
⋅
(
8
7
⋅
8
9
)
⋯
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}={\Big (}{\frac {2}{1}}\cdot {\frac {2}{3}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {4}{3}}\cdot {\frac {4}{5}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {6}{5}}\cdot {\frac {6}{7}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {8}{7}}\cdot {\frac {8}{9}}{\Big )}\cdots }
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}={\Big (}{\frac {2}{1}}\cdot {\frac {2}{3}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {4}{3}}\cdot {\frac {4}{5}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {6}{5}}\cdot {\frac {6}{7}}{\Big )}\cdot {\Big (}{\frac {8}{7}}\cdot {\frac {8}{9}}{\Big )}\cdots }
In the 1660s, the English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz discovered calculus, which led to the development of many infinite series for approximating π. Newton himself used an arcsine series to compute a 15-digit approximation of π in 1665 or 1666, writing, "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time."
In 1671, James Gregory, and independently, Leibniz in 1673, discovered the Taylor series expansion for arctangent:
arctan
z
=
z
−
z
3
3
+
z
5
5
−
z
7
7
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \arctan z=z-{\frac {z^{3}}{3}}+{\frac {z^{5}}{5}}-{\frac {z^{7}}{7}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle \arctan z=z-{\frac {z^{3}}{3}}+{\frac {z^{5}}{5}}-{\frac {z^{7}}{7}}+\cdots }
This series, sometimes called the Gregory–Leibniz series, equals
π
4
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}}
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}} when evaluated with
z
=
1
{\displaystyle z=1}
z=1. But for
z
=
1
{\displaystyle z=1}
z=1, it converges impractically slowly (that is, approaches the answer very gradually), taking about ten times as many terms to calculate each additional digit.
In 1699, English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the Gregory–Leibniz series for
z
=
1
3
{\textstyle z={\frac {1}{\sqrt {3}}}}
{\textstyle z={\frac {1}{\sqrt {3}}}} to compute π to 71 digits, breaking the previous record of 39 digits, which was set with a polygonal algorithm.
In 1706, John Machin used the Gregory–Leibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much faster:
π
4
=
4
arctan
1
5
−
arctan
1
239
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=4\arctan {\frac {1}{5}}-\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}.}
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=4\arctan {\frac {1}{5}}-\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}.}
Machin reached 100 digits of π with this formula. Other mathematicians created variants, now known as Machin-like formulae, that were used to set several successive records for calculating digits of π.
Isaac Newton accelerated the convergence of the Gregory–Leibniz series in 1684 (in an unpublished work; others independently discovered the result):
arctan
x
=
x
1
+
x
2
+
2
3
x
3
(
1
+
x
2
)
2
+
2
⋅
4
3
⋅
5
x
5
(
1
+
x
2
)
3
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \arctan x={\frac {x}{1+x^{2}}}+{\frac {2}{3}}{\frac {x^{3}}{(1+x^{2})^{2}}}+{\frac {2\cdot 4}{3\cdot 5}}{\frac {x^{5}}{(1+x^{2})^{3}}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle \arctan x={\frac {x}{1+x^{2}}}+{\frac {2}{3}}{\frac {x^{3}}{(1+x^{2})^{2}}}+{\frac {2\cdot 4}{3\cdot 5}}{\frac {x^{5}}{(1+x^{2})^{3}}}+\cdots }
Leonhard Euler popularized this series in his 1755 differential calculus textbook, and later used it with Machin-like formulae, including
π
4
=
5
arctan
1
7
+
2
arctan
3
77
,
{\textstyle {\tfrac {\pi }{4}}=5\arctan {\tfrac {1}{7}}+2\arctan {\tfrac {3}{77}},}
{\textstyle {\tfrac {\pi }{4}}=5\arctan {\tfrac {1}{7}}+2\arctan {\tfrac {3}{77}},} with which he computed 20 digits of π in one hour.
Machin-like formulae remained the best-known method for calculating π well into the age of computers, and were used to set records for 250 years, culminating in a 620-digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson – the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device.
In 1844, a record was set by Zacharias Dase, who employed a Machin-like formula to calculate 200 decimals of π in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.
In 1853, British mathematician William Shanks calculated π to 607 digits, but made a mistake in the 528th digit, rendering all subsequent digits incorrect. Though he calculated an additional 100 digits in 1873, bringing the total up to 707, his previous mistake rendered all the new digits incorrect as well.
#### Rate of convergence
Some infinite series for π converge faster than others. Given the choice of two infinite series for π, mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate π to any given accuracy. A simple infinite series for π is the Gregory–Leibniz series:
π
=
4
1
−
4
3
+
4
5
−
4
7
+
4
9
−
4
11
+
4
13
−
⋯
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{1}}-{\frac {4}{3}}+{\frac {4}{5}}-{\frac {4}{7}}+{\frac {4}{9}}-{\frac {4}{11}}+{\frac {4}{13}}-\cdots }
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{1}}-{\frac {4}{3}}+{\frac {4}{5}}-{\frac {4}{7}}+{\frac {4}{9}}-{\frac {4}{11}}+{\frac {4}{13}}-\cdots }
As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum, the total gradually gets closer to π, and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to π as desired. It converges quite slowly, though – after 500,000 terms, it produces only five correct decimal digits of π.
An infinite series for π (published by Nilakantha in the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory–Leibniz series is:
π
=
3
+
4
2
×
3
×
4
−
4
4
×
5
×
6
+
4
6
×
7
×
8
−
4
8
×
9
×
10
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \pi =3+{\frac {4}{2\times 3\times 4}}-{\frac {4}{4\times 5\times 6}}+{\frac {4}{6\times 7\times 8}}-{\frac {4}{8\times 9\times 10}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle \pi =3+{\frac {4}{2\times 3\times 4}}-{\frac {4}{4\times 5\times 6}}+{\frac {4}{6\times 7\times 8}}-{\frac {4}{8\times 9\times 10}}+\cdots }
The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series:
| Infinite series for π | After 1st term | After 2nd term | After 3rd term | After 4th term | After 5th term | Converges to: |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
π
=
4
1
−
4
3
+
4
5
−
4
7
+
4
9
−
4
11
+
4
13
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{1}}-{\frac {4}{3}}+{\frac {4}{5}}-{\frac {4}{7}}+{\frac {4}{9}}-{\frac {4}{11}}+{\frac {4}{13}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{1}}-{\frac {4}{3}}+{\frac {4}{5}}-{\frac {4}{7}}+{\frac {4}{9}}-{\frac {4}{11}}+{\frac {4}{13}}+\cdots } | 4.0000 | 2.6666 ... | 3.4666 ... | 2.8952 ... | 3.3396 ... | π = 3.1415 ... |
|
π
=
3
+
4
2
×
3
×
4
−
4
4
×
5
×
6
+
4
6
×
7
×
8
−
⋯
{\displaystyle \pi ={3}+{\frac {4}{2\times 3\times 4}}-{\frac {4}{4\times 5\times 6}}+{\frac {4}{6\times 7\times 8}}-\cdots }
{\displaystyle \pi ={3}+{\frac {4}{2\times 3\times 4}}-{\frac {4}{4\times 5\times 6}}+{\frac {4}{6\times 7\times 8}}-\cdots } | 3.0000 | 3.1666 ... | 3.1333 ... | 3.1452 ... | 3.1396 ... |
After five terms, the sum of the Gregory–Leibniz series is within 0.2 of the correct value of π, whereas the sum of Nilakantha's series is within 0.002 of the correct value. Nilakantha's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of π. Series that converge even faster include Machin's series and Chudnovsky's series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term.
### Irrationality and transcendence
Not all mathematical advances relating to π were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations. When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735, finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal squares, he established a connection between π and the prime numbers that later contributed to the development and study of the Riemann zeta function:
π
2
6
=
1
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+
⋯
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{4^{2}}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{4^{2}}}+\cdots }
Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1768 proved that π is irrational, meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two integers. Lambert's proof exploited a continued-fraction representation of the tangent function. French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that π2 is also irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that π is transcendental, confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler. Hardy and Wright states that "the proofs were afterwards modified and simplified by Hilbert, Hurwitz, and other writers".
### Adoption of the symbol π
The earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in 1706Leonhard Euler popularized the use of the Greek letter π in works he published in 1736 and 1748.
In the earliest usages, the Greek letter π was used to denote the semiperimeter (*semiperipheria* in Latin) of a circle and was combined in ratios with δ (for diameter or semidiameter) or ρ (for radius) to form circle constants. (Before then, mathematicians sometimes used letters such as c or p instead.) The first recorded use is Oughtred's "
δ
.
π
{\displaystyle \delta .\pi }
{\displaystyle \delta .\pi }", to express the ratio of periphery and diameter in the 1647 and later editions of *Clavis Mathematicae*. Barrow likewise used "
π
δ
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{\delta }}}
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{\delta }}}" to represent the constant 3.14..., while Gregory instead used "
π
ρ
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{\rho }}}
{\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{\rho }}}" to represent 6.28... .
The earliest known use of the Greek letter π alone to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work *Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos; or, a New Introduction to the Mathematics*. The Greek letter appears on p. 243 in the phrase "
1
2
{\textstyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}
{\textstyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} Periphery (π)", calculated for a circle with radius one. However, Jones writes that his equations for π are from the "ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin", leading to speculation that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones. Jones' notation was not immediately adopted by other mathematicians, with the fraction notation still being used as late as 1767.
Euler started using the single-letter form beginning with his 1727 *Essay Explaining the Properties of Air*, though he used *π* = 6.28..., the ratio of periphery to radius, in this and some later writing. Euler first used π = 3.14... in his 1736 work *Mechanica*, and continued in his widely read 1748 work *Introductio in analysin infinitorum* (he wrote: "for the sake of brevity we will write this number as π; thus π is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius 1"). Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe, the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly, and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world, though the definition still varied between 3.14... and 6.28... as late as 1761.
Modern quest for more digits
----------------------------
### Computer era and iterative algorithms
>
> The Gauss–Legendre iterative algorithm:
> Initialize
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> a
>
> 0
>
>
> =
> 1
> ,
>
>
> b
>
> 0
>
>
> =
>
>
> 1
>
> 2
>
>
>
> ,
>
>
> t
>
> 0
>
>
> =
>
>
> 1
> 4
>
>
> ,
>
>
> p
>
> 0
>
>
> =
> 1.
>
>
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle a\_{0}=1,\quad b\_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}},\quad t\_{0}={\frac {1}{4}},\quad p\_{0}=1.}
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle a_{0}=1,\quad b_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}},\quad t_{0}={\frac {1}{4}},\quad p_{0}=1.}
> Iterate
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> a
>
> n
> +
> 1
>
>
> =
>
>
>
>
> a
>
> n
>
>
> +
>
> b
>
> n
>
>
>
> 2
>
>
> ,
>
>
>
> b
>
> n
> +
> 1
>
>
> =
>
>
>
> a
>
> n
>
>
>
> b
>
> n
>
>
>
>
> ,
>
>
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle a\_{n+1}={\frac {a\_{n}+b\_{n}}{2}},\quad \quad b\_{n+1}={\sqrt {a\_{n}b\_{n}}},}
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle a_{n+1}={\frac {a_{n}+b_{n}}{2}},\quad \quad b_{n+1}={\sqrt {a_{n}b_{n}}},}
>
>
>
>
>
>
> t
>
> n
> +
> 1
>
>
> =
>
> t
>
> n
>
>
> −
>
> p
>
> n
>
>
> (
>
> a
>
> n
>
>
> −
>
> a
>
> n
> +
> 1
>
>
>
> )
>
> 2
>
>
> ,
>
>
>
> p
>
> n
> +
> 1
>
>
> =
> 2
>
> p
>
> n
>
>
> .
>
>
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle t\_{n+1}=t\_{n}-p\_{n}(a\_{n}-a\_{n+1})^{2},\quad \quad p\_{n+1}=2p\_{n}.}
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle t_{n+1}=t_{n}-p_{n}(a_{n}-a_{n+1})^{2},\quad \quad p_{n+1}=2p_{n}.}
> Then an estimate for π is given by
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> π
> ≈
>
>
>
> (
>
> a
>
> n
>
>
> +
>
> b
>
> n
>
>
>
> )
>
> 2
>
>
>
>
> 4
>
> t
>
> n
>
>
>
>
>
> .
>
>
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {(a\_{n}+b\_{n})^{2}}{4t\_{n}}}.}
>
> {\displaystyle \textstyle \pi \approx {\frac {(a_{n}+b_{n})^{2}}{4t_{n}}}.}
>
The development of computers in the mid-20th century again revolutionized the hunt for digits of π. Mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1,120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator. Using an inverse tangent (arctan) infinite series, a team led by George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same year achieved 2,037 digits with a calculation that took 70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer. The record, always relying on an arctan series, was broken repeatedly (2035 digits in 1955, 7,480 digits in 1957; 10,000 digits in 1958; 100,000 digits in 1961) until 1 million digits were reached in 1973.
Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute π. First, the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing π, which were much faster than the infinite series; and second, the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers very rapidly. Such algorithms are particularly important in modern π computations because most of the computer's time is devoted to multiplication. They include the Karatsuba algorithm, Toom–Cook multiplication, and Fourier transform-based methods.
The iterative algorithms were independently published in 1975–1976 by physicist Eugene Salamin and scientist Richard Brent. These avoid reliance on infinite series. An iterative algorithm repeats a specific calculation, each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs, and produces a result in each step that converges to the desired value. The approach was actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss, in what is now termed the arithmetic–geometric mean method (AGM method) or Gauss–Legendre algorithm. As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.
The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than infinite series algorithms: whereas infinite series typically increase the number of correct digits additively in successive terms, iterative algorithms generally *multiply* the number of correct digits at each step. For example, the Brent–Salamin algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration. In 1984, brothers John and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step; and in 1987, one that increases the number of digits five times in each step. Iterative methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for computing π between 1995 and 2002. This rapid convergence comes at a price: the iterative algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series.
### Motives for computing π
For most numerical calculations involving π, a handful of digits provide sufficient precision. According to Jörg Arndt and Christoph Haenel, thirty-nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological calculations, because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable universe with a precision of one atom. Accounting for additional digits needed to compensate for computational round-off errors, Arndt concludes that a few hundred digits would suffice for any scientific application. Despite this, people have worked strenuously to compute π to thousands and millions of digits. This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records, and such achievements with π often make headlines around the world. They also have practical benefits, such as testing supercomputers, testing numerical analysis algorithms (including high-precision multiplication algorithms); and within pure mathematics itself, providing data for evaluating the randomness of the digits of π.
### Rapidly convergent series
Modern π calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively. New infinite series were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms, yet are simpler and less memory intensive. The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914, when Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for π, remarkable for their elegance, mathematical depth and rapid convergence. One of his formulae, based on modular equations, is
1
π
=
2
2
9801
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
4
k
)
!
(
1103
+
26390
k
)
k
!
4
(
396
4
k
)
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi }}={\frac {2{\sqrt {2}}}{9801}}\sum \_{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(4k)!(1103+26390k)}{k!^{4}\left(396^{4k}\right)}}.}
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi }}={\frac {2{\sqrt {2}}}{9801}}\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(4k)!(1103+26390k)}{k!^{4}\left(396^{4k}\right)}}.}
This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series, including Machin's formula. Bill Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of π, setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985. Ramanujan's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers (Jonathan and Peter) and the Chudnovsky brothers. The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is
1
π
=
10005
4270934400
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
6
k
)
!
(
13591409
+
545140134
k
)
(
3
k
)
!
k
!
3
(
−
640320
)
3
k
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {10005}}{4270934400}}\sum \_{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(6k)!(13591409+545140134k)}{(3k)!\,k!^{3}(-640320)^{3k}}}.}
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {10005}}{4270934400}}\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(6k)!(13591409+545140134k)}{(3k)!\,k!^{3}(-640320)^{3k}}}.}
It produces about 14 digits of π per term and has been used for several record-setting π calculations, including the first to surpass 1 billion (109) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers, 10 trillion (1013) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo, and 100 trillion digits by Emma Haruka Iwao in 2022. For similar formulae, see also the Ramanujan–Sato series.
In 2006, mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithm to generate several new formulae for π, conforming to the following template:
π
k
=
∑
n
=
1
∞
1
n
k
(
a
q
n
−
1
+
b
q
2
n
−
1
+
c
q
4
n
−
1
)
,
{\displaystyle \pi ^{k}=\sum \_{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{k}}}\left({\frac {a}{q^{n}-1}}+{\frac {b}{q^{2n}-1}}+{\frac {c}{q^{4n}-1}}\right),}
{\displaystyle \pi ^{k}=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{k}}}\left({\frac {a}{q^{n}-1}}+{\frac {b}{q^{2n}-1}}+{\frac {c}{q^{4n}-1}}\right),}
where *q* is *e**π* (Gelfond's constant), *k* is an odd number, and *a*, *b*, *c* are certain rational numbers that Plouffe computed.
### Monte Carlo methods
Needles of length ℓ scattered on stripes with width tBuffon's needle. Needles *a* and *b* are dropped randomly.Thousands of dots randomly covering a square and a circle inscribed in the square.Random dots are placed on a square and a circle inscribed inside.
Monte Carlo methods, which evaluate the results of multiple random trials, can be used to create approximations of π. Buffon's needle is one such technique: If a needle of length *ℓ* is dropped *n* times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn *t* units apart, and if *x* of those times it comes to rest crossing a line (*x* > 0), then one may approximate π based on the counts:
π
≈
2
n
ℓ
x
t
.
{\displaystyle \pi \approx {\frac {2n\ell }{xt}}.}
{\displaystyle \pi \approx {\frac {2n\ell }{xt}}.}
Another Monte Carlo method for computing π is to draw a circle inscribed in a square, and randomly place dots in the square. The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of dots will approximately equal π/4.
Another way to calculate π using probability is to start with a random walk, generated by a sequence of (fair) coin tosses: independent random variables *Xk* such that *Xk* ∈ {−1,1} with equal probabilities. The associated random walk is
W
n
=
∑
k
=
1
n
X
k
{\displaystyle W\_{n}=\sum \_{k=1}^{n}X\_{k}}
{\displaystyle W_{n}=\sum _{k=1}^{n}X_{k}}
so that, for each n, *Wn* is drawn from a shifted and scaled binomial distribution. As n varies, *Wn* defines a (discrete) stochastic process. Then π can be calculated by
π
=
lim
n
→
∞
2
n
E
[
|
W
n
|
]
2
.
{\displaystyle \pi =\lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {2n}{E[|W\_{n}|]^{2}}}.}
{\displaystyle \pi =\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {2n}{E[|W_{n}|]^{2}}}.}
This Monte Carlo method is independent of any relation to circles, and is a consequence of the central limit theorem, discussed below.
These Monte Carlo methods for approximating π are very slow compared to other methods, and do not provide any information on the exact number of digits that are obtained. Thus they are never used to approximate π when speed or accuracy is desired.
### Spigot algorithms
Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into π. They are called spigot algorithms because, like water dripping from a spigot, they produce single digits of π that are not reused after they are calculated. This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.
Mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in 1995. Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms, but not as fast as iterative algorithms.
Another spigot algorithm, the BBP digit extraction algorithm, was discovered in 1995 by Simon Plouffe:
π
=
∑
k
=
0
∞
1
16
k
(
4
8
k
+
1
−
2
8
k
+
4
−
1
8
k
+
5
−
1
8
k
+
6
)
.
{\displaystyle \pi =\sum \_{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{16^{k}}}\left({\frac {4}{8k+1}}-{\frac {2}{8k+4}}-{\frac {1}{8k+5}}-{\frac {1}{8k+6}}\right).}
{\displaystyle \pi =\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{16^{k}}}\left({\frac {4}{8k+1}}-{\frac {2}{8k+4}}-{\frac {1}{8k+5}}-{\frac {1}{8k+6}}\right).}
This formula, unlike others before it, can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of π without calculating all the preceding digits. Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits, and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits. Variations of the algorithm have been discovered, but no digit extraction algorithm has yet been found that rapidly produces decimal digits. An important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record π computations: After a new record is claimed, the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal, and then a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several random hexadecimal digits near the end; if they match, this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is correct.
Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard's formula (a modification of the BBP algorithm) to compute the quadrillionth (1015th) bit of π, which turned out to be 0. In September 2010, a Yahoo! employee used the company's Hadoop application on one thousand computers over a 23-day period to compute 256 bits of π at the two-quadrillionth (2×1015th) bit, which also happens to be zero.
Role and characterizations in mathematics
-----------------------------------------
Because π is closely related to the circle, it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry and trigonometry, particularly those concerning circles, spheres, or ellipses. Other branches of science, such as statistics, physics, Fourier analysis, and number theory, also include π in some of their important formulae.
### Geometry and trigonometry
π appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles, such as ellipses, spheres, cones, and tori. Below are some of the more common formulae that involve π.
* The circumference of a circle with radius *r* is 2π*r*.
* The area of a circle with radius *r* is π*r*2.
* The area of an ellipse with semi-major axis *a* and semi-minor axis *b* is π*ab*.
* The volume of a sphere with radius *r* is 4/3π*r*3.
* The surface area of a sphere with radius *r* is 4π*r*2.
Some of the formulae above are special cases of the volume of the *n*-dimensional ball and the surface area of its boundary, the (*n*−1)-dimensional sphere, given below.
Apart from circles, there are other curves of constant width. By Barbier's theorem, every curve of constant width has perimeter π times its width. The Reuleaux triangle (formed by the intersection of three circles with the sides of an equilateral triangle as their radii) has the smallest possible area for its width and the circle the largest. There also exist non-circular smooth and even algebraic curves of constant width.
Definite integrals that describe circumference, area, or volume of shapes generated by circles typically have values that involve π. For example, an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of radius one is given by:
∫
−
1
1
1
−
x
2
d
x
=
π
2
.
{\displaystyle \int \_{-1}^{1}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}\,dx={\frac {\pi }{2}}.}
{\displaystyle \int _{-1}^{1}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}\,dx={\frac {\pi }{2}}.}
In that integral, the function
1
−
x
2
{\displaystyle {\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}
{\displaystyle {\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}} represents the height over the
x
{\displaystyle x}
x-axis of a semicircle (the square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem), and the integral computes the area below the semicircle.
### Units of angle
The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement. π plays an important role in angles measured in radians, which are defined so that a complete circle spans an angle of 2π radians. The angle measure of 180° is equal to π radians, and 1° = π/180 radians.
Common trigonometric functions have periods that are multiples of π; for example, sine and cosine have period 2π, so for any angle *θ* and any integer *k*,
sin
θ
=
sin
(
θ
+
2
π
k
)
and
cos
θ
=
cos
(
θ
+
2
π
k
)
.
{\displaystyle \sin \theta =\sin \left(\theta +2\pi k\right){\text{ and }}\cos \theta =\cos \left(\theta +2\pi k\right).}
{\displaystyle \sin \theta =\sin \left(\theta +2\pi k\right){\text{ and }}\cos \theta =\cos \left(\theta +2\pi k\right).}
### Eigenvalues
Many of the appearances of π in the formulae of mathematics and the sciences have to do with its close relationship with geometry. However, π also appears in many natural situations having apparently nothing to do with geometry.
In many applications, it plays a distinguished role as an eigenvalue. For example, an idealized vibrating string can be modelled as the graph of a function *f* on the unit interval [0, 1], with fixed ends *f*(0) = *f*(1) = 0. The modes of vibration of the string are solutions of the differential equation
f
″
(
x
)
+
λ
f
(
x
)
=
0
{\displaystyle f''(x)+\lambda f(x)=0}
{\displaystyle f''(x)+\lambda f(x)=0}, or
f
″
(
t
)
=
−
λ
f
(
x
)
{\displaystyle f''(t)=-\lambda f(x)}
{\displaystyle f''(t)=-\lambda f(x)}. Thus λ is an eigenvalue of the second derivative operator
f
↦
f
″
{\displaystyle f\mapsto f''}
{\displaystyle f\mapsto f''}, and is constrained by Sturm–Liouville theory to take on only certain specific values. It must be positive, since the operator is negative definite, so it is convenient to write *λ* = *ν*2, where *ν* > 0 is called the wavenumber. Then *f*(*x*) = sin(*π* *x*) satisfies the boundary conditions and the differential equation with *ν* = *π*.
The value π is, in fact, the *least* such value of the wavenumber, and is associated with the fundamental mode of vibration of the string. One way to show this is by estimating the energy, which satisfies Wirtinger's inequality: for a function
f
:
[
0
,
1
]
→
C
{\displaystyle f:[0,1]\to \mathbb {C} }
{\displaystyle f:[0,1]\to \mathbb {C} } with *f*(0) = *f*(1) = 0 and *f*, *f*′ both square integrable, we have:
π
2
∫
0
1
|
f
(
x
)
|
2
d
x
≤
∫
0
1
|
f
′
(
x
)
|
2
d
x
,
{\displaystyle \pi ^{2}\int \_{0}^{1}|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\leq \int \_{0}^{1}|f'(x)|^{2}\,dx,}
{\displaystyle \pi ^{2}\int _{0}^{1}|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\leq \int _{0}^{1}|f'(x)|^{2}\,dx,}
with equality precisely when *f* is a multiple of sin(π *x*). Here π appears as an optimal constant in Wirtinger's inequality, and it follows that it is the smallest wavenumber, using the variational characterization of the eigenvalue. As a consequence, π is the smallest singular value of the derivative operator on the space of functions on [0, 1] vanishing at both endpoints (the Sobolev space
H
0
1
[
0
,
1
]
{\displaystyle H\_{0}^{1}[0,1]}
{\displaystyle H_{0}^{1}[0,1]}).
### Inequalities
The number π serves appears in similar eigenvalue problems in higher-dimensional analysis. As mentioned above, it can be characterized via its role as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality: the area A enclosed by a plane Jordan curve of perimeter P satisfies the inequality
4
π
A
≤
P
2
,
{\displaystyle 4\pi A\leq P^{2},}
{\displaystyle 4\pi A\leq P^{2},}
and equality is clearly achieved for the circle, since in that case *A* = π*r*2 and *P* = 2π*r*.
Ultimately, as a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality, π appears in the optimal constant for the critical Sobolev inequality in *n* dimensions, which thus characterizes the role of π in many physical phenomena as well, for example those of classical potential theory. In two dimensions, the critical Sobolev inequality is
2
π
‖
f
‖
2
≤
‖
∇
f
‖
1
{\displaystyle 2\pi \|f\|\_{2}\leq \|\nabla f\|\_{1}}
{\displaystyle 2\pi \|f\|_{2}\leq \|\nabla f\|_{1}}
for *f* a smooth function with compact support in **R**2,
∇
f
{\displaystyle \nabla f}
\nabla f is the gradient of *f*, and
‖
f
‖
2
{\displaystyle \|f\|\_{2}}
{\displaystyle \|f\|_{2}} and
‖
∇
f
‖
1
{\displaystyle \|\nabla f\|\_{1}}
{\displaystyle \|\nabla f\|_{1}} refer respectively to the L2 and L1-norm. The Sobolev inequality is equivalent to the isoperimetric inequality (in any dimension), with the same best constants.
Wirtinger's inequality also generalizes to higher-dimensional Poincaré inequalities that provide best constants for the Dirichlet energy of an *n*-dimensional membrane. Specifically, π is the greatest constant such that
π
≤
(
∫
G
|
∇
u
|
2
)
1
/
2
(
∫
G
|
u
|
2
)
1
/
2
{\displaystyle \pi \leq {\frac {\left(\int \_{G}|\nabla u|^{2}\right)^{1/2}}{\left(\int \_{G}|u|^{2}\right)^{1/2}}}}
{\displaystyle \pi \leq {\frac {\left(\int _{G}|\nabla u|^{2}\right)^{1/2}}{\left(\int _{G}|u|^{2}\right)^{1/2}}}}
for all convex subsets *G* of **R***n* of diameter 1, and square-integrable functions *u* on *G* of mean zero. Just as Wirtinger's inequality is the variational form of the Dirichlet eigenvalue problem in one dimension, the Poincaré inequality is the variational form of the Neumann eigenvalue problem, in any dimension.
### Fourier transform and Heisenberg uncertainty principle
The constant π also appears as a critical spectral parameter in the Fourier transform. This is the integral transform, that takes a complex-valued integrable function *f* on the real line to the function defined as:
f
^
(
ξ
)
=
∫
−
∞
∞
f
(
x
)
e
−
2
π
i
x
ξ
d
x
.
{\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(\xi )=\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }f(x)e^{-2\pi ix\xi }\,dx.}
{\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(\xi )=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }f(x)e^{-2\pi ix\xi }\,dx.}
Although there are several different conventions for the Fourier transform and its inverse, any such convention must involve π *somewhere*. The above is the most canonical definition, however, giving the unique unitary operator on *L*2 that is also an algebra homomorphism of *L*1 to *L*∞.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also contains the number π. The uncertainty principle gives a sharp lower bound on the extent to which it is possible to localize a function both in space and in frequency: with our conventions for the Fourier transform,
(
∫
−
∞
∞
x
2
|
f
(
x
)
|
2
d
x
)
(
∫
−
∞
∞
ξ
2
|
f
^
(
ξ
)
|
2
d
ξ
)
≥
(
1
4
π
∫
−
∞
∞
|
f
(
x
)
|
2
d
x
)
2
.
{\displaystyle \left(\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }x^{2}|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\right)\left(\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }\xi ^{2}|{\hat {f}}(\xi )|^{2}\,d\xi \right)\geq \left({\frac {1}{4\pi }}\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\right)^{2}.}
{\displaystyle \left(\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }x^{2}|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\right)\left(\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\xi ^{2}|{\hat {f}}(\xi )|^{2}\,d\xi \right)\geq \left({\frac {1}{4\pi }}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }|f(x)|^{2}\,dx\right)^{2}.}
The physical consequence, about the uncertainty in simultaneous position and momentum observations of a quantum mechanical system, is discussed below. The appearance of π in the formulae of Fourier analysis is ultimately a consequence of the Stone–von Neumann theorem, asserting the uniqueness of the Schrödinger representation of the Heisenberg group.
### Gaussian integrals
The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution. The Gaussian function, which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ, naturally contains π:
f
(
x
)
=
1
σ
2
π
e
−
(
x
−
μ
)
2
/
(
2
σ
2
)
.
{\displaystyle f(x)={1 \over \sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}\,e^{-(x-\mu )^{2}/(2\sigma ^{2})}.}
{\displaystyle f(x)={1 \over \sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}\,e^{-(x-\mu )^{2}/(2\sigma ^{2})}.}
The factor of
1
2
π
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}
{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}} makes the area under the graph of *f* equal to one, as is required for a probability distribution. This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral:
∫
−
∞
∞
e
−
u
2
d
u
=
π
{\displaystyle \int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{-u^{2}}\,du={\sqrt {\pi }}}
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{-u^{2}}\,du={\sqrt {\pi }}}
which says that the area under the basic bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of π.
The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions, and thus of π, in probability and statistics. This theorem is ultimately connected with the spectral characterization of π as the eigenvalue associated with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the fact that equality holds in the uncertainty principle only for the Gaussian function. Equivalently, π is the unique constant making the Gaussian normal distribution *e*−π*x*2 equal to its own Fourier transform. Indeed, according to Howe (1980), the "whole business" of establishing the fundamental theorems of Fourier analysis reduces to the Gaussian integral.
### Topology
The constant π appears in the Gauss–Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of surfaces to their topology. Specifically, if a compact surface Σ has Gauss curvature *K*, then
∫
Σ
K
d
A
=
2
π
χ
(
Σ
)
{\displaystyle \int \_{\Sigma }K\,dA=2\pi \chi (\Sigma )}
{\displaystyle \int _{\Sigma }K\,dA=2\pi \chi (\Sigma )}
where *χ*(Σ) is the Euler characteristic, which is an integer. An example is the surface area of a sphere *S* of curvature 1 (so that its radius of curvature, which coincides with its radius, is also 1.) The Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its homology groups and is found to be equal to two. Thus we have
A
(
S
)
=
∫
S
1
d
A
=
2
π
⋅
2
=
4
π
{\displaystyle A(S)=\int \_{S}1\,dA=2\pi \cdot 2=4\pi }
{\displaystyle A(S)=\int _{S}1\,dA=2\pi \cdot 2=4\pi }
reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1.
The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology, in particular, those involving characteristic classes via the Chern–Weil homomorphism.
### Cauchy's integral formula
One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented (rectifiable) Jordan curve *γ*. A form of Cauchy's integral formula states that if a point *z*0 is interior to *γ*, then
∮
γ
d
z
z
−
z
0
=
2
π
i
.
{\displaystyle \oint \_{\gamma }{\frac {dz}{z-z\_{0}}}=2\pi i.}
{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }{\frac {dz}{z-z_{0}}}=2\pi i.}
Although the curve *γ* is not a circle, and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant π, a standard proof of this result uses Morera's theorem, which implies that the integral is invariant under homotopy of the curve, so that it can be deformed to a circle and then integrated explicitly in polar coordinates. More generally, it is true that if a rectifiable closed curve γ does not contain *z*0, then the above integral is 2π*i* times the winding number of the curve.
The general form of Cauchy's integral formula establishes the relationship between the values of a complex analytic function *f*(*z*) on the Jordan curve *γ* and the value of *f*(*z*) at any interior point *z*0 of γ:
∮
γ
f
(
z
)
z
−
z
0
d
z
=
2
π
i
f
(
z
0
)
{\displaystyle \oint \_{\gamma }{f(z) \over z-z\_{0}}\,dz=2\pi if(z\_{0})}
{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }{f(z) \over z-z_{0}}\,dz=2\pi if(z_{0})}
provided *f*(*z*) is analytic in the region enclosed by *γ* and extends continuously to *γ*. Cauchy's integral formula is a special case of the residue theorem, that if *g*(*z*) is a meromorphic function the region enclosed by *γ* and is continuous in a neighbourhood of *γ*, then
∮
γ
g
(
z
)
d
z
=
2
π
i
∑
Res
(
g
,
a
k
)
{\displaystyle \oint \_{\gamma }g(z)\,dz=2\pi i\sum \operatorname {Res} (g,a\_{k})}
{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }g(z)\,dz=2\pi i\sum \operatorname {Res} (g,a_{k})}
where the sum is of the residues at the poles of *g*(*z*).
### Total curvature
In mathematical study of the differential geometry of curves, the total curvature of an immersed plane curve is the integral of curvature along a curve taken with respect to arc length:
∫
a
b
k
(
s
)
d
s
=
2
π
N
.
{\displaystyle \int \_{a}^{b}k(s)\,ds=2\pi N.}
{\displaystyle \int _{a}^{b}k(s)\,ds=2\pi N.}
The total curvature of a closed curve is always an integer multiple of 2π, where *N* is called the *index of the curve* or *turning number* – it is the winding number of the unit tangent vector about the origin, or equivalently the degree of the map to the unit circle assigning to each point of the curve, the unit velocity vector at that point. This map is similar to the Gauss map for surfaces.
### The gamma function and Stirling's approximation
The factorial function
n
!
{\displaystyle n!}
n! is the product of all of the positive integers through *n*. The gamma function extends the concept of factorial (normally defined only for non-negative integers) to all complex numbers, except the negative real integers, with the identity
Γ
(
n
)
=
(
n
−
1
)
!
{\displaystyle \Gamma (n)=(n-1)!}
{\displaystyle \Gamma (n)=(n-1)!}. When the gamma function is evaluated at half-integers, the result contains π. For example,
Γ
(
1
/
2
)
=
π
{\displaystyle \Gamma (1/2)={\sqrt {\pi }}}
\Gamma (1/2)={\sqrt {\pi }} and
Γ
(
5
/
2
)
=
3
π
4
{\textstyle \Gamma (5/2)={\frac {3{\sqrt {\pi }}}{4}}}
{\textstyle \Gamma (5/2)={\frac {3{\sqrt {\pi }}}{4}}}.
The gamma function is defined by its Weierstrass product development:
Γ
(
z
)
=
e
−
γ
z
z
∏
n
=
1
∞
e
z
/
n
1
+
z
/
n
{\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{z/n}}{1+z/n}}}
{\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{z/n}}{1+z/n}}}
where γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Evaluated at *z* = 1/2 and squared, the equation Γ(1/2)2 = π reduces to the Wallis product formula. The gamma function is also connected to the Riemann zeta function and identities for the functional determinant, in which the constant π plays an important role.
The gamma function is used to calculate the volume *V**n*(*r*) of the *n*-dimensional ball of radius *r* in Euclidean *n*-dimensional space, and the surface area *S**n*−1(*r*) of its boundary, the (*n*−1)-dimensional sphere:
V
n
(
r
)
=
π
n
/
2
Γ
(
n
2
+
1
)
r
n
,
{\displaystyle V\_{n}(r)={\frac {\pi ^{n/2}}{\Gamma \left({\frac {n}{2}}+1\right)}}r^{n},}
{\displaystyle V_{n}(r)={\frac {\pi ^{n/2}}{\Gamma \left({\frac {n}{2}}+1\right)}}r^{n},}
S
n
−
1
(
r
)
=
n
π
n
/
2
Γ
(
n
2
+
1
)
r
n
−
1
.
{\displaystyle S\_{n-1}(r)={\frac {n\pi ^{n/2}}{\Gamma \left({\frac {n}{2}}+1\right)}}r^{n-1}.}
{\displaystyle S_{n-1}(r)={\frac {n\pi ^{n/2}}{\Gamma \left({\frac {n}{2}}+1\right)}}r^{n-1}.}
Further, it follows from the functional equation that
2
π
r
=
S
n
+
1
(
r
)
V
n
(
r
)
.
{\displaystyle 2\pi r={\frac {S\_{n+1}(r)}{V\_{n}(r)}}.}
{\displaystyle 2\pi r={\frac {S_{n+1}(r)}{V_{n}(r)}}.}
The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to the factorial function *n*! for large *n*:
n
!
∼
2
π
n
(
n
e
)
n
{\textstyle n!\sim {\sqrt {2\pi n}}\left({\frac {n}{e}}\right)^{n}}
{\textstyle n!\sim {\sqrt {2\pi n}}\left({\frac {n}{e}}\right)^{n}} which is known as Stirling's approximation. Equivalently,
π
=
lim
n
→
∞
e
2
n
n
!
2
2
n
2
n
+
1
.
{\displaystyle \pi =\lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {e^{2n}n!^{2}}{2n^{2n+1}}}.}
{\displaystyle \pi =\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {e^{2n}n!^{2}}{2n^{2n+1}}}.}
As a geometrical application of Stirling's approximation, let Δ*n* denote the standard simplex in *n*-dimensional Euclidean space, and (*n* + 1)Δ*n* denote the simplex having all of its sides scaled up by a factor of *n* + 1. Then
Vol
(
(
n
+
1
)
Δ
n
)
=
(
n
+
1
)
n
n
!
∼
e
n
+
1
2
π
n
.
{\displaystyle \operatorname {Vol} ((n+1)\Delta \_{n})={\frac {(n+1)^{n}}{n!}}\sim {\frac {e^{n+1}}{\sqrt {2\pi n}}}.}
{\displaystyle \operatorname {Vol} ((n+1)\Delta _{n})={\frac {(n+1)^{n}}{n!}}\sim {\frac {e^{n+1}}{\sqrt {2\pi n}}}.}
Ehrhart's volume conjecture is that this is the (optimal) upper bound on the volume of a convex body containing only one lattice point.
### Number theory and Riemann zeta function
The Riemann zeta function *ζ*(*s*) is used in many areas of mathematics. When evaluated at *s* = 2 it can be written as
ζ
(
2
)
=
1
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \zeta (2)={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+\cdots }
{\displaystyle \zeta (2)={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+\cdots }
Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem. Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to π2/6. Euler's result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively prime (that is, having no shared factors) is equal to 6/π2. This probability is based on the observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime *p* is 1/*p* (for example, every 7th integer is divisible by 7.) Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime is 1/*p*2, and the probability that at least one of them is not is 1 − 1/*p*2. For distinct primes, these divisibility events are mutually independent; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given by a product over all primes:
∏
p
∞
(
1
−
1
p
2
)
=
(
∏
p
∞
1
1
−
p
−
2
)
−
1
=
1
1
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
⋯
=
1
ζ
(
2
)
=
6
π
2
≈
61
%
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\prod \_{p}^{\infty }\left(1-{\frac {1}{p^{2}}}\right)&=\left(\prod \_{p}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{1-p^{-2}}}\right)^{-1}\\[4pt]&={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+\cdots }}\\[4pt]&={\frac {1}{\zeta (2)}}={\frac {6}{\pi ^{2}}}\approx 61\%.\end{aligned}}}
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\prod _{p}^{\infty }\left(1-{\frac {1}{p^{2}}}\right)&=\left(\prod _{p}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{1-p^{-2}}}\right)^{-1}\\[4pt]&={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+\cdots }}\\[4pt]&={\frac {1}{\zeta (2)}}={\frac {6}{\pi ^{2}}}\approx 61\%.\end{aligned}}}
This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate π using a Monte Carlo approach.
The solution to the Basel problem implies that the geometrically derived quantity π is connected in a deep way to the distribution of prime numbers. This is a special case of Weil's conjecture on Tamagawa numbers, which asserts the equality of similar such infinite products of *arithmetic* quantities, localized at each prime *p*, and a *geometrical* quantity: the reciprocal of the volume of a certain locally symmetric space. In the case of the Basel problem, it is the hyperbolic 3-manifold SL2(**R**)/SL2(**Z**).
The zeta function also satisfies Riemann's functional equation, which involves π as well as the gamma function:
ζ
(
s
)
=
2
s
π
s
−
1
sin
(
π
s
2
)
Γ
(
1
−
s
)
ζ
(
1
−
s
)
.
{\displaystyle \zeta (s)=2^{s}\pi ^{s-1}\ \sin \left({\frac {\pi s}{2}}\right)\ \Gamma (1-s)\ \zeta (1-s).}
{\displaystyle \zeta (s)=2^{s}\pi ^{s-1}\ \sin \left({\frac {\pi s}{2}}\right)\ \Gamma (1-s)\ \zeta (1-s).}
Furthermore, the derivative of the zeta function satisfies
exp
(
−
ζ
′
(
0
)
)
=
2
π
.
{\displaystyle \exp(-\zeta '(0))={\sqrt {2\pi }}.}
{\displaystyle \exp(-\zeta '(0))={\sqrt {2\pi }}.}
A consequence is that π can be obtained from the functional determinant of the harmonic oscillator. This functional determinant can be computed via a product expansion, and is equivalent to the Wallis product formula. The calculation can be recast in quantum mechanics, specifically the variational approach to the spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
### Fourier series
The constant π also appears naturally in Fourier series of periodic functions. Periodic functions are functions on the group **T** =**R**/**Z** of fractional parts of real numbers. The Fourier decomposition shows that a complex-valued function *f* on **T** can be written as an infinite linear superposition of unitary characters of **T**. That is, continuous group homomorphisms from **T** to the circle group *U*(1) of unit modulus complex numbers. It is a theorem that every character of **T** is one of the complex exponentials
e
n
(
x
)
=
e
2
π
i
n
x
{\displaystyle e\_{n}(x)=e^{2\pi inx}}
{\displaystyle e_{n}(x)=e^{2\pi inx}}.
There is a unique character on **T**, up to complex conjugation, that is a group isomorphism. Using the Haar measure on the circle group, the constant π is half the magnitude of the Radon–Nikodym derivative of this character. The other characters have derivatives whose magnitudes are positive integral multiples of 2π. As a result, the constant π is the unique number such that the group **T**, equipped with its Haar measure, is Pontrjagin dual to the lattice of integral multiples of 2π. This is a version of the one-dimensional Poisson summation formula.
### Modular forms and theta functions
The constant π is connected in a deep way with the theory of modular forms and theta functions. For example, the Chudnovsky algorithm involves in an essential way the j-invariant of an elliptic curve.
Modular forms are holomorphic functions in the upper half plane characterized by their transformation properties under the modular group
S
L
2
(
Z
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {SL} \_{2}(\mathbb {Z} )}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {SL} _{2}(\mathbb {Z} )} (or its various subgroups), a lattice in the group
S
L
2
(
R
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {SL} \_{2}(\mathbb {R} )}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {SL} _{2}(\mathbb {R} )}. An example is the Jacobi theta function
θ
(
z
,
τ
)
=
∑
n
=
−
∞
∞
e
2
π
i
n
z
+
i
π
n
2
τ
{\displaystyle \theta (z,\tau )=\sum \_{n=-\infty }^{\infty }e^{2\pi inz+i\pi n^{2}\tau }}
{\displaystyle \theta (z,\tau )=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }e^{2\pi inz+i\pi n^{2}\tau }}
which is a kind of modular form called a Jacobi form. This is sometimes written in terms of the nome
q
=
e
π
i
τ
{\displaystyle q=e^{\pi i\tau }}
q=e^{\pi i \tau}.
The constant π is the unique constant making the Jacobi theta function an automorphic form, which means that it transforms in a specific way. Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms. An example is
θ
(
z
+
τ
,
τ
)
=
e
−
π
i
τ
−
2
π
i
z
θ
(
z
,
τ
)
,
{\displaystyle \theta (z+\tau ,\tau )=e^{-\pi i\tau -2\pi iz}\theta (z,\tau ),}
{\displaystyle \theta (z+\tau ,\tau )=e^{-\pi i\tau -2\pi iz}\theta (z,\tau ),}
which implies that θ transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group. General modular forms and other theta functions also involve π, once again because of the Stone–von Neumann theorem.
### Cauchy distribution and potential theory
The Cauchy distribution
g
(
x
)
=
1
π
⋅
1
x
2
+
1
{\displaystyle g(x)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\cdot {\frac {1}{x^{2}+1}}}
{\displaystyle g(x)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\cdot {\frac {1}{x^{2}+1}}}
is a probability density function. The total probability is equal to one, owing to the integral:
∫
−
∞
∞
1
x
2
+
1
d
x
=
π
.
{\displaystyle \int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {1}{x^{2}+1}}\,dx=\pi .}
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {1}{x^{2}+1}}\,dx=\pi .}
The Shannon entropy of the Cauchy distribution is equal to ln(4π), which also involves π.
The Cauchy distribution plays an important role in potential theory because it is the simplest Furstenberg measure, the classical Poisson kernel associated with a Brownian motion in a half-plane. Conjugate harmonic functions and so also the Hilbert transform are associated with the asymptotics of the Poisson kernel. The Hilbert transform *H* is the integral transform given by the Cauchy principal value of the singular integral
H
f
(
t
)
=
1
π
∫
−
∞
∞
f
(
x
)
d
x
x
−
t
.
{\displaystyle Hf(t)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {f(x)\,dx}{x-t}}.}
{\displaystyle Hf(t)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {f(x)\,dx}{x-t}}.}
The constant π is the unique (positive) normalizing factor such that *H* defines a linear complex structure on the Hilbert space of square-integrable real-valued functions on the real line. The Hilbert transform, like the Fourier transform, can be characterized purely in terms of its transformation properties on the Hilbert space L2(**R**): up to a normalization factor, it is the unique bounded linear operator that commutes with positive dilations and anti-commutes with all reflections of the real line. The constant π is the unique normalizing factor that makes this transformation unitary.
### In the Mandelbrot set
An occurrence of π in the fractal called the Mandelbrot set was discovered by David Boll in 1991. He examined the behaviour of the Mandelbrot set near the "neck" at (−0.75, 0). When the number of iterations until divergence for the point (−0.75, *ε*) is multiplied by ε, the result approaches π as ε approaches zero. The point (0.25 + *ε*, 0) at the cusp of the large "valley" on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly: the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square root of ε tends to π.
Outside mathematics
-------------------
### Describing physical phenomena
Although not a physical constant, π appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe, often because of π's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period *T* of a simple pendulum of length *L*, swinging with a small amplitude (*g* is the earth's gravitational acceleration):
T
≈
2
π
L
g
.
{\displaystyle T\approx 2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {L}{g}}}.}
{\displaystyle T\approx 2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {L}{g}}}.}
One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle's position (Δ*x*) and momentum (Δ*p*) cannot both be arbitrarily small at the same time (where *h* is the Planck constant):
Δ
x
Δ
p
≥
h
4
π
.
{\displaystyle \Delta x\,\Delta p\geq {\frac {h}{4\pi }}.}
{\displaystyle \Delta x\,\Delta p\geq {\frac {h}{4\pi }}.}
The fact that π is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium. The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine-structure constant *α* is
1
τ
=
2
π
2
−
9
9
π
m
e
α
6
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\tau }}=2{\frac {\pi ^{2}-9}{9\pi }}m\_{\text{e}}\alpha ^{6},}
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\tau }}=2{\frac {\pi ^{2}-9}{9\pi }}m_{\text{e}}\alpha ^{6},}
where *m*e is the mass of the electron.
π is present in some structural engineering formulae, such as the buckling formula derived by Euler, which gives the maximum axial load *F* that a long, slender column of length *L*, modulus of elasticity *E*, and area moment of inertia *I* can carry without buckling:
F
=
π
2
E
I
L
2
.
{\displaystyle F={\frac {\pi ^{2}EI}{L^{2}}}.}
{\displaystyle F={\frac {\pi ^{2}EI}{L^{2}}}.}
The field of fluid dynamics contains π in Stokes' law, which approximates the frictional force *F* exerted on small, spherical objects of radius *R*, moving with velocity *v* in a fluid with dynamic viscosity *η*:
F
=
6
π
η
R
v
.
{\displaystyle F=6\pi \eta Rv.}
{\displaystyle F=6\pi \eta Rv.}
In electromagnetics, the vacuum permeability constant *μ*0 appears in Maxwell's equations, which describe the properties of electric and magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation. Before 20 May 2019, it was defined as exactly
μ
0
=
4
π
×
10
−
7
H/m
≈
1.2566370614
…
×
10
−
6
N/A
2
.
{\displaystyle \mu \_{0}=4\pi \times 10^{-7}{\text{ H/m}}\approx 1.2566370614\ldots \times 10^{-6}{\text{ N/A}}^{2}.}
{\displaystyle \mu _{0}=4\pi \times 10^{-7}{\text{ H/m}}\approx 1.2566370614\ldots \times 10^{-6}{\text{ N/A}}^{2}.}
Under ideal conditions (uniform gentle slope on a homogeneously erodible substrate), the sinuosity of a meandering river approaches π. The sinuosity is the ratio between the actual length and the straight-line distance from source to mouth. Faster currents along the outside edges of a river's bends cause more erosion than along the inside edges, thus pushing the bends even farther out, and increasing the overall loopiness of the river. However, that loopiness eventually causes the river to double back on itself in places and "short-circuit", creating an ox-bow lake in the process. The balance between these two opposing factors leads to an average ratio of π between the actual length and the direct distance between source and mouth.
### Memorizing digits
Piphilology is the practice of memorizing large numbers of digits of π, and world-records are kept by the *Guinness World Records*. The record for memorizing digits of π, certified by Guinness World Records, is 70,000 digits, recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 March 2015. In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places, but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records.
One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word lengths represent the digits of π: The first word has three letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the fourth has one, the fifth has five, and so on. Such memorization aids are called mnemonics. An early example of a mnemonic for pi, originally devised by English scientist James Jeans, is "How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics." When a poem is used, it is sometimes referred to as a *piem*. Poems for memorizing π have been composed in several languages in addition to English. Record-setting π memorizers typically do not rely on poems, but instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci.
A few authors have used the digits of π to establish a new form of constrained writing, where the word lengths are required to represent the digits of π. The *Cadaeic Cadenza* contains the first 3835 digits of π in this manner, and the full-length book *Not a Wake* contains 10,000 words, each representing one digit of π.
### In popular culture
Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae, π has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs.
In the 2008 Open University and BBC documentary co-production, *The Story of Maths*, aired in October 2008 on BBC Four, British mathematician Marcus du Sautoy shows a visualization of the – historically first exact – formula for calculating π when visiting India and exploring its contributions to trigonometry.
In the Palais de la Découverte (a science museum in Paris) there is a circular room known as the *pi room*. On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of π. The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling. The digits were based on an 1873 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks, which included an error beginning at the 528th digit. The error was detected in 1946 and corrected in 1949.
In Carl Sagan's 1985 novel *Contact* it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message deep within the digits of π. The digits of π have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song "Pi" from the 2005 album *Aerial* by Kate Bush. In the 1967 *Star Trek* episode "Wolf in the Fold", an out-of-control computer is contained by being instructed to "Compute to the last digit the value of π".
In the United States, Pi Day falls on 14 March (written 3/14 in the US style), and is popular among students. π and its digital representation are often used by self-described "math geeks" for inside jokes among mathematically and technologically minded groups. A college cheer variously attributed to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute includes "3.14159". Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date and time 3/14/15 9:26:53 reflected many more digits of pi. In parts of the world where dates are commonly noted in day/month/year format, 22 July represents "Pi Approximation Day", as 22/7 = 3.142857.
During the 2011 auction for Nortel's portfolio of valuable technology patents, Google made a series of unusually specific bids based on mathematical and scientific constants, including π.
Some have proposed replacing π by *τ* = 2*π*, arguing that τ, as the number of radians in one turn or the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius, is more natural than π and simplifies many formulae. This use of τ has not made its way into mainstream mathematics, but since 2010 this has led to people celebrating Two Pi Day or Tau Day on June 28.
In 1897, an amateur mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi Bill, which described a method to square the circle and contained text that implied various incorrect values for π, including 3.2. The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish a value of mathematical constant by legislative fiat. The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives, but rejected by the Senate, and thus it did not become a law.
### In computer culture
In contemporary internet culture, individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number π. For instance, the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program TeX approach π. The versions are 3, 3.1, 3.14, and so forth. *τ* has been added to several programming languages as a predefined constant.
See also
--------
* Approximations of π
* Chronology of computation of π
* List of mathematical constants
References
----------
### Sources
* Abramson, Jay (2014). *Precalculus*. OpenStax.
* Andrews, George E.; Askey, Richard; Roy, Ranjan (1999). *Special Functions*. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78988-2.
* Arndt, Jörg; Haenel, Christoph (2006). *Pi Unleashed*. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-66572-4. Retrieved 5 June 2013. English translation by Catriona and David Lischka.
* Berggren, Lennart; Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (1997). *Pi: a Source Book*. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-20571-7.
* Boyer, Carl B.; Merzbach, Uta C. (1991). *A History of Mathematics* (2 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
* Bronshteĭn, Ilia; Semendiaev, K.A. (1971). *A Guide Book to Mathematics*. Verlag Harri Deutsch. ISBN 978-3-87144-095-3.
* Dym, H.; McKean, H. P. (1972). *Fourier series and integrals*. Academic Press.
* Eymard, Pierre; Lafon, Jean Pierre (2004). *The Number π*. Translated by Wilson, Stephen. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-3246-2. English translation of *Autour du nombre π* (in French). Hermann. 1999.
* Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2004). *π: A Biography of the World's Most Mysterious Number*. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-200-8.
* Remmert, Reinhold (2012). "Ch. 5 What is π?". In Heinz-Dieter Ebbinghaus; Hans Hermes; Friedrich Hirzebruch; Max Koecher; Klaus Mainzer; Jürgen Neukirch; Alexander Prestel; Reinhold Remmert (eds.). *Numbers*. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-1005-4.
### Further reading
* Blatner, David (1999). *The Joy of π*. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-7562-7.
* Delahaye, Jean-Paul (1997). *Le fascinant nombre π*. Paris: Bibliothèque Pour la Science. ISBN 2-902918-25-9. | Pi | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi | {
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{
"file_url": "./File:Pi_eq_C_over_d.svg",
"caption": "The circumference of a circle is slightly more than three times as long as its diameter. The exact ratio is called π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Squaring_the_circle.svg",
"caption": "Because π is a transcendental number, squaring the circle is not possible in a finite number of steps using the classical tools of compass and straightedge."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Euler's_formula.svg",
"caption": "The association between imaginary powers of the number e and points on the unit circle centred at the origin in the complex plane given by Euler's formula"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Archimedes_pi.svg",
"caption": "π can be estimated by computing the perimeters of circumscribed and inscribed polygons."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg",
"caption": "Archimedes developed the polygonal approach to approximating π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg",
"caption": "Isaac Newton\nused infinite series to compute π to 15 digits, later writing \"I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations\"."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Record_pi_approximations.svg",
"caption": "As mathematicians discovered new algorithms, and computers became available, the number of known decimal digits of π increased dramatically. The vertical scale is logarithmic."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_(cleaned).jpg",
"caption": " Srinivasa Ramanujan, working in isolation in India, produced many innovative series for computing π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Five_random_walks.png",
"caption": "Five random walks with 200 steps. The sample mean of |W200| is μ = 56/5, and so 2(200)μ−2 ≈ 3.19 is within 0.05 of π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Circle_Area.svg",
"caption": "The area of the circle equals π times the shaded area. The area of the unit circle is π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Sine_cosine_one_period.svg",
"caption": "Sine and cosine functions repeat with period 2π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Harmonic_partials_on_strings.svg",
"caption": "The overtones of a vibrating string are eigenfunctions of the second derivative, and form a harmonic progression. The associated eigenvalues form the arithmetic progression of integer multiples of π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Sir_William_Thompson_illustration_of_Carthage.png",
"caption": "The ancient city of Carthage was the solution to an isoperimetric problem, according to a legend recounted by Lord Kelvin: those lands bordering the sea that Queen Dido could enclose on all other sides within a single given oxhide, cut into strips."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Animation_of_Heisenberg_geodesic.gif",
"caption": "An animation of a geodesic in the Heisenberg group"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:E^(-x^2).svg",
"caption": "A graph of the Gaussian function ƒ(x) = e−x2. The coloured region between the function and the x-axis has area √π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Order-7_triangular_tiling.svg",
"caption": "Uniformization of the Klein quartic, a surface of genus three and Euler characteristic −4, as a quotient of the hyperbolic plane by the symmetry group PSL(2,7) of the Fano plane. The hyperbolic area of a fundamental domain is 8π, by Gauss–Bonnet."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Factorial05.jpg",
"caption": "Complex analytic functions can be visualized as a collection of streamlines and equipotentials, systems of curves intersecting at right angles. Here illustrated is the complex logarithm of the Gamma function."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Winding_Number_Around_Point.svg",
"caption": "This curve has total curvature 6π, and index/turning number 3, though it only has winding number 2 about p."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Gamma_plot_points_marked.svg",
"caption": "Plot of the gamma function on the real axis"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Prüfer.png",
"caption": "Each prime has an associated Prüfer group, which are arithmetic localizations of the circle. The L-functions of analytic number theory are also localized in each prime p."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:ModularGroup-FundamentalDomain.svg",
"caption": "Solution of the Basel problem using the Weil conjecture: the value of ζ(2) is the hyperbolic area of a fundamental domain of the modular group, times π/2."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:2-adic_integers_with_dual_colorings.svg",
"caption": "π appears in characters of p-adic numbers (shown), which are elements of a Prüfer group. Tate's thesis makes heavy use of this machinery."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Lattice_with_tau.svg",
"caption": "Theta functions transform under the lattice of periods of an elliptic curve."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Witch_of_Agnesi,_construction.svg",
"caption": "The Witch of Agnesi, named for Maria Agnesi (1718–1799), is a geometrical construction of the graph of the Cauchy distribution."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:2d_random_walk_ag_adatom_ag111.gif",
"caption": "The Cauchy distribution governs the passage of Brownian particles through a membrane."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Mandel_zoom_00_mandelbrot_set.jpg",
"caption": "The Mandelbrot set can be used to approximate π."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Pi_pie2.jpg",
"caption": "A pi pie. Pies are circular, and \"pie\" and π are homophones, making pie a frequent subject of pi puns."
}
] |
1,570,983 | **Multilingualism** is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called **polyglots**.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other.
People who speak more than one language have been reported to be better at language learning when compared to monolinguals.
Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
History
-------
The first recorded use of the word multilingualism originated in the English language in the 1800s as a combination of multi (many) and lingual (pertaining to languages, with the word existing in the Middle Ages). The phenomenon however, is old as different languages themselves.
Together, like many different languages, modern-day multilingualism is still encountered by some people who speak the same language. Bilingual signs represent a multitude of languages in an evolutive variety of texts with each writing.
Definition
----------
The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. This should not be confused with the term “bilingual”. These two phrases can often be used interchangeably, but to be bilingual indicates that two languages are learned, while multilingual suggests it is more than two. There are two sides to the linguistic debate has to how to define multilingualism, however. At one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence in and mastery of more than one language. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the languages and thus sound like a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people *multi-competent*.
In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English. Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after the breakup of Yugoslavia it was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. Another example is that Ukrainian was dismissed as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings.
Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages: the two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian.
In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country.
In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being the global lingua franca, sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries have just one domestic official language. This is occurring especially in Germanic regions such as Scandinavia, the Benelux and among Germanophones, but it is also expanding into some non-Germanic countries.
Acquisition
-----------
One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls the human language acquisition device—a mechanism which enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty, which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2).
If language learning is a cognitive process, rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning.
Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness with neighbor countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union.
Based on the research in Ann Fathman's *The Relationship between age and second language productive ability,* there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.
In second language class, students will commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and culture patterns. Robert B. Kaplan thinks that in second language classes, the foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign student is employing rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of a culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing.
People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer – the process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life.
Translanguaging also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps the development of new languages by making connections between languages.
### Receptive bilingualism
Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of "code-switching" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of *languages*, namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (*e.g.*, Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more *persons* and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.
### Order of acquisition
In sequential bilingualism, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different language.
In simultaneous bilingualism, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language.
The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.
A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French.
#### Outcomes
Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language.
Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire the second language. While previously children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years.[*needs update?*]
An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive elasticity including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools.
In individuals
--------------
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can speak any language they write in, but cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a **polyglot**, a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.
In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill which a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.
The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition. It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to the exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition.
This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to a new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period, around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced.
### Cognitive ability
People who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have enhanced executive functions, such as inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility, or even have reduced risk for dementia. More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. One possible reason for this discrepancy is that bilingualism is rich and diverse; bilingualism can take different forms according to the context and geographic location in which it is studied.
Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects.
### Auditory ability
Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Further, among bilingual individuals, the level of proficiency in the second language was also reported to have an influence on the auditory processing abilities.
### Economic benefits
Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits as bilingual persons were found to have around $3,000 per year more salary than monolinguals.
### Psychology
A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills. A study published a year later found that switching into a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. In 2014, another study has shown that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with a moral dilemma, as in the trolley problem. The utilitarian option was chosen more often in *the fat man* case when presented in a foreign language. However, there was no difference in the switch track case. It was surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.
### Personality
Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of a language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity, which claims that the language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book *Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven*: "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent a unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to a shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. A 2013 study found that rather than an emotion-based explanation, switching into the second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness.
### Hyperpolyglots
While many polyglots know up to six languages, the number drops off sharply past this point.[*self-published source?*] People who speak many more than this—Michael Erard suggests eleven or more—are sometimes classed as *hyperpolyglots*. Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The causes of advanced language aptitude are still under research; one theory suggests that a spike in a baby's testosterone levels while in the uterus can increase brain asymmetry, which may relate to music and language ability, among other effects.
While the term *savant* generally refers to an individual with a natural or innate talent for a particular field, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are typically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate profound and prodigious capacities or abilities far in excess of what would be considered normal, occasionally including the capacity for languages. The condition is associated with an increased memory capacity, which would aid in the storage and retrieval of knowledge of a language. In 1991, for example, Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described Christopher, a man with non-verbal IQ scores between 40 and 70, who learned sixteen languages. Christopher was born in 1962 and approximately six months after his birth was diagnosed with brain damage. Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, was able to speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered unusual among savants.
Neuroscience
------------
In workplaces
-------------
In communities
--------------
Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
* **Diglossia**: if there is a structural-functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in Europe where a regional language is used in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal situations. Frisia (with Frisian and German or Dutch) and Lusatia (with Sorbian and German) are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where, in formal situations, English is used. However, in informal situations in many areas, Scots is the preferred language of choice. A similar phenomenon is also observed in Arabic-speaking regions. The effects of diglossia could be seen in the difference between written Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic) and colloquial Arabic. However, as time goes, the Arabic language somewhere between the two has been created what some have deemed "Middle Arabic" or "Common Arabic". Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia has been suggested.
* **Ambilingualism**: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages like Luxembourg, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage, or Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India or communities with high rates of deafness like Martha's Vineyard where historically most inhabitants spoke both MVSL and English or in southern Israel where locals speak both Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language and either Arabic or Hebrew. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a dominant state language (be it *de jure* or *de facto*) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of the distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant state tongue (e.g., English in Quebec vs. all of Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. all of Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.
* **Bipart-lingualism**: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighboring ethnic groups, an area is called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans.
N.B. the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms **polyglossia**, **omnilingualism**, and **multipart-lingualism** are more appropriate.
Taxell’s paradox refers to the notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory is based on the observation of the Swedish language in Finland in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language Finnish for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning.
Interaction between speakers of different languages
---------------------------------------------------
Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described in the Communication Accommodation Theory.
Some multilinguals use code-switching, which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages.
This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing. This results in speakers using words like *courrier noir* (literally mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail, *chantage*.
Sometimes a pidgin language may develop. A pidgin language is a fusion of two languages that is mutually understandable for both speakers. Some pidgin languages develop into real languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore) while others remain as slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang, which is more or less mutually intelligible both in Finnish and Swedish).[*clarification needed*] In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the effect of changing one or both to the point where it may be considered that a new language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because of a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided into political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and borrowings from Slavic languages.
Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speaker switching. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia. Most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages (Czech and Slovak) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilinguality still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate after Czechoslovakia split up.
* Japanese, English, and Russian sign in Northern JapanJapanese, English, and Russian sign in Northern Japan
* Mongolian, Chagatai, Chinese, Tibetan and Manchu languages sign in Chengde, ChinaMongolian, Chagatai, Chinese, Tibetan and Manchu languages sign in Chengde, China
* A sign at the Israeli Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Immigrant Absorption in Haifa, uses Hebrew, Arabic, English, and RussianA sign at the Israeli Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Immigrant Absorption in Haifa, uses Hebrew, Arabic, English, and Russian
* A multilingual sign in Singapore's four official languages: English, Chinese, Tamil and MalayA multilingual sign in Singapore's four official languages: English, Chinese, Tamil and Malay
* Urdu, Hindi, and English on a road sign in IndiaUrdu, Hindi, and English on a road sign in India
* A sign uses Arabic, Tifinagh and French Latin alphabets.A sign uses Arabic, Tifinagh and French Latin alphabets.
Computing
---------
With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization:
* A localized system has been adapted or converted for a particular locale (other than the one it was originally developed for), including the language of the user interface, input, and display, and features such as time/date display and currency; but each instance of the system only supports a single locale.
* Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display and input simultaneously, but generally has a single user interface language. Support for other locale features like time, date, number and currency formats may vary as the system tends towards full internationalization. Generally, a multilingual system is intended for use in a specific locale, whilst allowing for multilingual content.
* An internationalized system is equipped for use in a range of locales, allowing for the co-existence of several languages and character sets in user interfaces and displays. In particular, a system may not be considered internationalized in the fullest sense unless the interface language is selectable by the user at runtime.
Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites, web browsers, etc.). Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT, Jan A. Nelson, and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to assure broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Windows Universal Apps as well as IOS and Android.
### Internet
English-speaking countries
--------------------------
According to Hewitt (2008)[*full citation needed*] entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China or Turkey use English mainly for communication with customers, suppliers, and banks, but their native languages for work tasks and social purposes. Even in English-speaking countries immigrants are still able to use their mother tongue in the workplace thanks to other immigrants from the same place. Kovacs (2004) describes this phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during working hours. Although foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a key working skill. Mainstream society justifies the divided job market, arguing that getting a low-paying job is the best that newcomers can achieve considering their limited language skills.
Asia
----
With companies going international they are now focusing more and more on the English level of their employees. Especially in South Korea since the 1990s, companies are using different English language testing to evaluate job applicants, and the criteria in those tests are constantly upgrading the level for good English. Meanwhile, Japan ranks 53rd out of 100 countries in 2019 EF English Proficiency Index, amid calls for this to improve in time for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.[*needs update*]
Within multiracial countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is not unusual for one to speak two or more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency. Some are proficient in several Chinese varieties, given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries.
Africa
------
Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.
Europe
------
Languages that are used in multiple countries include:
* German in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Belgium
* French in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Andorra and Switzerland
* English in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta.
* Dutch in the Netherlands and Belgium.
* Swedish in Sweden and Finland.
* Italian in Italy, Switzerland and Malta.
English is a commonly taught second language at schools, so it is also the most common choice for two speakers, whose native languages are different. However, some languages are so close to each other that it is generally more common when meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English. These language groups include:
* Danish, Swedish and Norwegian
* Czech and Slovak: during Czechoslovak times, these were considered to be two different dialects of a common Czechoslovak language.
* Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin: standardized in the 19th century and throughout the existence of Yugoslavia, Croatian and Serbian were considered as Western and Eastern variants of a common, Serbo-Croatian language. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, each successor state proclaimed and codified its own official language. In sociolinguistics, however, these are still considered standardized varieties of one pluricentric language, all based on Shtokavian dialect, with the biggest distinction being between the Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciation. Cyrillic and Latin writing scripts are official in Bosnian, Montenegrin and Serbian, while Latin is exclusively official in Croatian.
In multilingual countries such as Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Finland (Finnish and Swedish), Switzerland (German, French, Italian and Romansh), Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German), Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Basque and Galician), or Malta (Maltese, English, Italian, and French) it is common to see people mastering two or even three of those languages.
Many minor Russian ethnic groups, such as Tatars, Bashkirs and others, are also multilingual. Moreover, with the beginning of the compulsory study of the Tatar language in Tatarstan, there has been an increase in the level of knowledge of the Russian-speaking population of the republic.
Continued global diversity has led to an increasingly multilingual population. Europe has become an excellent model to observe this newly diversified culture. The expansion of the European Union with its open labour market has provided opportunities with both for well-trained professionals and unskilled workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to migration and the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low-paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high-status positions.
Music
-----
It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary lingua franca is. If a song is not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the musician's country of origin, or in another widely recognized language, such as English, German, Spanish, or French.
The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical album *Troika* consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translation by Joseph Brodsky and Vladimir Nabokov, respectively.
Songs with lyrics in multiple languages are known as macaronic verse.
Literature
----------
### Fiction
Multilingual stories, essays, and novels are often written by immigrants and second generation American authors. Chicana author Gloria E. Anzaldúa, a major figure in the fields Third World Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, and Latino philosophy explained the author's existential sense of obligation to write multilingual literature. An often quoted passage, from her collection of stories and essays entitled Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza, states:
> "Until I am free to write bilingually and to switch codes without having always to translate, while I still have to speak English or Spanish when I would rather speak Spanglish, and as long as I have to accommodate the English speakers rather than having them accommodate me, my tongue will be illegitimate. I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent’s tongue – my woman’s voice, my sexual voice, my poet’s voice. I will overcome the tradition of silence".
>
>
Multilingual novels by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie display phrases in Igbo with translations, as in her early works *Purple Hibiscus* and *Half of a Yellow Sun*. However, in her later novel *Americanah*, the author does not offer translations of non-English passages. The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros is an example of Chicano literature has untranslated, but italicized, Spanish words and phrases throughout the text.
American novelists who use foreign languages (outside of their own cultural heritage) for literary effect, include Cormac McCarthy who uses untranslated Spanish and Spanglish in his fiction.
### Poetry
Multilingual poetry is prevalent in US Latino literature where code-switching and translanguaging between English, Spanish, and Spanglish is common within a single poem or throughout a book of poems. Latino poetry is also written in Portuguese and can include phrases in Nahuatl, Mayan, Huichol, Arawakan, and other indigenous languages related to the Latino experience. Contemporary multilingual poets include Giannina Braschi, Ana Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña
Film
----
The 2021 Indian documentary film Dreaming of Words traces the life and work of Njattyela Sreedharan, a fourth standard drop-out, who compiled a multilingual dictionary connecting four major Dravidian languages: Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. Travelling across four states and doing extensive research, he spent twenty five years making this multilingual dictionary.
See also
--------
* Cultural diversity
* Childhood Bilingualism Research Centre (in Hong Kong)
* Digraphia
* Economics of language
* Linguapax Prize
* List of multilingual countries and regions
* Official multilingualism
* Plurilingualism
* Interlinguistics
* Linguistic rights
* Metatypy
* Multilingual education
* The Multilingual Library
* Mutism
* One person, one language
* Spanish language in the United States
### Legislation and movements
* European Commissioner for Multilingualism
* European Day of Languages
* English-only movement
* Language legislation in Belgium
* Languages of the European Union
### Education
* Multilingual education
+ In Africa
Further reading
---------------
* Valore, Paolo (2011). *Multilingualism: language, power, and knowledge*. Pisa: Edistudio. ISBN 978-88-7036-809-3. OCLC 863307786., (in English and Italian).
* Bhatia, Tej; Ritchie, William C. (2004). *The Handbook of Bilingualism*. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22735-9.
* Bialystok, Ellen (March 2017). "The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience". *Psychological Bulletin*. **143** (3): 233–262. doi:10.1037/bul0000099. PMC 5324728. PMID 28230411.
* Burck, Charlotte (2007). *Multilingual Living*. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-55433-7.
* Jared Diamond, *The World until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies?* (especially chapter ten: "Speaking in many tongues"), Penguin Books, 2012 (ISBN 978-0-141-02448-6).
* Komorowska, Hanna (2011). *Issues in Promoting Multilingualism. Teaching – Learning – Assessment*. Warsaw: Foundation for the Development of the Education System. ISBN 978-83-62634-19-4.
* Christina Korkman (1995), *Tvåspråkighet och skriftlig framställning : en undersökning av tvåspråkiga elevers uppsatser i den finlandssvenska grundskolan / Christina Korkman*, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (in Swedish), Helsinki, ISSN 0039-6842, Wikidata Q113529945
* Kramsch, Claire (3 June 2011). "Are You Another Person When You Speak Another Language?". *Berkeley Language Center*. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
* Catharina Lojander-Visapää (2001), *Med rätt att välja : språkval och språkstrategier i språkligt blandade hushåll i Helsingfors / Catharina Lojander- Visapää*, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland (in Swedish), Helsinki, ISSN 0039-6842, Wikidata Q113529982
* Romaine, Suzanne (1995). *Bilingualism*. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19539-9.
* Baker, Colin; Prys, Sylvia (1998). *Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education*. ISBN 978-1853593628. | Multilingualism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism | {
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}
] |
515,128 | **Vadodara** (Gujarati: [ʋəˈɖodəɾɑ] ()), also known as **Baroda**, is a major city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Vadodara district and is situated on the banks of the Vishwamitri River, 141 km (88 mi) from the state capital of Gandhinagar. The railway line and National Highway 8, which connect Delhi with Mumbai, pass through Vadodara. The city is named for its abundance of banyan (*vad*) trees. Vadodara is also locally referred to as the *Sanskari Nagari* (transl. 'Cultural City') and *Kala Nagari* (transl. 'City of Art') of India.
The city is prominent for landmarks such as the Laxmi Vilas Palace, which served as the residence of the Maratha royal Gaekwad dynasty that ruled over Baroda State. It is also the home of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
Etymology
---------
The city once was called Chandanavati after the rule of Chadas of the Dodiya Rajputis. The capital was also known as Virakshetra or machod (Land of Warriors). Later, it was known as Vadpatraka or Vadodará, and according to tradition, is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word *vatodar*, meaning "in the belly of the banyan tree". It is, as of 2009, almost impossible to ascertain when the various changes in the name were made; early English travelers and merchants of the 15th century mention the town as Baroda, and it is from this, that the name Baroda is derived; in 1974 (well after independence), the official name of the city was changed to Vadodara.
History
-------
### Prehistory
At Akota, now a suburb of Vadodara, excavations have found rich microlith deposits, providing early evidence of habitation in the area. These prehistoric people took part in hunting and fishing and lived no later than 1000 BCE.
### First millennium CE
By the first centuries CE, Akota was the site of a commercial town with far-reaching trade links. Known in antiquity as *Aṅkoṭṭaka*, it had well-built houses made from burnt bricks. Two re-struck coins of the early Western Satraps have been found here, along with artifacts possibly of Greco-Roman origin. A Gupta-era coin has also been found here.
Akota flourished under the Maitraka dynasty, although it experienced periodic severe flooding. A huge hoard of Jain bronzes, largely dating from this period, was found at Akota's old site, incicating that the city was a centre of Jainism. The bronzes include images of various tirthankaras as well as an elephant-shaped incense burner. Many of them have inscriptions that have been used to indicate when they were made.
In the 6th century, the town's inhabitants shifted away from the river to a new site near Akota's modern centre. At Kothi, which also now forms part of Vadodara, evidence of habitation also first emerges during this period.
An early mention of Vadodara itself is in an 812 copper-plate grant of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. It records Karka Suvarṇavasha, second ruler of the Lata branch of the Rashtrakutas, giving the village of *Vaḍapadraka*, in the province of Aṅkoṭṭaka and identified with present-day Vadodara, to a Brahmin from Valabhi. Meanwhile, Akota continued to flourish during this period.
### Chaulukya period: from village to city
By the 11th century, under the Chaulukya dynasty, Vadodara appears to have gained in importance. A plate dated to 1077 mentions a battle on the bank of the Vishvamitri river in the vishaya of *Vaṭapadraka*, which had evidently replaced the earlier province of Aṅkoṭṭaka. The Akota bronzes continue until the 11th century but cease thereafter. The main centre of Jainism in the area shifted to Vadodara. By this period, Vadodara is referred to as a *pura*, or city, rather than just a village.
A manuscript of the Panchavastuka written at Vadodara in 1123 indicates that the province of Lāṭa was then governed by Santūka, a minister of the Chaulukya king Jayasimha Siddharaja. At some point, Santūka organised a rathayatra, or chariot procession, at *Vaṭapadraka*. Several other manuscripts from Vadodara are known from this period, including a Prakrit work composed by Chandraprabhasuri in 1128 along with two copies of Jain works made in 1156 and 1168 respectively. Another manuscript, although copied at Dabhoi, was written by a scribe named Vosari whose father was a pandit named Kesava who came from Vadodara.
During this period, merchants from Vadodara contributed to the temples at the Chaulukya capital of Patan. At some point, the minister Tejpal, returning from a victory at Godhra, stopped at Vadodara for several days and renovated the local shrine of Parshvanatha. Around 1264, shrines to Mahavira and Adishvara were built at Vadodara by one Pethad Shah.
### Delhi Sultanate
Under the Delhi Sultanate, Vadodara was home to a group of Afghan amirs known collectively as the *Amir-i Sadgan*, or "the nobles of the hundred", because each one commanded a force of 100 cavalry. In 1344, during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq, they revolted. Led by one Qazi Jalal, they defeated Muqbil, the sultan's main deputy in Gujarat, in a decisive battle near Dabhoi. They went on to occupy a large territory stretching from Kadi in the north to Bharuch in the south, and from Khambhat in the west to the hill country in the east. In 1345, Muhammad bin Tughluq led an army to Gujarat to put down the rebellion and, after initially camping at Pandu Mewas, defeated them in battle at Bharuch.
### Gujarat Sultanate
Muzaffar Shah I, founder of the Gujarat Sultanate, appointed his son Firuz Khan as governor of Vadodara at some point. After Muzaffar Shah's death in 1411, he was succeeded by his grandson Ahmad Shah I (Firuz's nephew). Firuz immediately laid claim to the throne. Because the sultanate's central authority in central and southern Gujarat was weak at this point, Firuz had little trouble assembling an army at Vadodara. He then marched to Nadiad and then to Bharuch, which he seized by force. Ultimately, the rebellion dissipated without a pitched battle: internal tensions had already arisen among Firuz Khan's main allies, and when Ahmad Shah offered them amnesty in return for standing down, they readily complied. Firuz Khan was forgiven and given Navsari as a jagir, thus giving up his position as governor of Vadodara.
In 1451, Vadodara was sacked by troops under Mahmud Khalji, ruler of the Malwa Sultanate. Later, during the reign of Mahmud Begada, a major re-foundation of Vadodara took place. A new city called *Daulatabad* was built, close to the old site. The Muslim name evidently did not stick, but the city itself did, and this new foundation became the basis for the modern city of Vadodara. A later atlas by John Ogilby refers to people moving from the old town to the new one.
### Mughal Empire
After Akbar conquered Gujarat in 1573, he gave Vadodara to one Nawab Aurang Khan. There was an administrative reform under Akbar's reign, and Raja Todar Mal conducted a land survey of parts of Gujarat. Vadodara, however, does not seem to have been included in this survey.
In the late 1600s, Gujarat was increasingly attacked by Maratha and Koli raids. One raid, by the Kolis, hit Vadodara in 1705; they looted the city for two days.
Geography
---------
Vadodara is located at 22°18′N 73°11′E / 22.30°N 73.19°E / 22.30; 73.19 in western India at an elevation of 128 ft (39 m). It is the 10th-largest city in India with an area of 400 km2 (150 sq mi) and a population of 3.5 million, according to the 2010–11 census. The city sits on the banks of the Vishwamitri River, in central Gujarat. The Vishwamitri frequently dries up in the summer, leaving only a small stream of water. The city is located on the fertile plain between the Mahi and Narmada Rivers. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the cosmopolis falls under seismic zone-III, on a scale of I to V (in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes).
### Climate
Vadodara features a borderline tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*) that despite the roughly 850 mm or 33 in of rain that the city receives annually is due to the area's high potential evapotranspiration very close to being classified as a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh*). There are three main seasons: summer, monsoon and winter. Aside from the monsoon season, the climate is dry. The weather is hot during March to July, when the average maximum is 39 °C or 102.2 °F, and the average minimum is 24 °C or 75.2 °F. From November to February, the average maximum temperature is 30 °C or 86 °F, the average minimum is 15 °C or 59 °F, and the climate is extremely dry. Cold northerly winds are responsible for mildly chilly days in January. The southwest monsoon brings a humid climate from mid-June to mid-September. The average rainfall is 85 cm (33 in), but infrequent, torrential rains cause the river to flood like the 2005 Gujarat flood or the 2008 Indian floods, which were catastrophic.
The highest recorded temperature was 46.7 °C (116.1 °F) on 11 May 1960 crossed with 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) on 19 May 2016, while the lowest recorded temperature was −1.1 °C (30.0 °F) on 15 January 1935.
| Climate data for Vadodara Airport (1981-2010, extremes 1952-2012) |
| --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 37.4(99.3) | 40.6(105.1) | 44.2(111.6) | 45.9(114.6) | 46.2(115.2) | 45.6(114.1) | 40.1(104.2) | 39.1(102.4) | 41.1(106.0) | 41.4(106.5) | 39.4(102.9) | 37.2(99.0) | 46.2(115.2) |
| Average high °C (°F) | 29.7(85.5) | 32.0(89.6) | 36.3(97.3) | 39.1(102.4) | 39.9(103.8) | 37.2(99.0) | 32.6(90.7) | 31.5(88.7) | 33.4(92.1) | 35.9(96.6) | 33.7(92.7) | 30.9(87.6) | 34.4(93.9) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 13.2(55.8) | 14.9(58.8) | 19.2(66.6) | 23.6(74.5) | 27.0(80.6) | 27.5(81.5) | 26.0(78.8) | 25.3(77.5) | 25.0(77.0) | 22.2(72.0) | 17.6(63.7) | 14.1(57.4) | 21.3(70.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 2.8(37.0) | 3.9(39.0) | 9.3(48.7) | 14.4(57.9) | 19.4(66.9) | 21.2(70.2) | 22.2(72.0) | 21.7(71.1) | 18.1(64.6) | 12.8(55.0) | 6.0(42.8) | 5.5(41.9) | 2.8(37.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 1.2(0.05) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.1(0.00) | 1.0(0.04) | 6.3(0.25) | 118.6(4.67) | 298.5(11.75) | 265.5(10.45) | 122.4(4.82) | 24.9(0.98) | 6.7(0.26) | 0.8(0.03) | 846.0(33.31) |
| Average rainy days | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 4.1 | 12.5 | 11.8 | 5.6 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 36.3 |
| Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 36 | 29 | 25 | 23 | 32 | 51 | 74 | 75 | 63 | 44 | 41 | 41 | 45 |
| Source: India Meteorological Department |
Demographics
------------
At the time of the 2011 census of India, Vadodara Municipal Corporation and associated outgrowths had a population of 3,522,371. About 9.45% of the population was under 6 years of age. Vadodara had a sex ratio of 920 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 90.48%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes made up 6.63% and 4.07% of the population, respectively.
| Religions in Vadodara (2011) |
| --- |
| | | |
| Hinduism | | 85.39% |
| Islam | | 11.20% |
| Jainism | | 2.02% |
| Christianity | | 0.82% |
| Sikhism | | 0.45% |
| Other or not stated | | 0.20% |
| Distribution of religions |
Hinduism was the main religion, practiced by 85.39% of the population. Islam was the second-largest religion (11.20%). Jains were 2.02%, Christians 0.82%, and Sikhs 0.45%.
Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1820 | 100,000 | — |
| 1865 | 140,000 | +40.0% |
| 1881 | 101,800 | −27.3% |
| 1891 | 116,400 | +14.3% |
| 1901 | 103,790 | −10.8% |
| 1911 | 99,345 | −4.3% |
| 1921 | 94,712 | −4.7% |
| 1931 | 112,860 | +19.2% |
| 1941 | 153,301 | +35.8% |
| 1951 | 211,407 | +37.9% |
| 1961 | 309,716 | +46.5% |
| 1968 | 400,700 | +29.4% |
| 1971 | 467,487 | +16.7% |
| 1981 | 734,473 | +57.1% |
| 1991 | 1,127,000 | +53.4% |
| 2001 | 1,692,000 | +50.1% |
| 2011 | 3,552,371 | +110.0% |
| Source: |
United Way of Baroda Navratri Garba Festival
Languages of Vadodara (2011)
Gujarati (71.37%) Hindi (14.83%) Marathi (7.60%) Sindhi (1.91%) Others (4.29%)
At the time of the 2011 census, 71.37% of the population spoke Gujarati, 14.83% Hindi, 7.60% Marathi, and 1.91% Sindhi as their first language.
Economy
-------
In Vadodara, various large-scale industries such as Gujarat Refinery of Indian Oil Corporation, Gujarat State Fertilizers & Chemicals, Vadodara Manufacturing Division)(Formerly IPCL) of Reliance Industries Limited, Deepak Nitrite, Parikh Industries, Linde Engineering India, and Gujarat Alkalies and Chemicals Limited have come up in the vicinity of Gujarat Refinery. Other large-scale public-sector units are Heavy Water Project, Gujarat Industries Power Company Limited (GIPCL), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation and Gas Authority of India Limited. Vadodara is also a manufacturing hub of power equipment, rail coaches, and defense aircraft, and several IT sector companies in Vadodara are rapidly growing. Vadodara is also a hub of pharmaceutical industries; many pharmaceutical companies are located within and nearby. Vadodara is home to many big pharmaceutical companies, and is a major hub of pharmaceutical industries in Gujarat.
Located in Vadodara are over 35% of India's power-transmission and distribution equipment manufacturers and an estimated 800 ancillaries supporting the big players in power sector equipment manufacturing and engineering industry. Larsen & Tourbo (L&T) has established “Knowledge City” in Vadodara. This Knowledge City is the hub of several key businesses of the L&T Group. The power business, mid- and downstream Hydrocarbon, L&T Technology Services, and the engineering joint venture L&T-Sargent & Lundy operate out of the facility. It also houses manufacturing facilities for switchgear, air circuit breakers, and moulded-case circuit breakers.
Bombardier Transportation, a Canadian company, has established a rail-coach manufacturing plant in Savli along with other manufacturing companies such as Alstom, Siemens, and Voltas. This plant manufactures coaches for Delhi Metro and the New Generation Rollingstock for Brisbane, Australia. The plant is also manufacturing trainsets for Delhi - Meerut RRTS. Beside this Vadodara holds a key position in Gujarat's pharmaceutical industry, as many small and big pharma companies are located in Vadodara.
Tata Advanced Systems Limited, a subsidiary of Tata Group and Airbus joint venture, has set up a C-295 transport aircraft manufacturing facility at Vadodara as part of a Rs 22,000 crore deal to supply 56 such aircraft. The C-295 will replace the Avro aircraft in service with the Indian Air Force. This project will make Vadodara a defense manufacturing hub. The first "Made in India" aircraft is expected in September 2026.
The revenue for the city is generated through taxes, service provision, and state government assistance. The taxes include general taxes, conservancy taxes, and water taxes, whereas the nontax or service revenue can include water charges, rent from municipal properties, public service charges, etc. The VMC budget for the year 2020–2021 against the proposed budget of Rs 3,554 crore last year, stood at Rs 3,770 crore this year.
### Petrochemicals
Since the discovery of oil and natural gas in the area, Vadodara has become the site of various petrochemical industries. These are concenrated in the peri-urban areas to the northwest and south of the city proper.
In 1963, construction began on Gujarat Refinery outside of Vadodara, on a 1800-acre tract surrounded by the villages of Koyali, Ranoli, Karachia, and Dhanora. Jawaharlal Nehru ceremonially laid the foundation. The refinery's first trial production was in October 1965. As of 1973 it was producing 4.3 million tonnes of various products per year and it employed some 1,450 people. It was the third public-sector refinery to be built in India.
Among the refinery's products as of 1979 were gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, jet fuel, and various industrial materials such as benzene, toluene, and naphtha. Crude was piped in from Ankleshwar and from northern Gujarat (around Kalol and Vadagam), and condensate was also supplied from the Khambhat gas fields.
In early 1978, two new petrochemical plants began operation in Vadodara: a naphtha cracking plant in March and a low-density polyethylene plant with an 80,000-tonne capacity in April. Both were operated by Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (now part of Reliance Industries) and both were also the first plant of their kind in Gujarat. In March 1979, IPCL also formally commissioned a major petrochemical complex at Vadodara that included an aromatics plant (producing dimethyl terephthalate and two types of xylene), an oil refinery, and seven other downstream facilities. The 7 downstream facilities were: 1. acrylonitrile, 2. synthetic rubber, 3. low-density polyethylene, 4. polypropylene, 5. ethylene glycol, 6. detergent alkylate, and 7. acrylic fibre. There were also plans in the works for a polyester yarn plant as part of the complex with a capacity of 3,500 to 7,000 tonnes per year.
Government and politics
-----------------------
| |
| --- |
| **Vadodara City Officials** |
| **Mayor** | Mr Nileshsinh Rathod |
| **Municipal Commissioner** | Shri Banchha Nidhi Pani IAS |
| **Police Commissioner** | Shamsher Singh IPS |
The Vadodara city's municipal corporation or Maha Nagar Palika is a part of the Vadodara district. The district is set up in three distinct levels of administration, which are the collectorate - the district falls under the jurisdiction of a collector; the prant offices which take care of the affairs of taluka and other state government offices and the mamlatdar or taluka offices. The overall district administration has four departments: city survey, district supply office, district planning office, and district election office.
The City elects one member to the Lok Sabha (parliament) and five to the Gujarat Vidhan Sabha (Assembly). All of the five assembly seats of Vadodara were won by the BJP during the legislative elections in 2017. In the 2021 VMSS/VMC elections, the BJP won 69 seats, seven seats went to the Congress.
* Election wards: 19
* Seats (Corporators): 76
* Population per ward: 87,826
* Seats reserved for women: 38
* Total voters (as on 1 January 2019): 1,638,300
### Civic administration
According to the 2011 census, the total Urban Agglomeration (UA) population of Vadodara is 35,17,191. This is governed by the Vadodara Municipal Corporation which was founded in 1951. It was initially called the Baroda Municipal Corporation but later changed to Vadodara Municipal Corporation after the city's name was changed in the year 1974. The Bombay Municipal Corporation Act of 1951 was setup as the main legislation for the administration and governance of the Vadodara Municipal Corporation.
The city limits of Vadodara have expanded since: an area of 148 km2 (57 sq mi) was added in the year 2002, followed by 15 to 20 km2 (5.8 to 7.7 sq mi) of additional expansion to the north of the city in 2006. The villages Sayajipura, Bapod, Kapurai, Khatamba, Tarsal Kalali, Gorva, Chhani and Vemali were added to the VMC boundaries in 2017 and the latest expansion notice has been given to the seven villages of Sevasi, Bhayli, Vemali, Bil, Karodiya, Undera and Vadadala in the year 2020.
#### City governance
The Bombay Provincial Municipal Corporations Act, 1949 governs the Vadodara Municipal Corporation. The Gujarat Provincial Municipal Corporations Act of 1949 which is derived from the Bombay Act No. LIX of 1949 is another legislation which most municipal corporation, including Vadodara in Gujarat function under.
The highest body of power in the municipal corporation is the General Board, which is composed of elected members from each ward within the VMC. There are 19 wards under the VMC, each of which consists 4 seats of councilor which has a 50% reservation of seats for women. There are a total of 76 councilors elected for this VMC term where every councilor is appointed in various committees for a period of one year.
The VMC has twelve executive committees apart from the standing committee, which look after the specialized functions of VMC. These committees include public works committee, water work committee, drainage and sewerage committee, health committee, town planning committee, estate management committee, recreation and culture committee, electric committee, and legal committee. Each committee consists of 12 councilors each. The formulation of an additional ward committee is recommended by the Gujarat Provincial Municipal Corporation Act of 1949 for a city exceeding the population of three lakhs- which is above the current population of Vadodara.
#### Politics
Three corporators are elected from each ward, who in turn elect a mayor. Executive powers are vested in the municipal commissioner, who is an IAS officer appointed by the Gujarat state government. The mayor is responsible for the day-to-day running of the city services, municipal school board, the city bus service, the municipal hospital and the city library. The last municipal corporation election for Vadodara took place in the year 2015 where Bhartiya Janta Party won in the majority with 57 out of the total 76 seats, followed by the Indian National Congress (INC) with 14 seats.
There are six sitting MLAs who have VMC under their jurisdiction and are currently part of the state ministry. Rajendrabhai Trivedi is the BJP MLA and incumbent 14th Speaker of Gujarat Legislative Assembly, who was unanimously elected on 9 February 2018. Jitendra Sukhadia is the Minister of Tourism, Non-resident Gujarati division as well as the Food, Civil Supplies, and Consumer Affairs. Saurabhbhai Patel is the incumbent Energy Minister of Gujarat while Yogeshbhai Patel heads the Ministry of State for Narmada Development. The MLA Madhubhai Shrivastav is the state appointed Gujarat Agro Industries Corporation (GAIC) chief and Manisha Vakil is BJP's Vadodara City Assembly Constituency MLA.
#### Law and order
The Vadodara City Police are responsible for law enforcement and public safety in Vadodara, Gujarat. The Vadodara City Police is headed by a Police Commissioner, an IPS officer. They are a subdivision of the state police force of Gujarat and are headed by a commissioner. The Vadodara police force is responsible for the protection and safety of Vadodara citizens. Shamsher Singh, a previous serving as the Additional Director General of Police (State Crime Record Bureau cum Computer Centre), Gandhinagar, is the current Police commissioner of the Vadodara. He formally took charge on 1 January 2021.
Civic services
--------------
Three civic service departments are under the municipal corporation - the engineering department, the health department, and the support or administration department.
These departments together provide services, infrastructure, and management for the entire city. The engineering department manages infrastructure and services provided through cells or subdepartments such as bridge cell, drainage project, town development, streetlight, electrical sewerage, mechanical sewerage, building project, solid-waste management, road, storm-water drainage, water work, land, and estate. The health department takes care of public health-related issues and services through its solid-waste management, health, and ICDS subdepartments. The health department also has a subdepartment for managing birth, death, and marriage registrations. The support department handles all IT and administration-related issues and services, with cells such as IT, accounts audit, census, PRO, election, real estate (acquisition), shops and establishment, assessment, and UCD-NULM departments.
### Urban planning
The two main institutions involved in planning and development in Vadodara are VMSS and the Vadodara Urban Development Authority (VUDA). The responsibilities of both these agencies are demarcated clearly not only physically but also functionally. The governing acts for both institutions differ. The principal responsibility of VUDA is to ensure a holistic development of the Vadodara agglomeration covering an area of 714.56 km2 (275.89 sq mi), whereas VMSS is involved in the development of area of 235 km2 (91 sq mi).
Vadodara's population grew the fastest during the decade between 1961 and 1971. The Vadodara Municipal Corporation drew up the first official urban plan for the city's growth in 1970, the Vadodara Development Plan. The VUDA was formed in 1980. The second Development Plan, developed in 1984, included decentralising the city's infrastructure. During the mid-late 70s early 80s, development on the city's outskirts focused on building cheap, low-income housing for industrial workers. By the 1990s, the focus had shifted to mixed-density, "self-sustainable settlements" in peri-urban areas, especially on the west and southwest sides of town. Farmland was purchased from nearby villages to provide space for these new developments, which caused a large drop in cultivated acreage and overall agricultural produce in the area.
Initially, major industrial development happened on the city's north side; the east side also saw plenty of development because of its location near the old city core. The south and west were relatively less populated in comparison.
Various unplanned slum areas have been formed by rapid immigration from rural areas that outpaced formal city planning. These slum areas consist largely of temporary (*kachcha*) structures with communal toilets or none at all. They are often found in less-desired areas along river banks and nallahs or in other low-lying spots. Sanitation in these developments is generally poor.
A low of relatively lower-income, blue-collar workers live in industrial housing develoments on Vadodara's outskirts. Economically Weaker Section (EWS) housing and slums are located especially on the northwest, northeast, and east sides of the city. In recent decades (as of 2021), major industrial development has taken place along the NH-8 corridor. Religious institutions like temples and ashrams have especially developed on the east side of town, while the Transport Nagar development is located on the northeast.
### Solid waste management
The municipal corporation under its health department provides the solid waste management for the Vadodara city. All zonal asst. municipal commissioners, zonal health officers, ward officers, sanitary inspectors are part of the solid waste management committee who need to be present during the weekly SWM coordination meetings. The department takes care of the sweeping, cleaning and maintenance along with complaint redressal. All zonal chief, assistant municipal commissioners, zonal health officers and other sanitary staff are expected to work on field between 7am to 11am on weekdays. The solid waste management also has a litter prevention system which carries out litter patrol and charges fines as administrative fees from the defaulters.
### Water supply
An average of 53.2 million gallon (240 million litres) of water per day, or 38 gallon (190 litres) per person per day is provided the city daily to meets its daily water requirement. The water supply is provided by the water works department of the municipal corporation along with other agencies like the Sardar Sarovar Narmada limited who directly supply water to VMC which is looked after the Gujarat Pollution Control Board, the Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board, and the Water and Sanitation Management Organization. The city receives its drinking water supply from 16 high rise water tanks and one busting station located within the city.
The Sardar Sarovar Dam which is the one of the drinking water sources for the city, had halted supply temporarily in 2019 after receiving complains about the high sulphur content from the Narmada river, but the water supply was restarted again after a few days. The other sources of water are the Mahi River for which the water is obtained from a French well that has naturally purified water through layers of sand. The Ajwa Sarovar is another source of drinking water and is filtered at Nimeta Water Purification Plant.
In January 2019, VUDA and GWSSB joined hands to reduce the acute shortage of drinking water for residential societies near close to the Vadodara city. A quantity of 3 MLD water per day for three years will be provided as a temporary measure until [*when?*] water from the Timbi pond and Narmada canal reaches these residences.
### Drainage and sewage
The drainage is provided under the Engineering department's drainage projects or the Public Health Engineering Laboratory (PHEL). The department provides planning, designing, estimating, tendering, executing and operating and maintaining the sewerage systems like the sewerage network, sewage pumping stations, sewage pumping mains, sewage treatment and effluent disposal works.
The sewage as of 2001 covered 55% area and 65% of the present population when the VMC limits extended to 108.00 km2 (41.70 sq mi). The Public Health Engineering Laboratory (PHEL) has been working on a comprehensive sewerage system Master Plan for 1,425 km2 (550 sq mi) of sewers and nine sewage treatment works. The plan master plan is designed for the year 2021 where the project aims to increase the sewage coverage from 55% to 95% by area and 65% to 93% by population for an area of 159.31 km2 (61.51 sq mi).
### Electricity
Madhya Gujarat Vij Company Limited (MGVCL) is the main electricity provision company for the Gujarat state and Vadodara. Hydroelectricity is additionally being generated by water from Sardar Sarovar Dam with six units of river bed power houses of 200 megawatt each.
### Fire and emergency
Fire and rescue operations are provided by the VMC under its fire department which is provided according to the Section 285 to 289 of the BPMC Act. VMC has fixed rates for rescue operations & fire extinguishing within the VMC limits and outside it. The VMC's fire department also provide additional services like water tanker provision for domestic, religious or marriage purposes, providing ambulance, dead body carrier.
Transport
---------
The city is on the major rail and road arteries joining Mumbai with Delhi and Mumbai with Ahmedabad.
* Vadodara AirportVadodara Airport
* Vadodara Junction Railway StationVadodara Junction Railway Station
* Bus terminus in VadodaraBus terminus in Vadodara
* Ahmedabad-Vadodara ExpresswayAhmedabad-Vadodara Expressway
### Air
Vadodara Airport (IATA: **BDQ**) is located north-east of the city. Vadodara has flight connections with Mumbai, New Delhi,Hyderabad and Bangalore. Air India and IndiGo are currently operating their services from the airport. A new integrated international terminal has been constructed at the Vadodara airport and was inaugurated in October 2016. Vadodara is the first Green Airport in Gujarat and Second Green Airport in India after Kochi.
### Railway
Vadodara was part of the historic Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway (BBCI), which arrived in the city in January 1861. On 5 November 1951 the BBCI Railway was merged with the Saurashtra, Rajputana and Jaipur railways to create the Western Railway. Vadodara Railway Station now belongs to the Western Railway zone of Indian Railways and is a major junction on the Western Railway Main Line.
The under-construction Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor, India's first High-speed rail line will have a stop at the existing Vadodara Junction railway station. The station is planned for renovation to accommodate the new line.
### Bus
Vadodara bus station is also beautifully designed as a symbol of Banyan (Vad) trees and located near by Railway Station. It also has a market, food court and multiplex facilities.
Sports
------
Vadodara has a professional cricket team, the Baroda cricket team, as well as the oldest cricket ground in Asia, called Moti Baug. The team has won the Ranji Trophy six times. Reliance Stadium, a private cricket ground owned by Reliance Industries, hosts ODIs. Some of the notable cricketer's from Baroda are Vijay Hazare,Anshuman Gaekwad,Kiran More, Nayan Mongia, Atul Bedade, Irfan Pathan, Yusuf Pathan, Hardik Pandya, Krunal Pandya, Deepak Hooda.
Vadodara too have an International cricket stadium under construction at Kotambi.Vadodara would also have a sports university in Desar.
Media
-----
The city has five local FM stations: Radio City (91.1 MHz), Radio Mirchi (98.3 MHz), Red FM (93.5 MHz), Big FM (92.7 MHz), and All India Radio, Vividh Bharti (93.9 MHz)(Aakashwani). Radio City (91.1 MHz) is known all over Vadodara for its Rag Rag Ma Vadodara City profile. All India Radio is broadcast on the AM band. Satellite radio was launched in nearby city of Ahmedabad by WorldSpace in 2005. Vadodara News Magazine(VNM) is a local news TV channel that covers events in the city. Sandesh News is a local news TV channel.
Education
---------
The city houses many Schools and Colleges, including Baroda High School. Higher Education Institutions across various disciplines attract international students mainly from the African countries such as Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, South Africa, and Kenya.
### Universities
* The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
* Sigma Group of Institute
* Parul University
* Navrachna University
* GSFC University
* National Rail and Transportation Institute (Railway University)
* Sumandeep Vidyapeeth
* ITM Vocational University
### Secondary schools
* Navrachana Higher Secondary School
* Navrachana Vidyani Vidyalaya
* Navrachana International School
* Cygnus World School
* Cygnus International School
Further reading
---------------
* Desai, Anjali (2007). *India Guide, Gujarat – Visitor's Guide*. India Guide Publications. ISBN 978-0-9789517-0-2.
* F. A. H Elliot. *The rulers of Baroda*. Baroda State Press 1934. ASIN B0006C35QS.
* Gense, James (1939). *The Gaikwads of Baroda*. D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co 1942. ASIN B0007K1PL6.
* Kothekara, Santa. *The Gaikwads of Baroda and the East India Company, 1770–1820*. Nagpur University. ASIN B0006D2LAI.
* Gaekwad, Fatesinghrao (1989). *Sayajirao of Baroda: The Prince and the Man*. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-0-86132-214-5.
* Gaekwar, Sayaji Rao. *Speeches and addresses of Sayaji Rao III, Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda*. H. Milford 1933. ASIN B000855T0I.
* Rice, Stanley (1931). *Life of Sayaji Rao III, Maharaja of Baroda*. Oxford University Press 1931. ASIN B00085DDFG.
* Clair, Edward. *A Year with the Gaekwar of Baroda*. D. Estes & co 1911. ASIN B0008BLVV8.
* MacLeod, John (1999). *Sovereignty, Power, Control: Politics in the State of Western India, 1916–1947*. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11343-6.
* Kamerkar, Mani. *British Paramountcy: British-Baroda Relations, 1818–1848*. Popular Prakashan. ASIN B000JLZE6A.
* Kooiman, Dick (2002). *Communalism and Indian Princely States: Travancore, Baroda and Hyderabad in the 1930s*. Manohar Pubns. ISBN 978-81-7304-421-2.
* Desai, Govindbhai. *Forty Years in Baroda: Being Reminiscences of Forty Years' Service in the Baroda State*. Pustakalaya Sahayak Sahakari Mandal 1929. ASIN B0006E18R4.
* Maharaja of Baroda (1980). *The Palaces of India*. Viking Pr. ISBN 978-0-00-211678-7.
* Sadashiv, Anant. *A History of important ancient towns & cities in Gujarat & Kathiawad*. ASIN B0008B2NGA.
* William, George (January 1999). *Cities of India*. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-93823-9.
* Doshi, Saryu (1995). *The royal bequest: Art treasures of the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery*. India Book House. ISBN 978-81-7508-009-6.
* Roshan (1993). *Sri Aurobindo in Baroda*. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Publications Department. ISBN 978-81-7058-318-9.
* Sheik, Gulammohammed (1997). *Contemporary Art in Baroda*. Manohar Pubns. ISBN 978-81-85229-04-1.
* Bell, Horace. *Railway Policy in India*. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-4021-8443-3.
* Shafer, Kathleen. *Baroda: the Story of a Small Place. Celebrate Baroda 1890–1990*. Baroda Centennial Committee, Michigan, United States. ASIN B000K016MG.
External links
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"<table about=\"#mwt19\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\" id=\"mwDA\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Vadodara</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-other-name\">Baroda</div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a href=\"./Metropolis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Metropolis\">Metropolis</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"thumb tmulti tnone center\"><div class=\"thumbinner multiimageinner\" style=\"width:262px;max-width:262px;border:none\"><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:260px;max-width:260px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:124px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Laxmi_Vilas_Palace,_Baroda.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1578\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3264\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"125\" resource=\"./File:Laxmi_Vilas_Palace,_Baroda.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg/258px-Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg/387px-Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg/516px-Laxmi_Vilas_Palace%2C_Baroda.jpg 2x\" width=\"258\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:111px;max-width:111px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:81px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3000\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"4000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"82\" resource=\"./File:Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg/109px-Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg/164px-Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg/218px-Pratap_Villas_Palace.jpg 2x\" width=\"109\"/></a></span></div></div><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:147px;max-width:147px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:81px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"415\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"739\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"81\" resource=\"./File:Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg/145px-Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg/218px-Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg/290px-Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg 2x\" width=\"145\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:129px;max-width:129px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:84px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3456\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"5184\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"85\" resource=\"./File:Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg/127px-Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg/191px-Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg/254px-Vadodara_Planetarium-1.jpg 2x\" width=\"127\"/></a></span></div></div><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:129px;max-width:129px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:84px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3456\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"5184\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"85\" resource=\"./File:Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg/127px-Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg/191px-Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg/254px-Lockdown_Vadodara_01.jpg 2x\" width=\"127\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:126px;max-width:126px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:100px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:NyayM.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"710\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"879\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"100\" resource=\"./File:NyayM.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/NyayM.jpg/124px-NyayM.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/NyayM.jpg/186px-NyayM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/NyayM.jpg/248px-NyayM.jpg 2x\" width=\"124\"/></a></span></div></div><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:132px;max-width:132px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\";height:100px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"500\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"650\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"100\" resource=\"./File:NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg/130px-NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg/195px-NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg/260px-NEW_BDQ_AIRPORT.jpg 2x\" width=\"130\"/></a></span></div></div></div></div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\"><b>Clockwise from top:</b><br/> <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Lakshmi_Vilas_Palace\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lakshmi Vilas Palace\">Lakshmi Vilas Palace</a>, Khanderao Market, Downtown Vadodara, <a href=\"./Vadodara_Airport\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vadodara Airport\">Vadodara Airport</a>, Old Vadodara District Court, Saradar Patel Planetarium, <a href=\"./National_Academy_of_Indian_Railways\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"National Academy of Indian Railways\">Pratap Vilas Palace</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Nickname(s):<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-nickname nickname\">Sayaji Nagari (City of Sayajirao Gaekwad), Sanskari Nagari (Cultural City)</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div about=\"#mwt39\" class=\"mw-kartographer-container thumb tnone center\" data-mw=\"\" id=\"mwDQ\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" id=\"mwDg\" style=\"width: 300px;\"><a class=\"mw-kartographer-map\" data-height=\"300\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_7d722f09cf6ba4f31afddfa2f26fb157915d86ba\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"300\" id=\"mwDw\" style=\"width: 300px; height: 300px;\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"300\" id=\"mwEA\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,a,a,a,300x300.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Vadodara&revid=1162042245&groups=_7d722f09cf6ba4f31afddfa2f26fb157915d86ba\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,a,a,a,300x300@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Vadodara&revid=1162042245&groups=_7d722f09cf6ba4f31afddfa2f26fb157915d86ba 2x\" width=\"300\"/></a><div class=\"thumbcaption\" id=\"mwEQ\">Interactive Map Outlining Vadodara</div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:India_Gujarat_location_map.svg\" title=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765 is located in Gujarat\"><img alt=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765 is located in Gujarat\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"931\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1173\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"198\" resource=\"./File:India_Gujarat_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/India_Gujarat_location_map.svg/250px-India_Gujarat_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/India_Gujarat_location_map.svg/375px-India_Gujarat_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/India_Gujarat_location_map.svg/500px-India_Gujarat_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:51.745%;left:78.55%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765\"><img alt=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Location within the Indian state of <a href=\"./Gujarat\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Gujarat\">Gujarat</a></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Gujarat</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:India_location_map.svg\" title=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765 is located in India\"><img alt=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765 is located in India\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1615\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1500\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"269\" resource=\"./File:India_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/250px-India_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/375px-India_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/500px-India_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:46.769%;left:19.375%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765\"><img alt=\"Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Vadodara\nHDI = 0.765</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Location within India</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of India</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Vadodara&params=22_18_N_73_12_E_region:IN-GJ_type:city(4000000)\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">22°18′N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">73°12′E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">22.300°N 73.200°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">22.300; 73.200</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt43\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">India</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./States_and_union_territories_of_India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"States and union territories of India\">State</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Gujarat\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Gujarat\">Gujarat</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./List_of_districts_in_India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of districts in India\">District</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Vadodara_district\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vadodara district\">Vadodara</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Zone</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Ward</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">25</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Type</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Municipal_Corporation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Municipal Corporation\">Municipal Corporation</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Body</th><td class=\"infobox-data agent\"><a href=\"./Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vadodara Municipal Corporation\">Vadodara Municipal Corporation</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Mayor\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mayor\">Mayor</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Keyur Rokadia (<a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./BJP\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"BJP\">BJP</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Deputy_Mayor\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Deputy Mayor\">Deputy Mayor</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Nandaben Joshi</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Municipal_Commissioner_(India)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Municipal Commissioner (India)\">Municipal Commissioner</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Banchhanidhi Pani, IAS</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">420.60<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (162.39<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Rank</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">(2nd in Gujarat State )</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Elevation<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">32<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (105<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\">\n2020</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4,000,000</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">10,500/km<sup>2</sup> (27,000/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Demonym\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Demonym\">Demonym</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Barodian</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+5:30\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+5:30\">UTC+5:30</a> (<a href=\"./Indian_Standard_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indian Standard Time\">IST</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Postal_Index_Number\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Postal Index Number\">PIN</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\">390 0XX</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Telephone code</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">(91)265</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./ISO_3166\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 3166\">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data nickname\"><a href=\"./ISO_3166-2:IN\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 3166-2:IN\">ISO 3166-2:IN</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Vehicle_registration_plate\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vehicle registration plate\">Vehicle registration</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">GJ-06 (Urban)/GJ-29 (Rural)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Literacy_Rate\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Literacy Rate\">Literacy Rate</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">94.5%</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Legislature Strength</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">76</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Lok_Sabha\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lok Sabha\">Lok Sabha</a> constituency</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Vidhan_Sabha\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vidhan Sabha\">Vidhan Sabha</a> constituency</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">10</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Climate_of_India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Climate of India\">Climate</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Climatic_regions_of_India#Tropical_wet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Climatic regions of India\">Tropical savanna</a> <span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(<a href=\"./Köppen_climate_classification\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Köppen climate classification\">Köppen</a>: Aw)</span></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Urban_planning\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Urban planning\">Planning</a> agency</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1 (<a href=\"./Vadodara_Urban_Development_Authority\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vadodara Urban Development Authority\">VUDA</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Distance from Gandhinagar</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">126 kilometres (78<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi) NE (Rail & Air)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Distance from Mumbai</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">395 kilometres (245<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi) S (Rail & Air)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Distance from Ahmedabad</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">100 kilometres (62<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi) NW (Road)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Website</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"url\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.vmc.gov.in\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">www<wbr/>.vmc<wbr/>.gov<wbr/>.in</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Street_scene_in_Baroda_(c._1880).jpg",
"caption": "Street scene in Baroda (circa 1880)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kirti_Mandir,_Vadadora_(Baroda)_-_India_(3-2)_(8147894472).jpg",
"caption": "Kirti Mandir"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Ganesh_Chaturthi_-Waghodia_Road-JKSP-25-08-2017-0192.jpg",
"caption": "Ganesh Chaturthi Celebration at JKSP Home Vadodara"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation.jpg",
"caption": "Khanderao Market – Vadodara Mahanagar Seva Sadan Building"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Mandvi_Gate01.jpg",
"caption": "Mandvi Gate"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Baroda_Museum01.jpg",
"caption": "Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Raopura_Tower_Vadodara.jpg",
"caption": "Raopura Tower"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Flora_Clock.jpg",
"caption": "The Flora Clock at Sayaji Baug"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kalaghoda.jpg",
"caption": "Kalaghoda circle"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:NyayM.jpg",
"caption": "Nyay Mandir, Vadodara High Court"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Vadodara_uni.jpg",
"caption": "The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda"
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] |
21,351,296 | **Monogamy** (/məˈnɒɡəmi/ *mə-NOG-ə-mee*) is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner during the length of the relationship. Having only one partner at any one time, whether that be for life or whether that be serial monogamy, contrasts with various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., polygamy or polyamory).
The term is also applied to the social behavior of some animals, referring to the state of having only one mate at any one time. A monogamous relationship can be sexual or emotional, but it's usually both. Many modern relationships are monogamous.
Terminology
-----------
The word *monogamy* derives from the Greek μονός, *monos* ("alone"), and γάμος, *gamos* ("marriage").
The term "monogamy" may be referring to one of various relational types, depending upon context. Generally, there are four overlapping definitions.
* *marital monogamy* refers to marriages of only two people.
* *social monogamy* refers to two partners living together, having sex with each other, and cooperating in acquiring basic resources such as shelter, food and money.
* *sexual monogamy* refers to two partners remaining sexually exclusive with each other and having no outside sex partners.
* *genetic monogamy* refers to sexually monogamous relationships with genetic evidence of paternity.
For instance, biologists, biological anthropologists, and behavioral ecologists often use *monogamy* in the sense of sexual, if not genetic (reproductive), exclusivity. When cultural or social anthropologists and other social scientists use the term monogamy, the meaning is social or marital monogamy.
Marital monogamy may be further distinguished between:
1. *classical monogamy*, "a single relationship between people who marry as virgins, remain sexually exclusive their entire lives, and become celibate upon the death of the partner"
2. *serial monogamy*, marriage with only one other person at a time, in contrast to bigamy or polygamy
Frequency in humans
-------------------
### Distribution of social monogamy
According to the *Ethnographic Atlas* by George P. Murdock, of 1,231 societies from around the world noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry. (This does not take into account the relative population of each of the societies studied; the actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage.)
Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy", i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time. This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in the Caribbean, Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners. In all, these account for 16 to 24% of the "monogamous" category.
### Prevalence of sexual monogamy
The prevalence of sexual monogamy can be roughly estimated as the percentage of married people who do not engage in extramarital sex. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the amount of extramarital sex by men and women in over 50 pre-industrial cultures. The amount of extramarital sex by men is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 29 cultures, "occasional" in 6 cultures, and "uncommon" in 10 cultures. The amount of extramarital sex by women is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 23 cultures, "occasional" in 9 cultures, and "uncommon" in 15 cultures.
Surveys conducted in non-Western nations (2001) also found cultural and gender differences in extramarital sex. A study of sexual behavior in Thailand, Tanzania and Côte d'Ivoire suggests about 16–34% of men engage in extramarital sex while a much smaller (unreported) percentage of women engage in extramarital sex. Studies in Nigeria have found around 47–53% of men and to 18–36% of women engage in extramarital sex. A 1999 survey of married and cohabiting couples in Zimbabwe reports that 38% of men and 13% of women engaged in extra-couple sexual relationships within the last 12 months.
Many surveys asking about extramarital sex in the United States have relied on convenience samples: surveys given to whoever happens to be easily available (e.g., volunteer college students or volunteer magazine readers). Convenience samples may not accurately reflect the population of the United States as a whole, which can cause serious biases in survey results. Sampling bias may, therefore, be why early surveys of extramarital sex in the United States have produced widely differing results: such early studies using convenience samples (1974, 1983, 1993) reported the wide ranges of 12–26% of married women and 15–43% of married men engaged in extramarital sex. Three studies have used nationally representative samples. These studies in 1994 and 1997 found that about 10–15% of women and 20–25% of men engage in extramarital sex.
Research by Colleen Hoffon of 566 homosexual male couples from the San Francisco Bay Area (2010) found that 45% had monogamous relationships. However, the Human Rights Campaign has stated, based on a Rockway Institute report, that "LGBT" young people... want to spend their adult life in a long-term relationship raising children." Specifically, over 80% of the homosexuals surveyed expected to be in a monogamous relationship after age 30.
### Prevalence of genetic monogamy
The incidence of genetic monogamy may be estimated from rates of extrapair paternity. Extrapair paternity is when offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with another male. Rates of extrapair paternity have not been extensively studied in people. Many reports of extrapair paternity are little more than quotes based on hearsay, anecdotes, and unpublished findings. Simmons, Firman, Rhodes, and Peters reviewed 11 published studies of extra-pair paternity from various locations in the United States, France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and among the native Yanomami Indians of Amazon forest in South America. The rates of extrapair paternity ranged from 0.03% to 11.8% although most of the locations had low percentages of extrapair paternity. The median rate of extrapair paternity was 1.8%. A separate review of 17 studies by Bellis, Hughes, Hughes, and Ashton found slightly higher rates of extrapair paternity. The rates varied from 0.8% to 30% in these studies, with a median rate of 3.7% extrapair paternity. A range of 1.8% to 3.7% extrapair paternity implies a range of 96% to 98% genetic monogamy. Although the incidence of genetic monogamy may vary from 70% to 99% in different cultures or social environments, a large percentage of couples remain genetically monogamous during their relationships. A review paper, surveying 67 other studies, reported rates of extrapair paternity, in different societies, ranging from 0.4% to over 50%.
Covert illegitimacy is a situation which arises when someone who is presumed to be a child's father (or mother) is in fact not the biological father (or mother). Frequencies as high as 30% are sometimes assumed in the media, but research by sociologist Michael Gilding traced these overestimates back to an informal remark at a 1972 conference.
The detection of unsuspected illegitimacy can occur in the context of medical genetic screening, in genetic family name research, and in immigration testing. Such studies show that covert illegitimacy is in fact less than 10% among the sampled African populations, less than 5% among the sampled Native American and Polynesian populations, less than 2% of the sampled Middle Eastern population, and generally 1–2% among European samples.
Pedigree errors are a well-known source of error in medical studies. When attempts are made to try to study medical afflictions and their genetic components, it becomes very important to understand non-paternity rates and pedigree errors. There are numerous software packages and procedures that exist for correcting research data for pedigree errors.
Evolutionary and historical development in humans
-------------------------------------------------
### Biological arguments
Monogamy exists in many societies around the world, resulting in extensive scientific research which tries to understand how these marriage systems might have evolved. In any species, there are three main aspects that combine to promote a monogamous mating system: paternal care, resource access, and mate choice; however, in humans, the main theoretical sources of monogamy are paternal care and extreme ecological stresses. Paternal care should be particularly important in humans due to the extra nutritional requirement of having larger brains and the lengthier developmental period. Therefore, the evolution of monogamy could be a reflection of this increased need for bi-parental care. Similarly, monogamy should evolve in areas of ecological stress because male reproductive success should be higher if their resources are focused on ensuring offspring survival rather than searching for other mates. Due to the extreme sociality and increased intelligence of humans, *H. sapiens* have solved many problems that generally lead to monogamy, such as those mentioned above. For example, monogamy is certainly correlated with paternal care, as shown by Marlowe, but not caused by it because humans diminish the need for bi-parental care through the aid of siblings and other family members in rearing the offspring. Furthermore, human intelligence and material culture allows for better adaptation to different and rougher ecological areas, thus reducing the causation and even correlation of monogamous marriage and extreme climates. However, some scientists argue that monogamy evolved by reducing within-group conflict, thus giving certain groups a competitive advantage against less monogamous groups.
Paleoanthropology and genetic studies offer two perspectives on when monogamy evolved in the human species: paleoanthropologists offer tentative evidence that monogamy may have evolved very early in human history whereas genetic studies suggest that monogamy might have evolved much more recently, less than 10,000 to 20,000 years ago.
Paleoanthropological estimates of the time frame for the evolution of monogamy are primarily based on the level of sexual dimorphism seen in the fossil record because, in general, the reduced male-male competition seen in monogamous mating results in reduced sexual dimorphism. According to Reno *et al.*, the sexual dimorphism of *Australopithecus afarensis*, a human ancestor from approximately 3.9–3.0 million years ago, was within the modern human range, based on dental and postcranial morphology. Although careful not to say that this indicates monogamous mating in early hominids, the authors do say that reduced levels of sexual dimorphism in *A. afarensis* "do not imply that monogamy is any less probable than polygyny". However, Gordon, Green and Richmond claim that in examining postcranial remains, *A. afarensis* is more sexually dimorphic than modern humans and chimpanzees with levels closer to those of orangutans and gorillas. Furthermore, *Homo habilis*, living approximately 2.3 mya, is the most sexually dimorphic early hominid. Plavcan and van Schaik conclude their examination of this controversy by stating that, overall, sexual dimorphism in australopithecines is not indicative of any behavioral implications or mating systems.
Currently the oldest ethnic group in Africa, the continent where *Homo sapiens* species emerged, is the San people of Southern Africa. Most San are monogamous, but if a hunter is able to obtain enough food, he can afford to have a second wife as well. The monogamy practiced by this ethnic group is the serial monogamy.
### Cultural arguments
Despite the human ability to avoid sexual and genetic monogamy, social monogamy still forms under many different conditions, but most of those conditions are consequences of cultural processes. These cultural processes may have nothing to do with relative reproductive success. For example, anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study utilizing the *Ethnographic Atlas* demonstrated that monogamy is part of a cultural complex found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice social monogamy, sexual monogamy and dowry (i.e. "diverging devolution", that allow property to be inherited by children of both sexes). Goody demonstrates a statistical correlation between this cultural complex and the development of intensive plough agriculture in those areas. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work and is associated with private property; marriage tends to be monogamous to keep the property within the nuclear family. Close family (endogamy) are the preferred marriage partners to keep property within the group. A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas. A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of the society, the belief in "high gods" to support human morality, and monogamy. A survey of other cross-cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy, although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare (in non-state societies) and pathogen stress (in state societies) had some impact.
Betzig postulated that culture/society can also be a source of social monogamy by enforcing it through rules and laws set by third-party actors, usually in order to protect the wealth or power of the elite. For example, Augustus Caesar encouraged marriage and reproduction to force the aristocracy to divide their wealth and power among multiple heirs, but the aristocrats kept their socially monogamous, legitimate children to a minimum to ensure their legacy while having many extra-pair copulations. Similarly—according to Betzig—the Christian Church enforced monogamy because wealth passed to the closest living, legitimate male relative, often resulting in the wealthy oldest brother being without a male heir. Thus, the wealth and power of the family would pass to the "celibate" younger brother of the church. In both of these instances, the rule-making elite used cultural processes to ensure greater reproductive fitness for themselves and their offspring, leading to a larger genetic influence in future generations. According to B. S. Low, culture would appear to have a much larger impact on monogamy in humans than the biological forces that are important for non-human animals.
Other theorists use cultural factors influencing reproductive success to explain monogamy. During times of major economic/demographic transitions, investing more in fewer offspring (social monogamy not polygyny) increases reproductive success by ensuring the offspring themselves have enough initial wealth to be successful. This is seen in both England and Sweden during the industrial revolution and is currently being seen in the modernization of rural Ethiopia. Similarly, in modern industrialized societies, fewer yet better-invested offspring, i.e. social monogamy, can provide a reproductive advantage over social polygyny, but this still allows for serial monogamy and extra-pair copulations.
### Arguments from outside the scientific community
Karol Wojtyła (later, Pope John Paul II) in his book *Love and Responsibility* postulated that monogamy, as an institutional union of two people being in love with one another, was an embodiment of an ethical *personalistic norm*, and thus the only means of making true human love possible. Some writers have suggested that monogamy may solve the problems they view as associated with non-monogamy and hypergamy such as inceldom.
Alexandra Kollontai in *Make Way for the Winged Eros* argues that monogamy is an artifact of capitalist concepts of property and inheritance and wrote, "The social aims of the working class are not affected one bit by whether love takes the form of a long and official union or is expressed in a temporary relationship. The ideology of the working class does not place any formal limits on love." Later, "Modern love always sins, because it absorbs the thoughts and feelings of 'loving hearts' and isolates the loving pair from the collective. In the future society, such a separation will not only become superfluous but also psychologically inconceivable." One of the tenets of the new proletarian morality is "mutual recognition of the rights of the other, of the fact that one does not own the heart and soul of the other (the sense of property, encouraged by bourgeois culture)."
### Ancient societies
The historical record offers contradictory evidence on the development and extent of monogamy as a social practice. Laura Betzig argues that in the six large, highly stratified early states, commoners were generally monogamous but that elites practiced de facto polygyny. Those states included Mesopotamia, Egypt, Aztec Mexico, Inca Peru, India and China.
#### Tribal societies
Monogamy has appeared in some traditional tribal societies such as the Andamanese, Karen in Burma, Sami and Ket in northern Eurasia, and the Pueblo Indians of the United States, apparently unrelated to the development of the Judeo-Christian monogamous paradigm.
#### Ancient Mesopotamia and Assyria
Both the Babylonian and Assyrian families were monogamous in principle but not entirely so in practice since polygyny was frequently practiced by the rulers.
In the patriarchal society of Mesopotamia the nuclear family was called a "house". In order "to build a house" a man was supposed to marry one woman and if she did not provide him with offspring, he could take a second wife. The Code of Hammurabi states that he loses his right to do so if the wife herself gives him a slave as concubine. According to Old Assyrian texts, he could be obliged to wait for two or three years before he was allowed to take another wife. The position of the second wife was that of a "slave girl" in respect to the first wife, as many marriage contracts explicitly state.
#### Ancient Egypt
Although an Egyptian man was free to marry several women at a time, and some wealthy men from Old and Middle Kingdoms did have more than one wife, monogamy was the norm. There may have been some exceptions, e.g. a Nineteenth Dynasty official stated as proof of his love to his deceased wife that he had stayed married to her since their youth, even after he had become very successful (P. Leiden I 371). This may suggest that some men abandoned first wives of a low social status and married women of higher status in order to further their careers although even then they lived with only one wife. Egyptian women had the right to ask for a divorce if their husband took a second wife. Many tomb reliefs testify to the monogamous character of Egyptian marriages; officials are usually accompanied by a supportive wife. "His wife X, his beloved" is the standard phrase identifying wives in tomb inscriptions. The instruction texts belonging to wisdom literature, e.g., Instruction of Ptahhotep or Instruction of Any, support fidelity to monogamous marriage life, calling the wife a *Lady of the house*. The Instruction of Ankhsheshonq suggests that it is wrong to abandon a wife because she is not capable of pregnancy.
#### Ancient Israel
As against Betzig's contention that monogamy evolved as a result of Christian socio-economic influence in the West, monogamy appeared widespread in the ancient Middle East much earlier. In Israel's pre-Christian era, an essentially monogamous ethos underlay the Jewish creation story (Gn 2) and the last chapter of Proverbs. During the Second Temple period (530 BCE to 70 CE), apart from an economic situation which supported monogamy even more than in earlier period, the concept of "mutual fidelity" between husband and wife was a quite common reason for strictly monogamous marriages. Some marriage documents explicitly expressed a desire for the marriage to remain monogamous. Examples of these documents were found in Elephantine. They resemble those found in neighbouring Assyria and Babylonia. Study shows that ancient Middle East societies, though not strictly monogamous, were practically (at least on commoners' level) monogamous. Halakha of the Dead Sea Sect saw prohibition of polygamy as coming from the Pentateuch (Damascus Document 4:20–5:5, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls). Christianity adopted a similar attitude (cf. 1 Tm 3:2,12; Tt 1:6), which conformed with Jesus' approach. Michael Coogan, in contrast, states that "Polygyny continued to be practised well into the biblical period, and it is attested among Jews as late as the second century CE."
Under Judges and the monarchy, old restrictions went into disuse, especially among royalty, though the Books of Samuel and Kings, which cover entire period of monarchy, do not record a single case of bigamy among commoners—except for Samuel's father. The wisdom books e.g. Book of Wisdom, which provides a picture of the society, Sirach, Proverbs, Qohelet portray a woman in a strictly monogamous family (cf. Pr 5:15-19; Qo 9:9; Si 26:1-4 and eulogy of perfect wife, Proverbs 31:10-31). The Book of Tobias speaks solely of monogamous marriages. Also prophets have in front of their eyes monogamous marriage as an image of the relationship of God and Israel. (Cf. Ho 2:4f; Jer 2:2; Is 50:1; 54:6-7; 62:4-5; Ez 16). Roland de Vaux states that "it is clear that the most common form of marriage in Israel was monogamy".
The Mishnah and the *baraitot* clearly reflect a monogamist viewpoint within Judaism (Yevamot 2:10 etc.). Some sages condemned marriage to two wives even for the purpose of procreation (Ketubot 62b). R. Ammi, an *amora* states:
> Whoever takes a second wife in addition to his first one shall divorce the first and pay her *kettubah* (Yevamot 65a)
>
>
Roman customs, which prohibited polygamy, may have enhanced such an attitude[*original research?*] - especially after 212 AD, when all the Jews became Roman citizens. However, some Jews continued to practice bigamy (e.g. up to medieval times in Egypt and Europe). Fourth-century Roman law forbade Jews to contract plural marriages.
A synod convened by Gershom ben Judah around 1000 CE banned polygamy among Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews.
#### Ancient Greece and ancient Rome
The ancient Greeks and Romans were monogamous in the sense that men were not allowed to have more than one wife or to cohabit with concubines during marriage.
#### Early Christianity
As John Paul II interpreted the dialogue between Jesus and the Pharisees (Gospel of Matthew 19:3–8), Christ emphasized the primordial beauty of monogamic spousal love described in the Book of Genesis 1:26–31, 2:4–25, whereby a man and woman by their nature are each ready to be a beautifying, total and personal gift to one another:
> Jesus avoids entangling himself in juridical or casuistic controversies; instead, he appeals twice to the "beginning". By doing so, he clearly refers to the relevant words of Genesis, which his interlocutors also know by heart. ... it clearly leads the interlocutors to reflect about the way in which, in the mystery of creation, man was formed precisely as "male and female," in order to understand correctly the normative meaning of the words of Genesis.
>
>
[*dubious – discuss*]
### Contemporary societies
#### International
Western European societies established monogamy as their marital norm. Monogamous marriage is normative and is legally enforced in most developed countries. Laws prohibiting polygyny were adopted in Japan (1880), China (1953), India (1955) and Nepal (1963). Polyandry is illegal in most countries.
The women's rights movements seek to make monogamy the only legal form of marriage. The United Nations General Assembly in 1979 adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Article 16 of which requires nations to give women and men equal rights in marriage. Polygamy is viewed as inconsistent with the Article as it gives men the right of multiple wives, but not to women. The United Nations has established the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) to monitor the progress of nations implementing the convention.
#### People's Republic of China
The founders of Communism determined that monogamous marriage inherently oppressed women and therefore had no place in communist society. Friedrich Engels stated that compulsory monogamy could only lead to increased prostitution and general immorality, with the benefits of restricting capital and solidifying the class structure. As he spelled out in *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State* (1884),
> The first class antagonism which appears in history coincides with the development of the antagonism between man and woman in monogamian marriage, and the first class oppression with that of the female sex by the male. ... [T]he wellbeing and development of the one group are attained by the misery and repression of the other.
>
>
> The monogamous family is distinguished from the pairing family by the far greater durability of wedlock, which can no longer be dissolved at the pleasure of either party. As a rule, it is only the man who can still dissolve it and cast off his wife.
>
>
>
However, the communist revolutionaries in China chose to take the Western viewpoint of monogamy as giving women and men equal rights in marriage. The newly formed Communist government established monogamy as the only legal form of marriage.
>
> "The 1950 Marriage Law called for sweeping changes in many areas of family life. It forbade any 'arbitrary and compulsory' form of marriage that would be based on the superiority of men and would ignore women's interests. The new democratic marriage system was based on the free choice of couples, monogamy, equal rights for both sexes, and the protection of the lawful interests of women. It abolished the begetting of male offspring as the principal purpose of marriage and weakened kinship ties which reduced the pressure on women to bear many children, especially sons. With arranged marriages prohibited, young women could choose their own marriage partners, share the financial cost of setting up a new household, and have equal status in household and family decision-making. The Government then initiated an extensive campaign of marriage-law education, working jointly with the Communist Party, women's federations, trade unions, the armed forces, schools and other organizations."
>
>
>
#### Africa
The African Union has adopted the *Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa* (the Maputo Protocol). While the protocol does not suggest making polygamous marriage illegal, Article 6 does state that "monogamy is encouraged as the preferred form of marriage and that the rights of women in marriage and family, including in polygamous marital relationships are promoted and protected." The protocol entered into force on 25 November 2005.
Varieties in biology
--------------------
Recent discoveries have led biologists to talk about the three varieties of monogamy: social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy. The distinction between these three are important to the modern understanding of monogamy.
Monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with partners other than their primary mate. This is called extra-pair copulation. Sometimes these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests frequently show that some of the offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with an extra-pair male partner. These discoveries have led biologists to adopt new ways of talking about monogamy:
>
> Social monogamy refers to a male and female's social living arrangement (e.g., shared use of a territory, behaviour indicative of a social pair, and/or proximity between a male and female) without inferring any sexual interactions or reproductive patterns. In humans, social monogamy equals monogamous marriage. Sexual monogamy is defined as an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. Finally, the term genetic monogamy is used when DNA analyses can confirm that a female-male pair reproduce exclusively with each other. A combination of terms indicates examples where levels of relationships coincide, e.g., sociosexual and sociogenetic monogamy describe corresponding social and sexual, and social and genetic monogamous relationships, respectively.
>
>
>
Reichard, 2003, (p. 4)
Whatever makes a pair of animals socially monogamous does not necessarily make them sexually or genetically monogamous. Social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy can occur in different combinations.
Social monogamy does not always involve marriage in humans. A married couple is almost always a socially monogamous couple. But couples who choose to cohabit without getting married can also be socially monogamous. The popular science author Matt Ridley in his book *The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature*, described the human mating system as "monogamy plagued by adultery".
### Serial monogamy
Serial monogamy is a mating practice in which individuals may engage in sequential monogamous pairings, or in terms of humans, when men or women can marry another partner but only after ceasing to be married to the previous partner.
Serial monogamy may effectively resemble polygyny in its reproductive consequences because both men and women are able to utilize both sexes reproductive lifespan through repeated marriages.
Serial monogamy may also refer to sequential sexual relationships, irrespective of marital status. A pair of humans may remain sexually exclusive, or monogamous, until the relationship has ended and then each may go on to form a new exclusive pairing with a different partner. This pattern of serial monogamy is common among people in Western cultures.
#### Reproductive success
Evolutionary theory predicts that males would be apt to seek more mating partners than females because they obtain higher reproductive benefits from such a strategy. Men with more serial marriages are likely to have more children than men with only one spouse, whereas the same is not true of women with consecutive spouses. A study done in 1994 found that remarried men often had a larger age difference from their spouses than men who were married for the first time, suggesting that serial monogamy helps some men extract a longer reproductive window from their spouses.
#### Breakup
Serial monogamy has always been closely linked to divorce practices. Whenever procedures for obtaining divorce have been simple and easy, serial monogamy has been found. As divorce has continued to become more accessible, more individuals have availed themselves of it, and many go on to remarry. Barry Schwartz, author of *The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less*, further suggests that Western culture's inundation of choice has devalued relationships based on lifetime commitments and singularity of choice. It has been suggested, however, that high mortality rates in centuries past accomplished much the same result as divorce, enabling remarriage (of one spouse) and thus serial monogamy.
#### Similarity with polygamy
According to Danish scholar Miriam K. Zeitzen, anthropologists treat serial monogamy, in which divorce and remarriage occur, as a form of polygamy as it also can establish a series of households that may continue to be tied by shared paternity and shared income. As such, they are similar to the household formations created through divorce and serial monogamy.
### Mating system
Monogamy is one of several mating systems observed in animals. However, a pair of animals may be socially monogamous without necessarily being sexually or genetically monogamous. Social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy can occur in different combinations.
Social monogamy refers to the overtly observed living arrangement whereby a male and female share territory and engage in behaviour indicative of a social pair, but does not imply any particular sexual fidelity or reproductive pattern. The extent to which social monogamy is observed in animals varies across taxa, with over 90 percent of avian species being socially monogamous, compared to only 3 percent of mammalian species and up to 15 percent of primate species. Social monogamy has also been observed in reptiles, fish, and insects.
Sexual monogamy is defined as an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. However, scientific analyses can test for paternity, for example by DNA paternity testing or by fluorescent pigment powder tracing of females to track physical contact. This type of analysis can uncover reproductively successful sexual pairings or physical contact. Genetic monogamy refers to DNA analyses confirming that a female-male pair reproduce exclusively with each other.
The incidence of sexual monogamy appears quite rare in other parts of the animal kingdom. It is becoming clear that even animals that are overtly socially monogamous engage in extra-pair copulations. For example, while over 90% of birds are socially monogamous, "on average, 30% or more of the baby birds in any nest [are] sired by someone other than the resident male." Patricia Adair Gowaty has estimated that, out of 180 different species of socially monogamous songbirds, only 10% are sexually monogamous. Offspring are far more successful when both the male and the female members of the social pair contribute food resources.
The highest known frequency of reproductively successful extra-pair copulations are found among fairywrens *Malurus splendens* and *Malurus cyaneus* where more than 65% of chicks are fathered by males outside the supposed breeding pair. This discordantly low level of genetic monogamy has been a surprise to biologists and zoologists, as social monogamy can no longer be assumed to determine how genes are distributed in a species.
*Elacatinus*, also widely known as neon gobies, also exhibit social monogamy. Hetereosexual pairs of fish belonging to the genus *Elacatinus* remain closely associated during both reproductive and non-reproductive periods, and often reside in same cleaning station to serve client fish. Fish of this genus frequently mate with a new partner after they are widowed.
### Evolution in animals
Socially monogamous species are scattered throughout the animal kingdom: A few insects, a few fish, about nine-tenths of birds, and a few mammals are socially monogamous. There is even a parasitic worm, *Schistosoma mansoni*, that in its female-male pairings in the human body is monogamous. The diversity of species with social monogamy suggests that it is not inherited from a common ancestor but instead evolved independently in many different species.
The low occurrence of social monogamy in placental mammals has been claimed[*by whom?*] to be related to the presence or absence of estrus—or oestrus—the duration of sexual receptivity of a female. This, however, does not explain *why* estrus females generally mate with any proximate male nor any correlation between sexual and social monogamy. Birds, which are notable for a high incidence of social monogamy, do not have estrus.
### Psychology
### Genetic and neuroendocrine bases
The prairie vole is an animal example for its monogamous social behaviour, since the male is usually socially faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. The woodland vole is also usually monogamous. Another species from the same genus, the meadow vole, has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behaviour to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a single gene was introduced into the brain by a virus.
The behaviour is influenced by the number of repetitions of a particular string of microsatellite DNA. Male prairie voles with the longest DNA strings spend more time with their mates and pups than male prairie voles with shorter strings. However, other scientists have disputed the gene's relationship to monogamy, and cast doubt on whether the human version plays an analogous role. Physiologically, pair-bonding behavior has been shown to be connected to vasopressin, dopamine, and oxytocin levels, with the genetic influence apparently arising via the number of receptors for these substances in the brain; the pair-bonding behavior has also been shown in experiments to be strongly modifiable by administering some of these substances directly.
The North American microtine rodent's (vole) complex social structure and social behavior has provided unique opportunities to study the underlying neural bases for monogamy and social attachment. Data from studies using the *Microtus ochrogaster* or prairie vole indicate that the neuroendocrine hormones, oxytocin (in female prairie voles) and vasopressin (in male prairie voles) play a central role in the development of affiliative connections during mating. The effects of intracerebroventricular administration of oxytocin and vasopressin have been shown to promote affiliative behavior in the prairie vole but not in similar, but non-monogamous montane voles. This difference in neuropeptide effect is attributed to the location, density, and distribution of OT and AVP receptors. Only in the prairie voles are OT and AVP receptors located along the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway, presumably conditioning the voles to their mates odor while consolidating the social memory of the mating episode. This finding highlights the role of genetic evolution in altering the neuroanatomical distribution of receptors, resulting in certain neural circuits becoming sensitive to changes in neuropeptides.
See also
--------
* Affair
* Amatonormativity
* Human bonding
* Monogamy in Christianity
* Pair bonding
* Paternal care
* Sexual intercourse
* The seven-year itch
Bibliography
------------
* de Vaux R. O.P. (1973). "Marriage - 1. Polygamy and monogamy". *Ancient Israel. Its Life and Institutions*. London: Darton, Longman & Todd. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-232-51219-9.
* John Paul II (2006). *Man and Woman He created Them. A Theology of the Body 1,2-4*. M. Waldstein (trans.). Boston: Paoline Books & Media. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-0-8198-7421-4.
* "Marriage". *Encyclopaedia Judaica*. Vol. 11. Jerusalem-New York: Encyclopaedia Judaica Jerusalem — The MacMillan Company. 1971. pp. 1026–1051.
* "Monogamy". *Encyclopaedia Judaica*. Vol. 12. Jerusalem-New York: Encyclopaedia Judaica Jerusalem — The MacMillan Company. 1971. pp. 258–260.
* Pinch Geraldine, *Private Life in Ancient Egypt* in: J. M. Sasson; J. Baines; G. Beckman; K. S. Rubinson (assist.), eds. (1995). *Civilizations of the Ancient Near East*. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 363–381. ISBN 978-0-684-19720-3.
* Stol Marten: *Private Life in Ancient Mesopotamia*, in: J. M. Sasson; J. Baines; G. Beckman; K. S. Rubinson (assist.), eds. (1995). *Civilizations of the Ancient Near East*. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 486–501. ISBN 978-0-684-19720-3..
* Wojtyła, Karol (1981). "Marriage. Monogamy and the indissolubility of Marriage". *Love and Responsibility*. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-89870-445-7.
Further reading
---------------
* Barash, David P., and Lipton, Judith Eve. *The Myth of Monogamy: Fidelity and Infidelity in Animals and People*. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co./Henry Hold and Co., 2001. ISBN 0-8050-7136-9.
* Kleiman DG (March 1977). "Monogamy in mammals". *Q Rev Biol*. **52** (1): 39–69. doi:10.1086/409721. PMID 857268. S2CID 25675086.
* Lim, Miranda M.; et al. (June 2004). "Enhanced Partner Preference in a Promiscuous Species by Manipulating the Expression of a Single Gene". *Nature*. **429** (6993): 754–7. Bibcode:2004Natur.429..754L. doi:10.1038/nature02539. PMID 15201909. S2CID 4340500.
* Reichard, Ulrich H., and Christophe Boesch (eds.). *Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals*. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-81973-3, ISBN 0-521-52577-2.
* Burnham, Phelan, Terry, Jay (2000). *Mean Genes: from Sex to Money to Food, Taming Our Primal Instincts* (First ed.). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub. ISBN 978-0-14-200007-6.
* Lathrop GM, Huntsman JW, Hooper AB, Ward RH (1983). "Evaluating pedigree data. II. Identifying the cause of error in families with inconsistencies". *Hum. Hered*. **33** (6): 377–89. doi:10.1159/000153406. PMID 6585347.
* Roth, Martha T. *Age at Marriage and the Household: A Study of the Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian Forms Archived 2018-07-13 at the Wayback Machine*, "Comparative Studies in Society and History" 29 (1987), and *Babylonian Marriage Agreements 7th–3rd Centuries BC* (1989)
* Gabbatiss, Josh. *Why pairing up for life is hardly ever a good idea Archived 2016-03-22 at the Wayback Machine* (February 2016), *BBC Earth* | Monogamy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamy | {
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733,199 | A **perennial plant** or simply **perennial** is a plant that lives more than two years. The term (*per-* + *-ennial*, "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth (secondary growth in girth) from trees and shrubs, which are also technically perennials.
Perennials—especially small flowering plants—that grow and bloom over the spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials. However, depending on the rigours of local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in the soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, or in a milder garden, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass doesn't survive the winter.
There is also a class of evergreen perennials which lack woody stems, such as *Bergenia* which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. *Penstemon*.
The symbol for a perennial plant, based on *Species Plantarum* by Linnaeus, is represented by the symbol: ♃, which is also the astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter.
Life cycle and structure
------------------------
Perennial plants can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids, grasses, and woody plants. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, these species may live for many years before they flower, for example, century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in the growing season, and can grow taller than annuals, in doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light.
Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes, turions, woody stems, or crowns which allows them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons; these structures typically store carbohydrates which are used once the dormancy period is over and new growth begins. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. Annuals which complete their life cycle in one growing season, in contrast with perennials, produce seeds as the next generation and die; the seeds may survive cold or dry periods or germinate soon after dispersal depending on the climate.
Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of the year, they include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy, some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season.
Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns, or stems; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect the stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winters.
Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods.
The meristem of perennial plants communicates with the hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennials plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants.
Perennials species may produce relatively large seeds that have the advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years.
Cultivation
-----------
Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals; herbaceous food crops like asparagus, rhubarb, strawberries; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes, eggplant, and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including: bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); and lawn grass, and other groundcovers, (such as periwinkle and *Dichondra*).
Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have a root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019.
Benefits in agriculture
-----------------------
Although most of humanity is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of man), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion, capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase the seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass. The Land Institute estimates that profitable, productive perennial grain crops will take at least 25 years to achieve.
Location
--------
Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only a very few (e.g. *Zostera*) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including the trees and shrubs.
Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates.
Types
-----
* **Herbaceous** - plants that have foliage and stems that die to the ground at the end of the growing season and which show only primary growth. Examples include frost-tender plants such as Rudbeckias, Mirabilis jalapa, Momordica charantia, mint, tobacco, common purslane, alfalfa, petunias, Thinopyrum intermedium, Red clover, Hylotelephium telephium and Cochliasanthus caracalla.
* **Evergreen** - plants that have persistent foliage without woody stems. Examples include many Senecios, Begonia, Gaillardias, Dimorphothecas, Gazanias, Thunbergias, Dietes, Osteospermums, and Vincas, among others.
* **Woody** - plants with persistent above ground stems that survive from one growing season to the next, with primary and secondary growth, or growth in width protected by an outer cortex. Some may be deciduous. Examples many shrubs, lianas and trees such as Ipomeas, banana, lilacs, Geraniums, Lantanas, Hydrangeas, Nandinas, Pandoreas, grape, Hederas, pine, apple, Jasmines, Trachelospermums, Gardenias, Plumbagos, Cistus and Rosas, among others.
* **Monocarpic** - plants that flower, set seeds once and then die. Examples include, *Agave* and some species of *Streptocarpus*
List of perennials
------------------
### Perennial flowers
Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Examples include
* Dahlia
* Kniphofia
* Hollyhock
* Lupin
* Daisy
### Perennial fruits
The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include
* Apple
* Blackcurrant
* Blueberry
* Blackberry
* Currant
* Grape
* Pear
* Plum
* Raspberries
* Strawberry
### Perennial herbs
Many herbs are perennial including these examples:
* Fennel
* Mint
* Rosemary
* Sage
* Thyme
### Perennial vegetables
Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of the more completely perennial vegetables are:
* Asparagus
* Chives
* Globe artichoke
* Jerusalem artichoke
* Leek
* New Zealand spinach
* Rhubarb
* Sorrel
* Rakkyo
* Sea kale
* Kale
* Sweet potato
### Aquatic plants
Many aquatic plants are perennial even though many do not have woody tissue. Examples include
* Crassula helmsii - New Zealand Stonecrop
* Pontederia cordata - Pickerell weed
* Stratiotes aloides - Water Soldier which sinks to the bottom of the pond in winter
* Utricularia vulgaris - Common bladderwort which produces turions as its overwintering stage
See also
--------
* Annual plant – Plant which completes its life cycle within one growing season and then dies
* Biennial plant – Flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological life cycle
* Herbaceous plant – Plant that has no persistent woody stem above ground
* Herbchronology
* Perennial grain – Grain crops that remain productive for two or more years without replanting
* *Lilium nanum*
* Lilium papilliferum | Perennial plant | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt126\" class=\"infobox\" id=\"mwqw\" style=\"border-collapse:collapsed;\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#cccccc; font-size:100%;\">Stereo image</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" class=\"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" width=\"100%\"><tbody><tr style=\"background-color:#cccccc;\"><th style=\"text-align:center;\">Left<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>frame<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></th></tr><tr><td align=\"center\"><div style=\"position:relative; width:225px; height:173px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; left:0; top:0;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"462\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"173\" resource=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/450px-Perflow3d.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/675px-Perflow3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/900px-Perflow3d.jpg 2x\" width=\"450\"/></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" class=\"mw-collapsible\" width=\"100%\"><tbody><tr style=\"background-color:#cccccc;\"><th style=\"text-align:center;\">Right<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>frame<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></th></tr><tr><td align=\"center\"><div style=\"position:relative; width:225px; height:173px; top:0; left:0; padding:0; overflow:hidden;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; left:-225px; top:0;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"462\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"173\" resource=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/450px-Perflow3d.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/675px-Perflow3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/900px-Perflow3d.jpg 2x\" width=\"450\"/></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" class=\"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" width=\"100%\"><tbody><tr style=\"background-color:#cccccc;\"><th style=\"text-align:center;\">Parallel<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>view<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"nowrap\">(<span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Autostereogram\" title=\"Autostereogram\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"233\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"222\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"10\" resource=\"./File:Stereogram_guide_parallel.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/10px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/15px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/20px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span>)</span></th></tr><tr><td align=\"center\"><div style=\"position:relative; width:450px; height:173px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; left:0; top:0;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"462\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"173\" resource=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/450px-Perflow3d.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/675px-Perflow3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/900px-Perflow3d.jpg 2x\" width=\"450\"/></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" class=\"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" width=\"100%\"><tbody><tr style=\"background-color:#cccccc;\"><th style=\"text-align:center;\">Cross-eye<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>view<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"nowrap\">(<span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Autostereogram\" title=\"Autostereogram\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"230\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"248\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/10px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/15px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/20px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span>)</span></th></tr><tr><td align=\"center\"><div style=\"position:relative; width:450px; height:173px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;\"><div style=\"position:absolute; left:-225px; top:0;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"462\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"173\" resource=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/450px-Perflow3d.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/675px-Perflow3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/900px-Perflow3d.jpg 2x\" width=\"450\"/></a></span></div><div style=\"position:absolute; left:225px; top:0;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"462\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"173\" resource=\"./File:Perflow3d.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/450px-Perflow3d.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/675px-Perflow3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Perflow3d.jpg/900px-Perflow3d.jpg 2x\" width=\"450\"/></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\">Seeds from various perennial flowers</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Cykoria_podroznik_pokroj.jpg",
"caption": "Common chicory, Cichorium intybus, is a herbaceous perennial plant"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:RIMG0163uf.JPG",
"caption": "Dahlia plants are tender perennials that originate from climates that are warm all year round and need special care to survive cold winters."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Switchgrass_roots.jpg",
"caption": "Switchgrass is a deep-rooted perennial. These roots are more than 3 meters long."
}
] |
208,852 | In finance, a **loan** is the transfer of money by one party to another with an agreement to pay it back. The recipient, or borrower, incurs a debt and is usually required to pay interest for the use of the money.
The document evidencing the debt (e.g., a promissory note) will normally specify, among other things, the principal amount of money borrowed, the interest rate the lender is charging, and the date of repayment. A loan entails the reallocation of the subject asset(s) for a period of time, between the lender and the borrower.
The interest provides an incentive for the lender to engage in the loan. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, which can also place the borrower under additional restrictions known as loan covenants. Although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice, any material object might be lent.
Acting as a provider of loans is one of the main activities of financial institutions such as banks and credit card companies. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding.
Personal loan
-------------
### Secured
A secured loan is a form of debt in which the borrower pledges some asset (i.e., a car, a house) as collateral.
A mortgage loan is a very common type of loan, used by many individuals to purchase residential or commercial property. The lender, usually a financial institution, is given security – a lien on the title to the property – until the mortgage is paid off in full. In the case of home loans, if the borrower defaults on the loan, the bank would have the legal right to repossess the house and sell it, to recover sums owing to it.
Similarly, a loan taken out to buy a car may be secured by the car. The duration of the loan is much shorter – often corresponding to the useful life of the car. There are two types of auto loans, direct and indirect. In a direct auto loan, a bank lends the money directly to a consumer. In an indirect auto loan, a car dealership (or a connected company) acts as an intermediary between the bank or financial institution and the consumer.
Other forms of secured loans include loans against securities – such as shares, mutual funds, bonds, etc. This particular instrument issues customers a line of credit based on the quality of the securities pledged. Gold loans are issued to customers after evaluating the quantity and quality of gold in the items pledged. Corporate entities can also take out secured lending by pledging the company's assets, including the company itself. The interest rates for secured loans are usually lower than those of unsecured loans. Usually, the lending institution employs people (on a roll or on a contract basis) to evaluate the quality of pledged collateral before sanctioning the loan.
### Unsecured
Unsecured loans are monetary loans that are not secured against the borrower's assets. These may be available from financial institutions under many different guises or marketing packages:
* Credit cards
* Personal loans
* Bank overdrafts
* Credit facilities or lines of credit
* Corporate bonds (may be secured or unsecured)
* Peer-to-peer lending
The interest rates applicable to these different forms may vary depending on the lender and the borrower. These may or may not be regulated by law. In the United Kingdom, when applied to individuals, these may come under the Consumer Credit Act 1974.
Interest rates on unsecured loans are nearly always higher than for secured loans because an unsecured lender's options for recourse against the borrower in the event of default are severely limited, subjecting the lender to higher risk compared to that encountered for a secured loan. An unsecured lender must sue the borrower, obtain a money judgment for breach of contract, and then pursue execution of the judgment against the borrower's unencumbered assets (that is, the ones not already pledged to secured lenders). In insolvency proceedings, secured lenders traditionally have priority over unsecured lenders when a court divides up the borrower's assets. Thus, a higher interest rate reflects the additional risk that in the event of insolvency, the debt may be uncollectible.
### Demand
Demand loans are short-term loans that typically do not have fixed dates for repayment. Instead, demand loans carry a floating interest rate, which varies according to the prime lending rate or other defined contract terms. Demand loans can be "called" for repayment by the lending institution at any time. Demand loans may be unsecured or secured.
### Subsidized
A subsidized loan is a loan on which the interest is reduced by an explicit or hidden subsidy. In the context of college loans in the United States, it refers to a loan on which no interest is accrued while a student remains enrolled in education.
### Concessional
A concessional loan, sometimes called a "soft loan", is granted on terms substantially more generous than market loans either through below-market interest rates, by grace periods, or a combination of both. Such loans may be made by foreign governments to developing countries or may be offered to employees of lending institutions as an employee benefit (sometimes called a *perk*).
Target markets
--------------
Loans can also be categorized according to whether the debtor is an individual person (consumer) or a business.
### Personal
Common personal loans include mortgage loans, car loans, home equity lines of credit, credit cards, installment loans, and payday loans. The credit score of the borrower is a major component in and underwriting and interest rates (APR) of these loans. The monthly payments of personal loans can be decreased by selecting longer payment terms, but overall interest paid increases as well. A personal loan can be obtained from banks, alternative (non-bank) lenders, online loan providers and private lenders.
### Commercial
Loans to businesses are similar to the above but also include commercial mortgages and corporate bonds and government guaranteed loans Underwriting is not based upon credit score but rather credit rating.
Loan payment
------------
The most typical loan payment type is the fully amortizing payment in which each monthly rate has the same value over time.
The fixed monthly payment *P* for a loan of *L* for *n* months and a monthly interest rate *c* is:
P
=
L
⋅
c
(
1
+
c
)
n
(
1
+
c
)
n
−
1
{\displaystyle P=L\cdot {\frac {c\,(1+c)^{n}}{(1+c)^{n}-1}}}
P=L\cdot {\frac {c\,(1+c)^{n}}{(1+c)^{n}-1}}
For more information, see monthly amortized loan or mortgage payments.
Abuses in lending
-----------------
Predatory lending is one form of abuse in the granting of loans. It usually involves granting a loan in order to put the borrower in a position that one can gain advantage over them; subprime mortgage-lending and payday-lending are two examples, where the moneylender is not authorized or regulated, the lender could be considered a loan shark.
Usury is a different form of abuse, where the lender charges excessive interest. In different time periods and cultures, the acceptable interest rate has varied, from no interest at all to unlimited interest rates. Credit card companies in some countries have been accused by consumer organizations of lending at usurious interest rates and making money out of frivolous "extra charges".
Abuses can also take place in the form of the customer defrauding the lender by borrowing without intending to repay the loan.
United States taxes
-------------------
Most of the basic rules governing how loans are handled for tax purposes in the United States are codified by both Congress (the Internal Revenue Code) and the Treasury Department (Treasury Regulations – another set of rules that interpret the Internal Revenue Code).
1. A loan is not gross income to the borrower. Since the borrower has the obligation to repay the loan, the borrower has no accession to wealth.
2. The lender may not deduct (from own gross income) the amount of the loan. The rationale here is that one asset (the cash) has been converted into a different asset (a promise of repayment). Deductions are not typically available when an outlay serves to create a new or different asset.
3. The amount paid to satisfy the loan obligation is not deductible (from own gross income) by the borrower.
4. Repayment of the loan is not gross income to the lender. In effect, the promise of repayment is converted back to cash, with no accession to wealth by the lender.
5. Interest paid to the lender is included in the lender's gross income. Interest paid represents compensation for the use of the lender's money or property and thus represents profit or an accession to wealth to the lender. Interest income can be attributed to lenders even if the lender does not charge a minimum amount of interest.
6. Interest paid to the lender may be deductible by the borrower. In general, interest paid in connection with the borrower's business activity is deductible, while interest paid on personal loans are not deductible. The major exception here is interest paid on a home mortgage.
### Income from discharge of indebtedness
Although a loan does not start out as income to the borrower, it becomes income to the borrower if the borrower is discharged of indebtedness. Thus, if a debt is discharged, then the borrower essentially has received income equal to the amount of the indebtedness. The Internal Revenue Code lists "Income from Discharge of Indebtedness" in Section 61(a)(12) as a source of gross income.
Example: X owes Y $50,000. If Y discharges the indebtedness, then X no longer owes Y $50,000. For purposes of calculating income, this is treated the same way as if Y gave X $50,000.
For a more detailed description of the "discharge of indebtedness", look at Section 108 (Cancellation-of-debt income) of the Internal Revenue Code.
See also
--------
* 0% finance
* Annual percentage rate (a.k.a. Effective annual rate)
* Auto loan
* Bank, Fractional-reserve banking, Building society
* Debt, Consumer debt, Debt consolidation, Government debt
* Default (finance)
* Finance, Personal finance, Settlement (finance)
* Interest-only loan, Negative amortization, PIK loan
* Legal financing
* Leveraged loan
* Loan agreement
* Loan guarantee
* Loan sale
* Pay it forward
* Payday loan
* Refund Anticipation Loan
* Sponsored repayment
* Smart contract
* Student loan
* Syndicated loan
* Title loan
**US specific:**
* FAFSA
* Federal student loan consolidation
* Federal Perkins Loan
* George D. Sax and the Exchange National Bank of Chicago - Innovation of instant loans
* Stafford loan
* Student loan default | Loan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loan | {
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"file_url": "./File:Petrevene_18.jpg",
"caption": "Loan document issued by the Bank of Petrevene, Bulgaria, dated 1936."
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5,042,951 | In common usage, **climate change** describes **global warming**—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming.
Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise.
Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Societies and ecosystems will experience more severe risks without action to limit warming. Adapting to climate change through efforts like flood control measures or drought-resistant crops partially reduces climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been reached. Poorer countries are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.
Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.
Bobcat Fire in Monrovia, CA, September 10, 2020Bleached colony of Acropora coralA dry lakebed in California, which is experiencing its worst megadrought in 1,200 years..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}Ivanova, Irina (2 June 2022). "California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years". CBS News.Some effects of climate change, clockwise from top left: Wildfire intensified by heat and drought, worsening droughts compromising water supplies, and bleaching of coral caused by marine heatwaves.
Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants, vastly increasing use of wind, solar, nuclear and other types of renewable energy, and reducing energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and farming with methods that capture carbon in soil.
Terminology
-----------
Before the 1980s, when it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases were stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution, scientists used the term *inadvertent climate modification* to refer to human impacts on the climate.
In the 1980s, the terms *global warming* and *climate change* became more common. Though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, scientifically, *global warming* refers only to increased surface warming, while *climate change* describes the totality of changes to Earth's climate system. *Global warming*—used as early as 1975—became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U.S. Senate. Since the 2000s, *climate change* has increased in usage. *Climate change* can also refer more broadly to both human-caused changes or natural changes throughout Earth's history.
Various scientists, politicians and media now use the terms *climate crisis* or *climate emergency* to talk about climate change, and *global heating* instead of *global warming*.
Observed temperature rise
-------------------------
Multiple independent instrumental datasets show that the climate system is warming. The 2011–2020 decade warmed to an average 1.09 °C [0.95–1.20 °C] compared to the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900). Surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade, with 2020 reaching a temperature of 1.2 °C above the pre-industrial era. Since 1950, the number of cold days and nights has decreased, and the number of warm days and nights has increased.
There was little net warming between the 18th century and the mid-19th century. Climate information for that period comes from climate proxies, such as trees and ice cores. Thermometer records began to provide global coverage around 1850. Historical patterns of warming and cooling, like the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, did not occur at the same time across different regions. Temperatures may have reached as high as those of the late 20th century in a limited set of regions. There have been prehistorical episodes of global warming, such as the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. However, the modern observed rise in temperature and CO2 concentrations has been so rapid that even abrupt geophysical events in Earth's history do not approach current rates.
Evidence of warming from air temperature measurements are reinforced with a wide range of other observations. For example, changes to the natural water cycle have been predicted and observed, such as an increase in the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation, melting of snow and land ice, and increased atmospheric humidity. Flora and fauna are also behaving in a manner consistent with warming; for instance, plants are flowering earlier in spring. Another key indicator is the cooling of the upper atmosphere, which demonstrates that greenhouse gases are trapping heat near the Earth's surface and preventing it from radiating into space.
Regions of the world warm at differing rates. The pattern is independent of where greenhouse gases are emitted, because the gases persist long enough to diffuse across the planet. Since the pre-industrial period, the average surface temperature over land regions has increased almost twice as fast as the global-average surface temperature. This is because of the larger heat capacity of oceans, and because oceans lose more heat by evaporation. The thermal energy in the global climate system has grown with only brief pauses since at least 1970, and over 90% of this extra energy has been stored in the ocean. The rest has heated the atmosphere, melted ice, and warmed the continents.
The Northern Hemisphere and the North Pole have warmed much faster than the South Pole and Southern Hemisphere. The Northern Hemisphere not only has much more land, but also more seasonal snow cover and sea ice. As these surfaces flip from reflecting a lot of light to being dark after the ice has melted, they start absorbing more heat. Local black carbon deposits on snow and ice also contribute to Arctic warming. Arctic temperatures are increasing at over twice the rate of the rest of the world. Melting of glaciers and ice sheets in the Arctic disrupts ocean circulation, including a weakened Gulf Stream, further changing the climate.
Attribution of recent temperature rise
--------------------------------------
The climate system experiences various cycles on its own which can last for years (such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)), decades or even centuries. Other changes are caused by an imbalance of energy that is "external" to the climate system, but not always external to the Earth. Examples of external forcings include changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
To determine the human contribution to climate change, known internal climate variability and natural external forcings need to be ruled out. A key approach is to determine unique "fingerprints" for all potential causes, then compare these fingerprints with observed patterns of climate change. For example, solar forcing can be ruled out as a major cause. Its fingerprint would be warming in the entire atmosphere. Yet, only the lower atmosphere has warmed, consistent with greenhouse gas forcing. Attribution of recent climate change shows that the main driver is elevated greenhouse gases, with aerosols having a dampening effect.
### Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are transparent to sunlight, and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth radiates it as heat, and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time. Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally-occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be about 33 °C warmer than it would have been in their absence. While water vapour (~50%) and clouds (~25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they increase as a function of temperature and are therefore feedbacks. On the other hand, concentrations of gases such as CO2 (~20%), tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide are not temperature-dependent, and are therefore external forcings.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution, mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in a radiative imbalance. In 2019, the concentrations of CO2 and methane had increased by about 48% and 160%, respectively, since 1750. These CO2 levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 2 million years. Concentrations of methane are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.
Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were equivalent to 59 billion tonnes of CO2. Of these emissions, 75% was CO2, 18% was methane, 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was fluorinated gases. CO2 emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for transport, manufacturing, heating, and electricity. Additional CO2 emissions come from deforestation and industrial processes, which include the CO2 released by the chemical reactions for making cement, steel, aluminum, and fertiliser. Methane emissions come from livestock, manure, rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater, and coal mining, as well as oil and gas extraction. Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of fertiliser.
Despite the contribution of deforestation to greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth's land surface, particularly its forests, remain a significant carbon sink for CO2. Land-surface sink processes, such as carbon fixation in the soil and photosynthesis, remove about 29% of annual global CO2 emissions. The ocean also serves as a significant carbon sink via a two-step process. First, CO2 dissolves in the surface water. Afterwards, the ocean's overturning circulation distributes it deep into the ocean's interior, where it accumulates over time as part of the carbon cycle. Over the last two decades, the world's oceans have absorbed 20 to 30% of emitted CO2.
### Aerosols and clouds
Air pollution, in the form of aerosols, affects the climate on a large scale. Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as *global dimming*, and is attributed to aerosols produced by dust, pollution and combustion of biofuels and fossil fuels. Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much.
Aerosols also have indirect effects on the Earth's radiation budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets. They also reduce the growth of raindrops, which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight. Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.
While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, black carbon in soot that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise. Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2 °C by 2050.
### Land surface changes
Humans change the Earth's surface mainly to create more agricultural land. Today, agriculture takes up 34% of Earth's land area, while 26% is forests, and 30% is uninhabitable (glaciers, deserts, etc.). The amount of forested land continues to decrease, which is the main land use change that causes global warming. Deforestation releases CO2 contained in trees when they are destroyed, plus it prevents those trees from absorbing more CO2. The main causes of deforestation are: permanent land-use change from forest to agricultural land producing products such as beef and palm oil (27%), logging to produce forestry/forest products (26%), short term shifting cultivation (24%), and wildfires (23%).
The type of vegetation in a region affects the local temperature. It impacts how much of the sunlight gets reflected back into space (albedo), and how much heat is lost by evaporation. For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight. Deforestation can also affect temperatures by modifying the release of chemical compounds that influence clouds, and by changing wind patterns. In tropic and temperate areas the net effect is to produce significant warming, while at latitudes closer to the poles a gain of albedo (as forest is replaced by snow cover) leads to a cooling effect. Globally, these effects are estimated to have led to a slight cooling, dominated by an increase in surface albedo. According to FAO, forest degradation aggravates the impacts of climate change as it reduces the carbon sequestration abilities of forests. Indeed, among their many benefits, forests also have the potential to reduce the impact of high temperatures.
### Solar and volcanic activity
As the Sun is the Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system. Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites, and indirect measurements are available from the early 1600s onwards. There has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth.
Explosive volcanic eruptions represent the largest natural forcing over the industrial era. When the eruption is sufficiently strong (with sulfur dioxide reaching the stratosphere), sunlight can be partially blocked for a couple of years. The temperature signal lasts about twice as long. In the industrial era, volcanic activity has had negligible impacts on global temperature trends. Present-day volcanic CO2 emissions are equivalent to less than 1% of current anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Physical climate models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when taking into account only variations in solar output and volcanic activity. Further evidence for greenhouse gases causing global warming comes from measurements that show a warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), coupled with a cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). If solar variations were responsible for the observed warming, the troposphere and stratosphere would both warm.
### Climate change feedback
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds. The primary balancing mechanism is radiative cooling, as Earth's surface gives off more heat to space in response to rising temperature. In addition to temperature feedbacks, there are feedbacks in the carbon cycle, such as the fertilizing effect of CO2 on plant growth. Uncertainty over feedbacks is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions.
As air warms, it can hold more moisture. Water vapour, as a potent greenhouse gas, holds heat in the atmosphere. If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet. If clouds become higher and thinner, they act as an insulator, reflecting heat from below back downwards and warming the planet. The effect of clouds is the largest source of feedback uncertainty.
Another major feedback is the reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic, which reduces the reflectivity of the Earth's surface.
More of the Sun's energy is now absorbed in these regions, contributing to amplification of Arctic temperature changes. Arctic amplification is also melting permafrost, which releases methane and CO2 into the atmosphere. Climate change can also cause methane releases from wetlands, marine systems, and freshwater systems. Overall, climate feedbacks are expected to become increasingly positive.
Around half of human-caused CO2 emissions have been absorbed by land plants and by the oceans. On land, elevated CO2 and an extended growing season have stimulated plant growth. Climate change increases droughts and heat waves that inhibit plant growth, which makes it uncertain whether this carbon sink will continue to grow. Soils contain large quantities of carbon and may release some when they heat up. As more CO2 and heat are absorbed by the ocean, it acidifies, its circulation changes and phytoplankton takes up less carbon, decreasing the rate at which the ocean absorbs atmospheric carbon. Overall, at higher CO2 concentrations the Earth will absorb a reduced fraction of our emissions.
Modelling
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A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that affect the climate system. Models also include natural processes like changes in the Earth's orbit, historical changes in the Sun's activity, and volcanic forcing. Models are used to estimate the degree of warming future emissions will cause when accounting for the strength of climate feedbacks, or reproduce and predict the circulation of the oceans, the annual cycle of the seasons, and the flows of carbon between the land surface and the atmosphere.
The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates. Past models have underestimated the rate of Arctic shrinkage and underestimated the rate of precipitation increase. Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but more recent models agree well with observations. The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes". Additionally, climate models may be unable to adequately predict short-term regional climatic shifts.
A subset of climate models add societal factors to a simple physical climate model. These models simulate how population, economic growth, and energy use affect – and interact with – the physical climate. With this information, these models can produce scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. This is then used as input for physical climate models and carbon cycle models to predict how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change. Depending on the socioeconomic scenario and the mitigation scenario, models produce atmospheric CO2 concentrations that range widely between 380 and 1400 ppm.
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report projects that global warming is very likely to reach 1.0 °C to 1.8 °C by the late 21st century under the very low GHG emissions scenario. In an intermediate scenario global warming would reach 2.1 °C to 3.5 °C, and 3.3 °C to 5.7 °C under the very high GHG emissions scenario. These projections are based on climate models in combination with observations.
The remaining carbon budget is determined by modelling the carbon cycle and the climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases. According to the IPCC, global warming can be kept below 1.5 °C with a two-thirds chance if emissions after 2018 do not exceed 420 or 570 gigatonnes of CO2. This corresponds to 10 to 13 years of current emissions. There are high uncertainties about the budget. For instance, it may be 100 gigatonnes of CO2 smaller due to methane release from permafrost and wetlands. However, it is clear that fossil fuel resources are too abundant for shortages to be relied on to limit carbon emissions in the 21st century.
Even though the temperature will need to stay at or above 1.5 °C for 20 years to pass the threshold defined by the Paris agreement, a temporary rise above this limit also can have severe consequences. According to the World Meteorological Organization, there is a 66% chance that global temperature will rise temporarily above 1.5 °C in the years 2023–2027.
Impacts
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### Environmental effects
The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching, affecting oceans, ice, and weather. Changes may occur gradually or rapidly. Evidence for these effects comes from studying climate change in the past, from modelling, and from modern observations. Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency. Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased in India and East Asia. The rainfall rate and intensity of hurricanes and typhoons is likely increasing, and the geographic range likely expanding poleward in response to climate warming. Frequency of tropical cyclones has not increased as a result of climate change.
Global sea level is rising as a consequence of glacial melt, melt of the Greenland ice sheets and Antarctica, and thermal expansion. Between 1993 and 2020, the rise increased over time, averaging 3.3 ± 0.3 mm per year. Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects that in a very high emissions scenario the sea level could rise by 61–110 cm. Increased ocean warmth is undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier outlets, risking a large melt of the ice sheet and the possibility of a 2-meter sea level rise by 2100 under high emissions.
Climate change has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice. While ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C degrees of warming, they are set to occur once every three to ten years at a warming level of 2 °C. Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to changes in ocean chemistry. An increase in dissolved CO2 is causing oceans to acidify. In addition, oxygen levels are decreasing as oxygen is less soluble in warmer water. Dead zones in the ocean, regions with very little oxygen, are expanding too.
### Tipping points and long-term impacts
Greater degrees of global warming increase the risk of passing through 'tipping points'—thresholds beyond which certain impacts can no longer be avoided even if temperatures are reduced. An example is the collapse of West Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, where a temperature rise of 1.5 to 2 °C may commit the ice sheets to melt, although the time scale of melt is uncertain and depends on future warming. Some large-scale changes could occur over a short time period, such as a shutdown of certain ocean currents like the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). Tipping points can also include irreversible damage to ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs.
The long-term effects of climate change on oceans include further ice melt, ocean warming, sea level rise, and ocean acidification. On the timescale of centuries to millennia, the magnitude of climate change will be determined primarily by anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This is due to CO2's long atmospheric lifetime. Oceanic CO2 uptake is slow enough that ocean acidification will continue for hundreds to thousands of years. These emissions are estimated to have prolonged the current interglacial period by at least 100,000 years. Sea level rise will continue over many centuries, with an estimated rise of 2.3 metres per degree Celsius (4.2 ft/°F) after 2000 years.
### Nature and wildlife
Recent warming has driven many terrestrial and freshwater species poleward and towards higher altitudes. Higher atmospheric CO2 levels and an extended growing season have resulted in global greening. However, heatwaves and drought have reduced ecosystem productivity in some regions. The future balance of these opposing effects is unclear. Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as the expansion of deserts in the subtropics. The size and speed of global warming is making abrupt changes in ecosystems more likely. Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species.
The oceans have heated more slowly than the land, but plants and animals in the ocean have migrated towards the colder poles faster than species on land. Just as on land, heat waves in the ocean occur more frequently due to climate change, harming a wide range of organisms such as corals, kelp, and seabirds. Ocean acidification makes it harder for marine calcifying organisms such as mussels, barnacles and corals to produce shells and skeletons; and heatwaves have bleached coral reefs. Harmful algal blooms enhanced by climate change and eutrophication lower oxygen levels, disrupt food webs and cause great loss of marine life. Coastal ecosystems are under particular stress. Almost half of global wetlands have disappeared due to climate change and other human impacts.
**Climate change impacts on the environment**| * Underwater photograph of branching coral that is bleached whiteEcological collapse. Coral bleaching from thermal stress has damaged the Great Barrier Reef and threatens coral reefs worldwide.
* Photograph of evening in a valley settlement. The skyline in the hills beyond is lit up red from the fires.Extreme weather. Drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia.
* The green landscape is interrupted by a huge muddy scar where the ground has subsided.Arctic warming. Permafrost thaws undermine infrastructure and release methane, a greenhouse gas.
* An emaciated polar bear stands atop the remains of a melting ice floe.Habitat destruction. Many arctic animals rely on sea ice, which has been disappearing in a warming Arctic.
* Photograph of a large area of forest. The green trees are interspersed with large patches of damaged or dead trees turning purple-brown and light red.Pest propagation. Mild winters allow more pine beetles to survive to kill large swaths of forest.
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### Humans
The effects of climate change are impacting humans everywhere in the world. Impacts can be observed on all continents and ocean regions, with low-latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk. Continued warming has potentially "severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts" for people and ecosystems. The risks are unevenly distributed, but are generally greater for disadvantaged people in developing and developed countries.
#### Food and health
The WHO has classified climate change as the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Extreme weather leads to injury and loss of life, and crop failures to malnutrition. Various infectious diseases are more easily transmitted in a warmer climate, such as dengue fever and malaria. Young children are the most vulnerable to food shortages. Both children and older people are vulnerable to extreme heat. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that between 2030 and 2050, climate change would cause around 250,000 additional deaths per year. They assessed deaths from heat exposure in elderly people, increases in diarrhea, malaria, dengue, coastal flooding, and childhood malnutrition. Over 500,000 more adult deaths are projected yearly by 2050 due to reductions in food availability and quality. By 2100, 50% to 75% of the global population may face climate conditions that are life-threatening due to combined effects of extreme heat and humidity.
Climate change is affecting food security. It has caused reduction in global yields of maize, wheat, and soybeans between 1981 and 2010. Future warming could further reduce global yields of major crops. Crop production will probably be negatively affected in low-latitude countries, while effects at northern latitudes may be positive or negative. Up to an additional 183 million people worldwide, particularly those with lower incomes, are at risk of hunger as a consequence of these impacts. Climate change also impacts fish populations. Globally, less will be available to be fished. Regions dependent on glacier water, regions that are already dry, and small islands have a higher risk of water stress due to climate change.
#### Livelihoods
Economic damages due to climate change may be severe and there is a chance of disastrous consequences. Climate change has likely already increased global economic inequality, and this trend is projected to continue. Most of the severe impacts are expected in sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the local inhabitants are dependent upon natural and agricultural resources and South-East Asia. The World Bank estimates that climate change could drive over 120 million people into poverty by 2030.
Inequalities based on wealth and social status have worsened due to climate change. Major difficulties in mitigating, adapting, and recovering to climate shocks are faced by marginalized people who have less control over resources. Indigenous people, who are subsistent on their land and ecosystems, will face endangerment to their wellness and lifestyles due to climate change. An expert elicitation concluded that the role of climate change in armed conflict has been small compared to factors such as socio-economic inequality and state capabilities.
Low-lying islands and coastal communities are threatened by sea level rise, which makes flooding more common. Sometimes, land is permanently lost to the sea. This could lead to statelessness for people in island nations, such as the Maldives and Tuvalu. In some regions, the rise in temperature and humidity may be too severe for humans to adapt to. With worst-case climate change, models project that almost one-third of humanity might live in extremely hot and uninhabitable climates, similar to the climate found in the Sahara. These factors can drive environmental migration, both within and between countries. More people are expected to be displaced because of sea level rise, extreme weather and conflict from increased competition over natural resources. Climate change may also increase vulnerability, leading to "trapped populations" who are not able to move due to a lack of resources.
**Climate change impacts on people**| * Environmental migration. Sparser rainfall leads to desertification that harms agriculture and can displace populations. Shown: Telly, Mali (2008).Environmental migration. Sparser rainfall leads to desertification that harms agriculture and can displace populations. Shown: Telly, Mali (2008).
* Agricultural changes. Droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme weather negatively impact agriculture. Shown: Texas, US (2013).Agricultural changes. Droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme weather negatively impact agriculture. Shown: Texas, US (2013).
* Tidal flooding. Sea-level rise increases flooding in low-lying coastal regions. Shown: Venice, Italy (2004).Tidal flooding. Sea-level rise increases flooding in low-lying coastal regions. Shown: Venice, Italy (2004).
* Storm intensification. Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr (2007) is an example of catastrophic flooding from increased rainfall.Storm intensification. Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr (2007) is an example of catastrophic flooding from increased rainfall.
* Heat wave intensification. Events like the 2022 Southern Cone heat wave are becoming more common.Heat wave intensification. Events like the 2022 Southern Cone heat wave are becoming more common.
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Reducing and recapturing emissions
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Climate change can be mitigated by reducing the rate at which greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere, and by increasing the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. In order to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by 2050, or by 2070 with a 2 °C target. This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry. The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that countries need to triple their pledges under the Paris Agreement within the next decade to limit global warming to 2 °C. An even greater level of reduction is required to meet the 1.5 °C goal. With pledges made under the Paris Agreement as of October 2021, global warming would still have a 66% chance of reaching about 2.7 °C (range: 2.2–3.2 °C) by the end of the century. Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.
Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C, most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions. To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry, such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.
Other approaches to mitigating climate change have a higher level of risk. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century. There are concerns, though, about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts. Solar radiation modification (SRM) is also a possible supplement to deep reductions in emissions. However, SRM would raise significant ethical and legal issues, and the risks are poorly understood.
### Clean energy
Renewable energy is key to limiting climate change. Fossil fuels accounted for 80% of the world's energy in 2018. The remaining share was split between nuclear power and renewables (including hydropower, bioenergy, wind and solar power and geothermal energy). That mix is projected to change significantly over the next 30 years. Solar panels and onshore wind are now among the cheapest forms of adding new power generation capacity in many locations. Renewables represented 75% of all new electricity generation installed in 2019, nearly all solar and wind. Other forms of clean energy, such as nuclear and hydropower, currently have a larger share of the energy supply. However, their future growth forecasts appear limited in comparison.
To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, renewable energy would become the dominant form of electricity generation, rising to 85% or more by 2050 in some scenarios. Investment in coal would be eliminated and coal use nearly phased out by 2050.
Electricity generated from renewable sources would also need to become the main energy source for heating and transport. Transport can switch away from internal combustion engine vehicles and towards electric vehicles, public transit, and active transport (cycling and walking). For shipping and flying, low-carbon fuels would reduce emissions. Heating could be increasingly decarbonised with technologies like heat pumps.
There are obstacles to the continued rapid growth of clean energy, including renewables. For wind and solar, there are environmental and land use concerns for new projects. Wind and solar also produce energy intermittently and with seasonal variability. Traditionally, hydro dams with reservoirs and conventional power plants have been used when variable energy production is low. Going forward, battery storage can be expanded, energy demand and supply can be matched, and long-distance transmission can smooth variability of renewable outputs. Bioenergy is often not carbon-neutral and may have negative consequences for food security. The growth of nuclear power is constrained by controversy around radioactive waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents. Hydropower growth is limited by the fact that the best sites have been developed, and new projects are confronting increased social and environmental concerns.
Low-carbon energy improves human health by minimising climate change. It also has the near-term benefit of reducing air pollution deaths, which were estimated at 7 million annually in 2016. Meeting the Paris Agreement goals that limit warming to a 2 °C increase could save about a million of those lives per year by 2050, whereas limiting global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions and simultaneously increase energy security and reduce poverty. Improving air quality also has economic benefits which may be larger than mitigation costs.
### Energy conservation
Reducing energy demand is another major aspect of reducing emissions. If less energy is needed, there is more flexibility for clean energy development. It also makes it easier to manage the electricity grid, and minimises carbon-intensive infrastructure development. Major increases in energy efficiency investment will be required to achieve climate goals, comparable to the level of investment in renewable energy. Several COVID-19 related changes in energy use patterns, energy efficiency investments, and funding have made forecasts for this decade more difficult and uncertain.
Strategies to reduce energy demand vary by sector. In transport, passengers and freight can switch to more efficient travel modes, such as buses and trains, or use electric vehicles. Industrial strategies to reduce energy demand include improving heating systems and motors, designing less energy-intensive products, and increasing product lifetimes. In the building sector the focus is on better design of new buildings, and higher levels of energy efficiency in retrofitting. The use of technologies like heat pumps can also increase building energy efficiency.
### Agriculture and industry
Agriculture and forestry face a triple challenge of limiting greenhouse gas emissions, preventing the further conversion of forests to agricultural land, and meeting increases in world food demand. A set of actions could reduce agriculture and forestry-based emissions by two thirds from 2010 levels. These include reducing growth in demand for food and other agricultural products, increasing land productivity, protecting and restoring forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production.
On the demand side, a key component of reducing emissions is shifting people towards plant-based diets. Eliminating the production of livestock for meat and dairy would eliminate about 3/4ths of all emissions from agriculture and other land use. Livestock also occupy 37% of ice-free land area on Earth and consume feed from the 12% of land area used for crops, driving deforestation and land degradation.
Steel and cement production are responsible for about 13% of industrial CO2 emissions. In these industries, carbon-intensive materials such as coke and lime play an integral role in the production, so that reducing CO2 emissions requires research into alternative chemistries.
### Carbon sequestration
Natural carbon sinks can be enhanced to sequester significantly larger amounts of CO2 beyond naturally occurring levels. Reforestation and tree planting on non-forest lands are among the most mature sequestration techniques, although the latter raises food security concerns. Farmers can promote sequestration of carbon in soils through practices such as use of winter cover crops, reducing the intensity and frequency of tillage, and using compost and manure as soil amendments. In one of its recent publications, FAO maintains that forest and landscape restoration yields many benefits for the climate, including greenhouse gas emissions sequestration and reduction. Restoration/recreation of coastal wetlands, prairie plots and seagrass meadows increases the uptake of carbon into organic matter. When carbon is sequestered in soils and in organic matter such as trees, there is a risk of the carbon being re-released into the atmosphere later through changes in land use, fire, or other changes in ecosystems.
Where energy production or CO2-intensive heavy industries continue to produce waste CO2, the gas can be captured and stored instead of released to the atmosphere. Although its current use is limited in scale and expensive, carbon capture and storage (CCS) may be able to play a significant role in limiting CO2 emissions by mid-century. This technique, in combination with bioenergy (BECCS) can result in net negative emissions: CO2 is drawn from the atmosphere. It remains highly uncertain whether carbon dioxide removal techniques will be able to play a large role in limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Policy decisions that rely on carbon dioxide removal increase the risk of global warming rising beyond international goals.
Adaptation
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Adaptation is "the process of adjustment to current or expected changes in climate and its effects". Without additional mitigation, adaptation cannot avert the risk of "severe, widespread and irreversible" impacts. More severe climate change requires more transformative adaptation, which can be prohibitively expensive. The capacity and potential for humans to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less. The first two decades of the 21st century saw an increase in adaptive capacity in most low- and middle-income countries with improved access to basic sanitation and electricity, but progress is slow. Many countries have implemented adaptation policies. However, there is a considerable gap between necessary and available finance.
Adaptation to sea level rise consists of avoiding at-risk areas, learning to live with increased flooding and protection. If that fails, managed retreat may be needed. There are economic barriers for tackling dangerous heat impact. Avoiding strenuous work or having air conditioning is not possible for everybody. In agriculture, adaptation options include a switch to more sustainable diets, diversification, erosion control and genetic improvements for increased tolerance to a changing climate. Insurance allows for risk-sharing, but is often difficult to get for people on lower incomes. Education, migration and early warning systems can reduce climate vulnerability. Planting mangroves or encouraging other coastal vegetation can buffer storms.
Ecosystems adapt to climate change, a process that can be supported by human intervention. By increasing connectivity between ecosystems, species can migrate to more favourable climate conditions. Species can also be introduced to areas acquiring a favorable climate. Protection and restoration of natural and semi-natural areas helps build resilience, making it easier for ecosystems to adapt. Many of the actions that promote adaptation in ecosystems, also help humans adapt via ecosystem-based adaptation. For instance, restoration of natural fire regimes makes catastrophic fires less likely, and reduces human exposure. Giving rivers more space allows for more water storage in the natural system, reducing flood risk. Restored forest acts as a carbon sink, but planting trees in unsuitable regions can exacerbate climate impacts.
There are synergies but also trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation. An example for synergy is increased food productivity which has large benefits for both adaptation and mitigation. Two examples for trade-offs include: Firstly, the increased use of air conditioning allows people to better cope with heat, but increases energy demand. Secondly, more compact urban development may lead to reduced emissions from transport and construction which is good. But at the same time, this kind of urban development may increase the urban heat island effect, leading to higher temperatures and increased exposure of people to heat-related health risks.
Policies and politics
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Countries that are most vulnerable to climate change have typically been responsible for a small share of global emissions. This raises questions about justice and fairness. Climate change is strongly linked to sustainable development. Limiting global warming makes it easier to achieve Sustainable Development Goals, such as eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities. The connection is recognised in Sustainable Development Goal 13 which is to "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts". The goals on food, clean water and ecosystem protection have synergies with climate mitigation.
The geopolitics of climate change is complex. It has often been framed as a free-rider problem, in which all countries benefit from mitigation done by other countries, but individual countries would lose from switching to a low-carbon economy themselves. This framing has been challenged. For instance, the benefits of a coal phase-out to public health and local environments exceed the costs in almost all regions. Furthermore, net importers of fossil fuels win economically from switching to clean energy, causing net exporters to face stranded assets: fossil fuels they cannot sell.
### Policy options
A wide range of policies, regulations, and laws are being used to reduce emissions. As of 2019, carbon pricing covers about 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon can be priced with carbon taxes and emissions trading systems. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies reached $319 billion in 2017, and $5.2 trillion when indirect costs such as air pollution are priced in. Ending these can cause a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Money saved on fossil subsidies could be used to support the transition to clean energy instead. More direct methods to reduce greenhouse gases include vehicle efficiency standards, renewable fuel standards, and air pollution regulations on heavy industry. Several countries require utilities to increase the share of renewables in power production.
#### Climate justice
Policy designed through the lens of climate justice tries to address human rights issues and social inequality. For instance, wealthy nations responsible for the largest share of emissions would have to pay poorer countries to adapt. A 2023 study published in *One Earth* estimated that the top 21 fossil fuel companies would owe cumulative climate reparations of $5.4 trillion over the period 2025–2050. As the use of fossil fuels is reduced, jobs in the sector are lost. To achieve a just transition, these people would need to be retrained for other jobs. Communities with many fossil fuel workers would need additional investments.
### International climate agreements
Nearly all countries in the world are parties to the 1994 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The goal of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. As stated in the convention, this requires that greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilised in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can be sustained. The UNFCCC does not itself restrict emissions but rather provides a framework for protocols that do. Global emissions have risen since the UNFCCC was signed. Its yearly conferences are the stage of global negotiations.
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol extended the UNFCCC and included legally binding commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions. During the negotiations, the G77 (representing developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions, since developed countries contributed most to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Per-capita emissions were also still relatively low in developing countries and developing countries would need to emit more to meet their development needs.
The 2009 Copenhagen Accord has been widely portrayed as disappointing because of its low goals, and was rejected by poorer nations including the G77. Associated parties aimed to limit the global temperature rise to below 2 °C. The Accord set the goal of sending $100 billion per year to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the Green Climate Fund. As of 2020[update], only 83.3 billion were delivered. Only in 2023 the target is expected to be achieved.
In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global warming well below 2.0 °C and contains an aspirational goal of keeping warming under 1.5 °C. The agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Unlike Kyoto, no binding emission targets were set in the Paris Agreement. Instead, a set of procedures was made binding. Countries have to regularly set ever more ambitious goals and reevaluate these goals every five years. The Paris Agreement restated that developing countries must be financially supported. As of October 2021[update], 194 states and the European Union have signed the treaty and 191 states and the EU have ratified or acceded to the agreement.
The 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to stop emitting ozone-depleting gases, may have been more effective at curbing greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol specifically designed to do so. The 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol aims to reduce the emissions of hydrofluorocarbons, a group of powerful greenhouse gases which served as a replacement for banned ozone-depleting gases. This made the Montreal Protocol a stronger agreement against climate change.
### National responses
In 2019, the United Kingdom parliament became the first national government to declare a climate emergency. Other countries and jurisdictions followed suit. That same year, the European Parliament declared a "climate and environmental emergency". The European Commission presented its European Green Deal with the goal of making the EU carbon-neutral by 2050. Major countries in Asia have made similar pledges: South Korea and Japan have committed to become carbon-neutral by 2050, and China by 2060. In 2021, the European Commission released its "Fit for 55" legislation package, which contains guidelines for the car industry; all new cars on the European market must be zero-emission vehicles from 2035. While India has strong incentives for renewables, it also plans a significant expansion of coal in the country. Vietnam is among very few coal-dependent fast developing countries that pledged to phase out unabated coal power by the 2040s or as soon as possible there after.
As of 2021, based on information from 48 national climate plans, which represent 40% of the parties to the Paris Agreement, estimated total greenhouse gas emissions will be 0.5% lower compared to 2010 levels, below the 45% or 25% reduction goals to limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C, respectively.
Society
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### Denial and misinformation
Public debate about climate change has been strongly affected by climate change denial and misinformation, which originated in the United States and has since spread to other countries, particularly Canada and Australia. The actors behind climate change denial form a well-funded and relatively coordinated coalition of fossil fuel companies, industry groups, conservative think tanks, and contrarian scientists. Like the tobacco industry, the main strategy of these groups has been to manufacture doubt about scientific data and results. Many who deny, dismiss, or hold unwarranted doubt about the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change are labelled as "climate change skeptics", which several scientists have noted is a misnomer.
There are different variants of climate denial: some deny that warming takes place at all, some acknowledge warming but attribute it to natural influences, and some minimise the negative impacts of climate change. Manufacturing uncertainty about the science later developed into a manufactured controversy: creating the belief that there is significant uncertainty about climate change within the scientific community in order to delay policy changes. Strategies to promote these ideas include criticism of scientific institutions, and questioning the motives of individual scientists. An echo chamber of climate-denying blogs and media has further fomented misunderstanding of climate change.
### Public awareness and opinion
Climate change came to international public attention in the late 1980s. Due to media coverage in the early 1990s, people often confused climate change with other environmental issues like ozone depletion. In popular culture, the climate fiction movie *The Day After Tomorrow* (2004) and the Al Gore documentary *An Inconvenient Truth* (2006) focused on climate change.
Significant regional, gender, age and political differences exist in both public concern for, and understanding of, climate change. More highly educated people, and in some countries, women and younger people, were more likely to see climate change as a serious threat. Partisan gaps also exist in many countries, and countries with high CO2 emissions tend to be less concerned. Views on causes of climate change vary widely between countries. Concern has increased over time, to the point where in 2021 a majority of citizens in many countries express a high level of worry about climate change, or view it as a global emergency. Higher levels of worry are associated with stronger public support for policies that address climate change.
#### Climate movement
Climate protests demand that political leaders take action to prevent climate change. They can take the form of public demonstrations, fossil fuel divestment, lawsuits and other activities. Prominent demonstrations include the School Strike for Climate. In this initiative, young people across the globe have been protesting since 2018 by skipping school on Fridays, inspired by Swedish teenager Greta Thunberg. Mass civil disobedience actions by groups like Extinction Rebellion have protested by disrupting roads and public transport. Litigation is increasingly used as a tool to strengthen climate action from public institutions and companies. Activists also initiate lawsuits which target governments and demand that they take ambitious action or enforce existing laws on climate change. Lawsuits against fossil-fuel companies generally seek compensation for loss and damage.
History
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### Early discoveries
Scientists in the 19th century such as Alexander von Humboldt began to foresee the effects of climate change. In the 1820s, Joseph Fourier proposed the greenhouse effect to explain why Earth's temperature was higher than the sun's energy alone could explain. Earth's atmosphere is transparent to sunlight, so sunlight reaches the surface where it is converted to heat. However, the atmosphere is not transparent to heat radiating from the surface, and captures some of that heat, which in turn warms the planet.
In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and that the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (CO2). She concluded that "An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature..."
Starting in 1859, John Tyndall established that nitrogen and oxygen—together totaling 99% of dry air—are transparent to radiated heat. However, water vapour and gases such as methane and carbon dioxide absorb radiated heat and re-radiate that heat into the atmosphere. Tyndall proposed that changes in the concentrations of these gases may have caused climatic changes in the past, including ice ages.
Svante Arrhenius noted that water vapour in air continuously varied, but the CO2 concentration in air was influenced by long-term geological processes. Warming from increased CO2 levels would increase the amount of water vapour, amplifying warming in a positive feedback loop. In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, projecting that halving CO2 levels could have produced a drop in temperature initiating an ice age. Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO2 to be around 5–6 °C. Other scientists were initially skeptical and believed that the greenhouse effect was saturated so that adding more CO2 would make no difference, and that the climate would be self-regulating. Beginning in 1938, Guy Stewart Callendar published evidence that climate was warming and CO2 levels were rising, but his calculations met the same objections.
### Development of a scientific consensus
In the 1950s, Gilbert Plass created a detailed computer model that included different atmospheric layers and the infrared spectrum. This model predicted that increasing CO2 levels would cause warming. Around the same time, Hans Suess found evidence that CO2 levels had been rising, and Roger Revelle showed that the oceans would not absorb the increase. The two scientists subsequently helped Charles Keeling to begin a record of continued increase, which has been termed the "Keeling Curve". Scientists alerted the public, and the dangers were highlighted at James Hansen's 1988 Congressional testimony. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), set up in 1988 to provide formal advice to the world's governments, spurred interdisciplinary research. As part of the IPCC reports, scientists assess the scientific discussion that takes place in peer-reviewed journal articles.
There is a near-complete scientific consensus that the climate is warming and that this is caused by human activities. As of 2019, agreement in recent literature reached over 99%. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view. Consensus has further developed that some form of action should be taken to protect people against the impacts of climate change. National science academies have called on world leaders to cut global emissions. The 2021 IPCC Assessment Report stated that it is "unequivocal" that climate change is caused by humans.
See also
--------
* Anthropocene – proposed new geological time interval in which humans are having significant geological impact
* List of climate scientists
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Further reading
---------------
* Parshley, Lois, "When Disaster Strikes, Is Climate Change to Blame?", *Scientific American*, vol. 328, no. 6 (June 2023), pp. 44–51.
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"caption": "Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the U.S. Global Change Research Program"
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{
"file_url": "./File:20211109_Frequency_of_extreme_weather_for_different_degrees_of_global_warming_-_bar_chart_IPCC_AR6_WG1_SPM.svg",
"caption": "Extreme weather will be progressively more common as the Earth warms."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Greenhouse_gas_emission_scenarios_01.svg",
"caption": "Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of 11/21"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Global_Energy_Consumption.svg",
"caption": "Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Lisberg_Burg_Windräder_Solar_power_PC313027.jpg",
"caption": "Wind and solar power, Germany"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_by_Economic_Sector.svg",
"caption": "Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions. Data as of 2019 from the IPCC."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Carbon_Dioxide_Partitioning.svg",
"caption": "Most CO2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:FrontLines-EGAT_2011_Environment_Photo_Contest_Top_Entry_(5842818280).jpg",
"caption": "Mangrove planting and other habitat conservation can reduce coastal flooding."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Seawallventnor.jpg",
"caption": "Seawalls to protect against storm surge worsened by sea level rise"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof_Edit1.jpg",
"caption": "Green roofs to provide cooling in cities"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Climate_Change_Performance_Index_2021.svg",
"caption": "The Climate Change Performance Index ranks countries by greenhouse gas emissions (40% of score), renewable energy (20%), energy use (20%), and climate policy (20%).\n\n\n\n High\n\n Medium\n\n Low\n\n Very Low\n"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Total_CO2_by_Region.svg",
"caption": "Since 2000, rising CO2 emissions in China and the rest of world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Per_Capita_CO2_by_Region.svg",
"caption": "Per person, the United States generates CO2 at a far faster rate than other primary regions."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif",
"caption": "Data has been cherry picked from short periods to falsely assert that global temperatures are not rising. Blue trendlines show short periods that mask longer-term warming trends (red trendlines). Blue dots show the so-called global warming hiatus."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg",
"caption": " The public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change. Studies from 2019 to 2021 found scientific consensus to range from 98.7 to 100%."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:19120814_Coal_Consumption_Affecting_Climate_-_Rodney_and_Otamatea_Times.jpg",
"caption": "This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect, how burning coal creates carbon dioxide to cause global warming and climate change."
}
] |
19,195,965 | The **Haudenosaunee** (/ˌhoʊdinoʊˈʃoʊniː/ meaning "people who are building the longhouse"), commonly known as **Iroquois** (/ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of Native Americans and First Nations peoples in northeast North America and Upstate New York. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the **Iroquois League**, and later as the **Iroquois Confederacy**. The English called them the **Five Nations**, comprising the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca (listed geographically from east to west). After 1722, the Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora from the southeast were accepted into the confederacy, which became known as the **Six Nations**.
The Confederacy came about as a result of the Great Law of Peace, said to have been composed by Deganawidah the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonsaseh the Mother of Nations. For nearly 200 years, the Six Nations/Haudenosaunee Confederacy were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy, with some scholars arguing for the concept of the Middle Ground, in that European powers were used by the Iroquois just as much as Europeans used them. At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from what is today New York State, north into present-day Ontario and Quebec along the lower Great Lakes–upper St. Lawrence, and south on both sides of the Allegheny mountains into present-day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley.
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians, Wendat (Huron), Erie, and Susquehannock, all independent peoples known to the European colonists, also spoke Iroquoian languages. They are considered Iroquoian in a larger cultural sense, all being descended from the Proto-Iroquoian people and language. Historically, however, they were competitors and enemies of the Iroquois League nations.
In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and over 81,000 in the United States.
Names
-----
*Haudenosaunee* ("People of the Longhouse") is the autonym by which the Six Nations refer to themselves. While its exact etymology is debated, the term *Iroquois* is of colonial origin. Some scholars of Native American history consider "Iroquois" a derogatory name adopted from the traditional enemies of the Haudenosaunee. A less common, older autonym for the confederation is *Ongweh’onweh*, meaning "original people".
Haudenosaunee derives from two phonetically similar but etymologically distinct words in the Seneca language: *Hodínöhšö:ni:h*, meaning "those of the extended house," and *Hodínöhsö:ni:h*, meaning "house builders". The name "Haudenosaunee" first appears in English in Lewis Henry Morgan's work (1851), where he writes it as *Ho-dé-no-sau-nee*. The spelling "Hotinnonsionni" is also attested from later in the nineteenth century. An alternative designation, **Ganonsyoni**, is occasionally encountered as well, from the Mohawk *kanǫhsyǫ́·ni* ("the extended house"), or from a cognate expression in a related Iroquoian language; in earlier sources it is variously spelled "Kanosoni", "akwanoschioni", "Aquanuschioni", "Cannassoone", "Canossoone", "Ke-nunctioni", or "Konossioni". More transparently, the Haudenosaunee confederacy is often referred to as the Six Nations (or, for the period before the entry of the Tuscarora in 1722, the Five Nations). The word is "Rotinonshón:ni" in the Mohawk language.
The origins of the name *Iroquois* are somewhat obscure, although the term has historically been more common among English texts than Haudenosaunee. Its first written appearance as "Irocois" is in Samuel de Champlain's account of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603. Other early French spellings include "Erocoise", "Hiroquois", "Hyroquoise", "Irecoies", "Iriquois", "Iroquaes", "Irroquois", and "Yroquois", pronounced at the time as [irokwe] or [irokwɛ]. Competing theories have been proposed for this term's origin, but none have gained widespread acceptance. By 1978 Ives Goddard wrote: "No such form is attested in any Indian language as a name for any Iroquoian group, and the ultimate origin and meaning of the name are unknown.".
Jesuit priest and missionary Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix wrote in 1744:
> The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the [Iroquoian-language] term *Hiro* or *Hero*, which means *I have said*—with which these Indians close all their addresses, as the Latins did of old with their *dixi*—and of *Koué*, which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter.
>
>
>
In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that Charlevoix's etymology was dubious, and that "no other nation or tribe of which we have any knowledge has ever borne a name composed in this whimsical fashion". Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with the Mohawk *ierokwa*- "they who smoke," or Cayuga *iakwai*- "a bear". In 1888, J.N.B. Hewitt expressed doubts that either of those words exist in the respective languages. He preferred the etymology from Montagnais *irin* "true, real" and *ako* "snake", plus the French *-ois* suffix. Later he revised this to Algonquin *Iriⁿakhoiw* as the origin.
A more modern etymology was advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, elaborating upon Charles Arnaud from 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais *irnokué*, meaning "terrible man", via the reduced form *irokue*. Day proposed a hypothetical Montagnais phrase *irno kwédač*, meaning "a man, an Iroquois", as the origin of this term. For the first element *irno*, Day cites cognates from other attested Montagnais dialects: *irinou*, *iriniȣ*, and *ilnu*; and for the second element *kwédač*, he suggests a relation to *kouetakiou*, *kȣetat-chiȣin*, and *goéṭètjg* – names used by neighboring Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois, Huron, and Laurentian peoples.
The *Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America* attests the origin of Iroquois to *"Iroqu,"* Algonquian for "rattlesnake". The French encountered the Algonquian-speaking tribes first, and would have learned the Algonquian names for their Iroquois competitors.
Iroquois Confederacy
--------------------
The **Iroquois Confederacy** or Haudenosaunee is believed to have been founded by the Great Peacemaker at an unknown date estimated between 1450 and 1660, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace". Other research, however, suggests the founding occurred in 1142. Each nation within this Iroquoian confederacy had a distinct language, territory, and function in the League.
The League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or *sachems*, each representing a clan of a nation.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee (*Iroquois League* to the French, *Five Nations* to the British) were based in what is now central and west New York State including the Finger Lakes region, occupying large areas north to the St. Lawrence River, east to Montreal and the Hudson River, and south into what is today northwestern Pennsylvania. At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from what is today New York State, north into present-day Ontario and Quebec along the lower Great Lakes–upper St. Lawrence, and south on both sides of the Allegheny Mountains into present-day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley. From east to west, the League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. In about 1722, the Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora joined the League, having migrated northwards from the Carolinas after a bloody conflict with white settlers. A shared cultural background with the Five Nations of the Iroquois (and a sponsorship from the Oneida) led the Tuscarora to becoming accepted as the sixth nation in the confederacy in 1722; the Iroquois become known afterwards as the Six Nations.
Other independent Iroquoian-speaking peoples, such as the Erie, Susquehannock, Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot, lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River, and around the Great Lakes. In the American Southeast, the Cherokee were an Iroquoian-language people who had migrated to that area centuries before European contact. None of these were part of the Haudenosaunee League. Those on the borders of Haudenosaunee territory in the Great Lakes region competed and warred with the nations of the League.
French, Dutch and English colonists, both in New France (Canada) and what became the Thirteen Colonies, recognized a need to gain favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of lands west of the colonial settlements. Their first relations were for fur trading, which became highly lucrative for both sides. The colonists also sought to establish friendly relations to secure their settlement borders.
For nearly 200 years, the Iroquois were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy. Alliance with the Iroquois offered political and strategic advantages to the European powers, but the Iroquois preserved considerable independence. Some of their people settled in mission villages along the St. Lawrence River, becoming more closely tied to the French. While they participated in French-led raids on Dutch and English colonial settlements, where some Mohawk and other Iroquois settled, in general the Iroquois resisted attacking their own peoples.
The Iroquois remained a large politically united Native American polity until the American Revolution, when the League kept its treaty promises to the British Crown. After their defeat, the British ceded Iroquois territory without consultation, and many Iroquois had to abandon their lands in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere and relocate to the northern lands retained by the British. The Crown gave them land in compensation for the five million acres they had lost in the south, but it was not equivalent to earlier territory.
Modern scholars of the Iroquois distinguish between the League and the Confederacy. According to this interpretation, the Iroquois League refers to the ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in the Grand Council, which still exists. The Iroquois Confederacy was the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization, which was dissolved after the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War. Today's Iroquois/Six Nations people do not make any such distinction, use the terms interchangeably, but prefer the name Haudenosaunee Confederacy.
After the migration of a majority to Canada, the Iroquois remaining in New York were required to live mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois faced 240,000 New Yorkers, with land-hungry New Englanders poised to migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush waiting to happen." By the War of 1812, the Iroquois had lost control of considerable territory.
History
-------
### Historiography
Previous research, containing the discovery of Iroquois tools and artefacts, suggests that the origin of the Iroquois was in Montreal, Canada, near the St. Lawrence River. After an unsuccessful rebellion, they were driven out of Quebec to New York.
Knowledge of Iroquois history stem from Haudenosaunee oral tradition, archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott Stevens credits the early modern European value of written sources over oral tradition as contributing to a racialized, prejudiced perspective about the Iroquois through the 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois peoples is a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period.
French Jesuit accounts of the Iroquois portrayed them as savages lacking government, law, letters, and religion. But the Jesuits made considerable effort to study their languages and cultures, and some came to respect them. A source of confusion for European sources, coming from a patriarchal society, was the matrilineal kinship system of Iroquois society and the related power of women. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote about the Canadian Iroquois and the French in the time of the Seven Years' War:
> Most critically, the importance of clan mothers, who possessed considerable economic and political power within Canadian Iroquois communities, was blithely overlooked by patriarchal European scribes. Those references that do exist, show clan mothers meeting in council with their male counterparts to take decisions regarding war and peace and joining in delegations to confront the *Onontio* [the Iroquois term for the French governor-general] and the French leadership in Montreal, but only hint at the real influence wielded by these women.
>
>
Eighteenth-century English historiography focuses on the diplomatic relations with the Iroquois, supplemented by such images as John Verelst's *Four Mohawk Kings*, and publications such as the Anglo-Iroquoian treaty proceedings printed by Benjamin Franklin. A persistent 19th and 20th century narrative casts the Iroquois as "an expansive military and political power ... [who] subjugated their enemies by violent force and for almost two centuries acted as the fulcrum in the balance of power in colonial North America".
Historian Scott Stevens noted that the Iroquois themselves began to influence the writing of their history in the 19th century, including Joseph Brant (Mohawk), and David Cusick (Tuscarora, c.1780–1840). John Arthur Gibson (Seneca, 1850–1912) was an important figure of his generation in recounting versions of Iroquois history in epics on the Peacemaker. Notable women historians among the Iroquois emerged in the following decades, including Laura "Minnie" Kellog (Oneida, 1880–1949) and Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca, 1901–1964).
### Formation of the League
The Iroquois League was established prior to European contact, with the banding together of five of the many Iroquoian peoples who had emerged south of the Great Lakes. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed about 1450, though arguments have been made for an earlier date. One theory argues that the League formed shortly after a solar eclipse on August 31, 1142, an event thought to be expressed in oral tradition about the League's origins. Some sources link an early origin of the Iroquois confederacy to the adoption of corn as a staple crop.
Anthropologist Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a date earlier than 1450. He has said that recent claims for a much earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes". Other scholars note that anthropological researchers consulted only male informants, thus losing the half of the historical story told in the distinct oral traditions of women. For this reason, origin tales tend to emphasize the two men Deganawidah and Hiawatha, while the woman Jigonsaseh, who plays a prominent role in the female tradition, remains largely unknown.
The founders of League are traditionally held to be Dekanawida the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonhsasee the Mother of Nations, whose home acted as a sort of United Nations. They brought the Peacemaker's Great Law of Peace to the squabbling Iroquoian nations who were fighting, raiding, and feuding with each other and with other tribes, both Algonkian and Iroquoian. Five nations originally joined in the League, giving rise to the many historic references to "Five Nations of the Iroquois." With the addition of the southern Tuscarora in the 18th century, these original five tribes still compose the Haudenosaunee in the early 21st century: the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca.
According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He was offered the position as the titular chair of the League's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present-day Syracuse, New York. The title *Tadodaho* is still used for the League's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council.
The Iroquois subsequently created a highly egalitarian society. One British colonial administrator declared in 1749 that the Iroquois had "such absolute Notions of Liberty that they allow no Kind of Superiority of one over another, and banish all Servitude from their Territories". As raids between the member tribes ended and they directed warfare against competitors, the Iroquois increased in numbers while their rivals declined. The political cohesion of the Iroquois rapidly became one of the strongest forces in 17th- and 18th-century northeastern North America.
The League's council of fifty ruled on disputes and sought consensus. However, the confederacy did not speak for all five tribes, which continued to act independently and form their own war bands. Around 1678, the council began to exert more power in negotiations with the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and New York, and the Iroquois became very adroit at diplomacy, playing off the French against the British as individual tribes had earlier played the Swedes, Dutch, and English.
Iroquoian-language peoples were involved in warfare and trading with nearby members of the Iroquois League. The explorer Robert La Salle in the 17th century identified the Mosopelea as among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s. The Erie and peoples of the upper Allegheny valley declined earlier during the Beaver Wars. By 1676 the power of the Susquehannock was broken from the effects of three years of epidemic disease, war with the Iroquois, and frontier battles, as settlers took advantage of the weakened tribe.
According to one theory of early Iroquois history, after becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the Ohio River Valley in the territories that would become the eastern Ohio Country down as far as present-day Kentucky to seek additional hunting grounds. They displaced about 1,200 Siouan-speaking tribepeople of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea), Ofo (Mosopelea), and Tutelo and other closely related tribes out of the region. These tribes migrated to regions around the Mississippi River and the piedmont regions of the east coast.
Other Iroquoian-language peoples, including the populous Wyandot (Huron), with related social organization and cultures, became extinct as tribes as a result of disease and war. They did not join the League when invited and were much reduced after the Beaver Wars and high mortality from Eurasian infectious diseases. While the indigenous nations sometimes tried to remain neutral in the various colonial frontier wars, some also allied with Europeans, as in the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years' War. The Six Nations were split in their alliances between the French and British in that war.
### Expansion
In *Reflections in Bullough's Pond*, historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to resist Iroquois conquest. The People of the Confederacy dispute this historical interpretation, regarding the League of the Great Peace as the foundation of their heritage.
The Iroquois may be the *Kwedech* described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies – the *Kwedech* – westward across New Brunswick, and finally out of the Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last-conquered land *Gespedeg* or "last land," from which the French derived *Gaspé*. The "Kwedech" are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring c. 1535–1600.[*page needed*]
Around 1535, Jacques Cartier reported Iroquoian-speaking groups on the Gaspé peninsula and along the St. Lawrence River. Archeologists and anthropologists have defined the St. Lawrence Iroquoians as a distinct and separate group (and possibly several discrete groups), living in the villages of Hochelaga and others nearby (near present-day Montreal), which had been visited by Cartier. By 1608, when Samuel de Champlain visited the area, that part of the St. Lawrence River valley had no settlements, but was controlled by the Mohawk as a hunting ground. The fate of the Iroquoian people that Cartier encountered remains a mystery, and all that can be stated for certain is when Champlain arrived, they were gone. On the Gaspé peninsula, Champlain encountered Algonquian-speaking groups. The precise identity of any of these groups is still debated. On July 29, 1609, Champlain assisted his allies in defeating a Mohawk war party by the shores of what is now called Lake Champlain, and again in June 1610, Champlain fought against the Mohawks.
The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th-century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the *Massawomeck*, and to the French as the *Antouhonoron*. They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the *Massawomeck / Antouhonoron* as the Haudenosaunee.
In 1649, an Iroquois war party, consisting mostly of Senecas and Mohawks, destroyed the Huron village of Wendake. In turn, this ultimately resulted in the breakup of the Huron nation. With no northern enemy remaining, the Iroquois turned their forces on the Neutral Nations on the north shore of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the Susquehannocks, their southern neighbor. Then they destroyed other Iroquoian-language tribes, including the Erie, to the west, in 1654, over competition for the fur trade.[*page needed*] Then they destroyed the Mohicans. After their victories, they reigned supreme in an area from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic Ocean; from the St. Lawrence River to the Chesapeake Bay.
At that time the Iroquois numbered about 10,000, insufficient to offset the European population of 75,000 by 1660, 150,000 by 1680 and 250,000 by 1700. Michael O. Varhola has argued their success in conquering and subduing surrounding nations had paradoxically weakened a Native response to European growth, thereby becoming victims of their own success.
The Five Nations of the League established a trading relationship with the Dutch at Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York), trading furs for European goods, an economic relationship that profoundly changed their way of life and led to much over-hunting of beavers.
Between 1665 and 1670, the Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present-day Ontario, collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord" villages. The villages were all abandoned by 1701.
Over the years 1670–1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present-day West Virginia and Kentucky. As a result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan-speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest. They finally sold to British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Historian Pekka Hämäläinen writes of the League, "There had never been anything like the Five Nations League in North America. No other Indigenous nation or confederacy had ever reached so far, conducted such an ambitious foreign policy, or commanded such fear and respect. The Five Nations blended diplomacy, intimidation, and violence as the circumstances dictated, creating a measured instability that only they could navigate. Their guiding principle was to avoid becoming attached to any single colony, which would restrict their options and risk exposure to external manipulation."
### Beaver Wars
Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in the decades-long Beaver Wars against the French, their Huron allies, and other neighboring tribes, including the Petun, Erie, and Susquehannock. Trying to control access to game for the lucrative fur trade, they invaded the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast (the Lenape, or *Delaware*), the Anishinaabe of the boreal Canadian Shield region, and not infrequently the English colonies as well. During the Beaver Wars, they were said to have defeated and assimilated the Huron (1649), Petun (1650), the Neutral Nation (1651), Erie Tribe (1657), and Susquehannock (1680). The traditional view is that these wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade to purchase European goods on which they had become dependent.[*page needed*] Starna questions this view.
Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the Beaver Wars were an escalation of the Iroquoian tradition of "Mourning Wars". This view suggests that the Iroquois launched large-scale attacks against neighboring tribes to avenge or replace the many dead from battles and smallpox epidemics.
In 1628, the Mohawk defeated the Mahican to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange (present-day Albany), New Netherland. The Mohawk would not allow northern native peoples to trade with the Dutch. By 1640, there were almost no beavers left on their lands, reducing the Iroquois to middlemen in the fur trade between Indian peoples to the west and north, and Europeans eager for the valuable thick beaver pelts. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Huron, Algonquin, and French.
In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the precarious peace. Mohawk attitudes toward the peace soured while the Jesuits were traveling, and their warriors attacked the party en route. The missionaries were taken to Ossernenon village, Kanienkeh (Mohawk Nation) (near present-day Auriesville, New York), where the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans recommended setting them free, but angry members of the Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande, and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The Catholic Church has commemorated the two French priests and Jesuit lay Brother René Goupil (killed September 29, 1642) as among the eight North American Martyrs.
In 1649 during the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois used recently purchased Dutch guns to attack the Huron, allies of the French. These attacks, primarily against the Huron towns of Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace) and St. Louis in what is now Simcoe County, Ontario were the final battles that effectively destroyed the Huron Confederacy. The Jesuit missions in Huronia on the shores of Georgian Bay were abandoned in the face of the Iroquois attacks, with the Jesuits leading the surviving Hurons east towards the French settlements on the St. Lawrence. The Jesuit *Relations* expressed some amazement that the Five Nations had been able to dominate the area "for five hundred leagues around, although their numbers are very small". From 1651 to 1652, the Iroquois attacked the Susquehannock, to their south in present-day Pennsylvania, without sustained success.
In the early 17th century, the Iroquois Confederacy was at the height of its power, with a total population of about 12,000. In 1653 the Onondaga Nation extended a peace invitation to New France. An expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie de Ganentaa in 1656 in their territory. They were forced to abandon the mission by 1658 as hostilities resumed, possibly because of the sudden death of 500 native people from an epidemic of smallpox, a European infectious disease to which they had no immunity.
From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Lenape and Province of Maryland allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River. Smallpox struck again, and through the effects of disease, famine, and war, the Iroquois were under threat of extinction. In 1664, an Oneida party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.
In 1665, three of the Five Nations made peace with the French. The following year, the Governor-General of New France, the Marquis de Tracy, sent the Carignan regiment to confront the Mohawk and Oneida. The Mohawk avoided battle, but the French burned their villages, which they referred to as "castles", and their crops. In 1667, the remaining two Iroquois Nations signed a peace treaty with the French and agreed to allow missionaries to visit their villages. The French Jesuit missionaries were known as the "black-robes" to the Iroquois, who began to urge that Catholic converts should relocate to the Caughnawaga, Kanienkeh outside of Montreal. This treaty lasted for 17 years.
#### 1670–1701
Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan-speaking Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region, and began to claim ownership of the territory. In 1672, they were defeated by a war party of Susquehannock, and the Iroquois appealed to the French Governor Frontenac for support:
> It would be a shame for him to allow his children to be crushed, as they saw themselves to be ... they not having the means of going to attack their fort, which was very strong, nor even of defending themselves if the others came to attack them in their villages.
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Some[*which?*] old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock but this is undocumented and doubtful. In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock into their nation.
In January 1676, the Governor of New York colony, Edmund Andros, sent a letter to the chiefs of the Iroquois asking for their help in King Philip's War, as the English colonists in New England were having much difficulty fighting the Wampanoag led by Metacom. In exchange for precious guns from the English, an Iroquois war party devastated the Wampanoag in February 1676, destroying villages and food stores while taking many prisoners.
By 1677, the Iroquois formed an alliance with the English through an agreement known as the Covenant Chain. By 1680, the Iroquois Confederacy was in a strong position, having eliminated the Susquehannock and the Wampanoag, taken vast numbers of captives to augment their population, and secured an alliance with the English supplying guns and ammunition. Together the allies battled to a standstill the French and their allies the Hurons, traditional foes of the Confederacy. The Iroquois colonized the northern shore of Lake Ontario and sent raiding parties westward all the way to Illinois Country. The tribes of Illinois were eventually defeated, not by the Iroquois, but by the Potawatomi.
In 1679, the Susquehannock, with Iroquois help, attacked Maryland's Piscataway and Mattawoman allies. Peace was not reached until 1685. During the same period, French Jesuit missionaries were active in Iroquoia, which led to a voluntary mass relocation of many Haudenosaunee to the St. Lawrence valley at Kahnawake and Kanesatake near Montreal. It was the intention of the French to use the Catholic Haudenosaunee in the St. Lawrence valley as a buffer to keep the English-allied Haudenosaunee tribes, in what is now upstate New York, away from the center of the French fur trade in Montreal. The attempts of both the English and the French to make use of their Haudenosaunee allies were foiled, as the two groups of Haudenosaunee showed a "profound reluctance to kill one another". Following the move of the Catholic Iroquois to the St. Lawrence valley, historians commonly describe the Iroquois living outside of Montreal as the Canadian Iroquois, while those remaining in their historical heartland in modern upstate New York are described as the League Iroquois.
In 1684, the Governor General of New France, Joseph-Antoine Le Febvre de La Barre, decided to launch a punitive expedition against the Seneca, who were attacking French and Algonquian fur traders in the Mississippi river valley, and asked for the Catholic Haudenosaunee to contribute fighting men. La Barre's expedition ended in fiasco in September 1684 when influenza broke out among the French *troupes de la Marine* while the Canadian Iroquois warriors refused to fight, instead only engaging in battles of insults with the Seneca warriors. King Louis XIV of France was not amused when he heard of La Barre's failure, which led to his replacement with Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville (governor general 1685–1689), who arrived in August with orders from the Sun King to crush the Haudenosaunee confederacy and uphold the honor of France even in the wilds of North America.
In 1684, the Iroquois again invaded Virginia and Illinois territory and unsuccessfully attacked French outposts in the latter. Trying to reduce warfare in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, later that year the Virginia Colony agreed in a conference at Albany to recognize the Iroquois' right to use the North-South path, known as the Great Warpath, running east of the Blue Ridge, provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the Fall Line.
In 1687, the Marquis de Denonville set out for Fort Frontenac (modern Kingston, Ontario) with a well-organized force. In July 1687 Denonville took with him on his expedition a mixed force of *troupes de la Marine*, French-Canadian militiamen, and 353 Indian warriors from the Jesuit mission settlements, including 220 Haudenosaunee. They met under a flag of truce with 50 hereditary sachems from the Onondaga council fire, on the north shore of Lake Ontario in what is now southern Ontario. Denonville recaptured the fort for New France and seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois chiefs to Marseilles, France, to be used as galley slaves. Several of the Catholic Haudenosaunee were outraged at this treachery to a diplomatic party, which led to at least 100 of them to desert to the Seneca. Denonville justified enslaving the people he encountered, saying that as a "civilized European" he did not respect the customs of "savages" and would do as he liked with them. On August 13, 1687, an advance party of French soldiers walked into a Seneca ambush and were nearly killed to a man; however the Seneca fled when the main French force came up. The remaining Catholic Haudenosaunee warriors refused to pursue the retreating Seneca.
Denonville ravaged the land of the Seneca, landing a French armada at Irondequoit Bay, striking straight into the seat of Seneca power, and destroying many of its villages. Fleeing before the attack, the Seneca moved farther west, east and south down the Susquehanna River. Although great damage was done to their homeland, the Senecas' military might was not appreciably weakened. The Confederacy and the Seneca developed an alliance with the English who were settling in the east. The destruction of the Seneca land infuriated the members of the Iroquois Confederacy. On August 4, 1689, they retaliated by burning down Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defenses for many months prior to that.
They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac for the next nine years (1689–1698). Frontenac had arranged a new strategy to weaken the Iroquois. As an act of conciliation, he located the 13 surviving sachems of the 50 originally taken and returned with them to New France in October 1689. In 1690, Frontenac destroyed Schenectady, Kanienkeh and in 1693 burned down three other Mohawk villages and took 300 prisoners.
In 1696, Frontenac decided to take the field against the Iroquois, despite being seventy-six years of age. He decided to target the Oneida and Onondaga, instead of the Mohawk who had been the favorite enemies of the French. On July 6, he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force and traveled to the capital of Onondaga, where he arrived a month later. With support from the French, the Algonquian nations drove the Iroquois out of the territories north of Lake Erie and west of present-day Cleveland, Ohio, regions which they had conquered during the Beaver Wars. In the meantime, the Iroquois had abandoned their villages. As pursuit was impracticable, the French army commenced its return march on August 10. Under Frontenac's leadership, the Canadian militia became increasingly adept at guerrilla warfare, taking the war into Iroquois territory and attacking a number of English settlements. The Iroquois never threatened the French colony again.
During King William's War (North American part of the War of the Grand Alliance), the Iroquois were allied with the English. In July 1701, they concluded the "Nanfan Treaty", deeding the English a large tract north of the Ohio River. The Iroquois claimed to have conquered this territory 80 years earlier. France did not recognize the treaty, as it had settlements in the territory at that time and the English had virtually none. Meanwhile, the Iroquois were negotiating peace with the French; together they signed the Great Peace of Montreal that same year.
### French and Indian Wars
After the 1701 peace treaty with the French, the Iroquois remained mostly neutral. During the course of the 17th century, the Iroquois had acquired a fearsome reputation among the Europeans, and it was the policy of the Six Nations to use this reputation to play off the French against the British in order to extract the maximum amount of material rewards. In 1689, the English Crown provided the Six Nations goods worth £100 in exchange for help against the French, in the year 1693 the Iroquois had received goods worth £600, and in the year 1701 the Six Nations had received goods worth £800.
During Queen Anne's War (North American part of the War of the Spanish Succession), they were involved in planned attacks against the French. Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, arranged for three Mohawk chiefs and a Mahican chief (known incorrectly as the Four Mohawk Kings) to travel to London in 1710 to meet with Queen Anne in an effort to seal an alliance with the British. Queen Anne was so impressed by her visitors that she commissioned their portraits by court painter John Verelst. The portraits are believed to be the earliest surviving oil portraits of Aboriginal peoples taken from life.
The four "Mohawk Kings" who travelled to London in 1710.
In the early 18th century, the Tuscarora gradually migrated northwards towards Pennsylvania and New York after a bloody conflict with white settlers in North and South Carolina. Due to shared linguistic and cultural similarities, the Tuscarora gradually aligned with the Iroquois and entered the confederacy as the sixth Indian nation in 1722 after being sponsored by the Oneida.
The Iroquois program toward the defeated tribes favored assimilation within the 'Covenant Chain' and Great Law of Peace, over wholesale slaughter. Both the Lenni Lenape, and the Shawnee were briefly tributary to the Six Nations, while subjected Iroquoian populations emerged in the next period as the Mingo, speaking a dialect like that of the Seneca, in the Ohio region. During the War of Spanish Succession, known to Americans as "Queen Anne's War", the Iroquois remained neutral, through leaning towards the British. Anglican missionaries were active with the Iroquois and devised a system of writing for them.
In 1721 and 1722, Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia concluded a new Treaty at Albany with the Iroquois, renewing the Covenant Chain and agreeing to recognize the Blue Ridge as the demarcation between the Virginia Colony and the Iroquois. But, as European settlers began to move beyond the Blue Ridge and into the Shenandoah Valley in the 1730s, the Iroquois objected. Virginia officials told them that the demarcation was to prevent the Iroquois from trespassing *east* of the Blue Ridge, but it did not prevent English from expanding *west.* Tensions increased over the next decades, and the Iroquois were on the verge of going to war with the Virginia Colony. In 1743, Governor Sir William Gooch paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the Valley that was claimed by the Iroquois. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold Virginia all their remaining claims in the Shenandoah Valley for 200 pounds in gold.
During the French and Indian War (the North American theater of the Seven Years' War), the League Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquian allies, who were traditional enemies. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Few Iroquois warriors joined the campaign. By contrast, the Canadian Iroquois supported the French.
In 1711, refugees from is now southern-western Germany known as the Palatines appealed to the Iroquois clan mothers for permission to settle on their land. By spring of 1713, about 150 Palatine families had leased land from the Iroquois. The Iroquois taught the Palatines how to grow "the Three Sisters" as they called their staple crops of beans, corn and squash and where to find edible nuts, roots and berries. In return, the Palatines taught the Iroquois how to grow wheat and oats, and how to use iron ploughs and hoes to farm. As a result of the money earned from land rented to the Palatines, the Iroquois elite gave up living in longhouses and started living in European style houses, having an income equal to a middle-class English family. By the middle of the 18th century, a multi-cultural world had emerged with the Iroquois living alongside German and Scots-Irish settlers. The settlements of the Palatines were intermixed with the Iroquois villages. In 1738, an Irishman, Sir William Johnson, who was successful as a fur trader, settled with the Iroquois. Johnson who become very rich from the fur trade and land speculation, learned the languages of the Iroquois and become the main intermediary between the British and the League. In 1745, Johnson was appointed the Northern superintendent of Indian Affairs, formalizing his position.
On July 9, 1755, a force of British Army regulars and the Virginia militia under General Edward Braddock advancing into the Ohio river valley was almost completely destroyed by the French and their Indian allies at the Battle of the Monongahela. Johnson, who had the task of enlisting the League Iroquois on the British side, led a mixed Anglo-Iroquois force to victory at Lac du St Sacrement, known to the British as Lake George. In the Battle of Lake George, a group of Catholic Mohawk (from *Kahnawake*) and French forces ambushed a Mohawk-led British column; the Mohawk were deeply disturbed as they had created their confederacy for peace among the peoples and had not had warfare against each other. Johnson attempted to ambush a force of 1,000 French troops and 700 Canadian Iroquois under the command of Baron Dieskau, who beat off the attack and killed the old Mohawk war chief, Peter Hendricks. On September 8, 1755, Diskau attacked Johnson's camp, but was repulsed with heavy losses. Though the Battle of Lake George was a British victory, the heavy losses taken by the Mohawk and Oneida at the battle caused the League to declare neutrality in the war. Despite Johnson's best efforts, the League Iroquois remained neutral for next several years, and a series of French victories at Oswego, Louisbourg, Fort William Henry and Fort Carillon ensured the League Iroquois would not fight on what appeared to be the losing side.
In February 1756, the French learned from a spy, Oratory, an Oneida chief, that the British were stockpiling supplies at the Oneida Carrying Place, a crucial portage between Albany and Oswego to support an offensive in the spring into what is now Ontario. As the frozen waters melted south of Lake Ontario on average two weeks before the waters did north of Lake Ontario, the British would be able to move against the French bases at Fort Frontenac and Fort Niagara before the French forces in Montreal could come to their relief, which from the French perspective necessitated a preemptive strike at the Oneida Carrying Place in the winter. To carry out this strike, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the Governor-General of New France, assigned the task to Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, an officer of the *troupes de le Marine*, who required and received the assistance of the Canadian Iroquois to guide him to the Oneida Carrying Place. The Canadian Iroquois joined the expedition, which left Montreal on February 29, 1756 on the understanding that they would only fight against the British, not the League Iroquois, and they would not be assaulting a fort.
On March 13, 1756, an Oswegatchie Indian traveler informed the expedition that the British had built two forts at the Oneida Carrying Place, which caused the majority of the Canadian Iroquois to want to turn back, as they argued the risks of assaulting a fort would mean too many casualties, and many did in fact abandon the expedition. On March 26, 1756, Léry's force of *troupes de le Marine* and French-Canadian militiamen, who had not eaten for two days, received much needed food when the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a British wagon train bringing supplies to Fort William and Fort Bull. As far as the Canadian Iroquois were concerned, the raid was a success as they captured 9 wagons full of supplies and took 10 prisoners without losing a man, and for them, engaging in a frontal attack against the two wooden forts as Léry wanted to do was irrational. The Canadian Iroquois informed Léry "if I absolutely wanted to die, I was the master of the French, but they were not going to follow me". In the end, about 30 Canadian Iroquois reluctantly joined Léry's attack on Fort Bull on the morning of March 27, 1756, when the French and their Indian allies stormed the fort, finally smashing their way in through the main gate with a battering ram at noon. Of the 63 people in Fort Bull, half of whom were civilians, only 3 soldiers, one carpenter and one woman survived the Battle of Fort Bull as Léry reported "I could not restrain the ardor of the soldiers and the *Canadians*. They killed everyone they encountered". Afterwards, the French destroyed all of the British supplies and Fort Bull itself, which secured the western flank of New France. On the same day, the main force of the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a relief force from Fort William coming to the aid of Fort Bull, and did not slaughter their prisoners as the French did at Fort Bull; for the Iroquois, prisoners were very valuable as they increased the size of the tribe.
The crucial difference between the European and First Nations way of war was that Europe had millions of people, which meant that British and French generals were willing to see thousands of their own men die in battle in order to secure victory as their losses could always be made good; by contrast, the Iroquois had a considerably smaller population, and could not afford heavy losses, which could cripple a community. The Iroquois custom of "Mourning wars" to take captives who would become Iroquois reflected the continual need for more people in the Iroquois communities. Iroquois warriors were brave, but would only fight to the death if necessary, usually to protect their women and children; otherwise, the crucial concern for Iroquois chiefs was always to save manpower. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote that the Iroquois way of war was based on their hunting philosophy, where a successful hunter would bring down an animal efficiently without taking any losses to his hunting party, and in the same way, a successful war leader would inflict losses on the enemy without taking any losses in return.
The Iroquois only entered the war on the British side again in late 1758 after the British took Louisbourg and Fort Frontenac. At the Treaty of Fort Easton in October 1758, the Iroquois forced the Lenape and Shawnee who had been fighting for the French to declare neutrality. In July 1759, the Iroquois helped Johnson take Fort Niagara. In the ensuing campaign, the League Iroquois assisted General Jeffrey Amherst as he took various French forts by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence valley as he advanced towards Montreal, which he took in September 1760. The British historian Michael Johnson wrote the Iroquois had "played a major supporting role" in the final British victory in the Seven Years' War. In 1763, Johnson left his old home of Fort Johnson for the lavish estate, which he called Johnson Hall, which become a center of social life in the region. Johnson was close to two white families, the Butlers and the Croghans, and three Mohawk families, the Brants, the Hills, and the Peters.
After the war, to protect their alliance, the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, forbidding white settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains. American colonists largely ignored the order, and the British had insufficient soldiers to enforce it.
Faced with confrontations, the Iroquois agreed to adjust the line again in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768). Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern District, had called the Iroquois nations together in a grand conference in western New York, which a total of 3,102 Indians attended. They had long had good relations with Johnson, who had traded with them and learned their languages and customs. As Alan Taylor noted in his history, *The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution* (2006), the Iroquois were creative and strategic thinkers. They chose to sell to the British Crown all their remaining claim to the lands between the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, which they did not occupy, hoping by doing so to draw off English pressure on their territories in the Province of New York.
### American Revolution
During the American Revolution, the Iroquois first tried to stay neutral. The Reverend Samuel Kirkland, a Congregational minister working as a missionary, pressured the Oneida and the Tuscarora for a pro-American neutrality while Guy Johnson and his cousin John Johnson pressured the Mohawk, the Cayuga and the Seneca to fight for the British. Pressed to join one side or the other, the Tuscarora and the Oneida sided with the colonists, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain, with whom they had stronger relationships. Joseph Louis Cook offered his services to the United States and received a Congressional commission as a lieutenant colonel—the highest rank held by any Native American during the war. The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant together with John Butler and John Johnson raised racially mixed forces of irregulars to fight for the Crown. Molly Brant had been the common-law wife of Sir William Johnson, and it was through her patronage that her brother Joseph came to be a war chief.
The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant, other war chiefs, and British allies conducted numerous operations against frontier settlements in the Mohawk Valley, including the Cherry Valley massacre, destroying many villages and crops, and killing and capturing inhabitants. The destructive raids by Brant and other Loyalists led to appeals to Congress for help. The Continentals retaliated and in 1779, George Washington ordered the Sullivan Campaign, led by Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan, against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overrun, but destroy", the British-Indian alliance. They burned many Iroquois villages and stores throughout western New York; refugees moved north to Canada. By the end of the war, few houses and barns in the valley had survived the warfare. In the aftermath of the Sullivan expedition, Brant visited Quebec City to ask General Sir Frederick Haildmand for assurances that the Mohawk and the other Loyalist Iroquois would receive a new homeland in Canada as compensation for their loyalty to the Crown if the British should lose.
The American Revolution caused a great divide between the colonists between Patriots and Loyalists and a large proportion (30-35%) who were neutral; it caused a divide between the colonies and Great Britain, and it also caused a rift that would break the Iroquois Confederacy. At the onset of the Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy's Six Nations attempted to take a stance of neutrality. However, almost inevitably, the Iroquois nations eventually had to take sides in the conflict. It is easy to see how the American Revolution would have caused conflict and confusion among the Six Nations. For years they had been used to thinking about the English and their colonists as one and the same people. In the American Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy now had to deal with relationships between two governments.
The Iroquois Confederation's population had changed significantly since the arrival of Europeans. Disease had reduced their population to a fraction of what it had been in the past. Therefore, it was in their best interest to be on the good side of whoever would prove to be the winning side in the war, for the winning side would dictate how future relationships would be with the Iroquois in North America. Dealing with two governments made it hard to maintain a neutral stance, because the governments could get jealous easily if the Confederacy was interacting or trading more with one side over the other, or even if there was simply a perception of favoritism. Because of this challenging situation, the Six Nations had to choose sides. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the American colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and their Loyalists among the colonists.
There were many reasons that the Six Nations could not remain neutral and uninvolved in the Revolutionary War. One of these is simple proximity; the Iroquois Confederacy was too close to the action of the war to not be involved. The Six Nations were very discontented with the encroachment of the English and their colonists upon their land. They were particularly concerned with the border established in the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768.
During the American Revolution, the authority of the British government over the frontier was hotly contested. The colonists tried to take advantage of this as much as possible by seeking their own profit and claiming new land. In 1775, the Six Nations were still neutral when "a Mohawk person was killed by a Continental soldier". Such a case shows how the Six Nations' proximity to the war drew them into it. They were concerned about being killed, and about their lands being taken from them. They could not show weakness and simply let the colonists and British do whatever they wanted. Many of the English and colonists did not respect the treaties made in the past. "A number of His Majesty's subjects in the American colonies viewed the proclamation as a temporary prohibition which would soon give way to the opening of the area for settlement ... and that it was simply an agreement to quiet the minds of the Indians". The Six Nations had to take a stand to show that they would not accept such treatment, and they looked to build a relationship with a government that would respect their territory.
In addition to being in close proximity to the war, the new lifestyle and economics of the Iroquois Confederacy since the arrival of the Europeans in North America made it nearly impossible for the Iroquois to isolate themselves from the conflict. By this time, the Iroquois had become dependent upon the trade of goods from the English and colonists and had adopted many European customs, tools, and weapons. For example, they were increasingly dependent on firearms for hunting. After becoming so reliant, it would have been hard to even consider cutting off trade that brought goods that were a central part of everyday life.
As Barbara Graymont stated, "Their task was an impossible one to maintain neutrality. Their economies and lives had become so dependent on each other for trading goods and benefits it was impossible to ignore the conflict. Meanwhile, they had to try and balance their interactions with both groups. They did not want to seem as they were favoring one group over the other, because of sparking jealousy and suspicion from either side". Furthermore, the English had made many agreements with the Six Nations over the years, yet most of the Iroquois' day-to-day interaction had been with the colonists. This made it a confusing situation for the Iroquois because they could not tell who the true heirs of the agreement were, and couldn't know if agreements with England would continue to be honored by the colonists if they were to win independence.
Supporting either side in the Revolutionary War was a complicated decision. Each nation individually weighed their options to come up with a final stance that ultimately broke neutrality and ended the collective agreement of the Confederation. The British were clearly the most organized, and seemingly most powerful. In many cases, the British presented the situation to the Iroquois as the colonists just being "naughty children". On the other, the Iroquois considered that "the British government was three thousand miles away. This placed them at a disadvantage in attempting to enforce both the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty at Fort Stanwix 1768 against land hungry frontiersmen." In other words, even though the British were the strongest and best organized faction, the Six Nations had concerns about whether they would truly be able to enforce their agreements from so far away.
The Iroquois also had concerns about the colonists. The British asked for Iroquois support in the war. "In 1775, the Continental Congress sent a delegation to the Iroquois in Albany to ask for their neutrality in the war coming against the British". It had been clear in prior years that the colonists had not been respectful of the land agreements made in 1763 and 1768. The Iroquois Confederacy was particularly concerned over the possibility of the colonists winning the war, for if a revolutionary victory were to occur, the Iroquois very much saw it as the precursor to their lands being taken away by the victorious colonists, who would no longer have the British Crown to restrain them. Continental army officers such as George Washington had attempted to destroy the Iroquois.
On a contrasting note, it was the colonists who had formed the most direct relationships with the Iroquois due to their proximity and trade ties. For the most part, the colonists and Iroquois had lived in relative peace since the English arrival on the continent a century and a half before. The Iroquois had to determine whether their relationships with the colonists were reliable, or whether the English would prove to better serve their interests. They also had to determine whether there were really any differences between how the English and the colonists would treat them.
The war ensued, and the Iroquois broke their confederation. Hundreds of years of precedent and collective government was trumped by the immensity of the American Revolutionary War. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and Loyalists. At the conclusion of the war the fear that the colonists would not respect the Iroquois' pleas came true, especially after the majority of the Six Nations decided to side with the British and were no longer considered trustworthy by the newly independent Americans. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed. While the treaty included peace agreements between all of the European nations involved in the war as well as the newborn United States, it made no provisions for the Iroquois, who were left to be treated with by the new United States government as it saw fit.
### Post-war
After the Revolutionary War, the ancient central fireplace of the League was re-established at Buffalo Creek. The United States and the Iroquois signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1784, under which the Iroquois ceded much of their historical homeland to the Americans, which was followed by another treaty in 1794 at Canandaigua which they ceded even more land to the Americans. The governor of New York state, George Clinton, was constantly pressuring the Iroquois to sell their land to white settlers, and as alcoholism became a major problem in the Iroquois communities, many did sell their land in order to buy more alcohol, usually to unscrupulous agents of land companies. At the same time, American settlers continued to push into the lands beyond the Ohio river, leading to a war between the Western Confederacy and the United States. One of the Iroquois chiefs, Cornplanter, persuaded the remaining Iroquois in New York state to remain neutral and not to join the Western Confederacy. At the same time, American policies to make the Iroquois more settled started to have some effect. Traditionally, for the Iroquois farming was woman's work and hunting was men's work; by the early 19th century, American policies to have the men farm the land and cease hunting were having effect. During this time, the Iroquois living in New York state become demoralized as more of their land was sold to land speculators while alcoholism, violence, and broken families became major problems on their reservations. The Oneida and the Cayuga sold almost all of their land and moved out of their traditional homelands.
By 1811, Methodist and Episcopalian missionaries established missions to assist the Oneida and Onondaga in western New York. However, white settlers continued to move into the area. By 1821, a group of Oneida led by Eleazar Williams, son of a Mohawk woman, went to Wisconsin to buy land from the Menominee and Ho-Chunk and thus move their people further westward. In 1838, the Holland Land Company used forged documents to cheat the Seneca of almost all of their land in western New York, but a Quaker missionary, Asher Wright, launched lawsuits that led to one of the Seneca reservations being returned in 1842 and another in 1857. However, as late as the 1950s both the United States and New York governments confiscated land belonging to the Six Nations for roads, dams and reservoirs with the land being given to Cornplanter for keeping the Iroquois from joining the Western Confederacy in the 1790s being forcibly purchased by eminent domain and flooded for the Kinzua Dam.
Captain Joseph Brant and a group of Iroquois left New York to settle in the Province of Quebec (present-day Ontario). To partially replace the lands they had lost in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere because of their fateful alliance with the British Crown, the Haldimand Proclamation gave them a large land grant on the Grand River, at Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's Ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle nearby and named the village Brantford. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day Canadian city at a location still favorable for launching and landing canoes. In the 1830s many additional Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, and Tuscarora relocated into the Indian Territory, the Province of Upper Canada, and Wisconsin.
### In the west
Many Iroquois (mostly Mohawk) and Iroquois-descended Métis people living in Lower Canada (primarily at Kahnawake) took employment with the Montreal-based North West Company during its existence from 1779 to 1821 and became voyageurs or free traders working in the North American fur trade as far west as the Rocky Mountains. They are known to have settled in the area around Jasper's House and possibly as far west as the Finlay River and north as far as the Pouce Coupe and Dunvegan areas, where they founded new Aboriginal communities which have persisted to the present day claiming either First Nations or Métis identity and indigenous rights. The Michel Band, Mountain Métis, and Aseniwuche Winewak Nation of Canada in Alberta and the Kelly Lake community in British Columbia all claim Iroquois ancestry.
### Canadian Iroquois
During the 18th century, the Catholic Canadian Iroquois living outside of Montreal reestablished ties with the League Iroquois. During the American Revolution, the Canadian Iroquois declared their neutrality and refused to fight for the Crown despite the offers of Sir Guy Carleton, the governor of Quebec. Many Canadian Iroquois worked for both the Hudson's Bay Company and the Northwest Company as *voyageurs* in the fur trade in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In the War of 1812, the Canadian Iroquois again declared their neutrality. The Canadian Iroquois communities at Oka and Kahnaweke were prosperous settlements in the 19th century, supporting themselves via farming and the sale of sleds, snowshoes, boats, and baskets. In 1884, about 100 Canadian Iroquois were hired by the British government to serve as river pilots and boatmen for the relief expedition for the besieged General Charles Gordon in Khartoum in the Sudan, taking the force commanded by Field Marshal Wolsely up the Nile from Cairo to Khartoum. On their way back to Canada, the Canadian Iroquois river pilots and boatmen stopped in London, where they were personally thanked by Queen Victoria for their services to Queen and Country. In 1886, when a bridge was being built at the St. Lawrence, a number of Iroquois men from Kahnawke were hired to help built and the Iroquois workers proved so skilled as steelwork erectors that since that time, a number of bridges and skycrapers in Canada and the United States have been built by the Iroquois steelmen.
### 20th century
#### World War I
During World War I, it was Canadian policy to encourage men from the First Nations to enlist in the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), where their skills at hunting made them excellent as snipers and scouts. As the Iroquois Six Nations were considered the most warlike of Canada's First Nations, and, in turn, the Mohawk the most warlike of the Six Nations, the Canadian government especially encouraged the Iroquois, particularly the Mohawks, to join. About half of the 4,000 or so First Nations men who served in the CEF were Iroquois. Men from the Six Nations reservation at Brantford were encouraged to join the 114th Haldimand Battalion (also known as "Brock's Rangers) of the CEF, where two entire companies including the officers were all Iroquois. The 114th Battalion was formed in December 1915 and broken up in November 1916 to provide reinforcements for other battalions. A Mohawk from Brantford, William Forster Lickers, who enlisted in the CEF in September 1914 was captured at the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915, where he was savagely beaten by his captors as one German officer wanted to see if "Indians could feel pain". Lickers was beaten so badly that he was left paralyzed for the rest of his life, though the officer was well pleased to establish that Indians did indeed feel pain.
The Six Nations council at Brantford tended to see themselves as a sovereign nation that was allied to the Crown through the Covenant Chain going back to the 17th century and thus allied to King George V personally instead of being under the authority of Canada. One Iroquois clan mother in a letter sent in August 1916 to a recruiting sergeant who refused to allow her teenage son to join the CEF under the grounds that he was underage, declared the Six Nations were not subject to the laws of Canada and he had no right to refuse her son because Canadian laws did not apply to them. As she explained, the Iroquois regarded the Covenant Chain as still being in effect, meaning the Iroquois were only fighting in the war in response to an appeal for help from their ally, King George V, who had asked them to enlist in the CEF.
#### League of Nations
The complex political environment which emerged in Canada with the Haudenosaunee grew out of the Anglo-American era of European colonization. At the end of the War of 1812, Britain shifted Indian affairs from the military to civilian control. With the creation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867, civil authority, and thus Indian affairs, passed to Canadian officials with Britain retaining control of military and security matters. At the turn of the century, the Canadian government began passing a series of Acts which were strenuously objected to by the Iroquois Confederacy. During World War I, an act attempted to conscript Six Nations men for military service. Under the *Soldiers Resettlement Act*, legislation was introduced to redistribute native land. Finally in 1920, an Act was proposed to force citizenship on "Indians" with or without their consent, which would then automatically remove their share of any tribal lands from tribal trust and make the land and the person subject to the laws of Canada.
The Haudenosaunee hired a lawyer to defend their rights in the Supreme Court of Canada. The Supreme Court refused to take the case, declaring that the members of the Six Nations were British citizens. In effect, as Canada was at the time a division of the British government, it was not an international state, as defined by international law. In contrast, the Iroquois Confederacy had been making treaties and functioning as a state since 1643 and all of their treaties had been negotiated with Britain, not Canada. As a result, a decision was made in 1921 to send a delegation to petition the King George V, whereupon Canada's External Affairs division blocked issuing passports. In response, the Iroquois began issuing their own passports and sent Levi General, the Cayuga Chief "Deskaheh," to England with their attorney. Winston Churchill dismissed their complaint claiming that it was within the realm of Canadian jurisdiction and referred them back to Canadian officials.
On December 4, 1922, Charles Stewart, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Superintendent of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs traveled to Brantford to negotiate a settlement on the issues with the Six Nations. After the meeting, the Native delegation brought the offer to the tribal council, as was customary under Haudenosaunee law. The council agreed to accept the offer, but before they could respond, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police conducted a liquor raid on the Iroquois' Grand River territory. The siege lasted three days and prompted the Haudenosaunee to send Deskaheh to Washington, D/C., to meet with the chargé d'affaires of the Netherlands asking the Dutch Queen to sponsor them for membership in the League of Nations. Under pressure from the British, the Netherlands reluctantly refused sponsorship.
Deskaheh and the tribal attorney proceeded to Geneva and attempted to gather support. "On 27 September 1923, delegates representing Estonia, Ireland, Panama and Persia signed a letter asking for communication of the Six Nations' petition to the League's assembly," but the effort was blocked. Six Nations delegates traveled to the Hague and back to Geneva attempting to gain supporters and recognition, while back in Canada, the government was drafting a mandate to replace the traditional Haudenosaunee Confederacy Council with one that would be elected under the auspices of the Canadian Indian Act. In an unpublicized signing on September 17, 1924, Prime Minister Mackenzie King and Governor-General Lord Byng of Vimy signed the Order in Council, which set elections on the Six Nations reserve for October 21. Only 26 ballots were cast.
The long-term effect of the Order was that the Canadian government had wrested control over the Haudenosaunee trust funds from the Iroquois Confederation and decades of litigation would follow. In 1979, over 300 Indian chiefs visited London to oppose Patriation of the Canadian Constitution, fearing that their rights to be recognized in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 would be jeopardized. In 1981, hoping again to clarify that judicial responsibilities of treaties signed with Britain were not transferred to Canada, several Alberta Indian chiefs filed a petition with the British High Court of Justice. They lost the case but gained an invitation from the Canadian government to participate in the constitutional discussions which dealt with protection of treaty rights.
#### Oka Crisis
In 1990, a long-running dispute over ownership of land at Oka, Quebec, caused a violent stand-off. The Mohawk reservation at Oka had become dominated by a group called the Mohawk Warrior Society that engaged in practices that American and Canadian authorities considered smuggling across the U.S.-Canada border, and were well armed with assault rifles. On July 11, 1990, the Mohawk Warrior Society tried to stop the building of a golf course on land claimed by the Mohawk people, which led to a shoot-out between the Warrior Society and the *Sûreté du Québec* that left a policeman dead. In the resulting Oka Crisis, the Warrior Society occupied both the land that they claimed belonged to the Mohawk people and the Mercier bridge linking the Island of Montreal to the south shore of the St. Lawrence River. On August 17, 1990, Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa asked for the Canadian Army to intervene to maintain "public safety", leading to the deployment of the Royal 22e Régiment to Oka and Montreal. The stand-off ended on September 26, 1990, with a melee between the soldiers and the warriors. The dispute over ownership of the land at Oka continues.[*as of?*]
#### U.S. Indian termination policies
In the period between World War II and The Sixties, the U.S. government followed a policy of Indian Termination for its Native citizens. In a series of laws, attempting to mainstream tribal people into the greater society, the government strove to end the U.S. government's recognition of tribal sovereignty, eliminate trusteeship over Indian reservations, and implement state law applicability to native persons. In general, the laws were expected to create taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal taxes as well as laws, from which Native people had previously been exempt.
On August 13, 1946 the *Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946*, Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the five-year deadline in August 1951.
On July 2, 1948 Congress enacted [Public Law 881] 62 Stat. 1224, which transferred criminal jurisdiction over offenses committed by and against "Indians" to the State of New York. It covered all reservations' lands within the state and prohibited the deprivation of hunting and fishing rights which may have been guaranteed to "any Indian tribe, band, or community, or members thereof." It further prohibited the state from requiring tribal members to obtain fish and game licenses. Within 2 years, Congress passed [Public Law 785] 64 Stat. 845, on September 13, 1950 which extended New York's authority to civil disputes between Indians or Indians and others within the State. It allowed the tribes to preserve customs, prohibited taxation on reservations, and reaffirmed hunting and fishing rights. It also prohibited the state from enforcing judgments regarding any land disputes or applying any State laws to tribal lands or claims prior to the effective date of the law September 13, 1952. During congressional hearings on the law, tribes strongly opposed its passage, fearful that states would deprive them of their reservations. The State of New York disavowed any intention to break up or deprive tribes of their reservations and asserted that they did not have the ability to do so.
On August 1, 1953, United States Congress issued a formal statement, House Concurrent Resolution 108, which was the formal policy presentation announcing the official federal policy of Indian termination. The resolution called for the "immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas." All federal aid, services, and protection offered to these Native peoples were to cease, and the federal trust relationship and management of reservations would end. Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United States citizens with all the rights, benefits and responsibilities of any other United States citizen. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly identify other tribes who would be ready for termination in the near future.
Beginning in 1953, a Federal task force began meeting with the tribes of the Six Nations. Despite tribal objections, legislation was introduced into Congress for termination. The proposed legislation involved more than 11,000 Indians of the Iroquois Confederation and was divided into two separate bills. One bill dealt with the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes, and the other dealt with the Seneca. The arguments the Six Nations made in their hearings with committees were that their treaties showed that the United States recognized that their lands belonged to the Six Nations, not the United States, and that "termination contradicted any reasonable interpretation that their lands would not be claimed or their nations disturbed" by the federal government. The bill for the Iroquois Confederation died in committee without further serious consideration.
On August 31, 1964, H. R. 1794 *An Act to authorize payment for certain interests in lands within the Allegheny Indian Reservation in New York* was passed by Congress and sent to the president for signature. The bill authorized payment for resettling and rehabilitation of the Seneca Indians who were being dislocated by the construction of the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River. Though only 127 Seneca families (about 500 people) were being dislocated, the legislation benefited the entire Seneca Nation, because the taking of the Indian land for the dam abridged a 1794 treaty agreement. In addition, the bill provided that within three years, a plan from the Interior Secretary should be submitted to Congress withdrawing all federal supervision over the Seneca Nation, though technically civil and criminal jurisdiction had lain with the State of New York since 1950.
Accordingly, on September 5, 1967 a memo from the Department of the Interior announced proposed legislation was being submitted to end federal ties with the Seneca. In 1968 a new liaison was appointed from the BIA for the tribe to assist the tribe in preparing for termination and rehabilitation. The Seneca were able to hold off termination until President Nixon issued his *Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs* in July 1970. No New York tribes then living in the state were terminated during this period.
One tribe that had formerly lived in New York did lose its federal recognition. The Emigrant Indians of New York included the Oneida, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin. In an effort to fight termination and force the government into recognizing their outstanding land claims in New York, the three tribes filed litigation with the Claims Commission in the 1950s. They won their claim on August 11, 1964. Public Law 90-93 81 Stat. 229 *Emigrant New York Indians of Wisconsin Judgment Act* established federal trusteeship to pay the Oneida and Stockbridge-Munsee, effectively ending Congressional termination efforts for them. Though the law did not specifically state the Brothertown Indians were terminated, it authorized all payments to be made directly to each enrollee, with special provisions for minors to be handled by the Secretary. The payments were not subject to state or federal taxes.
Beginning in 1978, the Brothertown Indians submitted a petition to regain federal recognition. In 2012 the Department of the Interior, in the final determination on the Brothertown petition, found that Congress had terminated their tribal status when it granted them citizenship in 1838 and therefore only Congress could restore their tribal status. They are still[*when?*] seeking Congressional approval.
Society
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### War
For the Haudenosaunee, grief for a loved one who died was a powerful emotion. They believed that if it was not attended to, it would cause all sorts of problems for the grieving who would go mad if left without consolation. Rituals to honor the dead were very important and the most important of all was the condolence ceremony to provide consolation for those who lost a family member or friend. Since it was believed that the death of a family member also weakened the spiritual strength of the surviving family members, it was considered crucially important to replace the lost family member by providing a substitute who could be adopted, or alternatively could be tortured to provide an outlet for the grief. Hence the "mourning wars".
One of the central features of traditional Iroquois life were the "mourning wars", when their warriors would raid neighboring peoples in search of captives to replace those Haudenosaunee who had died. War for the Haudenosaunee was primarily undertaken for captives. They were not concerned with such goals as expansion of territory or glory in battle, as were the Europeans. They did, however, go to war to control hunting grounds, especially as the fur trade became more lucrative.
A war party was considered successful if it took many prisoners without suffering losses in return; killing enemies was considered acceptable if necessary, but disapproved of as it reduced the number of potential captives. Taking captives were considered far more important than scalps. Additionally, war served as a way for young men to demonstrate their valor and courage. This was a prerequisite for a man to be made a chief, and it was also essential for men who wanted to marry. Haudenosaunee women admired warriors who were brave in war. In the pre-contact era, war was relativity bloodless, as First Nations peoples did not have guns and fought one another in suits of wooden armor. In 1609, the French explorer Samuel de Champlain observed several battles between the Algonquin and the Iroquois that resulted in hardly any deaths. This seemed to be the norm for First Nations wars. At a battle between the Algonquin and the Iroquois by the shores of Lake Champlain, the only people killed were two Iroquois warriors hit by bullets from Champlain's musket, in a demonstration to his Algonquin allies.
The clan mothers would demand a "mourning war" to provide consolation and renewed spiritual strength for a family that lost a member to death. Either the warriors would go on a "mourning war" or would be marked by the clan mothers as cowards forever, which made them unmarriageable. At this point, the warriors would usually leave to raid a neighboring people in search of captives. The captives were either adopted into Haudenosaunee families to become assimilated, or were to be killed after bouts of ritualized torture as a way of expressing rage at the death of a family member. The male captives were usually received with blows, passing through a kind of gantlet as they were brought into the community. All captives, regardless of their sex or age, were stripped naked and tied to poles in the middle of the community. After having sensitive parts of their bodies burned and some of their fingernails pulled out, the prisoners were allowed to rest and given food and water. In the following days, the captives had to dance naked before the community, when individual families decided for each if the person was to be adopted or killed. Women and children were more often adopted than were older men. If those who were adopted into the Haudenosaunee families made a sincere effort to become Haudenosaunee, then they would be embraced by the community, and if they did not, then they were swiftly executed.
Those slated for execution had to wear red and black facial paint and were "adopted" by a family who addressed the prisoner as "uncle", "aunt", "nephew" or "niece" depending on their age and sex, and would bring them food and water. The captive would be executed after a day-long torture session of burning and removing body parts, which the prisoner was expected to bear with stoicism and nobility (an expectation not usually met) before being scalped alive. Hot sand was applied to the exposed skull and they were finally killed by cutting out their hearts. Afterward, the victim's body was cut and eaten by the community. The practice of ritual torture and execution, together with cannibalism, ended some time in the early 18th century. By the late-18th-century, European writers such as Philip Mazzei and James Adair were denying that the Haudenosaunee engaged in ritual torture and cannibalism, saying they had seen no evidence of such practices during their visits to Haudenosaunee villages.
In 1711 Onondaga chief Teganissorens told Sir Robert Hunter, governor of New York: "We are not like you Christians, for when you have prisoners of one another you send them home, by such means you can never rout one another". The converse of this strategy was that the Iroquois would not accept losses in battle, as it defeated the whole purpose of the "mourning wars", which was to add to their numbers, not decrease them. The French during their wars with the Haudenosaunee were often astonished when a war party that was on the verge of victory over them could be made to retreat by killing one or two of their number. The European notion of a glorious death in battle had no counterpart with the Haudenosaunee.
Death in battle was accepted only when absolutely necessary, and the Iroquois believed the souls of those who died in battle were destined to spend eternity as angry ghosts haunting the world in search of vengeance. For this reason, those who died in battle were never buried in community cemeteries, as it would bring the presence of unhappy ghosts into the community.
The Haudenosaunee engaged in tactics that the French, the British, and the Americans all considered to be cowardly, until the Americans adopted similar guerrilla tactics. The Haudenosaunee preferred ambushes and surprise attacks, would almost never attack a fortified place or attack frontally, and would retreat if outnumbered. If Kanienkeh was invaded, the Haudenosaunee would attempt to ambush the enemy, or alternatively they would retreat behind the wooden walls of their villages to endure a siege. If the enemy appeared too powerful, as when the French invaded Kanienkeh in 1693, the Haudenosaunee burned their villages and their crops, and the entire population retreated into the woods to wait for the French to depart. The main weapons for the Iroquois were bows and arrows with flint tips and quivers made from corn husks. Shields and war clubs were made from wood. After contact was established with Europeans, the Native Americans adopted such tools as metal knives and hatchets, and made their tomahawks with iron or steel blades. It has been posited that the tomahawk was not used extensively in battle, but instead became associated with the Haudenosaunee through European depictions that sought to portray natives as savage and threatening. Before taking to the field, war chiefs would lead ritual purification ceremonies in which the warriors would dance around a pole painted red.
European infectious diseases such as smallpox devastated the Five Nations in the 17th century, causing thousands of deaths, as they had no acquired immunity to the new diseases, which had been endemic among Europeans for centuries. The League began a period of "mourning wars" without precedent; compounding deaths from disease, they nearly annihilated the Huron, Petun and Neutral peoples. By the 1640s, it is estimated that smallpox had reduced the population of the Haudenosaunee by least 50%. Massive "mourning wars" were undertaken to make up these losses. The American historian Daniel Richter wrote it was at this point that war changed from being sporadic, small-scale raids launched in response to individual deaths, and became "the constant and increasing undifferentiated symptom of societies in demographic crisis". The introduction of guns, which could pierce the wooden armor, made First Nations warfare bloodier and more deadly than it had been in the pre-contact era. This ended the age when armed conflicts were more brawls than battles as Europeans would have understood the term. At the same time, guns could only be obtained by trading furs with the Europeans. Once the Haudenosaunee exhausted their supplies of beaver by about 1640, they were forced to buy beaver pelts from Indians living further north, which led them to attempt to eliminate other middlemen in order to monopolize the fur trade in a series of "beaver wars". Richter wrote
> "the mourning war tradition, deaths from disease, dependence on firearms, and the trade in furs combined to produce a dangerous spiral: epidemics led to deadlier mourning wars fought with firearms; the need for guns increased the need for pelts to trade for them; the quest for furs provoked wars with other nations; and deaths in those wars began the mourning war cycle anew".
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From 1640 to 1701, the Five Nations was almost continuously at war, battling at various times the French, Huron, Erie, Neutral, Lenape, Susquenhannock, Petun, Abenaki, Ojibwa, and Algonquin peoples, fighting campaigns from Virginia to the Mississippi and all the way to what is now northern Ontario.
Despite taking thousands of captives, the Five Nations populations continued to fall, as diseases continued to take their toll. French Jesuits, whom the Haudenosaunee were forced to accept after making peace with the French in 1667, encouraged Catholic converts to move to mission villages in the St. Lawrence river valley near Montreal and Quebec. In the 1640s, the Mohawk could field about 800 warriors. By the 1670s, they could field only 300 warriors, indicating population decline.
### Melting pot
The Iroquois League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through captives taken in "mourning wars", the blood feuds and vendettas that were an essential aspect of Iroquois culture. As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to take vengeance and seize captives. Captives were generally adopted directly by the grieving family to replace the member(s) who had been lost.
This process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. The adoption of conquered peoples, especially during the period of the Beaver Wars (1609–1701), meant that the Iroquois League was composed largely of naturalized members of other tribes. Cadwallader Colden wrote,
> "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their nation suffers by the people they lose in war."
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Those who attempted to return to their families were harshly punished; for instance, the French fur trader Pierre-Esprit Radisson was captured by an Iroquois raiding party as a teenager, was adopted by a Mohawk family, and ran away to return to his family in Trois-Rivières. When he was recaptured, he was punished by having his fingernails pulled out and having one of his fingers cut to the bone. But Radisson was not executed, as his adoptive parents provided gifts to the families of the men whom Radisson had killed when he escaped, given as compensation for their loss. Several Huron who escaped with Radisson and were recaptured were quickly executed.
By 1668, two-thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated Algonquian and Huron. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven different nations, and among the Seneca eleven. They also adopted European captives, as did the Catholic Mohawk in settlements outside Montreal. This tradition of adoption and assimilation was common to native people of the Northeast.
### Settlement
At the time of first European contact the Iroquois lived in a small number of large villages scattered throughout their territory. Each nation had between one and four villages at any one time, and villages were moved approximately every five to twenty years as soil and firewood were depleted. These settlements were surrounded by a palisade and usually located in a defensible area such as a hill, with access to water. Because of their appearance with the palisade, Europeans termed them castles. Villages were usually built on level or raised ground, surrounded by log palisades and sometimes ditches.
Within the villages the inhabitants lived in longhouses. Longhouses varied in size from 15 to 150 feet long and 15 to 25 feet in breadth. Longhouses were usually built of layers of elm bark on a frame of rafters and standing logs raised upright. In 1653, Dutch official and landowner Adriaen van der Donck described a Mohawk longhouse in his *Description of New Netherland*.
> Their houses are mostly of one and the same shape, without any special embellishment or remarkable design. When building a house, large or small,—for sometimes they build them as long as some hundred feet, though never more than twenty feet wide—they stick long, thin, peeled hickory poles in the ground, as wide apart and as long as the house is to be. The poles are then bent over and fastened one to another, so that it looks like a wagon or arbor as are put in gardens. Next, strips like split laths are laid across these poles from one end to the other. ... This is then well covered all over with very tough bark. ... From one end of the house to the other along the center they kindle fires, and the area left open, which is also in the middle, serves as a chimney to release the smoke. Often there are sixteen or eighteen families in a house ... This means that often a hundred or a hundred and fifty or more lodge in one house.
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Usually, between 2 and 20 families lived in a single longhouse with sleeping platforms being 2 feet above the ground and food left to dry on the rafters. A castle might contain twenty or thirty longhouses. In addition to the castles the Iroquois also had smaller settlements which might be occupied seasonally by smaller groups, for example for fishing or hunting. Living in the smoke-filled longhouses often caused conjunctivitis.
Total population for the five nations has been estimated at 20,000 before 1634. After 1635 the population dropped to around 6,800, chiefly due to the epidemic of smallpox introduced by contact with European settlers. The Iroquois lived in extended families divided clans headed by clan mothers that grouped into *moieities* ("halves"). The typical clan consisted of about 50 to 200 people. The division of the Iroquois went as follows:
**Cayuga**
*Moiety* (A) clans: Bear, Beaver, Heron, Turtle, Wolf
*Moiety* (B) clans: Turtle, Bear, Deer
**Tuscarora**
*Moiety* (A) clans: Bear, Wolf
*Moiety* (B) clans: Eel, Snipe, Beaver, Turtle, Deer
**Seneca**
*Moiety* (A) clans: Heron, Beaver, Bear, Wolf, Turtle
*Moiety* (B) clans: Deer, Hawk, Eel, Snipe
**Onondaga**
*Moiety* (A) clans: Tortoise, Wolf, Snipe, Eagle, Beaver
*Moiety* (B) clan: Bear, Hawk, Eel, Deer
**Oneida**
*Moiety* (A) clan: wolf
*Moiety* (B) clans: Bear, Turtle
**Mohawk**
*Moiety* (A) clans: Wolf, Bear
*Moiety* (B) clan: Turtle. Government was by the 50 *sachems* representing the various clans who were chosen by the clan mothers. Assisting the *sachems* were the "Pinetree Chiefs" who served as diplomats and the "War Chiefs" who led the war parties; neither the "Pinetree Chiefs" or the "War Chiefs" were allowed to vote at council meetings.
By the late 1700s The Iroquois were building smaller log cabins resembling those of the colonists, but retaining some native features, such as bark roofs with smoke holes and a central fireplace. The main woods used by the Iroquois to make their utensils were oak, birch, hickory and elm. Bones and antlers were used to make hunting and fishing equipment.
### Food production
The Iroquois are a mix of horticulturalists, farmers, fishers, gatherers and hunters, though traditionally their main diet has come from farming. For the Iroquois, farming was traditionally women's work and the entire process of planting, maintaining, harvesting and cooking was done by women. Gathering has also traditionally been the job of women and children. Wild roots, greens, berries and nuts were gathered in the summer. During spring, sap is tapped from the maple trees and boiled into maple syrup, and herbs are gathered for medicine. After the coming of Europeans, the Iroquois started to grow apples, pears, cherries, and peaches.
Historically, the main crops cultivated by the Iroquois were corn, beans and squash, which were called the three sisters (*De-oh-há-ko*) and in Iroquois tradition were considered special gifts from the Creator. These three crops could be ground up into hominy and soups in clay pots (later replaced by metal pots after the contact was with Europeans). Besides the "Three Sisters", the Iroquois diet also included artichokes, leeks, cucumbers, turnips, pumpkins, a number of different berries such blackberries, blueberries, gooseberries, etc. and wild nuts. Allium tricoccum, a species of wild onion, is also a part of traditional Iroquois cuisine, as well as Ribes triste (redcurrant), Apios americana (groundnut), and Cardamine diphylla (broadleaf toothwort).
Using these ingredients they prepared meals of boiled corn bread and cornmeal sweetened with maple syrup, known today as Indian pudding. Cornmeal was also used to make samp, a type of porridge with beans and dried meat. Reports from early American settlers mention Iroquois extracting corn syrup that was used as a sweetener for cornmeal dumplings.
The Iroquois hunted mostly deer but also other game such as wild turkey and migratory birds. Muskrat and beaver were hunted during the winter. Archaeologists have found the bones of bison, elk, deer, bear, raccoon, and porcupines at Iroquois villages. Fishing was also a significant source of food because the Iroquois had villages mostly in the St.Lawrence and Great Lakes areas. The Iroquois used nets made from vegetable fiber with weights of pebbles for fishing. They fished salmon, trout, bass, perch and whitefish until the St. Lawrence became too polluted by industry. In the spring the Iroquois netted, and in the winter fishing holes were made in the ice. Starting about 1620, the Iroquois started to raise pigs, geese and chickens, which they had acquired from the Dutch.
### Dress
In 1644 Johannes Megapolensis described Mohawk traditional wear.
> In summer they go naked, having only their private parts covered with a patch. The children and young folks to ten, twelve and fourteen years of age go stark naked. In winter, they hang about them simply an undressed deer or bear or panther skin; or they take some beaver and otter skins, wild cat, racoon, martin, otter, mink, squirrel or such like skins ... and sew some of them to others, until it is a square piece, and that is then a garment for them; or they buy of us Dutchmen two and a half ells [about 170 centimetres (5.6 ft)] of duffel, and that they hang simply about them, just as it was torn off, without sewing it.
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On their feet the Iroquois wore moccasins, "true to nature in its adjustment to the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and durable as an article of apparel."
> The moccason is made of one piece of deer-skin. It is seamed up at the heel, and also in front, above the foot, leaving the bottom of the moccasin without a seam. In front the deer-skin is gathered, in place of being crimped; over this part porcupine quills or beads are worked, in various patterns. The plain moccasin rises several inches above the ankle ... and is fastened with deer strings; but usually this part is turned down, so as to expose a part of the instep, and is ornamented with bead-work.
>
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Moccasins of a sort were also made of corn husks.
In 1653 Dutch official Adriaen van der Donck wrote:
> Around their waist they all [i.e.both men and women] wear a belt made of leather, whalefin, whalebone, or wampum. The men pull a length of duffel cloth—if they have it—under this belt, front and rear, and pass it between the legs. It is over half an ell [35 centimetres (14 in)] wide and nine quarter-ells [155 centimetres (61 in)] long, which leaves a square flap hanging down in front and back ... Before duffel cloth was common in that country, and sometimes even now when it cannot be had, they took for that purpose some dressed leather or fur—The women also wear a length of woolen cloth of full width [165 centimetres (65 in)] and an ell and a quarter [90 centimetres (35 in)] long, which comes halfway down the leg. It is like a petticoat, but under it, next to the body, they wear a deerskin which also goes around the waist and ends in cleverly cut pointed edging and fringes. The wealthier women and those who have a liking for it wear such skirts wholly embroidered with wampum ... As for covering the upper part of the body both men and women use a sheet of duffel cloth of full width, i.e. nine and a half quarter-ells, and about three ells 210 centimetres (83 in) long. It is usually worn over the right shoulder and tied in a knot around the waist and from there hangs down to the feet.
>
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During the 17th century, Iroquois clothing changed rapidly as a result of the introduction of scissors and needles obtained from the Europeans, and the British scholar Michael Johnson has cautioned that European accounts of Iroquois clothing from the latter 17th century may not have entirely reflected traditional pre-contact Iroquois clothing. In the 17th century women normally went topless in the warm months while wearing a buckskin skirt overlapping on the left while in the winter women covered their upper bodies with a cape-like upper garment with an opening for the head. By the 18th century, cloth colored red and blue obtained from Europeans became the standard material for clothing with the men and women wearing blouses and shirts that usually decorated with beadwork and ribbons and were often worn alongside silver brooches.
By the late 18th century, women were wearing muslin or calico long, loose-fitting overdresses. The tendency of Iroquois women to abandon their traditional topless style of dressing in the warm months reflected European influence. Married women wore their hair in a single braid held in place by a comb made of bone, antler or silver while unmarried wore their hair in several braids. Warriors wore moccasins, leggings and short kilts and on occasion wore robes that were highly decorated with painted designs. Initially, men's clothing was made of buckskin and were decorated with porcupine quill-work and later on was made of broadcloth obtained from Europeans. The bodies and faces of Iroquois men were heavily tattooed with geometric designs and their noses and ears were pieced with rings made up of wampun or silver. On the warpath, the faces and bodies of the warriors were painted half red, half black. The men usually shaved most of their hair with leaving only a tuft of hair in the center, giving the name Mohawk to their hair style. A cap made of either buckskin or cloth tied to wood splints called the *Gus-to-weh* that was decorated with feathers was often worn by men. Buckskin ammunition pouches with straps over the shoulder together with belts or slashes that carried powder horn and tomahawks were usually worn by warriors. Quilled knife cases were worn around the neck. Chiefs wore headdresses made of deer antler. By the 18th century, Iroquois men normally wore shirts and leggings made of broadcloth and buckskin coats. In the 17th and 18th centuries silver armbands and gorgets were popular accessories.
By the 1900s most Iroquois were wearing the same clothing as their non-Iroquois neighbors. Today most nations only wear their traditional clothing to ceremonies or special events.
Men wore a cap with a single long feather rotating in a socket called a *gustoweh*. Later, feathers in the gustoweh denote the wearer's tribe by their number and positioning. The Mohawk wear three upright feathers, the Oneida two upright and one down. The Onondaga wear one feather pointing upward and another pointing down. The Cayuga have a single feather at a forty-five degree angle. The Seneca wear a single feather pointing up, and the Tuscarora have no distinguishing feathers.
Writing in 1851 Morgan wrote that women's outfits consisted of a skirt (*gä-kä'-ah*) "usually of blue broadcloth, and elaborately embroidered with bead-work. It requires two yards of cloth, which is worn with the selvedge at the top and bottom; the skirt being secured about the waist and descending nearly to the top of the moccasin." Under the skirt, between the knees and the moccasins, women wore leggings (*gise'-hǎ*), called *pantalettes* by Morgan, "of red broadcloth, and ornamented with a border of beadwork around the lower edge ... In ancient times the gise'-hǎ was made of deer-skin and embroidered with porcupine-quill work." An over-dress (*ah-de-a'-da-we-sa*) of muslin or calico was worn over the skirt, it is "gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part way down the skirt ... In front it is generally buttoned with silver broaches." The blanket (*e'yose*) is two or three yards of blue or green broadcloth "it falls from the head or neck in natural folds the width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like a shawl."
The women wore their hair very long and tied together at the back, or "tied at the back of the head and folded into a tress of about a hand's length, like a beaver tail ... they wear around the forehead a strap of wampum shaped like the headband that some was worn in olden times." "The men have a long lock hanging down, some on one side of the head, and some on both sides. On the top of their heads they have a streak of hair from the forehead to the neck, about the breadth of three fingers, and this they shorten until it is about two or three fingers long, and it stands right on end like a cock's comb or hog's bristles; on both sides of this cock's comb they cut all the hair short, except for the aforesaid locks, and they also leave on the bare places here and there small locks, such as aree in sweeping brushes and then they are in fine array." This is the forerunner to what is today called a "Mohawk hairstyle."
The women did not paint their faces. The men "paint their faces red, blue, etc."
### Societies
Societies, often called "medicine societies", "medicine lodges", or "curing societies" played an important role in Iroquois social organization. Morgan says that each society "was a brotherhood into which new members were admitted by formal initiation." Originally the membership seems to have been on the basis of moiety, but by 1909 all societies seems to have been open to all men regardless of kinship.
It is believed that "most of the societies are of ancient origin and that their rituals have been transmitted with little change for many years." "Each society has a legend by which its origin and peculiar rites are explained." As part of his religious revolution, Handsome Lake "sought to destroy the societies and orders that conserved the older religious rites" A council of chiefs proclaimed[*when?*] that all animal and mystery societies should immediately dissolve, but through a defect in the form of the order the societies decided it was not legally binding and "went underground" becoming secret societies. Reviled by the "New Religion" of Handsome Lake, they were also rejected by the Christian Iroquois as holding pagan beliefs. Gradually, however, the societies came more into the open as hostility lessened.
A number of societies are known, of which the False Face Society is the most familiar. Others were the Little Water Society, the Pygmy Society, the Society of Otters, the Society of Mystic Animals, the Eagle Society, the Bear Society, the Buffalo Society, the Husk Faces, and the Woman's Society—which despite its name had male membership. The Sisters of the Deo-ha-ko was an organization of women.
During healing ceremonies, a carved "False Face Mask" is worn to represent spirits in a tobacco-burning and prayer ritual. False Face Masks are carved in living trees, then cut free to be painted and decorated. False Faces represent grandfathers of the Iroquois, and are thought to reconnect humans and nature and to frighten illness-causing spirits.
The Iroquois today have three different medicine societies. The False Face Company conducts rituals to cure sick people by driving away spirits; the Husk Face Society is made up of those who had dreams seen as messages from the spirits and the Secret Medicine Society likewise conducts rituals to cure the sick. There are 12 different types of masks worn by the societies. The types of masks are:
* *The Secret Society of Medicine Men and the Company of Mystic Animals*:
+ Divided mask that painted half black and half red;
+ Masks with exaggerated long noses;
+ Horn masks;
+ Blind masks without eye sockets.
* *Husk Face Society*:
+ Masks made of braided corn.
* *False Face Society*:
+ Whistling masks;
+ Masks with smiling faces;
+ Masks with protruding tongues;
+ Masks with exaggerated hanging mouths;
+ Masks with exaggerated straight lops;
+ Masks with spoon-lips;
+ Masks with a disfigured twisted mouth.
The "crooked face" masks with the twisted mouths, the masks with the spoon lips and the whistling masks are the "Doctor" masks. The other masks are "Common Face" or "Beggar" masks that are worn by those who help the Doctors.
The Husk Face Society performs rituals to communicate with the spirits in nature to ensure a good crop, the False Face Society performs rituals to chase away evil spirits, and the Secret Medicine Society performs rituals to cure diseases. The grotesque masks represent the faces of the spirits that the dancers are attempting to please. Those wearing Doctor masks blow hot ashes into the faces of the sick to chase away the evil spirits that are believed to be causing the illness. The masked dancers often carried turtle shell rattles and long staffs.
### Medicine
Both male and female healers were knowledgeable in the use of herbs to treat illness, and could dress wounds, set broken bones, and perform surgery. Illness was believed to have a spiritual as well as a natural component, so spells, dances, ceremonies were used in addition to more practical treatments. There are three types of practitioners of traditional medicine: The "Indian doctor" or healer, who emphasizes the physical aspect of curing illness, the fortune-teller, who uses spiritual means to determine the cause of the patient's ailments and the appropriate cure, and the witch.
It was believed that knowledge of healing was given by supernatural creatures in the guise of animals.
In recent times, traditional medicine has co-existed with western medicine, with traditional practices more prevalent among followers of the Gaihwi:io (Longhouse Religion). People may resort to traditional practices for certain types of ailments, and to western medicine for other types, or they may use both traditional and western medicine to treat the same ailment as a form of double security.
The Iroquois societies are active in maintaining the practice of traditional medicine.
### Women in society
The Iroquois have historically followed a matriarchal system. Men and women have traditionally had separate roles but both hold real power in the Nations. No person is entitled to 'own' land, but it is believed that the Creator appointed women as stewards of the land. Traditionally, the Clan Mothers appoint leaders, as they have raised children and are therefore held to a higher regard. By the same token, if a leader does not prove sound, becomes corrupt or does not listen to the people, the Clan Mothers have the power to strip him of his leadership. The chief of a clan can be removed at any time by a council of the women elders of that clan. The chief's sister has historically been responsible for nominating his successor. The clan mothers, the elder women of each clan, are highly respected.
The Iroquois have traditionally followed a matrilineal system, and hereditary leadership passes through the female line of descent, that is, from a mother to her children. The children of a traditional marriage belong to their mother's clan and gain their social status through hers. Her brothers are important teachers and mentors to the children, especially introducing boys to men's roles and societies. If a couple separates, the woman traditionally keeps the children. It is regarded as incest by the Iroquois to marry within one's matrilineal clan, but considered acceptable to marry someone from the same patrilineal clan.
The teachings of Handsome Lake also expanded to influence the wider Iroquois society. The power centered around the mode of food production and the social sphere in general. Handsome Lake's teaching tried to center the nuclear family and transferred the women's sphere to be relegated to the home while the men's sphere focused on horticulture. Also, the Handsome Lake code shifted from the family structure from the maternal one to one that centers around the patriarch.
Moreover, several other factors influenced the position of Iroquois women. The exhaustion of the beavers' population led to men traveling for longer distances; this resulted in women having a more influential role in their societies because of the long absence of men. Another factor that influenced women's position shift was the reorganization of the political structure. The changes were influential as elected representatives instead of women-appointed sachems.
The status of Iroquois women inspired and had an impact on the early Feminist American movement. This was seen in the Seneca Fall Convention of 1848, the first feminist convention. For example, Matilda Gage, a prominent member of the convention, wrote extensively about the Iroquois throughout her life. Elizabeth Cady lived in close proximity to the Seneca tribe of the Iroquois and had a relative and a neighbor who was adopted by the Seneca tribe as well.
Women also held an important position to be Agoianders or to elect them. The Agoianders positions was to watch over the public treasury and hold the chief accountable.
Historically women have held the dwellings, horses and farmed land, and a woman's property before marriage has stayed in her possession without being mixed with that of her husband. The work of a woman's hands is hers to do with as she sees fit.
Historically, at marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the wife's family (matrilocality). A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband is able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take his possessions with him.
### Spiritual beliefs
Like many cultures, the Iroquois' spiritual beliefs changed over time and varied across tribes. Generally, the Iroquois believed in numerous deities, including the Great Spirit, the Thunderer, and the Three Sisters (the spirits of beans, maize, and squash). The Great Spirit was thought to have created plants, animals, and humans to control "the forces of good in nature", and to guide ordinary people. Orenda was the Iroquoian name for the magical potence found in people and their environment. The Iroquois believed in the *orenda*, the spiritual force that flowed through all things, and believed if people were respectful of nature, then the *orenda* would be harnessed to bring about positive results. There were three types of spirits for the Iroquois: 1) Those living on the earth 2) Those living above the earth and 3) the highest level of spirits controlling the universe from high above with the highest of those beings known variously as the Great Spirit, the Great Creator or the Master of Life.
Sources provide different stories about Iroquois creation beliefs. Brascoupé and Etmanskie focus on the first person to walk the earth, called the Skywoman or Aientsik. Aientsik's daughter Tekawerahkwa gave birth to twins, Tawiskaron, who created vicious animals and river rapids, while Okwiraseh created "all that is pure and beautiful". After a battle where Okwiraseh defeated Tawiskaron, Tawiskaron was confined to "the dark areas of the world", where he governed the night and destructive creatures. Other scholars present the "twins" as the Creator and his brother, Flint. The Creator was responsible for game animals, while Flint created predators and disease. Saraydar (1990) suggests the Iroquois do not see the twins as polar opposites but understood their relationship to be more complex, noting "Perfection is not to be found in gods or humans or the worlds they inhabit."
Descriptions of Iroquois spiritual history consistently refer to dark times of terror and misery prior to the Iroquois Confederacy, ended by the arrival of the Great Peacemaker. Tradition asserts that the Peacemaker demonstrated his authority as the Creator's messenger by climbing a tall tree above a waterfall, having the people cut down the tree, and reappearing the next morning unharmed. The Peacemaker restored mental health to a few of the most "violent and dangerous men", Ayonhwatha and Thadodaho, who then helped him bear the message of peace to others.
After the arrival of the Europeans, some Iroquois became Christians, among them the first Native American Saint, Kateri Tekakwitha, a young woman of Mohawk-Algonquin parents. The Seneca sachem Handsome Lake, also known as Ganeodiyo, introduced a new religious system to the Iroquois in the late 18th century, which incorporated Quaker beliefs along with traditional Iroquoian culture. Handsome Lake's teachings include a focus on parenting, appreciation of life, and peace. A key aspect of Handsome Lake's teachings is the principle of equilibrium, wherein each person's talents combined into a functional community. By the 1960s, at least 50% of Iroquois followed this religion.
Dreams play a significant role in Iroquois spirituality, providing information about a person's desires and prompting individuals to fulfill dreams. To communicate upward, humans can send prayers to spirits by burning tobacco.
Condolence ceremonies are conducted by the Iroquois for both ordinary and important people, but most notably when a hoyane (sachem) died. Such ceremonies were still held on Iroquois reservations as late as the 1970s. After death, the soul is thought to embark on a journey, undergo a series of ordeals, and arrive in the sky world. This journey is thought to take one year, during which the Iroquois mourn for the dead. After the mourning period, a feast is held to celebrate the soul's arrival in the skyworld.
"Keepers of the faith" are part-time specialists who conduct religious ceremonies. Both men and women can be appointed as keepers of the faith by tribe elders.
### Haudenosaunee thanksgiving address
The Haudenosaunee thanksgiving address is a central prayer in Haudenosaunee tradition recited daily in the beginning of school days as well as social, cultural, and political events. The address gives thanks to the parts of nature necessary to ecosystem sustainability and emphasizes the ideology that all animals within an ecosystem are connected and each plays a vital role in it.
The phrasing of the address may vary depending on the speaker but is usually composed of 17 main sections and ends with a closing prayer. The 17 main sections are: 1) The people, 2) The Earth Mother, 3) The waters, 4) The fish, 5) plants, 6) food plants,7) medicine herbs, 8) animals, 9) trees, 10) birds, 11) four winds, 12) The Thunderers, 13) The Sun, 14) Grandmother Moon, 15) The stars, 16) The Enlightened Teachers, and 17) The Creator. Within each section, gratitude is given for the gifts that section provides to humanity.
The address serves as a pledge of gratitude as well as a “scientific inventory of the natural world.” By describing living and non-living elements of the ecosystem and their functions, uses and benefits, the pledge instills early concepts of traditional ecological knowledge within grade school children and onward.
### Festivals
The Iroquois traditionally celebrate several major festivals throughout the year. These usually combine a spiritual component and ceremony, a feast, a chance to celebrate together, sports, entertainment and dancing. These celebrations have historically been oriented to the seasons and celebrated based on the cycle of nature rather than fixed calendar dates.
For instance, the Mid-winter festival, *Gi'-ye-wä-no-us-quä-go-wä* ("The supreme belief") ushers in the new year. This festival is traditionally held for one week around the end of January to early February, depending on when the new moon first occurs that year.
Iroquois ceremonies are primarily concerned with farming, healing, and thanksgiving. Key festivals correspond to the agricultural calendar, and include Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green Maize, Harvest, and Mid-Winter (or New Year's), which is held in early February. The ceremonies were given by the Creator to the Iroquois to balance good with evil. In the 17th century, Europeans described the Iroquois as having 17 festivals, but only 8 are observed today. The most important of the ceremonies were the New Year Festival, the Maple Festival held in late March to celebrate spring, the Sun Shooting Festival which also celebrates spring, the Seed Dance in May to celebrate the planting of the crops, the Strawberry Festival in June to celebrate the ripening of the strawberries, the Thunder Ceremony to bring rain in July, the Green Bean Festival in early August, the Green Corn Festival in late August and the Harvest Festival in October. Of all the festivals, the most important were the Green Corn Festival to celebrate the maturing of the corn and the New Year Festival. During all of the festivals, men and women from the False Face Society, the Medicine Society and the Husk Face Society dance wearing their masks in attempt to humor the spirits that controlled nature. The most important of the occasions for the masked dancers to appear were the New Year Festival, which was felt to be an auspicious occasion to chase the malevolent spirits that were believed to cause disease.
### Art
Iroquois art from the 16th and 17th centuries as found on bowls, pottery and clay pipes show a mixture of animal, geometrical and human imagery. Moose hair was sometimes attached to tumplines or burden straps for decorative effect. Porcupine quillwork was sewn onto bags, clothing and moccasins, usually in geometrical designs. Other designs included the "great turtle" upon North America was said to rest; the circular "skydome" and wavy designs. Beads and clothes often featured semi-circles and waves which meant to represent the "skydome" which consisted of the entire universe together with the supernatural world above it, parallel lines for the earth and curved lines for the "celestial tree". Floral designs were first introduced in the 17th century, reflecting French influence, but did not become truly popular until the 19th century. Starting about 1850 the Iroquois art began to frequently feature floral designs on moccasins, caps, pouches and pincushions, which were purchased by Euro-Americans. The British historian Michael Johnson described the Iroquois artwork meant to be sold to whites in the 19th century as having a strong feel of "Victoriana" to them. Silver was much valued by the Iroquois from the 17th century onward, and starting in the 18th century, the Iroquois became "excellent silversmiths", making silver earrings, gorgets and rings.
At harvest time, Iroquois women would use corn husks to make hats, dolls, rope and moccasins.
### Games and sports
The favorite sport of the Iroquois is *lacrosse* (*O-tä-dä-jish′-quä-äge* in Seneca). Historically, a version was played between two teams of six or eight players, made up of members of two sets of clans (Wolf, Bear, Beaver, and Turtle on one side vs. Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk on the other among the Senecas). The goals were two sets of poles roughly 450 yards (410 m) apart. The poles were about 10 feet (3.0 m) high and placed about 15 feet (4.6 m) apart. A goal was scored by carrying or throwing a deer-skin ball between the goal posts using netted sticks—touching the ball with hands was prohibited. The game was played to a score of five or seven. The modern version of lacrosse remains popular among the Haudenasaunee to this day.
The First Nations Lacrosse Association is recognized by World Lacrosse as a sovereign state for international lacrosse competitions. It is the only sport in which the Iroquois field national teams and the only indigenous people's organization sanctioned for international competition by any world sporting governing body.
A popular winter game was the *snow-snake game*. The "snake" was a hickory pole about 5–7 feet (1.5–2.1 m) long and about .25 inches (0.64 cm) in diameter, turned up slightly at the front and weighted with lead. The game was played between two sides of up to six players each, often boys, but occasionally between the men of two clans. The snake, or *Gawa′sa*, was held by placing the index finger against the back end and balancing it on the thumb and other fingers. It was not thrown but slid across the surface of the snow. The side whose snake went the farthest scored one point. Other snakes from the same side which went farther than any other snake of the opposing side also scored a point; the other side scored nothing. This was repeated until one side scored the number of points which had been agreed to for the game, usually seven or ten.
The *Peach-stone game* (*Guskä′eh*) was a gambling game in which the clans bet against each other. Traditionally it was played on the final day of the Green Corn, Harvest, and Mid-winter festivals. The game was played using a wooden bowl about one foot in diameter and six peach-stones (pits) ground to oval shape and burned black on one side. A "bank" of beans, usually 100, was used to keep score and the winner was the side who won them all. Two players sat on a blanket-covered platform raised a few feet off the floor. To play the peach stones were put into the bowl and shaken. Winning combinations were five of either color or six of either color showing.
Players started with five beans each from the bank. The starting player shook the bowl; if he shook a five the other player paid him one bean, if a six five beans. If he shook either he got to shake again. If he shook anything else the turn passed to his opponent. All his winnings were handed over to a "manager" or "managers" for his side. If a player lost all of his beans another player from his side took his place and took five beans from the bank. Once all beans had been taken from the bank the game continued, but with the draw of beans now coming from the winnings of the player's side, which were kept out of sight so that no one but the managers knew how the game was going. The game was finished when one side had won all the beans.
The game sometimes took quite a while to play, depending on the starting number of beans, and games lasting more than a day were common.
### Naming conventions
Each clan has a group of personal names which may be used to name members. The clan mother is responsible for keeping track of those names not in use, which may then be reused to name infants. When a child becomes an adult he takes a new "adult" name in place of his "baby" name. Some names are reserved for chiefs or faith keepers, and when a person assumes that office he takes the name in a ceremony in which he is considered to "resuscitate" the previous holder. If a chief resigns or is removed he gives up the name and resumes his previous one.
### Cannibalism
Although the Iroquois are sometimes mentioned as examples of groups who practiced cannibalism, the evidence is mixed as to whether such a practice could be said to be widespread among the Six Nations, and to whether it was a notable cultural feature. Some anthropologists have found evidence of ritual torture and cannibalism at Iroquois sites, for example, among the Onondaga in the sixteenth century. However, other scholars, most notably anthropologist William Arens in his controversial book, *The Man-Eating Myth*, have challenged the evidence, suggesting the human bones found at sites point to funerary practices, asserting that if cannibalism was practiced among the Iroquois, it was not widespread. Modern anthropologists seem to accept the probability that cannibalism did exist among the Iroquois, with Thomas Abler describing the evidence from the Jesuit Relations and archaeology as making a "case for cannibalism in early historic times ... so strong that it cannot be doubted." Scholars are also urged to remember the context for a practice that now shocks the modern Western society. Sanday reminds us that the ferocity of the Iroquois' rituals "cannot be separated from the severity of conditions ... where death from hunger, disease, and warfare became a way of life".
The missionaries Johannes Megapolensis, François-Joseph Bressani, and the fur trader Pierre-Esprit Radisson present first-hand accounts of cannibalism among the Mohawk. A common theme is ritualistic roasting and eating the heart of a captive who has been tortured and killed. "To eat your enemy is to perform an extreme form of physical dominance."
### Slavery
Haudenosaunee peoples participated in "mourning wars" to obtain captives. Leland Donald suggests in "Slavery in Indigenous North America" that captives and slaves were interchangeable roles. There have been archaeological studies to support that Haudenosaunee peoples did in fact have a hierarchal system that included slaves. Note that the term slave in Haudenosaunee culture is identified by spiritual and revengeful purposes, not to be mistaken for the term slave in the African Slave Trade. However, once African slavery was introduced into North America by European settlers, some Iroquois, such as Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, did own African slaves.
#### Capture
To obtain captives, Haudenosaunee peoples fought "mourning wars". After the wars were over, Haudenosaunee warriors journeyed back to their villages with the enemies taken captive. During these journeys, captives were routinely tortured or even killed by their captors. Leland Donald writes that captives "were killed if they could not keep up, tried to escape, or members of the attacking party could not restrain their emotions". Daniel Richter suggests that keeping the pace may not have been an easy task, writing that "warriors might slowly lead prisoners by a rope between the lines of men, women and children [captives]". If a prisoner survived all the obstacles on the march back to a Haudenosaunee village, the torture did not end. Captives were mutilated and beaten for several days upon arrival by Haudenosaunee warriors. After the initiation process, they were either killed, or welcomed into the nation where they would be replacing a deceased member of that community.
#### Adoption policy
The Iroquois have absorbed many other individuals from various peoples into their tribes as a result of adopting war captives and giving refuge to displaced peoples. When such adoptees become fully assimilated, they are considered full members of their adoptive families, clans, and tribes. Historically, such adoptees have married into the tribes, and some have become chiefs or respected elders.
Slaves brought onto Haudenosaunee territory were mainly adopted into families or kin groups that had lost a person. Although if that person had been vital for the community they “were usually replaced by other kin-group members” and “captives were...adopted to fill lesser places”. During adoption rituals, slaves were to reject their former life and be renamed as part of their “genuine assimilation”. The key goal of Haudenosaunee slavery practices was to have slaves assimilate to Haudenosaunee culture to rebuild population after one or many deaths. Children and Indigenous peoples of neighbouring villages to the Haudenosaunee are said to have been good slaves because of their better ability to assimilate. That being said, the role of a slave was not a limited position and whenever slaves were available for capture they were taken, no matter their age, race, gender etc.
Once adopted, slaves in Haudenosaunee communities had potential to move up in society. Since slaves were replacing dead nation members, they took on the role of that former member if they could prove that they could live up to it. Their rights within the aforementioned framework were still limited though, meaning slaves performed chores or labor for their adoptive families. Also, there are a few cases where slaves were never adopted into families and their only role was to perform tasks in the village. These types of slaves may have been used solely for exchange. Slave trade was common in Haudenosaunee culture and it aimed to increase Haudenosaunee population.
#### Torture
Slaves were often tortured once captured by the Haudenosaunee. Torture methods consisted of, most notably, finger mutilation, among other things. Slaves endured torture not only on their journey back to Haudenosaunee nations, but also during initiation rituals and sometimes throughout their enslavement. Finger mutilation was common as a sort of marking of a slave. In "Northern Iroquoian Slavery", Starna and Watkins suggest that sometimes torture was so brutal that captives died before being adopted. Initial torture upon entry into the Haudenosaunee culture also involved binding, bodily mutilation with weapons, and starvation, and for female slaves: sexual assault. Starvation may have lasted longer depending on the circumstance. Louis Hennepin was captured by Haudenosaunee peoples in the 17th century and recalled being starved during his adoption as one of "Aquipaguetin"’s replacement sons. Indigenous slaves were also starved by their captors, such as Hennepin was. The brutality of Haudenosaunee slavery was not without its purposes; torture was used to demonstrate a power dynamic between the slave and the "master" to constantly remind the slave that they were inferior.
#### Language
Language played another role in Haudenosaunee slavery practices. Slaves were often referred to as "domestic animals" or "dogs" which were equivalent to the word to "slave". This use of language suggests that slaves were dehumanized, that slaves were "domesticated" and another that slaves were to be eaten as Haudenosaunee peoples ate dogs. Jaques Bruyas wrote a dictionary of the Mohawk language where the word “*Gatsennen*” is defined as "Animal domestique, serviteur, esclave" the English translation being "domestic animal, butler, slave". There are also more language accounts of slaves being compared to animals (mostly dogs) in Oneida and Onondaga language. This language serves as a proof not only that slavery did exist, but also that slaves were at the bottom of the hierarchy.
#### Changes after contact
Inevitably, Haudenosaunee slavery practices changed after European contact. With the arrival of European-introduced infectious diseases came the increase in Haudenosaunee peoples taking captives as their population kept decreasing. During the 17th century, Haudenosaunee peoples banded together to stand against settlers. By the end of the century, Haudenosaunee populations were made up mostly of captives from other nations. Among the Indigenous groups targeted by the Haudenosaunee were the Wyandot who were captured in such large numbers that they lost their independence for a large period of time. “Mourning wars” became essential to rebuilding their numbers, while at the same time Haudenosaunee warriors began launching raids on European colonial settlements. Similarly to Indigenous slaves, European slaves were tortured by the Haudenosaunee using finger mutilation and sometimes cannibalism. European captives did not make good slaves because they resisted even more than Indigenous captives and did not understand rituals such as renaming and forgetting their past. For this reason most European captives were either used as ransom or murdered upon arrival to Haudenosaunee territory. Many Europeans who were not captured became trading partners with the Haudenosaunee. Indigenous slaves were now being traded amongst European settlers and some slaves even ended up in Quebec households. Eventually, European contact led to adoptees outnumbering the Haudenosaunee in their own communities. The difficulty of controlling these slaves in large numbers ended Haudenosaunee slavery practices.
Government
----------
The *Grand Council of the Six Nations* is an assembly of 56 *Hoyenah* (chiefs) or sachems. Sachemships are hereditary within a clan. When a position becomes vacant a candidate is selected from among the members of the clan and "raised up" by a council of all sachems. The new sachem gives up his old name and is thereafter addressed by the title.
Today, the seats on the Council are distributed among the Six Nations as follows:
* 14 Onondaga
* 10 Cayuga
* 9 Oneida
* 9 Mohawk
* 8 Seneca
* 6 Tuscarora
When anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan studied the Grand Council in the 19th century, he interpreted it as a central government. This interpretation became influential, but Richter argues that while the Grand Council served an important ceremonial role, it was not a government in the sense that Morgan thought. According to this view, Iroquois political and diplomatic decisions are made on the local level and are based on assessments of community consensus. A central government that develops policy and implements it for the people at large is not the Iroquois model of government.
Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855, Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was ratified by 75% of the male voters and 75% of the mothers of the nation. In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two-thirds of the mothers was required. The need for a double supermajority to make major changes made the Confederacy a *de facto* consensus government.
The women traditionally held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war. The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers of each clan. If any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, the mother of his clan could demote him, a process called "knocking off the horns". The deer antlers, an emblem of leadership, were removed from his headgear, thus returning him to private life.
Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from the men's councils. The women used men as runners to send word of their decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men's council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took the initiative in suggesting legislation.
### Wampum belts
The term "wampum" refers to beads made from purple and white mollusk shells on threads of elm bark. Species used to make wampum include the highly prized quahog clam (*Mercenaria mercenaria*) which produces the famous purple colored beads. For white colored beads the shells from the channeled whelk (*Busycotypus canaliculatus*), knobbed whelk (*Busycon carica*), lightning whelk (*Sinistrofulgur perversum*), and snow whelk (*Sinistrofulgur laeostomum*) are used.
Wampum was primarily used to make wampum belts by the Iroquois, which Iroquois tradition claims was invented by Hiawatha to console chiefs and clan mothers who lost family members to war. Wampum belts played a major role in the Condolence Ceremony and in the raising of new chiefs. Wampum belts are used to signify the importance of a specific message being presented. Treaty making often involved wampum belts to signify the importance of the treaty. A famous example is "The Two Row Wampum" or "Guesuenta", meaning "it brightens our minds", which was originally presented to the Dutch settlers, and then French, representing a canoe and a sailboat moving side-by-side along the river of life, not interfering with the other's course. All non-Native settlers are, by associations, members of this treaty. Both chiefs and clan mothers wear wampum belts as symbol of their offices.
"The Covenant Belt" was presented to the Iroquois at the signing of the Canandaigua Treaty. The belt has a design of thirteen human figures representing symbolically the Thirteen Colonies of the United States. The house and the two figures directly next to the house represent the Iroquois people and the symbolic longhouse. The figure on the left of the house represent the Seneca Nation who are the symbolic guardians of the western door (western edge of Iroquois territory) and the figure to the right of the house represents the Mohawk who are the keepers of the eastern door (eastern edge of Iroquois territory).
The Hiawatha belt is the national belt of the Iroquois and is represented in the Iroquois Confederacy flag. The belt has four squares and a tree in the middle which represents the original Five Nations of the Iroquois. Going from left to right the squares represent the Seneca, Cayuga, Oneida and Mohawk. The Onondaga are represented by an eastern white pine which represents the Tree of Peace. Traditionally the Onondaga are the peace keepers of the confederacy. The placement of the nations on the belt represents the actually geographical distribution of the six nations over their shared territory, with the Seneca in the far west and the Mohawk in the far east of Iroquois territory.
The Haudenosaunee flag created in the 1980s is based on the Hiawatha Belt ... created from purple and white wampum beads centuries ago to symbolize the union forged when the former enemies buried their weapons under the Great Tree of Peace." It represents the original five nations that were united by the Peacemaker and Hiawatha. The tree symbol in the center represents an Eastern White Pine, the needles of which are clustered in groups of five.
### Influence on the United States
Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the United States's government, although the extent and nature of this influence has been disputed. Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government.
Consensus has not been reached on how influential the Iroquois model was to the development of United States' documents such as the Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution. The influence thesis has been discussed by historians such as Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen. In 1988, the United States Congress passed a resolution to recognize the influence of the Iroquois League upon the Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1987, Cornell University held a conference on the link between the Iroquois' government and the U.S. Constitution.
Scholars such as Jack N. Rakove challenge this thesis. Stanford University historian Rakove writes, "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois" and notes that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States. In reply, journalist Charles C. Mann wrote that while he agreed that the specific form of government created for the United States was "not at all like" that of the Iroquois, available evidence does support "a cultural argument – that the well-known democratic spirit had much to do with colonial contact with the Indians of the eastern seaboard, including and especially the Iroquois," and (quoting Rakove) "that prolonged contact between the aboriginal and colonizing populations were important elements [sic] in the shaping of colonial society and culture." Historian Francis Jennings noted that supporters of the thesis frequently cite the following statement by Benjamin Franklin, made in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to James Parker in 1751: "It would be a very strange thing, if six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming a Scheme for such a Union ... and yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a Dozen English Colonies," but he disagrees that it establishes influence. Rather, he thinks Franklin was promoting union against the "ignorant savages" and called the idea "absurd".
The anthropologist Dean Snow has stated that although Franklin's Albany Plan may have drawn inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from that source. He argues that "... such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception."
Similarly, the anthropologist Elisabeth Tooker has concluded that "there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois." She argues that the idea is a myth resulting from a claim made by linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt that was exaggerated and misunderstood after his death in 1937. According to Tooker, the original Iroquois constitution did not involve representative democracy and elections; deceased chiefs' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the tribe.
### International relations
The Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany in 1917 during World War I and again in 1942 in World War II.
The Haudenosaunee government has issued passports since 1923, when Haudenosaunee authorities issued a passport to Cayuga statesman Deskaheh (Levi General) to travel to the League of Nations headquarters.
More recently, passports have been issued since 1997. Before 2001 these were accepted by various nations for international travel, but with increased security concerns across the world since the September 11 attacks, this is no longer the case.
In 2010, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team was allowed by the U.S. to travel on their own passports to the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in England only after the personal intervention of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. However, the British government refused to recognize the Iroquois passports and denied the team members entry into the United Kingdom.
The Onondaga Nation spent $1.5 million on a subsequent upgrade to the passports designed to meet 21st-century international security requirements.
People
------
### Nations
The first five nations listed below formed the original Five Nations (listed from east to west, as they were oriented to the sunrise); the Tuscarora became the sixth nation in 1722.
| English word | Iroquoian words | Meaning | 17th/18th-century location |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Mohawk | *Kanien'kehá:ka* | "People of the Great Flint" | Mohawk River |
| Oneida | *Onyota'a:ka* | "People of the Standing Stone" | Oneida Lake |
| Onondaga | *Onöñda'gega'* | "People of the Hills" | Onondaga Lake |
| Cayuga | *Gayogo̱ho:nǫʔ* | "People of the Great Swamp" | Cayuga Lake |
| Seneca | *Onöndowá'ga:* | "People of the Great Hill" | Seneca Lake and Genesee River |
| Tuscarora1 | *Ska:rù:rę'* | "Hemp Gatherers" | From North Carolina2 |
| 1 Not one of the original Five Nations; joined 1722.2 Settled between the Oneida and Onondaga. |
Iroquois Five Nations c. 1650Iroquois Five Nations c. 1650Iroquois Six Nations c. 1720Iroquois Six Nations c. 1720
### Clans
Within each of the six nations, people belonged to a number of matrilineal clans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to eight, with a total of nine different clan names.
**Current clans**| Seneca | Cayuga | Onondaga | Tuscarora | Oneida | Mohawk |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Wolf (**Honöta:yö:nih**) | Wolf (**Honǫtahyǫ́:ni:**) | Wolf (**Hothahi:ionih**) | Wolf (*Θkwarì•nę*) | Wolf (**Thayú:ni**) | Wolf (**Okwáho**) |
| Bear (**Hodidzöní'ga:'**) | Bear (**Hadihnyagwái**) | Bear (**Ohgwai:ih**) | Bear (**Uhčíhręˀ**) | Bear (**Ohkwá:li**) | Bear (**Ohkwá:ri**) |
| Turtle (**Hadínyahdë:h**) | Turtle (**Hadinyáhdę:**) | Turtle (**Hanya'dëñh**) | Turtle (**Ráˀkwihs**) | Turtle (**A'no:wál**) | Turtle (**A'nó:wara**) |
| Sandpiper/Snipe (**Hodí'nehsi:yo'**) | Sandpiper (**Hodi'nehsí:yo'**) | Snipe (**Odihnesi:ioh**) | Sandpiper (**Tawístawis**) | — | — |
| Deer (**Hodí:nyögwaiyo'**) | — | Deer (**De'odijinaindönda'**) | Deer (Kà?wí:ñu) | — | — |
| Beaver (**Hodígë'ge:ga:'**) | — | Beaver (**Hona'gaia'gih**) | Beaver (**Rakinęhá•ha•ˀ**) | — | — |
| Heron (**Hodidáë'ö:ga:'**) | Heron | Heron | — | — | — |
| Hawk/Eagle (**Hodíswë'gaiyo**) | Hawk (**Hodihsw'ęgáiyo'**) | Hawk (**Degaiadahkwa'**) | — | — | — |
| — | — | Eel (**Ohgönde:na'**) | Eel (**Akunęhukwatíha•ˀ**) | — | — |
### Population history
According to the *Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life*, the Iroquois Confederacy had 10,000 people at its peak, but by the 18th century, their population had decreased to 4,000, recovering only to 7,000 by 1910.
According to data compiled in 1995 by Doug George-Kanentiio, a total of 51,255 Six Nations people lived in Canada. These included 15,631 Mohawk in Quebec; 14,051 Mohawk in Ontario; 3,970 Oneida in Ontario; and a total of 17,603 of the Six Nations at the Grand River Reserve in Ontario. More recently according to the Six Nations Elected Council, some 12,436 on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada, as of December 2014 and 26,034 total in Canada.
In 1995, tribal registrations among the Six Nations in the United States numbered about 30,000 in total, with the majority of 17,566 in New York. The remainder were more than 10,000 Oneida in Wisconsin, and about 2200 Seneca-Cayuga in Oklahoma. As the nations individually determine their rules for membership or citizenship, they report the official numbers. (Some traditional members of the nations refuse to be counted.) There is no federally recognized Iroquois nation or tribe, nor are any Native Americans enrolled as Iroquois.
In the 2000 United States census, 80,822 people identified as having Iroquois ethnicity (which is similar to identifying as European), with 45,217 claiming only Iroquois ancestry. There are the several reservations in New York: Cayuga Nation of New York(~450,) St. Regis Mohawk Reservation (3248 in 2014), Onondaga Reservation (473 in 2014), Oneida Indian Nation (~ 1000), Seneca Nation of New York (~8000) and the Tuscarora Reservation (1100 in 2010). Some lived at the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin on the reservation there counting some 21,000 according to the 2000 census. Seneca-Cayuga Nation in Oklahoma has more than 5,000 people in 2011. In the 2010 Census, 81,002 persons identified as Iroquois, and 40,570 as Iroquois only across the United States. Including the Iroquois in Canada, the total population numbered over 125,000 as of 2009.
### Modern communities
Several communities exist to this day of people descended from the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy.
Iroquois in Buffalo, New York, 1914
#### Canada
* Kahnawake Mohawk in Quebec
* Kanesatake Mohawk in Quebec
* Mohawk Nation of Akwesasne in Ontario and Quebec
* Thames Oneida in Ontario
* Six Nations of the Grand River Territory in Ontario
* Tyendinaga Mohawk in Ontario
* Wahta Mohawk in Ontario
#### United States
* Cayuga Nation in New York
* Ganienkeh Mohawk — not federally recognized
* Kanatsiohareke Mohawk
* Onondaga Nation in New York
* Oneida Indian Nation in New York
* Oneida Tribe of Indians in Wisconsin
* St. Regis Band of Mohawk Indians in New York
* Seneca Nation of New York
* Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma
* Tonawanda Band of Seneca of New York
* Tuscarora Nation of New York
### Prominent individuals
* Frederick Alexcee, artist (also of Tsimshian ancestry)
* Henry Armstrong, boxer, #2 in *Ring Magazine's* list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years
* Akiatonharónkwen or Joseph Louis Cook, a Mohawk leader born to Abenaki and African-American parents and adopted by the Mohawk
* Chief John Big Tree, Seneca chief and actor
* Governor Blacksnake (Chainbreaker) Thaonawyuthe, Seneca war chief
* Joseph Brant or Thayendanegea, Mohawk leader
* Canasatego, Onondaga leader, diplomat and spokesperson known for his speech at the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, where he recommended that the British colonies emulate the Iroquois by forming a confederacy.
* Polly Cooper, Oneida who aided the Continental army during the American Revolution and was a friend of George Washington
* Cornplanter or Kaintwakon, Seneca chief
* Jesse Cornplanter, Seneca artist and author
* David Cusick, Tuscarora artist and author
* Deganawida or The Great Peacemaker, the traditional founder, along with Hiawatha, of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy
* Deserontyon (John Deseronto), prominent Mohawk war chief
* Gary Farmer, Cayuga actor
* Graham Greene, Oneida and award-winning Canadian actor
* Handsome Lake (*Ganioda'yo*), Seneca religious leader
* Cornelius Hill (*Onangwatgo*), last hereditary Oneida chief, also Episcopal priest
* Lillie Rosa Minoka Hill, Mohawk physician who was the second female American Indian doctor in the United States
* Little Beard Si-gwa-ah-doh-gwih ("Spear Hanging Down"), Seneca chief
* John Smoke Johnson (Sakayengwaraton), Mohawk chief
* Pauline Johnson, Canadian writer and performer popular in the late 19th century, of Mohawk-European ancestry
* Stan "Bulldog" Jonathan, Mohawk professional hockey left winger
* Ki Longfellow, novelist
* Tom Longboat (*Cogwagee*), Onondaga distance runner
* Oren Lyons, Onondaga, traditional Faithkeeper of the Turtle clan
* Shelley Niro, Mohawk filmmaker, photographer, and installation artist
* John Norton (Teyoninhokovrawen), Mohawk warrior and leader of Cherokee-Scottish ancestry (adopted by Mohawk)
* Skenandoa ("pine tree chief"), Oneida chief
* Ely S. Parker, also known as Donehogawa or Häsanoan′da, Seneca, Union Army officer during American Civil War; appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by President Ulysses S. Grant
* Sanford Plummer, Seneca artist
* Red Jacket, Seneca orator and chief of the Wolf clan
* Robbie Robertson, Mohawk, songwriter, guitarist and singer who was part of The Band.
* Sayenqueraghta, Seneca war chief
* August Schellenberg, Mohawk-Métis actor
* Jay Silverheels, actor, Canadian Mohawk, portrayed Tonto the companion to The Lone Ranger on US TV series
* Joanne Shenandoah, Oneida singer, songwriter, actress and educator
* Tanacharison (Half-king), Seneca war leader during the Seven Years' War
* Kateri Tekakwitha, Mohawk-Algonquin, first Catholic Native American saint
* Lyle Thompson, professional lacrosse player
* Miles Thompson, professional lacrosse player
* Billy Two Rivers, Mohawk professional wrestler
See also
--------
* Covenant Chain
* David Cusick
* Delaware/Lenape
* Economy of the Iroquois
* Ely S. Parker
* First Nations Lacrosse Association
* Flying Head
* Ganondagan State Historic Site
* Gideon Hawley
* Great Law of Peace
* Handsome Lake
* *Heritage Minutes*
* History of New York (state)
* History of Ontario
* Iroquois mythology
* Iroquois settlement of the north shore of Lake Ontario
* Kahnawake Iroquois and the Rebellions of 1837–38
* Mohawk Chapel
* Red Jacket
* Seven Nations of Canada
* Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet
* Six Nations of the Grand River
* *Sketches of the Ancient History of the Six Nations*
* Sullivan Expedition
* Town Destroyer
* Urban Indian
1. ↑ Morgan: "eighty rods"
2. ↑ "three rods"
1. ↑ This is frequently used on the official Haudenosaunee Confederacy website.
2. ↑ [e] pronunciation according to Goddard (1978). [ɛ] pronunciation according to Day (1968).
3. ↑ *The American Heritage encyclopedia* relates that the Europeans learned about many of the interior tribes through the names given to them by the coastal tribes whom they first encountered. As the tribes were competitors and often enemies, the coastal peoples referred to the other tribes in terms that reflected their relations. The coastal tribes were among the large family of Algonquian language speakers, such as the Eastern Amerindians of Canada (M'ik Maq and others), and the Lenape of the mid-Atlantic and Powhatan Confederacy of Virginia. The editors add, that Iroquois was a polite name from such people, and its meaning is 'from the south', people of the south, or such similar name.
4. ↑ The American Heritage Book of Indians states that oral tradition recounts that other Iroquoian peoples were given the opportunity to join the league.
5. ↑ The 'fierce' Susquehannock declined rapidly following three years of epidemic disease in 1670–1672. They had been a regional military power, having subjugated several Delaware tribes and defeated two tribes of the Iroquois between 1665 and 1667.
6. ↑ extinct in part, but their surviving members sometimes were adopted by the Iroquois. The Editors of American Heritage Book of Indians said that one French observer hypothesized that by the end of 1678, the adopted Iroquois may have outnumbered native-born tribesmen due to the decades of intertribal warfare. During that time frame, the Iroquois had repeated clashes with French-supported Algonquian tribes, seeking control over the fur trade. In addition they defeated the Erie people, and the Susquehannock suffered defeats, as well as high mortality from infectious disease.
7. ↑ The American Heritage Book of Indians states (about the time of prolonged European contact, from 1600–1608 on) the Iroquoian Huron people probably outnumbered *the Five Tribes of the Iroquois* combined populations by roughly 3:1; the editor's assigned population estimates of 30,000 and 10,000 per group, with estimates the Erie and Susquehannock were also about 10,000 people per tribe—all previous to the widespread ravages of diseases and the escalation of the Beaver Wars..
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* Rushforth, Brett (2012). *Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France*. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-0135-9.
* Santiemma, Adriano (1999). "Towards a Monocultural Future through a Multicultural Perspective. The Iroquois Case". *Canadian Issues*. **XXI**.
* Saraydar, Stephen (1990). "No Longer Shall You Kill: Peace, Power, and the Iroquois Great Law". *Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly*. **15** (1): 20–28. doi:10.1525/ahu.1990.15.1.20.
* Shannon, Timothy J. (2008). *Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier*. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-01897-0.
* Shattuck, George C. (1991). *The Oneida Land Claims: A Legal History*. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 9780815625254. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
* Snow, Dean R. (1994). *The Iroquois*. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 1-55786-225-7.
* Starna, William; Watkins, Ralph (Winter 1991). "Northern Iroquoian Slavery". *Ethnohistory*. **38** (1): 34–57. doi:10.2307/482790. JSTOR 482790.
* Stevens, Scott Manning (2013). "The Historiography of New France and the Legacy of Iroquois Internationalism". *Comparative American Studies*. **11** (2): 148–165. doi:10.1179/1477570013Z.00000000037. S2CID 153786051.
* Tooker, Elisabeth, ed. (1985–1986). *An Iroquois Source Book*. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-5877-1. 3 volumes
* Waugh, F. W. (1916). *Iroquis Foods and Food Preparation*. Ottawa: Canada Department of Mines.
* Winegard, Timothy C. (2012). *For King and Kanata: Canadian Indians and the First World War*. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. ISBN 978-0-88755-728-6.
Further reading
---------------
* Morgan, Lewis H. (1870). *Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family*. | Iroquois | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt13\" class=\"infobox ib-country vcard\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above adr\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org country-name\">Haudenosaunee Confederacy<br/>Iroquois Confederacy</div><div class=\"ib-country-names\"><i>Haudenosaunee</i></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"noresize\" style=\"display:table; width:100%;\">\n<div style=\"display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg\" title=\"Flag of Haudenosaunee or Iroquois\"><img alt=\"Flag of Haudenosaunee or Iroquois\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"216\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"360\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"75\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png 2x\" width=\"125\"/></a></span></div>\n</div>\n<div><a href=\"./Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Flag of the Iroquois Confederacy\">Flag</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Haudenosaunee_Territory.png\" title=\"Map showing historical (in purple) and currently recognized (in pink) Iroquois territory claims.\"><img alt=\"Map showing historical (in purple) and currently recognized (in pink) Iroquois territory claims.\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2000\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"250\" resource=\"./File:Haudenosaunee_Territory.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Haudenosaunee_Territory.png/250px-Haudenosaunee_Territory.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Haudenosaunee_Territory.png/375px-Haudenosaunee_Territory.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Haudenosaunee_Territory.png/500px-Haudenosaunee_Territory.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-country-map-caption\">Map showing historical (in purple) and currently recognized (in pink) Iroquois territory claims.</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Status</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Confederation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Confederation\">Recognized confederation</a>, later became an <a href=\"./List_of_historical_unrecognized_states_and_dependencies\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies\">unrecognized government</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Capital</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Onondaga_(village)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Onondaga (village)\">Onondaga (village), Onondaga Nation</a> (at various modern locations:\n<ul><li>Before 1609: <a href=\"./Cazenovia,_New_York\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cazenovia, New York\">Cazenovia, New York</a></li>\n<li>1609-1615: <a href=\"./Pompey,_New_York\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pompey, New York\">Pompey, New York</a></li>\n<li>1615-1640: <a href=\"./Delphi_Falls,_New_York\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Delphi Falls, New York\">Delphi Falls, New York</a></li>\n<li>1640 onwards: <a href=\"./Manlius,_New_York\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Manlius, New York\">Manlius, New York</a>)</li></ul>\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Common<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>languages</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Iroquoian_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Iroquoian languages\">Iroquoian languages</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Government</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Confederation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Confederation\">Confederation</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Legislature</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Grand Council of the Six Nations</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">History</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><div style=\"text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;\">•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Established </div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Between 1450 and 1660 (estimate)</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>",
"<table about=\"#mwt1954\" class=\"infobox vcard\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn org\">Iroquois <br/> <i>Haudenosaunee</i></caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"216\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"360\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"132\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg.png 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"825\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"634\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"286\" resource=\"./File:Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg/220px-Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg/330px-Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg/440px-Wah-Ta-Waso.jpg 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">Photo of an Iroquois woman in 1898.</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Total population</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">125,000 (2010, est.)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">North America</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><span class=\"datasortkey\" data-sort-value=\"United States\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"650\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1235\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./United_States\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"United States\">United States</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">80,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><span class=\"datasortkey\" data-sort-value=\"Canada\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Canada\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canada\">Canada</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">45,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Languages</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Northern_Iroquoian_languages#Family_division\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Northern Iroquoian languages\">Northern Iroquoian languages</a> (including <a href=\"./Mohawk_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mohawk language\">Mohawk</a>, <a href=\"./Oneida_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oneida language\">Oneida</a>, <a href=\"./Onondaga_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Onondaga language\">Onondaga</a>, <a href=\"./Cayuga_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cayuga language\">Cayuga</a>, <a href=\"./Seneca_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Seneca language\">Seneca</a>, <a href=\"./Tuscarora_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tuscarora language\">Tuscarora</a>), <a href=\"./English_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"English language\">English</a>, <a href=\"./French_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"French language\">French</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Religion</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Longhouse_Religion\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Longhouse Religion\">Longhouse Religion</a>, Karihwiio,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">[</span><i><a href=\"./Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2013)\">clarification needed</span></a></i><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">]</span></sup> Kanoh'hon'io,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">[</span><i><a href=\"./Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2013)\">clarification needed</span></a></i><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">]</span></sup> Kahni'kwi'io,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">[</span><i><a href=\"./Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2013)\">clarification needed</span></a></i><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">]</span></sup> <a href=\"./Christianity\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Christianity\">Christianity</a>, others</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Map_of_the_Country_of_the_Five_Nations_belonging_to_the_province_of_New_York_and_of_the_Lakes_near_which_the_Nations_of_Far_Indians_live_with_part_of_Canada_taken_from_the_Map_of_the_Louisiane_done_1730.png",
"caption": "Map of the Five Nations (from the Darlington Collection)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:5NationsCession.jpg",
"caption": "Map showing Iroquois claims through the 1700s."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Atotarhoreceivingtwomohawkchieftains.png",
"caption": "Iroquois painting of Tadodaho receiving two Mohawk chiefs"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Iroq2.jpg",
"caption": "Engraving based on a drawing by Champlain of his 1609 voyage. It depicts a battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near Lake Champlain"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Early_Localization_Native_Americans_NY.svg",
"caption": "Map of the New York tribes before European arrival: Iroquoian tribes\n Algonquian tribes "
},
{
"file_url": "./File:5NationsExpansion.jpg",
"caption": "Iroquois conquests 1638–1711"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:5NationsCession.jpg",
"caption": "Map showing dates Iroquois claims relinquished, 1701–1796. Note: In the 1701 Nanfan Treaty, the Five Nations abandoned their nominal claims to \"beaver hunting\" lands north of the Ohio in favor of England; however, these areas were still de facto controlled by other tribes allied with France."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Iroquois_western_goods.jpg",
"caption": "Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:History_of_Tazewell_county,_Illinois;_together_with_sketches_of_its_cities,_villages_and_townships,_educational,_religious,_civil,_military,_and_political_history;_portraits_of_prominent_persons_and_(14804605043).jpg",
"caption": "Unnamed Iroquois chief, early 18th century"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Joseph_Brant_(Mohawk)_by_Charles_Bird_King.jpg",
"caption": "Lithograph of the Mohawk war and political leader Thayendanegea (also Joseph Brant)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Pipa_iroquesa.jpg",
"caption": "Stone pipe (19th-century engraving)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Theiroquoislonghouse.png",
"caption": "Traditional Iroquois longhouse"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Growingfieldspanlg.jpeg",
"caption": "A diorama of The Three Sisters (corn, beans, and squash) on display in A Mohawk Iroquois Village, an exhibit at the New York State Museum."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Seneca_man_in_the_costume_of_the_Iroquois.jpg",
"caption": "Seneca man in traditional dress"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Iroquois_gustoweh_headdress.png",
"caption": "gusto'weh headdress"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Seneca_woman_in_the_costume_of_the_Iroquois.jpg",
"caption": "Seneca woman in traditional dress"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Society_of_Mystic_Animals.png",
"caption": "Meeting of the Society of Mystic Animals c.1900"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PSM_V41_D760_An_iroquois_dancer_in_costume.jpg",
"caption": "Member of the False Face Society"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Detail._Ball-headed_club._A_diplomatic_gift_to_James_Bruce_(8th_Earl_Elgin_and_12th_Earl_of_Kincardine),_made_most_probably_by_Haudenosaunee_(Iroquois)._From_Canada,_early-mid_19th_century_CE._National_Museum_of_Scotland.jpg",
"caption": "Detail. Ball-headed club. A diplomatic gift to James Bruce (8th Earl Elgin and 12th Earl of Kincardine), made most probably by Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). From Canada, early-mid 19th century CE. National Museum of Scotland"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Six_Nations_survivors_of_War_of_1812.jpg",
"caption": "Mohawk leader John Smoke Johnson (right) with John Tutela and Young Warner, two other Six Nations War of 1812 veterans. Photo: July 1882"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Chiefs_of_the_Six_Nations_at_Brantford,_Canada,_explaining_their_wampum_belts_to_Horatio_Hale_September_14,_1871.jpg",
"caption": "Chiefs of the Six Nations explaining their wampum belts to Horatio Hale, 1871"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Flag_of_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.svg",
"caption": "Haudenosaunee flag."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:The_Trial_of_Red_Jacket.jpg",
"caption": "Famous Seneca chief, Red Jacket, political negotiator and critic of European religion, speaking to crowd"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Cornplanter.jpg",
"caption": "Seneca chief Cornplanter"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Joseph_Brant_by_Gilbert_Stuart_1786_oil_on_canvas.jpeg",
"caption": "Joseph Brant, painted by the American artist Gilbert Stuart"
}
] |
202,367 | **This article contains Coptic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters.
**Copts** (Coptic: ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, romanized: *niremənkhēmi*; Arabic: الْقِبْط, romanized: *al-qibṭ*) are a Christian ethnoreligious group indigenous to North Africa who have primarily inhabited the area of modern Egypt and Sudan since antiquity. Most ethnic Copts are Coptic Oriental Orthodox Christians. They are the largest Christian denomination in Egypt and the Middle East, as well as in Sudan and Libya. Copts have historically spoken the Coptic language, a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken in late antiquity.
Originally referring to all Egyptians, the term *Copt* became synonymous with native Christians in light of Egypt's Islamization and Arabization after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Copts in Egypt account for roughly 5–20 percent of the Egyptian population, although the exact percentage is unknown; Copts in Sudan account for 1 percent of the Sudanese population, while Copts in Libya similarly account for 1 percent of the Libyan population.
Following the Arab conquest of Egypt in 639–646 AD, the treatment of the Copts ranged from relative tolerance to open persecution. Historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances". Persecution is significantly involved in the Copts' ethnic identity due to historic and current conflicts. Most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Church. The smaller Coptic Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church, in communion with the Holy See of Rome; others belong to the Evangelical Church of Egypt. The Copts played a central role in the Arab Renaissance as well as the modernization of Egypt and the Arab world as a whole; they also contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as Pan-Arabism, good governance, educational reform, and democracy", and they have historically flourished in business affairs.
Copts maintain a distinct ethnic identity and generally reject an Arab identity. In Egypt, Copts have a relatively higher educational attainment, a relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white-collar job types, but limited representation in military and security agencies. The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Christians and Muslims.
Etymology
---------
The English language adopted the word *Copt* in the 17th century from Neo-Latin *Coptus, Cophtus*, which derives from the Arabic collective *qubṭ / qibṭ* قبط "the Copts" with nisba adjective *qubṭī, qibṭī* قبطى, plural *aqbāṭ* أقباط; Also *quftī, qiftī* (where the Arabic /f/ reflects the historical Coptic /p/) an Arabisation of the Coptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ *aiguption* (Bohairic) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ *kuptaion* (Sahidic). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, *Aigýptios* (Αἰγύπτιος).
The Greek term for Egypt, *Aígyptos* (Ancient Greek: Αἴγυπτος), itself derives from the Egyptian language, but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in Mycenaean Greek as *a3-ku-pi-ti-jo* (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form is likely from Middle Egyptian *ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ* (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, Egyptological pronunciation *Hut-ka-Ptah*), literally "estate/palace of the kꜣ ("double" spirit) of Ptah" (compare Akkadian *āluḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ*), the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis (and a synecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it).
The term *Aigýptios* in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.
The Coptic name for Egyptians, *remənkhēmi* (Coptic: ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ), is realized in the Fayyumic Coptic as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ *lemenkēmi* and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ *remənkēme* in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian *rmṯ n kmt*, Demotic *rmṯ n kmỉ*.
The Arabic word *qibṭ* "Copt" has also been connected[*by whom?*] to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos (Koinē Greek: Κόπτος, now Qifṭ; Coptic *Kebt* and *Keft*) in Upper Egypt. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.
In the 20th century some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term *qubṭ* in the historical sense.
History
-------
The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 5 to 20 percent of the population, though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body has been out of communion with the Roman Catholic Church (in Rome) since the 5th century AD.
### Foundation of the Christian Church in Egypt
According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced within present day Egypt by Saint Mark in Alexandria, shortly after the ascension of Christ and during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that Saint Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. From Alexandria, Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear from a fragment of the Gospel of John, written in Coptic, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the New Testament writings found in Oxyrhynchus, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, today known as the Coptic language, but known as the *Egyptian language* at the time. By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of Christendom's four Apostolic Sees, second in honor only to the Church of Rome. The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa.
### Contributions to Christianity
The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and Origen, the father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.
Another major contribution made by the Copts in Egypt to Christianity was the creation and organization of monasticism. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were Anthony the Great, Paul of Thebes, Macarius the Great, Shenouda the Archimandrite and Pachomius the Cenobite. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. Saint Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca, and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in Asia Minor, visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt while en route to Jerusalem around 400 AD and left details of his experiences in his letters. Saint Benedict founded the Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius, although in a stricter form. Coptic Christians practice male circumcision as a rite of passage.
### Coptic Greeks
It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the Ptolemaic period, with the rest being native Egyptians; the Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in Faiyum.
By the Roman period, much of the "Greek" population of Faiyum was made up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins, and by the time of Roman emperor Caracalla in the 2nd century AD, ethnic Egyptians could be distinguished from Egyptian Greeks by their speech.
Egyptian Greek is the variety of Greek spoken in Egypt from antiquity until the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Egyptian Greek adopted many loanwords from Coptic Egyptian; there was a great deal of intracommunity bilingualism in Egypt.
The following is an example of Egyptian Greek language, used in the Coptic Church:
> **ⲇⲟⲝⲁ ⲡⲁⲧⲣⲓ ⲕⲉ ⲩⲓⲱ: ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲅⲓⲱ ⲡⲛⲉⲩⲙⲁⲧⲓ: ⲕⲉ ⲛⲩⲛ ⲕⲉ ⲁ̀ⲓ̀ ⲕⲉ ⲓⲥ ⲧⲟⲩⲥ ⲉⲱⲛⲁⲥ ⲧⲱⲛ ⲉ̀ⲱ̀ⲛⲱⲛ ⲁ̀ⲙⲏⲛ**
>
>
> Δόξα Πατρὶ κὲ Υἱῷ κὲ Ἁγίῳ Πνεύματι, κὲ νῦν κὲ ἀῒ κὲ ἰς τοὺς ἐῶνας τῶν ἐώνων. Ἀμήν.
>
>
> Glory to the Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, both now and always, and unto the ages of ages. Amen.
>
>
According to Walker, early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations. Victor J. Katz notes that "research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities".
### Ecumenical councils
The major contributions that the See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria, along with Saint Hosius of Córdoba. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria Athanasius, who played the major role in the formulation of the Nicene Creed, recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD) was presided over by Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria, while the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by Cyril of Alexandria.
### Council of Chalcedon
In 451 AD, following the Council of Chalcedon, the Church of Alexandria was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as Chalcedonians or Melkites. Those who did not abide by the council's terms were labeled non-Chalcedonians or Monophysites and later Jacobite's after Jacob Baradaeus. The non-Chalcedonians, however, rejected the term Monophysites as erroneous and referred to themselves as Miaphysites. The majority of the Egyptians belonged to the Miaphysite branch, which led to their persecution by the Byzantines in Egypt.
### Arab conquest of Egypt
In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs who faced off with the Byzantine army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least the 9th century. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk Sultanate, and Ottoman Empire; the persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches, forced conversion to Islam, and heavy taxes for those who refused to convert.
### Copts in modern Egypt
Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes and had lower access to political power, but were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.
Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid.
In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état against King Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.
#### Socio-economic
In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment, relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically; many Copts were accountants, and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks. A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 26% of Egyptian Christians obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education.
According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class, and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salarie". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of the medical doctors, 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians.
A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate, spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, *Forbes* estimated the family's net worth at $36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged the accumulation of human capital.
#### Pharaonism
Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by Orientalism.
### Church affairs
Today, members of the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as Protestants (known in Arabic as Evangelicals), Roman Catholics and Eastern Rite Catholics, and other Orthodox congregations. The term *Coptic* remains exclusive however to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "Coptic Evangelical Church", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans.
In 2005, a group of Coptic activists created a flag to represent Copts worldwide.
The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in Cairo's St Mark's Cathedral.
### Copts in modern Sudan
Sudan has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.
Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid, Atbara, Dongola, Khartoum, Omdurman, Port Sudan, and Wad Medani. They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1 percent of the Sudanese population. Due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam, resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.
Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam, and intermarry with the native Sudanese. The Anglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and the civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.
Gaafar Nimeiry's introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims. After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the elected government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.
In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam, but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country.
Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of hijab dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers, the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south.
Today, the Coptic Church in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax. In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named a Coptic Orthodox priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party's continued dominance under the GNU provides ample reason to doubt its commitment to broader religious or ethnic representation.
### Copts in modern Libya
The largest Christian group in Libya is the Coptic Orthodox Church, with a population of 60,000. The Coptic Church is known to have historical roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya.
Demographics
------------
Living in countries with Muslim majorities (Egypt, Sudan, Libya), the size of the population of Copts is a continuously disputed matter, frequently for reasons of religious jealousy and animosity.
The Coptic population in Egypt is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion, although official estimates state that Coptic Christians represent 10 to 15 percent while other independent and Christian sources estimate much higher numbers, up to 25 percent of the population.
The Coptic population in Sudan is at about half a million or 1 percent of Sudanese population.
The Coptic population in Libya is about over 60,000 or 1 percent of Libyan population.[*failed verification*]
### Diaspora
Outside of the Coptic primary area of residence within parts of present-day Egypt (Copts in Egypt), Sudan (Copts in Sudan), and Libya (Copts in Libya), the largest Coptic diaspora population is located within the United States, Canada, and Australia. The numbers of the Censuses in the United States, Canada, and Australia are not fully correct since many Copts listed themselves in the 2011 Census mistakenly as either Egyptians, Sudanese, Libyans, Americans, Canadians or Australians and by this way reducing the Coptic population in the 2011 Census in the United States, Canada, and Australia respectively.
Nevertheless, the Coptic American (US) population is estimated to number about 200,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as a million). According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the *US-Coptic Association*), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007). The Coptic Canadian population is estimated to number about 50,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 200,000). The Coptic Australian population is estimated to number about 100,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 100,000).
Smaller communities are found in Kuwait, the United Kingdom,
France (45,000), South Africa.
Minor communities below 10,000 people are reported from Jordan (8,000 Copts), Lebanon (3,000 – 4,000 Copts), Germany (3,000 Copts), Austria (2,000 Copts), Switzerland (1,000 Copts), and elsewhere.
It is noted that Copts also live in Denmark, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.
Persecution and discrimination in Egypt
---------------------------------------
Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.
The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, 440 kilometres (270 mi) south of Cairo". In February 2001 a new Coptic church and 35 houses belonging to Christians were burned.
In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the Ministry of Interior. In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh, a Bedouin mob of Muslims tried to attack Copts, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.
Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.
Boutros Boutros-Ghali was a Copt who served as Egypt's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat. Previously, only two Copts were in Egypt's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George during former president Mubarak's rule. There also used to be one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena, and is the first Coptic governor in decades due to the higher concentration of Copts in Upper Egypt. In addition, Naguib Sawiris, Nassef Sawiris and Samih Sawiris, who are extremely successful businessmen and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, are Copts. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in higher positions in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.
While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.
In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Sunni Muslims.
According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros), the attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century.
*USA Today* reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". More than 45 churches across Egypt were attacked. The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts". The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary."[*relevant?*] On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying,
> "In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in."
>
>
Coptic women and girls are abducted, forced to convert to Islam and marry Muslim men. In 2009 the Washington, D.C. based group Christian Solidarity International published a study of the abductions and forced marriages and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.
In April 2010, a bipartisan group of 17 members of the U.S. Congress expressed concern to the State Department's Trafficking in Persons Office about Coptic women who faced "physical and sexual violence, captivity ... exploitation in forced domestic servitude or commercial sexual exploitation, and financial benefit to the individuals who secure the forced conversion of the victim."
According to the *Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance*, between 2011 and March 2014, around 550 Coptic girls have been kidnapped, and forced to converted to Islam. According the same survey around 40% of the girls were raped prior to their conversion to Islam and married their captors.
Language
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The Coptic language is the most recent stage of the Egyptian language. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to the script rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day. Coptic remained the spoken language of most Egyptians until it was slowly replaced by colloquial Egyptian Arabic in Lower Egypt and Sa'idi Arabic in Upper Egypt by the end of the 17th century, although it may have survived in isolated pockets for a little longer.
Today Coptic is extinct but it is still the liturgical language of the native Egyptian Churches (the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.
Dialects of the Coptic language:
* Sahidic: Theban or Upper Egyptian.
* Bohairic: The dialect of the Nile Delta and of the medieval and modern Coptic Church.
* Akhmimic
* Lycopolitan (also known as Subakhmimic)
* Fayyumic
* Oxyrhynchite
Calendar
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The Coptic calendar, also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the Coptic Orthodox Church and also by Ethiopia as its official calendar (with different names). This calendar is based on the ancient Egyptian calendar. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time of Ptolemy III (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC) which consisted of the intercalation of a sixth epagomenal day every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when the Roman Emperor Augustus formally reformed the calendar of Egypt, keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introduced Julian calendar. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of the Ethiopian calendar but have different numbers and names.
### Coptic year
The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in the Julian Calendar or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.
The Feast of Neyrouz marks the first day of the Coptic year. Ignorant of the Egyptian language for the most part, the Arabs confused the Egyptian new year's celebrations, which the Egyptians called the feast of *Ni-Yarouou* (the feast of the rivers), with the Persian feast of Nowruz. The misnomer remains today, and the celebrations of the Egyptian new year on the first day of the month of Thout are known as the Neyrouz. Its celebration falls on the first day of the month of Thout, the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September, except before a Gregorian leap year when it's September 12. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the year Diocletian became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (for *Anno Martyrum* or "Year of the Martyrs"). The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year (*Anno Mundi*).
Every fourth Coptic year is a leap year *without exception*, as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year is *always* 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30. Easter is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.
To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).
Genetics
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According to Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008), around 45% of Copts in Sudan carry the Haplogroup J. The remainder mainly belong to the E1b1b clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other local Afroasiatic-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as the Nubians. E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans. The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts are the European-linked R1b clade (15%), as well as the archaic African B lineage (15%).
Maternally, Hassan (2009) found that Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of the macrohaplogroup N. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts, U6 is most frequent (28%), followed by the haplogroup T (17%).
A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of Western Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa. Known as the *Coptic* component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. In their analysis, Sudan's Copts formed a separated group in the PCA, a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt, or Middle Eastern and North African populations. Copts in general shared the same main ancestral component with North African/Middle Eastern populations. They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians.
Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed that Egyptians and Copts showed low levels of genetic differentiation and lower levels of genetic diversity compared to the northeast African groups. Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European or Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry, and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). The authors concluded that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that Sudanese Copts have remained relatively isolated since their arrival to Sudan with only low levels of admixture with local northeastern Sudanese groups.
An allele frequency comparative study conducted in 2020 between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.
Prominent Copts
---------------
Some famous Copts include:
* Hani Azer, prominent civil engineer
* Halim El-Dabh, Egyptian-American musician and academic
* Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations.
* Rami Malek, an Egyptian-American actor of Coptic origins.
* Mena Massoud, an Egyptian-Canadian actor.
* Dina Powell, American Politician.
* Fayez Sarofim, heir to the Sarofim family fortune.
* Naguib Sawiris, the CEO of Orascom.
* Magdi Yacoub, Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon.
See also
--------
* Aegyptus, in Greek mythology
* Coptic art
* Coptic Catholic Church
* Coptic diaspora
* Coptic identity
* Coptic language
* Coptic literature
* Copto-Arabic literature
* Coptic Museum
* Coptic Orthodox Church
* List of Coptic saints
* Coptology
* Christianity in Egypt
* Christianity in Sudan
* Christianity in Libya
* List of prominent Copts worldwide
Further reading
---------------
* Betts, Robert B. (1978). *Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study* (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. ISBN 9780804207966.
* Capuani, Massimo et al. *Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia* (2002) excerpt and text search
* Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. *The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text*. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 9781889758879.
* Courbage, Youssef and Phillipe Fargues. Judy Mabro (Translator) *Christians and Jews Under Islam*, 1997.
* Ibrahim, Vivian. *The Copts of Egypt: The Challenges of Modernisation and Identity* (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 258 pages; examines historical relations between Coptic Christians and the Egyptian state and describes factionalism and activism in the community.
* Kamil, Jill. *Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide.* Revised Ed. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.
* Meinardus, Otto Friedrich August. *Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity* (2010)
* Thomas, Martyn, ed. (2006). *Copts in Egypt: A Christian Minority Under Siege : Papers Presented at the First International Coptic Symposium, Zurich, September 23–25, 2004*. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 9783857100406.
* Meyendorff, John (1989). *Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.* The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881410556.
* Ostrogorsky, George (1956). *History of the Byzantine State*. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
* Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly. "Finding a Platform: Studying the Copts in the 19th and 20th Centuries" *International Journal of Middle East Studies* (Aug 2010) 42#3 pp 479–482. Historiography | Copts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt26\" class=\"infobox vcard\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn org\">Copts</caption><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above nickname\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;\"><div lang=\"cop\"><span class=\"script-coptic\">ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ</span></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Coptic_diaspora_map.png\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3403\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"6460\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"116\" resource=\"./File:Coptic_diaspora_map.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coptic_diaspora_map.png/220px-Coptic_diaspora_map.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coptic_diaspora_map.png/330px-Coptic_diaspora_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coptic_diaspora_map.png/440px-Coptic_diaspora_map.png 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">Coptic diaspora</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Total population</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">5–20<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million (estimates vary)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><b>Traditional areas of Coptic settlement:</b></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5–20<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Egypt</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5–20<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million (estimates vary)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Sudan</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><400,000 (2008)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Libya</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">60,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><b>Diaspora:</b></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1–2<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million (estimates vary)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">United States</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 200,000 – 1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Canada</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 200,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Australia</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 75,000 (2003)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">France</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 45,000 (2017)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Italy</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 30,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">United Kingdom</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">25,000 – 30,000 (2006)<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">United Arab Emirates</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 10,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Netherlands</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">c. 10,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Jordan</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">8,000+ (2005)<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Kenya</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">8,000+<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Lebanon</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,000–4,000 (2012)<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Germany</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,000</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Austria</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2,000 (2001)<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Switzerland</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1,000 (2004)<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.6em;\"></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Israel</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1,000 (2014)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Languages</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"./Egyptian_Arabic\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Egyptian Arabic\">Egyptian Arabic</a></li><li><a href=\"./Saʽidi_Arabic\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Saʽidi Arabic\">Saʽidi Arabic</a></li><li><a href=\"./Modern_Standard_Arabic\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Modern Standard Arabic\">Literary Arabic</a></li></ul></div><a href=\"./Coptic_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Coptic language\">Coptic</a> (liturgical and ancestral)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Religion</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Coptic_Orthodox_Church\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Coptic Orthodox Church\">Coptic Orthodox Church</a><br/> <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria\">Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria</a><br/> <a href=\"./Coptic_Catholic_Church\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Coptic Catholic Church\">Coptic Catholic Church</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:StMarkcoptic.jpg",
"caption": "Coptic icon of St. Mark"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:GreekEgyptianIlluminatedSaqaraShroud.jpg",
"caption": "An Egyptian Greek man with Anubis"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kairo_Hanging_Church_BW_1.jpg",
"caption": "The Hanging Church in Coptic Cairo."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Copts-with-Nasser-1965.jpg",
"caption": "President Nasser welcomes a delegation of Coptic bishops (1965)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Coptic_monks.jpg",
"caption": "Egyptian Coptic monks at the American Colony, Jerusalem, between 1898 and 1914."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Coptic_cathedral_(Khartoum)_001.jpg",
"caption": "Holy Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Khartoum."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:StMarkCopticOrthodoxChurchBellaireTX0.JPG",
"caption": "St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in Bellaire, Texas (Greater Houston). There are about 1–2 million Egyptian born Copts living outside of Egypt, and are known as the Coptic diaspora."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Coptic_and_Arabic_inscriptions_in_an_Old_Cairo_church.jpg",
"caption": "Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Leaves_from_a_Coptic_Manuscript_MET_sf21-148-2as1.jpg",
"caption": "Leave from a Coptic manuscript, 6th-14th century, Metropolitan museum of art, NYC"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Coptic_cross.svg",
"caption": "Coptic Orthodox Cross with traditional Coptic script reading: 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God'"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Halim_El-Dabh2.jpg",
"caption": "Halim El-Dabh at a Cleveland festival in 2009."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Naelachohanboutrosghali-2.jpg",
"caption": "Boutros Boutros-Ghali"
}
] |
70,011 | **Argos** (/ˈɑːrɡɒs, -ɡəs/; Greek: Άργος [ˈarɣos]; Ancient and Katharevousa: Ἄργος [árɡos]) is a city in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, and the oldest in Europe. It is the largest city in Argolis and a major center in the same prefecture, having nearly twice the population of the prefectural capital, Nafplio.
Since the 2011 local government reform it has been part of the municipality of Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 138.138 km2. It is 11 kilometres (7 miles) from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour. A settlement of great antiquity, Argos has been continuously inhabited as at least a substantial village for the past 7,000 years.
A resident of the city of Argos is known as an **Argive** (/ˈɑːrɡaɪv/ *AR-ghyve*, /-dʒaɪv/ *-jyve*; Greek: Ἀργεῖος). However, this term is also used to refer to those ancient Greeks generally who assaulted the city of Troy during the Trojan War; the term is more widely applied by the Homeric bards.
Numerous ancient monuments can be found in the city today. Agriculture is the mainstay of the local economy.
Etymology
---------
There are several proposed etyma. The name is associated with the legendary Argus, the third king of the city in ancient times, who renamed it after himself, thus replacing its older name Phoronikon Asty (Φορωνικόν Άστυ, "Citadel of Phoroneus"). Both the personal name and placename are linked to the word αργός (argós), which meant "white" or "shining"; possibly, this had to do with the visual impression given of the Argolic plain during harvest time. According to Strabo, the name could have even originated from the word αγρός "field" by antimetathesis of the consonants.
History
-------
### Antiquity
Herodotus first recorded the myth of the traditional story of Argos being the origin of the ancient Macedonian royal house of the Argead dynasty (Greek: Ἀργεάδαι, Argeádai) of Philip II and Alexander the Great. As a strategic location on the fertile plain of Argolis, Argos was a major stronghold during the Mycenaean era. In classical times, Argos was a powerful rival of Sparta for dominance over the Peloponnese, but was eventually shunned by other Greek city-states after remaining neutral during the Greco-Persian Wars.
There is evidence of continuous settlement in the area starting with a village about 7,000 years ago in the late Neolithic, located on the foot of Aspida hill. Since that time, Argos has been continually inhabited at the same geographical location. And while the name *Argos* is generally accepted to have a Hellenic Indo-European etymology, *Larissa* is generally held to derive from a Pre-Greek substrate.
The city is located at a rather propitious area, among Nemea, Corinth and Arcadia. It also benefitted from its proximity to lake Lerna, which, at the time, was at a distance of one kilometre from the south end of Argos.
Argos was a major stronghold of Mycenaean times, and along with the neighbouring acropolis of Mycenae and Tiryns became a very early settlement because of its commanding positions in the midst of the fertile plain of Argolis.
### Archaic Argos
Argos experienced its greatest period of expansion and power under the energetic 7th century BC ruler King Pheidon. Under Pheidon, Argos regained sway over the cities of the Argolid and challenged Sparta's dominance of the Peloponnese. Spartan dominance is thought to have been interrupted following the Battle of Hyssiae in 669–668 BC, in which Argive troops defeated the Spartans in a hoplite battle. During the time of its greatest power, the city boasted a pottery and bronze sculpturing school, pottery workshops, tanneries and clothes producers. Moreover, at least 25 celebrations took place in the city, in addition to a regular local products exhibition. A sanctuary dedicated to Hera was also found at the same spot where the monastery of Panagia Katekrymeni is located today. Pheidon also extended Argive influence throughout Greece, taking control of the Olympic Games away from the citizens of Elis and appointing himself organizer during his reign. Pheidon is also thought to have introduced reforms for standard weight and measures in Argos, a theory further reinforced with the unearthing of six "spits" of iron in an Argive Heraion, possibly remainders of a dedication from Pheidon.
### Classical Argos
In 494 BC, Argos suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of its regional rival, Sparta, at the Battle of Sepeia. Following this defeat, Herodotus tells us the city suffered a form of *stasis*. The political chaos is thought to have resulted in a democratic transition in the city. Argos did not participate in the Hellenic Alliance against the Persian Invasion of 480 BC. This resulted in a period of diplomatic isolation, although there is evidence of an Argive alliance with Tegea prior to 462 BC.
In 462 BC, Argos joined a tripartite alliance with Athens and Thessaly. This alliance was somewhat dysfunctional, however, and the Argives are only thought to have provided marginal contributions to the alliance at the Battle of Oenoe and Tanagra. For example, only 1,000 Argive hoplites are thought to have fought alongside the Athenians at the Battle of Tanagra. Following the allies' defeat at Tanagra in 457 BC, the alliance began to fall apart, resulting in its dissolution in 451 BC.
Argos remained neutral or the ineffective ally of Athens during the Archidamian War between Sparta and Athens. Argos' neutrality resulted in a rise of its prestige among other Greek cities, and Argos used this political capital to organize and lead an alliance against Sparta and Athens in 421 BC. This alliance included Mantinea, Corinth, Elis, Thebes, Argos, and eventually Athens. This alliance fell apart, however, after the allied loss at the Battle of Mantinea in 418 BC. This defeat, combined with the raiding of the Argolid by the Epidaurians, resulted in political instability and an eventual oligarchic coup in 417 BC. Although democracy was restored within a year, Argos was left permanently weakened by this coup. This weakening led to a loss of power, which in turn led to the shift of commercial focus from the Ancient Agora to the eastern side of the city, delimited by Danaou and Agiou Konstadinou streets.
Argos played a minor role in the Corinthian Wars against Sparta, and for a short period of time considered uniting with Corinth to form an expanded Argolid state. For a brief period of time, the two poleis combined, but Corinth quickly rebelled against Argive domination, and Argos returned to its traditional boundaries. After this, Argos continued to remain a minor power in Greek affairs.
Argos escaped occupation by Macedon during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great and remained unscathed during the Wars of the Diadochi, however in 272 it was attacked by Pyrrhus of Epirus at the Battle of Argos, in which Pyrrhus was killed.
### Democracy in Classical Argos
Argos was a democracy for most of the classical period, with only a brief hiatus between 418 and 416. Democracy was first established after a disastrous defeat by the Spartans at the Battle of Sepeia in 494. So many Argives were killed in the battle that a revolution ensued, in which previously disenfranchised outsiders were included in the state for the first time.
Argive democracy included an Assembly (called the *aliaia*), a Council (the *bola*), and another body called 'The Eighty,' whose precise responsibilities are obscure. Magistrates served six-month terms of office, with few exceptions, and were audited at the end of their terms. There is some evidence that ostracism was practiced.
### Roman and Byzantine period
Under Roman rule, Argos was part of the province of Achaea. While prosperous during the early principate, Argos along with much of Greece and the Balkans experienced disasters during the Crisis of the 3rd Century when external threats and internal revolts left the Empire in turmoil. During Gallienus' reign, marauding bands of Goths and Heruli sailed down from the Black Sea in 267 A.D. and devastated the Greek coastline and interior. Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Argos were all sacked. Gallienus finally cut off their retreat north and destroyed them with great slaughter at Naissus in Moesia.
With the death of the last emperor over a unified Empire, Theodosius I, the Visigoths under their leader Alaric I descended into Greece in 396–397 A.D., sacking and pillaging as they went. Neither the eastern or western Roman warlords, Rufinus (consul) or Stilicho, made an effective stand against them due to the political situation between them. Athens and Corinth were both sacked. While the exact level of destruction for Argos is disputed due to the conflicting nature of the ancient sources, the level of damage to the city and people was considerable. Stilicho finally landed in western Greece and forced the Visigoths north of Epirus. Sites said to have been destroyed in Argos include the Hypostyle hall, parts of the agora, the odeion, and the Aphrodision. In the late 7th century, it became part of the Theme of Hellas, and later of the Theme of the Peloponnese.
### Crusader and Ottoman rule
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders captured the castle built on Larisa Hill, the site of the ancient acropolis, and the area became part of the lordship of Argos and Nauplia. In 1388 it was sold to the Republic of Venice, but was taken by the Despot of the Morea Theodore I Palaiologos before the Venetians could take control of the city; he sold it anyway to them in 1394. The Crusaders established a Latin bishopric. Venetian rule lasted until 1463, when the Ottomans captured the city.
In 1397, the Ottomans plundered Argos, carrying off much of the population, to sell as slaves. The Venetians repopulated the town and region with Albanian settlers, granting them long-term agrarian tax exemptions. Together with the Greeks of Argos, they supplied stratioti troops to the armies of Venice. Throughout the Ottoman–Venetian wars, many Albanians died or were captured in service to the Venetians; at Nafpaktos, Nafplio, Argos, Methoni, Koroni and Pylos. Furthermore, 8,000 Albanian stratioti, most of them along with their families, left the Peloponnese to continue their military service under the Republic of Venice or the Kingdom of Naples. At the end of the Ottoman–Venetian wars, a large number of Albanians had fled from the Peloponnese to Sicily. Some historians consider the French military term "argoulet" to derive from the Greek "argetes", or inhabitant of Argos, as a large number of French stratioti came from the plain of Argos.
During Ottoman rule, Argos was divided in four mahalas, or quarters; the Greek (Rûm) mahala, Liepur mahala, Bekir Efenti mahala and Karamoutza or Besikler mahala, respectively corresponding to what is now the northeastern, the northwestern, the southwestern and southeastern parts of the city. The Greek mahala was also called the "quarter of the unfaithful of Archos town" in Turkish documents, whereas Liepur mahala (the quarter of the rabbits) was composed mostly of Albanian emigrants and well-reputed families. Karamoutza mahala was home to the most prominent Turks and boasted a mosque (modern-day church of Agios Konstadinos), a Turkish cemetery, Ali Nakin Bei's serail, Turkish baths and a Turkish school. It is also at this period when the open market of the city is first organised on the site north to Kapodistrias' barracks, at the same spot where it is held in modern times. A mosque would have existed there, too, according to the city planning most Ottoman cities followed.
Argos grew exponentially during this time, with its sprawl being unregulated and without planning. As French explorer Pouqueville noted, "its houses are not aligned, without order, scattered all over the place, divided by home gardens and uncultivated areas". Liepur mahala appears to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to access their homes. Remnants of this city layout can be witnessed even today, as Argos still preserves several elements of this Ottoman type style, particularly with its long and complicated streets, its narrow alleys and its densely constructed houses.
### Independence and modern history
With the exception of a period of Venetian domination in 1687–1715, Argos remained in Ottoman hands until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, when wealthy Ottoman families moved to nearby Nafplio due to its stronger walling.
At that time, as part of the general uprising, many local governing bodies were formed in different parts of the country, and the "Consulate of Argos" was proclaimed on 28 March 1821, under the Peloponnesian Senate. It had a single head of state, Stamatellos Antonopoulos, styled "Consul", between 28 March and 26 May 1821.
Later, Argos accepted the authority of the unified Provisional Government of the First National Assembly at Epidaurus, and eventually became part of the Kingdom of Greece. With the coming of governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, the city underwent efforts of modernisation. Being an agricultural village, the need for urban planning was vital. For this reason, in 1828, Kapodistrias himself appointed mechanic Stamatis Voulgaris as the creator of a city plan which would offer Argos big streets, squares and public spaces. However, both Voulgaris and, later, French architect de Borroczun's plans were not well received by the locals, with the result that the former had to be revised by Zavos. Ultimately, none of the plans were fully implemented. Still, the structural characteristics of de Borroczun's plan can be found in the city today, despite obvious proof of pre-revolutionary layout, such as the unorganised urban sprawl testified in the area from Inachou street to the point where the railway tracks can be found today.
After talks concerning the intentions of the Greek government to move the Greek capital from Nafplio to Athens, discussions regarding the possibility of Argos also being a candidate as the potential new capital became more frequent, with supporters of the idea claiming that, unlike Athens, Argos was naturally protected by its position and benefited from a nearby port (Nafplio). Moreover, it was maintained that construction of public buildings would be difficult in Athens, given that most of the land was owned by the Greek church, meaning that a great deal of expropriation would have to take place. On the contrary, Argos did not face a similar problem, having large available areas for this purpose. In the end, the proposition of the Greek capital being moved to Argos was rejected by the father of king Otto, Ludwig, who insisted in making Athens the capital, something which eventually happened in 1834.
During the German occupation, Argos airfield was frequently attacked by Allied forces. One of the raids was so large that it resulted in the bombing of the city on October 14, 1943, with the casualties of about 100 dead Argives and several casualties, and 75 of the Germans. The bombing started from the airfield heading southeast, hitting the monastery of Katakrykmeni and several areas of the city, up to the railway station.
Mythology
---------
The mythological kings of Argos are (in order): Inachus, Phoroneus, Apis, Argus, Criasus, (Phorbas, Triopas is sometimes between Criasus and Iasus in some sources), Iasus, Agenor,( Crotopus and Sthenelus was between Agenor and Gelanor in some sources), Gelanor AKA Pelasgus, Danaus, Lynceus, Abas, Proetus, Acrisius, Perseus, Megapenthes, (Argeus and Anaxagoras comes after in some sources).
An alternative version supplied by Tatian of the original 17 consecutive kings of Argos includes Apis, Argios, Kriasos and Phorbas between Argus and Triopas, explaining the apparent unrelation of Triopas to Argus.
The city of Argos was believed to be the birthplace of the mythological character Perseus, the son of the god Zeus and Danaë, who was the daughter of the king of Argos, Acrisius.
After the original 17 kings of Argos, there were three kings ruling Argos at the same time (see Anaxagoras), one descended from Bias, one from Melampus, and one from Anaxagoras. Melampus was succeeded by his son Mantius, then Oicles, and Amphiaraus, and his house of Melampus lasted down to the brothers Alcmaeon and Amphilochus.
Anaxagoras was succeeded by his son Alector, and then Iphis. Iphis left his kingdom to his nephew Sthenelus, the son of his brother Capaneus.
Bias was succeeded by his son Talaus, and then by his son Adrastus who, with Amphiaraus, commanded the disastrous war of the Seven against Thebes. Adrastus bequeathed the kingdom to his son, Aegialeus, who was subsequently killed in the war of the Epigoni. Diomedes, grandson of Adrastus through his son-in-law Tydeus and daughter Deipyle, replaced Aegialeus and was King of Argos during the Trojan war. This house lasted longer than those of Anaxagoras and Melampus, and eventually the kingdom was reunited under its last member, Cyanippus, son of Aegialeus, soon after the exile of Diomedes.
Ecclesiastical history
----------------------
After Christianity became established in Argos, the first bishop documented in extant written records is Genethlius, who in 448 AD took part in the synod called by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople that deposed Eutyches from his priestly office and excommunicated him. The next bishop of Argos, Onesimus, was at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. His successor, Thales, was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the Roman province of Hellas sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian to protest the killing of Proterius of Alexandria. Bishop Ioannes was at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, and Theotimus at the Photian Council of Constantinople (879). The local see is today the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Argolis.
Under 'Frankish' Crusader rule, Argos became a Latin Church bishopric in 1212, which lasted as a residential see until Argos was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1463 but would be revived under the second Venetian rule in 1686. Today the diocese is a Catholic titular see.
Geography
---------
### Climate
Argos has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa*). It is one of the hottest places in Greece during summer. Argos has generally cold winters, although due to the local climate, some winter months may have little rainfall. The weather of Argos includes an abundant amount of sunny days throughout the year, even in the winter. Temperatures below zero degrees Celsius are recorded mostly in the nightly hours during the winter months. Snowfalls are generally rare there, although not unheard of. The most recent significant snowfall in Argos occurred in early January 2017 during a large European cold wave. There is also a degree of variation in the annual rainfall volumes in Argos, as rainfall in Argos usually is between 300 and 800 millimeters depending the year.
| Climate data for Argos (1980–2010) |
| --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | 14.6(58.3) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.3(70.3) | 26.5(79.7) | 31.4(88.5) | 34.0(93.2) | 33.7(92.7) | 29.7(85.5) | 24.7(76.5) | 19.2(66.6) | 15.5(59.9) | 23.6(74.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.2(46.8) | 8.4(47.1) | 10.9(51.6) | 14.9(58.8) | 20.3(68.5) | 25.1(77.2) | 27.5(81.5) | 26.8(80.2) | 22.6(72.7) | 18.0(64.4) | 13.0(55.4) | 9.6(49.3) | 17.1(62.8) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 3.0(37.4) | 2.9(37.2) | 4.3(39.7) | 6.7(44.1) | 10.5(50.9) | 14.0(57.2) | 16.7(62.1) | 16.8(62.2) | 14.2(57.6) | 11.5(52.7) | 7.7(45.9) | 4.8(40.6) | 9.4(49.0) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 66.5(2.62) | 52.5(2.07) | 52.2(2.06) | 33.7(1.33) | 18.7(0.74) | 8.9(0.35) | 9.1(0.36) | 13.0(0.51) | 20.3(0.80) | 44.3(1.74) | 82.5(3.25) | 69.7(2.74) | 471.4(18.57) |
| Average precipitation days | 10.3 | 10.1 | 9.7 | 8.6 | 6.2 | 3.0 | 2.1 | 2.5 | 5.0 | 6.9 | 9.4 | 12.2 | 86 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 75.3 | 73.6 | 72.2 | 68.6 | 60.5 | 54.0 | 52.5 | 56.6 | 65.8 | 71.8 | 76.7 | 77.3 | 67.1 |
| Source: Hellenic National Meteorological Agency |
Characteristics
---------------
### Orientation
The city of Argos is delimited to the north by dry river Xerias, to the east by Inachos river and Panitsa stream (which emanates from the latter), to the west by the Larissa hill (site of homonymous castle and of a monastery called Panagia Katakekrymeni-Portokalousa) and the Aspida Hill (unofficially Prophetes Elias hill), and to the south by the Notios Periferiakos road.
The Agios Petros (Saint Peter) square, along with the eponymous cathedral (dedicated to saint Peter the Wonderworker), make up the town centre, whereas some other characteristic town squares are the Laiki Agora (Open Market) square, officially Dimokratias (Republic) square, where, as implied by its name, an open market takes place twice a week, Staragora (Wheat Market), officially Dervenakia square, and Dikastirion (Court) square. Bonis Park is an essential green space of the city.
Currently, the most commercially active streets of the city are those surrounding the Agios Petros square (Kapodistriou, Danaou, Vassileos Konstantinou streets) as well as Korinthou street. The Pezodromi (Pedestrian Streets), i.e. the paved Michael Stamou, Tsaldari and Venizelou streets, are the most popular meeting point, encompassing a wide variety of shops and cafeterias. The neighborhood of Gouva, which extends around the intersection of Vassileos Konstantinou and Tsokri streets, is also considered a commercial point.
In the center of the city, next to the St. Peter's church, there is an artificial lake that was constructed and filled during an extensive redevelopment works in the city, which lasted between February 2015 and April 2016. During the work for the redevelopment of the city's square the floor of the old (now demolished) church of St. Nicholas was found, which was located north of the present-day church of St. Peter, that was built after 1865. Pursuant to a decision of the Central Archaeological Council, the floor and part of the sidewalls of the old church were covered with dirt in early March 2016.
On 15 February 2022 a new statue of Hercules was unveiled. It is a replica of a statue made by Lysippus of Sicyon in the 4th century BC. The Roman copy of Lysippus' statue is known as the Farnese Hercules, and it is exhibited in Naples, Italy.
In March 2022 the construction of the fountain in St. Peter's square was completed. In the base of the marble fountain there are four lions. Above the visitor can see four members of the Danaids. The fountain has a width of 7 meters and a height of 5 meters, while the fountain was designed in collaboration with the Supreme School of Fine Arts in Athens.
The city has three monasteries that are located in Larissa hill.
### Population
In 700 BC there were at least 5,000 people living in the city. In the fourth century BC, the city was home to as many as 30,000 people.
Today, according to the 2011 Greek census, the city has a population of 22,085. It is the largest city in Argolis, larger than the capital Nafplio.
### Economy
The primary economic activity in the area is agriculture. Citrus fruits are the predominant crop, followed by olives and apricots. The area is also famous for its local melon variety, Argos melons (or Argitiko). There is also important local production of dairy products, factories for fruits processing.
Considerable remains of the ancient and medieval city survive and are a popular tourist attraction.
Monuments
---------
Most of Argos' historical and archaeological monuments are currently unused, abandoned, or only partially renovated:
* The Larisa castle, built during prehistoric time, which has undergone several repairs and expansions since antiquity and played a significant historical role during the Venetian domination of Greece and the Greek War of Independence. It is located on top of the Larissa Hill, which also constitutes the highest spot of the city (289 m.). In ancient times, a castle was also found on neighbouring Aspida Hill. When connected with walls, these two castles fortified the city from enemy invasions.
* The ancient theatre, built in the 3rd century B.C with a capacity of 20,000 spectators, replaced an older neighbouring theatre of the 5th century BC and communicated with the ancient agora. It was visible from any part of the ancient city and the Argolic gulf. In 1829, it was used by Ioannis Kapodistrias for the Fourth National Assembly of the new Hellenic State. Today, cultural events are held at its premises during the summer months.
* The ancient agora, adjacent to the ancient theatre, which developed in the 6th century B.C., was located at the junction of the ancient roads coming from Corinth, Heraion and Tegea. Excavations in the area have uncovered a bouleuterion, built in 460 B.C. when Argos adopted the democratic regime, a Sanctuary of Apollo Lyceus and a palaestra.
* The "Criterion" of Argos, an ancient monument located on the southwest side of the town, on the foot of Larissa hill, which came to have its current structure during the 6th–3rd century BC period. Initially, it served as a court of ancient Argos, similar to Areopagus of Athens. According to mythology, it was at this area where Hypermnestra, one of the 50 daughters of Danaus, the first king of Argos, was tried. Later, under the reigns of Hadrian, a fountain was created to collect and circulate water coming from the Hadrianean aqueduct located in northern Argos. The site is connected via a paved path with the ancient theatre.
* The Barracks of Kapodistrias, a preservable building with a long history. Built in the 1690s during the Venetian domination of Greece, they initially served as a hospital run by the Sisters of Mercy. During the Tourkokratia, they served as a market and a post office. Later, in 1829, significant damage caused during the Greek revolution was repaired by Kapodistrias who turned the building into a cavalry barrack, a school (1893–1894), an exhibition space (1899), a shelter for Greek refugees displaced during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey (since 1920) and an interrogation and torture space (during the German occupation of Greece). In 1955–68, it was used by the army for the last time; it now accommodates the Byzantine Museum of Argos, local corporations and also serves as an exhibition space.
* The Municipal Neoclassical Market building (unofficially the "Kamares", i.e. arches, from the arches that it boasts), built in 1889, which is located next to Dimokratias square, is one of the finest samples of modern Argos' masterly architecture, in Ernst Ziller style. The elongated, two corridor, preservable building accommodates small shops.
* The Kapodistrian school, in central Argos. Built by architect Labros Zavos in 1830, as part of Kapodistrias' efforts to provide places of education to the Greek people, it could accommodate up to 300 students. However, technical difficulties led to its decay, until it was restored several times, the last of which being in 1932. Today, its neoclassical character is evident, with the building housing the 1st elementary school of the town.
* The old Town Hall, built during the time of Kapodistrias in 1830, which originally served as a venue for a justice of the peace, the local government of Argos, an arm of the carabineers and a prison. From 1987 to 2012, it housed the town hall, which is now located in Kapodistriou street.
* The house of philhellene Thomas Gordon, built in 1829 that served as an all-girls school, a dance school and was home to the 4th Greek artillery regiment. Today it accommodates the French Institute of Athens (Institut Français d' Athènes).
* The house of Spyridon Trikoupis (built in 1900), where the politician was born and spent his childhood. Also located in the estate, which is not open to public, is the Saint Charalambos chapel where Trikoupis was baptized.
* The house of general Tsokris, important military fighter in the Greek revolution of 1821 and later assemblyman of Argos.
* The temple of Agios Konstadinos, one of the very few remaining buildings in Argos dating from the Ottoman Greece era. It is estimated to have been built around 1570–1600, with a minaret also having existed in its premises. It served as a mosque and an Ottoman cemetery up to 1871, when it was declared a Christian temple.
* The chambered tombs of the Aspida hill.
* The Hellinikon Pyramid. Dating back to late 4th century B.C., it has elicited many theories as to its purpose (tumulus, fortress). Together with the widely accepted scientific chronology, there are some people who claim it was built shortly after the Great Pyramid of Giza as a symbol of the excellent relationship the citizens of Argos had with Egypt.
A great number of archaeological findings, dating from the prehistoric ages, can be found at the Argos museum, housed at the old building of Dimitrios Kallergis at Saint Peter's square. The Argos airfield, located in the homonymous area (Aerodromio) in the northwest outskirts of the city, is also worth mentioning. The area it covers was created in 1916–1917 and was heavily used during the Greco-Italian War and for the training of new Kaberos school aviators for the Hellenic Air Force Academy. It also constituted an important benchmark in the organization of the Greek air forces in southern Greece. Furthermore, the airfield was used by the Germans for the release of their aerial troops during the Battle of Crete. It was last used as a landing/takeoff point for spray planes (for agricultural purposes in the olive tree cultivations) up until 1985.
Transportation
--------------
Argos is connected via regular bus services with neighbouring areas as well as Athens. In addition, taxi stands can be found at the Agios Petros as well as the Laiki Agora square. A good road network ensures the connection of the city with the surrounding towns, villages and the rest of Peloponnese and the country.
The city also has a railway station which, at the moment, remains closed due to an indefinite halt to all railway services in the Peloponnese area by the Hellenic Railways Organisation. However, in late 2014, it was announced that the station would open up again, as part of an expansion of the Athens suburban railway in Argos, Nafplio and Korinthos, however the plan never came in fruition. Finally in mid 2020 it was announced by the administration of Peloponnese Region their cooperation with the Hellenic Railways Organisation for the metric line and stations maintenance for the purpose of the line's reoperation in the middle of 2021. As of April 2023, no steps have yet been taken to even prepare for an upcoming reopening of the railway lines, to the dismay of the local populus.
Education
---------
View of the second and third middle school of Argos, plus of the first high school of the city *(top)* Panoramic view of the First High School of Argos *(bottom)*
Argos has a wide range of educational institutes that also serve neighbouring sparsely populated areas and villages. In particular, the city has seven dimotika (primary schools), four gymnasia (junior high), three lyceums (senior high), one vocational school, one music school as well as a Touristical Business and Cooking department and a post-graduate ASPETE department. The city also has two public libraries.
For the academic year 2020–2021, the beginning of operations for a faculty of Rural Economy of the University of Peloponnese in Argos was planned. However, the creation of this faculty was cancelled by the Greek ministry of education.
There is a municipal children's'-youth library next to the Bonis Park, and another one next to Aggeli Bobou street.
Sports
------
Argos hosts two major sport clubs with presence in higher national divisions and several achievements, Panargiakos F.C. football club, founded in 1926 and AC Diomidis Argous handball club founded in 1976. Other sport clubs that are based in Argos: **A.E.K. Argous**, **Apollon Argous**, **Aristeas Argous**, **Olympiakos Argous**, **Danaoi** and **Panionios Dalamanaras**.
The city has a municipal sports' center, an indoor gym and a municipal swimming bath that was opened in May 2021.
| Sport clubs based in Argos |
| --- |
| Club | Founded | Sports | Achievements |
| Panargiakos F.C. | 1926 | Football | Earlier presence in Alpha Ethniki |
| AC Diomidis Argous | 1976 | Handball | Panhellenic and European titles in Greek handball |
Notable people
--------------
* Acrisius, mythological king
* Theoclymenus, mythological prophet
* Agamemnon, legendary leader of the Achaeans in the Trojan War
* Acusilaus (6th century BC), logographer and mythographer
* Ageladas (6th–5th century BC), sculptor
* Calchas (8th century BC), Homeric mythological seer
* Karanos (8th century BC), founder of the Macedonian Argead Dynasty
* Leo Sgouros (13th century), Byzantine despot
* Nikon the Metanoeite (10th century), Christian saint of Armenian origin, according to some sources born in Argos
* Pheidon (7th century BC), king of Argos
* Argus (7th century BC), king of Argos
* Polykleitos (5th–4th century BC), sculptor
* Polykleitos the Younger (4th century BC), sculptor
* Telesilla (6th century BC), Greek poet
* Bilistiche, hetaira and lover of pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus
* Eleni Bakopanos (born 1954), Canadian politician
* Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin (1837–1914), American statesman
International relations
-----------------------
### Twin towns and sister cities
Argos is twinned with:
* Greece Veria, Greece
* France Abbeville, France
* Cyprus Episkopi, Cyprus
* Georgia (country) Mtskheta, Georgia (1991)
See also
--------
* Argos (dog)
* Communities of Argos (municipal unit)
* Kings of Argos
* List of ancient Greek cities
* List of settlements in Argolis
Sources and external links
--------------------------
* Official website
* Website of abolished Municipality of Argos (web archive)
* GCatholic with incumbent bio links
* The Theatre at Argos, The Ancient Theatre Archive, Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre | Argos, Peloponnese | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt6\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\" id=\"mwBw\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Argos</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-native\" lang=\"el\">Άργος</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5,_2020.jpg\" title=\"View of Argos, seen from the Larisa castle\"><img alt=\"View of Argos, seen from the Larisa castle\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"4000\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"6000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"180\" resource=\"./File:The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5,_2020.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg/270px-The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg/405px-The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg/540px-The_city_of_Argos_from_the_Castle_of_Larissa_on_September_5%2C_2020.jpg 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">View of Argos, seen from the Larisa castle</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Argos_Siegel.png\" title=\"Official seal of Argos\"><img alt=\"Official seal of Argos\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"180\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"186\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"97\" resource=\"./File:Argos_Siegel.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/aa/Argos_Siegel.png/100px-Argos_Siegel.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/aa/Argos_Siegel.png/150px-Argos_Siegel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/aa/Argos_Siegel.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Seal</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:270px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:270px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Greece_location_map.svg\" title=\"Argos is located in Greece\"><img alt=\"Argos is located in Greece\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"825\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1003\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"222\" resource=\"./File:Greece_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/270px-Greece_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/405px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/540px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:59.23%;left:33.491%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Argos\"><img alt=\"Argos\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Argos</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"><div class=\"hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\" border:line; margin-top:2px\"><div class=\"hidden-title\" style=\" font-size:115%; height:auto; padding-right:2em;\">Location within the regional unit</div><div class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\" \"> <figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:DE_Argous.svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"309\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"453\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"171\" resource=\"./File:DE_Argous.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DE_Argous.svg/250px-DE_Argous.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DE_Argous.svg/375px-DE_Argous.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/DE_Argous.svg/500px-DE_Argous.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div></div></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Argos,_Peloponnese&params=37_37_N_22_43_E_type:city(22085)_region:GR-J\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">37°37′N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">22°43′E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">37.617°N 22.717°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">37.617; 22.717</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt22\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Greece</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Administrative_regions_of_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative regions of Greece\">Administrative region</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Peloponnese_(region)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Peloponnese (region)\">Peloponnese</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Regional_units_of_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Regional units of Greece\">Regional unit</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Argolis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Argolis\">Argolis</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Administrative_divisions_of_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative divisions of Greece\">Municipality</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Argos-Mykines\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Argos-Mykines\">Argos-Mykines</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Administrative_divisions_of_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative divisions of Greece\">Municipal unit</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Municipality_of_Argos\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Municipality of Argos\">Argos</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Municipal unit</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">138.138<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (53.335<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Elevation<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">40<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (130<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(2011)</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">22,085</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Municipality<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">42,027</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Municipal unit<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">26,963</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Municipal unit density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">200/km<sup>2</sup> (510/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Community<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Population</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">22,471 (2011)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+2\">UTC+2</a> (<a href=\"./Eastern_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eastern European Time\">EET</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Summer (<a href=\"./Daylight_saving_time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Daylight saving time\">DST</a>)</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+3\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+3\">UTC+3</a> (<a href=\"./Eastern_European_Summer_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eastern European Summer Time\">EEST</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Postal_codes_in_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Postal codes in Greece\">Postal code</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\">21200</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Telephone_numbers_in_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Telephone numbers in Greece\">Area code(s)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2751</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vehicle registration plates of Greece\">Vehicle registration</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">AP</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Argos,_Triobol,_c.270-250_BC,_HGC_5-670.jpg",
"caption": "Triobol of Argos, struck c. 270–250 BC. Obv.: forepart of a wolf, alluding to Apollo Lykeios, the patron-god of the city; rev.: large A (for Argos) within an incuse square."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Argos_Heraion_Plain.jpg",
"caption": "The Heraion of Argos"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ancient_Argos_-_Theatre_2.jpg",
"caption": "View of the ancient theatre"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ancient_peloponnese.svg",
"caption": "Ancient Peloponnese"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ancient_Regions_Peloponnese.png",
"caption": "Ancient regions of Peloponnese (southern mainland Greece)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Argos09.jpg",
"caption": "The castle on Larissa Hill."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Neo_Ireo_Kimisis_Theotokou.JPG",
"caption": "The church of the Kimisis (Dormition) of the Virgin in Neo Ireo"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Veduta_d'Argos_-_Coronelli_Vincenzo_-_1688.jpg",
"caption": "Illustration of Argos by Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Το_Συντριβάνι_του_Άργους.jpg",
"caption": "The fountain of Argos was unveiled in 2022."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Argos_fountain,_night_view.jpg",
"caption": "The Argos fountain at night."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Βρύση_Νικηταρά,_Άργος.jpg",
"caption": "The Nikitaras tap was unveiled in March 2021."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Άγαλμα_του_Ηρακλή,_Άργος.jpg",
"caption": "The statue of Hercules"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Δημοτική_αγορά_Άργους_2.jpg",
"caption": "Municipal market"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Demarxeioargou.jpg",
"caption": "The old City Hall in 2002; built in 1830, it served as the headquarters of municipal government until 2012"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Capodistria's_Barracks_at_night.jpg",
"caption": "Capodistria's Barracks in Argos at night"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Argos_railway_station.jpg",
"caption": "The railway station"
}
] |
148,030 | The **Guanches** were the indigenous inhabitants of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean some 100 kilometres (60 mi) west of the North African coast. They spoke the Guanche language, which went extinct in the 17th century and is believed to have been related to Berber languages.
It is believed that they may have arrived on the archipelago some time in the first millennium BCE. The Guanches were the only native people known to have lived in the Macaronesian archipelago region before the arrival of Europeans, as there is no accepted evidence that the other Macaronesian archipelagos (the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira and the Azores) were inhabited. After the Spanish conquest of the Canaries starting in the early 15th century, many natives were wiped out by the Spanish conquerors while the rest assimilated over time into the settler population and culture, although elements of their original culture survive within Canarian customs and traditions, such as Silbo (the whistled language of La Gomera Island), as well as some lexicon of Canarian Spanish. Some scholars have classified the destruction of the Guanche people and culture as an early example of colonial genocide.
In 2017, the first genome-wide data from the Guanches confirmed a North African origin and that they were genetically most similar to ancient North African Berber peoples of the nearby North African mainland.
Etymology
---------
The native term *guanachinet* literally translated means "person of Tenerife" (from *Guan* = person and *Achinet* = Tenerife). It was modified, according to Juan Núñez de la Peña, by the Castilians into "Guanches". Though etymologically being an ancient, Tenerife-specific, term, the word *Guanche* is now mostly used to refer to the pre-Hispanic Indigenous inhabitants of the entire archipelago.
Historical background
---------------------
### Prehistory
Genetic evidence shows that northern African people made a significant contribution to the aboriginal population of the Canaries following desertification of the Sahara at some point after 6000 BC. Linguistic evidence suggests ties between the Guanche language and the Berber languages of North Africa, particularly when comparing numeral systems. Research into the genetics of the Guanche population have led to the conclusion that they share an ancestry with Berber peoples.
The islands were visited by a number of peoples within recorded history. The Numidians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians knew of the islands and made frequent visits, including expeditions dispatched from Mogador by Juba. The Romans occupied northern Africa and visited the Canaries between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, judging from Roman artifacts found on and near the island of Lanzarote. These show that Romans did trade with the Canaries, though there is no evidence of them ever settling there. Archaeology of the Canaries seems to reflect diverse levels of technology, some differing from the Neolithic culture that was encountered at the time of conquest.
It is thought that the arrival of the aborigines to the archipelago led to the extinction of some big reptiles and insular mammals, for example *Canariomys bravoi*, the giant rat of Tenerife.
Roman author and military officer Pliny the Elder, drawing upon the accounts of Juba II, king of Mauretania, stated that a Mauretanian expedition to the islands around 50 BC found the ruins of great buildings, but otherwise no population to speak of. If this account is accurate, it may suggest that the Guanches were not the only inhabitants, or the first ones; or that the expedition simply did not explore the islands thoroughly. Tenerife, specifically the archaeological site of the Cave of the Guanches in Icod de los Vinos, has provided habitation dates dating back to the 6th century BC, according to analysis carried out on ceramics that were found inside the cave.
Strictly speaking, the Guanches were the indigenous peoples of Tenerife. The population seems to have lived in relative isolation up to the time of the Castilian conquest, around the 14th century (though Genoese, Portuguese, and Castilians may have visited there from the second half of the 8th century onwards). The name came to be applied to the indigenous populations of all the seven Canary Islands, those of Tenerife being the most important or powerful.
What remains of their language, Guanche – a few expressions, vocabulary words and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families – exhibits positive similarities with the Berber languages. The first reliable account of the Guanche language was provided by the Genoese explorer Nicoloso da Recco in 1341, with a translation of numbers used by the islanders.
According to European chroniclers, the Guanches did not possess a system of writing at the time of conquest; the writing system may have fallen into disuse or aspects of it were simply overlooked by the colonizers. Inscriptions, glyphs and rock paintings and carvings are quite abundant throughout the islands. Petroglyphs attributed to various Mediterranean civilizations have been found on some of the islands. In 1752, Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las Palmas, attempted to investigate them, and Aquilino Padron, a priest at Las Palmas, catalogued inscriptions at El Julan, La Candía and La Caleta on El Hierro. In 1878 Dr. René Verneau discovered rock carvings in the ravines of Las Balos that resemble Libyan or Numidian writing dating from the time of Roman occupation or earlier. In other locations, Libyco-Berber script has been identified.
### Pre-conquest exploration
The geographic accounts of Pliny the Elder and of Strabo mention the Fortunate Isles but do not report anything about their populations. An account of the Guanche population may have been made around AD 1150 by the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi in the *Nuzhatul Mushtaq*, a book he wrote for King Roger II of Sicily, in which al-Idrisi reports a journey in the Atlantic Ocean made by the Mugharrarin ("the adventurers"), a family of Andalusian seafarers from Lisbon. The only surviving version of this book, kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, and first translated by Pierre Amédée Jaubert, reports that, after having reached an area of "sticky and stinking waters", the Mugharrarin moved back and first reached an uninhabited Island (Madeira or Hierro), where they found "a huge quantity of sheep, which its meat was bitter and inedible" and, then, "continued southward" and reached another island where they were soon surrounded by barks and brought to "a village whose inhabitants were often fair haired with long and flaxen hair and the women of a rare beauty". Among the villagers, one did speak Arabic and asked them where they came from. Then the king of the village ordered them to bring them back to the continent where they were surprised to be welcomed by Berbers. Apart from the marvelous and fanciful content of this history, this account would suggest that Guanches had sporadic contacts with populations from the mainland. Al-Idrisi also described the Guanche men as tall and of a reddish-brown complexion.
During the 14th century, the Guanches are presumed to have had other contacts with Balearic seafarers from Spain, suggested by the presence of Balearic artifacts found on several of the Canary Islands.
### Castilian conquest
The Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands began in 1402, with the expedition of Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle to the island of Lanzarote. Gadifer invaded Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.
The other five islands fought back. El Hierro and the *Bimbache* population were the next to fall, then La Gomera, Gran Canaria, La Palma and in 1496, Tenerife.
In the First Battle of Acentejo (31 May 1494), called *La Matanza* (the slaughter), Guanches ambushed the Castilians in a valley and killed many. Only one in five of the Castilians survived, including the leader of the expedition, Alonso Fernandez de Lugo.
Lugo later returned to the island with the alliance of the kings of the southern part of the island, and defeated the Guanches in the Battle of Aguere. The northern Menceyatos or provinces fell after the Second Battle of Acentejo with the defeat of the successor of Bencomo, Bentor, Mencey of Taoro—what is now the Orotava Valley—in 1496.
Various scholars have used the term "genocide" to describe the conquest of the Canary Islands. Mohamed Adhikhari argues that the Canary Islands were the scene of "Europe's first overseas settler colonial genocide", and that the mass killing and enslavement of natives, along with forced deportation, sexual violence and confiscation of land and children constituted an attempt to "destroy in whole" the Guanche people. The tactics used in the Canary Islands in the 15th century served as a model for the Iberian colonisation of the Americas.
Language
--------
The native Guanche language is now known only through a few sentences and individual words, supplemented by several placenames. Many modern linguists propose that it belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic languages.
However, while there are recognizable Berber words (particularly with regards to agriculture) within the Guanche language, no Berber grammatical inflections have been identified; there is a large stock of vocabulary that does not bear any resemblance to Berber whatsoever.
Other strong similarities to the Berber languages are reflected in their counting system, while some authors suggest the Canarian branch would be a sister branch to the surviving continental Berber languages, splitting off during the early development of the language family and before the *terminus post quem* for the origin of Proto-Berber.
System of beliefs
-----------------
### Religion and mythology
Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. There was a general belief in a supreme being, called Achamán in Tenerife, Acoran in Gran Canaria, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in La Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called Moneiba. According to tradition, the male and female gods lived in mountains, from which they descended to hear the prayers of the people. On other islands, the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Tenerife was called Guayota and lived at the peak of Teide volcano, which was the hell called Echeyde; in Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the minor demons took the form of wild black woolly dogs called Jucanchas in the first and Tibicenas in the latter, which lived in deep caves of the mountains, emerging at night to attack livestock and human beings.
In Tenerife, Magec (god of the Sun) and Chaxiraxi (the goddess mother) were also worshipped. In times of drought, the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that their plaintive bleating would melt the heart of the Great Spirit. During the religious feasts, hostilities were held in abeyance, from war to personal quarrels.
Idols have been found in the islands, including the Idol of Tara (Museo Canario, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) and the Guatimac (Museum Archaeological of Puerto de la Cruz in Tenerife). But many more figures have been found in the rest of the archipelago.
Most researchers agree that the Guanches performed their worship in the open, under sacred trees such as pine or drago, or near sacred mountains such as Mount Teide, which was believed to be the abode of the devil Guayota. Mount Teide was sacred to the aboriginal Guanches and since 2007 is a World Heritage Site. But sometimes the Guanches also performed worship in caves, as in "Cave of Achbinico" in Tenerife. Until the 20th century, there were in the Canary Islands (especially in northern Tenerife) individuals called "Animeros". They were similar to healers and mystics with a syncretic beliefs combining elements of the Guanche religion and Christianity. As in other countries close to the islands (e.g. marabouts from the Maghreb), the Animeros were considered "persons blessed by God".
Principal gods of Tenerife| God | Role |
| --- | --- |
| Achamán | The supreme god of the Guanches on the island of Tenerife; he is the father god and creator. |
| Chaxiraxi | The native Guanche goddess known as the Sun Mother. |
| Chijoraji | A divine child, son of Chaxiraxi. |
| Chijoragi |
| Magec | The god of the Sun and the light, and also thought to be one of the principal divinities. |
| Achuguayo | God of the moon. It was the duality of the god Magec (god of the sun). |
| Achuhucanac | Rain god, identified with the supreme god (Achamán). |
| Guayota | The principal malignant deity and Achamán's adversary. |
Mythical beings| Being | Role |
| --- | --- |
| Maxios | Benevolent minor gods or genies; domestic spirits and guardians of specific places. |
| Tibicenas | Demons in the form of black dogs, these were children of Guayota, the malignant deity. |
### Aboriginal priests
The Guanches had priests or shamans who were connected with the gods and ordained hierarchically:
| Religious authority | Jurisdiction | Definition |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Guadameñe or Guañameñe | Tenerife | spiritual advisers to the Menceyes (Aboriginal kings), who directed the worship. |
| Faykan or Faicán | Gran Canaria | a spiritual and religious person in charge, who directed the worship. |
| Maguadas or Arimaguadas | Tenerife
Gran Canaria | women priestesses dedicated to worship. They took part in some rituals. |
| Kankus | Tenerife | the priests responsible for the worship of the ancestor spirits and Maxios (minor gods or genies). |
### Guatimac
### Festivities
**Beñesmen** or **Beñesmer** was a festival of the agricultural calendar of the Guanches (the Guanche new year) to be held after the gathering of crops devoted to Chaxiraxi (on August 15). In this event the Guanches shared milk, gofio, sheep or goat meat. At the present time, this coincides with the pilgrimage to the Basilica of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands).
Among the cultural events are significant traces of aboriginal traditions at the holidays and in the current Romería Relief in Güímar (Tenerife) and the lowering of the Rama, in Agaete (Gran Canaria).
### Funerals and mummies
Mummification was not commonly practiced throughout the islands but was highly developed on Tenerife in particular. In Gran Canaria there is currently a debate on the true nature of the mummies of the ancient inhabitants of the island, as researchers point out that there was no real intention to mummify the deceased and that the good conservation of some of them is due rather to environmental factors. In La Palma they were preserved by these environmental factors and in La Gomera, and El Hierro the existence of mummification is not verified. In Lanzarote and Fuerteventura this practice is ruled out.
The Guanches embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each weighing not more than 3 kg (7 lb). Two almost inaccessible caves in a vertical rock by the shore 5 km (3 mi) from Santa Cruz on Tenerife are said still to contain remains. The process of embalming seems to have varied. In Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult to access, or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a special class, with women tending to female corpses, and men for the male ones. Embalming seems not to have been universal.
In the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Santa Cruz de Tenerife) mummies of original inhabitants of the Canary Islands are displayed.
In 1933, the largest Guanche necropolis of the Canary Islands was found, at Uchova in the municipality of San Miguel de Abona in the south of the island of Tenerife. This cemetery was almost completely looted; it is estimated to have contained between 60 and 74 mummies.
### Sacrifices
Although little is known about this practice among them, it has been shown that they performed both animal sacrifices and human sacrifices.
In Tenerife during the summer solstice, the Guanches killed livestock and threw them into a fire as an offering to the gods. Bethencourt Alfonso has claimed that goat kids were tied by the legs, alive, to a stake so that they could be heard bleating by the gods. It is likely that animals were also sacrificed on the other islands.
As for human sacrifices, in Tenerife it was the custom to throw a living child from the *Punta de Rasca* at sunrise at the summer solstice. Sometimes these children came from all parts of the island, even from remote areas of *Punta de Rasca*. It follows that it was a common custom of the island. On this island sacrificing other human victims associated with the death of the king, where adult men rushed to the sea are also known. Embalmers who produced the Guanche mummies also had a habit of throwing into the sea one year after the king's death.
Bones of children mixed with lambs and kids were found in Gran Canaria, and in Tenerife amphorae have been found with remains of children inside. This suggests a different kind of ritual infanticide to those who were thrown overboard.
Child sacrifice has been seen in other cultures, especially in the Mediterranean—Carthage (now Tunisia), Ugarit in the current Syria, Cyprus and Crete.
Political system
----------------
The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some islands like Gran Canaria, hereditary autocracy by matrilineality prevailed, in others the government was elective. In Tenerife all the land belonged to the kings who leased it to their subjects. In Gran Canaria, suicide was regarded as honourable, and whenever a new king was installed, one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands, polyandry was practised; in others they were monogamous. Insult of a woman by an armed man was allegedly a capital offense. Anyone accused of a crime had to attend a public trial in Tagoror, a public court where those prosecuted were sentenced after a trial.
The island of Tenerife was divided into nine small kingdoms (*menceyatos*), each ruled by a king or *Mencey*. The Mencey was the ultimate ruler of the kingdom, and at times, meetings were held between the various kings. When the Castilians invaded the Canary Islands, the southern kingdoms joined the Castilian invaders on the promise of the richer lands of the north; the Castilians betrayed them after ultimately securing victory at the Battles of Aguere and Acentejo.
### Kings (*Menceys*) of Tenerife
* **Acaimo** or Acaymo of Menceyato de Tacoronte
* **Adjona** of Menceyato de Abona
* **Añaterve** of Menceyato de Güímar
* **Bencomo** of Menceyato de Taoro
* **Beneharo** of Menceyato de Anaga
* **Pelicar** of Menceyato de Adeje
* **Pelinor** of Menceyato de Icode
* **Romen** of Menceyato de Daute
* **Tegueste** of Menceyato de Tegueste
In Tenerife the grand Mencey Tinerfe and his father Sunta governed the unified island, which afterwards was divided into nine kingdoms by the children of Tinerfe.
Clothes and weapons
-------------------
Guanches wore garments made from goat skins or woven from plant fibers called Tamarcos, which have been found in the tombs of Tenerife. They had a taste for ornaments and necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished surfaces, mostly colored black and red, were fairly common. Dr. René Verneau suggested that the objects the Castilians referred to as *pintaderas*, baked clay seal-shaped objects, were used as vessels for painting the body in various colours. They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations, or ornamented by making fingernail indentations.
Guanche weapons adapted to the insular environment (using wood, bone, obsidian and stone as primary materials), with later influences from medieval European weaponry. Basic armaments in several of the islands included javelins of 1 to 2 m in length (known as *Banot* on Tenerife); round, polished stones; spears; maces (common in Gran Canaria and Tenerife, and known as *Magado* and *Sunta*, respectively); and shields (small in Tenerife and human-sized in Gran Canaria, where they were known as *Tarja*, made of Drago wood and painted with geometric shapes). After the arrival of the Europeans, Guanche nobility from Gran Canaria were known to wield large wooden swords (larger than the European two-handed type) called *Magido*, which were said to be very effective against both infantrymen and cavalry. Weaponry made of wood was hardened with fire. These armaments were commonly complemented with an obsidian knife known as *Tabona*.
Dwellings were situated in natural or artificial caves in the mountains. In areas where cave dwellings were not feasible, they built small round houses and, according to the Castilians, practiced crude fortification.
Presumed Guanche names of the Canary Islands| Spanish | Guanche |
| --- | --- |
| Tenerife | Achinech |
| Achineche |
| Asensen |
| La Gomera | Gomera |
| Gomahara |
| La Palma | Benahoare |
| El Hierro | Eseró |
| Heró |
| Gran Canaria | Tamaran |
| Lanzarote | Titerogakaet |
| Titeroigatra |
| Fuerteventura | Maxorata |
| Erbania |
| Erbani |
Gallery
-------
* PotteryPottery
* Mencey batonMencey baton
* Guatimac idolGuatimac idol
* Stone artefactsStone artefacts
Genetics
--------
Maca-Meyer et al. 2003 extracted 71 samples of mtDNA from Guanches buried at numerous Canary Islands c. 1000 AD. The examined Guanches were found to have closest genetic affinities to modern Moroccan Berbers, Canary Islanders and Spaniards. They carried a significantly high amount of the maternal haplogroup U6b1. U6b1 is found at very low frequencies in North Africa today, and it was suggested that later developments have significantly altered the Berber gene pool. The authors of the study suggested that the Guanches were descended from migrants from mainland North Africa related to the Berbers, and that the Guanches contributed c. 42%–73% to the maternal gene pool of modern Canary Islanders.
Fregel et al. 2009a extracted 30 samples of Y-DNA from Guanches of the Canary Islands. These belonged to the paternal haplogroups E1a\*, (3.33%), E1b1b1a\* (23.33%), E1b1b1b\* (26.67%), I\* (6.67%), J1\* (16.67%), K\*, P\* (3.33%), and R1b1b2 (10.00%). E1a\*, E1b1b1a\* and E1b1b1b\* are common lineages among Berbers, and their high frequency among the Guanches were considered evidence that they were migrants from North Africa. R1b1b2 and I\* are very common in lineages in Europe, and their moderate frequency among the examined Guanche males was suggested to have been a result of prehistoric gene flow from Europe into the region across the Mediterranean. It was found that Guanche males contributed less to the gene pool of modern Canary Islanders than Guanche females (as would be expected from the extremely bloody conquest of the islands). Haplogroups typical among the Guanche has been found at high frequencies in Latin America, suggesting that descendants of the Guanche played an active role in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Fregel et al. 2009b extracted the mtDNA of 30 Guanches from La Palma, (Benahoaritas). 93% of their mtDNA haplogroups were found to be of West Eurasian origin, while 7% were of sub-Saharan African origin. About 15% of their West Eurasian maternal lineages are specific to Europe and the Near East rather than North Africa, suggesting that the Benahoaritas traced partial descent from either of these regions. The examined Benahoaritas were found to have high frequencies of the maternal haplogroups U6b1 and H1-16260. U6b1 has not been found in North Africa, while H1-16260 is "extremely rare". The results suggested that the North African population from whom the Benahoaritas and other Guanches descended have been largely replaced by subsequent migrations.
Pereira et al. 2010 studies the origins of the maternal haplogroup U6, which is characteristic of Guanches. It was suggested that the U6 was brought to North Africa by Cro-Magnon-like humans from the Near East during the Upper Paleolithic, who were probably responsible for the formation of the Iberomaurusian culture. It was also suggested that the maternal haplogroup H1, also frequent among Guanches, was brought to North Africa during the Holocene by migrants from Iberia, who may have participated in the formation of the Capsian culture. In a further study, Secher et al. 2014 suggested that U6 was brought to the Levant from Central Europe in the Upper Paleolithic by people of the Aurignacian culture, forming the Levantine Aurignacian (c. 33000 BC), whose descendants had then further spread U6 as part of a remigration into Africa. U6b1a was suggested to have been brought to the Canary Islands during the initial wave of settlement by Guanches, while U6c1 was suggested to have been brought in a second wave.
Fregel et al. 2015 examined the mtDNA of Guanches of La Gomera (Gomeros). 65% of the examined Gomero swere found to be carriers of the maternal haplogroup U6b1a. The Gomero appeared to be descended from the earliest wave of settlers to the Canary Islands. The maternal haplogroups T2c1 and U6c1 may have been introduced in a second wave of colonization affecting the other islands. It was noted that 44% of modern La Gomerans carry U6b1a. It was determined that La Gomerans have the highest amount of Guanche ancestry among modern Canary Islanders.
Ordóñez et al. 2017 examined the remains of a large number of Guanches of El Hierro (Bimbache) buried at Punta Azul, El Hierro c. 1015–1200 AD. The 16 samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to the paternal haplogroups E1a (1 sample), E1b1b1a1 (7 samples) and R1b1a2 (R1b-M269) (7 samples). All the extracted samples of mtDNA belonged to the maternal haplogroup H1-1626. The Bimbache were identified as descendants of the first wave of Guanche settlers on the Canary Islands, as they lacked the paternal and maternal lineages identified with the hypothetical second wave.
Rodríguez-Varela et al. 2017 examined the atDNA of 11 Guanches buried at Grand Canaria and Tenerife. The 3 samples of Y-DNA extracted all belonged to the paternal haplogroup E1b1b1b1a1 (E-M183), while the 11 samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to the maternal haplogroups H1cf, H2a, L3b1a (3 samples), T2c12, U6b1a (3 samples), J1c3 and U6b. It was determined that the examined Guanches were genetically similar between the 7th and 11th centuries AD, and that they displayed closest genetic affinity to modern North Africans, "but with a tendency (especially for individuals from Gran Canaria) to occupy a space outside modern Northwest African variation, closer to Europeans". The evidence supported the notion that the Guanches were descended from a Berber-like population who had migrated from mainland North Africa. Among modern populations, Guanches were also found to be genetically similar to modern Sardinians. Some models found the Guanche to be more closely related to modern Sardinians than modern North Africans. They were determined to be carriers of Early European Farmer (EEF) ancestry, which probably spread into North Africa from Iberia during the Neolithic, or perhaps also later. One Guanche was also found to have ancestry related to European hunter-gathers, providing further evidence of prehistoric gene flow from Europe. It was estimated that modern Canary Islanders derive 16%–31% of their atDNA from the Guanches.
Fregel et al. 2018 examined remains at the Late Neolithic site of Kelif el Boroud, Morocco (c. 3780–3650 BC). The Kelif el Boroud people were modeled as being equally descended from people buried at the Neolithic sites of Ifri N'Ammar, Morocco (c. 5325–4786 BC) and the Cave of El Toro, Spain (5280–4750 BC). The Kelif el Boroud were thus determined to have carried 50% EEF ancestry, which may have spread with the Cardial Ware culture from Iberia to North Africa during the Neolithic. After the Kelif el Boroud people, additional European ancestry may have been brought to the region from Iberia by people of the Bell Beaker culture. Guanches were found to the genetically very similar to the Kelif el Boroud people. In a 2020 review Fregel et al. identified European Bronze Age ancestry in the Guanches, which could be explained by "the presence of Bell-Beaker pottery in the North African archaeological record" and "the expansion of European Bronze Age populations in North Africa".
Fregel et al. 2019 examined the mtDNA of 48 Guanches buried on all the islands of the Canaries. They were found to be carrying maternal lineages characteristic of both North Africa, Europe and the Near East, with Eurasian lineages centered around the Mediterranean being the most common. It was suggested that some of these Eurasian haplogroups had arrived in the region through Chalcolithic and Bronze Age migrations from Europe. Genetic diversity was found to be the highest at Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, while Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and particularly La Gomera and El Hierro had low diversity. Significant genetic differences were detected between Guanches of western and eastern islands, which supported the notion that Guanches were descended from two distinct migration waves. It was considered significant that 40% of all examined Guanches so far belonged to the maternal haplogroup H.
### Mitochondrial DNA
Regarding mitochondrial DNA, the maternal lineages are characterized by the prevalence of North-African lineages, followed by Europeans and finally in an small percentage by Sub-Saharans. According to different studies the percentages are the following.
| | North-African | European | Sub-Saharan |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Canary Islands | 57% | 43% | 0 |
| Canary Islands | 50.2% | 43.2% | 6.6% |
| Gran Canaria | 55% | 45% | 0 |
### Autosomal DNA
Another recent study that took as reference to 400 adult men and women of all the islands, except La Graciosa, that intended to know the relationship of Canarian genetic diversity with the more prevalent complex diseases in the archipelago, detected that Canarian DNA shows distinctive genetics, result from different variables as the geographical isolation of the islands, the adaptation to environment of its inhabitants and the historical mixture of Pre-Hispanic population of the archipelago ( coming from the North of Africa), with European and Sub-Saharan individuals. Specifically, estimated that the Canarian population, at an autosomal level, is 75% European, 22% North-African and 3% Sub-Saharan.
Here below is included the average per island of North-African and Sub-Saharan respectively.
| | North-African | North-African | North-African | Sub-Saharan | Sub-Saharan | Sub-Saharan |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | Min. | Average | Max. | Min. | Average | Max. |
| Fuerteventura | 0.218 | 0.255 | 0.296 | 0.011 | 0.027 | 0.046 |
| Lanzarote | 0.214 | 0.254 | 0.296 | 0.014 | 0.032 | 0.057 |
| Gran Canaria | 0.155 | 0.200 | 0.264 | 0.005 | 0.032 | 0.082 |
| Tenerife | 0.149 | 0.208 | 0.255 | 0.002 | 0.015 | 0.057 |
| La Gomera | 0.160 | 0.221 | 0.289 | 0.013 | 0.048 | 0.092 |
| La Palma | 0.170 | 0.200 | 0.245 | 0.000 | 0.013 | 0.032 |
| El Hierro | 0.192 | 0.246 | 0.299 | 0.005 | 0.020 | 0.032 |
Source: *Genomic Ancestry Proportions (from ADMIXTURE, K-4) in Canary Islanders (Guillen-Guio et al. 2018)*
Archeological sites
-------------------
The main and most significant archaeological sites on each island are:
* Lanzarote: Zonzamas
* Fuerteventura: Montaña de Tindaya
* Gran Canaria: Painted Cave of Gáldar
* Tenerife: Masca's solar station
* La Gomera: Fortress of Chipude
* La Palma: Cave of Belmaco
* El Hierro: Archaeological zone of El Julan
Museums
-------
Many of the islands' museums possess collections of archaeological material and human remains from the prehistory and history of the archipelago of the Canaries. Some of the most important are:
* Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Santa Cruz de Tenerife).
* Museo Canario (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria).
* Museum of History and Anthropology of Tenerife (Casa Lercaro, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife).
* Archaeological Museum of Puerto de la Cruz (Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife).
New religious movement
----------------------
In 2001, the Church of the Guanche People (*Iglesia del Pueblo Guanche*), a Neopagan movement with several hundred followers, was founded in San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife).
Guanches
--------
* Dacil; princess and daughter of mencey Bencomo. She is known as the Pocahontas of the Canary Islands; she was presented to king of Spain with her father and was married to the first Spanish settler.
* Taoro
* Beneharo (Guanche King in Tenerife).
* Tinguaro
* Bencomo
* Tanausu
* Maninidra
* Acaimo
* Zanata Stone
See also
--------
* Guanche language
* Hamitic
* Silbo Gomero – a Guanche whistling language, still extant
* Isleños
* First Battle of Acentejo
* Battle of Aguere
* Second Battle of Acentejo
* Teide
* Achinet
* Animero
* Beñesmen
Bibliography and further reading
--------------------------------
* Alfred W. Crosby, *Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900,* 1993
* Fregel, Rosa; et al. (August 3, 2009). "Demographic history of Canary Islands male gene-pool: replacement of native lineages by European". *BMC Evolutionary Biology*. BioMed Central. **9** (181): 181. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-181. PMC 2728732. PMID 19650893.
* Fregel, Rosa; et al. (October 2009). "The maternal aborigine colonization of La Palma (Canary Islands)". *European Journal of Human Genetics*. Nature Research. **17** (10): 1314–1324. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.46. PMC 2986650. PMID 19337312.
* Fregel, Rosa; et al. (September 23, 2015). "Isolation and prominent aboriginal maternal legacy in the present-day population of La Gomera (Canary Islands)". *European Journal of Human Genetics*. Nature Research. **23** (9): 1236–1243. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.251. PMC 4538205. PMID 25407001.
* Fregel, Rosa; et al. (June 26, 2018). "Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe". *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America*. National Academy of Sciences. **115** (26): 6774–6779. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6774F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1800851115. PMC 6042094. PMID 29895688.
* Fregel, Rosa; et al. (March 20, 2019). "Mitogenomes illuminate the origin and migration patterns of the indigenous people of the Canary Islands". *PLOS One*. PLOS. **14** (3): e0209125. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1409125F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209125. PMC 6426200. PMID 30893316.
* Ordóñez, Alejandra C.; et al. (February 2017). "Genetic studies on the prehispanic population buried in Punta Azul cave (El Hierro, Canary Islands)". *Journal of Archaeological Science*. Elsevier. **78**: 20–28. Bibcode:2017JArSc..78...20O. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.11.004. Retrieved July 13, 2020.
* Maca-Meyer, Nicole; et al. (September 24, 2003). "Ancient mtDNA analysis and the origin of the Guanches". *European Journal of Human Genetics*. Nature Research. **12** (2): 155–162. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201075. PMID 14508507.
* John Mercer, *The Canary Islanders: Their History, Conquest & Survival,* 1980
* Pereira, Luisa; et al. (December 21, 2010). "Population expansion in the North African Late Pleistocene signalled by mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6". *BMC Evolutionary Biology*. BioMed Central. **10**: 390. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-390. PMC 3016289. PMID 21176127.
* Rodríguez-Varela, Ricardo; et al. (October 26, 2017). "Genomic Analyses of Pre-European Conquest Human Remains from the Canary Islands Reveal Close Affinity to Modern North Africans". *Current Biology*. Cell Press. **27** (21): 3396–3402. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.059. PMID 29107554.
* Secher, Bernard; et al. (May 19, 2014). "The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents". *BMC Evolutionary Biology*. BioMed Central. **14** (109): 109. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-109. PMC 4062890. PMID 24885141.
* Roman Trade with the Canary Islands, Archaeology 50.3 (1997)
* The Voyages of Christopher Columbus
* E. G. Bourne, ed., The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot (New York, 1906) Archived 2010-03-24 at the Wayback Machine
* Canarias.com – Guanches | Guanches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanches | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt2\" class=\"infobox vcard\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn org\">Guanches</caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:At_Candelaria,_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"6960\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"4640\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"375\" resource=\"./File:At_Candelaria,_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg/250px-At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg/375px-At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg/500px-At_Candelaria%2C_Tenerife_2022_118.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">Statue of <a href=\"./Tegueste_(mencey)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tegueste (mencey)\">Tegueste</a> at <a href=\"./Candelaria,_Tenerife\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Candelaria, Tenerife\">Candelaria, Tenerife</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Languages</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Guanche_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Guanche language\">Guanche language</a> (historically)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Religion</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Animism\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Animism\">Animism</a> (<a href=\"./Guanches#System_of_beliefs\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Guanches\">Guanche mythology</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#b0c4de;\">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Berbers\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Berbers\">Berbers</a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Canarian_people\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canarian people\">Canarian people</a> </td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:La_Palma-gravures.jpg",
"caption": "Guanche rock carvings in La Palma"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Museodelanaturalezayelhombre02.jpg",
"caption": "Guanche pottery (Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre, Tenerife)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:AlonsoFernandezdeLugo3.JPG",
"caption": "Guanche kings of Tenerife surrendering to Alonso Fernández de Lugo."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:AlonsoFernandezdeLugo2.JPG",
"caption": "Alonso Fernández de Lugo presenting the captured Guanche kings of Tenerife to Ferdinand and Isabella."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:MNH_-_Mencey-Stäbe.jpg",
"caption": "Mencey batons from Tenerife"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Teide_Tenerife3.jpg",
"caption": "Mount Teide on Tenerife."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:At_Tenerife_2020_292.jpg",
"caption": "Guanche idol in the Museo Guanche, Tenerife."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Momia_guanche_museo_santa_cruz_27-07.JPG",
"caption": "Mummy of San Andrés, in the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Tenerife, Canary Islands)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Replica_de_momia_guanche_en_la_gruta_del_Parque_del_Drago,_Icod_de_los_Vinos,_Tenerife,_España,_2012-12-13,_DD_01.jpg",
"caption": "Replica of a mummy burial in the cave of Parque del Drago, Tenerife"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tenerife_preconquista.png",
"caption": "Tenerife prior to the Castilian invasion."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:At_Candelaria,_Tenerife_2022_124.jpg",
"caption": "A statue of the Guanche mencey Añaterve. Candelaria, Tenerife."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Pueblo_Chico_Guanchen2.jpg",
"caption": "Reconstruction of a Guanche settlement of Tenerife."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Pueblo_Chico_Guanchen1.JPG",
"caption": "The Guanches on Tenerife."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Waffen_der_Canarios_Torriani_1590.jpg",
"caption": "Painting of Guanche warriors of Grand Canaria by Leonardo Torriani, 1592."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Canarios_Torriani_1590.jpg",
"caption": "Painting of Guanches of Grand Canaria by Leonardo Torriani, 1592."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Gomeros.jpg",
"caption": "Painting of Gomeros of La Gomera by Leonardo Torriani, 1592."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Bimbaches.jpg",
"caption": "Painting of Bimbache of El Hierro by Leonardo Torriani, 1592."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Museodelanaturalezayelhombre06.jpg",
"caption": "Zanata Stone."
}
] |
74,608 | **Tychy** (Polish pronunciation: [ˈtɨxɨ] (); German: *Tichau*; Silesian: *Tychy*) is a city in Silesia in southern Poland, approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Katowice. Situated on the southern edge of the Upper Silesian industrial district, the city borders Katowice to the north, Mikołów to the west, Bieruń to the east and Kobiór to the south. The Gostynia river, a tributary of the Vistula, flows through Tychy.
Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1960 | 49,914 | — |
| 1970 | 71,500 | +43.2% |
| 1980 | 166,573 | +133.0% |
| 1990 | 191,723 | +15.1% |
| 2000 | 133,463 | −30.4% |
| 2010 | 129,386 | −3.1% |
| 2020 | 126,871 | −1.9% |
| source |
Since 1999 Tychy has been located within the Silesian Voivodeship, a province consisting of 71 regional towns and cities. Tychy is also one of the founding cities of the Metropolitan Association of Upper Silesia, a pan-Silesian economic and political union formed with the eventual aim of bringing the most populous Silesian areas under a single administrative body.
Tychy is well known for its brewing industry and its international developed brand Tyskie, which dates back to the 17th century. Since 1950 Tychy has grown rapidly, mainly as a result of post-war socialist planning policies enacted to disperse the population of industrial Upper Silesia.
History
-------
### Etymology
The moniker Tychy is derived from the Polish word *cichy*, meaning "quiet" or "still". Although appropriate for most of Tychy's history, the name is now somewhat ironic considering the growth of the city from 1950 onwards.
### Origins and development
Originally established as a small agricultural settlement on the medieval trade route between Oświęcim and Mikołów, Tychy was first documented in 1467. In 1629 the first trace of serious economic activity was recorded in the shape of the Książęcy Brewery, which is now one of the largest breweries in Poland.
From 1526 onwards the area on which Tychy is built was part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy. This situation came to an end when Prussia forcibly took the land in 1742, before itself becoming part of the German Empire between 1871 and 1918. For a short period between 1918 and 1921 Tychy was just inside the border of the newly formed Weimar Republic and still a part of the German Province of Silesia, and on 16–17 August 1919 the Battle of Paprocany [pl] (present-day district of Tychy) was fought as one of the first battles of the Silesian Uprisings (1919–1921). After the uprisings Tychy was reintegrated with the re-established Polish state. Additionally, due to the Polish majority in 1921 in Tychy and the few Germans, 84% of the inhabitants voted for joining Poland during the plebiscite.
Shortly after its cession to Poland, Tychy began to develop into a small urban settlement, acquiring a hospital, a fire station, a post office, a school, a swimming pool, a bowling hall and a number of shops and restaurants. In 1922 it was visited by leader of interwar Poland, Józef Piłsudski. Its population also grew between World War I and World War II, reaching a population of 11,000 at its highest point during this time.
### World War II
Along with the rest of industrial Upper Silesia Tychy was occupied by Nazi Germany forces after the invasion of Poland and annexed into the Third Reich, while many of its inhabitants who were not expelled or exterminated were forced to change their nationality to German in order to comply with the racist policies of Nazi Germany. Mass arrests and executions of Polish activists and former Polish insurgents of 1919–1921 were carried out in the first days of the occupation in September 1939. As early as September 3, 1939, the Germans murdered several Polish residents of the city, of whom 13 were later identified, the youngest was 16 years old. The Germans also carried out manhunts of Polish insurgents who were hiding in the forest between Tychy and Mikołów, and established and operated a *Polenlager* forced labor camp for Poles in the city, and the E701 labor subcamp of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner-of-war camp in the present-day Czułów district. The last public execution was carried out on September 22, 1944, when five members of the underground Polish resistance movement were killed. Tychy received minimal damage during the invasion because most of the nearby fighting took place in the Mikołów-Wyry area. In the final stages of the war, in 1945, a German-conducted death march of thousands of prisoners of the Auschwitz concentration camp and its subcamps passed through the city towards Gliwice.
Tychy was liberated on January 28, 1945.
### New Tychy
The "New City" was designated by the Polish government in 1950 and deliberately located near to Katowice with the intention that it would not be a self-sustaining city. It was granted town rights in 1951. Tychy is the largest of the so-called "new towns" in Poland and was built from 1950 to 1985, to allow for urban expansion in the southeast of the Upper Silesian industrial region. In the 1950s the neighbourhood *Osiedle A* was built, designed by Tadeusz Teodorowicz-Todorowski, and the design and planning of the next neighbourhoods was entrusted to Kazimierz Wejchert [pl] and his wife Hanna Adamczewska-Wejchert [pl]. In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s numerous industrial enterprises were created. In 1951 and 1973 the city limits were greatly expanded by including Paprocany and Wilkowyje (in 1951), and Cielmice, Urbanowice, Jaroszowice (in 1973) as new districts. By 2006, the population had reached 132,500.
In the administrative reforms which came into effect in 1999, Tychy was made a city with the status of a powiat (city county). Between 1999 and 2002, it was also the administrative seat of (but not part of) an entity called Tychy County (*powiat tyski*), which is now known as the Bieruń-Lędziny County.
The Tyskie Brewing Museum was founded in 2004, and the Municipal Museum in 2005.
Districts
---------
Tychy is divided into 17 districts (*dzielnicas*):
* Cielmice (south)
* Czułów (north)
* Glinka, Tychy (west)
* Jaroszowice (north-east)
* Mąkołowiec (north-west)
* Paprocany (south)
* Radziejówka (north-west)
* Śródmieście (city centre)
* Stare Tychy (centre)
* Suble
* Urbanowice, Tychy (east)
* Wartogłowiec (north)
* Wilkowyje (north-west)
* Wygorzele (north)
* Zawiść (north-east)
* Zwierzyniec (north)
* Żwaków (west)
Industry
--------
The global car manufacturer Stellantis has a major presence in the city. The first car factory was opened by FSM in 1975, and was fully acquired by the Italian manufacturer Fiat in 1992. In 2008, the factory (FCA Poland) had a production of nearly half a million cars. It produces the new Fiat 500 and the Lancia Ypsilon. It was the exclusive manufacturing site for the second generation Fiat Panda until 2012, when it ended production, and of the 2nd generation Ford Ka (under an OEM agreement between the two manufacturers) until May 2016.
Also located in Tychy is a powertrain factory producing automobile engines for Opel cars. This plant was opened by Isuzu as *Isuzu Motors Polska (ISPOL)* in 1996; in 2002 General Motors took a 60% interest in that company, and in 2013 the remaining 40%. In 2017 Groupe PSA acquired GM's operations in Europe. In January 2021 both the former Fiat and Opel plants became part of Stellantis.
The Tyskie beer is produced in Tychy, by Kompania Piwowarska, a subsidiary of the multinational brewing company Asahi Breweries. It is reportedly one of the best selling brands of beer in Poland, with around 18% share of the Polish market as of 2009[update].
Transport
---------
In Tychy operates one of three remaining trolleybus systems in Poland.
### Roads
* Expressway S1
* National road 1
* National road 44
* National road 86
Culture
-------
### Art galleries and museums
* Muzeum Miniaturowej Sztuki Profesjonalnej Henryk Jan Dominiak in Tychy
Sports
------
Tychy is home to two major sporting teams, both named GKS Tychy. GKS stands for Górniczy Klub Sportowy, (English: Miner's Sporting Club), which is a common prefix for Polish sports teams situated near mines or in mining regions.
### Ice hockey
GKS Tychy ice hockey club is among the most successful in Poland and plays in its premier league, the Ekstraliga. Established in 1971, the team won the Polish Championships in 2005, 2015, 2018, 2019 and 2020 and has won the Polish Cup eight times. The club is housed in the newly refurbished Tychy Winter Stadium (Polish: *Stadion Zimowy w Tychach*), which seats 2,700 people.
Several players from the club have gone on to play in the American and Canadian NHL. These include Mariusz Czerkawski and Krzysztof Oliwa.
### Football
GKS Tychy football club football club was also established in 1971 and currently plays in the Polish Second League. Throughout a varied career the club reached a pinnacle between 1974 and 1977, making it into top Polish league Ekstraklasa and finishing second in 1976. During those glory days GKS Tychy also participated in the 1976–77 UEFA Cup. It played in the top division again in 1995–1997. Tychy City Stadium (Polish: *Stadion Miejski w Tychach*) is home to the club and seats 15,300 spectators.
A few notable footballers were either born in Tychy or spent some of their career at the club, the most famous being Real Madrid and Poland goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek. Ekstraklasa player Bartosz Karwan started his career there, as did retired player Radosław Gilewicz. Napoli and Poland national team striker Arkadiusz Milik was born in Tychy, as well as former Bayer Leverkusen defender Lukas Sinkiewicz, who now holds German citizenship.
Tychy hosted several matches of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup.
### Other sporting teams
Tychy is also home to several other sports teams, including basketball team Big Star Tychy, futsal team GKS Jachym Tychy and floorball team TKKF Pionier Tychy.
Notable people
--------------
Tychy has been the birthplace and home of notable people, both past and present. German sculptor August Kiss (1802–1865) was born in Paprotzan, which is now situated within modern day Tychy. Most famous for his grand neoclassical works, Kiss also sculpted the fine pulpit of St. Adalbert's church in Tychy's neighbouring town of Mikołów. Augustyn Dyrda (born 1926) is a sculptor who currently resides in the city and is best known for his socialist realist and modernist works, including several in Tychy itself.
Soldier Roman Polko (born 1962) is one son of Tychy whose achievements hold national importance today. His distinguished career has led him to the post of acting chief in Poland's Bureau of National Security.
* August Kiss (1802–1865), German sculptor
* Józef Krupiński (1930–1998), poet and lyricist
* Roman Ogaza (1952–2006), footballer
* Lucyna Langer (born 1956), athlete
* Ryszard Riedel (1956–1994), musician, lead singer of blues-rock band Dżem
* Ireneusz Krosny (born 1968), pantomime comedian
* Adam Juretzko (born 1971), German wrestler
* Mariusz Czerkawski (born 1972), ice-hockey player
* Krzysztof Oliwa (born 1973), ice-hockey player
* Piotr Tomasz Nowakowski (born 1974), Polish researcher, university faculty and writer
* Bartosz Karwan (born 1976), footballer
* Piotr Kupicha (born 1979), musician, lead singer of pop-rock band Feel
* Adam Bielecki (born 1983), Polish alpine and high-altitude climber
* Łukasz Sinkiewicz (born 1985), Polish-German footballer
* Michał Brzozowski (born 1988), footballer
* Dawid Tomala (born 1989), race walker, Olympic Champion
* Jakub Świerczok (born 1992), footballer
* Arkadiusz Milik (born 1994), footballer
* Szymon Żurkowski (born 1997), footballer
* Jakub Kiwior (born 2000), footballer
Twin towns – sister cities
--------------------------
Tychy is twinned with:
* Italy Cassino, Italy
* Germany Marzahn-Hellersdorf (Berlin), Germany
* Germany Oberhausen, Germany
Gallery
-------
Panorama of TychyPanorama of Tychy
* Old railway building at the old breweryOld railway building at the old brewery
* Osiedle A in Tychy, built in the 1950sOsiedle A in Tychy, built in the 1950s
* Cooperative bank in the city centreCooperative bank in the city centre
* Stefan Rowecki monumentStefan Rowecki monument
* Hotel PiramidaHotel Piramida
* Park ŁabędziPark Łabędzi
* Paprocany LakePaprocany Lake
* Paprocany LakePaprocany Lake
See also
--------
* TTC Tychy | Tychy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tychy | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt2\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\" id=\"mwAw\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Tychy</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_(3).jpg\" title=\"Mary Magdalene Church\"><img alt=\"Mary Magdalene Church\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3472\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"4624\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"188\" resource=\"./File:Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_(3).jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg/250px-Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg/375px-Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg/500px-Mary_Magdalene_church_in_Tychy_%283%29.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Mary Magdalene Church</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg\" title=\"Flag of Tychy\"><img alt=\"Flag of Tychy\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"500\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"800\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"63\" resource=\"./File:POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg/100px-POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg/150px-POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg/200px-POL_Tychy_flag_white.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Flag</div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:POL_Tychy_COA.svg\" title=\"Coat of arms of Tychy\"><img alt=\"Coat of arms of Tychy\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"801\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"742\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"100\" resource=\"./File:POL_Tychy_COA.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/POL_Tychy_COA.svg/93px-POL_Tychy_COA.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/POL_Tychy_COA.svg/139px-POL_Tychy_COA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/POL_Tychy_COA.svg/185px-POL_Tychy_COA.svg.png 2x\" width=\"93\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Motto:<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-nickname nickname\"><i>Tychy - a good place</i></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg\" title=\"Tychy is located in Silesian Voivodeship\"><img alt=\"Tychy is located in Silesian Voivodeship\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3249\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"2359\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"344\" resource=\"./File:Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg/250px-Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg/375px-Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg/500px-Silesian_Voivodeship_Relief_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:55.629%;left:50.697%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Tychy\"><img alt=\"Tychy\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pv\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;bottom:4px;left:-3em\"><div>Tychy</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Silesian Voivodeship</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg\" title=\"Tychy is located in Poland\"><img alt=\"Tychy is located in Poland\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"837\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"861\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"243\" resource=\"./File:Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg/250px-Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg/375px-Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg/500px-Relief_Map_of_Poland.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:78.098%;left:48.474%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Tychy\"><img alt=\"Tychy\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pv\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;bottom:4px;left:-3em\"><div>Tychy</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Poland</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tychy&params=50_07_25_N_18_59_12_E_region:PL_type:city\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">50°07′25″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">18°59′12″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">50.12361°N 18.98667°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">50.12361; 18.98667</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt17\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./List_of_sovereign_states\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of sovereign states\">Country</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1280\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Poland.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Poland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Poland\">Poland</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Voivodeships_of_Poland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Voivodeships of Poland\">Voivodeship</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"500\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"800\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg/23px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg/35px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg/46px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Silesian_Voivodeship\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Silesian Voivodeship\">Silesian</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./List_of_Polish_counties\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of Polish counties\">County</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><i>city county</i></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">First mentioned</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1467</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">City rights</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1951</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>City mayor</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Andrzej Dziuba\"]}}' href=\"./Andrzej_Dziuba?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Andrzej Dziuba\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Andrzej Dziuba</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">81.64<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (31.52<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(31 December 2021)</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">125,781 <span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Decrease\"><img alt=\"Decrease\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"300\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"300\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Decrease2.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span> (<a href=\"./List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Poland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of cities and towns in Poland\">28th</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1,560/km<sup>2</sup> (4,000/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+1\">UTC+1</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Time\">CET</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Summer (<a href=\"./Daylight_saving_time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Daylight saving time\">DST</a>)</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+2\">UTC+2</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Summer_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Summer Time\">CEST</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Postal_codes_in_Poland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Postal codes in Poland\">Postal code</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\">43-100 to 43-135</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Telephone_numbers_in_Poland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Telephone numbers in Poland\">Area code</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">+48 32</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Polish_car_number_plates\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Polish car number plates\">Car plates</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">ST</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Website</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://umtychy.pl/\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">https://umtychy.pl/</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Trolejbusy_TLT.jpg",
"caption": "Trolleybus transport in Tychy"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tychy_-_lipiec_2012_1.JPG",
"caption": "Memorial to Poles murdered by the Germans in the last public execution in Tychy on September 22, 1944"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tyskie_Browary_Książęce.jpg",
"caption": "Brewery in Tychy on the right, Tyskie Brewing Museum on the left"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Dwa_trolejbusy_na_Dworcu_PKP.jpg",
"caption": "Two trolleybuses at Tychy railway station"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Muzeum_Miniaturowej_Sztuki_Profesjonalnej_Henryk_Jan_Dominiak_in_Tychy._Ulica_Żwakowska_8_mieszkania_66,_Tychy_-_najmniejsze_Muzeum_świata.jpg",
"caption": "Muzeum Miniaturowej Sztuki Profesjonalnej Henryk Jan Dominiak in Tychystreet Żwakowska 8/66, 43-100 Tychytourist region: Upper Silesian Agglomeration."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:LodowiskoTychy.JPG",
"caption": "Tychy Winter Stadium, home to GKS Tychy ice hockey club"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Finał_Mistrzostw_Polski_2017-18_w_Hokeju_na_lodzie_GKS_Tychy_-_Tauron_KH_GKS_Katowice_2-1_(d)_9.jpg",
"caption": "GKS Tychy celebrating the Polish championship in 2018"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tychy_stadion_wewn.jpg",
"caption": "Tychy City Stadium, home to the GKS Tychy football club"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Pomnik_Powstańca_Śląskiego_w_Tychach.jpg",
"caption": "Silesian Uprisings Monument"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:UMTychy.JPG",
"caption": "City Hall in Tychy"
}
] |
180,752 | The 26 **cantons of Switzerland** are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the form of the first three confederate allies used to be referred to as the *Waldstätte*. Two important periods in the development of the Old Swiss Confederacy are summarized by the terms *Acht Orte* ('Eight Cantons'; from 1353–1481) and *Dreizehn Orte* ('Thirteen Cantons', from 1513–1798).
Each canton of the Old Swiss Confederacy, formerly also *Ort* ('lieu/locality', from before 1450), or *Stand* ('estate', from c. 1550), was a fully sovereign state with its own border controls, army, and currency from at least the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848, with a brief period of centralised government during the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803). The term *Kanton* has been widely used since the 19th century.
The number of cantons was increased to 19 with the Act of Mediation (1803), with the recognition of former subject territories as full cantons. The Federal Treaty of 1815 increased the number to 22 due to the accession of former associates of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The canton of Jura acceded as the 23rd canton with its secession from Bern in 1979. The official number of cantons was increased to 26 in the federal constitution of 1999, which designated former half-cantons as cantons.
The areas of the cantons vary from 37 km2 (15 sq. mi.) (canton of Basel-Stadt) to 7,105 km2 (2743 sq. mi.) (canton of the Grisons); the populations (as of 2018) range from 16,000 (canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden) to 1.5 million (canton of Zürich).
Terminology
-----------
The term *canton*, now also used as the English term for administrative subdivisions of other countries, originates in French usage in the late 15th century (recorded in Fribourg in 1467), from a word for "edge, corner", at the time the literal translation of Early Modern High German *ort*.
After 1490, *canton* was increasingly used in French and Italian documents to refer to the members of the Swiss Confederacy. English use of *canton* in reference to the Swiss Confederacy (as opposed to the heraldic sense) dates to the early 17th century.
In the Old Swiss Confederacy, the term *Ort* (plural: *Orte*) was in use from the early 15th century as a generic term for the member cantons. The founding cantons specifically were also known as *Waldstätte* 'forest settlements' (singular: *Waldstatt*). The formulaic *Stette und Waldstette* for the members of the early confederacy is recorded in the mid-14th century, used interchangeably with *Stett und Lender* ('cities and lands', 'city cantons and rural cantons') until the late 15th century.
*Ort* was increasingly replaced by *Stand* (plural: *Stände*) 'estate' about 1550, a term taken to imply liberty and sovereignty. Abolished in the Helvetic Republic, the term 'Stand' was revived in 1815 and remains in use today.
The French term *canton* adopted into German after 1648, and then only in occasional use until the early 19th century: prominent usage of *Ort* and *Stand* gradually disappeared in German-speaking Switzerland from the time of the Helvetic Republic. Only with the Act of Mediation of 1803 did German *Kanton* become an official designation, retained in the Swiss Constitution of 1848.
The term *Stand* (French: *état*, Italian: *stato*) remains in synonymous usage and is reflected in the name of the upper chamber of the Swiss Parliament, the Council of States (German: *Ständerat*, French: *Conseil des États*, Italian: *Consiglio degli Stati*, Romansh: *Cussegl dals Stadis*).
In the modern era, since Neuchâtel ceased to be a principality in 1848, all Swiss cantons can be considered to have a republican form of government. Some cantons formally describe themselves as republics in their constitutions. This applies to the Romance-speaking cantons in particular:
Geneva (formally *République et canton de Genève*, 'Republic and canton of Geneva'), Jura, Neuchâtel, Valais, Vaud and Ticino.
History
-------
In the 16th century, the Old Swiss Confederacy was composed of 13 sovereign confederate allies (the Thirteen Cantons; German: *Die Dreizehn Alten Orte*), and there were two different kinds: five rural states (German: *Länder*) – Uri, Schwyz (which became eponymous of the confederacy), Unterwalden, Glarus, Appenzell – and eight urban states (German: *Städte*) – Zürich, Bern, Luzern, Zug, Basel, Fribourg, Solothurn, Schaffhausen.
Though they were technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, they had become *de facto* independent when the Swiss defeated Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 in Dornach.
In the early modern period, the individual confederate allies came to be seen as republics; while the six traditional allies had a tradition of direct democracy in the form of the *Landsgemeinde*, the urban states operated via representation in city councils, de facto oligarchic systems dominated by families of the patriciate.
The old system was abandoned with the formation of the Helvetic Republic following the French invasion of Switzerland in 1798. The cantons of the Helvetic Republic had merely the status of an administrative subdivision with no sovereignty. The Helvetic Republic collapsed within five years, and cantonal sovereignty was restored with the Act of Mediation of 1803. The status of Switzerland as a federation of states was restored, at the time including 19 cantons (the six accessions to the early modern Thirteen Cantons being composed of former associates and subject territories: St. Gallen, Grisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud). Three additional western cantons, Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva, acceded in 1815.
The process of "Restoration", completed by 1830, returned most of the former feudal rights to the cantonal patriciates, leading to rebellions among the rural population. The Radicals embodied these democratic forces calling for a new federal constitution. This tension, paired with religious issues ("Jesuit question") escalated into armed conflict in the 1840s, with the brief Sonderbund War. The victory of the Liberal-Radicals resulted in the formation of Switzerland as a federal state in 1848. The cantons retained far-reaching sovereignty but were no longer allowed to maintain individual standing armies or international relations. As the revolutions of 1848 in Western Europe had failed elsewhere, Switzerland during the later 19th century (and with the exception of the French Third Republic, until the end of World War I) found itself as an isolated democratic republic, surrounded by the restored monarchies of France, Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany.
Constitutions and powers
------------------------
The Swiss Federal Constitution declares the cantons to be sovereign to the extent that their sovereignty is not limited by federal law. Areas specifically reserved to the Confederation are the armed forces, currency, the postal service, telecommunications, immigration into and emigration from the country, granting asylum, conducting foreign relations with sovereign states, civil and criminal law, weights and measures, and customs duties.
Each canton has its own constitution, legislature, executive, police and courts. Similar to the Confederation, a directorial system of government is followed by the cantons.
The cantonal legislatures are unicameral parliaments, with their size varying between 58 and 200 seats. A few legislatures also involve or did involve general popular assemblies known as *Landsgemeinden*; the use of this form of legislature has declined: at present, it exists only in the cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. The cantonal executives consist of either five or seven members, depending on the canton. For the names of the institutions, see the list of cantonal executives and list of cantonal legislatures.
The cantons retain all powers and competencies not delegated to the Confederation by the federal constitution or law: most significantly the cantons are responsible for healthcare, welfare, law enforcement, public education, and retain the power of taxation. Each canton defines its official language(s). Cantons may conclude treaties not only with other cantons but also with foreign states (respectively Articles 48 and 56 of the Federal Constitution).
The cantonal constitutions determine the internal organisation of the canton, including the degree of autonomy accorded to the municipalities, which varies but almost always includes the power to levy taxes and pass municipal laws; some municipalities have their own police forces.
As at the federal level, all cantons provide for some form of direct democracy. Citizens may demand a popular vote to amend the cantonal constitution or laws or to veto laws or spending bills passed by the parliament. Other than in the instances of general popular assemblies in Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, democratic rights are exercised by secret ballot. The right of foreigners to vote varies by canton, as does whether Swiss citizens living abroad (and registered to vote in a canton) can take part in cantonal voting.
Swiss citizens are citizens of a particular municipality (the place of origin) and the canton in which that municipality is part. Cantons, therefore, have a role in and set requirements for the granting of citizenship (naturalisation), though the process is typically undertaken at a municipal level and is subject to federal law.
Switzerland has only one federal public holiday (1 August); public holidays otherwise vary from canton to canton.
List
----
The cantons are listed in their order of precedence given in the federal constitution. This reflects the historical order of precedence of the Eight Cantons in the 15th century, followed by the remaining cantons in the order of their historical accession to the confederacy.
| | Arms | Code | Name in official language(s) | Name in English | As a Swiss canton since | Capital | GDP (2020)in million CHF | GDP percapita (2020)in CHF | Population | Area (km2) | Density(per km2) | No. munic. (2018) | Official languages |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Coat of arms of Zürich
| ZH | Zürich | Zurich | 1351 | Zurich | 149,004 | 96,359 | 1,553,423 | 1,729 | 898 | 166 | German |
| 2 | Coat of arms of Bern
| BE | Bern; Berne | Berne / Bern | 1353 | Berne / Bern | 80,209 | 77,027 | 1,043,132 | 5,960 | 175 | 347 | German, French |
| 3 | Coat of arms of Luzern
| LU | Luzern | Lucerne | 1332 | Lucerne | 28,176 | 67,936 | 416,347 | 1,494 | 279 | 83 | German |
| 4 | Coat of arms of Uri
| UR | Uri | Uri | 1291 | Altdorf | 1,985 | 54,006 | 36,819 | 1,077 | 34 | 20 | German |
| 5 | Coat of arms of Schwyz
| SZ | Schwyz | Schwyz | 1291 | Schwyz | 9,876 | 61,223 | 162,157 | 908 | 179 | 30 | German |
| 6 | Coat of arms of Obwalden
| OW | Obwalden | Obwald / Obwalden | 1291 or 1315 (as part of Unterwalden) | Sarnen | 2,564 | 67,453 | 38,108 | 491 | 78 | 7 | German |
| 7 | Coat of arms of Nidwalden
| NW | Nidwalden | Nidwald / Nidwalden | 1291 (as Unterwalden) | Stans | 2,867 | 66,209 | 43,520 | 276 | 158 | 11 | German |
| 8 | Coat of arms of Glarus
| GL | Glarus | Glarus | 1352 | Glaris / Glarus | 2,763 | 67,849 | 40,851 | 685 | 60 | 3 | German |
| 9 | Coat of arms of Zug
| ZG | Zug | Zoug / Zug | 1352 | Zoug / Zug | 20,029 | 156,210 | 128,794 | 239 | 539 | 11 | German |
| 10 | Coat of arms of Fribourg
| FR | Fribourg; Freiburg | Freiburg / Fribourg | 1481 | Freiburg / Fribourg | 19,180 | 59,263 | 325,496 | 1,671 | 195 | 136 | French, German |
| 11 | Coat of arms of Solothurn
| SO | Solothurn | Soleure / Solothurn | 1481 | Soleure / Solothurn | 18,029 | 65,237 | 277,462 | 790 | 351 | 109 | German |
| 12 | Coat of arms of Basel-City
| BS | Basel-Stadt | Basle-City / Basel-City / Basel-Stadt | 1501 (as Basel until 1833/1999) | Basle / Basel | 37,168 | 189,354 | 201,156 | 37 | 5,444 | 3 | German |
| 13 | Coat of arms of Basel-Country
| BL | Basel-Landschaft | Basle-Country / Basel-Country / Basel-Landschaft | 1501 (as Basel until 1833/1999) | Liestal | 20,567 | 70,866 | 292,955 | 518 | 566 | 86 | German |
| 14 | Coat of arms of Schaffhausen
| SH | Schaffhausen | Schaffhouse / Schaffhausen | 1501 | Schaffhouse / Schaffhausen | 7,244 | 87,569 | 83,107 | 298 | 278 | 26 | German |
| 15 | Coat of arms of Appenzell Ausserrhoden
| AR | Appenzell Ausserrhoden | Appenzell Outer-Rhodes / Appenzell Ausserrhoden | 1513 (as Appenzell until 1597/1999) | Herisau | 3,190 | 57,601 | 55,309 | 243 | 228 | 20 | German |
| 16 | Coat of arms of Appenzell Innerrhoden
| AI | Appenzell Innerrhoden | Appenzell Inner-Rhodes / Appenzell Innerrhoden | 1513 (as Appenzell until 1597/1999) | Appenzell | 1,043 | 64,358 | 16,293 | 172 | 94 | 6 | German |
| 17 | Coat of arms of St. Gallen
| SG | St. Gallen | St. Gall / St. Gallen | 1803 | St. Gall / St. Gallen | 38,041 | 74,210 | 514,504 | 2,031 | 253 | 77 | German |
| 18 | Coat of arms of Graubünden
| GR | Graubünden; Grischun; Grigioni | Grisons / Graubünden | 1803 | Chur | 14,519 | 72,754 | 200,096 | 7,105 | 28 | 108 | German, Romansh, Italian |
| 19 | Coat of arms of Aargau
| AG | Aargau | Argovia / Aargau | 1803 | Aarau | 43,590 | 63,177 | 694,072 | 1,404 | 494 | 212 | German |
| 20 | Coat of arms of Thurgau
| TG | Thurgau | Thurgovia / Thurgau | 1803 | Frauenfeld | 17,208 | 61,190 | 282,909 | 992 | 285 | 80 | German |
| 21 | Coat of arms of Ticino
| TI | Ticino | Ticino / Tessin | 1803 | Bellinzona | 29,311 | 83,450 | 350,986 | 2,812 | 125 | 115 | Italian |
| 22 | Coat of arms of Vaud
| VD | Vaud | Vaud | 1803 | Lausanne | 56,898 | 70,250 | 814,762 | 3,212 | 254 | 309 | French |
| 23 | Coat of arms of Valais
| VS | Valais; Wallis | Wallis / Valais | 1815 | Sion | 19,194 | 55,313 | 348,503 | 5,224 | 67 | 126 | French, German |
| 24 | Coat of arms of Neuchâtel
| NE | Neuchâtel | Neuchâtel | 1815/1857 | Neuchâtel | 15,343 | 87,080 | 175,894 | 802 | 219 | 31 | French |
| 25 | Coat of arms of Geneva
| GE | Genève | Geneva | 1815 | Geneva | 51,976 | 102,876 | 506,343 | 282 | 1,792 | 45 | French |
| 26 | Coat of arms of Jura
| JU | Jura | Jura | 1979 | Delémont | 4,687 | 63,643 | 73,709 | 839 | 88 | 55 | French |
| - | Coat of arms of Switzerland | CH | Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft; Confédération suisse; Confederazione Svizzera; Confederaziun svizra | Swiss Confederation | 1815/1848 | (Berne / Bern) | 694,662 | 80,418 | 8,670,300 | 41,291 | 210 | 2,222 | German, French, Italian, Romansh |
The two-letter abbreviations for Swiss cantons are widely used, e.g. on car license plates. They are also used in the ISO 3166-2 codes of Switzerland with the prefix "CH-" (*Confœderatio Helvetica* — Helvetian Confederation — *Helvetia* having been the ancient Roman name of the region). *CH-SZ*, for example, is used for the canton of Schwyz.
Half-cantons
------------
Six of the 26 cantons are traditionally, but no longer officially, called "half-cantons" (German: *Halbkanton*, French: *demi-canton*, Italian: *semicantone*, Romansh: *mez-chantun*). In two instances (Basel and Appenzell) this was a consequence of a historic division, whilst in the case of Unterwalden a historic mutual association, resulted in three pairs of half-cantons. The other 20 cantons were, and in some instances still are—though only in a context where it is needed to distinguish them from any half-cantons—typically termed "full" cantons in English.
The first article of the 1848 and 1874 constitutions constituted the Confederation as the union of "twenty-two sovereign cantons", referring to the half-cantons as "Unterwalden (*ob und nid dem Wald* ['above and beneath the woods'])", "Basel (*Stadt und Landschaft* ['city and country'])" and "Appenzell (*beider Rhoden* ['both Rhoden'])".
The 1874 constitution was amended to list 23 cantons with the accession of the Canton of Jura in 1978.
The historic half-cantons, and their pairings, are still recognizable in the first article of the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1999 by being joined to their other "half" with the conjunction "and":
> The People and the cantons of Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden and Nidwalden, Glarus, Zug, Fribourg, Solothurn, Basel-Stadt and Basel-Landschaft, Schaffhausen, Appenzell Ausserrhoden and Appenzell Innerrhoden, St. Gallen, Graubünden, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Geneva, and Jura form the Swiss Confederation.
>
> — Article 1 of the Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation
The 1999 constitutional revision retained the traditional distinction, on the request of the six cantonal governments, as a way to mark the historic association of the half-cantons to each other. While the older constitutions referred to these states as "half-cantons", a term that remains in popular use, the 1999 revision and official terminology since then use the appellation "cantons with half of a cantonal vote".
The 1⁄2, 1 and 2 francs coins as minted since 1874 represent the number of cantons by 22 stars surrounding the figure of Helvetia on the obverse.
The design of the coins was altered to show 23 stars, including Jura, beginning with the 1983 batch. The design has remained unchanged since, and does not reflect the official number of "26 cantons" introduced in 1999.
The reasons for the existence of the three pairs of half-cantons are varied:
* Unterwalden never consisted of a single unified jurisdiction. Originally, Obwalden, Nidwalden, and the Abbey of Engelberg formed distinct communities. The collective term *Unterwalden* remains in use, however, for the area that partook in the creation of the original Swiss confederation in 1291 with Uri and Schwyz. The Federal Charter of 1291 called for representatives from each of the three "areas".
* The historical canton of Appenzell divided itself into "inner" and "outer" halves (*Rhoden*) as a consequence of the Reformation in Switzerland in 1597: Appenzell Innerrhoden (Catholic) and Appenzell Ausserrhoden (Protestant).
* The historical canton of Basel was divided in 1833 after the Basel countryside (which became the canton of Basel-Landschaft) declared its independence from the city of Basel (which became the canton of Basel-Stadt), following a period of protest and armed conflict about the under-representation of the more populous countryside in the canton's political system.
With their original circumstances of partition now a historical matter, the half-cantons are since 1848 equal to the other cantons in all but two respects:
* They elect only one member of the Council of States instead of two (Cst. art. 150 par. 2). This means there are a total of 46 seats in the council.
* In popular referendums about constitutional amendments, which require for adoption a national popular majority as well as the assent of a majority of the cantons (**Ständemehr* / *majorité des cantons**), the result of the half-cantons' popular vote counts only one half of that of the other cantons (Cst. arts. 140, 142). This means that for purposes of a constitutional referendum, at least 12 out of a total of 23 cantonal popular votes must support the amendment.
Between 1831 and 1833 the canton of Schwyz was divided into half-cantons: (Inner) Schwyz and the break-away Outer Schwyz; in this instance, the half-cantons were forced by the Confederation to settle their disputes and reunite.
In the 20th century, some Jura separatists suggested a new canton of Jura to be divided into half-cantons of North Jura and South Jura. Instead, North Jura became the (full) canton of Jura while South Jura remains in the canton of Bern as the region of Bernese Jura.
Names in national languages
---------------------------
The name of each canton in its own official language is shown in bold.
| Abbr | English | German | French | Italian | Romansh |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| AG | Aargau; Argovia | | Argovie | Argovia | Argovia |
| AI | Appenzell Innerrhoden; Appenzell Inner-Rhodes | | Appenzell Rhodes-Intérieures | Appenzello Interno | Appenzell dadens |
| AR | Appenzell Ausserrhoden; Appenzell Outer-Rhodes | | Appenzell Rhodes-Extérieures | Appenzello Esterno | Appenzell dador |
| BS | Basel-Stadt; Basle-City | | Bâle-Ville | Basilea Città | Basilea-Citad |
| BL | Basel-Landschaft; Basle-Country | | Bâle-Campagne | Basilea Campagna | Basilea-Champagna |
| BE | Bern; Berne | | **Berne** | Berna | Berna |
| FR | Fribourg; Friburg | | **Fribourg** | Friburgo | Friburg |
| GE | Genève; Geneva | | **Genève** | Ginevra | Genevra |
| GL | Glarus; Glaris | | Glaris | Glarona | Glaruna |
| GR | Graubünden; Grisons | | Grisons | **Grigioni** | **Grischun** |
| JU | Jura | | **Jura** | Giura | Giura |
| LU | Lucerne | | Lucerne | Lucerna | Lucerna |
| NE | Neuchâtel | | **Neuchâtel** | Neuchâtel | Neuchâtel |
| NW | Nidwalden; Nidwald | | Nidwald | Nidvaldo | Sutsilvania |
| OW | Obwalden; Obwald | | Obwald | Obvaldo | Sursilvania |
| SH | Schaffhausen; Schaffhouse | | Schaffhouse | Sciaffusa | Schaffusa |
| SZ | Schwyz | | Schwyz (or Schwytz) | Svitto | Sviz |
| SO | Solothurn; Soleure | | Soleure | Soletta | Soloturn |
| SG | St. Gallen; St Gall | | Saint-Gall | San Gallo | Son Gagl |
| TG | Thurgau; Thurgovia | | Thurgovie | Turgovia | Turgovia |
| TI | Ticino; Tessin | | Tessin | **Ticino** | Tessin |
| UR | Uri | | Uri | Uri | Uri |
| VS | Valais; Wallis | | **Valais** | Vallese | Vallais |
| VD | Vaud | | **Vaud** | Vaud | Vad |
| ZG | Zug; Zoug | | Zoug | Zugo | Zug |
| ZH | Zürich; Zurich | | Zurich | Zurigo | Turitg |
Admission of new cantons
------------------------
The enlargement of Switzerland by way of the admission of new cantons ended in 1815. The latest formal attempt considered by Switzerland was in 1919 from Vorarlberg but subsequently rejected. A few representatives submitted in 2010 a parliamentary motion to consider enlargement although it was widely seen as anti-EU rhetoric rather than a serious proposal. The motion was eventually dropped and not even examined by the parliament.
See also
--------
* Cantonal bank
* Cantonal police
* Data codes for Switzerland § Cantons
* Flags and arms of cantons of Switzerland
* List of Swiss cantons by GDP
* List of cantons of Switzerland by elevation
References
----------
### Sources
Works cited
* Ehrenzeller, Bernhard; Philipp Mastronardi; Rainer J. Schweizer; Klaus A. Vallender, eds. (2002). *Die schweizerische Bundesverfassung, Kommentar* (in German). ISBN 3-905455-70-6.. Cited as *Ehrenzeller*.
* Häfelin, Ulrich; Haller, Walter; Keller, Helen (2008). *Schweizerisches Bundesstaatsrecht* (in German) (7th ed.). Zürich: Schulthess. ISBN 978-3-7255-5472-0. Cited as *Häfelin*. | Cantons of Switzerland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland | {
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style=\"font-size:100%; font-weight:normal\">(<a href=\"./Italian_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Italian language\">Italian</a>)</span> <span title=\"Romansh-language text\"><i lang=\"rm\">Chantuns svizras</i></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"languageicon\" style=\"font-size:100%; font-weight:normal\">(<a href=\"./Romansh_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Romansh language\">Romansh</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-weight: bold;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li><span style=\"font-weight: normal;\">Also known as:</span></li><li><span title=\"German-language text\"><i lang=\"de\">Stände</i></span>, <span title=\"French-language text\"><i lang=\"fr\">États</i></span>, <span title=\"Italian-language text\"><i lang=\"it\">Stati</i></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"noresize\" role=\"img\" style=\"width: 400px; \n \n \n \n \n line-height: 1;\n text-align: center;\n background-color: #ffffff;\n position: relative;\n \"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"865\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1349\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"256\" resource=\"./File:Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg/400px-Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg/600px-Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg/800px-Switzerland_administrative_divisions_-_colored_unlabelled.svg.png 2x\" width=\"400\"/></a></span>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:134px;\n top:196px\"><b><a href=\"./Valais\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Valais\">Valais</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:230px;\n top:180px\"><b><a href=\"./Ticino\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ticino\">Ticino</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:294px;\n top:140px\"><b><a href=\"./Grisons\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Grisons\">Grisons</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:14px;\n top:196px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Geneva\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Geneva\">Geneva</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:50px;\n top:148px\"><b><a href=\"./Vaud\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vaud\">Vaud</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:62px;\n top:100px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Neuchâtel\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Neuchâtel\">Neuchâtel</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:106px;\n top:56px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Jura\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Jura\">Jura</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:138px;\n top:120px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Bern\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Bern\">Bern</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:250px;\n top:32px\"><b><a href=\"./Thurgau\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Thurgau\">Thurgau</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:218px;\n top:48px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Zürich\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Zürich\">Zürich</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:178px;\n top:52px\"><b><a href=\"./Aargau\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Aargau\">Aargau</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:178px;\n top:92px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Lucerne\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Lucerne\">Lucerne</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:134px;\n top:64px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Solothurn\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Solothurn\">Solothurn</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:122px;\n top:44px\"><b><a href=\"./Basel-Landschaft\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Basel-Landschaft\">Basel-Landschaft</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:198px;\n top:16px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Schaffhausen\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Schaffhausen\">Schaffhausen</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:222px;\n top:128px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Uri\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Uri\">Uri</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:222px;\n top:96px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Schwyz\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Schwyz\">Schwyz</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:254px;\n top:104px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Glarus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Glarus\">Glarus</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:262px;\n top:80px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_St._Gallen\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of St. Gallen\">St. Gallen</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:282px;\n top:64px\"><b><a href=\"./Appenzell_Innerrhoden\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Appenzell Innerrhoden\">Appenzell Innerrhoden</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:274px;\n top:52px\"><b><a href=\"./Appenzell_Ausserrhoden\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Appenzell Ausserrhoden\">Appenzell Ausserrhoden</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:182px;\n top:120px\"><b><a href=\"./Obwalden\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Obwalden\">Obwalden</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:194px;\n top:108px\"><b><a href=\"./Nidwalden\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Nidwalden\">Nidwalden</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:214px;\n top:84px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Zug\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Zug\">Zug</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:90px;\n top:136px\"><b><a href=\"./Canton_of_Fribourg\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Fribourg\">Fribourg</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:130px;\n top:32px\"><b><a href=\"./Basel-Stadt\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Basel-Stadt\">Basel-Stadt</a></b></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:22px;\n top:84px\"><i><a href=\"./France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"France\"><span style=\"color: #48A3B5;\">France</span></a></i></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:314px;\n top:232px\"><i><a href=\"./Italy\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Italy\"><span style=\"color: #48A3B5;\">Italy</span></a></i></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:294px;\n top:84px\"><i><a href=\"./Liechtenstein\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Liechtenstein\"><span style=\"color: #48A3B5;\">Liechten-<br/>stein</span></a></i></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:354px;\n top:88px\"><i><a href=\"./Austria\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Austria\"><span style=\"color: #48A3B5;\">Austria</span></a></i></div>\n<div style=\"position:absolute;\n \n font-size:85%;\n \n left:302px;\n top:8px\"><i><a href=\"./Germany\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Germany\"><span style=\"color: #48A3B5;\">Germany</span></a></i></div>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Category</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Federated_state\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Federated state\">Federated state</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Location</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Switzerland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Found<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Country\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Country\">Country</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Created</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li>13th century</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Number</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">26 cantons (as of 1979)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Populations</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">16,003 (<a href=\"./Appenzell_Innerrhoden\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Appenzell Innerrhoden\">Appenzell Innerrhoden</a>) – 1,487,969 (<a href=\"./Canton_of_Zürich\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Zürich\">Canton of Zürich</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Areas</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">37<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (14<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi) – 7,105<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (2,743<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Government</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"./List_of_cantonal_executives_of_Switzerland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of cantonal executives of Switzerland\">List of cantonal executives of Switzerland</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Subdivisions</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"./Districts_of_Switzerland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Districts of Switzerland\">Districts</a> and <a href=\"./Municipalities_of_Switzerland\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Municipalities of Switzerland\">municipalities</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Karte_13_Alte_Orte.png",
"caption": "The \"Thirteen-Canton Confederation\" of the Old Swiss Confederacy (1513–1798)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Federal_Cupola.jpg",
"caption": "The 22 cantonal coats of arms (all but Jura, with the half-cantons represented jointly) in stained glass set in the dome of the Federal Palace of Switzerland (c. 1900)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Karikatur_Teilung_Basels.jpg",
"caption": "Caricature of the division of Basel, 1833"
}
] |
38,260 | **Epirus** (/ɪˈpaɪrəs/) is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay of Vlorë and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the Ambracian Gulf and the ruined Roman city of Nicopolis in the south. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër and Vlorë in southern Albania. The largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the Greek region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus.
A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of ancient Greece. It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians, Molossians, and Thesprotians. It was home to the sanctuary of Dodona, the oldest oracle in ancient Greece, and the second most prestigious after Delphi. Unified into a single state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus who fought the Roman Republic in a series of campaigns. Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Republic along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, which was followed by the Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire.
Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204), Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire. In the 14th century, Epirus was brought under the rule of the restored Byzantine Empire, before being briefly conquered by the Serbian Empire. The region was then divided amongst a number of despotates and political entities, including the Despotate of Epirus, the Despotate of Arta, the Zenebishi family, and the Republic of Venice, before being conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. Epirus became part of the semi-independent Pashalik governed by the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Sublime Porte re-asserted its control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus became part of Albania.
Name and etymology
------------------
The name *Epirus* is derived from the Greek: Ἤπειρος, romanized: *Ḗpeiros* (Doric Greek: Ἄπειρος, romanized: *Ápeiros*), meaning "mainland" or *terra firma*. It is thought to come from an Indo-European root *\*apero-* 'coast', and was applied to the mainland of north-west Greece opposite Corfu and the Ionian islands. The local name was struck on the coinage of the unified Epirote commonwealth: "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" (Ancient Greek: Ἀπειρωτᾶν, romanized: *Āpeirōtân*, Attic Greek: Ἠπειρωτῶν, romanized: *Ēpeirōtôn*, i.e. "of the Epirotes", see adjacent image). The Albanian name for the region, which derives from the Greek, is *Epiri*. Similarly, the Aromanian name for Epirus, which is also Greek-derived, is *Epiru*.
Boundaries and definitions
--------------------------
Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn from Cape Gjuhëz of the Ceraunian Mountains in the north-west, to Mount Qelqëz in the north-east, to Mount Gavrovo in the south-east, to the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf in the south-west. The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as the Vjosa river. Epirus's eastern boundary is defined by the Pindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly. To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea. The island of Corfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus.
The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus. The region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, and Berat extend well beyond the northern and northeastern boundaries of classical Epirus.
Geography and ecology
---------------------
Epirus is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the Pindus Mountains, a series of parallel limestone ridges that are a continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture. Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2,637 m at Mount Smolikas, the highest point in Epirus. Other important ranges include Tymfi (2,496 m at Mount Gamila), Lygkos (2,249 m), to the west and east of Smolikas respectively, Gramos (2,523 m) in the northeast, Tzoumerka (2,356 m) in the southeast, Tomaros (1,976 m) in the southwest, Mitsikeli near Ioannina (1,810 m), Mourgana (1,806 m) and Nemercke/Aeoropos (2,485 m) on the border between Greece and Albania, and the Ceraunian Mountains (2,000 m) near Himara in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece.
Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest near Arta and Preveza, in the Acheron plain between Paramythia and Fanari, between Igoumenitsa and Sagiada, and also near Saranda. The Zagori area is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides.
The main river flowing through Epirus is the Vjosë, which flows in a northwesterly direction from the Pindus mountains in Greece to its mouth north of the Bay of Vlorë in Albania. Other important rivers include the Acheron river, famous for its religious significance in ancient Greece and site of the Necromanteion, the Arachthos river, crossed by the historic Bridge of Arta, the Louros, the Thyamis or Kalamas, and the Voidomatis, a tributary of the Vjosë flowing through the Vikos Gorge. The Vikos Gorge, one of the deepest in the world, forms the centerpiece of the Vikos–Aoös National Park, known for its scenic beauty. The only significant lake in Epirus is Lake Pamvotis, on whose shores lies the city of Ioannina, the region's largest and traditionally most important city.
The climate of Epirus is Mediterranean along the coast and Alpine in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such as bears, wolves, foxes, deer and lynxes.
History
-------
### Early history
In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders of Mycenae may have come from Epirus and central Albania. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer’s Odyssey, and the Oracle of Zeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.
In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece. Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part of Hellas and the region where the Hellenes originated. According to Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev, Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek linguistic area during the Late Neolithic period. By the early 1st millennium BC, all fourteen Epirote tribes including the Chaonians in northwestern Epirus, the Molossians in the centre and the Thesprotians in the south, were speakers of a strong west Greek dialect.
### Epirus in the Classical and Hellenistic periods
Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections. Unlike most other Greeks of this time, who lived in or around city-states, the inhabitants of Epirus lived in small villages and their way of life was foreign to that of the poleis of southern Greece. Their region lay on the periphery of the Greek world and was far from peaceful; for many centuries, it remained a frontier area contested with the Illyrian peoples to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle at Dodona – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at Delphi.
The Epirotes, speakers of a Northwest Greek dialect, different from the Dorian of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historian Thucydides describes them as "barbarians" in his *History of the Peloponnesian War*, as does Strabo in his *Geography*. Other writers, such as Herodotus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Pausanias, and Eutropius, describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in the Argive and Epidaurian lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys). Plutarch mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of King Pyrrhus, he claims that Achilles "had a divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos" (meaning *unspeakable*, *unspeakably great*, in Homeric Greek).
Beginning in 370 BC, the Molossian Aeacidae dynasty built a centralized state in Epirus and began expanding their power at the expense of rival tribes. The Aeacids allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of Macedon, in part against the common threat of Illyrian raids, and in 359 BC the Molossian princess Olympias, niece of Arybbas of Epirus, married King Philip II of Macedon. She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great.
On the death of Arybbas, Alexander of Epirus succeeded to the throne and the title King of Epirus in 334 BC. He invaded Italy, but was killed in battle by a Lucanian in the Battle of Pandosia against several Italic tribes 331 BC. Aeacides of Epirus, who succeeded Alexander, espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was dethroned in 313 BC. His son Pyrrhus came to throne in 295 BC, and for six years fought against the Romans and Carthaginians in southern Italy and Sicily. The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a "Pyrrhic victory". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building the great theater of Dodona and a new suburb at Ambracia (now modern Arta), which he made his capital.
The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, or *synedrion*. However, it was faced with the growing threat of the expansionist Roman Republic, which fought a series of wars against Macedon. The League steered an uneasy neutral course in the first two Macedonian Wars but split in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome. The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved.
### Roman and Byzantine rule
#### Epirus as a Roman province
The region of Epirus was placed under the senatorial province of Achaea in 27 BC, with the exception of its northernmost part, which remained part of the province of Macedonia. Under Emperor Trajan, sometime between 103 and 114 AD, Epirus became a separate province, under a *procurator Augusti*. The new province extended from the Gulf of Aulon (Vlorë) and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the lower course of the Acheloos River in the south, and included the northern Ionian Islands of Corfu, Lefkada, Ithaca, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos.
#### Late Antiquity
Probably during the provincial reorganization by Diocletian (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into the province of New Epirus (Latin: *Epirus Nova*). Although this territory was not traditionally part of Epirus proper as defined by the ancient geographers, and was historically inhabited by Illyrian tribes and Greeks, the name reflects the fact that under Roman rule, the area had been subject to increasing Hellenization and settlement by Epirote tribes from the south.
The two Epirote provinces became part of the Diocese of Moesia, until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia, when they became part of the former. In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold of paganism, and was aided by Emperor Julian (r. 361–363) and his praetorian prefect Claudius Mamertinus through reduction in taxes and the rebuilding of the provincial capital, Nicopolis. According to Jordanes, in 380 the Visigoths raided the area. With the division of the Empire on the death of Theodosius I in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. In 395–397, the Visigoths under Alaric plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with the Western Roman generalissimo Stilicho in order to wrest the Eastern Illyricum from the Eastern Empire.
The *Synecdemus* of Hierocles, composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus (Ancient Greek: Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος, Latin: *Epirus Vetus*): the capital Nicopolis, Dodona, Euroea, Hadrianopolis, Appon, Phoenice, Anchiasmos, Buthrotum, Photike, Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island. New Epirus, with capital at Dyrrhachium, comprised 9 cities. From 467 on, the Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by the Vandals, who had taken over the North African provinces and established their own kingdom centred on Carthage. The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with Emperor Zeno, and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery. Epirus Nova became a battleground in the rebellions of the Ostrogoths after 479. In 517, a raid of the Getae or Antae reached Greece, including Epirus Vetus. The claim of Procopius of Caesarea in his *Secret History*, that under Justinian I (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to the environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented. Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during the Gothic War, the Ostrogoth king Totila sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus. In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, while Euroea was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of Ioannina), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.
#### Epirus from the Slavic invasions until 1204
In the late 6th century, much of Greece, including Epirus, fell under the control of the Avars and their Slavic allies. This is placed by the *Chronicle of Monemvasia* in the year 587, and is further corroborated by evidence that several sees were abandoned by their bishops by 591. Thus in c. 590 the bishop, clergy and people of Euroea fled their city, carrying with them the relics of their patron saint, St. Donatus, to Cassiope in Corfu.
Of the various Slavic tribes, only the Baiounitai, first attested c. 615, are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: "Vagenetia". Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear. Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the Gulf of Corinth, indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the Peloponnese. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to Bulgar pressure in the northern Balkans. Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of Labëria (on the Kurvelesh plateau), and in the Ionian coast where the Lab Albanian villages neighbour with the Greek-speaking ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs did not reach the highlands of Labëria.
As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in c. 702, when Philippicus Bardanes was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils in Constantinople: whereas only the bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of 680/1 and 692, a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. In about the middle of the 8th century, the Theme of Cephallenia was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland. Nevertheless, following the onset of the Muslim conquest of Sicily in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.
The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina, Naupaktos, Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as a *Sklavinia* under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of 869/70 and 879/80. The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy and Asia Minor into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized and Hellenized. The eventual success of the Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century. Following the great naval victory of admiral Nasar in 880, and the beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and the Theme of Nicopolis was established, most likely after 886. As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of the Metropolis of Naupaktos, established at about the same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos, Rogoi, Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of the *Tabula Imperii Byzantini* comment, it appears that "the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in". Further north, the region around Dyrrhachium existed as the homonymous theme possibly as early as the 9th century.
During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while Mardaites from both themes are listed in the large but unsuccessful expedition of 949 against the Emirate of Crete. In c. 930, the Theme of Nicopolis was raided by the Bulgarians, who even occupied some parts until driven out or subjugated by the Byzantines years later. Only the extreme north of Epirus seems to have remained consistently under Bulgarian rule in the period, but under Tsar Samuel, who moved the centre of Bulgarian power south and west to Ohrid, probably all of Epirus down to the Ambracian Gulf came under Bulgarian rule. This is evidenced from the fact that the territories that were under Bulgarian rule formed part of the autocephalous Archbishopric of Ohrid after the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria by Emperor Basil II in 1018: thus in Epirus the sees of Chimara, Hadrianopolis, Bela, Buthrotum, Ioannina, Kozyle, and Rogoi passed under the jurisdiction of Ohrid, while the Metropolitan of Naupaktos retained only the sees of Bonditza, Aetos, and Acheloos. Basil II also established new, smaller themes in the region: Koloneia, and Dryinopolis (Hadrianopolis).
The region joined the uprising of Petar Delyan in 1040, and suffered in the First Norman invasion of the Balkans: Dyrrhachium was occupied by the Normans in 1081–1084, Arta was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by Robert Guiscard. An Aromanian presence in Epirus is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina.
#### Despotate of Epirus
When Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the *partitio Romaniae* assigned Epirus to Venice, but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the "Duchy of Durazzo"). The Greek noble Michael Komnenos Doukas, who had married the daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetian vassal and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, the Despotate of Epirus, with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital. Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became a haven for Greek refugees from the Latin Empire of Constantinople for the next half-century.
The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of Macedonia, extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of Thrace following the aggressive expansionism of Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who established the Empire of Thessalonica in 1224. During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the Pindus mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period. The oldest reference to Albanians in Epirus is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians". Kosta Giakoumis believes that the use of hypothetical immigrations to explain the accounts of Albanian presence in Epirote territory prior to the 13th-14th century is somewhat arbitrary.
#### 14th century until the Ottoman conquest
In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the restored Byzantine Empire. In 1348, taking advantage of the civil war between the Byzantine emperors John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos, the Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him. The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a vassal state, but Albanian clans proceeded to invade and seize most of the region. Under Peter Losha, the Albanian Malakasi and Mazaraki tribes defeated Nikephoros II Orsini at the Battle of Achelous in 1359, which won Peter Losha the rule of Arta; Losha then founded the Despotate of Arta (1358-1416) with the help of the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans.
Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority. Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning with Thomas II Preljubović (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina a second time in 1374–1375. A truce was signed when Peter's son Gjon was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence. Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, under Gjin Bua Shpata, the Albanians defeated him.
The reign of Esau de' Buondelmonti (1385–1411) in Ioannina followed, and with an army that consisted of the Albanian tribes of the Mazaraki and Malakasi, he marched against the Principality of Gjirokastër. He was defeated and captured by Albanian nobleman Gjon Zenebishi, and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor of Corfu. At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control.
Carlo I Tocco (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts with Yaqub and Maurice Shpata, the Albanian leaders of the Despotate of Arta. The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brother Leonardo II Tocco at Mazoma near ancient Nicopolis, but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians. After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Yaqub and Maurice succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after was able to lure Yaqub to an ambush near Vobliana: Yaqub was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416). Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus.
Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, Angelokastro in 1460, Riniasa Castle and its environs (in what is now Preveza) in 1463, and finally Vonitsa in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.
### Ottoman rule
Epirus was ruled by the Ottomans for almost 500 years. Ottoman rule in Epirus proved particularly damaging; the region was subjected to deforestation and excessive cultivation, which damaged the soil and drove many Epirotes to emigrate so as to escape the region's pervasive poverty. Nonetheless, the Ottomans did not enjoy total control of Epirus. The Himara and Zagori regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century.
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became a major center of the modern Greek Enlightenment. Numerous schools were founded, such as the Balaneios, Maroutsaia, Kaplaneios, and Zosimaia, teaching subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics and physical sciences. In the 18th century, as the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, Epirus became a *de facto* independent region under the despotic rule of Ali Pasha of Tepelena, a Muslim Albanian brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788. At the height of his power, he controlled all of Epirus, and much of the Peloponnese, central Greece, and parts of western Macedonia Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements of Souli met with fierce resistance by the Souliot warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat the Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions.
When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the inhabitants of Epirus contributed greatly. Two of the founding members of the Filiki Eteria (the secret society of the Greek revolutionaries), Nikolaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalov, came from the Arta area and the city of Ioannina, respectively. Greece's first constitutional prime minister (1844–1847), Ioannis Kolettis, was a native of the village of Syrrako in Epirus and was a former personal physician to Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha tried to use the war as an opportunity to make himself a fully independent ruler, but was assassinated by Ottoman agents in 1822. When Greece became independent in 1830, however, Epirus remained under Ottoman rule. In 1854, during the Crimean War, a major local rebellion broke out. Although the newly found Greek state tried tacitly to support it, the rebellion was suppressed by Ottoman forces after a few months. Another failed rebellion by local Greeks broke out in 1878. During this period, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire. In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions of Ioannina and Preveza in order to influence the local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913.
### 20th-century Epirus
While the Treaty of Berlin (1878) awarded large parts of Epirus to Greece, opposition by the Ottomans and the League of Prizren resulted in only the region of Arta being ceded to Greece in 1881. It was only following the First Balkan War of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of London that the rest of southern Epirus, including Ioannina, was incorporated into Greece. Greece had also seized northern Epirus during the Balkan Wars, but the Treaty of Bucharest, which concluded the Second Balkan War, assigned Northern Epirus to Albania.
This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border. Among Greeks, northern Epirus was henceforth regarded as *terra irredenta*. Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declared their independence and proclaimed the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in February 1914. After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of the Protocol of Corfu, signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty. The Republic, however, was short-lived, as when World War I broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals.
Although the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924, the area was again ceded to Albania.
In 1939, Italy occupied Albania, and in 1940 invaded Greece. The Italians were driven back into Albania, however, and Greek forces again took control of northern Epirus. The conflict marked the first tactical victory of the Allies in World War II. Benito Mussolini himself supervised the massive counter-attack of his divisions in spring 1941, only to be decisively defeated again by the poorly equipped, but determined, Greeks. Nazi Germany then intervened in April 1941 to avert an embarrassing, wholesale Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers through Yugoslavia and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender.
The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italian occupation until 1943, when the Germans took over following the Italian surrender to the Allies. Due to the extensive activity of the anti-Nazi Greek resistance (mainly under EDES), the Germans carried out large scaled anti-partisan sweeps, making wide use of Nazi-collaborationist bands of Cham Albanians, who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population. They fought fiercly against the Greek partisans of the EDES, the latter being ordered by the Allied command to push them out of Greece into Albania. The violent clashes and the reprisals that followed by the Greek guerillas resulted in the expulsion to Albania of almost the entire Cham population.
With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of the Greek Civil War at the end of 1944, the highlands of Epirus became a major theater of guerrilla warfare between the leftist Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the right-wing National Republican Greek League (EDES). In subsequent years (1945–1949), the mountains of Epirus also became the scene of some of the fiercest fighting of the second and bloodier round of the Greek Civil War. The final episode of the war took place on Mount Grammos in 1949, ending with the defeat of the Communists. Peace returned to the region in 1949, although because of official Albanian active involvement in the civil war on the side of the communists, the formal state of war between Greece and Albania remained in effect until 1987. Another reason for the continuation of the state of war until 1987 was that during the entire period of Communist rule in Albania, the Greek population of Northern Epirus experienced forced Albanisation. Although a Greek minority was recognized by the Hoxha regime, this recognition only applied to an "official minority zone" consisting of 99 villages, leaving out important areas of Greek settlement, such as Himara. People outside the official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public. The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country. Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between the two countries.
Economy
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A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density. Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop. Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina. Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and the population has been depleted by migration. The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments.
Transportation
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Epirus has historically been a remote and isolated region due to its location between the Pindus mountains and the sea. In antiquity, the Roman Via Egnatia passed through Epirus Nova, which linked Byzantium and Thessalonica to Dyrrachium on the Adriatic Sea. The modern Egnatia Odos highway, which links Ioannina to the Greek province of Macedonia and terminating at Igoumenitsa, is the only highway through the Pindus mountains and has served to greatly reduce the region's isolation from the east, while the Ionia Odos highway, connecting Epirus with Western Greece, helped reducing the region's isolation from the south. Also, the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel connects the southernmost tip of Epirus, near Preveza, with Aetolia-Acarnania in western Greece. Ferry services from Igoumenitsa to the Ionian islands and Italy exist. The only airport in Epirus is the Ioannina National Airport, while the Aktion National Airport is located just south of Preveza in Aetolia-Acarnania. There are no railroads in Epirus.
Gallery
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* The Bridge of Arta.The Bridge of Arta.
* The village of Aetomilitsa on Mount Gramos, in the Pindus mountains.The village of Aetomilitsa on Mount Gramos, in the Pindus mountains.
* The Vikos river, Vikos–Aoös National Park.The Vikos river, Vikos–Aoös National Park.
* The Vikos Gorge.The Vikos Gorge.
* The old bridge of Konitsa over the Aoos river.The old bridge of Konitsa over the Aoos river.
* The high altitude Lake Drakolimni (Dragon Lake), on Mount Gamila in the Pindus mountains.The high altitude Lake Drakolimni (Dragon Lake), on Mount Gamila in the Pindus mountains.
* A canyon of the Acheron river.A canyon of the Acheron river.
* The village of Sirako.The village of Sirako.
* The walls of ancient Nicopolis.The walls of ancient Nicopolis.
* The Hellenistic theater of Dodona.The Hellenistic theater of Dodona.
* Sheep under the shade of a tree near Konitsa.Sheep under the shade of a tree near Konitsa.
* The bay of Parga.The bay of Parga.
* The region of Himara seen from the Llogara pass.The region of Himara seen from the Llogara pass.
* The Vjosa river near Tepelena.The Vjosa river near Tepelena.
* Section of the Egnatia Odos, the only motorway in Epirus, near Igoumenitsa.Section of the Egnatia Odos, the only motorway in Epirus, near Igoumenitsa.
* Gjirokaster, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Gjirokaster, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
* Preveza seen from the air.Preveza seen from the air.
See also
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* List of cities in ancient Epirus
* List of Epirotes
References
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* Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). *The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium*. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
* Konidaris, Gerasimos (2013). "Examining Policy Responses to Immigration in the Light of Interstate Relations and Foreign Policy Objectives: Greece and Albania". In King, Russell; Mai, Nicola; Schwandner-Sievers, Stephanie (eds.). *The New Albanian Migration*. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 64–92.
* Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). *A Greek-English Lexicon*. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* McHenry, Robert (2003). *The New Encyclopædia Britannica* (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 978-0-85229-961-6.
* Miller, William (1966). *The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801–1927*. New York and London: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-1974-3.
* Minahan, James (2002). *Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World*. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313076961.
* Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1984). *The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26190-6.
* Osswald, Brendan (2007). "The Ethnic Composition of Medieval Epirus". In Ellis, Steven G.; Klusáková, Lud'a (eds.). *Imagining Frontiers, Contesting Identities*. Pisa: Edizioni Plus – Pisa University Press. pp. 125–154. ISBN 978-88-8492-466-7.
* Pettifer, James (2001). *The Greek Minority in Albania – In the Aftermath of Communism*. Camberley, Surrey: Conflict Studies Research Centre, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. ISBN 1-903584-35-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2010.
* Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). *Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit* (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1.
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* Suha, Mikko (2021). *Late Classical – Hellenistic Fortifications in Epirus: Fourth to Second Century BC* (Thesis). Unigrafia, University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-951-51-7673-8.
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* Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos (November 2000). "Power politics and nationalist discourse in the struggle for 'Northern Epirus': 1919-1921". *Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans*. **2** (2): 149–162. doi:10.1080/713683343. ISSN 1461-3190. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
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* Winnifrith, Tom (2002). *Badlands, Borderlands: A History of Northern Epirus/Southern Albania*. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-3201-9. | Epirus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirus | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt7\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Epirus</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-native\"><small><a href=\"./Greek_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Greek language\">Greek</a>: <span lang=\"el\">Ήπειρος</span><br/><a href=\"./Albanian_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Albanian language\">Albanian</a>: <i lang=\"sq\">Epiri</i><br/><a href=\"./Aromanian_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Aromanian language\">Aromanian</a>: <i lang=\"rup\">Epiru</i></small></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a href=\"./Historical_region\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Historical region\">Historical region</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg\" title=\"Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich Kiepert, 1902\"><img alt=\"Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich Kiepert, 1902\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"954\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"239\" resource=\"./File:Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg/250px-Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg/375px-Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg/500px-Epirus_antiquus_tabula.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Map of ancient Epirus by <a href=\"./Heinrich_Kiepert\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Heinrich Kiepert\">Heinrich Kiepert</a>, 1902</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Present status</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Divided between <a href=\"./Greece\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Greece\">Greece</a> and <a href=\"./Albania\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Albania\">Albania</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Demonym\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Demonym\">Demonym</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Epirote</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zones</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Central_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Time\">Central European Time</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Eastern_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eastern European Time\">Eastern European Time</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Epirus234bc.jpg",
"caption": "Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word \"ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ\" – of the Epirotes (right)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Epirus_landsat.jpg",
"caption": "NASA satellite image of Epirus."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Smolikas_IMG_0118.jpg",
"caption": "Mount Smolikas (2637m/8652f), the highest point in Epirus."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Zagori_Vikos_gorge_Oxia_towards_Vikos.jpg",
"caption": "Vikos Gorge in Vikos–Aoös National Park."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png",
"caption": "Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek area according to linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:EpirusMycynaen.jpg",
"caption": "Mycenaean sites in the region of Epirus."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:D70-0404-dodona.jpg",
"caption": "The theater of Dodona with Mt. Tomarus in the background."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece-es.svg",
"caption": "Regions of mainland Greece and environments in antiquity."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Moesia_-_AD_400.png",
"caption": "The Roman provinces in the Balkans including Epirus Vetus and Epirus Nova, ca. 400 AD."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Butrint-111198.jpg",
"caption": "Ruins of Buthrotum"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Byzantine_Greece_ca_900_AD.svg",
"caption": "Map of Byzantine Greece ca. 900 AD, with the themes and major settlements"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Epirus_1205-1230-en.svg",
"caption": "Expansion of the Despotate of Epirus in the early 13th century."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Map_of_the_southern_Balkans,_1410.svg",
"caption": "Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ethnographic_map_of_Epirus,_based_on_P._Aravandinos,_1878.jpg",
"caption": "Linguistic (big) and religious (small) map of the Epirus region, 1878. German maker, H. Kiepert; information provided by Greek scholar, P. Aravandinos.\n Greek speakers\n Greek and Vlach speakers\n Greek and Albanian speakers\n Albanian speakers\n Greek Orthodox entirely\n Greek Orthodox majority\n Greek Orthodox – Muslim equivalence\n Muslim majority\n Muslim entirely\n"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Epirote_women_Aug1914.jpg",
"caption": "Detachment of armed Epirote women in the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Epirus_across_Greece_Albania4.svg",
"caption": "The region of Epirus in the 20th century, divided between Greece and Albania.\n Greek region of Epirus\n approx. extent of Epirus in antiquity\n approx. extent of largest concentration of Greeks in \"Northern Epirus\", early 20th century[unreliable source?]Red dotted line: Territory of Autonomous State of Northern Epirus"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:New_port_of_igoumenitsa.JPG",
"caption": "Igoumenitsa is the main port in Epirus, and links the region to Italy."
}
] |
2,992 | **Amputation** is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator. The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child.
In the US, the majority of new amputations occur due to complications of the vascular system (the blood vessels), especially from diabetes. Between 1988 and 1996, there were an average of 133,735 hospital discharges for amputation per year in the US. In 2005, just in the US, there were 1.6 million amputees. In 2013, the US had 2.1 million amputees. Approximately 185,000 amputations occur in the United States each year. In 2009, hospital costs associated with amputation totaled more than $8.3 billion. There will be an estimated 3.6 million people in the US living with limb loss by 2050.
Types
-----
### Leg
Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations.
Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations. A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee.
Types of amputations include:
partial foot amputationamputation of the lower limb distal to the ankle joint
ankle disarticulationamputation of the lower limb at the ankle joint
trans-tibial amputationamputation of the lower limb between the knee joint and the ankle joint, commonly referred to as a below-knee amputation
knee disarticulationamputation of the lower limb at the knee joint
trans-femoral amputationamputation of the lower limb between the hip joint and the knee joint, commonly referred to an above-knee amputation
hip disarticulationamputation of the lower limb at the hip joint
trans-pelvic disarticulationamputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation
### Arm
Types of upper extremity amputations include:
* partial hand amputation
* wrist disarticulation
* trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation
* elbow disarticulation
* trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation
* shoulder disarticulation
* forequarter amputation
A variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action.
### Other
* Facial amputations include but are not limited to:
+ amputation of the ears
+ amputation of the nose (rhinotomy)
+ amputation of the tongue (glossectomy).
+ amputation of the eyes (enucleation).
+ amputation of the teeth (dental avulsion). Removal of teeth, mainly incisors, is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa).
* Breasts:
+ amputation of the breasts (mastectomy).
* Genitals:
+ amputation of the testicles (castration).
+ amputation of the penis (penectomy).
+ amputation of the foreskin (circumcision).
+ amputation of the clitoris (clitoridectomy).
Hemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, and decapitation, or amputation at the neck, are the most radical amputations.
Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.
### Self-amputation
In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated their own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days.
Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed.
### Urgent
In surgery, a **guillotine amputation** is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting. Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene. A guillotine amputation is typically followed with a more time-consuming, definitive amputation such as an above or below knee amputation.
Causes
------
### Circulatory disorders
* Diabetic vasculopathy
* Sepsis with peripheral necrosis
* Peripheral artery disease which can lead to gangrene
* A severe deep vein thrombosis (phlegmasia cerulea dolens) can cause compartment syndrome and gangrene
### Neoplasm
* Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma), melanoma
### Trauma
* Severe limb injuries in which the efforts to save the limb fail or the limb cannot be saved.
* Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example, a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw)
* Amputation in utero (Amniotic band)
### Congenital anomalies
* Deformities of digits and/or limbs (e.g., proximal femoral focal deficiency, Fibular hemimelia)
* Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g., polydactyly)
### Infection
* Bone infection (osteomyelitis) and/or diabetic foot infections
* Gangrene
* Trench foot
* Necrosis
* Meningococcal meningitis
* Streptococcus
* Vibrio vulnificus
* Necrotizing fasciitis
* Gas gangrene
* Legionella
* Influenza A Virus
* Animal bites
* Sepsis
* Bubonic plague
### Frostbite
Frostbite is a cold-related injury occurring when an area (typically a limb or other extremity) is exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues. Its pathophysiology involves the formation of ice crystals upon freezing and blood clots upon thawing, leading to cell damage and cell death. Treatment of severe frostbite may require surgical amputation of the affected tissue or limb; if there is deep injury autoamputation may occur.
### Athletic performance
Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance.
* Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance.
* Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed.
* National Football League safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his little finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season.
### Criminal penalty
* According to Quran 5:38, the punishment for stealing is the amputation of the hand. Under Sharia law, after repeated offense, the foot may also be cut off. This is still in practice today in countries like Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and 11 of the 36 states within Nigeria.
* In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a bill to the Virginia Assembly that ostensibly would have replaced capital punishment with other penalties, including amputation, for certain crimes, although not all were really punishable by death at the time. For the crimes of rape, sodomy, and polygamy (the latter removed from a later version), the punishment was to be castration for men or rhinotomy for women. For intentional maiming, the bill specified literal eye for an eye retribution. The bill never passed, due to the combination of its barbarity in some parts and perceived leniency in others.
* From the 16th century, English law provided for cutting off a hand as punishment for striking someone inside a courtroom. Thomas Jefferson's punishments revision bill also intended to repeal this.
* As of 2021, this form of punishment is controversial, as most modern cultures consider it to be morally abhorrent, as it has the effect of permanently disabling a person and constitutes torture. It is thus seen as grossly disproportionate for crimes less than those such as murder.
Surgery
-------
### Method
The first step is ligating the supplying artery and vein, to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis.
Distal stabilisation of muscles is recommended. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles should be attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions.
An experimental technique known as the "Ewing amputation" aims to improve post-amputation proprioception.
In 1920, Dr. Janos Ertl, Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force. The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques.
### Post-operative management
A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial (below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case-by-case basis: rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls; soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity.
A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings (RRD's) in trans-tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump.
Post-operative management, in addition to wound healing, should consider maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb (if applicable) and stump desensitization.
Trauma
------
Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat.
Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss.
Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations.
### Causes
Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:
* Vehicle accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.)
* Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.)
* Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment
* Electric shock hazards
* Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives
* Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope
* Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries)
* Building doors and car doors
* Animal attacks
* Gas cylinder explosions
* Other rare accidents
### Treatment
The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:
* 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis
* 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction.
* 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969)
* 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000)
### Epidemiology
* In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents.[*not specific enough to verify*]
* The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers.[*not specific enough to verify*]
* A study found that in 2010, 22.8% of patients undergoing amputation of a lower extremity in the United States were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days.
Prevention
----------
Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which would then necessitate amputation.
There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation.
Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections.
A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.
For victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible.
The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations.
Prognosis
---------
The individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations.
A large proportion of amputees (50–80%) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).
A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (*Phantoms in the Brain*: V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.
In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis.
Another side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War.
Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer.
Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer. Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years.
Etymology
---------
The word amputation is borrowed from Latin *amputātus,* past participle of *amputāre* "to prune back (a plant), prune away, remove by cutting (unwanted parts or features), cut off (a branch, limb, body part)," from *am-,* assimilated variant of *amb-* "about, around" + *putāre* "to prune, make clean or tidy, scour (wool)". The English word "Poes" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's *A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie* (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th-century French texts tended to use *extirper*), "disarticulation", and "dismemberment" (from the Old French *desmembrer* and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term.
Notable cases
-------------
* Patch Adams
* Rick Allen
* Douglas Bader
* Götz of the Iron Hand
* Carl Brashear
* Lisa Bufano
* Roberto Carlos
* Tammy Duckworth
* Kalamandalam Sankaran Embranthiri
* Terry Fox
* Zach Gowen
* Pete Gray
* Shaquem Griffin
* Robert David Hall
* Bethany Hamilton
* Hugh Herr
* Frida Kahlo
* Ronnie Lott
* Hari Budha Magar
* Aimee Mullins
* Oscar Pistorius
* Amy Purdy
* Aron Ralston
* Hans-Ulrich Rudel
* Alex Zanardi
See also
--------
* Acrotomophilia
* Adapted automobile
* Flail limb
* Robotic prosthesis control
Further reading
---------------
* Miller, Brian Craig. *Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South* (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp.
External links
-------------- | Amputation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amputation | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt2\" class=\"infobox\" id=\"mwBQ\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#ccc\">Amputation</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2100\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1397\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"451\" resource=\"./File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg/300px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg/450px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg/600px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg 2x\" width=\"300\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">An amputee, seen here running with a blade prosthetic.</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Medical_specialty\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Medical specialty\">Specialty</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Surgery\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Surgery\">Surgery</a>\n<p><a href=\"./Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Physical medicine and rehabilitation\">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a></p>\n<a href=\"./Emergency_medicine\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Emergency medicine\">Emergency medicine</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
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{
"file_url": "./File:Diagram_showing_an_above_knee_amputation_CRUK_094.svg",
"caption": "An above-knee amputation"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Amputations_18c.jpg",
"caption": "The 18th century guide to amputations"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Index_finger_amputation.jpg",
"caption": "Partial amputation of index finger."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:1daypost.jpg",
"caption": "Transfemoral amputation due to liposarcoma"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:World_War_I_radiography_amputee.jpg",
"caption": "Three fingers from a soldier's right hand were traumatically amputated during World War I."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Curvy_amputation_knife_DSC09451.jpg",
"caption": "Curved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Últimos_momentos_do_heroico_1º_tenente_-_Mariz_e_Barros_-_commandante_do_encouraçado_-_Tamandaré._-.jpg",
"caption": "Amputation of the leg of First Lieutenant Antônio Carlos de Mariz e Barros, commander of the brazilian Battleship Tamandaré (Henrique Fleiuss, Semana Illustrada, 1866)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:3372709503_10dc75d783_oSéquelleAmputation.jpg",
"caption": "Private Lewis Francis was wounded July 21, 1861, at the First Battle of Bull Run by a bayonet to the knee."
}
] |
195,694 | The **T-54** and **T-55** tanks are a series of Soviet main battle tanks introduced in the years following the Second World War. The first T-54 prototype was completed at Nizhny Tagil by the end of 1945. From the late 1950s, the T-54 eventually became the main tank for armoured units of the Soviet Army, armies of the Warsaw Pact countries, and many others. T-54s and T-55s have been involved in many of the world's armed conflicts since their introduction in the second half of the 20th century.
The T-54/55 series is the most-produced tank in history. Estimated production numbers for the series range from 96,500 to 100,000. They were replaced by the T-62, T-64, T-72, T-80 and T-90 tanks in the Soviet and Russian armies, but remain in use by up to 50 other armies worldwide, some having received sophisticated retrofitting.
During the Cold War, Soviet tanks never directly faced their NATO adversaries in combat in Europe. However, the T-54/55's first appearance in the West around the period of the 1950s (then the beginning of the Cold War) spurred the United Kingdom to develop a new tank gun, the Royal Ordnance L7, and the United States to develop the M60 tank.
Development history
-------------------
### Predecessors: T-34 and T-44
The Soviet T-34 medium tank of the 1940s is considered to have the best balance of firepower (F-34 tank gun 76.2 mm gun), protection and mobility for its cost of any tank of its time in the world. Its development never stopped throughout the Second World War and it continued to perform well; however, the designers could not incorporate the latest technologies or major developments as vital tank production could not be interrupted during wartime.
In 1943, the Morozov Design Bureau resurrected the pre-war T-34M development project and created the T-44 tank. Thanks to a space-efficient torsion-bar suspension, a novel transverse engine mount, and the removal of the hull machine-gunner's crew position, the T-44 had cross country performance at least as good as the T-34, but with substantially superior armour and a much more powerful 85 mm gun.
By the time the T-44 was ready for production, the T-34 had also been modified to fit the same gun. Although the T-44 was superior in most other ways, by this time T-34 production was in full swing and the massive numbers of T-34s being built offset any advantage to smaller numbers of a superior design. The T-44 was produced in only small numbers, around 2,000 being completed during the war. Instead, the designers continued to use the design as the basis for further improved guns, experimenting with a 122 mm design, but later deciding a 100 mm gun was a better alternative.
### Prototypes
Efforts to fit the 100 mm gun to the T-44 demonstrated that small changes to the design would greatly improve the combination. The main issue was a larger turret ring, which suggested slightly enlarging the hull. A prototype of the new design, about 40 centimetres (16 in) longer and only 10 cm wider, was completed in 1945. This model looked almost identical to the original T-44, albeit with a much larger gun.
In testing, there were several drawbacks that needed correcting and many alterations that had to be made to the vehicle's design. It was decided to begin serial production of the new vehicle and the vehicle officially entered service in April 1946. It would go into production in Nizhny Tagil in 1947 and Kharkiv in 1948.
### T-54
Production of the initial series of T-54s began slowly as 1,490 modifications were made. The Red Army received a tank that was superior to World War II designs and theoretically better than the newest tanks of potential opponents. The 100 mm gun fired BR-412 series full-calibre APHE ammunition, which had superior penetration ability when compared to the T-34 that it replaced.
The serial production version, designated T-54-1, differed from the second T-54 prototype. It had thicker hull armour (80 mm on the sides, 30 mm on the roof and 20 mm on the bottom). As production ramped up, quality problems emerged. Production was stopped and an improved T-54-2 (*Ob'yekt* 137R) version was designed. Several changes were made and a new turret was fitted. The new dome-shaped turret with flat sides was inspired by the turret from the IS-3 heavy tank; it is similar to the later T-54 turret but with a distinctive overhang at the rear. It also had a shorter bustle.
The fender machine guns were removed in favour of a single bow-mounted machine gun. The transmission was modernised and the track was widened to 580 mm. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949, at Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod). In 1951, a second modernization was made, designated T-54-3 (*Ob'yekt* 137Sh), which had a new turret without side undercuts, and the new TSh-2-22 telescopic gunner's sight instead of the TSh-20. The tank featured the TDA smoke generating system. A command version was built, the T-54K (*komandirskiy*), with a second R-113 radio.
#### T-54A and T-54B
In the beginning of the 1950s, the personnel of the OKB-520 design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod) had been changed considerably. Morozov was replaced by Kolesnikow, who in turn was replaced by Leonid N. Kartsev in March 1953. The first decision of the new designer was to fit the 100 mm D-10T tank gun with the STP-1 "Gorizont" vertical stabilizer. The new tank gun received the designation D-10TG and was fitted into the T-54's turret.
The new tank received night vision equipment for the driver and was designated T-54A (*Ob'yekt* 137G). Originally, this had a small muzzle counter-weight, which was later replaced with a fume extractor. It was equipped with an OPVT wading snorkel, the TSh-2A-22 telescopic sight, TVN-1 infrared driver's periscope and IR headlight, a new R-113 radio, multi-stage engine air filter and radiator controls for improved engine performance, an electrical oil pump, a bilge pump, an automatic fire extinguisher and extra fuel tanks.
The tank officially entered production in 1954 and service in 1955. It served as a basis for T-54AK command tank, with additional R-112 radio set (front line tanks were equipped with R-113 radio set), TNA-2 navigational device, ammunition load for the main gun decreased by 5 rounds and the AB-1-P/30 charging unit, which was produced in small numbers. In October 1954 a T-54A tank, designated as T-54M (*Ob'yekt* 139) served as a testbed for new D-54T and D-54TS 100 mm smoothbore guns and "Raduga" and "Molniya" stabilization systems, which were later used in the T-62. These were not completely successful, so further T-55 development continued to use the D-10 series guns. It was fitted with V-54-6 engine developing 581 hp (433 kW). It never went into production.
A new version, based on T-54A, designated T-54B (*Ob'yekt* 137G2), was designed in 1955. It was fitted with a new 100 mm D-10T2S tank gun with STP-2 "Tsyklon" 2-plane stabilizer. It entered production in 1957. During the last four months of production, the new tanks were equipped with an L-2 "Luna" infrared searchlight, a TPN-1-22-11 IR gunner's sight, and an OU-3 IR commander's searchlight. Modern APFSDS ammunition was developed, dramatically enhancing the penetrative performance of the gun to keep it competitive with NATO armour developments. T-54B served as the basis for T-54BK command tank, which had exactly the same additional equipment as the T-54AK command tank.
### T-55
Trials with nuclear weapons showed that a T-54 could survive a 2–15 kt nuclear charge at a range of more than 300 metres (980 ft) from the epicentre, but the crew had a chance of surviving at a minimum of 700 metres (2,300 ft). It was decided to create an NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical) protection system which would start working 0.3 seconds after detecting gamma radiation.
The task of creating a basic PAZ (*Protivoatomnaya Zashchita*) NBC protection system offering protection against the blast of a nuclear weapon and (radioactive) particulate filtration, but not against external gamma radiation or gas, was given to the KB-60 design bureau in Kharkiv and was completed in 1956. The documentation was sent to Uralvagonzavod. It was decided to increase the tank's abilities by changing its construction and introducing new production technologies. Many of those changes were initially tested on the T-54M (*Ob'yekt* 139).
The tank was fitted with the new V-55 12-cylinder four-stroke one-chamber, 38.88-litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 581 hp (433 kW). Engine power was increased by raising the pressure of the fuel delivery and charging degree. The designers planned to introduce a heating system for the engine compartment and MC-1 diesel fuel filter. The engine was to be started pneumatically with the use of an AK-150S charger and an electric starter. This eliminated the need for the tank to carry a tank filled with air. To allow easier access during maintenance and repairs, it was decided to change hatches over the engine compartment. To increase the operational range, 300 litres (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) fuel tanks were added to the front of the hull, increasing the overall fuel capacity to 680 litres (150 imp gal; 180 US gal).
The ammunition load for the main gun was increased from 34 to 45, with 18 shells stored in so-called "wet containers" located in hull fuel tanks (the concept for which came from Kartsev's cancelled *Ob'yekt* 140). The ammunition load included high explosive-fragmentation and anti-tank rounds and designers also planned to introduce the BK5M high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds which penetrated 390 millimetres (15 in) thick armour. The TPKU commander's vision device was replaced by either the TPKUB or TPKU-2B. The gunner received a TNP-165 vision device.
The loader's hatch-mounted 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun was dropped, because it was deemed worthless against high-performance jets. The tank was supposed to be equipped with the "Rosa" fire protection system. The tank had a thicker turret casting and the improved two-plane gun stabilization system from the T-54B, and night vision fighting equipment. To balance the weight of the new equipment, the armour on the back of the hull was thinned slightly.
The T-55 was superior to the IS-2, IS-3 and T-10 heavy tanks in many respects, including the rate of fire of the gun (at least four compared to fewer than three rounds per minute). Despite somewhat thinner frontal turret armour (200 millimetres (7.9 in) instead of 250 millimetres (9.8 in)) it compared favourably with the IS-3, due to its improved antitank gun and better mobility. Heavy tanks soon fell from favour.
The old model of highly mobile medium tanks and heavily armoured heavy tanks was replaced by a new paradigm: the "main battle tank". Parallel developments in the West would produce similar results. Kartsev combined all the ongoing improvements being offered, or planned, on the T-54 into one design. This became the *Ob'yekt* 155, and entered production at Uralvagonzavod 1 January 1958 as the T-55. It was accepted for service with the Red Army on 8 May. It suffered a significant lapse in one area: there was no antiaircraft machine gun, which had been present on the T-54.
After 1959, it served as a basis for the T-55K command tank which was equipped with an additional R-112 radio set, an AB-1-P/30 fuel powered accumulator charging unit, and TPN-1-22-11 night vision sight. All this additional equipment made it necessary to decrease the ammunition load for the main gun to 37 rounds and eliminate the bow machine gun. In the beginning of the 1960s, a T-55K was experimentally fitted with a *Uran* TV relay apparatus for battlefield surveillance. The tank was fitted with an external camera, the picture from which was relayed to a receiver in a BTR-50PU command vehicle. There was an observation camera mounted on a folding mast which was in turn mounted on a UAZ 69 car.
In 1961, a T-55 tank was used to test the "Almaz" TV complex, which was supposed to replace the standard observation devices right after a nuclear explosion or while fording a body of water. There was a camera mounted on the hull for the driver and two cameras mounted on the turret, one for aiming and one for observation, and the picture from the cameras was relayed to two control screens. The tank had the front hull fuel tanks and bow machine gun removed. The commander was seated in the driver's usual position while the driver sat next to him.
The cameras allowed battlefield observation and firing during daytime at ranges between 1.5 and 2 kilometres (0.93 and 1.24 mi). Because of the low quality of the equipment, the trials gave negative results. In the beginning of the 1960s, the OKB-29 design bureau in Omsk was working on adapting the tank to use a GTD-3T gas turbine engine developing 700 hp (522 kW). One T-55 tank fitted with this gas turbine engine passed trials but was deemed unsatisfactory and the design did not go into production.
The Omsk OKB-29 group tested three experimental T-55 tanks (designated *Ob'yekt* 612) between 1962 and 1965 that were fitted with an automatic gearbox controlled by electro-hydraulic systems. The trials found that such gearboxes were prone to frequent breakdowns in tanks. At the same time the *Ob'yekt* 155ML, a T-55 fitted with a launcher for three 9M14 "*Malyutka*" (NATO code: AT-3 Sagger) ATGMs mounted on the rear of the turret, was tested. Along with standard tanks a flamethrower-armed version was designed (designated TO-55 (*Ob'yekt* 482)), which was produced until 1962. It was fitted with 460-litre tanks filled with flammable liquid instead of the frontal hull fuel tanks. The flamethrower replaced the coaxial machine gun. This was a much better way to mount a flamethrower than in the experimental *Ob'yekt* 483, based on the T-54 tank, where the flamethrower replaced the main gun. TO-55 flamethrower tanks were withdrawn from service in 1993.
#### T-55A
In 1961, development of improved NBC protection systems began. The goal was to protect the crew from fast neutrons; adequate protection against gamma radiation was provided by the thick armour and a PAZ basic NBC protection system.
The POV plasticized lead antiradiation lining was developed to provide the needed protection. It was installed in the interior, requiring the driver's hatch and the coamings over the turret hatches to be noticeably enlarged. This liner had the added benefit of protecting the crew from fragments of penetrated armour.
The tank was equipped with a full PAZ/FVU chemical filtration system. The coaxial 7.62 mm SGMT machine gun was replaced by a 7.62 mm PKT machine gun. The hull was lengthened from 6.04 m to 6.2 m. The hull machine gun was removed, making space for six more main gun rounds. These changes increased the weight of the vehicle to 38 tonnes.
The design work was done by OKB-520 design bureau of Uralvagonzavod under the leadership of Leonid N. Kartsev. The T-55A served as the basis for the T-55AK command tank.
### T-54/T-55 upgrades
In its long service life, the T-55 has been upgraded many times. Early T-55s were fitted with a new TSh-2B-32P sight. In 1959, some tanks received mountings for the PT-55 mine clearing system or the BTU/BTU-55 plough. In 1967, the improved 3BM-8 APDS round, which could penetrate 275 mm thick armour at a range of 2 km, was introduced. In 1970, new and old T-55 tanks had the loader's hatch modified to mount the 12.7 mm DShK machine gun, to deal with the threat of attack helicopters. Starting in 1974, T-55 tanks received the KTD-1 or KTD-2 laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the mantlet of the main gun, and the R-123 or R-123M radio set. Simultaneously, efforts were made to modernize and increase the lifespan of the drive train.
During production, the T-55A was frequently modernised. In 1965, a new track was introduced that could be used for between 2,000 km and 3,000 km, which was twice the range of the old track. It needed a new drive sprocket, with 14 teeth instead of 13. Since 1974, T-55A tanks were equipped with a KTD-1 "Newa" rangefinder and a TSzS-32PM sight. All T-55A tanks were equipped with the TPN-1-22-11 night sight. The R-113 radio set was replaced by a R-123 radio set. Late production models had rubber side skirts and a driver's windshield for use during longer stints.
T-54 and T-55 tanks continued to be upgraded, refitted, and modernised into the 1990s. Advances in armour-piercing and high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shaped charge ammunition would improve the gun's antitank abilities in the 1960s and 1980s.
A wide array of upgrades in different price ranges are provided by many manufacturers in different countries, intended to bring the T-54/55 up to the abilities of newer MBTs, at a lower cost. Upgrades include new engines, explosive reactive armour, new main armament such as 120 mm or 125 mm guns, active protection systems, and fire control systems with range-finders or thermal sights. These improvements make it a potent main battle tank (MBT) for the low-end budget, even to this day.
One of these upgrade packages was a joint United States-China prototype designed and built by Cadillac Gage, now known as Textron. Two prototypes based of the Chinese Type 59 tank, a clone of the Soviet Union era T-55 named Jaguar were produced in Detroit, Michigan. Modifications included a new turret design and improved hull. The engine compartment and fuel tanks on the shelves over the tracks were armour-protected. The Soviet-made 100 mm gun was replaced with the American M68 105 mm rifled gun fitted with a thermal sleeve. A Marconi fire control system which was originally developed for the American light tank Stingray was fitted. The vehicle incorporated a Cadillac-Gage weapon stabilizer and gunner's sight equipped with an integral laser rangefinder. The powertrain was replaced with a Detroit Diesel 8V-92TA engine and XTG-411 automatic transmission. In 1989, two prototypes were completed. The chassis were provided by PRC, while the hull tops, turrets and powerplants were manufactured by Cadillac Gage Textron. Field testing of the prototypes began in October 1989, four-months after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, which ended cooperation between China and Cadillac Gage.
Another prototype upgrade package was produced by Teledyne Continental Motors (now General Dynamics Land Systems) for the Egyptian Army and was known as the T-54E. After further modifications and trials it was sent into mass production and received the designation Ramses II.
As late as 2013, Ukrainian companies were reportedly developing T-55 main battle tank upgrades targeting the export market. The Type 59 is still in production, in several variants.
Description
-----------
The T-54 and T-55 have a cabin layout shared with many post-World War II tanks, with the fighting compartment in the front, engine compartment in the rear, and a dome-shaped turret in the center of the hull. The driver's hatch is on the front left of the hull roof. In the turret, the commander is seated on the left, with the gunner to his front and the loader on the right. The tank has a *flat track*, meaning no support rollers, the suspension has the drive sprocket at the rear, and dead track. Engine exhaust is on the left fender. There is a prominent gap between the first and second road wheel pairs, a distinguishing feature from the T-62, which has progressively larger spaces between road wheels towards the rear.
The T-54 and T-55 tanks are outwardly very similar and difficult to distinguish visually. Many T-54s were also updated to T-55 standards, so the distinction is often downplayed with the collective name *T-54/55*. Soviet tanks were factory-overhauled every 7,000 km and often given minor technology updates. Many states have added or modified the tank's equipment; India, for example, affixed fake fume extractors to its T-54s and T-55s so that its gunners would not confuse them with Pakistani Type 59s.
The older T-54 can be distinguished from the T-55 by a dome-shaped ventilator on the front right of the turret and a driver-operated SGMT 7.62 mm machine gun mounted to fire through a tiny hole in the center of the hull's front. Early T-54s lacked a gun fume extractor, had an undercut at the turret's rear, and a distinctive "pig-snout" gun mantlet.
### Advantages and drawbacks
The T-54/55 tanks are mechanically simple and robust. They are very simple to operate compared to Western tanks, and do not require a high level of training or education in their crewmen. The tanks have good mobility thanks to their relatively light weight (which permits easy transport by rail or flatbed truck and allows crossing of lighter bridges), wide tracks (which give lower ground pressure and hence good mobility on soft ground), a good cold-weather start-up system and a snorkel that allows river crossings.
By 1950s standards the T-54 was excellent, packing considerable firepower and armour protection in a reliable design whilst also being smaller and lighter than contemporary NATO designs. However at the time the T-54 lacked effective sub-calibre ammunition and was reliant on HEAT rounds for anti-tank ammunition until the 1960s. This and the fact that the T-54 had a simple fire-control system meant that the T-54 was inaccurate at longer ranges.
The T-55 introduced the world's first first-generation protective suite to provide NBC protection. This was done due to Soviet researchers finding that the survivability of tanks and their crews against tactical nuclear weapons was poor.
The low turret profile of the tanks prevents them from depressing their main guns by more than 5° since the breech would strike the ceiling when fired, which limits the ability to cover terrain by fire from a hull-down position on a reverse slope. As in most tanks of that generation, the internal ammunition supply is not shielded, increasing the risk that any enemy penetration of the fighting compartment could cause a catastrophic secondary explosion. The T-54 lacks NBC protection, and a turret basket, which meant that crewmen had to physically rotate and keep up with a rotating turret as the hull in which they stood didn't move with the turret. Additionally, early models also lacked gun stabilisation. Most of these problems were corrected in the otherwise largely identical T-55 tank.
Together, the T-54/55 tanks have been manufactured in the tens of thousands, and many still remain in reserve, or even in front-line use among lower-technology fighting forces. Abundance and age together make these tanks cheap and easy to purchase.
Production history
------------------
### Soviet Union
T-54-1 production was slow at first, as only 3 vehicles were built in 1946 and 22 in 1947. 285 T-54-1 tanks were built in 1948 by Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod); by then it had completely replaced T-44 production at Uralvagonzavod, and Kharkiv Diesel Factory No. 75 (KhPZ). Production was stopped because of a low level of production quality and frequent breakdowns. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949 at Uralvagonzavod, which produced 423 tanks by the end of 1950. It replaced the T-34 in production at the Omsk Factory No. 183 in 1950. In 1951, over 800 T-54-2 tanks were produced. The T-54-2 remained in production until 1952. The T-54A was produced between 1955 and 1957. The T-54B was produced between 1957 and April 1959. The T-55 was produced by Uralvagonzavod between 1958 and 1962. The T-55K command tank was produced from 1959. The TO-55 (*Ob'yekt* 482) flamethrower tank was produced until 1962.
Overall 35,000 T-54-1, T-54-2, T-54 (T-54-3), T-54A, T-54B, T-54AK1, T-54AK2, T-54BK1 and T-54BK2 tanks were produced between 1946 and 1958 and 27,500 T-55, T-55A, T-55K1, T-55K2, T-55K3, T-55AK1, T-55AK2 and T-55AK3 tanks were produced between 1955 and 1981.
### Polish People's Republic
Polish People's Republic produced 3,000 T-54, T-54A, T-54AD and T-54AM tanks between 1956 and 1964 and 7,000 T-55 (between 1964 and 1968), T-55L, T-55AD-1 and T-55AD-2 tanks (between 1968 and 1979).
### Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia produced 2,700 T-54A, T-54AM, T-54AK, T-54AMK tanks (between 1957 and 1966) and 8,300 T-55 and T-55A tanks (between 1964 and 1983; T-55A was probably produced since 1968). Most of them were for export.
Service history
---------------
### Soviet Union and Russia
The T-54/55 and the T-62 were the two most common tanks in Soviet inventory—in the mid-1970s the two tank types together comprised approximately 85% of the Soviet Army's tanks.
Soviet T-54 tanks served in combat during the Hungarian Revolution in 1956 and a few were successfully knocked out by the defending anti-Soviet Hungarian resistance-fighters and rebels using Molotov cocktails and several anti-tank guns. The local anti-communist revolutionaries delivered one captured T-54A to the British Embassy in Budapest, the analyses and studies of which helped and spurred the development of the Royal Ordnance L7 105 mm tank gun.
At the initial stage of the war in Afghanistan in 1979–1980, about 800 Soviet tanks were used, consisting of 39 battalions, mainly armed with T-54s and T-55s. In 1979, only one T-55 tank was lost. Since the beginning of 1980, they began to be replaced by modern T-62 and T-64 tanks.
Most of the T-62 and the T-55 were auctioned off in 2012, with all Russian active-duty military units mainly operating the T-72, the T-80 and the T-90. However, T-62s and T-55s have seen combat in the 2022 Ukraine War after catastrophic Russian tank losses in failed early offensives.
### Middle East
During the 1967 Six-Day War, U.S.-supplied M48 Patton tanks, British Centurion tanks, and even upgraded World War II–era 75 mm M-50 and 105 mm armed M-51 Super Shermans faced T-55s. This mix of Israeli tanks, combined with superior planning of operations and superior airpower, proved to be more than capable of dealing with the T-54/T-55 series.
During the 1970 Jordanian Civil War, Syrian tanks inflicted heavy losses on Jordanian Centurions. In one case, a squadron of T-55s stopped the advance of a large Jordanian column, with 19 Centurions destroyed and up to 10 Syrian T-55s lost in the battle. According to Israeli intelligence, Jordan lost 75 to 90 tanks out of 200 involved, most to Syrian T-55 fire at ar-Ramtha. In turn total Syrian tank losses accounted to 62 T-55 mostly breakdowns left on enemy territory.
By the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the T-54A and T-55's gun was starting to lose its competitive effectiveness relative to the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun mounted in Israeli Centurion Mk V and M60A1 tanks. Israeli tanks fitted with the L7 105mm gun suffered greatly from the new Soviet HEAT 3BК5 ammunition fired by the T-55s.
Israel captured many from Egypt in 1967, along with a few T-55s from Syria, and kept some of them in service. They were upgraded with a 105 mm NATO-standard L7 or M68, a US version of the L7, replacing the old Soviet 100 mm D-10, and a General Motors diesel replacing the original Soviet diesel engine. The Israelis designated these *Tiran-5* medium tanks, and they were used by reserve units until the early 1990s. Most of these were then sold to assorted Third World countries, some of them in Latin America, and the rest were heavily modified, converted into the *Achzarit* heavy armoured personnel carrier.
In the Lebanese Civil War, on 10 June 1982, eight Israeli M48A3s, two M60A1s and at least three M113 APCs were lost in an ambush by Syrian T-55 tanks and BMP-1 APCs during the Battle of Sultan Yacoub.
The tank was heavily used during the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–88. T-54/55 participated in the biggest tank battle of the war in early 1981. Iran lost 214 Chieftain and M60A1 tanks in the battle. In return, Iraq lost 45 T-55 and T-62 tanks. Another known tank battle occurred on 11 October 1980, when a large Iranian convoy supported by a battalion of Chieftains (92nd Division) was ambushed by battalion of Iraqi T-55s (26th Brigade). During the battle, the Iranians lost 20 Chieftains plus other armoured vehicles and withdrew.
Many of Iraqi T-55s saw action during Operation Desert Storm in Iraq and Kuwait in January/February 1991, and during the 2003 US/UK invasion of Iraq with poor results.
### Vietnam War
During the Vietnam War, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) used T-54s, along with its Chinese-built copy (the Type 59), extensively against the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and their allied US forces.
The PAVN and the ARVN engaged each other with tanks for the first time during Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971. During that battle, 17 M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks of the ARVN's 1st Armoured Brigade claimed destroy 22 PAVN tanks, a total of 6 T-54s and 16 PT-76 light amphibious tanks, at no loss to themselves,[*full citation needed*] but their friendly units lost 5 M41s and 25 armoured personnel carriers (APCs), mainly M113 APCs.
On Easter Sunday, 2 April 1972, the newly activated ARVN 20th Tank Regiment, comprising approximately 57 M48A3 Patton main battle tanks (note that ARVN *regiments* were equivalent to US *battalions*, and ARVN *squadrons* were equivalent to US *companies* or *troops*) received reports from friendly intelligence units of a large PAVN armoured column moving towards Dong Ha, the largest South Vietnamese city near the Vietnamese DMZ located on the 17th Parallel. At about noontime, the tank crewmen of the ARVN's 1st Squadron observed enemy armour moving south along Highway 1 towards Dong Ha and promptly concealed their tanks on high ground with a good vantage point against their enemy. Waiting for the PAVN tank column to close to between 2500 and 3000 meters, the 90mm main guns of the Patton tanks opened fire and quickly destroyed nine PT-76s and two T-54s. The surviving PAVN armour, unable to locate their enemy's positions, hastily turned about and withdrew shortly afterwards.
On 9 April 1972, all three squadrons of the 20th Tank Regiment (57 M48 tanks) fought hard against enemy armour, firing upon PAVN tanks accompanied by large masses of infantry, again while occupying the strategically important high ground. This time, similarly, the Pattons opened fire at approximately 2800 meters. A few answering-shots from the T-54s fell short and the PAVN tanks began to scatter after suffering considerable losses and heavy casualties. By the end of the day, the 20th claimed destroy sixteen T-54s and captured one Type 59 at no loss to themselves. (The PAVN confirmed six tank were destroyed)
PAVN armoured units equipped with the T-54 tank achieved one of their greatest victories in April 1972 when the PAVN 203rd Armoured Regiment attacked the ARVN's 22nd Infantry Division based at Tân Cảnh Base Camp, which dominated a main route into the city of Kon Tum, located near the 17th Parallel. After a two-day-long intense artillery barrage, eighteen T-54 tanks attacked the camp at dawn from two different directions, thus breaking apart the ARVN unit into two and splitting up its forces, which quickly abandoned its positions and withdrew.[*full citation needed*] T-54 tank No. 377 had managed to destroy seven ARVN M41s before it was finally destroyed by M72 LAW anti-tank rocket launchers fielded by the South Vietnamese infantry. The PAVN destroyed 18 M41 light tanks together with 31 M113 APCs and captured 17 M41s intact, while losing only two T-54 tanks and one PT-76 tank in the armoured skirmish.
At the very end of the war on the 30 April 1975, a PAVN T-54 smashed through the main gate of the RVN Presidential Palace in their capital city of Saigon, accompanied by onrushing North Vietnamese troops, at the conclusion of North Vietnam's conquering of the South. This widely seen image has come to be regarded by many as perhaps the defining moment of the end of the bloody 20-year-long conflict in Vietnam, and the fall of Republic of Vietnam. During the war, PAVN tank units were involved in 211 battles, claimed 20,000+ enemy killed, destroyed more than 2,000 enemy tanks/APCs, 870 other military vehicles, and 3,500 enemy bunkers, and shot down 35 aircraft or helicopters, overwhelmingly using T-54s. The PAVN lost an estimated 250 (1972 - 150, 1973-1975 - 100) T-54s during the war.
Following the Vietnam War, Vietnam's T-54/55s and Type 59s continued to see much combat activity against neighbouring Cambodia and China to their north between 1978 and 1979. Just like many developing countries around the world which continue to operate the T-54/55, at least 900 T-54s, along with a similar number of T-55s and Type 59s, are still in active military service with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam until the present day. Some of them are slated to be replaced by the more modern T-90S/SK.
### Ogaden War
During the largest tank battle of the Ogaden War - the Battle of Jijiga (August–September 1977), 124 Somali tanks, mostly T-55s, defeated 108 Ethiopian tanks, mainly M47 Pattons and M41 Walker Bulldogs. The Ethiopians lost 43 tanks during the battle.
### Angola
T-54/T-55s began appearing in Southern Africa in the late 1970s, when many emerging Marxist states, particularly Angola and Mozambique, were bolstered with modern Soviet military hardware. The T-55's dependability and ruggedness proved well-suited to the local combat environments. Survivability of opposing medium-armour vehicles deployed by UNITA and the South African Defence Force (SADF) against late model MBTs used in the Angolan Civil War remained a major concern throughout that conflict. Angolan Army T-54s were first blooded during Operation Askari, in 1981. At least five were subsequently destroyed in encounters with South African Eland or Ratel-90 armoured cars, and some were captured. Soviet sources confirm that many T-55s were penetrated by an Eland's 90 mm low-pressure gun. Nevertheless, multiple HEAT rounds were needed to guarantee sufficient damage against a T-55's frontal arc and SADF anti-tank teams forced to operate in platoons accordingly.
During the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, another three T-55s of Angola's 21st Brigade were shot out by Ratel tank destroyers armed with ZT3 Ingwe ATGMs near the Lomba River. On 9 November 1987, an engagement between South African and Angolan tanks occurred when thirteen Olifant Mk1As eliminated two T-55s in a nine-minute skirmish. T-55s again participated in a critical engagement near Cuito Cuanavale on 14 February 1988, when Cuba's 3rd Tank Battalion counter-attacked to spare Angola's 16th Brigade virtual annihilation by 61 Mechanised Infantry Battalion Group and the 4th South African Infantry Battalion. Six T-55s were lost (three to RPGs, three to Olifants, one more was damaged), but the attack blunted the South African advance, safeguarding the cohesion of the Angolan line. Cuban and Soviet sources maintain that they destroyed ten Olifant tanks and twelve Ratels, while South African and Western sources maintain that only one Olifant and one Ratel were damaged, and one Ratel destroyed.
### India and Pakistan
The Indian Army has used their T-54s and T-55s extensively in its conflicts with Pakistan between the 1970s to the 1980s. Pakistan also used some T-54As and Chinese Type 59 copies.
The first meeting of the T-55 with enemy tanks occurred in the area of Garibpur on November 22, 1971. Indian T-55 tanks (63 Cavalry) destroyed 3 Pakistani M24 Chaffee tanks (29 Cavalry) in the area.
On December 10–11, during the Battle of Nainakot, Indian T-55s (14 Cavalry Scinde Horse) in two battles destroyed 9 Pakistani M47/48 tanks (33 Cavalry), without any loss.
Battle of Basantar or the Battle of Barapind (December 4–16, 1971) was one of the vital battles fought as part of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 in the western sector of India. India had destroyed close to 46 M48 tanks and losing only 10 tanks in the process.
At the end of the war, one of the last tank battles took place in the Naogaon area, an M24 company attacked Indian T-55s, but lost 5 Chaffee tanks and was forced to retreat to Bogra.
### Russo-Ukrainian War
Footage from the Battle of Mariupol (May 2022) indicates that Ukrainian soldiers used a single T-54 which had previously been converted to a historical memorial at the Azovstal plant. The tank was removed from the pedestal, probably towed to its combat position and used by Ukrainian fighters for defence. According to the few existing pictures, the vehicle was heavily damaged in combat and abandoned.
Ukrainian soldiers are training with 28 M-55S tanks, delivered in October 2022 by Slovenia. The Model M-55S is a heavily reinforced tank and has been updated with a NATO L7 105mm gun, upgraded armour protection, a digital ballistic computer and an upgraded engine.
In December 2022 the 28 M-55S were deployed in the volunteer 47th Assault Brigade (Ukraine)'s army.
On March 21-22, 2023, photos and videos of a Russian military train with T-54s and T-54Bs appeared on social media, and an interview by Volya Media and reported by Forbes seems to confirm the intention of deploying them to Ukraine.
Images of T-55 in Ukraine first emerged in April 2023 confirming their deployment by the Russian armed forces. No additional modernization or ERA application appears to be done.
In June 19, footage of a Russian T-54/55 converted into a remote-controlled VBIED being destroyed by Ukrainian forces near Marinka, Donetsk Oblast was released.
### Other conflicts
T-54 tanks were used during the Cambodian Civil War and the Cambodian–Vietnamese War between the 1970s to the 1980s. During the Ugandan-Tanzanian War of 1978 to 1979, Libya sent an expeditionary military force to aid Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in his conflict with Tanzania, which included the supply of a few dozen T-54/55 tanks. Some of these tanks saw action against Tanzanian forces., with at least limited success.
Polish T-55L tanks were deployed during the imposition of martial law in their country to intimidate the population (seemingly growing ever-more anti-communist) and to suppress overt displays against their communist government.
The T-55 was the most numerous tank of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). It was the mainstay of armoured combat units during the Yugoslav Wars, where it proved vulnerable to infantry equipped with anti-tank rockets and weaponry and to misemployment in urban areas and unfriendly terrain. But there were too many of them in service for them to be replaced entirely. During the Battle of Vukovar, where the JNA grouped a large part of its tank force, a number were destroyed, almost exclusively by infantry-carried anti-tank weapons. The T-55 tank remained the most common tank in the armies of the various Yugoslavian successor states until recently and it was the most-used tank by all armies during the decades-long wars. T-55s were also used by Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War and in Macedonia (now North Macedonia) during the 2001 insurgency in Macedonia, and by Russian peacekeepers after the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo. The Kosovo Liberation Army (National Liberation Army of Kosovo) captured a T-55 from the Macedonian Army during the battle of Raduša.
The T-55 has been used by Ethiopia in the conflict with the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia and used by various warring factions in the Somali Civil War after the fall of the dictatorial Siad Barre regime in the 1990s.
China produced thousands of Type 59 tanks (based on the Soviet T-54A) for the People's Liberation Army, which were used during the Vietnam War and used en-masse against Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese War and sold the similar (but upgraded) Type 69 tanks to both Iran and Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War between 1980 and 1988. A considerable number saw action against Coalition forces during Operation Desert Storm in Iraq and Kuwait in January and February 1991 and during the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 (Operation Iraqi Freedom), with extremely poor showing against more-modern tanks fielded by US and British troops, such as the M1 Abrams and the Challenger 1 and Challenger 2 tanks.
The Sri Lanka Army acquired 25 T-55As and 2 T-55 ARVs from Czechoslovakia in 1991, forming its first tank unit, the 4th Armoured Regiment of the Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. Due to operation demands of the escalating Sri Lankan Civil War, T-55As of the regiment were deployed in pairs to forward bases to support infantry with limited training. This resulted in the capture of two T-55A tanks by the LTTE in the Battle of Pooneryn in November 1993. One of these were destroyed soon after by the Sri Lanka Air Force, the other was operated by the LTTE until the last days of the war, when it was re-captured. In 2000, the army acquired Czech T-55AM2s which were deployed in offensive operations supporting infantry during the pitch battles of last stages of the Sri Lankan Civil War including the Battle of Jaffna.
T-55 tanks have seen use on both sides of the 2011 Libyan civil war, with anti-Gaddafi forces either stealing them or having them contributed by defecting members of the Libyan Army.
T-55s have been used by the Sudanese Armed Forces during the conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile. At least 4 were captured and 1 destroyed by the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North on 10 December 2012.
The T-55 has seen active combat service with the FARDC of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, supported by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade (UN FIB), in 2013–14 during the campaign to suppress the March 23 Movement (M23) rebel group.
On July 7, 2014, a T-54 from a museum in Donetsk was commissioned into the armed forces of Novorossiya.
Russia announced that several T-55 tanks used by ISIL in Syria were destroyed in an air attack conducted by its forces on October 5, 2015.
Combat history
--------------
* 1955–1975: Vietnam War (North Vietnam)
* 1956: Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (Soviet Union)
* 1961–1991: Iraqi–Kurdish conflict (Iraq and Peshmerga)
* 1966–1990: South African Border War (Angola)
* 1967: Six-Day War (Egypt and Syria)
* 1968: Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (Soviet Union and Poland)
* 1970: Black September (Syria)
* 1971: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (India)
* 1973: Yom Kippur War (Egypt and Syria)
* 1974–1991: Ethiopian Civil War (Ethiopia)
* 1975–1990: Lebanese Civil War (Lebanese government forces and militias)
* 1975–1991: Western Sahara War (Morocco and Polisario)
* 1975–2002: Angolan Civil War (Angola and UNITA) \* 1977-
* 1977–1978: Ogaden War (Ethiopia, Somalia and Cuba)
* 1978–1987: Chadian–Libyan conflict (Libya)
+ 1986–1987: Toyota War
* 1978: Uganda–Tanzania War (Uganda and Libya)
* 1978–1989: Cambodian–Vietnamese War (Vietnam)
* 1979–1988: Soviet–Afghan War (Afghanistan and Soviet Union)
* 1979: Rhodesian Bush War (Rhodesia)
* 1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War (Iran and Iraq)
* 1982–1983: 1982 Lebanon War (Syria and PLO)
* 1983–2009: Sri Lankan Civil War (Sri Lankan government forces and LTTE)
* 1983–2005: Second Sudanese Civil War (Sudanese government forces and SPLA)
* 1989: Romanian Revolution (Romania)
* 1988–1993: Georgian Civil War
+ 1991–1992: 1991–1992 South Ossetia War (Georgia)
+ 1992–1993: War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) (Georgia and Abkhazia)
* 1990–1991: Gulf War (Iraq)
* 1991–present: Somali Civil War
* 1991–1995: Yugoslav Wars (Yugoslavia)
+ 1991: Ten-Day War (Yugoslavia)
+ 1991–1995: Croatian War of Independence (Yugoslavia, Croatia and Republic of Serbian Krajina)
+ 1992–1995: Bosnian War (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska)
+ 1994: Operation Bøllebank (Republika Srpska and UNPROFOR forces)
+ 1994: Operation Amanda (Republika Srpska and UNPROFOR forces)
* 1994: Yemeni Civil War (1994) (Yemen)
* 1997: 1997 clashes in Cambodia (Cambodian government forces)
* 1998–1999: Kosovo War (Army of Yugoslavia)
* 1998–2000: Eritrean–Ethiopian War (Eritrea and Ethiopia)
* 1998: Guinea-Bissau Civil War
* 2001: 2001 insurgency in Macedonia
* 2001–2021: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) (Northern alliance and Afghanistan)
* 2003–2020: War in Darfur (Sudanese government forces)
* 2003–2011: Iraq War
+ 2003: Invasion of Iraq (Iraq)
* 2005–2010: Chadian Civil War (2005–2010) (Chadian government forces)
* 2008: Russo-Georgian War (Abkhazia and South Ossetia)
* 2011: Libyan Civil War (2011) (Gaddafi Government)
* 2011–present: Syrian Civil War (Syrian government forces, ISIS and Rebels)
* 2011–2020: Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile (Sudanese Government forces)
* 2012–2013: M23 rebellion (Democratic Republic of Congo and March 23 Movement)
* 2014–2017: War in Iraq (2013–2017)
* 2014-present: Russo-Ukrainian War
+ 2022–present: 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine (Ukraine and Russia)
* 2014–2020: Libyan Civil War (2014) (Libyan National Army and Government of National Accord)
* 2015–present: Yemeni Civil War (2014–present) (Hadi-government forces and Houthis)
* 2020: 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (Azerbaijani Land Forces)
* 2020–2022: Tigray War (Ethiopian government forces and Tigray Defense Forces)
* 2023: 2023 Sudan clashes (Sudanese-government forces and Rapid Support Forces)
Operators and variants
----------------------
The T-55 has been used worldwide by as many as 50 countries and quasi-armies. They have been subject to many improvements throughout their production history and afterward, and many are still in service today.
Modifications to the T-54/55 series over the years have changed almost every aspect of the vehicle. Initially, Soviet modifications included a better turret shape, improved NBC protection and an improved powerplant. Later, improved fire-control equipment and night-vision equipment was added.
Foreign improvements, both in Warsaw Pact nations and elsewhere, have further improved protection, powerplant, and firepower. T-54/55s have been re-armed with improved tank guns, AA machine guns, advanced armour arrays, and technologies, such as laser range finders and computerized fire control systems, that did not exist when the tank was first being built in the early days of the Cold War.
* A Finnish T-55-based Marksman self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) vehicle, which is referred to locally as the ItPsv 90.A Finnish T-55-based Marksman self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) vehicle, which is referred to locally as the ItPsv 90.
* "Hurricane" firefighting vehicle, which uses the engine from a MiG-21 to blow water mist over a fire."Hurricane" firefighting vehicle, which uses the engine from a MiG-21 to blow water mist over a fire.
Museums with T-54/T-55 on display
---------------------------------
* There is a T-55 captured from Iraqi forces during Operation Desert Storm at USS Alabama Battleship Park, Mobile Alabama.
* There is a T-55 on outdoor display at the Fort Polk Museum, Fort Polk Louisiana, United States.
* The Ontario Regiment Museum has an operational T-54.
* There is a T-54 outside of K-W Surplus in Kitchener, Ontario, Canada
* Museum of Military Technology "Gryf" in Gdynia, Poland offers rides in T-55A.
* There is a T-54 at the Tank Museum in Thun, Switzerland.
* The Musee des Blindes in Saumur, France has both an original T-54 and a T-54/55 upgrade.
* The American Armored Foundation (AAF) Tank Museum in Danville, VA, USA has an Iraqi T-55 tank captured during the Persian Gulf War.
See also
--------
* Al-Zarrar
* Ramses II tank
* T-54/T-55 operators and variants
* TR-85
* Type 59 tank
* Type 59G(BD) Durjoy
* Type-72Z Safir-74
### Tanks of comparable role, performance and era
* Centurion tank – approximate British equivalent
* M48 Patton – approximate American equivalent
General bibliography
--------------------
* Cockburn, Andrew (1983). *The Threat: Inside the Soviet Military Machine*. New York: Random House. 3 May 1983 ISBN 0-394-52402-0.
* Dunstan, Simon (1982). *Vietnam Tracks: Armor in Battle 1945–75*. Osprey Publications. ISBN 0-89141-171-2.
* Foss, Christopher F., ed (2005). *Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005–2006*, 26th edition. 15 August 2005 ISBN 0-7106-2686-X.
* Gelbart, Marsh (1996). *Tanks: Main Battle and Light Tanks*. London: Brassey's. ISBN 1-85753-168-X.
* Starry, Gen. Donn A. (1989). *Mounted Combat in Vietnam Archived 16 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine*. Washington, D.C.: Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army. First printed in 1978-CMH Pub 90–17.
* Hunnicutt, R.P. *Abrams: A History of the American Main Battle Tank.* Vol. 2. Presidio Press 1990.
* Hunnicutt, R. P. *Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank*. ISBN 0-89141-230-1.
* Hunnicutt, R. P. *Sheridan: A History of the American Light Tank* Volume 2; 1995, Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-462-2.
* Zaloga, Steven; Johnson, Hugh (2004). *T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tanks 1944–2004*. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-792-1.
* Zaloga, Steven; Katz, Samuel (1 September 1996). *Tank Battles of the Mid-East Wars 1: The Wars of 1948–1973*. Concord. ISBN 978-962-361-612-6.
* James Kinnear, Stephen Sewell & Andrey Aksenov, *Soviet T-54 Main Battle Tank*, General Military series, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2018. ISBN 978 1 4728 3330 3
* James Kinnear, Stephen Sewell, Andrey Aksenov, *Soviet T-55 Main Battle Tank*, General Military series, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2019. ISBN 978 1 4728 3855 1
* Anthony Tucker-Jones, *Images of War: T–54/55, The Soviet Army’s Cold War main battle tank – rare photographs from wartime archives*, Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley 2017. ISBN 978 1 47389 109 8
* Krzysztof M. Gaj, *Czołg T-55AM i pochodne (T-55AD-1M, T-55AD-2M, T-55AMS)*, Sowa Sp. z o.o., 2013, ISBN 978-83-936039-3-0 | T-54/T-55 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-54/T-55 | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt11\" class=\"infobox vcard\" id=\"mwDA\" style=\"width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above hproduct\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;\"><span class=\"fn org\"> T-54/55 </span></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:T-55_4.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2200\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3800\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"174\" resource=\"./File:T-55_4.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/T-55_4.jpg/300px-T-55_4.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/T-55_4.jpg/450px-T-55_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/T-55_4.jpg/600px-T-55_4.jpg 2x\" width=\"300\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">A T-55 tank on display at the <a href=\"./Imperial_War_Museum\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Imperial War Museum\">Imperial War Museum</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Type</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Medium_tank\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Medium tank\">Medium tank</a> (Warsaw pact designation)</li>\n<li><a href=\"./Main_battle_tank\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Main battle tank\">Main battle tank</a></li></ul>\n</div> (NATO designation)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Place<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>of<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>origin</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Soviet Union</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;\">Service history</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">In<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>service</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1948–present</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Used<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>by</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">See <i><a href=\"./T-54/T-55_operators_and_variants#List_of_operators\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"T-54/T-55 operators and variants\">Operators</a></i></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Wars</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">See <i><a href=\"./T-54/T-55#Combat_history\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\">Combat History</a></i></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;\">Production history</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Designer</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Kharkiv_Morozov_Machine_Building_Design_Bureau\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau\">KMDB</a> (T-54)</li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./OKB-520\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"OKB-520\">OKB-520</a> (T-54A and later)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Designed</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1947–1958</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Manufacturer</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Malyshev_Factory\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Malyshev Factory\">KhPZ</a>, <a href=\"./Uralvagonzavod\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Uralvagonzavod\">UVZ</a> (Soviet Union)</li>\n<li>Bumar-Łabędy (Poland)</li>\n<li>ZTS Martin (Czechoslovakia)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Unit<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>cost</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./United_States_dollar\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"United States dollar\">US$</a>200,000 (export price to <a href=\"./Egypt\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Egypt\">Egypt</a>, 1956–1972)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Produced</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li>1946–1981 (Soviet Union)</li>\n<li>1956–1979 (Poland)</li>\n<li>1957–1983 (Czechoslovakia)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><abbr about=\"#mwt40\" data-mw=\"\" title=\"Number\" typeof=\"mw:ExpandedAttrs\">No.</abbr><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>built</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">96,500–100,000+ est., including:<div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li>35,000 T-54 and 27,500 T-55 (by Soviet Union)</li><li>13,000 Type-59/69/79 (by China)</li><li>11,000 T-54/55 (by Czechoslovakia)</li><li>10,000 T-54/55 (by Poland)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Variants</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./T-54/T-55#Operators_and_variants\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\">See <i>Operators and variants</i> section below</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;\">Specifications (T-55)</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Mass</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">36 metric tons (35.4 long tons; 39.7 short tons)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Length</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">9.00<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (29<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft 6<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in) with gun forward</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Width</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3.37<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (11<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft 1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Height</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2.40<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft 10<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Crew</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><hr/></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><a href=\"./Vehicle_armour\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vehicle armour\">Armour</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li>205<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mm turret front</li><li>130<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mm turret sides</li><li>60 mm turret rear</li><li>30 mm turret roof</li><li>120 mm hull front at 60° (100<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mm after 1949)</li><li>79 mm hull upper sides</li><li>20 mm hull lower sides</li><li>60 mm at 0° hull rear</li><li>20 mm hull bottom</li><li>33–16 mm hull roof</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><div style=\"line-height:1.25em\">Main<br/>armament</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./D-10_tank_gun\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"D-10 tank gun\">D-10T</a> 100<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mm rifled gun (43 rounds)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><div style=\"line-height:1.25em\">Secondary<br/>armament</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">7.62 mm <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./SGMT\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"SGMT\">SGMT</a> coaxial machine gun, (12.7 mm <a href=\"./DShK\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"DShK\">DShK</a> heavy machine gun)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Engine</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Model V-55(V-54) V-12 water-cooled. 38.88 litre diesel<br/>500 horsepower (373<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kW) up to 800 horsepower (600<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kW) (late versions)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Power/weight</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">14.6 horsepower per metric ton (10.9<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kW/t)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Transmission</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Mechanical (<a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Synchromesh\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Synchromesh\">synchromesh</a>), 5 forward, 1 reverse gears</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Suspension</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Torsion_bar_suspension\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Torsion bar suspension\">Torsion bar</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Ground<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>clearance</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">0.425<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (16.7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\">Fuel<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>capacity</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">580 L internal, 320 L external (less on early T54), 400 L jettisonable rear drums</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><div style=\"line-height:1.25em\">Operational<br/>range</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">325 kilometres (202<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi), 610 kilometres (380<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi) with extra tanks (on unpaved roads)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:1em\"><span about=\"#mwt41\" class=\"rt-commentedText tooltip\" data-mw=\"\" title=\"Maximum speed of vehicle or missile\" typeof=\"mw:ExpandedAttrs\">Maximum speed </span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">51 kilometres per hour (32<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mph)</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Tank_T-54_in_Verkhnyaya_Pyshma.jpg",
"caption": "The original T-54-1. It has a turret reminiscent of the T-34-85s, with prominent, undercut shot traps. This example has the fender machine gun boxes replaced with fuel tanks."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-55_schematic.png",
"caption": "The T-55 front, rear and side elevations"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-55_icon.jpg",
"caption": "The original T-55 lacked an antiaircraft machine gun mount."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Saft55.jpg",
"caption": "A Somali National Army T-55."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Sri_Lanka_Military_0208.jpg",
"caption": "Sri Lanka Army T-55AM2"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-54A_Panzermuseum_Thun.jpg",
"caption": "A former Polish T-54 tank at the Panzermuseum Thun in Switzerland. The T-54 can be recognized apart from the highly-similar T-55 by the dome-shaped ventilator on the turret's roof and the tiny hole (for the vehicle's bow-mounted 7.62mm machine gun) in the centre of the tank's front glacis-plate."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Destroyed_Iraqi_T-55_on_highway_between_Basra_&_Kuwait_City_1991-04-18_1.JPEG",
"caption": "An abandoned Iraqi Army Type 59 tank lies among the wreckage of many other Iraqi vehicles, such as trucks, cars and buses, somewhere along the Highway of Death in April 1991."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-55A_Martial_law_Poland.jpg",
"caption": "Polish T-55A tanks on the streets during Martial Law in Poland."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:South_leb_army_hezbo_khomemi.JPG",
"caption": "An abandoned Israeli-supplied Tiran-5 of the South Lebanon Army (SLA) in South Lebanon, with a giant wooden cut-out of former Iranian religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini flanked by two Hezbollah flags."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Destroyed_Iraqi_T-55_on_highway_between_Basra_&_Kuwait_City_1991-04-18_2.JPEG",
"caption": "A destroyed Iraqi T-55 and supply truck, painted with graffiti by Coalition troops, along the highway between Kuwait City and Basra, Iraq, following the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-54_tank_in_Vietnam_Military_History_Museum.jpg",
"caption": "An NVA T-54 tank on display in the Vietnam Military History Museum in Hanoi."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:T-55_tank_in_Valpovo,_Croatia.jpg",
"caption": "Yugoslav T-55 tank captured by Croatian army during the Croatian War of Independence is now displayed in city Valpovo, Croatia"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:People_on_a_tank_in_Benghazi1.jpg",
"caption": "Civilians crowding atop a T-55 tank in Libya in 2011."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:June2001Aracinovo.jpg",
"caption": "A Macedonian Army T-55 tank and its crew, shown here in 2001."
}
] |
255,988 | **Astrakhan** (Russian: Астрахань, IPA: [ˈastrəxənʲ]) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the Caspian Depression, 60 miles (100 km) from the Caspian Sea, with a population of 475,629 residents at the 2021 Census. At an elevation of 28 meters (92 ft) below sea level, it is the lowest city in Russia.
Astrakhan was formerly the capital of the Khanate of Astrakhan (a remnant of the Golden Horde) of the Astrakhan Tatars, and was located on the higher right bank of the Volga, seven miles (11 km) from the present-day city. Situated on caravan and water routes, it developed from a village into a large trading centre, before being conquered by Timur in 1395 and captured by Ivan the Terrible in 1556 and in 1558 it was moved to its present site.
The oldest economic and cultural center of the Lower Volga region, it is often called the southernmost outpost of Russia, and the Caspian capital. The city is a member of the Eurasian Regional Office of the World Organization *"United Cities and Local Governments"*. The great ethnic diversity of its population gives a varied character to Astrakhan. The city is the center of the Astrakhan metropolitan area.
Etymology
---------
The name is a corruption of Hashtarkhan, itself a corruption of Haji Tarkhan (حاجی ترخان)—a name amply evidenced in the medieval writings. Tarkhan is possibly a Turco-Mongolian title standing for "great khan", or "king", while haji or hajji is a title given to one who has made the Islamic requisite of pilgrimage to Mecca. Together, they denoted "the king who has visited Mecca".
The city has given its name to the particular pelts from young karakul sheep, and in particular to the hats traditionally made from the pelts.
Colloquially, the city is known by the short form *Astra*. Another popular nickname is *The Caspian Capital*.
History
-------
### Medieval history
Astrakhan is in the Volga Delta, which is rich in sturgeon and exotic plants. The fertile area formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan was first mentioned by travelers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. Tamerlane burnt it to the ground in 1395 during his war with the Golden Horde. From 1459 to 1556, Xacitarxan was the capital of Astrakhan Khanate by the Astrakhan Tatars. The ruins of this medieval settlement were found by archaeologists 12 km upstream from the modern-day city.
Starting in A.D. 1324, Ibn Battuta, the famous Berber Muslim traveler, began his pilgrimage from his native city of Tangier, present-day Morocco to Mecca. Along the 12,100-kilometer (7,500 mi) trek, which took nearly 29 years, Battuta came in contact with many new cultures, which he writes about in his diaries. One specific country that he passed through on his journey was the Golden Horde ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, located on the Volga River in southern Russia; which Battuta refers to as the river Athal. He then claims the Athal is, "one of the greatest rivers in the world". In the winter, the Khan stays in Astrakhan. Due to the cold water, Özbeg Khan ordered the people of Astrakhan to lay many bundles of hay down on the frozen river. He does this to allow the people to travel over the ice. When Battuta and the Khan spoke about Battuta visiting Constantinople, which the Khan granted him permission to do, the Khan then gifted Battuta with fifteen hundred dinars, many horses, and a dress of honor.
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress, or kremlin, built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga in 1558. This year is traditionally considered to be the foundation of the modern city.
In 1569, during the Russo-Turkish War, Astrakhan was besieged by the Ottomans, who had to retreat in disarray. A year later, the Ottoman sultan renounced his claims to Astrakhan, thus opening the entire Volga River to Russian traffic. The Ottoman Empire, though militarily defeated, insisted on safe passage for Muslim pilgrims and traders from Central Asia as well as the destruction of the Russian fort on the Terek River. In the 17th century, the city was developed as a Russian gate to the Orient. Many merchants from Armenia, Safavid Persia, Mughal India, and Khivan Khanate settled in the town, giving it a cosmopolitan character.
### Modern history
Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1897 | 112,880 | — |
| 1926 | 183,254 | +62.3% |
| 1939 | 253,595 | +38.4% |
| 1959 | 295,768 | +16.6% |
| 1970 | 410,473 | +38.8% |
| 1979 | 461,003 | +12.3% |
| 1989 | 509,210 | +10.5% |
| 2002 | 504,501 | −0.9% |
| 2010 | 520,339 | +3.1% |
| 2021 | 475,629 | −8.6% |
| Source: Census Data |
For seventeen months in 1670–1671, Astrakhan was held by Stenka Razin and his Cossacks. Early in the following century, Peter the Great constructed a shipyard here and made Astrakhan the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the same century Catherine the Great accorded the city important industrial privileges.
The city rebelled against the Tsar once again in 1705, when it was held by the Cossacks under Kondraty Bulavin. A Kalmuck khan laid an abortive siege to the kremlin several years before that.
In 1711, it became the seat of a governorate, whose first governors included Artemy Petrovich Volynsky and Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. Six years later, Astrakhan served as a base for the first Russian venture into Central Asia. In 1702, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from fires; in 1719 it was plundered by the Safavid Persians; and in 1830, cholera killed much of the populace.
Astrakhan's kremlin was built from the 1580s to the 1620s from bricks taken from the site of Sarai Berke. Its two impressive cathedrals were consecrated in 1700 and 1710, respectively. Built by masters from Yaroslavl, they retain many traditional features of Russian church architecture, while their exterior decoration is definitely baroque.
In March 1919 after a failed workers' revolt against Bolshevik rule, 3,000 to 5,000 people were executed in less than a week by the Cheka under orders from Sergey Kirov. Some victims had stones tied around their necks and were thrown into the Volga.
During Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the A-A line running from Astrakhan to Arkhangelsk was to be the eastern limit of German military operation and occupation. The plan was never carried out, as Germany captured neither the two cities nor Moscow. In the autumn of 1942, the region to the west of Astrakhan became one of the easternmost points in the Soviet Union reached by the invading German Wehrmacht, during Case Blue, the offensive which led to the Battle of Stalingrad. Light armored forces of German Army Group A made brief scouting missions as close as 35 km to Astrakhan before withdrawing. In the same period, elements of both the Luftwaffe's KG 4 and KG 100 bomber wings attacked Astrakhan, flying several air raids and bombing the city's oil terminals and harbor installations.
In 1943, Astrakhan was made the seat of a Soviet oblast within the RSFSR. The oblast was retained as a national province of the independent Russian Federation in the 1991 administrative reshuffle after the dismemberment of the Soviet Union.
In the present day, Astrakhan is a large industrial centre of the Volga country, Russia, with a population of 100,000. Starting nearly 400 years ago and continuing to the present day, Astrakhan has been Russia's main center of fish processing. The market for fish is a large component of the economy in this city.
Owing to shared Caspian borders, Astrakhan recently has been playing a significant role in the relations between Russia and Azerbaijan. As the latter's government has been heavily investing into the wellbeing of the city, Astrakhan has recently begun to symbolize the friendship between both countries. In 2010 a bridge was constructed with donations from Azerbaijan, which was named "Bridge of Friendship". Moreover, Azerbaijani government sponsored secondary school number 11, which carries the name of the national leader Heydar Aliyev, as well as a children's entertainment center named "Dream". Apart from that, a park has been built in the center of Astrakhan which is dedicated to friendship between the two countries. In the last 5 years Astrakhan has been visited by top Azerbaijani delegations on several occasions.
After fraud was alleged in the mayoral election of 2012 and the United Russia candidate was declared the winner, organizers of the 2011–2012 Russian protests supported the defeated candidate, Oleg V. Shein of Just Russia, in a hunger strike. Protestors, buoyed by celebrities who support the reform movement, attracted 5,000 people to a rally on April 14.
Administrative and municipal status
-----------------------------------
Astrakhan is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the **city of oblast significance of Astrakhan**—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Astrakhan is incorporated as **Astrakhan Urban Okrug**.
The city of Astrakhan is further subdivided into four administrative districts: Kirovsky, Leninsky, Sovetsky and Truskovsky.
Demographics
------------
### Religion
Astrakhan is the archiepiscopal see of one of the metropolitanates and (as Astrakhan and Yenotayevka) eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church, its only other suffragan being Akhtubinsk. There is also a Catholic community, served by the Church of the Assumption of Mary (Astrakhan). Their is also a substantial Muslimpopulation made up of Astrakhan Tatars and other Muslims. At 1777 the white Mosque was built, and the Baku Mosque was built in 1907–1909.
### Population
According to the results of the 2021 Census, the population of Astrakhan was 475,629.
At the time of the official 2021 Census, the ethnic makeup of the city's population was:
| Ethnicity | Population | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Russians | 293,620 | 78.8% |
| Kazakhs | 23,965 | 6.4% |
| Astrakhan Tatars | 21,179 | 5.7% |
| Azerbaijanis | 4,213 | 1.1% |
| Nogais | 4,163 | 1.1% |
| Lezgins | 2,823 | 0.8% |
| Armenians | 2,727 | 0.7% |
| Avars | 2,469 | 0.7% |
| Chechens | 1,684 | 0.5% |
| Ukrainians | 1,681 | 0.5% |
| Kalmyks | 1,077 | 0.3% |
| Agrzhan | 12,926 | 3.5% |
Climate
-------
Astrakhan features a temperate continental "Aralian" semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: *BSk*) with cold winters and hot summers. Astrakhan is one of the driest cities in Europe. Rainfall is scarce but relatively evenly distributed throughout the course of the year with, however, more precipitation (58%) in the hot season (six hottest months of the year), which determines the "Aralian" type (as opposed to the "Turkmenon" type, with the wet season during the cold months). The below sea-level elevation of Astrakhan influences the climate. Partially a result of this and also being far from the oceans means that summers are much hotter than found further west on similar latitude in Europe and worldwide for 46°N with the notable exception of the interior Pacific Northwest of the United States.
It is this even distribution of rainfall and the relatively low annual temperature that causes the city to fall under this climate category as opposed to an arid climate.
Winters tend to be cold in the city, though by Russian standards, Astrakhan features relatively balmy winters. Summers in the city can be hot, with high temperatures in excess of +40 °C (104 °F). The mean annual temperature amplitude (difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the hottest and coldest months) is thus equal to 29.2 °C (52.6 °F) (+25.6 °C (78.1 °F) in July and −3.6 °C (25.5 °F) in January), so the climate is truly continental (amplitudes superior or equal to 21 °C (38 °F) determines continental climates, while in semi-continental climates amplitudes vary between 18 °C (32 °F) and 21 °C (38 °F)). Spring and fall are basically transitional seasons between summer and winter.
| Climate data for Astrakhan (1991–2020, extremes 1837–present) |
| --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 14.0(57.2) | 17.1(62.8) | 24.0(75.2) | 32.0(89.6) | 36.8(98.2) | 40.6(105.1) | 41.0(105.8) | 40.8(105.4) | 38.0(100.4) | 29.9(85.8) | 21.6(70.9) | 16.4(61.5) | 41.0(105.8) |
| Average high °C (°F) | −0.1(31.8) | 1.5(34.7) | 8.8(47.8) | 17.6(63.7) | 24.7(76.5) | 30.1(86.2) | 32.6(90.7) | 31.4(88.5) | 24.6(76.3) | 16.8(62.2) | 7.3(45.1) | 1.3(34.3) | 16.4(61.5) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.6(25.5) | −3.0(26.6) | 3.2(37.8) | 11.3(52.3) | 18.5(65.3) | 23.8(74.8) | 26.1(79.0) | 24.6(76.3) | 18.0(64.4) | 10.9(51.6) | 3.1(37.6) | −1.8(28.8) | 10.9(51.6) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −6.5(20.3) | −6.5(20.3) | −1.0(30.2) | 5.9(42.6) | 12.7(54.9) | 17.7(63.9) | 19.9(67.8) | 18.3(64.9) | 12.5(54.5) | 6.3(43.3) | −0.1(31.8) | −4.5(23.9) | 6.2(43.2) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −31.8(−25.2) | −33.6(−28.5) | −26.9(−16.4) | −8.9(16.0) | −1.1(30.0) | 5.4(41.7) | 10.1(50.2) | 6.1(43.0) | −2.0(28.4) | −10.5(13.1) | −25.8(−14.4) | −29.9(−21.8) | −33.6(−28.5) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 15(0.6) | 12(0.5) | 17(0.7) | 25(1.0) | 28(1.1) | 25(1.0) | 22(0.9) | 17(0.7) | 16(0.6) | 19(0.7) | 17(0.7) | 18(0.7) | 231(9.1) |
| Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 2(0.8) | 2(0.8) | 1(0.4) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 1(0.4) | 2(0.8) |
| Average rainy days | 8 | 6 | 7 | 11 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 12 | 10 | 114 |
| Average snowy days | 14 | 12 | 7 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 12 | 51 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 84 | 80 | 73 | 63 | 61 | 58 | 58 | 59 | 66 | 74 | 83 | 86 | 70 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 87 | 106 | 163 | 226 | 293 | 316 | 332 | 309 | 252 | 181 | 84 | 58 | 2,407 |
| Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net |
| Source 2: NOAA (sun, 1961–1990) |
Education
---------
Astrakhan has five institutions of higher education. Most prominent among these are Astrakhan State Technical University and Astrakhan State University.
Transportation
--------------
The city is served by Narimanovo Airport named after Soviet Azerbaijani politician Nariman Narimanov. It is managed by OAO Aeroport Astrakhan. After its reconstruction and the building of the international sector, opened in February 2011, Narimanovo Airport is one of the most modern regional airports in Russia. There are direct flights between Astrakhan and Aktau, Istanbul, St. Petersburg and Moscow.
There is also an military airbase nearby (Astrakhan (air base)).
Astrakhan is linked by rail to the north (Volgograd and Moscow), the east (Atyrau and Kazakhstan) and the south (Makhachkala and Baku). There are direct trains to Moscow, Volgograd, Saint Petersburg, Baku, Kyiv, Brest and other towns. Intercity and international buses are available as well. Public local transport is mainly provided by buses and minibuses called *marshrutkas*. Until 2007 there were also trams, and until 2017 trolleybuses.
People
------
* Boris Kustodiev, painter
* Joseph Deniker, naturalist and anthropologist
* Ilya Ulyanov, father of Aleksandr Ulyanov and Vladimir Lenin.
* Rinat Dasayev, association football player
* Marziyya Davudova, actress
* Velimir Khlebnikov, poet
* Emiliya Turey, handball player
* Andrei Belyanin, science fiction writer
* Dmitri Dyuzhev, actor
* Maksim Gleykin, former professional football player
* Vasily Trediakovsky, academic, poet, translator
* Tamara Milashkina, soprano
* Valeria Barsova, soprano
* Maria Maksakova, Sr., mezzo-soprano
* Elena Nikitina, skeleton racer
* Yelena Shalamova, rhythmic gymnast
* Natalia Sokolovskaya, pianist and composer
Twin towns and sister cities
----------------------------
Astrakhan is twinned with:
* Iran Sari, Mazandaran Province, Iran
* Iran Rasht, Gilan Province, Iran
* India Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
* United States Fort Lauderdale, United States
* Kazakhstan Atyrau, Kazakhstan
* Belarus Brest, Belarus
* Benin Grand-Popo, Benin
* United States Pembroke Pines, United States
* Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia
* Pakistan Islamabad, Pakistan
See also
--------
* Astrakhan Jews
* Astrakhan Tatars | Astrakhan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt24\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Astrakhan</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-native\">Астрахань</div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Types_of_inhabited_localities_in_Russia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Types of inhabited localities in Russia\">City</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Астраханский_кремль.jpg\" title=\"Panoramic view of Astrakhan Kremlin and surroundings Ulitsa V. Trediakovskogo area\"><img alt=\"Panoramic view of Astrakhan Kremlin and surroundings Ulitsa V. Trediakovskogo area\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"578\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"145\" resource=\"./File:Астраханский_кремль.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/250px-%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/375px-%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/500px-%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Panoramic view of <a href=\"./Astrakhan_Kremlin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Astrakhan Kremlin\">Astrakhan Kremlin</a> and surroundings Ulitsa V. Trediakovskogo area</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg\" title=\"Flag of Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Flag of Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"900\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"83\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg/125px-Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg/188px-Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg/250px-Flag_of_Astrakhan.svg.png 2x\" width=\"125\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Flag</div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg\" title=\"Coat of arms of Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Coat of arms of Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"629\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"512\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"86\" resource=\"./File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg/70px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg/105px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Astrakhan.svg.png 2x\" width=\"70\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Anthem: <a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Anthem of Astrakhan\"]}}' href=\"./Anthem_of_Astrakhan?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Anthem of Astrakhan\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Anthem of Astrakhan</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\" border:none; \"><div class=\"hidden-title\" style=\"text-align:center; height:5px;\">Location of Astrakhan</div><div class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\" \">\n<div class=\"center\" style=\"margin-top:1em\"><a about=\"#mwt61\" class=\"mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center\" data-height=\"200\" data-mw=\"\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_4e56873f419dac0162a664a96ccfa7e5346354c9\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"270\" data-zoom=\"9\" id=\"mwDg\" style=\"width: 270px; height: 200px;\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"200\" id=\"mwDw\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,9,a,a,270x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Astrakhan&revid=1162011722&groups=_4e56873f419dac0162a664a96ccfa7e5346354c9\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,9,a,a,270x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Astrakhan&revid=1162011722&groups=_4e56873f419dac0162a664a96ccfa7e5346354c9 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg\" title=\"Astrakhan is located in Astrakhan Oblast\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan is located in Astrakhan Oblast\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"831\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"716\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"290\" resource=\"./File:Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg/250px-Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg/375px-Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg/500px-Outline_Map_of_Astrakhan_Oblast.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:73.239%;left:69.667%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Astrakhan</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Location of Astrakhan</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Astrakhan Oblast</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:European_Russia_laea_location_map_(Crimea_disputed).svg\" title=\"Astrakhan is located in European Russia\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan is located in European Russia\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1558\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1181\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"330\" resource=\"./File:European_Russia_laea_location_map_(Crimea_disputed).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg/250px-European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg/375px-European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg/500px-European_Russia_laea_location_map_%28Crimea_disputed%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:81.817%;left:64.287%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Astrakhan</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Astrakhan (European Russia)</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of European Russia</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg\" title=\"Astrakhan is located in Caspian Sea\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan is located in Caspian Sea\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1794\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"900\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"498\" resource=\"./File:Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-Caspian_Sea_relief_location_map.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:12.692%;left:22.611%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Astrakhan</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Astrakhan (Caspian Sea)</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Caspian Sea</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Russia_administrative_location_map.svg\" title=\"Astrakhan is located in Russia\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan is located in Russia\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1299\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"2362\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"137\" resource=\"./File:Russia_administrative_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Russia_administrative_location_map.svg/250px-Russia_administrative_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Russia_administrative_location_map.svg/375px-Russia_administrative_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Russia_administrative_location_map.svg/500px-Russia_administrative_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:69.42%;left:11.311%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Astrakhan\"><img alt=\"Astrakhan\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Astrakhan</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Astrakhan (Russia)</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Russia</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Astrakhan&params=46_21_00_N_48_02_06_E_type:city(520339)_region:RU\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">46°21′00″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">48°02′06″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">46.35000°N 48.03500°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">46.35000; 48.03500</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt67\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Russia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Russia\">Russia</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Federal_subjects_of_Russia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Federal subjects of Russia\">Federal subject</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Astrakhan_Oblast\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Astrakhan Oblast\">Astrakhan Oblast</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Founded</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1558</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">City status since</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1717</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Body</th><td class=\"infobox-data agent\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Astrakhan City Duma\"]}}' href=\"./Astrakhan_City_Duma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Astrakhan City Duma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">City Duma</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Head</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Oleg Polumordvinov</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">208.70<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (80.58<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Elevation<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">−25<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (−82<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(<a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Russian_Census_(2010)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Russian Census (2010)\">2010<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Census</a>)</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">520,339</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Estimate<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\">(2018)</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">533,925 (<span style=\"color:green;\">+2.6%</span>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Rank</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia_by_population\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of cities and towns in Russia by population\">33rd</a> in 2010</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2,500/km<sup>2</sup> (6,500/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><div style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Subdivisions_of_Russia#Administrative_divisions\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Subdivisions of Russia\">Administrative status</a></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Subordinated to</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./City_of_federal_subject_significance\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"City of federal subject significance\">city of oblast significance</a> of Astrakhan</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><a href=\"./Administrative_centre\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative centre\">Capital</a> of</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Astrakhan_Oblast\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Astrakhan Oblast\">Astrakhan Oblast</a>, city of oblast significance of Astrakhan</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><div style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Subdivisions_of_Russia#Municipal_divisions\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Subdivisions of Russia\">Municipal status</a></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span style=\"font-weight:normal;\">Urban okrug</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Astrakhan Urban Okrug</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span style=\"font-weight:normal;\"><a href=\"./Administrative_centre\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative centre\">Capital</a> of</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Astrakhan Urban Okrug</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UTC+4\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+4\">UTC+4</a> (<a href=\"./Samara_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Samara Time\">MSK+1</a><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-valign-text-top\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a href=\"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3941?uselang=en#P421\" title=\"Edit this on Wikidata\"><img alt=\"Edit this on Wikidata\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"20\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"20\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"10\" resource=\"./File:OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Postal_codes_in_Russia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Postal codes in Russia\">Postal code(s)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\">414000, 414004, 414006, 414008, 414009, 414011–414019, 414021, 414022, 414024–414026, 414028–414030, 414032, 414038, 414040–414042, 414044–414046, 414050–414052, 414056, 414057, 414700, 414890, 414899, 414950, 414960, 414961, 414999</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Telephone_numbers_in_Russia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Telephone numbers in Russia\">Dialing code(s)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">+7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>8512</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./OKTMO\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"OKTMO\">OKTMO</a> ID</th><td class=\"infobox-data nickname\">12701000001</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">City<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Day</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Third Sunday of September</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Website</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"url\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.astrgorod.ru\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">www<wbr/>.astrgorod<wbr/>.ru</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Astrakhan_Russia-v2-p168.jpg",
"caption": "Astrakhan in the 17th century"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:RU066_09.jpg",
"caption": "Astrakhan Kremlin on the definitive postage stamp of Russia"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Akhmatovskaya_Street.jpg",
"caption": "Akhamtovskaya Street"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:SAM_1590.JPG",
"caption": "Astrakhan in 2012"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Astrakhan_Kremlin_Trinity_Cathedral_with_the_churches_of_the_Presentation_of_the_Lord_and_the_Introduction_in_Virgin_Mary_Church_P5090741_2452.jpg",
"caption": "Trinity Cathedral in the Astrakhan Kremlin"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Белая_мечеть-1.jpg",
"caption": "White Mosque of Astrakhan"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:AGTU.jpg",
"caption": "Astrakhan State Technical University"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Astr_railroad_station.jpg",
"caption": "Astrakhan railroad station"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kustodiev_self_portrait.jpg",
"caption": "Self-portrait of Boris Kustodiev in front of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra, 1912, Uffizi"
}
] |
73,369 | **Montpellier** (UK: /mɒntˈpɛlieɪ/, US: /ˌmoʊnpɛlˈjeɪ/, French: [mɔ̃pəlje, -pɛl-] (); Occitan: *Montpelhièr* [mumpeˈʎɛ]) is a city in southern France near the Mediterranean Sea. One of the largest urban centres in the region of Occitania, Montpellier is the prefecture of the department of Hérault. At the 2020 census, 299,096 people lived in the city proper, while its metropolitan area had a population of 813,272. The inhabitants are called Montpelliérains.
In the Middle Ages, Montpellier was an important city of the Crown of Aragon (and was the birthplace of James I), and then of Majorca, before its sale to France in 1349. Established in 1220, the University of Montpellier is one of the oldest universities in the world and oldest medical school still in operation, with notable alumni such as Petrarch, Nostradamus and François Rabelais. Above the medieval city, the ancient citadel of Montpellier is a stronghold built in the seventeenth century by Louis XIII of France.
Since the 1990s, Montpellier has experienced one of the strongest economic and demographic growth in the country. Its urban area has experienced the highest population growth in France since the year 2000. Numbering 70,000, students comprise nearly one-fourth of its population, one of the highest such proportions in Europe. Its living environment with one of Europe's largest pedestrian area, along with its rich cultural life and Mediterranean climate, explain the enthusiasm for the city, which is nicknamed the "Gifted". Montpellier was nominated for "Best Emerging Culture City of the Year 2017" by the think tank LCD. It is ranked as a Sufficiency city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.
Status
------
Montpellier is the third-largest French city near the Mediterranean coast, behind Marseille and Nice. It is the seventh-largest city of France, and is also the fastest-growing city in the country over the past 25 years.
History
-------
### Medieval period
In the Early Middle Ages, the nearby episcopal town of Maguelone was the major settlement in the area, but raids by pirates encouraged settlement a little farther inland. In 737 Charles Martel destroyed Maguelonne.
Montpellier, first mentioned in a document of 985, was founded under a local feudal dynasty, the Guilhem, who combined two hamlets and built a castle and walls around the united settlement. The name is from medieval Latin *mons pisleri*, "Woad Mountain" referring to the woad (Latin *pastellus, pestellus*) used for dyeing locally. There is no real "mountain" in the area, with the *mons* referring to a pile of stones.
In 986 the Lords of Montpellier begin with William I of Montpellier
In the 10th century the town consisted of two portions, Montpellier and Montpelliéret.
In 1160 the law school was active.
The two surviving towers of the city walls, the *Tour des Pins* and the *Tour de la Babotte*, were built later, around the year 1200. Montpellier came to prominence in the 12th century—as a trading centre, with trading links across the Mediterranean world, and a rich Jewish cultural life that flourished within traditions of tolerance of Muslims, Jews and Cathars—and later of its Protestants. William VIII of Montpellier gave freedom for all to teach medicine in Montpellier in 1180. The city's faculties of law and medicine were established in 1220 by Cardinal Conrad of Urach, legate of Pope Honorius III; the medical faculty has, over the centuries, been one of the major centres for the teaching of medicine in Europe. This era marked the high point of Montpellier's prominence. The city became a possession of the Kings of Aragon in 1204 by the marriage of Peter II of Aragon with Marie of Montpellier, who was given the city and its dependencies as part of her dowry.
Montpellier gained a charter in 1204 when Peter and Marie confirmed the city's traditional freedoms and granted the city the right to choose twelve governing consuls annually. Under the Kings of Aragon, Montpellier became a very important city, a major economic centre and the primary centre for the spice trade in the Kingdom of France. It was the second or third most important city of France at that time, with some 40,000 inhabitants before the Black Death. Montpellier remained a possession of the crown of Aragon until it passed to James III of Majorca, who sold the city to the French king Philip VI in 1349, to raise funds for his ongoing struggle with Peter IV of Aragon.
### Renaissance
In the 14th century, Pope Urban VIII gave Montpellier a new monastery dedicated to Saint Peter, noteworthy for the very unusual porch of its chapel, supported by two high, somewhat rocket-like towers. With its importance steadily increasing, the city finally gained a bishop, who moved from Maguelone in 1536, and the huge monastery chapel became a cathedral. In 1432, Jacques Cœur established himself in the city and it became an important economic centre, until 1481 when Marseilles overshadowed it in this role.
From the middle of the 14th century until the French Revolution (1789), Montpellier was part of the province of Languedoc.
### After the Reformation
At the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, many of the inhabitants of Montpellier became Protestants (or Huguenots as they were known in France) and the city became a stronghold of Protestant resistance to the Catholic French crown. In 1622, King Louis XIII besieged the city which surrendered after a two-month siege (Siege of Montpellier), afterwards building the Citadel of Montpellier to secure it. Louis XIV made Montpellier capital of Bas Languedoc, and the town started to embellish itself, by building the Promenade du Peyrou, the Esplanade and a large number of houses in the historic centre. After the French Revolution, the city became the capital of the much smaller Hérault.
### Modern history
During the 19th century the city thrived on the wine culture that it was able to produce due to the abundance of sun throughout the year. The wine consumption in France allowed Montpellier's citizens to become very wealthy until in the 1890s the phylloxera induced fungal disease had spread amongst the vineyards and the people were no longer able to grow the grapes needed for wine. After this the city had grown because it welcomed immigrants from Algeria and other parts of northern Africa after Algeria's independence from France. In the 21st century Montpellier is between France's number seventh and eighth largest city. The city had another influx in population more recently, largely due to the student population, who make up about one-third of Montpellier's population. The school of medicine kickstarted the city's thriving university culture, though many other universities have been well established there. The coastal city also benefited in the past 40 years from major construction programs such as Antigone, Port Marianne and Odysseum districts.
Geography
---------
The city is situated on hilly ground 10 km (6 mi) inland from the Mediterranean coast, on the river Lez. The name of the city, which was originally *Monspessulanus*, is said to have stood for *mont pelé* (the naked hill, because the vegetation was poor), or *le mont de la colline* (the mount of the hill).
Montpellier is located 170 km (106 mi) from Marseille, 242 km (150 mi) from Toulouse, and 748 km (465 mi) from Paris.
Montpellier's highest point is the Place du Peyrou, at an altitude of 57 m (187 ft). The city is built on two hills, Montpellier and Montpelliéret, thus some of its streets have great differences of altitude. Some of its streets are also very narrow and old, which gives it a more intimate feel.
### Climate
Montpellier has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen *Csa*), with cool, damp winters, and hot, rather dry summers. The monthly mean ranges from 7.2 °C (45.0 °F) in January to 24.1 °C (75.4 °F) in July. Precipitation is around 630 millimetres (24.8 in), and is greatest in fall and winter, but not absent in summer, either. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −17.8 °C (−0.04 °F) recorded on 5 February 1963 and up to 43.5 °C (110.3 °F) on 28 June 2019.
| Climate data for Montpellier (MPL), elevation: 1 m (3 ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1946–present |
| --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 21.2(70.2) | 23.6(74.5) | 27.4(81.3) | 30.4(86.7) | 35.1(95.2) | 43.5(110.3) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.7(99.9) | 36.3(97.3) | 31.8(89.2) | 27.1(80.8) | 22.0(71.6) | 43.5(110.3) |
| Average high °C (°F) | 12.0(53.6) | 13.1(55.6) | 16.4(61.5) | 18.7(65.7) | 22.6(72.7) | 26.9(80.4) | 29.5(85.1) | 29.3(84.7) | 25.2(77.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 12.5(54.5) | 20.2(68.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.6(45.7) | 8.3(46.9) | 11.4(52.5) | 13.9(57.0) | 17.8(64.0) | 21.8(71.2) | 24.4(75.9) | 24.1(75.4) | 20.2(68.4) | 16.4(61.5) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.3(46.9) | 15.5(59.9) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 3.3(37.9) | 3.5(38.3) | 6.4(43.5) | 9.2(48.6) | 12.9(55.2) | 16.7(62.1) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.0(66.2) | 15.2(59.4) | 12.2(54.0) | 7.4(45.3) | 4.1(39.4) | 10.8(51.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −15.0(5.0) | −17.8(0.0) | −9.6(14.7) | −1.7(28.9) | 0.6(33.1) | 5.4(41.7) | 8.4(47.1) | 8.2(46.8) | 3.8(38.8) | −0.7(30.7) | −5.0(23.0) | −12.4(9.7) | −17.8(0.0) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 56.2(2.21) | 39.2(1.54) | 41.5(1.63) | 55.8(2.20) | 44.0(1.73) | 32.9(1.30) | 17.1(0.67) | 35.9(1.41) | 86.7(3.41) | 94.7(3.73) | 78.1(3.07) | 57.1(2.25) | 639.2(25.17) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 5.8 | 4.1 | 4.6 | 5.8 | 5.2 | 3.6 | 2.5 | 3.4 | 4.5 | 6.2 | 6.7 | 5.5 | 57.8 |
| Average snowy days | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 1.5 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 75 | 73 | 68 | 68 | 70 | 66 | 63 | 66 | 72 | 77 | 75 | 76 | 71 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 145.6 | 170.1 | 218.8 | 228.6 | 271.4 | 315.7 | 344.8 | 305.1 | 246.6 | 175.5 | 145.7 | 137.4 | 2,705.2 |
| Source 1: Meteo France (snow 1981–2010) |
| Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990) |
Neighbourhoods
--------------
Since 2001, Montpellier has been divided into seven official neighbourhoods, themselves divided into sub-neighbourhoods. Each of them possesses a neighbourhood council.
* Montpellier-centre : historical centre (Écusson), Comédie, Gares, Faubourg Boutonnet, Saint-Charles, Faubourg Saint-Jaume, Peyrou, Les Arceaux, Figuerolles, Faubourg du Courreau, Gambetta, Clémenceau, Méditerranée, boulevard de Strasbourg, Le Triangle, Polygone, Antigone, Nouveau-Monde, Parc à Ballons, Les Aubes, Les Beaux-Arts, Saint-Lazare.
* Croix-d'Argent : avenue de Toulouse, Croix d'Argent, Mas Drevon, Tastavin, Lemasson, Garosud, Mas de Bagnères, Mas Nouguier, les Sabines, Lepic, Pas du Loup, Estanove, les Bouisses, Val-de-Crozes, Bagatelle.
* Les Cévennes : Les Cévennes, Alco, Le Petit Bard, Pergola, Saint-Clément, Clémentville, Las Rebès, La Chamberte, La Martelle, Montpellier-Village, Les Grisettes, Les Grèzes.
* Mosson : La Mosson, Celleneuve, La Paillade, les Hauts-de-Massane, Le Grand-Mail, Les Tritons.
* Hôpitaux-Facultés : Malbosc, Saint-Priest, Euromédecine, Zolad, Plan des 4 Seigneurs, Hôpitaux, IUT, Père Soulas, Universités, Vert-Bois, Hauts de Boutonnet, Aiguelongue, Justice, Parc zoologique de Lunaret, Agropolis.
* Port-Marianne : La Pompignane, Richter, Millénaire, Jacques Cœur, Consuls de Mer, Grammont, Odysseum, Montaubérou, La Méjanelle, Cambacérès.
* Prés d'Arènes : Les Prés d'Arènes, Avenue de Palavas, La Rauze, Tournezy, Saint-Martin, Les Aiguerelles, Pont-Trinquat, Cité Mion.
Population
----------
The whole metropolitan area had a population of 813,272 at the 2020 census. In a study made by INSEE from 2007 to 2012 Montpellier saw the strongest population growth of France's main communes (+1.1%), ahead of Paris and Lyon. For most of its history, and even today, Montpellier is known for its significant Spanish population, heritage and influence. Montpellier also houses significant Occitan, Moroccan, Algerian, and Italian communities.
Historical population|
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1793 | 32,897 | — |
| 1800 | 32,723 | −0.08% |
| 1806 | 33,264 | +0.27% |
| 1821 | 35,123 | +0.36% |
| 1831 | 36,029 | +0.26% |
| 1836 | 35,506 | −0.29% |
| 1841 | 40,746 | +2.79% |
| 1846 | 45,828 | +2.38% |
| 1851 | 45,811 | −0.01% |
| 1856 | 49,737 | +1.66% |
| 1861 | 51,865 | +0.84% |
| 1866 | 55,606 | +1.40% |
| 1872 | 57,727 | +0.63% |
| 1876 | 55,258 | −1.09% |
| 1881 | 56,005 | +0.27% |
| 1886 | 56,765 | +0.27% |
| 1891 | 69,258 | +4.06% |
| 1896 | 73,931 | +1.31% |
|
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1901 | 75,950 | +0.54% |
| 1906 | 77,114 | +0.30% |
| 1911 | 80,230 | +0.80% |
| 1921 | 81,548 | +0.16% |
| 1926 | 82,819 | +0.31% |
| 1931 | 86,924 | +0.97% |
| 1936 | 90,787 | +0.87% |
| 1946 | 93,102 | +0.25% |
| 1954 | 97,501 | +0.58% |
| 1962 | 118,864 | +2.51% |
| 1968 | 161,910 | +5.29% |
| 1975 | 191,354 | +2.42% |
| 1982 | 197,231 | +0.43% |
| 1990 | 207,996 | +0.67% |
| 1999 | 225,392 | +0.90% |
| 2007 | 253,712 | +1.49% |
| 2012 | 268,456 | +1.14% |
| 2017 | 285,121 | +1.21% |
|
| |
| Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) |
Heraldry
--------
| | |
| --- | --- |
| Arms of MontpellierArms of Montpellier | The arms of Montpellier are blazoned:*Azure, a madonna proper, vested gules and azure, sitting on an antique throne Or, holding a Baby Jesus proper vested azure, in chief the uncial letters A and M, and in base on an inescutcheon argent a torteau (gules).*
The virgin is "Notre Dame des Tables", named for the money changing tables at the Basilica of Notre-Dame des Tables. The A and M are for "Ave Maria". The inescutcheon is the arms of the Lords of Montpellier (Guilhem).
|
Sights
------
* The main focus point of the city is the Place de la Comédie, with the Opéra Comédie built in 1888.
* The Musée Fabre.
* In the historic centre, a significant number of *hôtels particuliers* (i.e. mansions) can be found. The majority of the buildings of the historic centre of Montpellier (called the Écusson because its shape is roughly that of an escutcheon) have medieval roots and were modified between the 16th and the 18th centuries. Some buildings, along Rue Foch and the Place de la Comédie, were built in the 19th century.
* The Rue du Bras de Fer (Iron Arm Street) is very typical of the medieval Montpellier.
* The mikve, ritual Jewish bath, dates back to the 12th century and is one of very few old mikves preserved in Europe.
* The Jardin des plantes de Montpellier—oldest botanical garden in France, founded in 1593
* The La Serre Amazonienne, a tropical rain forest greenhouse
* The 14th-century Saint Pierre Cathedral
* The Porte du Peyrou, a triumphal arch built at the end of the 17th century, and the Place Royal du Peyrou built in the 17th century, are the highest point of the Ecusson.
* The Tour des Pins, the only remaining of 25 towers of the city medieval walls, built around 1200.
* The Tour de la Babotte, a medieval tower which was modified in the 18th century to house an observatory.
* The Saint Clément Aqueduct, built in the 18th century.
* The Antigone District was designed by the postmodern architect Ricardo Bofill from Catalonia, Spain
* A number of *châteaux* (such as Château de Flaugergues, Château de la Mogère or Château d'O), so-called follies, built during the 18th century by wealthy merchants surround the city
* Nearly 80 private mansions were built in the city center from the 17th to 19th century, and some of their interior courtyards are open
Education
---------
### History
The University of Montpellier is one of the oldest in the world, founded in 1160, and having been granted a charter in 1220 by Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of 1289. It was suppressed during the French Revolution but was
re-established in 1896.
It is not known exactly at what date the schools of literature were founded which developed into the Montpellier faculty of arts; it may be that they were a direct continuation of the Gallo-Roman schools. The school of law was founded by Placentinus, a doctor from Bologna University, who came to Montpellier in 1160, taught there during two different periods, and died there in 1192. With regard to the school of medicine, there were excellent physicians at Montpellier. The statutes given in 1220 by Cardinal Conrad, legate of Honorius III, which were completed in 1240 by Pierre de Conques, placed this school under the direction of the Bishop of Maguelonne. Pope Nicholas IV issued a Bull in 1289, combining all the schools into a university, which was placed under the direction of the bishop, but which in fact enjoyed a large measure of autonomy.
Theology was at first taught in the convents, in which St. Anthony of Padua, Raymond Lullus, and the Dominican Bernard de la Treille lectured. Two letters of King John prove that a faculty of theology existed at Montpellier independently of the convents, in January 1350. By a Bull of 17 December 1421, Martin V granted canonical institution to this faculty and united it closely with the faculty of law. In the 16th century the faculty of theology disappeared for a time, when Calvinism, in the reign of Henry II of France, held complete possession of the city. It resumed its functions after Louis XIII had reestablished the royal power at Montpellier in 1622; but the rivalries of Dominicans and Jesuits interfered seriously with the prosperity of the faculty, which disappeared at the Revolution. The faculty numbered among its illustrious pupils of law Petrarch, who spent four years at Montpellier, and among its lecturers Guillaume de Nogaret, chancellor to Philip the Fair, Guillaume de Grimoard, afterwards pope under the name of Urban V, and Pedro de Luna, antipope as Benedict XIII. But after the 15th century this faculty fell into decay, as did also the faculty of arts, although for a time, under Henry IV of France, the latter faculty had among its lecturers Casaubon.
The Montpellier school of medicine owed its success to the ruling of the Guilhems, lords of the town, by which any licensed physician might lecture there; there was no fixed limit to the number of teachers, lectures were multiplied, and there was a great wealth of teaching. Rabelais took his medical degrees at Montpellier. It was in this school that the biological theory of vitalism, elaborated by Barthez (1734–1806), had its origin. The French Revolution did not interrupt the existence of the faculty of medicine.
The faculties of science and of letters were re-established in 1810; that of law in 1880. It was on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the university, celebrated in 1889, that the Government of France announced its intention—which has since been realized—of reorganizing the provincial universities in France.
### Universities
* University of Montpellier: sciences, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, law, business, sports
* Paul Valéry University: arts, languages and social sciences
University of Montpellier 1 and University of Montpellier 2 reunified in January 2015 to form the University of Montpellier. Paul Valéry University Montpellier, remains a separate entity.
Moreover, Montpellier was ranked 119th best student city in the world for 2013, according to QS Best Student Cities 2023 ranking.
### Grandes Ecoles
Science
* E-Artsup
* École Polytechnique Universitaire de Montpellier (Polytech)
* National Superior Architecture School of Montpellier (ENSAM)
* École nationale de l'aviation civile
* ENSCM: chemistry
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action
* Montpellier SupAgro: agronomy
* SUPINFO International University: private institution of higher education in general Computer Science
Business
* Montpellier Business School
* SupExup Higher Education Institute
Transport
---------
Montpellier is served by railway, including TGV highspeed trains. Montpellier's main railway station is Saint-Roch. Since 2018, there is also a station on the high-speed railway linking Nîmes and Montpellier with the LGV Méditerranée, called Montpellier-Sud de France.
The Montpellier – Méditerranée Airport is located in the area of Fréjorgues, in the town of Mauguio, southeast of Montpellier.
The *Transports de l'agglomération de Montpellier* (TaM) manages the city's public transportation, including its 56-kilometre (35 mi) tramway network consisting of four lines and several parking facilities. Line 1 runs from Mosson in the west to Odysseum in the east. Line 2 runs from Jacou in the northeast to St. Jean-de-Vedas in the southwest. Line 3 and Line 4 opened in April 2012. Line 3, which is 22.4-kilometre (13.9 mi) long, links Juvignac and Pérols with a branch to Lattes and serves 32 stations. Line 4 circles the centre and serves as a connector line between the various arms of tram system. They intersect at Gare St. Roch station, Rives du Lez and Corum.
Since 2019, €440 million were invested into the construction of a 5th tramway line, linking the south from Lavérune to Clapiers, up north.
The TaM also manages the large bike sharing scheme Vélomagg', started in June 2007, comprising 1200 bicycles and 50 stations.
Sport
-----
Montpellier was the finish of Stage 11 and the departure of Stage 12 in the 2007 Tour de France. It was also the finish of Stage 11 and the departure of Stage 12 in the 2016 edition. The city is home to a variety of professional sports teams:
* Montpellier Hérault Rugby, of the Top 14 who play rugby union formerly at the Stade Sabathé and now at the Altrad Stadium. In the 2010/2011 season, the team made it to the Top 14 Final against the Stade Toulousain.
* Montpellier HSC of Ligue 1 who play association football at the Stade de la Mosson. MHSC became French Champions on 20 May 2012.
* Montpellier Red Devils who play rugby league in Elite 1 division at the Stade Sabathé
* Montpellier Agglomération Handball are a team handball club playing in the French National League.
* Montpellier Hérault Sport Club Volley-Ball who play in the LNV Ligue A and have 8 National titles, last in 2021-22 season.
* Montpellier Vipers of France's Division 1 ice hockey Federation, play at the *Patinoire de l'Agglomération de Montpellier* at Odysseum
* Montpellier Water Polo play in the National League and European Cup competitions.
* Barracudas de Montpellier is a baseball club, and competes in Division Élite, a French top level baseball league.
Montpellier was one of the hosts of the FIBA EuroBasket 2015.
The city is home to the Open Sud de France tennis tournament since 2010, and will host the XXXI World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championship.
The main athletics stadium is the Philippidès Stadium, which is owned by the University of Montpellier.
Culture
-------
The city is a centre for cultural events as there are many students. Montpellier has two large concert venues: Le Zenith Sud (7.000 seats) and L'Arena (14.000 seats). Le Corum cultural and conference centre contains three auditoriums.
* The Festival de Radio France et Montpellier is a summer festival of opera and other music held in Montpellier. The festival concentrates on classical music and jazz with about 150 events, including opera, concerts, films, and talks. Most of these events are free and are held in the historic courtyards of the city or in the modern concert halls of Le Corum near historical city center.
* The annual Cinemed, the International Mediterranean Film Festival Montpellier, held in the fall, is the second largest French film festival after the Cannes Film Festival. Held since 1979, it offers screenings of over 200 long and short films, documentaries, animated films, trailers, and a special program of student films. Other events include panel discussions, exhibitions, and gatherings. Venues include Le Corum and cinema halls.
International relations
-----------------------
Montpellier is twinned with:
* Spain Barcelona, Spain since 1963
* State of Palestine Bethlehem, Palestine, since 2012
* China Chengdu, China, since 1981
* Morocco Fes, Morocco since 2003
* Germany Heidelberg, Germany, since 1961
* Greece Kos, Greece, since 1962
* United States Louisville, United States, since 1955
* Russia Obninsk, Russia, since 2017
* Italy Palermo, Italy, since 2016
* Brazil Rio de Janeiro, Brazil since 2011
* Canada Sherbrooke, Canada, since 2006
* Israel Tiberias, Israel, since 1983
* Algeria Tlemcen, Algeria, since 2009
Notable people
--------------
Montpellier was the birthplace of:
* Abraham ben Isaac of Narbonne (c. 1110–1179), rabbi and author of the *halakhic* work *Ha-Eshkol.*
* James I of Aragon (1208–1276) King of Aragon and Lord of Montpellier from 1213 to 1276.
* Nicholas of Poland (c.1235-c.1316), Dominican healer.
* Saint Roch (1295–1327), pilgrim to Rome, venerated as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church.
* Guillaume Rondelet (1507–1566), French physician and naturalist.
* Pierre Magnol (1638–1715), botanist, founder of the concept of plant families.
* Charles Bertheau (1660–1732), French pastor.
* Jean Raoux (1677–1734), painter.
* Louis Bertrand Castel (1688–1757) mathematician, entered the order of the Jesuits in 1703.
* Pons Augustin Alletz (1703–1785), agronomist
* Joseph-Marie Vien (1716–1809), painter.
* Étienne-Hyacinthe de Ratte (1722–1805), mathematician and astronomer.
* Suzanne Verdier (1745–1813), writer.
* Cyrille Rigaud (1750–1824), poet.
* Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès (1753–1824), lawyer and statesman, author of the Code Napoléon.
* Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas (1753–1837), military leader.
* Louis-Sébastien Lenormand (1757–1837), chemist, physicist, inventor, the world's first modern parachuting pioneer
* Pierre Marie Auguste Broussonet (1761–1807), naturalist, contributed primarily to botany.
* Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, Comte de Daru (1767–1829), soldier, statesman, historian and poet.
* Laure Junot, Duchess of Abrantès (1784–1838), writer and spouse of French general Jean-Andoche Junot.
* Joseph Frédéric Bérard (1789–1828), physician and philosopher.
* Auguste Comte (1798–1857), a founder of the discipline of sociology.
* Antoine Jérôme Balard (1802–1876), chemist.
* Émile Saisset (1814–1863), philosopher.
* Charles Bernard Renouvier (1815–1903), philosopher.
* Édouard Albert Roche (1820–1883), astronomer.
* Alfred Bruyas (1821–1876), art collector.
* Alexandre Cabanel (1823–1889), painter.
* Renaud de Vilbac (1829–1884), composer, organist.
* Paul Joseph Barthez (1734–1806), physician.
* Frédéric Bazille (1841–1870), Impressionist painter.
* Eugène Baudouin (1842–1893), painter.
* Paul Ferrier (1843-1920) dramatist, he also provided libretti for several composers.
* Henri Chantavoine (1850–1918), writer and Professor of Rhetoric.
* Henri-Charles Puech (1902–1986), historian of religion.
* Léo Malet (1909–1996), crime novelist.
* Henri Carol (1910–1984), French composer and organist.
* Adèle Charvet (born 1993), operatic mezzo-soprano.
* Jeanne Demessieux (1921–1968), organist, pianist, composer, and pedagogue.
* Monique de Bissy, member of the Resistance during World War II (1923–2009)
* Juliette Gréco (1927-2020), singer and actress.
* Jean-Luc Dehaene (1940–2014), Prime-Minister of Belgium.
* Didier Auriol (born 1958), rally driver, 1994 World Rally Champion.
* Rémi Gaillard (born 1975), famous French prankster.
* Sophie Divry (born 1979), writer, winner of the 2014 Prix Wepler.
Other famous inhabitants include:
* François Rabelais (1493–1553), student at the University of Montpellier.
* Nostradamus (1503–1566), student at the University of Montpellier.
* Iacob Heraclid, (1527–1563), ruler of Moldavia from 1561 to 1563.
* Pierre-Joseph Amoreux (1741–1824), zoologist.
* Adamantios Korais (1748–1833), Greek humanist scholar and a major figure in the Greek Enlightenment, studied at the University of Montpellier.
* Jean-Louis Michel (1785–1865), fencing master, who lived in Montpellier from 1830 onwards.
* Agénor Azéma de Montgravier (1805–1863), deputy director of *l'Ecole d'Artillerie de Montpellier*, died in Montpellier.
* Gaston Darboux (1842–1917), mathematician.
* Josias Braun-Blanquet (1884–1980), botanist.
* Jean Moulin (1899–1943), famous French resistant during WWII, studied and worked in Montpellier.
* Alexander Grothendieck (1928–2014), mathematician.
* Nikola Karabatić (born 1984), handball player.
* Paul Valéry (1871–1945), student at the University of Montpellier.
* Enver Hoxha (1908–1985), student at the University of Montpellier.
* Grégory Vignal (born 1981), Birmingham City F.C. full-back.
* Taha Hussein (1889–1973), student at the University of Montpellier.
* Michel Navratil (1908–2001), survivor of the sinking of the RMS *Titanic*.
* Guy Delisle (born 1966), Canadian-born cartoonist, animator and author.
* Simon Billy (born 1991), Speedskier.
Other locations named after Montpellier
---------------------------------------
"Montpellier" is used as the name of other towns and streets in as many as four continents.[*unreliable source?*] Many places in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland carry the name Montpellier. Often they are in resort locations claiming some of the healthy attributes for which the French city was renowned in earlier centuries. The variant spelling "Montpelier" is common, and is of quite early provenance. Brewer uses that spelling. The first example was the early 19th-century suburb of Montpelier in Brighton.
The capital of the American state of Vermont was named Montpelier because of the high regard in which the Americans held the French who had aided their Revolutionary War against the British. Several other American cities are also named Montpelier.
Places named Montpellier/Montpelier are also found in Australia, Canada, South Africa, and the Caribbean.
James Madison, the United States fourth president, named his plantation Montpelier (Orange, Virginia), after the resort-like properties associated with the city at the time.
See also
--------
* Communes of the Hérault department
* Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Montpellier
References
----------
### Sources
* Lewis, Archibald (1971). *The Guillems of Montpellier: A Sociological Appraisal*.
Further reading
---------------
* "Montpellier", *A handbook for travellers in France*, London: John Murray, 1861, OL 24627024M
* "Montpellier". *South-eastern France* (3rd ed.). Leipsic: Karl Baedeker. 1898.
* "Montpellier". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 789. | Montpellier | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier | {
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style=\"background-color:none;border-collapse:collapse;border:0px solid black;width:250px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\"><div style=\"display:table-row\"><div style=\"display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:2px 0 0 2px\"><div style=\"display:table;background-color:none;border-collapse:collapse\"><div style=\"display:table-row\"><div style=\"display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Montpellier_Place_de_la_Comédie.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2848\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"4288\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"166\" resource=\"./File:Montpellier_Place_de_la_Comédie.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg/250px-Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg/375px-Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg/500px-Montpellier_Place_de_la_Com%C3%A9die.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div style=\"display:table;background-color:none;border-collapse:collapse\"><div style=\"display:table-row\"><div style=\"display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Cathédrale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_(2403792242).jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2000\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3008\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"82\" resource=\"./File:Cathédrale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_(2403792242).jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg/124px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg/186px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg/248px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Montpellier_%282403792242%29.jpg 2x\" width=\"124\"/></a></span></div><div style=\"display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_(3).jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3456\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"5184\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"83\" resource=\"./File:Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_(3).jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg/124px-Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg/186px-Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg/248px-Bassin_Jacques_Coeur_Montpellier_%283%29.jpg 2x\" width=\"124\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div style=\"display:table;background-color:none;border-collapse:collapse\"><div style=\"display:table-row\"><div style=\"display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2423\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3606\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"168\" resource=\"./File:Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg/250px-Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg/375px-Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg/500px-Nouvelle_Mairie_de_Montpellier.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Clockwise from top: The <a href=\"./Place_de_la_Comédie\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Place de la Comédie\">Place de la Comédie</a>, Port Marianne's lake, <a href=\"./Lez_(river)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lez (river)\">Lez</a>'s bank with the Montpellier Town Hall, and the <a href=\"./Montpellier_Cathedral\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Montpellier Cathedral\">Cathedral of Saint Peter</a>.</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_Montpellier.gif\" title=\"Flag of Montpellier\"><img alt=\"Flag of Montpellier\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"216\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"324\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"67\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Montpellier.gif\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_Montpellier.gif/100px-Flag_of_Montpellier.gif\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_Montpellier.gif/150px-Flag_of_Montpellier.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_Montpellier.gif/200px-Flag_of_Montpellier.gif 2x\" width=\"100\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Flag</div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg\" title=\"Coat of arms of Montpellier\"><img alt=\"Coat of arms of Montpellier\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"660\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"600\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"80\" resource=\"./File:Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg/73px-Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg/109px-Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg/145px-Blason_ville_fr_Montpellier.svg.png 2x\" width=\"73\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\" border:none; \"><div class=\"hidden-title\" style=\"text-align:center; \">Location of Montpellier</div><div class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\" height:5px;\">\n<div class=\"center\" style=\"margin-top:1em\"><a about=\"#mwt28\" class=\"mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center\" data-height=\"200\" data-mw=\"\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_3ffdda63800417a61506b0bfaf6ec5088d3a3677\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"270\" data-zoom=\"10\" id=\"mwCA\" style=\"width: 270px; height: 200px;\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"200\" id=\"mwCQ\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,a,a,270x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Montpellier&revid=1158387547&groups=_3ffdda63800417a61506b0bfaf6ec5088d3a3677\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,10,a,a,270x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Montpellier&revid=1158387547&groups=_3ffdda63800417a61506b0bfaf6ec5088d3a3677 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:270px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:270px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg\" title=\"Montpellier is located in France\"><img alt=\"Montpellier is located in France\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1922\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"2000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"259\" resource=\"./File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/270px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/405px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/540px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:75.125%;left:61.248%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Montpellier\"><img alt=\"Montpellier\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Montpellier</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of France</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:270px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:270px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées_region_location_map.svg\" title=\"Montpellier is located in Occitanie\"><img alt=\"Montpellier is located in Occitanie\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1261\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1628\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"209\" resource=\"./File:Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées_region_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg/270px-Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg/405px-Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg/540px-Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_region_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:51.886%;left:79.349%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Montpellier\"><img alt=\"Montpellier\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Montpellier</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Occitanie</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Montpellier&params=43.6119_N_3.8772_E_type:city(299096)_region:FR-34\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">43°36′43″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">3°52′38″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">43.6119°N 3.8772°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">43.6119; 3.8772</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt32\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"France\">France</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Regions_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Regions of France\">Region</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Occitania_(administrative_region)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Occitania (administrative region)\">Occitania</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Departments_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Departments of France\">Department</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Hérault\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hérault\">Hérault</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Arrondissements_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arrondissements of France\">Arrondissement</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Arrondissement_of_Montpellier\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arrondissement of Montpellier\">Montpellier</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Cantons_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cantons of France\">Canton</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier-1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier-1\">Montpellier-1</a>, <a href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier-2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier-2\">2</a>, <a href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier-3\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier-3\">3</a>, <a href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier-4\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier-4\">4</a>, <a href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier-5\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier-5\">5</a> and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Canton_of_Montpellier_–_Castelnau-le-Lez\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Montpellier – Castelnau-le-Lez\">Montpellier – Castelnau-le-Lez</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Communes_of_France#Intercommunality\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Communes of France\">Intercommunality</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Montpellier_Méditerranée_Métropole\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Montpellier Méditerranée Métropole\">Montpellier Méditerranée Métropole</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Mayor <span class=\"nobold\">(2020<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">–</span>2026) </span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Michaël Delafosse\"]}}' href=\"./Michaël_Delafosse?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Michaël Delafosse\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Michaël Delafosse</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><sup><b>1</b></sup></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">56.88<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (21.96<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Urban<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">310.0<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (119.7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Metro<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2,414<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (932<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(Jan.<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>2020)</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">299,096</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Rank</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants\">7th in France</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5,300/km<sup>2</sup> (14,000/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Urban_area\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Urban area\">Urban</a><div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(Jan. 2020)</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">465,950</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Urban<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1,500/km<sup>2</sup> (3,900/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Metropolitan_area\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Metropolitan area\">Metro</a><div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(Jan. 2020)</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">813,272</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Metro<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">340/km<sup>2</sup> (870/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Demonym\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Demonym\">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><i>Montpelliérain</i> (masculine)<br/><i>Montpelliéraine</i> (feminine)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UTC+01:00\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+01:00\">UTC+01:00</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Time\">CET</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Summer (<a href=\"./Daylight_saving_time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Daylight saving time\">DST</a>)</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UTC+02:00\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+02:00\">UTC+02:00</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Summer_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Summer Time\">CEST</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./INSEE_code\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"INSEE code\">INSEE</a>/Postal code</th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=COM-34172\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">34172</a> /34000, 34070, 34080, 34090</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Elevation</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">7–121<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (23–397<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft) <br/>(avg. 27<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m or 89<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft)</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\"><sup><b>1</b></sup> French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">></span> 1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (0.386<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Braun_Montpellier_UBHD.jpg",
"caption": "Montpellier in the 16th century"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tour_de_la_Babote_Montpellier.JPG",
"caption": "Tour de la Babote."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Château_d'eau_du_Peyrou,_Montpellier_06.jpg",
"caption": "Peyrou water tower"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier(France)1.JL.jpg",
"caption": "Rue Foch with its typical 19th-century architecture"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Antigone_District_(191768335).jpeg",
"caption": "Antigone, Montpellier"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier_SPOT_1166.jpg",
"caption": "Montpellier seen from Spot satellite"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Place_celleneuve.JPG",
"caption": "Celleneuve"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Port_Marianne_(44882275602).jpg",
"caption": "Port-Marianne"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PlaceDeLaComedie.jpg",
"caption": "Place de la Comédie."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Gate_Montpellier.jpg",
"caption": "Porte du Peyrou."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Aqueduc_du_Peyrou,_Montpellier.jpg",
"caption": "Saint Clément Aqueduct."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier_Cathedrale.jpg",
"caption": "Saint Pierre Cathedral"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Fabre_Museum.jpg",
"caption": "Fabre Museum in Montpellier"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:ENAC_Montpellier.jpg",
"caption": "École nationale de l'aviation civile."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier_Tramway1.jpg",
"caption": "Line 1 of the tramway network, at the Corum stop."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier_Tramway_Map.png",
"caption": "Montpellier tramway map"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Australie-Fidji.5.JPG",
"caption": "Stade de la Mosson"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Montpellier_sistercities.jpg",
"caption": "Sign on the Esplanade Charles de Gaulle, showing Montpellier's sister cities"
}
] |
206,017 | Bikini is located in Pacific OceanBikiniBikiniclass=notpageimage| Location of Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean
**Bikini Atoll** (/ˈbɪkɪˌniː/ or /bɪˈkiːni/; Marshallese: *Pikinni*, [pʲiɡinnʲi], meaning "coconut place"), sometimes known as **Eschscholtz Atoll** between the 1800s and 1946 is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2) central lagoon. After the Second World War, 167 of the Atoll's inhabitants were forcibly relocated in 1946, after which the islands and lagoon were the site of 23 nuclear tests by the United States until 1958. The Atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately 530 miles (850 km) northwest of the capital Majuro.
When the Atoll was chosen by the United States as a nuclear weapon testing site, the islanders were moved to Rongerik, a small island east of Bikini Atoll with inadequate resources. The new residents showed signs of starvation by early 1948, so were moved again, this time to Kwajalein Atoll. In 1970, about 200 residents were returned to their home island by the U.S. government. But scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in well water in May 1978 and the resident's bodies were carrying abnormally high concentrations of caesium-137. They were evacuated again in 1980. The atoll is occasionally visited today by divers and a few scientists, and is occupied by a handful of caretakers.
Etymology
---------
The island's English name is derived from the German colonial name *Bikini* given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, *Pikinni*, ([pʲiɡinnʲi]) "*Pik*" meaning "plane surface" and "*Ni*" meaning "coconut tree", or *surface of coconuts*.
Culture
-------
Bikini islanders' traditional lifestyle was based on cultivating plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled boatbuilders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around Bikini and other atolls in the Marshall Islands. They were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen, with a following of chieftains and chief women who constituted a ruling caste.
Japan occupied the islands starting in 1914. The islanders worked the copra plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese, who took a portion of the sales. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, and the remainder was distributed to the workers. The Marshall islanders took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives.
### Clothing and dress
Men traditionally wore a fringed skirt about 25 to 30 inches (60 to 80 cm) long. Women wore two mats about a yard square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together and belted around the waist. Children were usually naked. Christian missionaries from Oʻahu arrived in the late 19th century and influenced the islanders' notions of modesty. They introduced a dress for women which was a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck, intended to cover as much skin as possible. The dress is called *wau* ([wɑːu]), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu.
It is customary to remove one's shoes or sandals when taking a seat at someone's home. Marshallese women traditionally cover their shoulders and thighs as well. Women generally wear cotton muʻumuʻus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is not often discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, although they are willing to talk about their breasts.
Marshall island women swim in muʻumuʻus which are made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are not considered appropriate for both islanders and guests. With the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation wears shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals. T-shirts, jeans, skirts, and makeup are making their way to the islands via the media.
### Land-based wealth
The Bikini islanders continue to maintain land rights as the primary measure of wealth.
> To all Marshallese, land is gold. If you were an owner of land, you would be held up as a very important figure in our society. Without land you would be viewed as a person of no consequence... But land here on Bikini is now poison land.
>
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Each family is part of a clan (*Bwij*), which owns all land. The clan owes allegiance to a chief (*Iroij*). The chiefs oversee the clan heads (*Alap*), who are supported by laborers (*Dri-jerbal*). The Iroij control land tenure, resource use and distribution, and settle disputes. The Alap supervise land maintenance and daily activities. The Dri-jerbal work the land including farming, cleaning, and construction.
The Marshallese society is matrilineal and land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. Land ownership ties families together into clans. Grandparents, parents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, and cousins form extended, close-knit family groups. Gatherings tend to become big events. One of the most significant family events is the first birthday of a child (*kemem*), which relatives and friends celebrate with feasts and song.
Payments made in the 20th century as reparations for damage to the Bikini Atoll and the islanders' way of life have elevated their income relative to other Marshall Island residents. It has caused some Bikini islanders to become economically dependent on the payments from the trust fund. This dependency has eroded individuals' interest in traditional economic pursuits like taro and copra production. The move also altered traditional patterns of social alliance and political organization. On Bikini, rights to land and land ownership were the major factor in social and political organization and leadership. After relocation and settlement on Kili, a dual system of land tenure evolved. Disbursements from the trust fund were based in part to land ownership on Bikini and based on current land tenure on Kili.
Before the residents were relocated, they were led by a local chief and under the nominal control of the Paramount Chief of the Marshall Islands. Afterward, they had greater interaction with representatives of the trust fund and the U.S. government and began to look to them for support.
### Language
Most Marshallese speak both the Marshallese language and at least some Spanish. Government agencies use Marshallese. One important word in Marshallese is "yokwe" which is similar to the Hawaiian "aloha" and means "hello", "goodbye" and "love".
Environment
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Bikini Atoll is part of the Ralik Chain (for "sunset chain") within the Marshall Islands.
### Nuclear test site
The United States detonated 23 nuclear devices between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites on the reef, inside the atoll, in the air, and underwater. They had a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The residents initially accepted resettlement voluntarily to Rongerik Atoll, believing that they would be able to return home within a short time. However, Rongerik could not produce enough food, and the islanders starved. They could not return home, so they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll for six months before choosing to live on Kili Island, a small island one-sixth the size of their home island. Some were able to return to Bikini Island in 1970; however, further testing revealed dangerous levels of strontium-90.
In 1954, the Castle Bravo nuclear test took place on Bikini Atoll, with a yield of 15.5-Mt. This nuclear test was only one out of 66 total nuclear tests launched on the surrounding Marshall Islands and reefs. The nuclear radiation and fallout that followed the Castle Bravo test alone was substantial enough to discourage future habitation of the islands. Consequently, Bikini Atoll was subject to initial radioactive testing of soil composition and well water. Nuclear fallout deposits were tested in order to estimate how much area of the island was impacted by radionuclides and cesium-137 specifically. The technology used to measure the estimated amount of nuclear fallout deposit was known as HYSPLIT. This technology used meteorological sciences to model and map out nuclear fallout depositions of cesium-137 on the Marshall Islands. Initial fallout cloud debris, radionuclide particles, and actual cesium-137 particles were all estimated during nuclear testing. This data was then compared with past radiological testing results collected by HYSPLIT to predict total nuclear fallout deposition of cesium-137 on island soil.
The United States government established several trust funds which as of 2013[update] covered medical treatment and other costs and paid about $550 annually to each individual.
### Geography
Some 74 kilometers northwest of the atoll is Wōdejebato, a probable shield volcano that is connected to it through a submarine ridge.
There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll; the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Namu were vaporized during the nuclear tests. The islands are composed of low coral limestone and sand. The average elevation is only about 7 feet (2.1 m) above low tide level. The total lagoon area is 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2). The primary home of the islanders was the most northeast and largest islet, Bikini Island, totaling 586 acres (237 ha) and 2.5 miles (4.0 km) long.
### Flora and fauna
The islanders cultivated native foods including coconut, pandanus, papaya, banana, arrowroot, taro, limes, breadfruit, and pumpkin. A wide variety of other trees and plants are also present on the islands. After the completion of nuclear tests, the islands of Bikini and Enyu were replanted with coconut trees in a square grid pattern, each 30 ft (9.1 m) apart.
The islanders were skilled fishermen. They used fishing line made from coconut husk and hooks from sharpened sea shells. They used more than 25 methods of fishing. The islanders raised ducks, pigs, and chickens for food and kept dogs and cats as pets. Animal life in the atoll was severely affected by the atomic bomb testing. Existing land species include small lizards, hermit crabs, and coconut crabs. The islands are frequented by a wide variety of birds.
To allow vessels with a larger draft to enter the lagoon and to prepare for the atomic bomb testing, the United States used explosives to cut a channel through the reef and to blow up large coral heads in the lagoon. The underwater nuclear explosions carved large holes in the bottom of the lagoon that were partially refilled by blast debris. The explosions distributed vast amounts of irradiated, pulverized coral and mud across wide expanses of the lagoon and surrounding islands. As of 2008[update], the atoll had recovered nearly 65% of the biodiversity that existed prior to radioactive contamination, but 28 species of coral appear to be locally extinct.
### Climate
The islands are hot and humid. The temperature on Bikini Atoll is 27 to 29 °C (81 to 84 °F) year-round. The water temperature is also 27 to 29 °C (81 to 84 °F) all year. The islands border the Pacific typhoon belt. The wet season is from May to December while the trade winds from January through May produce higher wave action.
Resident and non-resident population
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When the United States forced the islanders to relocate in 1946, 19 islanders lived elsewhere. The 167 residents, comprising about 40 families who lived on the atoll, moved to Rongerik Atoll. The islands were able to produce much less food than they had on Bikini, and there were far fewer fish in the waters. By early 1948, the people were close to starvation. U.S. investigators concluded they must be moved, and they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll.
During WWII, the atoll had been occupied by Japanese troops, and American naval ships, ground artillery, and B-24 Liberator bombers attacked the island, killing many of the 8,000 soldiers. The islanders lived in tents adjacent to the concrete runway in use by the U.S. Navy for six months.
They were moved once again in November 1948 to Kili Island, when the population numbered 184. They were later given public lands on Ejit and a few families initially moved there to grow copra. In 1970, about 160 Bikini islanders returned to live on the atoll after they were reassured that it was safe. They remained for about 10 years until scientists found an 11-fold increase in the cesium-137 body burdens and determined that the island was not safe after all. The 178 residents were evacuated in September 1978 once again.
Since then a number of descendants have moved to Majuro (the Marshall Islands' capital), other Marshall Islands, and the United States. In 1999, there were 2,600 total individuals; 1,000 islanders living on Kiji, 700 in Majuro, 275 on Ejit, 175 on other Marshall Islands or atolls, and 450 in the United States. Of those, 81 were among those who left the atoll in 1946. In 2001, the population of the dispersed islanders was 2,800.
As of March 2016, there were 5,400 living Bikini islanders: 800 islanders living on Kili, 2,550 on Majuro, 300 on Ejit, 350 on other Marshall Islands, and 1,400 in the United States and other countries. Of that number, 25 lived on Bikini in 1946. The resident population of the atoll is currently 4–6 caretakers, including Edward Maddison, who lived on Bikini Island from 1985 to 2020. His grandfather was one of the original residents relocated in 1947. He helped the U.S. Department of Energy with soil monitoring, testing cleanup methods, mapping the wrecks in the lagoon, and accompanying visitors on dives. He was also the divemaster of Bikini Atoll Divers. Maddison passed away in Majuro, Marshall Islands on March 29, 2020.
Government
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The Bikini islanders were historically loyal to a king, or Irojj. After the Marshall Islands separated from the United States in the Compact of Free Association in 1986, its constitution established a bicameral parliament. The upper house is only a consultative body. It consists of traditional leaders (*Iroijlaplap*), known as the *Council of Irooj*, who advise the lower house on traditional, cultural issues. As of 2013[update], there are four members of the council.
The lower house or *Nitijela* consists of 33 senators elected by 24 electoral districts. Universal suffrage is available to all citizens 18 years of age and older. The 24 electoral districts correspond roughly to each Marshall Islands atoll. The lower house elects the president who, with the approval of the Nitijela, selects a cabinet from among members of the Nitijela.
### Local government
Four district centers in Majuro, Ebeye, Jaluit, and Wotje provide local government. Each district elects a council and mayor and may appoint local officials. The district centers are funded by the national government and by local revenues. There are two political parties. Elections are held every four years. In 2011 Nishma Jamore was elected mayor of the district representing the Bikini people. Council members are elected from two wards on Ejit Island (three seats) and Kili Island (12 seats).
### U.S. liaison
The local government works with a U.S. paid Liaison Officer for Bikini Atoll Local Government, Jack Niedenthal, who is acting Bikini/Kili/Majuro Projects Manager. He is also the Tourism Operations Manager and oversees Bikini Atoll Divers.
History
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Human beings have inhabited the Bikini Atoll for about 3,600 years. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers archaeologist Charles F. Streck, Jr., found bits of charcoal, fish bones, shells and other artifacts under 3 feet (0.91 meters) of sand. Carbon-dating placed the age of the artifacts at between 1960 and 1650 BC. Other discoveries on Bikini and Eneu island were carbon-dated to between 1000 BC and 1 BC, and others between AD 400 and 1400.
The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1529 by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board his ship *La Florida* when trying to return to New Spain, and was charted as *Buenos Jardines* (Good Gardens in Spanish). The Marshalls lacked the wealth to encourage exploration or mapping. The British captain Samuel Wallis chanced upon Rongerik and Rongelap atolls while sailing from Tahiti to Tinian. The British naval captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert partially explored the Marshalls in 1788.
The first Westerner to see the atoll in the mid-1820s was the Baltic German captain and explorer Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in service of the Russian Empire. He visited three times during 1816 and 1817. He named the atoll *Eschscholtz Atoll* after Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the naturalist of von Kotzebue's ship. The Baltic Germans used the atoll to produce copra oil from coconuts, although contact with the native population was infrequent. The atoll's climate is drier than the more fertile southern Marshall Islands which produced more copra. Bikini islanders were recruited into developing the copra trade during the German colonial period.
### Christian missionaries arrive
Protestant missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions arrived on Ebon, in the southern Ralik Chain, in 1857. They first introduced the islanders to Christianity in 1857, which gradually displaced their native religion. They also encouraged the women to cover their breasts and adopt a more modest form of clothing.
### Spanish–German Treaty of 1899
The explosion in Havana Harbor of the battleship USS *Maine* served as an excuse for the initiation of the Spanish–American War in 1898. It resulted in Spain losing many of its remaining colonies; Cuba became nominally independent while the United States took possession of Puerto Rico and Spain's Pacific colonies of the Philippines and Guam. This left Spain with the remainder of the Spanish East Indies in the Pacific, about 6000 islands that were tiny and sparsely populated. After the loss of the administrative center of Manila, the minor islands became ungovernable and, after the entire loss of two Spanish fleets in 1898, indefensible.
The Spanish government sold the islands to Germany. The treaty was signed on 12 February 1899, by Spanish Prime Minister Francisco Silvela, and transferred the Caroline Islands, the Mariana Islands, Palau and other possessions to Germany. The islands were then placed under the control of German New Guinea.
### Japanese occupation
Bikini was captured along with the rest of the Marshall Islands by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left local affairs in the hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. At the outset of the war, the Marshall Islands suddenly became a strategic outpost for the Japanese. They built and manned a watchtower on the island, an outpost for the Japanese headquarters on Kwajalein Atoll, to guard against an American invasion of the islands.
### World War II
The islands remained relatively unscathed by the war until February 1944, when in a bloody battle, the American forces captured Kwajalein Atoll. At the battle's conclusion, there were only five surviving Japanese soldiers left on Bikini, and they chose to die by suicide rather than allow themselves to be captured.
For the U.S., the battle represented both the next step in its island-hopping march to Japan and a significant moral victory, as it was the first time the Americans had penetrated the "outer ring" of the Japanese Pacific sphere. For the Japanese, the battle represented the failure of the beach-line defense. Japanese defenses became prepared in depth, and the battles of Peleliu, Guam, and the Marianas proved far more costly to the U.S. The base became part of the vast US Naval Base Marshall Islands.
### Residents relocated
After World War II, the United States was engaged in a Cold War nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build bigger and more destructive bombs.
The nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll program was a series of 23 nuclear devices detonated by the United States between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites. The test weapons were detonated on the reef itself, on the sea, in the air and underwater with a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. Shortly after World War II ended, President Harry S. Truman directed Army and Navy officials to secure a site for testing nuclear weapons on American warships. While the Army had seen the results of a land-based explosion, the Navy wanted to know the effect of a nuclear weapon on ships. They wanted to determine whether ships could be spaced at sea and in ports in a way that would make nuclear weapons ineffective against vessels.
Bikini was distant from both regular sea and air traffic, making it an ideal location. In February 1946, Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the military governor of the Marshall Islands, asked the 167 Micronesian inhabitants of the atoll to voluntarily and temporarily relocate so the United States government could begin testing atomic bombs for "the good of mankind and to end all world wars." After "confused and sorrowful deliberation" among the Bikinians, their leader, King Juda, agreed to the U.S. relocation request, announcing MEN OTEMJEJ REJ ILO BEIN ANIJ, which translates as "Everything is in God's hands." Nine of the eleven family heads, or *alaps*, chose Rongerik as their new home.
In February, Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house and prepare to relocate them to their new home. On 7 March 1946, the residents gathered their personal belongings and saved building supplies. They were transported 125 miles (201 km) eastward on U.S. Navy landing ship 1108 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate water and food supply and due to deep-rooted traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the *Demon Girls of Ujae*. The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which soon proved to be inadequate.
#### Nuclear testing program
The weapons testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The *Baker* test's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate, concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called *Baker* "the world's first nuclear disaster." This was followed by a series of later tests that left the islands of the atoll contaminated with enough radioactivity, particularly caesium-137, to contaminate food grown in the soil.
#### Strategic Trust Territory
In 1947, the United States convinced the United Nations to designate the islands of Micronesia a United Nations Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only trust ever granted by the U.N. The United States Navy controlled the Trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the United States Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan. The directive stated that the United States should "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall... protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources..."
Despite the promise to "protect the inhabitants", from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll were left alone on Rongerik Atoll and were starving for lack of food. A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote "The natives are actually and literally starving to death."
#### Move to Kili Island
In January 1948, Dr. Leonard Mason, an anthropologist from the University of Hawaii, visited Rongerik Atoll and was horrified at what he found. One resident of Rongerik commented,
> We'd get a few fish, then the entire community would have to share this meager amount... The fish were not fit to eat there. They were poisonous because of what they ate on the reef. We got sick from them, like when your arms and legs fall asleep and you can't feel anything. We'd get up in the morning to go to our canoes and fall over because we were so ill... Then we started asking these men from America [to] bring us food... We were dying, but they didn't listen to us.
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Mason requested that food be brought to the islanders on Rongerik immediately along with a medical officer. The Navy then selected Ujelang Atoll for their temporary home and some young men from the Bikini Atoll population went ahead to begin constructing living accommodations. But U.S. Trust Authorities changed their mind. They decided to use Enewetak Atoll as a second nuclear weapons test site and relocated the residents to Ujelang Atoll instead and to the homes built for the Bikini Islanders.
In March 1948, 184 malnourished Bikini islanders were relocated again to Kwajalein Atoll. They were given tents on a strip of grass alongside the airport runway to live in. In June 1948, the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. The extremely small, 200 acres (81 ha) (.36 square miles (0.93 km2)) island was uninhabited and wasn't ruled by a paramount *iroij*, or king due to its size. It also lacks a coral reef. In June, the Bikini community chose two dozen men to accompany eight Seabees to Kili to begin construction of a village. In November 1948, the residents, now totaling 184 individuals, moved to Kili Island, at 0.36 square miles (0.93 km2), one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Island chain. They soon learned they could no longer fish the way they had on Bikini Atoll. Kili lacked the calm, protected, lagoon. Living on Kili Island effectively destroyed their culture that had been based on fishing and island-hopping canoe voyages to various islets around the Bikini Atoll. Kili did not provide enough food for the transplanted residents.
#### Failed resettlement
After their relocation to Kili, the Bikini residents continued to suffer from inadequate food supplies. Kili is a small island without a lagoon, and most of the year it is exposed to 10 to 20 ft (3.0 to 6.1 m) waves that make fishing and putting canoes out difficult. Starvation ensued. In 1949, the Trust Territory administration donated a 40-foot (12 m) ship for transporting copra between Kili and Jaluit Atoll, but the ship was wrecked in heavy surf while delivering copra and other fruit.
The U.S. Trust Authorities airdropped food onto Kili. The residents were forced to rely on imported USDA rice and canned goods and had to buy food with their supplemental income.
During 1955 and 1956, ships dispatched by the U.S. Trust Territory continually experienced problems unloading food because of the rough seas around the island, leading to additional food shortages. The people once again suffered from starvation and the shortages increased in 1956. The U.S. suggested that some of the Bikini Islanders move to Jaluit where food was more readily available. A few people moved.
The United States opened a satellite community for the families on public land on Jaluit Atoll, 30 miles (48 km) north. Three families moved there to produce copra for sale and other families rotated living there later on. Their homes on both Kili and Jaluit were struck by typhoons during 1957 and 1958, sinking their supply ship and damaging crops.
#### Return to Bikini Atoll
In June 1968, based on scientific advice that the radiation levels were sufficiently reduced, President Lyndon B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikini Atoll family members living on Kili and other islands that they would be able to return to their home. The Atomic Energy Commission cleared radioactive debris from the island, and the U.S. Trust Territory was in charge of rebuilding structures and replanting crops on the atoll. But shortly afterward the Trust Territory ended regular air flights between Kwajalein Atoll and Bikini Atoll which seriously impeded progress. Coconut trees were finally replanted in 1972, but the AEC learned that the coconut crabs retained high levels of radioactivity and could not be eaten. The Bikini Council voted to delay a return to the island as a result.
Three extended families, eventually totaling about 100 people, moved back to their home island in 1972 despite the risk. But 10 years later, a team of French scientists performed additional tests on the island and its inhabitants. They found some wells were too radioactive for use and determined that the pandanus and breadfruit were also dangerous for human consumption. Urine samples from the islanders on Bikini Atoll showed low levels of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240. As a result, the Bikini community filed a federal lawsuit seeking a complete scientific survey of Bikini and the northern Marshall Islands. Inter-departmental squabbling over responsibility for the costs delayed the work for three years. Then in May 1977 scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in the well water exceeding the U.S. maximum allowed limits. In June, the Department of Energy stated that "All living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal [radiation] guidelines for thirty-year population doses." Later that year scientists discovered an 11-fold increase in the caesium-137 body burdens in all of the people living on the atoll. In May 1978 officials from the U.S. Department of the Interior described the 75% increase in radioactive caesium-137 found as "incredible".
Women were experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, and genetic abnormalities in their children. Researchers learned that the coral soil behaved differently from mainland soil because it contains very little potassium. Plants and trees readily absorb potassium as part of the normal biological process, but since caesium is part of the same group on the periodic table, it is absorbed by plants in a very similar chemical process. The islanders who unknowingly consumed contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies. The Trust Territory decided that the islanders had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.
The islanders received US$75 million in damages in 1986 as part of a new Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and in 1988, another $90 million to be used specifically for radiological cleanup. In 1987, a few Bikini elders traveled to Eneu Island to reestablish old property lines. Construction crews began building a hotel, docks, and roads on Bikini, and installed generators, desalinators, and power lines. A packed coral and sand runway still exists on Eneu Island. The Bikini Atoll Divers was established to provide income. But in 1995, the council learned that the US Environmental Protection Agency standard required reducing radiation levels to 15 millirems, substantially less than the US Department of Energy standard of 100 millirems. This discovery significantly increased the potential cost of cleanup and stalled the effort.
### Relocation to Kili Island
As a result of the military use of the island and the failed resettlement, the islands are littered with abandoned concrete bunkers and tons of heavy equipment, vehicles, supplies, machines, and buildings. In September 1978, Trust Territory officials finally arrived to relocate the residents. The radiological survey of the northern Marshalls, compelled by the 1975 lawsuit, began only after the residents were removed and returned to Kili Island.
As of 2013[update], the tiny 0.36 square miles (0.93 km2) Kili Island supported about 600 residents who live in cinderblock houses. They must rely on contributions from a settlement trust fund to supplement what they produce locally. Each family receives one to two boxes of frozen chicken, two to four 51-lb (23 kilogram) bags of flour, and two to four bags of rice 2 to 3 times per year. The islanders operate several small stores out of their homes to supply nonperishable food items like salt, Tabasco, candy, and canned items. A generator provides electricity.
Children attend elementary school on Kili through eighth grade. Toward the end of the eighth grade, students must pass a standardized test to gain admission to attend public high school in Jaluit or Majuro.
Beginning in 2011 the resettled residents of Kili Island began to experience periods of ocean flooding during king tide. The highest point of Kili Island is only 9.8 feet (3.0 m) above sea level. Ocean waves have covered portions of the island at least five times from 2011 to 2015, contaminating the wells on the island. The runway servicing the island is unusable during and after rains and ocean flooding because it becomes extremely muddy. In August 2015, the Bikini Council passed a resolution requesting assistance from US government to modify terms of the Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini to be used to relocate the population once again, this time outside of the Marshall Islands.
Trust funds and failed claims
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In 1975, when the islanders who had returned to Bikini Atoll learned that it wasn't safe, they sued the United States for $900 billion in USD, demanding a radiological study of the northern islands.
In 1975, the United States set up *The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini*, totaling $3 million. When the islanders were removed from the island in 1978, the U.S. added $3 million to the fund. The U.S. created a second trust fund, *The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini*, containing $20 million in 1982. The U.S. added another $90 million to that fund to pay to clean up, reconstruct homes and facilities, and resettle the islanders on Bikini and Eneu islands.
In 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association, which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was subsequently modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims and families affected by the nuclear testing program. Section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $75 million to be paid over 15 years.
The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population, while the remaining $2.6 million is paid into *The Bikini Claims Trust Fund*. This trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5% payment from the trust annually.
The United States provided $150 million in compensation for damage caused by the nuclear testing program and their displacement from their home island.
On 5 March 2001 after years of deliberations, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people. The NCT awarded Bikini $278 million for loss of land use, finding the actions of the U.S. amounted to a "temporary taking" and made its award based on fair rental value for the period of denied use. The NCT made a further award of $251,500,000 for atoll rehabilitation to restore Bikini "to a safe and productive state."
However, the U.S. Congress has failed to fund the settlement. The only recourse is for the Bikini people to petition the U.S. Congress to fund the payment and fulfill this award. The United States Supreme Court turned down the islanders' appeal of the United States Court of Appeals decision that refused to compel the government to fund their claim. By 2001, of the original 167 residents who were relocated, 70 were still alive, and the entire population has grown to 2,800. Most of the islanders and their descendants lived on Kili, in Majuro, and in the United States.
*The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini* was liquidated as required by law in December 2006. The value of *The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini* as of 31 March 2013 was approximately $82 million and *The Bikini Claims Trust Fund* was worth approximately $60 million. In 2006, each member of the trust received about $500 a year. In 2012, the trusts produced about US$6 to $8 million annually in investment income, and the trusts paid out less than US$15,000 per family each year in benefits, with little money left available for cleanup.
Representatives for the Bikini people expect this process to take many years and do not know whether the United States will honor the terms of the Compact of Free Association.
In 2017, after lobbying by the leaders of Bikini, the Trump administration stated that there would be no limits on withdrawals from the main fund and no further audits of the main fund. The mayor of the council that is responsible for the Bikini people, Anderson Jibas, used the fund's assets to buy a plane, construction equipment and two cargo ships. In addition, an apartment complex in Majuro, the capital of the Marshall Islands, and 283 acres of land in Hawaii were purchased. By March 2023, only $100,041 was left in the fund that held $59 million in 2017. The council stopped paying its approximately 350 employees and stopped paying $150 monthly subsistence payments to the 6,800 members of the Bikini community.
World Heritage Site
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Because the site bears direct tangible evidence of the nuclear tests conducted there amid the paradoxical tropical location, UNESCO determined that the atoll symbolizes the dawn of the nuclear age and named it a World Heritage Site on 3 August 2010.
> Bikini Atoll has conserved direct tangible evidence ... conveying the power of ... nuclear tests, i.e. the sunken ships sent to the bottom of the lagoon by the tests in 1946 and the gigantic Bravo crater. Equivalent to 7,000 times the force of the Hiroshima bomb, the tests had major consequences on the geology and natural environment of Bikini Atoll and on the health of those who were exposed to radiation. Through its history, the atoll symbolises the dawn of the nuclear age, despite its paradoxical image of peace and of earthly paradise.
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Visitor access
--------------
Bikini Atoll is open to visitors aboard vessels that are completely self-sufficient if they obtain prior approval. They must also pay for a diver and two local government council representatives to accompany them. The local representation is required to verify that visitors don't remove artifacts from the wrecks in the lagoon. Extensive research has been conducted to ensure the safety of visitors to the area, and to demonstrate the now low levels of radiation in and around Bikini Atoll.
### Bikini Lagoon diving
In June 1996, the Bikini Council authorized diving operations as a means to generate income for Bikini islanders currently and upon their eventual return. The Bikini Council hired dive guide Edward Maddison who had lived on Bikini Island since 1985 and Fabio Amaral, a Brazilian citizen at the time, as head divemaster and resort manager. The tours are limited to fewer than a dozen experienced divers a week, cost more than US$5,000, and include detailed histories of the nuclear tests. The operation brought in more than $500,000 during the season from May to October 2001.
### On-shore facilities
To accommodate the dive program and anglers, the Bikini Council built new air-conditioned rooms with private bathrooms and showers. They included verandas overlooking the lagoon. There was a dining facility that served American-style meals. The head chef Mios Maddison also prepared Marshallese dishes featuring fresh seafood. Only 12 visitors were hosted at one time. Because of the lingering contamination, all fruits and vegetables used for the Bikini Atoll dive and sport fishing operation were imported. In September 2007, the last of Air Marshall Islands' commuter aircraft ceased operations when spare parts could not be located and the aircraft were no longer airworthy. A half dozen divers and a journalist were stranded for a week on Bikini Island. The Bikini islanders suspended land-based dive operations beginning in August 2008. As of 2021[update], Air Marshall Islands operates one Bombardier DHC-8-100 aircraft and two 19-seat Dornier 228.
### Live aboard diving program
In October 2010, a live-aboard, self-contained vessel successfully conducted dive operations. In 2011, the local government licensed the live-aboard operator as a provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet at Bikini Atoll. The dive season runs from May through October. Visitors are still able to land on the island for brief stays.
In early 2017, Master Liveaboards announced they would add Bikini Atoll to their list of destinations for technical divers using their vessel Truk Master with trips to the site commencing in May 2018 having been granted a license by the Bikini Council. In May 2021, as a result of ongoing business evaluation and pent up demand created by the COVID-19 pandemic, Master Liveaboards announced they would be adding an additional vessel alongside Truk Master to operate at Bikini Atoll from 2022 onwards.
Because the lagoon has remained undisturbed for so long, it contains a larger amount of sea life than usual, including sharks, which increases divers' interest in the area. Visibility depth is over 100 feet (30 m). The lagoon is immensely popular with divers and is regarded as among the top 10 diving locations in the world.
Dive visitors receive a history lesson along with the dive experience, including movies and complete briefings about each of the ships, their respective histories, and a tour of the island and the atoll. Divers are able to visit the USS Saratoga (CV-3), the second largest of only three aircraft carriers in the world that are accessible to scuba or closed circuit rebreather divers.
### Sportfishing
Bikini Island authorities opened sport fishing to visitors along with diving. Although the atomic blasts obliterated three islands and contaminated much of the atoll, after 50 years the coral reefs have largely recovered. The reefs attract reef fish and their predators: 30 lb (14 kg) dogtooth tuna, 20 lb (9.1 kg) barracuda, and giant trevally as big as 50 pounds (23 kg). Given the long-term absence of humans, the Bikini lagoon offers sportsmen one of the most pristine fishing environments in the world.
### Shipwrecks
Shipwrecks in the lagoon include the following:
* USS *Saratoga* (CV-3) – aircraft carrier
* USS *Arkansas* (BB-33) – battleship
* USS *Nevada* (BB-36) – battleship
* USS *Gilliam* (APA-57) – attack transport
* USS *Carlisle* (APA-69) – attack transport
* USS *Lamson* (DD-367) – destroyer
* USS *Anderson* (DD-411) – destroyer
* USS *Apogon* (SS-308) – submarine
* USS *Pilotfish* (SS-386) – submarine
* Japanese battleship *Nagato* – battleship
* Japanese cruiser *Sakawa* – light cruiser
Current habitable state
-----------------------
Due to the history of nuclear weapon testing at the Bikini Atoll in 1946, the island was subject to environmental testing nearly 50 years later by the International Atomic Energy Agency. The purpose of environmental sampling was test the air absorption rates, and soil and food radionuclide concentrations to validate previous surveys data collected.
In 1998 an IAEA advisory group, formed in response to a request by the Government of the Marshall Islands for an independent international review of the radiological conditions at Bikini Atoll, recommended that Bikini Island should not be permanently resettled under the present radiological conditions.
The potential to make the island habitable has substantially improved since then. A 2012 assessment from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found that caesium-137 levels are dropping considerably faster than anyone expected. Terry Hamilton, scientific director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Marshall Islands Dose Assessment and Radioecology Program, reported that "Conditions have really changed on Bikini. They are improving at an accelerated rate. By using the combined option of removing soil and adding potassium, we can get very close to the 15 millirem standard. That has been true for roughly the past 10 years. So now is the time when the Bikinians, if they desired, could go back."
As of 2013[update], about 4,880 Bikini people live on Kili and other Marshall Islands, and some have emigrated to the United States. Bikini Island is currently visited by a few scientists and inhabited by 4–6 caretakers.
The islanders want the topsoil removed, but lack the necessary funding. The opportunity for some Bikini islanders to potentially relocate back to their home island creates a dilemma. While the island may be habitable in the near term, virtually all of the islanders alive today have never lived there. Most of the younger generation have never visited. As of 2013[update], unemployment in the Marshall Islands was at about 40 percent. The population is growing at a four-percent growth rate, so increasing numbers are taking advantage of terms in the Marshall Islands' Compact of Free Association that allow them to obtain jobs in the United States.
After the islanders were relocated in 1946, while the Bikini islanders were experiencing starvation on Rongerik Atoll, Lore Kessibuki wrote an anthem for the island:
*No longer can I stay, it's true*
*No longer can I live in peace and harmony*
*No longer can I rest on my sleeping mat and pillow*
*Because of my island and the life I once knew there*
*The thought is overwhelming*
*Rendering me helpless and in great despair.*
In popular culture
------------------
### Cinema
* The documentary *Bikini – mon amour* by Oliver Herbrich shows the effects of long-term low-level radiation on the population.
* The 1962 Italian mondo documentary film *Mondo Cane* shows the effects of long-term low-level radiation on the wildlife.
### Television shows
The Nickelodeon animated series *SpongeBob SquarePants* primarily takes place in Bikini Bottom, which is supposedly situated underneath the atoll named after Bikini Atoll.
During an interview with Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, he was asked about the popular theory that SpongeBob is the result of nuclear testing. To this he said,
> ″Well, Bikini Bottom is kind of named after Bikini Atoll, you know, where they did nuclear testing decades ago. So... nah, that one. I don't think SpongeBob and his friends are mutations.″
>
>
### Swimsuit design
On 5 July 1946, four days after the first nuclear device (nicknamed *Able*) was detonated over the Bikini Atoll during Operation Crossroads, Louis Réard introduced a new swimsuit design named the *bikini* after the atoll. Réard was a French mechanical engineer by training and manager of his mother's lingerie shop in Paris. He introduced the new garment to the media and public on 5 July 1946 at Piscine Molitor, a public pool in Paris.
He hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year-old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris, to demonstrate his design. It featured a g-string back of 30 square inches (200 cm2) of cloth with newspaper-type print and was an immediate sensation. Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men. Réard hoped that his swimsuit's revealing style would create an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar in intensity to the social reaction to 1946 nuclear explosion at Bikini Atoll. Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion".
Because the bikini exposes a woman's thighs and shoulders, it violates the Marshall Islanders' modern customs of modesty, whereas cultural taboos regarding women's breasts are less strict on the islands. Marshall Island women swim in their muumuus, which are made of a fine polyester that dries quickly. Wearing a bikini in the Marshall Islands is mainly limited to restricted-access beaches and pools like those at private resorts or on United States government facilities on Kwajalein Atoll within the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site.
Gallery
-------
* American bunker located in the islandAmerican bunker located in the island
* Rear of bunkerRear of bunker
* The island seen from aboveThe island seen from above
* Entrance sign to the islandEntrance sign to the island
* View of the coast from aboveView of the coast from above
See also
--------
* Operation Castle
* Operation Ivy
* Radio Bikini
* Wōdejebato | Bikini Atoll | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini_Atoll | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt8\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\" id=\"mwCg\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Bikini Atoll</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-other-name\">Pikinni Atoll, Eschscholtz Atoll</div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a href=\"./Atoll\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Atoll\">Atoll</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14,_Landsat_7_ETM+,_bands_3-2-1-8.png\" title=\"Bikini Atoll. Two craters from Operation Castle can be seen on the northwest cape of the atoll, adjacent to Namu island. The larger is from the 15 Mt Bravo shot, with the smaller 11 Mt Romeo crater adjoining it.\"><img alt=\"Bikini Atoll. Two craters from Operation Castle can be seen on the northwest cape of the atoll, adjacent to Namu island. The larger is from the 15 Mt Bravo shot, with the smaller 11 Mt Romeo crater adjoining it.\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1944\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3063\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"159\" resource=\"./File:Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14,_Landsat_7_ETM+,_bands_3-2-1-8.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png/250px-Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png/375px-Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png/500px-Bikini_Atoll_2001-01-14%2C_Landsat_7_ETM%2B%2C_bands_3-2-1-8.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Bikini Atoll. Two craters from <a href=\"./Operation_Castle\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Operation Castle\">Operation Castle</a> can be seen on the northwest cape of the atoll, adjacent to Namu island. The larger is from the 15 <a href=\"./TNT_equivalent\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"TNT equivalent\">Mt</a> <a href=\"./Castle_Bravo\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Castle Bravo\">Bravo</a> shot, with the smaller 11 Mt <a href=\"./Castle_Romeo\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Castle Romeo\">Romeo</a> crater adjoining it.</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg\" title=\"Flag of Bikini Atoll\"><img alt=\"Flag of Bikini Atoll\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"650\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1235\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"79\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg/150px-Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg/225px-Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg/300px-Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll.svg.png 2x\" width=\"150\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\"><a href=\"./Flag_of_Bikini_Atoll\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Flag of Bikini Atoll\">Flag</a></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Nickname:<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-nickname nickname\">Kili</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Motto:<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-nickname nickname\">Men otemjej rej ilo bein anij</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Anthem: Ij Jab Ber Emol</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:MH_-map_A.png\" title=\"Map of the Marshall Islands showing Bikini Atoll\"><img alt=\"Map of the Marshall Islands showing Bikini Atoll\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"770\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"950\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"195\" resource=\"./File:MH_-map_A.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MH_-map_A.png/240px-MH_-map_A.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MH_-map_A.png/360px-MH_-map_A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MH_-map_A.png/480px-MH_-map_A.png 2x\" width=\"240\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Map of the Marshall Islands showing Bikini Atoll</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg\" title=\"Map of Bikini Atoll\"><img alt=\"Map of Bikini Atoll\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"904\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1240\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"175\" resource=\"./File:Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg/240px-Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg/360px-Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg/480px-Bikini_2244493428_13643c6505_o.jpg 2x\" width=\"240\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Map of Bikini Atoll</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Oceania_laea_location_map.svg\" title=\"Bikini Atoll is located in Oceania\"><img alt=\"Bikini Atoll is located in Oceania\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1013\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1181\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"214\" resource=\"./File:Oceania_laea_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Oceania_laea_location_map.svg/250px-Oceania_laea_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Oceania_laea_location_map.svg/375px-Oceania_laea_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Oceania_laea_location_map.svg/500px-Oceania_laea_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:26.42%;left:45.943%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Bikini Atoll\"><img alt=\"Bikini Atoll\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Bikini Atoll</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Location of Bikini Atoll</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Oceania</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg\" title=\"Bikini Atoll is located in Pacific Ocean\"><img alt=\"Bikini Atoll is located in Pacific Ocean\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"645\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"709\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"227\" resource=\"./File:Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg/250px-Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg/375px-Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg/500px-Pacific_Ocean_laea_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:37.051%;left:32.135%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Bikini Atoll\"><img alt=\"Bikini Atoll\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Bikini Atoll</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\">Bikini Atoll (Pacific Ocean)</div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Pacific Ocean</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bikini_Atoll&params=11_35_N_165_23_E_region:MH_type:isle\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">11°35′N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">165°23′E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">11.583°N 165.383°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">11.583; 165.383</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt26\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Republic of the <a href=\"./Marshall_Islands\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Marshall Islands\">Marshall Islands</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Land</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">6<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (2.3<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5 caretakers</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Population relocated in 1948<br/>Resettled population evacuated in 1980</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><div about=\"#mwt30\" data-mw=\"\" style=\"border:4px solid \n#FFE153; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;\" typeof=\"mw:ExpandedAttrs\">\n<a href=\"./World_Heritage_Site\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"World Heritage Site\">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:0.3em;\">Official<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>name</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:0.3em;\"><a href=\"./World_Heritage_Site#Selection_criteria\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"World Heritage Site\">Criteria</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data category\">Cultural: iv; vi</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:0.3em;\">Reference</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1339\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">1339</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-right:0.3em;\">Inscription</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2010 (34th <a href=\"./World_Heritage_Committee\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"World Heritage Committee\">Session</a>)</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Liijabor_wearing_nieded_1918.jpg",
"caption": "A woman named Liijabor from Likiep Island, Likiep Atoll in the Marshall Islands, wears a traditional nieded or clothing mat, c. 1918"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Sikorsky_SH-3G_Sea_King_from_Helicopter_Combat_Support_Squadron_1_in_flight_during_an_aerial_radiation_survey_over_Bikini_Atoll_in_November_1978.jpg",
"caption": "Vegetation on Bikini Atoll"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Langhans1897_map_Bikini.jpg",
"caption": "Map of Bikini Atoll, taken from the 1893 map Schutzgebiet der Marshall Inseln, published in 1897."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Leaving-bikini.jpg",
"caption": "7 March 1946, 161 residents of Bikini Island board LST 1108 as they depart from Bikini Atoll"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Operation_Crossroads_-_Moving_of_Bikinians_to_Rongerik,_March_7,_1946.jpg",
"caption": "Bikini islanders arrive on Rongerik Atoll and unload pandanus for thatching the roofs of their new buildings."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg",
"caption": "The Wilson cloud from test Baker, situated just offshore from Bikini Island at top of the picture. "
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kili_Island_-_NASA_Astronaut_Photography.png",
"caption": "Kili Island is one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Islands."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Bikiniatoll.jpg",
"caption": "Bikini Atoll Shipwrecks Map"
}
] |
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**Punjabi** (/pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/; پنجابی (Shahmukhi); ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Gurmukhi), Punjabi: [paɲˈdʒab̆.bi] ()), Also known as **Panjabi**, is an Indo-Aryan language of the Punjab region of Pakistan and India. It has 250 million native speakers , as of 2023 Sitro Report.
Punjabi is the most widely-spoken first language in Pakistan, with 107 million native speakers , and the 10th most widely-spoken in India, with 40 million native speakers. The language is spoken among a significant overseas diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and the Gulf states.
In Pakistan, Punjabi is written using the Shahmukhi alphabet, based on the Perso-Arabic script; in India, it is written using the Gurmukhi alphabet, based on the Indic scripts. Punjabi is unusual among the Indo-Aryan languages and the broader Indo-European language family in its usage of lexical tone.
History
-------
### Etymology
The word *Punjabi* (sometimes spelled *Panjabi*) has been derived from the word *Panj-āb*, Persian for 'Five Waters', referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. The name of the region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and was a translation of the Sanskrit name for the region, *Panchanada*, which means 'Land of the Five Rivers'.
*Panj* is cognate with Sanskrit **pañca** (पञ्च), Greek *pénte* (πέντε), and Lithuanian *Penki*, all of which meaning 'five'; *āb* is cognate with Sanskrit *áp* (अप्) and with the *Av-* of *Avon*. The historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, the Sutlej.
### Origin
Punjabi developed from Prakrit languages and later *Apabhraṃśa* (Sanskrit: अपभ्रंश, 'deviated' or 'non-grammatical speech') From 600 BC, Sanskrit developed as the standard literary and administrative language and Prakrit languages evolved into many regional languages in different parts of India. All these languages are called Prakrit languages (Sanskrit: प्राकृत, *prākṛta*) collectively. Paishachi Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Paishachi Prakrit gave rise to Paishachi Aparbhsha, a descendant of Prakrit. Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century AD and became stable by the 10th century. The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to Nath Yogi era from 9th to 14th century. The language of these compositions is morphologically closer to Shauraseni Apbhramsa, though vocabulary and rhythm is surcharged with extreme colloquialism and folklore. The precursor stage of Punjabi between the 10th and 16th centuries is termed 'Old Punjabi', whilst the stage between the 16th and 19th centuries is termed as 'Mediaeval Punjabi'.
### Arabic and Persian influences
The Arabic and modern Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. Many Persian and Arabic words were incorporated in Punjabi. So Punjabi relies heavily on Persian and Arabic words which are used with a liberal approach to language. Many important words like ਅਰਦਾਸ, ਰਹਿਰਾਸ, ਨਹਿਰ, ਜ਼ਮੀਨ, ਗਜ਼ਲ, etc. are derived from Persian and Arabic. After the fall of the Sikh empire, Urdu was made the official language of Punjab (in Pakistani Punjab, it is still the primary official language), and influenced the language as well.
In fact, the sounds of ਜ਼, ਖ਼, ਸ਼, and ਫ਼ have been borrowed from Persian. Later, it was lexically influenced by Portuguese (words like ਅਲਮਾਰੀ/الماری), Greek (words like ਦਾਮ/دام), Chagatai (words like ਕ਼ੈੰਚੀ, ਸੁਗ਼ਾਤ/قینچی،سوغات), Japanese (words like ਰਿਕਸ਼ਾ/رکشا), Chinese (words like ਚਾਹ, ਲੀਚੀ, ਲੁਕਾਠ/چاہ، لیچی، لکاٹھ) and English (words like ਜੱਜ, ਅਪੀਲ, ਮਾਸਟਰ/جج، اپیل، ماسٹر), though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic.
| English | Gurmukhi-based (Punjab, India) | Shahmukhi-based (Punjab, Pakistan) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| President | ਰਾਸ਼ਟਰਪਤੀ (**rāshtarpatī**) | صدرمملکت (**sadar-e mumlikat**) |
| Article | ਲੇਖ (**lēkh**) | مضمون (**mazmūn**) |
| Prime Minister | ਪਰਧਾਨ ਮੰਤਰੀ (**pardhān mantarī**)\* | وزیراعظم (**vazīr-e aʿzam**) |
| Family | ਪਰਿਵਾਰ (**parivār**)\* ਟੱਬਰ (**ṭabbar**) ਲਾਣਾ (**lāṇā**) | خاندان (**kḥāndān**) ٹبّر (**ṭabbar**) |
| Philosophy | ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ (**falsafā**) ਦਰਸ਼ਨ (**darshan**) | فلسفہ (**falsafah**) |
| Capital city | ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ (**rājdhānī**) | دارالحکومت (**dār-al ḥakūmat**) |
| Viewer | ਦਰਸ਼ਕ (**darshak**) | ناظرین (**nāzarīn**) |
| Listener | ਸਰੋਤਾ (**sarotā**) | سامع (**sāmaʿ**) |
Note: In more formal contexts, hypercorrect Sanskritized versions of these words (ਪ੍ਰਧਾਨ *pradhān* for ਪਰਧਾਨ *pardhān* and ਪਰਿਵਾਰ *parivār* for ਪਰਵਾਰ *parvār*) may be used.
### Modern times
Modern Punjabi emerged in the 19th century from the Mediaeval Punjabi stage. Modern Punjabi is spoken in many dialects. The Majhi dialect has been adopted as standard Punjabi in India and Pakistan for education and mass media. The Majhi dialect originated in the Majha region of the Punjab.
In India, Punjabi is written in the Gurmukhī script in offices, schools, and media. Gurmukhi is the official standard script for Punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the Latin scripts due to influence from English, one of India's two primary official languages at the Union-level.
In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, which in literary standards, is identical to the Urdu alphabet, however various attempts have been made to create certain, distinct characters from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq characters to represent Punjabi phonology, not already found in the Urdu alphabet. In Pakistan, Punjabi loans technical words from Persian and Arabic languages, just like Urdu does.
Geographic distribution
-----------------------
Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the eleventh-most widely spoken in India, and also present in the Punjabi diaspora in various countries.
### Pakistan
Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, being the native language of 80.5 million people, or approximately 39% of the country's population.
**Census history of Punjabi speakers in Pakistan**| **Year** | **Population of Pakistan** | **Percentage** | **Punjabi speakers** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1951 | 33,740,167 | 57.08% | 22,632,905 |
| 1961 | 42,880,378 | 56.39% | 28,468,282 |
| 1972 | 65,309,340 | 56.11% | 43,176,004 |
| 1981 | 84,253,644 | 48.17% | 40,584,980 |
| 1998 | 132,352,279 | 44.15% | 58,433,431 |
| 2017 | 207,685,000 | 38.78% | 80,540,000 |
Beginning with the 1981 census, speakers of Saraiki and Hindko were no longer included in the total numbers for Punjabi, which explains the apparent decrease.
Pothwari speakers however are included in the total numbers for Punjabi.
### India
Punjabi is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab, and has the status of an additional official language in Haryana and Delhi. Some of its major urban centres in northern India are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Jalandhar, Ambala, Patiala, Bathinda, Hoshiarpur, Firozpur and Delhi.
In the 2011 census of India, 31.14 million reported their language as Punjabi. The census publications group this with speakers of related "mother tongues" like Bagri and Bhateali to arrive at the figure of 33.12 million.
**Census history of Punjabi speakers in India**| **Year** | **Population of India** | **Punjabi speakers in India** | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1971 | 548,159,652 | 14,108,443 | 2.57% |
| 1981 | 665,287,849 | 19,611,199 | 2.95% |
| 1991 | 838,583,988 | 23,378,744 | 2.79% |
| 2001 | 1,028,610,328 | 29,102,477 | 2.83% |
| 2011 | 1,210,193,422 | 33,124,726 | 2.74% |
### Punjabi diaspora
Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada.
There were 0.67 million native Punjabi speakers in Canada in 2021, 0.3 million in the United Kingdom in 2011, 0.28 million in the United States and smaller numbers in other countries.
Major dialects
--------------
### Standard Punjabi
*Standard Punjabi* sometimes referred to as Majhi in India or simply Punjabi, is the most widespread and largest dialect of Punjabi. It first developed in the 12th century and gained prominence when Sufi poets such as Shah Hussain, Bulleh Shah among others began to use the Lahore/Amritsar spoken dialect with infused Persian vocabulary in their works in the Shahmukhi script. Later the Gurmukhi script was developed based on Standard Punjabi by the Sikh Gurus.
In Pakistan, the Standard Punjabi dialect is not referred to as the 'Majhi dialect', which may be considered as 'Indian terminology', rather simply as 'Standard Punjabi'. This dialect is widely used in the TV and entertainment industry, which is mainly produced in Lahore.
### Lahnda
A distinction is usually made between Punjabi in the east and the diverse group of "Lahnda" in the west.
Phonology
---------
While a vowel length distinction between short and long vowels exists, reflected in modern Gurmukhi orthographical conventions, it is secondary to the vowel quality contrast between centralised vowels /ɪ ə ʊ/ and peripheral vowels /iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/ in terms of phonetic significance.
**Vowels**| | Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Close | iː ਈ اِی | | | | uː ਊ اُو |
| Near-close | | ɪ ਇ اِ | | ʊ ਉ اُ | |
| Close-mid | eː ਏ اے | | | | oː ਓ او |
| Mid | | | ə ਅ اَ | | |
| Open-mid | ɛː ਐ اَے | | | | ɔː ਔ اَو |
| Open | | | aː ਆ آ | | |
The peripheral vowels have nasal analogues. There is a tendency with speakers to insert /ɪ̆/ between adjacent *a* vowels as a separator. When the latter vowel is low-tone, this usually changes to /ʊ̆/.
**Consonants**| | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Retroflex | Post-alv./Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Nasal | m ਮ م | n ਨ ن | ɳ ਣ ݨ | (ɲ) ਞ ن | (ŋ) ਙ ن٘ | | |
| Stop/Affricate | tenuis | p ਪ پ | t̪ ਤ ت | ʈ ਟ ٹ | t͡ʃ ਚ چ | k ਕ ک | (q ਕ਼ ق) | |
| aspirated | pʰ ਫ پھ | tʰ ਥ تھ | ʈʰ ਠ ٹھ | t͡ʃʰ ਛ چھ | kʰ ਖ کھ | | |
| voiced | b ਬ ب | d̪ ਦ د | ɖ ਡ ڈ | d͡ʒ ਜ ج | ɡ ਗ گ | | |
| tonal | ਭ بھ | ਧ دھ | ਢ ڈھ | ਝ جھ | ਘ گھ | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | (f ਫ਼ ف) | s ਸ س | | ʃ ਸ਼ ش | (x ਖ਼ خ) | |
| voiced | | (z ਜ਼ ز) | | | (ɣ ਗ਼ غ) | ɦ ਹ ہ |
| Rhotic | | ɾ~r ਰ ر | ɽ ੜ ڑ | | | | |
| Approximant | ʋ ਵ و | l ਲ ل | ɭ ਲ਼ لؕ | j ਯ ی | | | |
Note: for the tonal stops, refer to the next section about Tone.
The three retroflex consonants /ɳ, ɽ, ɭ/ do not occur initially, and the nasals /ŋ, ɲ/ occur only as allophones of /n/ in clusters with velars and palatals (there are limited exceptions, but these are archaic). The well-established phoneme /ʃ/ may be realised allophonically as the voiceless retroflex fricative /ʂ/ in learned clusters with retroflexes. The phonemic status of the consonants /f, z, x, ɣ, q/ varies with familiarity with Hindustani norms, more so with the Gurmukhi script, with the pairs /f, pʰ/, /z, d͡ʒ/, /x, kʰ/, /ɣ, g/, and /q, k/ systematically distinguished in educated speech. The retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap. The voiceless aspirates /t͡ʃʰ, pʰ/ often soften to fricatives /ɕ, f/. This hardly happens with /kʰ, t̪ʰ/ into /x, θ/, and never with /ʈʰ/.
In very rare cases, the archaic isolated /ɲ/ and /ŋ/ phonemes in Shahmukhi may be represented with letters from Sindhi.
### Diphthongs
Like Hindustani, the diphthongs /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ have mostly disappeared, but are still retained in some dialects.
Long vowels /aː, iː, uː/ are treated as doubles of their short vowel counterparts /ə, ɪ, ʊ/ rather than separate phonemes, and all instances of *au* and *ai* are monophthongized into /ɛː/ and /ɔː/. Hence, diphthongs like *aī* and *āu* phonotactically are stretched to *aii* and *aau*, whence the newly formed diphthongs *au* and *ai* are monophthongized, causing the sequences to be pronounced as /ɛːɪ/ and /əɔː/ rather than /əiː/ and /aːʊ/. This also brings about flexibility in the script whence diphthongs such as *aaai* can be written as *ā-ai*, *a-ā-i*, etc..
The phonemes /j/ and /ʋ/ have become marginalized in Punjabi. /j/ is only pronounced word-initially, where it is otherwise /ɪ/, and /ʋ/ becomes /ʊ/ when between a consonant and a vowel.
### Tone
Unusually for an Indo-Aryan language, Punjabi distinguishes lexical tones. Three tones are distinguished in Punjabi (some sources have described these as tone contours, given in parentheses): low (high-falling), high (low-rising), and level (neutral or middle). The transcriptions and tone annotations in the examples below are based on those provided in Punjabi University, Patiala’s *Punjabi-English Dictionary*.
| Examples | Pronunciation | Meaning |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Transliteration | IPA | Tone |
| ਘਰ | گھر | ghar | /kə̀.rᵊ/ | low | *house* |
| ਕਰ੍ਹਾ | کرھا | karhā | /kə́.ra/ | high | *powdered remains of cow-dung cakes* |
| ਕਰ | کر | kar | /kər/ | level | *do, doing* |
| ਝੜ | جھڑ | jhaṛ | /t͡ʃə̀.ɽᵊ/ | low | *shade caused by clouds* |
| ਚੜ੍ਹ | چڑھ | chaṛh | /t͡ʃə́.ɽᵊ/ | high | *rise to fame, ascendancy* |
| ਚੜ | چڑ | caṛ | /t͡ʃəɽ/ | level | *hangnail* |
Level tone is found in about 75% of words and is described by some as absence of tone. There are also some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second. (Some writers describe this as a fourth tone.) However, a recent acoustic study of six Punjabi speakers in the United States found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant.
* ਮੋਢਾ / موڈھا, *móḍà* (rising-falling), "shoulder"
It is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants (*gh, jh, ḍh, dh, bh*) lost their aspiration. At the beginning of a word, they became voiceless unaspirated consonants (*k, c, ṭ, t, p*) followed by a high-falling tone; medially or finally they became voiced unaspirated consonants (*g, j, ḍ, d, b*), preceded by a low-rising tone. (The development of a high-falling tone apparently did not take place in every word, but only in those which historically had a long vowel.)
#### Tonal H letter
The presence of an [h] (although the [h] is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word-initially) word-finally (and sometimes medially) often causes a rising tone before it, for example **cá(h)** "tea".
* Syllable-initially, [h] causes a falling-tone after it, e.g. **he* > *ʰè** "is"
* Syllable-finally, [h] causes a rising-tone before it, e.g. **cā(h)* > *cā́** "tea"
+ The intrasyllabic sequences *ih* and *uh* are pronounced as rising-tone /éː/ and /óː/, e.g. **ki(h)-ṛā* > *kḗṛā** "which"
- Not when intersyllabic, e.g. **tu-(h)āḍ-ḍē* > *tuā̀ḍḍē** "yours"
+ The sequences *ahi/aha* and *ahu* are pronounced as rising-tone /ɛ́ː/ and /ɔ́ː/
The Gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds, so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time.
Some other languages in Pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions, including Burushaski, Gujari, Hindko, Kalami, Shina, and Torwali, though these seem to be independent of Punjabi.
### Gemination
Gemination of a consonant (doubling the letter) is indicated with *adhak* in Gurmukhi and *tashdīd* in Shahmukhi. Its inscription with a unique diacritic is a distinct feature of Gurmukhi compared to Brahmic scripts.
All consonants except six (*ṇ*, *ṛ*, *h*, *r*, *v*, *y*) are regularly geminated. The latter four are only geminated in loan words from other languages.
There is a tendency to irregularly geminate consonants which follow long vowels, except in the final syllable of a word, e.g.*menū̃* > *mennū̃*. It also causes the long vowels to shorten but remain peripheral, distinguishing them from the central vowels /ə, ɪ, ʊ/. This gemination is less prominent than the literarily regular gemination represented by the diacritics mentioned above.
Before a non-final prenasalised consonant, long vowels undergo the same change but no gemination occurs.
The true gemination of a consonant after a long vowel is unheard of but is written in some English loanwords to indicate short /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, e.g. ਡੈੱਡ ڈَیڈّ /ɖɛɖː/ "dead".
Grammar
-------
Punjabi has a canonical word order of SOV (subject–object–verb). Function words are largely postpositions marking grammatical case on a preceding nominal.
Punjabi distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and six cases of direct, oblique, vocative, ablative, locative, and instrumental. The ablative occurs only in the singular, in free variation with oblique case plus ablative postposition, and the locative and instrumental are usually confined to set adverbial expressions.
Adjectives, when declinable, are marked for the gender, number, and case of the nouns they qualify. There is also a T-V distinction.
Upon the inflectional case is built a system of particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. It is their use with a noun or verb that is what necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case, and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies.
The Punjabi verbal system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense/mood. Like the nominal system, the Punjabi verb takes a single inflectional suffix, and is often followed by successive layers of elements like auxiliary verbs and postpositions to the right of the lexical base.
Vocabulary
----------
Being an Indo-Aryan language, the core vocabulary of Punjabi consists of tadbhav words inherited from Sanskrit. It contains many loanwords from Persian and Arabic.
Writing systems
---------------
The Punjabi language is written in multiple scripts (a phenomenon known as synchronic digraphia). Each of the major scripts currently in use is typically associated with a particular religious group, although the association is not absolute or exclusive.
In India, Punjabi Sikhs use Gurmukhi, a script of the Brahmic family, which has official status in the state of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi Muslims use Shahmukhi, a variant of the Perso-Arabic script and closely related to the Urdu alphabet. The Punjabi Hindus in India had a preference for Devanagari, another Brahmic script also used for Hindi, and in the first decades since independence raised objections to the uniform adoption of Gurmukhi in the state of Punjab, but most have now switched to Gurmukhi and so the use of Devanagari is rare. Often in literature, Pakistani Punjabi (written in Shahmukhi) is referred as Western-Punjabi (or West-Punjabi) and Indian Punjabi (written in Gurmukhi) is referred as Eastern-Punjabi (or East-Punjabi), although the underlying language is the same with a very slight shift in vocabulary towards Islamic and Sikh words respectively.
The written standard for Shahmukhi also slightly differs from that of Gurmukhi, as it is used for western dialects, whereas Gurumukhi is used to write eastern dialects.
Historically, various local Brahmic scripts including Laṇḍā and its descendants were also in use.
The Punjabi Braille is used by the visually impaired.
### Transliteration
There is an altered version of IAST often used for Punjabi in which the diphthongs *ai* and *au* are written as *e* and *o*, and the long vowels *e* and *o* are written as *ē* and *ō*.
Sample text
-----------
This sample text was adapted from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Lahore.
**Gurmukhi**
ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨੀ ਪੰਜਾਬ ਦੀ ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ ਹੈ। ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਦੇ ਨਾਲ ਕਰਾਚੀ ਤੋਂ ਬਾਅਦ ਲਹੌਰ ਦੂਜਾ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਵੱਡਾ ਸ਼ਹਿਰ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਆਸੀ, ਕਾਰੋਬਾਰੀ ਅਤੇ ਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਦਾ ਗੜ੍ਹ ਹੈ ਅਤੇ ਇਸੇ ਲਈ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਦਿਲ ਵੀ ਕਿਹਾ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਰਾਵੀ ਦਰਿਆ ਦੇ ਕੰਢੇ ’ਤੇ ਵੱਸਦਾ ਹੈ। ਇਸਦੀ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਇੱਕ ਕਰੋੜ ਦੇ ਨੇੜੇ ਹੈ।
**Shahmukhi**
لہور پاکستانی پنجاب دی راجدھانی اے۔ لوک گݨتی دے نال کراچی توں بعد لہور دوجا سبھ توں وڈا شہر اے۔ لہور پاکستان دا سیاسی، رہتلی کاروباری اتے پڑھائی دا گڑھ اے اتے، ایسے لئی ایہہ نوں پاکستان دا دل وی کہا جاندا اے۔ لہور راوی دریا دے کنڈھے تے وسدا اے۔ ایسدی لوک گݨتی اک کروڑ دے نیڑے اے۔
**Transliteration**
*Lahaur Pākistānī Panjāb dī rājtā̀ni ài. Lok giṇtī de nāḷ Karācī tõ bāad Lahaur dūjā sáb tõ vaḍḍā šáir ài. Lahaur Pākistān dā siāsī, kārobāri ate paṛā̀ī dā gáṛ ài te ise laī ínū̃ Pākistān dā dil vī kihā jāndā ài. Lahaur Rāvī dariā de káṇḍè te vassdā ài. Isdī lok giṇtī ikk karoṛ de neṛe ài*.
**IPA**
/ləˈɔ̀ːɾᵊ paːkɪˈstaːniː pənˈd͡ʒaːbᵊ diː ɾaːd͡ʒᵊˈtàːniː ʱɛ̀ː ‖ loːkᵊ ˈɡɪɳᵊtiː deː naːɭᵊ kəˈɾat͡ʃˑiː tõː baːədᵊ ləˈɔ̀ːɾᵊ duˑd͡ʒˑaː sə́bᵊ tõː ʋəɖːaː ʃɛ́ːɾ ʱɛ̀ː ‖ ləˈɔ̀ːɾᵊ paːkɪstaːnᵊ daː sɪaːsiː | kaːɾobˑaːɾiː əteː pəɽàːiː daː ɡə́ɽ ɦɛ̀ː əteː ɪseː ləiː énˑũː paːkɪstaːnᵊ daː dɪlᵊ ʋiː kéːaː d͡ʒaːndaː ʱɛ̀ː ‖ ləˈɔ̀ːɾᵊ ɾaːʋiː ˈdəɾɪaː deː kə́ɳɖèː teː ʋəsːᵊdaː ʱɛ̀ː ‖ ˈɪsᵊdiː loːkᵊ ɡɪɳᵊtiː ɪkːᵊ kəˈɾoːɽᵊ deː neːɽeˑ ʱɛ̀ː ‖/
**Translation**
Lahore is the capital city of Pakistani Punjab. After Karachi, Lahore is the second largest city. Lahore is Pakistan's political, cultural, and educational hub, and so it is also said to be the heart of Pakistan. Lahore lies on the bank of the Ravi River. Its population is close to ten million people.
Literature development
----------------------
### Medieval period
* Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179–1266) is generally recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language. Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent being Bulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1630–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Waris Shah (1722–1798), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901).
* The Sikh religion originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region and Punjabi is the predominant language spoken by Sikhs. Most portions of the Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi language written in Gurmukhi, though Punjabi is not the only language used in Sikh scriptures.
The *Janamsakhis*, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi prose literature.
* The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of *qisse*, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include *Sohni Mahiwal* by Fazal Shah, *Mirza Sahiban* by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), *Sassui Punnhun* by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), and *Qissa Puran Bhagat* by Qadaryar (1802–1892).
* Heroic ballads known as *Vaar* enjoy a rich oral tradition in Punjabi. Famous *Vaars* are *Chandi di Var* (1666–1708), *Nadir Shah Di Vaar* by Najabat and the *Jangnama* of Shah Mohammad (1780–1862).
### Modern period
The Victorian novel, Elizabethan drama, free verse and Modernism entered Punjabi literature through the introduction of British education during the Raj. Nanak Singh (1897–1971), Vir Singh, Ishwar Nanda, Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Puran Singh (1881–1931), Dhani Ram Chatrik (1876–1957), Diwan Singh (1897–1944) and Ustad Daman (1911–1984), Mohan Singh (1905–78) and Shareef Kunjahi are some legendary Punjabi writers of this period.
After independence of Pakistan and India Najm Hossein Syed, Fakhar Zaman and Afzal Ahsan Randhawa, Shafqat Tanvir Mirza, Ahmad Salim, and Najm Hosain Syed, Munir Niazi, Ali Arshad Mir, Pir Hadi Abdul Mannan enriched Punjabi literature in Pakistan, whereas Jaswant Singh Kanwal (1919–2020), Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Jaswant Singh Rahi (1930–1996), Shiv Kumar Batalvi (1936–1973), Surjit Patar (1944–) and Pash (1950–1988) are some of the more prominent poets and writers from India.
Status
------
Despite Punjabi's rich literary history, it was not until 1947 that it would be recognised as an official language. Previous governments in the area of the Punjab had favoured Persian, Hindustani, or even earlier standardised versions of local registers as the language of the court or government. After the annexation of the Sikh Empire by the British East India Company following the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British policy of establishing a uniform language for administration was expanded into the Punjab. The British Empire employed Urdu in its administration of North-Central and Northwestern India, while in the North-East of India, Bengali language was used as the language of administration. Despite its lack of official sanction, the Punjabi language continued to flourish as an instrument of cultural production, with rich literary traditions continuing until modern times. The Sikh religion, with its Gurmukhi script, played a special role in standardising and providing education in the language via Gurdwaras, while writers of all religions continued to produce poetry, prose, and literature in the language.
In India, Punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It is the first official language of the Indian State of Punjab. Punjabi also has second language official status in Delhi along with Urdu, and in Haryana.
In Pakistan, no regional ethnic language has been granted official status at the national level, and as such Punjabi is not an official language at the national level, even though it is the most spoken language in Pakistan. It is, however, the official provincial language of Punjab, Pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan as well as in Islamabad Capital Territory. The only two official languages in Pakistan are Urdu and English.
### In Pakistan
When Pakistan was created in 1947, despite Punjabi being the majority language in West Pakistan and Bengali the majority in East Pakistan and Pakistan as whole, English and Urdu were chosen as the national languages. The selection of Urdu was due to its association with South Asian Muslim nationalism and because the leaders of the new nation wanted a unifying national language instead of promoting one ethnic group's language over another, due to this the Punjabi elites started identifying with Urdu more than Punjabi because they saw it as a unifying force on an ethnoreligious perspective. Broadcasting in Punjabi language by Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation decreased on TV and radio after 1947. Article 251 of the Constitution of Pakistan declares that these two languages would be the only official languages at the national level, while provincial governments would be allowed to make provisions for the use of other languages. However, in the 1950s the constitution was amended to include the Bengali language. Eventually, Punjabi was granted status as a provincial language in Punjab Province, while the Sindhi language was given official status in 1972 after 1972 Language violence in Sindh.
Despite gaining official recognition at the provincial level, Punjabi is not a language of instruction for primary or secondary school students in Punjab Province (unlike Sindhi and Pashto in other provinces). Pupils in secondary schools can choose the language as an elective, while Punjabi instruction or study remains rare in higher education. One notable example is the teaching of Punjabi language and literature by the University of the Punjab in Lahore which began in 1970 with the establishment of its Punjabi Department.
In the cultural sphere, there are many books, plays, and songs being written or produced in the Punjabi-language in Pakistan. Until the 1970s, there were a large number of Punjabi-language films being produced by the Lollywood film industry, however since then Urdu has become a much more dominant language in film production. Additionally, television channels in Punjab Province (centred on the Lahore area) are broadcast in Urdu. The preeminence of Urdu in both broadcasting and the Lollywood film industry is seen by critics as being detrimental to the health of the language.
The use of Urdu and English as the near-exclusive languages of broadcasting, the public sector, and formal education have led some to fear that Punjabi in Pakistan is being relegated to a low-status language and that it is being denied an environment where it can flourish. Several prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have echoed the opinion that the intentional promotion of Urdu and the continued denial of any official sanction or recognition of the Punjabi language amounts to a process of "Urdu-isation" that is detrimental to the health of the Punjabi language In August 2015, the Pakistan Academy of Letters, International Writer's Council (IWC) and World Punjabi Congress (WPC) organised the *Khawaja Farid Conference* and demanded that a Punjabi-language university should be established in Lahore and that Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level. In September 2015, a case was filed in Supreme Court of Pakistan against Government of Punjab, Pakistan as it did not take any step to implement the Punjabi language in the province. Additionally, several thousand Punjabis gather in Lahore every year on International Mother Language Day. Thinktanks, political organisations, cultural projects, and individuals also demand authorities at the national and provincial level to promote the use of the language in the public and official spheres.
### In India
At the federal level, Punjabi has official status via the Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution, earned after the Punjabi Suba movement of the 1950s. At the state level, Punjabi is the sole official language of the state of Punjab, while it has secondary official status in the states of Haryana and Delhi. In 2012, it was also made additional official language of West Bengal in areas where the population exceeds 10% of a particular block, sub-division or district.
Both union and state laws specify the use of Punjabi in the field of education. The state of Punjab uses the Three Language Formula, and Punjabi is required to be either the medium of instruction, or one of the three languages learnt in all schools in Punjab. Punjabi is also a compulsory language in Haryana, and other states with a significant Punjabi speaking minority are required to offer Punjabi medium education.[*dubious – discuss*]
There are vibrant Punjabi language movie and news industries in India, however Punjabi serials have had a much smaller presence within the last few decades in television due to market forces. Despite Punjabi having far greater official recognition in India, where the Punjabi language is officially admitted in all necessary social functions, while in Pakistan it is used only in a few radio and TV programs, attitudes of the English-educated elite towards the language are ambivalent as they are in neighbouring Pakistan. There are also claims of state apathy towards the language in non-Punjabi majority areas like Haryana and Delhi.
Advocacy
--------
* Punjabi University was established on 30 April 1962, and is only the second university in the world to be named after a language, after Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The Research Centre for Punjabi Language Technology, Punjabi University, Patiala is working for development of core technologies for Punjabi, Digitisation of basic materials, online Punjabi teaching, developing software for office use in Punjabi, providing common platform to Punjabi cyber community. Punjabipedia, an online encyclopaedia was also launched by Patiala university in 2014.
* The Dhahan Prize was created to award literary works produced in Punjabi around the world. The Prize encourages new writing by awarding $25,000 CDN annually to one "best book of fiction" published in either of the two Punjabi scripts, Gurmukhi or Shahmukhi. Two second prizes of $5,000 CDN are also awarded, with the provision that both scripts are represented among the three winners. The Dhahan Prize is awarded by Canada India Education Society (CIES).
### Governmental academies and institutes
The Punjabi Sahit academy, Ludhiana, established in 1954 is supported by the Punjab state government and works exclusively for promotion of the Punjabi language, as does the Punjabi academy in Delhi. The Jammu and Kashmir academy of art, culture and literature in Jammu and Kashmir UT, India works for Punjabi and other regional languages like Urdu, Dogri, Gojri etc. Institutions in neighbouring states as well as in Lahore, Pakistan also advocate for the language.
* Punjabi Sahit Academy, Ludhiana, 1954Punjabi Sahit Academy, Ludhiana, 1954
* Punjabi Academy, Delhi, 1981–1982Punjabi Academy, Delhi, 1981–1982
* Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and LiteratureJammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Literature
* Punjab Institute of Language, Art and Culture, Lahore, 2004Punjab Institute of Language, Art and Culture, Lahore, 2004
### Software
* Software is available for the Punjabi language on almost all platforms. This software is mainly in the Gurmukhi script. Nowadays, nearly all Punjabi newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals are composed on computers via various Punjabi software programmes, the most widespread of which is InPage Desktop Publishing package. Microsoft has included Punjabi language support in all the new versions of Windows and both Windows Vista, Microsoft Office 2007, 2010 and 2013, are available in Punjabi through the Language Interface Pack support. Most Linux Desktop distributions allow the easy installation of Punjabi support and translations as well. Apple implemented the Punjabi language keyboard across Mobile devices. Google also provides many applications in Punjabi, like Google Search, Google Translate and Google Punjabi Input Tools.
Gallery
-------
* Guru Granth Sahib in GurmukhiGuru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi
* Punjabi Gurmukhi script Punjabi Gurmukhi script
* Punjabi Shahmukhi scriptPunjabi Shahmukhi script
* Bulleh Shah poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)Bulleh Shah poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
* Munir Niazi poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)Munir Niazi poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
* Gurmukhi alphabetGurmukhi alphabet
* A sign board in Punjabi language along with Hindi at Hanumangarh, Rajasthan, IndiaA sign board in Punjabi language along with Hindi at Hanumangarh, Rajasthan, India
See also
--------
* Punjabi Language Movement
* Languages of Pakistan
* Languages of India
* List of Indian languages by total speakers
* List of Punjabi-language newspapers
* Khalsa bole – coded language of Nihang Sikhs largely based on Punjabi
* Punjabi cinema
* Bhangra (music) – Upbeat type of popular music associated with British Punjabi culture
* Panjab Digital Library
References
----------
### Sources
* Bhardwaj, Mangat Rai (2016), *Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar*, Routledge, doi:10.4324/9781315760803, ISBN 9781138793859.
* Bhatia, Tej K. (2008), "Major regional languages", in Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S.N. Sridhar (eds.), *Language in South Asia*, Cambridge University Press, pp. 121–131, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511619069.008, ISBN 9780511619069.
* Grierson, George A. (1916). *Linguistic Survey of India*. Vol. IX Indo-Aryan family. Central group, Part 1, *Specimens of western Hindi and Pañjābī*. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
* Jain, Dhanesh (2003), "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), *The Indo-Aryan Languages*, Routledge, pp. 46–66, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
* Masica, Colin (1991), *The Indo-Aryan Languages*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2, archived from the original on 2 April 2023, retrieved 7 October 2020.
* Nayar, Baldev Raj (1966), *Minority Politics in the Punjab*, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9781400875948, archived from the original on 2 April 2023, retrieved 9 November 2019.
* Shackle, Christopher (2003), "Panjabi", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), *The Indo-Aryan Languages*, Routledge, pp. 581–621, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5, archived from the original on 2 April 2023, retrieved 7 October 2020.
Further reading
---------------
* Bhatia, Tej. 1993 and 2010. *Punjabi : a cognitive-descriptive grammar*. London: Routledge. Series: Descriptive grammars.
* Gill H.S. [Harjit Singh] and Gleason, H.A. 1969. A reference grammar of Punjabi. Revised edition. Patiala, Punjab, India: Languages Department, Punjab University.
* Chopra, R. M., Perso-Arabic Words in Punjabi, in: Indo-Iranica Vol.53 (1–4).
* Chopra, R. M.., The Legacy of The Punjab, 1997, Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta.
* Singh, Chander Shekhar (2004). Punjabi Prosody: The Old Tradition and The New Paradigm. Sri Lanka: Polgasowita: Sikuru Prakasakayo.
* Singh, Chander Shekhar (2014). Punjabi Intonation: An Experimental Study. Muenchen: LINCOM EUROPA. | Punjabi language | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt21\" class=\"infobox vevent\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Punjabi</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\"><div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><span title=\"Punjabi-language text\"><span lang=\"pa\">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></span></li><li><span title=\"Punjabi (Western)-language text\"><span lang=\"pnb\"><span class=\"Nastaliq\" dir=\"rtl\" style=\"font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal; \" title=\"Nastaliq\">پَن٘جابی</span></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Punjabi_gurmukhi_shahmukhi.png\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3770\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"2445\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"170\" resource=\"./File:Punjabi_gurmukhi_shahmukhi.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Punjabi_example.svg/110px-Punjabi_example.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Punjabi_example.svg/165px-Punjabi_example.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Punjabi_example.svg/220px-Punjabi_example.svg.png 2x\" width=\"110\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\" style=\"padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;\">'Punjabi' written in <a href=\"./Shahmukhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shahmukhi\">Shahmukhi script</a> used in <a href=\"./Punjab,_Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjab, Pakistan\">Punjab, Pakistan</a> (top) and <a href=\"./Gurmukhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Gurmukhi\">Gurmukhi script</a> used in <a href=\"./Punjab,_India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjab, India\">Punjab, India</a> (bottom)</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Pronunciation</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li><small>Punjabi:<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></small><span class=\"IPA\" lang=\"pa-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\"><a href=\"./Help:IPA/Punjabi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA/Punjabi\">[pəɲˈdʒɑb̆.bi]</a></span></li>\n<li><span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><small>English: </small><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"./Help:IPA/English\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"'p' in 'pie'\">p</span><span title=\"/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'\">ʌ</span><span title=\"'n' in 'nigh'\">n</span><span title=\"/ˈ/: primary stress follows\">ˈ</span><span title=\"/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'\">dʒ</span><span title=\"/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'\">ɑː</span><span title=\"'b' in 'buy'\">b</span><span title=\"/i/: 'y' in 'happy'\">i</span></span>/</a></span></span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Native<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>to</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pakistan\">Pakistan</a> and <a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Region</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Punjab\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjab\">Punjab</a> region</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Ethnicity</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Punjabis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjabis\">Punjabis</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Native speakers</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">250 million<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(2023)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><span class=\"wrap\"><a href=\"./Language_family\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Language family\">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div style=\"text-align:left;\"><a href=\"./Indo-European_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-European languages\">Indo-European</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0\"><li>\n<a href=\"./Indo-Iranian_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-Iranian languages\">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><a href=\"./Indo-Aryan_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-Aryan languages\">Indo-Aryan</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><a href=\"./Indo-Aryan_languages#Northwestern_Zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-Aryan languages\">Northwestern</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><b>Punjabi</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Early forms</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div style=\"text-align:left;\"><a href=\"./Proto-Indo-European_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Proto-Indo-European language\">Proto-Indo-European</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0\"><li><a href=\"./Proto-Indo-Iranian_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Proto-Indo-Iranian language\">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><a href=\"./Proto-Indo-Aryan_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Proto-Indo-Aryan language\">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><a href=\"./Vedic_Sanskrit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vedic Sanskrit\">Vedic Sanskrit</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><a href=\"./Sanskrit#Classical_Sanskrit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sanskrit\">Classical Sanskrit</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><i>debated</i> <a href=\"./Prakrit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Prakrit\">Prakrit</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><i>debated</i> <a href=\"./Apabhraṃśa\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Apabhraṃśa\">Apabhraṃśa</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Old%20Punjabi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:Old Punjabi\">Old Punjabi</a>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr class=\"plainlist\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Dialects</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">\n<ul><li>See <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Punjabi_dialects\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjabi dialects\">Punjabi dialects</a></li></ul>\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><span class=\"wrap\"><a href=\"./Writing_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Writing system\">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Shahmukhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shahmukhi\">Shāhmukhī</a> <small>(in <a href=\"./Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pakistan\">Pakistan</a>)</small></li>\n<li><a href=\"./Gurmukhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Gurmukhi\">Gurmukhī</a> <small>(in <a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a>)</small></li>\n<li><a href=\"./Punjabi_Braille\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjabi Braille\">Punjabi Braille</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"./Laṇḍā_scripts\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Laṇḍā scripts\">Laṇḍā</a> <span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(historical)</span></li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Takri\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Takri\">Takri</a> <span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(historical)</span></li>\n<li><a href=\"./Mahajani\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mahajani\">Mahajani</a> <span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(historical)</span></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Official status</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Official language<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"900\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pakistan\">Pakistan</a><br/><div><ul><li><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"528\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"793\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Punjab.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Punjab.svg/23px-Flag_of_Punjab.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Punjab.svg/35px-Flag_of_Punjab.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Punjab.svg/45px-Flag_of_Punjab.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Punjab,_Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjab, Pakistan\">Punjab</a> (provincial)</li></ul></div><br/><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"900\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1350\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_India.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a> <br/> <div><ul><li><a href=\"./Punjab,_India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Punjab, India\">Punjab</a> (official)</li><li><a href=\"./Haryana\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Haryana\">Haryana</a> (additional)</li><li><a href=\"./Delhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Delhi\">Delhi</a> (additional)</li><li><a href=\"./West_Bengal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"West Bengal\">West Bengal</a> (additional, in blocks and divisions with more than 10% of the population)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><a href=\"./List_of_language_regulators\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of language regulators\">Regulated<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>by</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">Punjab Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Punjab, <a href=\"./Pakistan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pakistan\">Pakistan</a><br/> Department of Languages, Punjab, <a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./ISO_639-1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 639-1\">ISO 639-1</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><span class=\"plainlinks\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=pa\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">pa</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./ISO_639-2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 639-2\">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><span class=\"plainlinks\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=352\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">pan</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./ISO_639-3\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 639-3\">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">Either:<br/><code><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/pan\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"iso639-3:pan\">pan</a></code><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>–<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Panjabi<br/><code><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/pnb\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"iso639-3:pnb\">pnb</a></code><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>–<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Western Panjabi</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><i><a href=\"./Glottolog\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Glottolog\">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/panj1256\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">panj1256</a></code><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span> Eastern Panjabi<br/><code><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2386\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">west2386</a></code><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span> Western Panjabi</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><a href=\"./Linguasphere_Observatory\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Linguasphere Observatory\">Linguasphere</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code>59-AAF-e</code></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2080\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2806\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"237\" resource=\"./File:Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png/320px-Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png/480px-Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png/640px-Geographical_distribution_of_Punjabi_language.png 2x\" width=\"320\"/></a></span><div style=\"text-align:left;\">Geographic distribution of Punjabi language in Pakistan and India.</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below noprint selfref\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E7E7FF;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;\"><b>This article contains <a href=\"./International_Phonetic_Alphabet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"International Phonetic Alphabet\">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href=\"./Help:IPA#Rendering_issues\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA\">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href=\"./Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Specials (Unicode block)\">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href=\"./Unicode\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Unicode\">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href=\"./Help:IPA\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA\">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Tilla_Jogian.jpg",
"caption": "Tilla Jogian, district Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan a hilltop associated with many Nath jogis (considered among compilers of earlier Punjabi works)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Jalianwalabag.JPG",
"caption": "\"Jallianwala Bagh\" written in Hindi, Punjabi, and English in Amritsar, India."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Punjabi_in_india.png",
"caption": "Punjabi in India"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:BCNDP_SIGNS.jpg",
"caption": "Signs in Punjabi (along with English and Chinese) of New Democratic Party of British Columbia, Canada during 2009 elections"
},
{
"file_url": null,
"caption": "Some Punjabi distinct tones for gh, jh, ḍh, dh, bh"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Gurmukhi_Script_-_traditional_alphabet.svg",
"caption": "The 35 traditional characters of the Gurmukhi script"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Wiki_Loves_Women_South_Asia_Logo-pa.png",
"caption": "Gurmukhi writing system on a sample logo"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Varan_Gyan_Ratnavali.jpg",
"caption": "Varan Gyan Ratnavali by 16th-century historian Bhai Gurdas."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ghadar_di_gunj.jpg",
"caption": "Ghadar di Gunj 1913, newspaper in Punjabi of Ghadar Party, US-based Indian revolutionary party."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Punjabi-speakers_by_Pakistani_District_-_2017_Census.svg",
"caption": "The proportion of people with Punjabi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Punjabi_prachar_demand.jpg",
"caption": "A demonstration by Punjabis at Lahore, Pakistan, demanding to make Punjabi as official language of instruction in schools in Punjab"
}
] |
472,321 | **This article contains Indic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
**Bhojpuri** (/ˌboʊdʒˈpʊəri/; ) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Bhojpur-Purvanchal region of India and the Terai region of Nepal. It is chiefly spoken in western Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and northwestern Jharkhand. It is an eastern Indo Aryan language and as of 2000[update] is spoken by about 5% of India's population. It is sociolinguistically considered to be one of the seven main Hindi dialects.
It is also a minority language in Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, South Africa, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Fiji Hindi, an official language of Fiji, is a variant of Awadhi and Bhojpuri spoken by the Indo-Fijians. Caribbean Hindustani, another variant of Bhojpuri is spoken by the Indo-Caribbean people. It has experienced lexical influence from Caribbean English in Trinidad and Tobago and in Guyana. In Suriname, languages that have lexically influenced it include Sranan Tongo Creole, Surinamese Dutch and English. Other dialects are spoken in Mauritius and South Africa, where its use is declining.
Name
----
The word *Bhojpuri* is derived from Bhojpur. After the conquest of Chero and Ujjainiya Rajputs in 12th century, who were the descendants of Raja Bhoj from Ujjain, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh captured Shahabad and named their capital Bhojpur (City of Raja Bhoj). The seat of their government was Bhojpur village which was near Dumraon in Buxar. Two villages named Chhotka Bhojpur and Barka Bhojpur still exist in Buxar, where the ruins of their Navratna Fortress still can be seen. Slowly the word *Bhojpur* became the synonyms of the Shahabad or Arrah region (Today's Bhojpur district, Buxar, Kaimur and Rohtas) and the adjective *Bhojpuri* or *Bhojpuriya* extended to mean the language or people of Bhojpur and even beyond it. Apart from *Bhojpuri* in the Eastern UP and Western Bihar, there were other names also for the language and people, at different places, the Bhojpuriya in Mughal armies were used to called *Buxariya.* In Bengal, they called *Paschhimas* (Westerners) and Bhojpuri people also called them *Deshwali* or *Khoṭṭa,* in upper provinces like Oudh they called *Purabiya.* Besides these, *Banarasi*, *Chhaprahiya*, and *Bangarahi* has also used for the language and People. Rahul Sankrityayan has suggested two names for it i.e. *Mallika* or *Malli* (due to ancient tribe of Malla) and *Kashiki* (due to ancient Kashi). The Girmityas who were taken to British colonies called it simply *Hindustani* or *Hindi* and it became *Fiji Hindi* in Fiji and *Caribbean Hindustani* in the Caribbean region.
History
-------
Bhojpuri is a descendant of Magadhi Prakrit which started taking shape during the reign of the Vardhana dynasty. Bāṇabhaṭṭa, in his Harshacharita has mentioned two poets named *Isānchandra* and *Benibhārata* who used to write in local language instead of Prakrit and Sanskrit. The earliest form of Bhojpuri can be traced in the Siddha Sahitya and Charyapada as early as 8th century A.D.*.* Between 11th to 14th century A.D. the Folklores like Lorikayan, *Sorathi Birjabhar* etc. came in to existence. In 15th to 18th century, Kabir and other saints created many Bhajans in Bhojpuri*.*
Between 1838 and 1917, many Bhojpuriyas were taken to British colonies like Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and South Africa, as well as the Dutch colony of Suriname. Music genres based in Bhojpuri folk music like Chutney music, Baithak Gana, Geet Gawanai and Lok Geet took birth in those countries.
In 19th century, notable works like Devakshara Charita, Badmash Darpan were published. Bhikhari Thakur, in 20th century contributed significantly to Bhojpuri literature and theatre with his notable plays like Bidesiya, Beti Bechwa, Gabarghichor and novels like *Bindia* and *Phulsunghi* were published. In 1962, the first Bhojpuri film, *Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo* was released and became the founding stone of the Bhojpuri film industry.
Geographic distribution
-----------------------
The Bhojpuri-speaking region covers the area of 73,000 square kilometres approximately in India and Nepal and borders the Awadhi-speaking region to the west, the Nepali-speaking region to the north, the Magahi and Bajjika-speaking regions to the east and the Magahi and Bagheli-speaking regions to the south. In Nepal, Bhojpuri is a major language. There are a number of Bhojpuri-speaking Muslims that are part of the Muhajir community in Pakistan, as well as in Bangladesh, where they are referred to as Stranded Pakistanis due to them speaking Bhojpuri and Urdu as their native tongue and not Bengali as most Bangladeshis do. They migrated to Bangladesh there during the Partition of India when the area was part of East Pakistan, before gaining independence as Bangladesh.
Bhojpuri is spoken by descendants of indentured labourers brought in the 19th and early 20th centuries for work in plantations in British colonies. These Bhojpuri speakers live in Mauritius, Fiji, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, and other parts of the Caribbean.
Classification
--------------
Bhojpuri is an Indo-European language and belongs to the Eastern Indo-Aryan group of the Indo-Aryan languages. The Magahi and Maithili languages of Eastern Indo-Aryan group are closest living relatives of Bhojpuri. Odia, Bengali and Assamese are also closely related. Bhojpuri along with Magahi and Maithili, are grouped together as the Bihari languages. Together with the other branches of Eastern Indo-Aryan, the Bihari languages are considered to be direct descendants of the Magadhi Prakrit.
Bhojpuri is classified as an Eastern Indo-Aryan Language because it has similar inflexion system to the other languages of the same family such as Bengali, Maithili and Odia. For example, the pronunciation of the vowel *a* is broad in Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, and sounds like *o* in Bengali, on moving westwards it becomes less broad but still can be differentiated from the sharp cut *a* in Middle Indo-Aryan.[*clarification needed*] In Bhojpuri, the clear cut *a* and the drawled *a,* which sounds like *aw* in the word *awl*[*clarification needed*] are present and the contrast between the two gives a different tone to the language. This drawled *a* is represented by Avagraha (ऽ), for instance, the word *dekh'la*, you see, is written as देेखऽलऽ. Other property of Eastern Indo Aryan languages is that the adjectives doesn't change with the noun. For instance *moṭā* feminine form *moṭī* in Hindi but in Bhojpuri only *moṭ* is used as in Bengali. The past and future tense in Bhojpuri is formed in same way as other Eastern Indo-Aryan Languages, by adding a suffix stating from -l*a* and *-ba* respectively to the verb. Form example, *I shall See*, in Bengali is *dekh-bo* and in Bhojpuri is *dekh-ab*.
Some scholars has also divided the East Indo Aryan or *Magadhan* languages in to three sub-groups viz. Western, Central and Eastern. Bengali, Assamese, Odia belongs to Eastern Magadhan, Maithili and Magahi to Central and Bhojpuri to western. Bhojpuri is classified as Western Magadhan because it has some properties which are peculiar to itself and are not present in other Magadhan Languages. Some striking differences are:
* *raürā* or *raüwā* as an honorfic pronoun for second person along with the *apne* form is used Bhojpuri. *apne* form is their in other Magadhan Languages but *raüwā* is totally absent.
* Verb substantive in other Magadhan language is of *-acch* for but Bhojpuri has *-baṭe* and *hawe*.
* The simple present is made by Bhojpuri by adding a suffix starting from *-la* with the verb, but this is totally absent in the other languages of Magadhan group. Hence, *he sees*, is *dēkhe-lā* in Bhojpuri but in but *dekhait-chhi* in Maithili and *dekhechhi* in Bengali.
Sociolinguistically it is considered to be one of the seven main Hindi dialects.
Dialects
--------
Bhojpuri has several dialects: Southern Standard Bhojpuri, Northern Standard Bhojpuri, Western Standard Bhojpuri, and Nagpuria Bhojpuri.
Southern Standard Bhojpuri is prevalent in the Shahabad district (Buxar, Bhojpur, Rohtas, and Kaimur districts) and the Saran region (Saran, Siwan and Gopalganj districts) in Bihar, the eastern Azamgarh (Ballia and Mau(Eastern Part) districts) and Varanasi (eastern part of Ghazipur district) regions in Uttar Pradesh, and in the Palamu division (Palamu and Garhwa districts) in Jharkhand. The dialect is also known as *Kharwari*. It can be further divided into Shahabadi, Chhaprahiya and Pachhimahi.
Northern Bhojpuri is common in the western Tirhut division (east and west Champaran districts) in Bihar, and Gorakhpur division (Deoria, Kushinagar, Gorakhpur, and Maharajganj districts) and Basti division (Basti, Sidharthanagar, and Sant Kabir Nagar districts) in Uttar Pradesh. It is also spoken in Nepal.
Western Bhojpuri is prevalent in the areas of Varanasi (Varanasi, Chandauli, Jaunpur, and the western part of Ghazipur district), Azamgarh (Azamgarh district, western part of Mau district) and Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Sant Ravidas Nagar, and Bhadohi districts) in Uttar Pradesh. Banarasi is a local name for Bhojpuri, named after Banaras. Other names for Western Bhojpuri include *Kashika*, *Purbi* and *Benarsi*.
Nagpuria Bhojpuri is the southernmost popular dialect, found in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand, particularly parts of Palamu, South Chotanagpur and Kolhan divisions. It is sometimes referred to as *Sadari*.
A more specific classification recognises the dialects of Bhojpuri as Bhojpuri Tharu, Domra, Madhesi, Musahari, Northern Standard Bhojpuri (Basti, Gorakhpuri, Sarawaria), Southern Standard Bhojpuri (Kharwari), Western Standard Bhojpuri (Benarsi, Purbi) and Nagpuriya Bhojpuri.
Phonology
---------
Vowels| | Front | Central | Back |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Close | i ɪ | | u |
| Close-mid | e | | o |
| Mid | | ə | |
| Open-mid | ɛ | | ɔ |
| Open | æ | a | |
Consonants| | Labial | (Denti-)Alveolar | Retroflex | (Alveolo-)palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ | |
| Stop/Affricate | voiceless | p | t̪ | ʈ | tɕ | k | |
| voiced | b | d̪ | ɖ | dʑ | ɡ | |
| aspirated | pʰ | t̪ʰ | ʈʰ | tɕʰ | kʰ | |
| breathy voiced | bʱ | d̪ʱ | ɖʱ | dʑʱ | ɡʱ | |
| Fricative | | s | | | | h |
| Rhotic | plain | | ɾ | ɽ | | | |
| breathy | | ɾʱ | ɽʱ | | | |
| Approximant | w ~ ʋ | l | | j | | |
Among the seven languages which are sociolinguistically often counted as Hindi dialects (Haryanvi, Braj, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, and Kannauji), Bhojpuri has the most allophonic variations in vowels.
Bhojpuri has 6 vowel phonemes and 10 vocoids. The higher vowels are relatively tense, and the lower vowels are relatively lax. The language has 31 consonant phonemes and 34 contoids (6 bilabial, 4 apico-dental, 5 apico-alveolar, 7 retroflex, 6 alveo-palatal, 5 dorso-velar, and 1 glottal).
Linguist Robert L. Trammell published the phonology of Northern Standard Bhojpuri in 1971. According to him, the syllable system is peak type: every syllable has the vowel phoneme as the highest point of sonority. Codas may consist of one, two, or three consonants. Vowels occur as simple peaks or as peak nuclei in diphthongs. The intonation system involves 4 pitch levels and 3 terminal contours.
Grammar
-------
According to George Abraham Grierson, the grammar of Bhojpuri is simpler than other languages of the same family. Nouns in Bhojpuri have three forms: short, long and redundant. The adjectives of nouns do not change with genders. Plurals are made by adding either the suffix *-na* or *ni* with the nouns or adding the multitudes such as *sabh* (all) or *lōg* (people).
Examples:
| Definition | Singular Form | Plural Form |
| --- | --- | --- |
| House | ghar | gharan |
| Horse | ghoṛā | ghoṛan |
| Boy | laïkā | laïkan/laïka sabh |
| King | rājā | rājā lōg |
Except few instances the Verb forms of Bhojpuri depend only on the subject and the object has no effect on it. Unlike other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bhojpuri has a different verb form for the present tense, which corresponds to the Future forms of Nepali. It is formed by adding the suffix *-lā* to the present subjunctive. Therefore, for the verb *to see* the Bhojpuri verb is *dekhe* and the present form is *dhekhelā*, which is peculiar to itself and is not found in other languages of the same family like Magahi (dekhaït haï), Maithili (dekhaït achi) and Bengali (dekhechī). The Verbs forms of second person singular (dekh'be; you will see) is considered vulgar in Bhojpuri, plural form (*dekhab'*) is used in general. When it is desired to show respect the first person singular form (*dekhab*; I will see) is used instead of second person plural (*dekhab'*). To show plural number the suffix *-sa'* or *-ja* is also used with the 2nd and third person forms, thus *dekhe-la'-sa'* is *they see*. The present perfect form is made by adding *ha'* to the past form. Thus, *ham dekh'li* (I saw) is the past from and its present perfect form is **ham dekh'li ha'** (I have seen). Past perfect in regular verbs are made by adding the suffix *-al* to the verb (dekh - dekhal), but in some cases it has irregular forms like *kar (kail)*, *mar* *(mual)* etc.
Numerals of Bhojpuri take the classifier *gō* and *ṭhō*, which emphasizes the countability and totality both. To show inclusiveness and exclusiveness, Bhojpuri used the suffixes *-o* and *-e* as in *ham āmo khāïb* (I will eat mangoes too) verses *ham āme khāïb* (I will eat only mangoes). These suffixes can be added to any lexical category such as numerals, adjectives etc.
The auxiliaries in Bhojpuri are formed on five bases viz. *ha*, *ho*, *hokh*, *bāṭ*, *rah*. These also act as the Copula. The *bāṭ* form provides for the tenses and the *hokh* or *ho* form provides for the modes, where as *rah* is the past of other three.
Writing system
--------------
Bhojpuri was historically written in Kaithi script, but since 1894 Devanagari has served as the primary script. Kaithi has variants as the locality changes, the three classified varianta are Tirhuti, Magahi and Bhojpuri variants. The Bhojpuri variant is used for writing Bhojpuri. Kaithi is now rarely used for Bhojpuri.
Kaithi script was used for administrative purposes in the Mughal era for writing Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, Magahi, and Hindustani from at least the 16th century up to the first decade of the 20th century. Government gazetteers[*who?*] report that Kaithi was used in a few districts of Bihar throughout the 1960s. Bhojpuri residents of India who moved to British colonies in Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Caribbean in the 19th and early 20th centuries used both Kaithi and Devanagari scripts.
By 1894 both Kaithi and Devanagari became common scripts to write official texts in Bihar. At present almost all Bhojpuri texts are written in Devanagari, even in islands outside of India where Bhojpuri is spoken. In Mauritius, Kaithi script was historically considered informal, and Devanagari was sometimes spelled as *Devanagri*. In modern Mauritius, the major script is Devanagari.
Politeness
----------
Bhojpuri syntax and vocabulary reflects a three-tier system of politeness. Any verb can be conjugated through these tiers. The verb *to come* in Bhojpuri is *aana* and the verb *to speak* is *bolna*. The imperatives *come!* and *speak!* can be conjugated in five ways, each marking subtle variation in politeness and propriety. These permutations exclude a host of auxiliary verbs and expressions, which can be added to verbs to add another degree of subtle variation. For extremely polite or formal situations, the pronoun is generally omitted.
| | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Literary | [teh] āō | [teh] bōl |
| Casual and intimate | [tu] āō | [tu] bōl |
| Polite and intimate | [tu] āv' | [tu] bōl' |
| Formal yet intimate | [rau'ā] āīñ | [rau'ā] bōlīñ |
| Polite and formal | [āpne] āīñ | [āpne] bōlīñ |
| Extremely formal | āwal jā'e | bōlal jā'e |
Similarly, adjectives are marked for politeness and formality. The adjective *your* has several forms with different tones of politeness: *tum* (casual and intimate), "tōhār" (polite and intimate), "t'hār" (formal yet intimate), *rā'ur* (polite and formal) and *āpke* (extremely formal). Although there are many tiers of politeness, Bhojpuri speakers mainly use the form *tu* to address a younger individual and *raua* for an individual who is older, or holds a higher position in workplace situations.
Status
------
Greater official recognition of Bhojpuri, such as by inclusion in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, has been demanded.[*by whom?*] In 2018, Bhojpuri was given second-language status in Jharkhand state of India.
Bhojpuri is taught in matriculation and at the higher secondary level in the Bihar School Education Board and the Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh. It is also taught in various universities in India, such as Veer Kunwar Singh University, Banaras Hindu University, Nalanda Open University, and Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University.
Literature
----------
Lorikayan, the story of Veer Lorik contains Bhojpuri folklore from Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Bhikhari Thakur's Bidesiya is a play, written as a book. *Phool Daliya* is a well-known book by Prasiddh Narayan Singh. It comprises poems of *veer ras* (A style of writing) on the theme of *azaadi* (*Freedom*) about his experiences in the Quit India movement and India's struggle with poverty after the country gained independence.
Media
-----
The first Bhojpuri weekly was published on 15th August 1947. Bhojpuri journalism rose massively in 1960s and 1970s, Bhojpuri Parivar (Patna), Bhojpuri Mandal (Motihari), Bhojpuri Samaj (Arrah) were some prominent journals of that time. Many Bhojpuri magazines and papers are published in Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh. Several Bhojpuri newspapers are available locally in North India. *Parichhan* is a contemporary literary-cultural Maithili-Bhojpuri magazine, published by a Maithili-Bhojpuri academy and the government of Delhi, and edited by Parichay Das. *The Sunday Indian, Bhojpuri* is a regular national news magazine in Bhojpuri. *Aakhar* is a monthly online Bhojpuri literature magazine. Other media in Bhojpuri include *Lok Lucknow*, and the channels Mahuaa TV and Hamar TV. Bhojpuri Wikipedia was launched in 2003. On 22 May 2022, Google Translate added Bhojpuri as one of their languages.
Vocabulary
----------
Bhojpuri vocabularies have similarity with other Indo Aryan languages and also have loanwords from Persian. Tiwari, have classified the words of Bhojpuri in to 6 parts:
* Words of Sanskrit origin
* Words with untraceable origin
* Words borrowed from other Indo-Aryan Languages
* Sanskrit words either in original or modified form
* Words of non-Aryan Indian origin
* Foreign Origin (Arabic, British etc.)
Words of Persian origin are roughly classified under the following head:
* Words pertaining to kingly states: amīr, kābū, hajūr
* Words relating to Revenue, Administration and Law: darogā, hak, huliyā
* Words relating to Islam: Allāh, tobā, mahjid
* Words of intellectual culture,music, education: ilīm, ijjat, munsi
* Words of material culture: kāgaj, kismis, sāl
Since, Bengal has been one of the greatest centre for Bhojpuri-speaking people, Bhojpur has taken a number of words from Bengali. It is also probable that words of European original came in Bhojpuri through Bengali.
### Weekdays
| English | Bhojpuri (Latin script) | भोजपुरी (देवनागरी लिखाई) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Sunday | *Eitwaar* | एतवार |
| Monday | *Somaar* | सोमार |
| Tuesday | *Mangar* | मङर |
| Wednesday | *Budhh* | बुध |
| Thursday | *Biphey* | बियफे |
| Friday | *Sook* | सूक |
| Saturday | *Sanichar* | सनिचर |
### Common phrases
| English | Bhojpuri | भोजपुरी |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Hello | *Raam Raam/Parnaam* | राम राम/परनाम |
| Welcome/Please come in | *Aain na* | आईं ना |
| How are you? | *Ka haal ba?/Kaisan hava?* | का हाल बा?/कइसन हवऽ? |
| I'm good. And you? | *Hum theek baani. Aur rauwa?/Hum theek hañi. Aur aap?* | हम ठीक बानी। अउर रउवा?/हम ठीक हईं। अउर आप? |
| What is your name? | *Tohaar naav ka ha?/Raur naav ka ha?* | तोहार नाँव का ह?/राउर नाँव का ह? |
| My name is ... | *Hamar naav ... ha* | हमार नाँव ... ह |
| What's up? | *Kaa hot aa?* | का होता? |
| I love you | *Hum tohse pyaar kareni/Hum tohra se pyaar kareni* | हम तोहसे प्यार करेनी/हम तोहरा से प्यार करेनी |
**NUMBER**
English। Bhojpuri
1 - One १= *ek* - एक
2= Two २= *du* - दु
3= Three ३= *teen* =तीन
4= four ४= *char*= चार
5= five ५= *pan* = पान
6= six ६= *chhav*= छव
7= seven। ७= *sat*= सात
8=eight ८= *aath*= आठ
9= nine ९= *nav* = नव
10= ten १०= *das*= दस
100= one hundred १००= *ek say* = एक सव
500= five hundred ५००= *pan say* = पान सव
1000= one thousand १०००= *ek hajar* = एक हजार
Example text
------------
The following is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in four languages:
* Bhojpuri (Devanagari) – अनुच्छेद १: सबहि लोकानि आजादे जन्मेला आउर ओखिनियो के बराबर सम्मान आओर अधिकार प्राप्त हवे। ओखिनियो के पास समझ-बूझ आउर अंत:करण के आवाज होखता आओर हुनको के दोसरा के साथ भाईचारे के बेवहार करे के होखला।
* Sarnámi Hindustani (a dialect of Caribbean Hindustani) – *Aadhiaai 1: Sab djanne aadjádi aur barabar paidaa bhailèn, iddjat aur hak mê. Ohi djanne ke lage sab ke samadj-boedj aur hierdaai hai aur doesare se sab soemmat sè, djaane-maane ke chaahin*.
See also
--------
* Culture of Bhojpuri Region
* Bhojpuri cinema
```
http://lsi.gov.in/MTSI\_app/DraftReport/Bihar/9.%20BHOJPURI.pdf
```
* Tiwari, Uday Narayan (1960). *The Origin And Development Of Bhojpuri*. The Asiatic Society. | Bhojpuri language | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhojpuri_language | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt14\" class=\"infobox vevent\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Bhojpuri</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">भोजपुरी</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Bhojpuri.svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"214\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"507\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"84\" resource=\"./File:Bhojpuri.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bhojpuri.svg/200px-Bhojpuri.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bhojpuri.svg/300px-Bhojpuri.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Bhojpuri.svg/400px-Bhojpuri.svg.png 2x\" width=\"200\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\" style=\"padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;\">The word \"Bhojpuri\" in the <a href=\"./Devanagari\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Devanagari\">Devanagari</a> script</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Native<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>to</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a> and <a href=\"./Nepal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Nepal\">Nepal</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Region</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Bhojpuri_region\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bhojpuri region\">Bhojpur</a>-<a href=\"./Purvanchal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Purvanchal\">Purvanchal</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Ethnicity</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><a href=\"./Bhojpuri_people\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bhojpuri people\">Bhojpuris</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Native speakers</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">51 million, partial count<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(2011 census)<br/>(additional speakers counted under Hindi)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><span class=\"wrap\"><a href=\"./Language_family\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Language family\">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div style=\"text-align:left;\"><a href=\"./Indo-European_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-European languages\">Indo-European</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0\"><li>\n<a href=\"./Indo-Iranian_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-Iranian languages\">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><a href=\"./Indo-Aryan_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Indo-Aryan languages\">Indo-Aryan</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><a href=\"./Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eastern Indo-Aryan languages\">Eastern</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><a href=\"./Bihari_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bihari languages\">Bihari</a><ul style=\"line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;\"><li><b>Bhojpuri</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Early forms</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div style=\"text-align:left;\"><a href=\"./Magadhi_Prakrit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Magadhi Prakrit\">Magadhi Prakrit</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0\"><li>Magadhan <a href=\"./Apabhraṃśa\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Apabhraṃśa\">Apabhraṃśa</a>\n<ul style=\"line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0\"><li><a href=\"./Abahattha\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abahattha\">Abahattha</a>\n</li></ul>\n</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr class=\"plainlist\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\">Dialects</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">\n<ul><li>Northern Standard Bhojpuri</li>\n<li>Western Standard Bhojpuri</li>\n<li>Southern Standard Bhojpuri</li>\n<li>Nagpuriya Bhojpuri</li>\n<li>Madheshi</li>\n<li>Domra</li>\n<li>Musahari</li>\n<li>Tharu Bhojpuri</li>\n<li><a href=\"./Caribbean_Hindustani\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Caribbean Hindustani\">Caribbean Hindustani</a><br/><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">·</span></b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Trinidadian Hindustani</span><br/><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">·</span></b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Guyanese Hindustani</span><br/><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">·</span></b><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Sarnami Hindoestani</span></li>\n<li><a href=\"./Fiji_Hindi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Fiji Hindi\">Fiji Hindi</a></li>\n<li>Mauritian Bhojpuri</li>\n<li>South African Bhojpuri <span style=\"font-size:85%;\"><span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(Naitali)</span></span></li></ul>\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><span class=\"wrap\"><a href=\"./Writing_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Writing system\">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"./Devanagari\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Devanagari\">Devanagari</a></li><li><a href=\"./Kaithi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kaithi\">Kaithi</a> (historical)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Official status</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Official language<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Fiji.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Fiji.svg/23px-Flag_of_Fiji.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Fiji.svg/35px-Flag_of_Fiji.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Fiji.svg/46px-Flag_of_Fiji.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Fiji\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Fiji\">Fiji</a> <span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(as <a href=\"./Fiji_Hindi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Fiji Hindi\">Fiji Hindi</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Recognised minority<br/>language<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>in</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><div style=\"vertical-align:middle;\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"900\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1350\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_India.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Jharkhand\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Jharkhand\">Jharkhand</a></li></ul></div>\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><a href=\"./List_of_language_regulators\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of language regulators\">Regulated<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>by</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./India\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"India\">India</a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"./Bihar\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bihar\">Bihar</a> (Bhojpuri Academy)</li>\n<li><a href=\"./Delhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Delhi\">Delhi</a> (<a href=\"./Maithili_-_Bhojpuri_Academy,_Delhi\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Maithili - Bhojpuri Academy, Delhi\">Maithili - Bhojpuri Academy, Delhi</a>)</li>\n<li><a href=\"./Madhya_Pradesh\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Madhya Pradesh\">Madhya Pradesh</a> (Bhojpuri Sahitya Academy)</li></ul></li></ul>\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;\">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./ISO_639-2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 639-2\">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><span class=\"plainlinks\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=55\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">bho</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./ISO_639-3\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 639-3\">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/bho\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"iso639-3:bho\">bho</a></code></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><i><a href=\"./Glottolog\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Glottolog\">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/bhoj1244\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">bhoj1244</a></code></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;\"><a href=\"./Linguasphere_Observatory\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Linguasphere Observatory\">Linguasphere</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><code>59-AAF-sa</code></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"line-height:1.3em;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2259\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"361\" resource=\"./File:Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png/320px-Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png/480px-Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png/640px-Bhojpuri_Speaking_Region_in_India.png 2x\" width=\"320\"/></a></span><div style=\"text-align:left;\">Bhojpuri-speaking regions of India</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below noprint selfref\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E7E7FF;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;\"><b>This article contains <a href=\"./International_Phonetic_Alphabet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"International Phonetic Alphabet\">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href=\"./Help:IPA#Rendering_issues\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA\">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href=\"./Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Specials (Unicode block)\">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href=\"./Unicode\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Unicode\">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href=\"./Help:IPA\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA\">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": null,
"caption": "A speaker of Bhojpuri."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Paramaribo_-_Kleine_Combeweg_-_Baba_en_Mai_20160922.jpg",
"caption": "Statue named Baba en Maai commemorating the arrival of first Indian couple in Suriname"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:East_Indian_Coolies_in_Trinidad_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16035.jpg",
"caption": "Arrival of Bhojpuri speaking people in Trinidad and Tobago"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg",
"caption": "Major Indo-Aryan languages of South Asia; Eastern Indo-Aryan languages in shades of yellow"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Indo-Aryan_languages_alignement.png",
"caption": "The Indo Aryan languages"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kaithi2.png",
"caption": "Bhojpuri story written in Kaithi script by Babu Rama Smaran Lal in 1898"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Kaithi_signboard.jpg",
"caption": "Signboard at Purbi Gumti Arrah with \"Lock no. 11\" written on the board in Bhojpuri using Kaithi Script (on the left side), Persian script (on the right side) and Roman script (above)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Badmash_Darpan_(cover).jpg",
"caption": "Cover page of Badmash Darpan by Teg Ali Teg"
}
] |
743,577 | The **Turkey national football team** (Turkish: *Türkiye Millî Futbol Takımı*) represents Turkey in men's international football matches. The team is controlled by the Turkish Football Federation (Turkish: *Türkiye Futbol Federasyonu*), the governing body for football in Turkey, which was founded in 1923 and has been a member of FIFA since 1923 and UEFA since 1962. It has been recognized as **Türkiye** by the FIFA and UEFA since 2022.
The team played their first official international game in 1923 and has represented the nation in major competitions since their debut appearance at the 1924 Summer Olympics. They have participated in Summer Olympics a total of six times (1924, 1928, 1936, 1948, 1952 and 1960), and reached the quarter-finals twice, in 1948 and 1952.
The team enjoyed their highest achievements in the 2000s, most notably finishing in third place at the 2002 FIFA World Cup and the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup, and reaching the semi-finals at UEFA Euro 2008. They qualified for FIFA World Cup three times (1950, 1954 and 2002) and reached the semi-finals in 2002, winning bronze medals. The team qualified for UEFA European Championships five times. Making their debut at Euro 96, they reached the quarter-finals in Euro 2000 and semi-finals in Euro 2008. In recent years, Turkey qualified to the Euro 2016 and Euro 2020 championships.
Since its introduction in 1992, the FIFA World Rankings have ranked Turkey between 5th and 57th place. Following their success at the 2002 World Cup, Turkey managed to stay in the top 10 in rankings between 2002 and 2004, ranking at 5th in June 2004. The team climbed once again up to 10th place in December 2008, following their success at Euro 2008. Turkey achieved their highest victory margin with 7–0 wins over Syria in 1949, South Korea in 1954 and San Marino in 1996, while their biggest losses were 8–0 defeats to Poland in 1968 and England in 1984 and 1987.
As of 2020[update], the most capped player to play on the national team is Rüştü Reçber with 120 senior international caps between 1994 and 2012, and the most scoring player is Hakan Şükür with 51 goals scored between 1992 and 2007. The longest-serving captain is Turgay Şeren with captaincy of 35 international encounters from 1950 to 1966.
History
-------
### Early years
The Turkish National Team's first game was against Romania, played on 26 October 1923 at Taksim Stadium in Istanbul, a 2-2 draw "A National Team History", Turkish Football Federation. Zeki Rıza Sporel is considered as the first big star of Turkish football as he scored the first two goals against Romania. Turkey played their first ever official match at the 1924 Summer Olympics losing to Czechoslovakia, 5–2.
### 1950 FIFA World Cup
Although Turkey qualified for the 1950 World Cup, beating Syria 7–0, they were forced to withdraw from the tournament due to financial problems.
### 1954 FIFA World Cup
Turkey then qualified for the 1954 World Cup after a play-off with Spain. The Turkish team first lost 4–1 to Spain, but a 1–0 win a few days later initiated a replay. On that occasion, they tied 2–2 after, booking their place after a coin toss. Turkey was put in a group along with Hungary and West Germany. The Turks, however, never played Hungary due to the tournament format, and a 4–1 defeat by the Germans was followed by Turkey carrying out a 7–0 win over South Korea. Turkey lost the play-off to West Germany 7–2. In 1956, however, Turkey did play Hungary in a friendly match in Istanbul, defeating what was one of the strongest teams of the era, 3–1. Lefter Küçükandonyadis, arguably one of the best Turkish strikers of all time, scored two goals during the tournament.
### Near misses
Despite the introduction of a national league, and showings by Turkish clubs in European competition, the 1960s would be a barren time for the national team. Most players from the 1954 World Cup squad were retired, and the new generation of players failed to qualify for a major tournament. The 1970s saw Turkey holding back in the World Cup and UEFA European Championship qualifiers, but the team was a point too short to qualify for both UEFA Euro 1972 and Euro 1976. In the 1980s the Turkish team also suffered their worst defeats with 8–0 scorelines against Poland and twice against England. Yet the 1990 World Cup qualifiers would mark a turning point for Turkish football, with Turkey only missing out on qualification in the final match. Prominent players in this period included Rıdvan Dilmen, Oğuz Çetin, Rıza Çalımbay, Feyyaz Uçar, and European Golden Boot winner Tanju Çolak.
### 1990–1996
In 1990, coach Sepp Piontek was put in charge of the national team. Under his guidance, a group of new players debuted for the national team. Many of these players (which included Bülent Korkmaz, Alpay Özalan, Sergen Yalçın, Rüştü Reçber, and Hakan Şükür) would become the backbone of the national team for many years. Piontek's mission came to an end in 1993, where he was replaced by Fatih Terim, who in turn managed to qualify for Euro 1996. Turkey qualified for its first major tournament since 1954, marking another turning point for Turkish football. The appointment of Piontek was a recommended move by another coach, Jupp Derwall, who had coached Galatasaray for three seasons. Derwall is regarded as the revolutionizer of Turkish football, since his introduction of training techniques and tactical ideas to the Turkish game also heavily influenced the national team.
### Euro 1996
Turkey qualified for Euro 1996, defeating both Switzerland and Sweden 2–1 during qualification. Despite a solid performance during the qualifiers, Turkey lost all their matches without scoring a single goal. They did, however, go home with an award: the fair play award, given to Alpay Özalan.
### Euro 2000
Although Turkey failed to qualify for the 1998 World Cup, they qualified for Euro 2000 after winning a play-off against the Republic of Ireland. Turkey lost their first match 2–1 to Italy, they drew their second match against Sweden 0–0, and beat host nation Belgium 2–0, making it the first time in the history of the UEFA European Championship a host nation had been eliminated in the first round. This victory brought Turkey into the last eight of the tournament, where they were beaten 2–0 by Portugal, with Arif Erdem missing a critical penalty.
### 2002 FIFA World Cup
For the 2002 World Cup, Turkey finished second in their qualifying group, despite starting well and being the favourites to top the group. They lost 2–1 to Sweden in the crucial match that would decide the top spot. The Turks were forced to play the play-offs against Austria. They defeated the Austrians 6–0 on aggregate and booked their place at the finals. The Turkish team started the 2002 World Cup with a 2–1 defeat against eventual winners Brazil. Turkey qualified from the group stage with a 3–0 win against China PR after drawing 1–1 with Costa Rica.
Turkey then faced home team Japan in the second round, winning 1–0. The Turkish team continued their run, as they beat Senegal 1–0 on a golden goal to book their place in the semi-finals, where a 1–0 defeat against eventual tournament winners Brazil forced them to play the third place match, and a bronze medal was won after a 3–2 victory over co-hosts South Korea. Hakan Şükür scored Turkey's first goal in 10.8 seconds, even when the South Koreans kicked off first. It was the fastest goal in World Cup history.
Tens of thousands of flag-waving Turkish fans greeted the World Cup squad on their return to Istanbul, where they joined a massive street party at Taksim Square. Rüştü Reçber, Alpay Özalan and Hasan Şaş were all included in the All-Star Team, with Reçber also being voted as the best goalkeeper in the UEFA Team of the Year 2002, while Şenol Güneş was being voted as the best manager.
### 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup
In the summer of 2003, Turkey reached third place at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. In the group stages, Turkey defeated the United States 2–1 before losing to Cameroon 0–1. In their final group match, Turkey drew 2–2 against Brazil, eliminating them from the tournament. Turkey lost to eventual tournament winners France 3–2 in the semi-final match. Turkey then defeated Colombia 2–1 to win the bronze medal. Tuncay scored three goals and made an assist, which won him the Silver Shoe Award and the Silver Ball Award for the second best player of the tournament.
### Euro 2004
The Turkish team failed to qualify for Euro 2004 on play-offs due to a loss to Latvia after finishing second in their group. This marked a turning point for the national team as new players were introduced to the national team to create a new generation.
### 2006 FIFA World Cup
The Turkish team once again narrowly missed out on the World Cup finals after failing to win a play-off, this time on away goals against Switzerland, again after finishing second in their group. There were scenes of violence after the game on and off the pitch where the Turkish team brawled with Swiss players down the tunnel.
### Euro 2008
Turkey qualified for their first international tournament in six years by finishing second behind Greece in Euro 2008 qualifying Group C to reach the Euro 2008 final stages. They were placed alongside Switzerland, Portugal and the Czech Republic in Group A. In their first match, they played Portugal and were beaten 2–0, but wins over Switzerland (2–1) and the Czech Republic (3–2) – both secured by late goals – brought qualification for the knockout stages. Again, Turkey knocked out a host nation – Switzerland – in the group stages for the second time.
The quarter-final against Croatia was goalless after 90 minutes, and Croatia led 1–0 in the final minute of extra time, but another late Turkish goal by forward Semih Şentürk brought the game to penalties. The goal raised some controversy with Croatia fans and Croatia head coach Slaven Bilić, who claimed that the goal had been scored after extra time had elapsed. This complaint, however, was overruled, and the game went into penalties. Turkey defeated Croatia in penalties, 3–1.
Turkey went into the semi-final against Germany with just 14 outfield players available as a result of injuries and suspensions, but scored first and were drawing 2–2. But they finished third by default after losing 3–2 with a last minute goal by Philipp Lahm. Both Russia and Turkey were given bronze medals in the dressing rooms after the semi-finals.
### 2010 FIFA World Cup
Turkey were drawn in UEFA Group 5 together with Armenia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia and Spain. Turkey had a mixed qualifying campaign, finishing with 15 points and missing out on a play-off place to Bosnia and Herzegovina with 19 points. Spain topped the group to qualify, winning every game in the process. Coach Fatih Terim announced he would be resigning his post following their failure to qualify.
### Euro 2012
Turkey were drawn in Group A in qualification for Euro 2012, together with Kazakhstan, Austria, Belgium, Germany and Azerbaijan. The Turkish team reached the play-offs after beating Azerbaijan 1–0 but got eliminated 3–0 on aggregate by Croatia.
On 14 November 2012, Turkey celebrated their 500th match in a friendly game played against Denmark at the Türk Telekom Arena, Istanbul, which ended in a 1–1 draw. Before the match, footballers and coaches, who contributed to the national team's success in the past, were honoured. Turkish pop singer Hadise, who wore a national team jersey with the number 500, performed a small concert.
### 2014 FIFA World Cup
Turkey were drawn in Group D in qualification for the 2014 World Cup, together with Andorra, Estonia, Hungary, the Netherlands and Romania, finishing fourth. Turkey began to lose critical points during qualification and Abdullah Avcı was sacked soon after. Fatih Terim was put in charge for the third time to lead the national team, but a 2–0 defeat against the Netherlands ended hopes of qualification.
### Euro 2016
Turkey were drawn in Group A in the qualification campaign for the Euro 2016, together with Iceland, Latvia, Kazakhstan, the Netherlands and the Czech Republic. The Turkish team qualified for their first major tournament in eight years as the best third-placed team after beating Iceland 1–0, with Selçuk İnan netting a free kick in the 89th minute. After over 18 months unbeaten, a loss to England as a pre-tournament friendly ended the team's winning streak, subsequently leading to back-to-back losses against Croatia and Spain in the tournament. Turkey won their last game against the Czech Republic, 2–0. They were minutes away from reaching the last 16, until a late winner for Ireland against Italy meant that the latter instead qualified as one of the best third-placed teams. Despite elimination, youngster Emre Mor's skillful display and assist during the game revealed a hopeful future for Turkish football.
### 2018 FIFA World Cup
Turkey were drawn in UEFA Group I for the 2018 World Cup qualifying campaign. together with Croatia, Finland, Iceland, Kosovo and Ukraine. During the qualifiers, head coach Fatih Terim stood down after an off-field incident, and 72-year-old former Romania manager Mircea Lucescu took over. After eight games, Turkey stood a strong chance of qualifying for the tournament, but a 0–3 defeat against Iceland at home ended automatic qualification hopes. After a 2–2 draw against Finland the team finished fourth in Group I.
### 2018–19 UEFA Nations League
Turkey was drawn with Russia and Sweden in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League B and Turkey had a poor performance which led the country to finish bottom. At the first game held at home against 2018 World Cup host and quarter-finalist Russia, Turkey lost 1–2 despite an equalizer by Serdar Aziz. Turkey then put up its best performance in the League, winning 3–2 against Sweden right in Swedish soil. However, Turkey could not capitalize on this opportunity and lost 0–2 to Russia in Sochi before suffering a humiliating 0–1 home loss to Sweden, thus initially sent Turkey to League C. However, UEFA rule changes meant Turkey was allowed to remain in League B.
### Euro 2020
Turkey were drawn in group H in the qualifying stage along with the 2018 FIFA World Cup champions France, as well as Iceland, Albania, Moldova and Andorra. Veteran coach Şenol Güneş revolutionised the team, with many young talents, combining them with experienced players like Burak Yılmaz and Emre Belözoglu. The team restructuring proved to be genius, as Turkey had one of the best campaigns in recent history.
Turkey managed to achieve a 2–0 victory against the group favourites France in Konya and later a 1–1 draw at Stade de France. Turkey struggled against the group underdogs Andorra in their first match against them, winning by a 89th-minute goal at the Vodafone Arena in Istanbul. Turkey's only defeat in the group came against Iceland in Reykjavik, losing 2–1. The defeat came after ill-treatment of the Turkish group at the Iceland customs, keeping them at the airport for 3 hours. This was followed by an Icelandic supporter holding a toilet brush to team captain Emre Belozoglu as a pretend microphone during an interview. The events were heavily criticised by the Turkish and European media. In an interview Turkish Coach Şenol Güneş, said that had come here 40 years ago, nothing had changed about the stadium and the country, except that some Icelandic people had lost the hospitality they had 40 years ago. Turkey entered matchday 9 against Iceland as group leaders with 19 points. Turkey and Iceland were drawn 0–0 at Turk Telekom Arena in Istanbul. Though unable to defeat Iceland and losing the first place to France, a draw was enough to secure Turkey a spot in Euro 2020 finals, ahead of their away match against Andorra.
Turkey had the honor of opening the Euro 2020 Finals but it soon turned to be a night to forget for the Turkish. Turkey kicked off the European Championship with a 3–0 loss against Italy in Group A at the Olympic Stadium with Ciro Immobile and Lorenzo Insigne on target. Roberto Mancini's side had been frustrated by Turkey's defensive approach in the first half but broke through in the 53rd minute when a hard-hit cross from Domenico Berardi flew in off Turkey defender Merih Demiral for an own goal. They went to lose the next two games from both Switzerland and Wales, losing all three games in a row alongside debutants North Macedonia.
### 2020–21 UEFA Nations League
After qualifying for Euro 2020, Turkey entered with momentum, even though they had to face old foe Russia, alongside Hungary and Serbia in the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League B.
However, despite all these improvements, Turkey performed poorly in their two opening games in September 2020. The first game against Hungary at home saw Turkey suffer a 0–1 loss by a free kick from Dominik Szoboszlai. Going to Belgrade against Serbia, after repeated Serbian pressure, Turkey had a one-man advantage following Aleksandar Kolarov's red card, however the Turks failed to capitalise and were held goalless. This damaged their chances of qualifying for League A, as their next opponents in October will be Russia (who had had a strong start) and Hungary. The early poor performance could also represent a detrimental effect for Turkey, as this season's Nations League was used for the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification process.
Turkey continued to find its first win in the Nations League. Against Russia in Moscow, a team which Turkey has failed to win in Russian soil since its last win at 1966 and still finding its first win over the Russians since 1975 in general, Turkey once again failed to register a win, though they got an encouraging 1–1 draw thanked for Kenan Karaman's equaliser. Yet, the Turkish side disappointed with only a 2–2 draw over Serbia at home soil.
November 2020 proved to be very important as Turkey must gain important wins in order to stay or even better getting possible promotion. Their first game in this month's Nations League was against Russia, but Denis Cheryshev scored an early lead making the Turkish side looked hapless. Yet, a red card to Andrey Semyonov proved to be a game changer, and with a one-man advantage, the Turks turned the deficit to finally break down its winless run against Russia with a 3–2 home win. The Turks then traveled to Hungary with hope that a win against the Hungarians could mean possible promotion, at least if Russia lost to Serbia. However, while Russia suffered a humiliating 0–5 defeat away in Belgrade, Turkey failed to gain the advantage and instead lost 2–0 by the Hungarians, despite late pressure to find an equalizer in the second half. That meant Turkey and Serbia were tied on points, but with the Serbians scored two goals away from home in contrast to Turkey's failure to do the same in Belgrade, Turkey was relegated for the second time (the first season saw Turkey stayed due to Nations League overhauls) to 2022–23 UEFA Nations League C. Such outcome also meant Turkey will have to fight in order to get a direct 2022 FIFA World Cup ticket as play-off qualification appeared to be slim with their relegation, in which the 2022 World Cup qualifiers will occur in March 2021, which they did.
Kit suppliers
-------------
| Kit provider | Period |
| --- | --- |
| Germany Adidas | 1982–2003 |
| United States Nike | 2003–present |
Rivalries
---------
Turkey has developed several notable rivalries, the most well-known being with Croatia and Greece.
Turkey and Croatia have played each other nine times, with their first encounter at Euro 1996; where both countries made their debuts in the opening match, which Croatia won 1–0. A well-remembered match between them was at Euro 2008, which Turkey won on penalties after a 1–1 deadlock even after extra-time. With the win, Turkey reached the semi-finals in only their third appearance overall at the Euro finals. The two teams faced each other in the 2012 Euro qualifying play-offs, with Croatia winning 3–0 in the first-leg in Istanbul, and advancing to the tournament finals following a 0–0 draw in the second-leg. The two teams faced each other once again in a European competition at Euro 2016, playing in the opening match of Group D; with Croatia winning 1–0 through a sensational Luka Modrić volley. Only three months after the match at the *Euros*, the two teams played in their opening match in Group I of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying, which finished 1–1. Exactly one year after this, Turkey won the reverse fixture 1–0 at home, which played a key part in both countries' qualifying campaign, although Turkey would not qualify for World Cup while Croatia would go on to qualify and finish second in that edition.
Turkey also has a historical rivalry with Greece; having played them a total of 14 times, winning eight, drawing three and losing three games. Both countries have been described as "punching above their weight"; with Greece winning Euro 2004 despite being classified as underdogs prior to the competition, and Turkey followed-up their World Cup bronze medal in 2002 by advancing to the semi-finals of Euro 2008, where they were knocked out by Germany. Due to tension between the two countries and the dispute over Cyprus, coupled with several incidents occurring during matches between Turkish and Greek clubs, it has been described as one of the biggest international football rivalries.
Results and fixtures
--------------------
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
Win
Draw
Loss
Fixture
### 2022
Turkey v Luxembourg
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 22 September 2022 2022–23 UEFA Nations League | **Turkey** | **3–3** | **Luxembourg** | Istanbul, Turkey |
| 21:45 TRT (UTC+03:00) |
* Ünder 16' (pen.)
* Chanot 39' (o.g.)
* Yüksek 87'
| Report |
* Da Graça 8'
* Sinani 37'
* Rodrigues 69'
| Stadium: Başakşehir Fatih Terim StadiumAttendance: 12,708Referee: Tobias Stieler (Germany) |
Faroe Islands v Turkey
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 25 September 2022 2022–23 UEFA Nations League | **Faroe Islands** | **2–1** | **Turkey** | Tórshavn, Faroe Islands |
| 19:45 WEST (UTC+01:00) |
* Davidsen 51'
* Edmundsson 59'
| Report |
* Gürler 89'
| Stadium: TórsvøllurAttendance: 2,056Referee: Serhiy Boyko (Ukraine) |
Turkey v Scotland
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 16 November 2022 (2022-11-16) Friendly | **Turkey** | **2–1** | **Scotland** | Diyarbakır, Turkey |
| 20:00 TRT (UTC+03:00) |
* Kabak 40'
* Ünder 49'
| Report |
* McGinn 62'
| Stadium: Diyarbakır StadiumAttendance: 30,788Referee: Visar Kastrati (Kosovo) |
Turkey v Czech Republic
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 19 November 2022 (2022-11-19) Friendly | **Turkey** | **2–1** | **Czech Republic** | Gaziantep, Turkey |
| 20:00 TRT (UTC+03:00) |
* Ünal 31'
* Çalhanoğlu 70'
| Report |
* Černý 56'
| Stadium: Gaziantep StadiumAttendance: 29,017Referee: Willie Collum (Scotland) |
### 2023
Armenia v Turkey
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 25 March 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Armenia** | **1–2** | **Turkey** | Yerevan, Armenia |
| 21:00 AMT (UTC+04:00) |
* Kabak 10' (o.g.)
| Report |
* Kökcü 35'
* Aktürkoğlu 64'
| Stadium: Vazgen Sargsyan Republican StadiumAttendance: 14,125Referee: José María Sánchez Martínez (Spain) |
Turkey v Croatia
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 28 March 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Turkey** | **0–2** | **Croatia** | Bursa, Turkey |
| 21:45 TRT (UTC+03:00) | | Report |
* Kovačić 20', 45+4'
| Stadium: Bursa Metropolitan Municipality StadiumAttendance: 37,750Referee: Andreas Ekberg (Sweden) |
Latvia v Turkey
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 16 June 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Latvia** | **2–3** | **Turkey** | Riga, Latvia |
| 21:45 EEST (UTC+03:00) |
* Emsis 51'
* Tobers 90+4'
| Report |
* Bardakcı 23'
* Ünder 61'
* Kahveci 90+5'
| Stadium: Skonto StadiumAttendance: 6,287Referee: Tamás Bognár (Hungary) |
Turkey v Wales
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 19 June 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Turkey** | **2–0** | **Wales** | Samsun, Turkey |
| 21:45 TRT (UTC+03:00) |
* Nayir 72'
* Güler 80'
| Report | | Stadium: Samsun StadiumAttendance: 28,766Referee: Fabio Maresca (Italy) |
Turkey v Armenia
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 8 September 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Turkey** | **v** | **Armenia** | Eskişehir, Turkey |
| 21:45 TRT (UTC+03:00) | | Report | | Stadium: New Eskişehir Stadium |
Croatia v Turkey
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 12 October 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Croatia** | **v** | **Turkey** | Osijek, Croatia |
| 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | | Report | | Stadium: Opus Arena |
Turkey v Latvia
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 15 October 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Turkey** | **v** | **Latvia** | Adana, Turkey |
| 21:45 TRT (UTC+03:00) | | Report | | Stadium: New Adana Stadium |
Wales v Turkey
| | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 21 November 2023 UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying | **Wales** | **v** | **Turkey** | Cardiff, Wales |
| 19:45 BST (UTC+01:00) | | Report | | Stadium: Cardiff City Stadium |
Coaching staff
--------------
*As of 27 September 2021*
| Position | Name |
| --- | --- |
| Head coach | Germany Stefan Kuntz |
| Assistant coach(es) | Turkey Kenan Koçak |
| Germany Jan-Moritz Lichte |
| Fitness coach | Germany Axel Busenkell |
| Technical advisor | Turkey Muhsin Ertugral |
| Team manager | Turkey Hamit Altıntop |
Players
-------
### Current squad
The following players were called up for the UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying matches against Latvia and Wales on 16 and 19 June 2023, respectively.
*Caps and goals are correct as of 19 June 2023, after the match against Wales.*
| No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club
|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1GK | Mert Günok | (1989-03-01) 1 March 1989 (age 34) | 26 | 0 | Turkey Beşiktaş |
| 12 | 1GK | Muhammed Şengezer | (1997-01-05) 5 January 1997 (age 26) | 0 | 0 | Turkey İstanbul Başakşehir |
| 23 | 1GK | Uğurcan Çakır | (1996-04-05) 5 April 1996 (age 27) | 22 | 0 | Turkey Trabzonspor |
|
---
|
| 2 | 2DF | Zeki Çelik | (1997-02-17) 17 February 1997 (age 26) | 38 | 2 | Italy Roma |
| 3 | 2DF | Merih Demiral | (1998-03-05) 5 March 1998 (age 25) | 39 | 2 | Italy Atalanta |
| 4 | 2DF | Samet Akaydin | (1994-03-13) 13 March 1994 (age 29) | 1 | 0 | Turkey Fenerbahçe |
| 13 | 2DF | Eren Elmalı | (2000-07-07) 7 July 2000 (age 22) | 9 | 0 | Turkey Trabzonspor |
| 14 | 2DF | Abdülkerim Bardakcı | (1994-09-07) 7 September 1994 (age 28) | 2 | 1 | Turkey Galatasaray |
| 15 | 2DF | Ozan Kabak | (2000-03-25) 25 March 2000 (age 23) | 22 | 1 | Germany 1899 Hoffenheim |
| 20 | 2DF | Ferdi Kadıoğlu | (1999-10-07) 7 October 1999 (age 23) | 11 | 0 | Turkey Fenerbahçe |
| 22 | 2DF | Cenk Özkacar | (2000-10-06) 6 October 2000 (age 22) | 3 | 0 | Spain Valencia |
|
---
|
| 5 | 3MF | Salih Özcan | (1998-01-11) 11 January 1998 (age 25) | 11 | 0 | Germany Borussia Dortmund |
| 6 | 3MF | Orkun Kökçü | (2000-12-29) 29 December 2000 (age 22) | 22 | 2 | Portugal Benfica |
| 8 | 3MF | İrfan Kahveci | (1995-07-15) 15 July 1995 (age 27) | 26 | 2 | Turkey Fenerbahçe |
| 10 | 3MF | Hakan Çalhanoğlu *(captain)* | (1994-02-08) 8 February 1994 (age 29) | 78 | 17 | Italy Internazionale |
| 16 | 3MF | İsmail Yüksek | (1999-01-26) 26 January 1999 (age 24) | 6 | 1 | Turkey Fenerbahçe |
| 18 | 3MF | Salih Uçan | (1994-01-06) 6 January 1994 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | Turkey Beşiktaş |
| 21 | 3MF | Arda Güler | (2005-02-25) 25 February 2005 (age 18) | 4 | 1 | Turkey Fenerbahçe |
|
---
|
| 7 | 4FW | Kerem Aktürkoğlu | (1998-10-21) 21 October 1998 (age 24) | 21 | 4 | Turkey Galatasaray |
| 9 | 4FW | Barış Alper Yılmaz | (2000-05-23) 23 May 2000 (age 23) | 5 | 0 | Turkey Galatasaray |
| 11 | 4FW | Umut Nayir | (1993-06-28) 28 June 1993 (age 29) | 4 | 1 | Turkey Ümraniyespor |
| 17 | 4FW | Cengiz Ünder | (1997-07-14) 14 July 1997 (age 25) | 49 | 16 | France Marseille |
| 19 | 4FW | Kenan Karaman | (1994-03-05) 5 March 1994 (age 29) | 31 | 6 | Germany Schalke 04 |
| | 4FW | Umut Bozok | (1996-09-19) 19 September 1996 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | Turkey Trabzonspor |
### Recent call-ups
The following players have been called up for the team within the last twelve months.
| Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up
|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| GK | Altay BayındırINJ | (1998-04-14) 14 April 1998 (age 25) | 5 | 0 | Turkey Fenerbahçe | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| GK | Doğan Alemdar | (2002-10-29) 29 October 2002 (age 20) | 2 | 0 | France Rennes | v. Czech Republic, 19 November 2022 |
|
---
|
| DF | Çağlar Söyüncü | (1996-05-23) 23 May 1996 (age 27) | 53 | 2 | England Leicester City | v. Latvia, 16 June 2023 INJ |
| DF | Onur Bulut | (1994-04-16) 16 April 1994 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | Turkey Beşiktaş | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| DF | Tayyip Sanuç | (1999-12-17) 17 December 1999 (age 23) | 1 | 0 | Turkey Beşiktaş | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| DF | Kaan Ayhan | (1994-11-10) 10 November 1994 (age 28) | 51 | 5 | Italy Sassuolo | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| DF | Rıdvan Yılmaz | (2001-05-21) 21 May 2001 (age 22) | 6 | 0 | Scotland Rangers | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| DF | Ravil Tagir | (2003-05-06) 6 May 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Belgium Westerlo | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
|
---
|
| MF | Levin Öztunalı | (1996-03-15) 15 March 1996 (age 27) | 0 | 0 | Germany Union Berlin | *training camp*, May 2023 |
| MF | Abdülkadir Ömür | (1999-06-25) 25 June 1999 (age 24) | 10 | 0 | Turkey Trabzonspor | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| MF | Mehmet-Can Aydın | (2002-02-09) 9 February 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Germany Schalke 04 | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| MF | Emirhan İlkhan | (2004-06-01) 1 June 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Italy Sampdoria | v. Czech Republic, 19 November 2022 |
| MF | Berkay Özcan | (1998-02-15) 15 February 1998 (age 25) | 7 | 0 | Turkey İstanbul Başakşehir | v. Czech Republic, 19 November 2022 |
| MF | Deniz Türüç | (1993-01-29) 29 January 1993 (age 30) | 12 | 2 | Turkey İstanbul Başakşehir | v. Czech Republic, 19 November 2022 |
| MF | Berkan Kutlu | (1998-01-25) 25 January 1998 (age 25) | 7 | 0 | Turkey Galatasaray | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| MF | Tolga Ciğerci | (1992-03-23) 23 March 1992 (age 31) | 4 | 0 | Germany Hertha Berlin | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
|
---
|
| FW | Cenk TosunINJ | (1991-06-07) 7 June 1991 (age 32) | 49 | 18 | Turkey Beşiktaş | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| FW | Enes ÜnalINJ | (1997-05-10) 10 May 1997 (age 26) | 32 | 3 | Spain Getafe | v. Croatia, 28 March 2023 |
| FW | Deniz Undav | (1996-07-19) 19 July 1996 (age 26) | 0 | 0 | England Brighton & Hove Albion | *training camp*, March 2023 |
| FW | Doğukan Sinik | (1999-01-21) 21 January 1999 (age 24) | 6 | 2 | Turkey Antalyaspor | v. Czech Republic, 19 November 2022 |
| FW | Emre Mor | (1997-07-24) 24 July 1997 (age 25) | 15 | 1 | Turkey Fenerbahçe | v. Scotland, 16 November 2022 INJ |
| FW | Halil Dervişoğlu | (1999-12-08) 8 December 1999 (age 23) | 15 | 6 | England Burnley | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| FW | Serdar Dursun | (1991-10-19) 19 October 1991 (age 31) | 10 | 7 | Turkey Fenerbahçe | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| FW | Serdar Gürler | (1991-09-14) 14 September 1991 (age 31) | 8 | 1 | Turkey İstanbul Başakşehir | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
| FW | Yunus Akgün | (2000-07-07) 7 July 2000 (age 22) | 5 | 1 | Turkey Galatasaray | v. Faroe Islands, 25 September 2022 |
|
---
Notes* PRE = Preliminary squad/standby.
* INJ = Not part of the current squad due to injury.
* SUS = Player is suspended.
* RET = Retired from international football.
* COV = The player is not part of the current squad due to testing positive for COVID-19.
|
Player records
--------------
### Most capped players
*As of 16 November 2021*
Players in **bold** are still available to play in Turkey national team.
| Rank | Name | Caps | Goals | Career |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Rüştü Reçber | 120 | 0 | 1994–2012 |
| 2 | Hakan Şükür | 112 | 51 | 1992–2007 |
| 3 | Bülent Korkmaz | 102 | 2 | 1990–2005 |
| 4 | Emre Belözoğlu | 101 | 9 | 2000–2019 |
| 5 | Arda Turan | 100 | 17 | 2006–2017 |
| 6 | Tugay Kerimoğlu | 94 | 2 | 1990–2007 |
| 7 | Alpay Özalan | 90 | 4 | 1995–2005 |
| 8 | Hamit Altıntop | 82 | 7 | 2004–2014 |
| 9 | Mehmet Topal | 81 | 2 | 2008–2018 |
| 10 | Tuncay Şanlı | 80 | 22 | 2002–2010 |
### Top goalscorers
*As of 19 June 2023*
Players in **bold** are still available to play in Turkey national team.
| Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Hakan Şükür | 51 | 112 | 0.46 | 1992–2007 |
| 2 | Burak Yılmaz | 31 | 77 | 0.4 | 2006–2022 |
| 3 | Tuncay Şanlı | 22 | 80 | 0.28 | 2002–2010 |
| 4 | Lefter Küçükandonyadis | 21 | 46 | 0.46 | 1948–1963 |
| 5 | Metin Oktay | 19 | 36 | 0.53 | 1956–1968 |
| Cemil Turan | 19 | 44 | 0.43 | 1969–1979 |
| Nihat Kahveci | 19 | 68 | 0.28 | 2000–2011 |
| 8 | **Cenk Tosun** | 18 | 49 | 0.37 | 2013– |
| 9 | **Hakan Çalhanoğlu** | 17 | 78 | 0.22 | 2013– |
| Arda Turan | 17 | 100 | 0.17 | 2006–2017 |
|
### Most clean sheets
*As of 19 June 2023*
Players in **bold** are still available to play in Turkey national team.
| Rank | Player | Clean sheets | Caps | Ratio | Career |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Rüştü Reçber | **58** | 120 | 0.48 | 1994–2012 |
| 2 | Volkan Demirel | **22** | 63 | 0.35 | 2004–2014 |
| 3 | Turgay Şeren | **16** | 46 | 0.35 | 1950–1966 |
| 4 | **Volkan Babacan** | **15** | 35 | 0.43 | 2014– |
| 5 | **Mert Günok** | **13** | 26 | 0.5 | 2011– |
| 6 | Ömer Çatkıç | **10** | 19 | 0.53 | 2000–2005 |
| Engin İpekoğlu | **10** | 32 | 0.31 | 1989–1999 |
| 8 | Sabri Dino | **7** | 12 | 0.58 | 1969–1975 |
| **Sinan Bolat** | **7** | 12 | 0.58 | 2009– |
| **Uğurcan Çakır** | **7** | 22 | 0.32 | 2019– |
### Centuriate goals
As of 29 September 2020:
| Rank | Date | Scorer | Opponent | Score |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1st | 26 October 1923 | Zeki Rıza Sporel | Romania | 2–2 |
| 100th | 23 June 1954 | Mustafa Ertan | West Germany | 2–7 |
| 200th | 14 February 1973 | Osman Arpacıoğlu | Algeria | 4–0 |
| 300th | 27 February 1991 | Uğur Tütüneker | Yugoslavia | 1–1 |
| 400th | 27 March 1999 | Sergen Yalçın | Moldova | 2–0 |
| 500th | 9 October 2004 | Fatih Tekke | Kazakhstan | 4–0 |
| 600th | 5 September 2009 | Arda Turan | Estonia | 4–2 |
| 700th | 3 September 2015 | Selçuk İnan | Latvia | 1–1 |
| 800th | 13 November 2021 | Kerem Aktürkoğlu | Gibraltar | 6–0 |
Competitive record
------------------
### FIFA World Cup
| FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| Uruguay 1930 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* |
| Italy 1934 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* |
| France 1938 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* |
| Brazil 1950 | *Qualified but withdrew* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 |
|
| Switzerland 1954 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 10 | 11 | Squad | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
| Sweden 1958 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* |
| Chile 1962 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 4 |
| England 1966 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 4 | 19 |
| Mexico 1970 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| West Germany 1974 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 3 |
| Argentina 1978 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 9 | 5 |
| Spain 1982 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 1 | 22 |
| Mexico 1986 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | 24 |
| Italy 1990 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 12 | 10 |
| United States 1994 | 10 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 11 | 19 |
| France 1998 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 21 | 9 |
| South Korea Japan 2002 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **7** | **4** | **1** | **2** | **10** | **6** | **Squad** | 12 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 24 | 8 |
| Germany 2006 | *Did not qualify* | 14 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 27 | 13 |
| South Africa 2010 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 13 | 10 |
| Brazil 2014 | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 16 | 9 |
| Russia 2018 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 14 | 13 |
| Qatar 2022 | 11 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 28 | 19 |
| Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *TBD* | *TBD* |
| Total | Third place | 2/22 | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 20 | 17 | — | 139 | 53 | 27 | 59 | 204 | 206 |
| Turkey's FIFA World Cup history |
| --- |
| Year | Round | Score | Result | Date | Venue |
| 1954 | Group 2 | Turkey **1–4** West Germany | **Loss** | 17 June 1954 | Bern, Switzerland |
| Turkey **7–0** South Korea | **Win** | 20 June 1954 | Geneva, Switzerland |
| Turkey **2–7** West Germany | **Loss** | 23 June 1954 | Zürich, Switzerland |
| 2002 | Group C | Turkey **1–2** Brazil | **Loss** | 3 June 2002 | Ulsan, South Korea |
| Turkey **1–1** Costa Rica | **Draw** | 9 June 2002 | Incheon, South Korea |
| Turkey **3–0** China | **Win** | 13 June 2002 | Seoul, South Korea |
| Round of 16 | Turkey **1–0** Japan | **Win** | 18 June 2002 | Rifu, Japan |
| Quarter-final | Turkey **1–0** Senegal | **Win** | 22 June 2002 | Osaka, Japan |
| Semi-final | Turkey **0–1** Brazil | **Loss** | 26 June 2002 | Saitama, Japan |
| Third place play-off | Turkey **3–2** South Korea | **Win** | 29 June 2002 | Daegu, South Korea |
### UEFA European Championship
| UEFA European Championship record | | Qualifying record |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| France 1960 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Spain 1964 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 7 |
| Italy 1968 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 8 |
| Belgium 1972 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 13 |
| Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1976 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 10 |
| Italy 1980 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 5 |
| France 1984 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 16 |
| West Germany 1988 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 16 |
| Sweden 1992 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 14 |
| England 1996 | Group Stage | 16th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 5 | Squad | 8 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 16 | 8 |
| Belgium Netherlands 2000 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Squad | 10 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 16 | 7 |
| Portugal 2004 | *Did not qualify* | 10 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 19 | 8 |
| Austria Switzerland 2008 | **Semi-finals** | **3rd** | **5** | **2** | **1** | **2** | **8** | **9** | **Squad** | 12 | 7 | 3 | 2 | 25 | 11 |
| Poland Ukraine 2012 | *Did not qualify* | 12 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 13 | 14 |
| France 2016 | Group Stage | 17th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | Squad | 10 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 14 | 9 |
| Europe 2020 | 24th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 8 | Squad | 10 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 18 | 3 |
| Germany 2024 | *To Be Determined* | *To Be Determined* |
| Total | Third place | 5/16 | 18 | 4 | 2 | 12 | 14 | 30 | — | 120 | 51 | 29 | 40 | 152 | 152 |
| Turkey's UEFA European Championship history |
| --- |
| Year | Round | Score | Result | Date | Venue |
| 1996 | Group D | Turkey **0–1** Croatia | **Loss** | 11 June 1996 | Nottingham, England |
| Turkey **0–1** Portugal | **Loss** | 14 June 1996 | Nottingham, England |
| Turkey **0–3** Denmark | **Loss** | 19 June 1996 | Sheffield, England |
| 2000 | Group B | Turkey **1–2** Italy | **Loss** | 11 June 2000 | Arnhem, Netherlands |
| Turkey **0–0** Sweden | **Draw** | 15 June 2000 | Eindhoven, Netherlands |
| Turkey **2–0** Belgium | **Win** | 19 June 2000 | Brussels, Belgium |
| Quarter-final | Turkey **0–2** Portugal | **Loss** | 24 June 2000 | Amsterdam, Netherlands |
| 2008 | Group A | Turkey **0–2** Portugal | **Loss** | 7 June 2008 | Geneva, Switzerland |
| Turkey **2–1** Switzerland | **Win** | 11 June 2008 | Basel, Switzerland |
| Turkey **3–2** Czech Republic | **Win** | 15 June 2008 | Geneva, Switzerland |
| Quarter-final | Turkey **1–1** (pen. 3–1) Croatia | **Draw** | 20 June 2008 | Wien, Austria |
| Semi-final | Turkey **2–3** Germany | **Loss** | 25 June 2008 | Basel, Switzerland |
| 2016 | Group D | Turkey **0–1** Croatia | **Loss** | 12 June 2016 | Paris, France |
| Turkey **0–3** Spain | **Loss** | 17 June 2016 | Nice, France |
| Turkey **2–0** Czech Republic | **Win** | 21 June 2016 | Lens, France |
| 2020 | Group A | Turkey **0–3** Italy | **Loss** | 11 June 2021 | Rome, Italy |
| Turkey **0–2** Wales | **Loss** | 16 June 2021 | Baku, Azerbaijan |
| Turkey **1–3** Switzerland | **Loss** | 20 June 2021 | Baku, Azerbaijan |
|
### UEFA Nations League
| UEFA Nations League record |
| --- |
| Season | Division | Group | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | P/R | RK |
| 2018–19 | B | 2 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 7 | Same position | 22nd |
| 2020–21 | B | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 8 | Fall | 29th |
| 2022–23 | C | 1 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 18 | 5 | Rise | 35th |
| 2024–25 | B | *To be determined* |
| Total | 16 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 28 | 20 | 22nd |
### FIFA Confederations Cup
| FIFA Confederations Cup record |
| --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad |
| Saudi Arabia 1992 | *Did not qualify* |
| Saudi Arabia 1995 |
| Saudi Arabia 1997 |
| Mexico 1999 |
| South Korea Japan 2001 |
| France 2003 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **2** | **1** | **2** | **8** | **8** | **Squad** |
| Germany 2005 | *Did not qualify* |
| South Africa 2009 |
| Brazil 2013 |
| Russia 2017 |
| Total | Third place | 1/10 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 8 | — |
### Olympic Games
1968–1988 see Turkey national amateur football team. Football at the Summer Olympics has been an under-23 tournament since 1992.
| Olympic Games record |
| --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad |
| France 1924 | Round 1 | 13th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | Squad |
| Netherlands 1928 | 14th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Squad |
| Nazi Germany 1936 | 15th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | Squad |
| United Kingdom 1948 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 3 | Squad |
| Finland 1952 | 8th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 8 | Squad |
| Australia 1956 | *Withdrew* |
| Italy 1960 | Round 1 | 14th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 10 | Squad |
| Japan 1964 | *Did not qualify* |
| Mexico 1968 |
| West Germany 1972 |
| Canada 1976 |
| Soviet Union 1980 |
| United States 1984 | *Withdrew* |
| South Korea 1988 | *Did not qualify* |
| Since 1992 | *See Turkey national under-23 football team* |
| Total | Quarter-finals | 6/14 | 10 | 2 | 1 | 7 | 14 | 34 | — |
### Mediterranean Games
| Mediterranean Games record |
| --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| Egypt 1951 | *Did not participate* |
| Spain 1955 |
| Lebanon 1959 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **2** | **1** | **1** | **0** | **7** | **4** |
| Italy 1963 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **12** | **7** |
| Tunisia 1967 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 |
| Turkey 1971 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **0** | **4** | **1** |
| Algeria1975 | Group stage | 7th | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 5 |
| Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1979 | Group stage | 5th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
| Morocco 1983 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **4** | **5** |
| Syria 1987 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **3** | **0** | **2** | **6** | **2** |
| 1991–present | *See Turkey national under-20 football team* |
| Total | Runners-up | 8/10 | 32 | 15 | 7 | 10 | 41 | 33 |
### Mediterranean Cup
1. 1949
2. 1953
3. 1958
### Balkan Cup
| Balkan Cup record |
| --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| 1929–31 | *Did not participate* |
| Bulgaria 1931 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 |
| Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1932 | *Did not participate* |
| Romania 1933 |
| Greece 1934–35 |
| Bulgaria 1935 |
| Romania 1936 |
| Albania 1946 |
| 1947 |
| 1948 |
| 1973–76 | Semi-finals | 4th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 7 |
| 1977–80 | Group stage | 3rd | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 8 |
| Total | Runners-up | 3/12 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 13 | 20 |
### ECO Cup
| ECO Cup record |
| --- |
| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| Iran 1965 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
| Pakistan 1967 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 4 |
| Turkey 1969 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 2 |
| Iran 1970 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 |
| Pakistan 1974 | **Champions** | 1st | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| Iran 1993 | *Did not participate* |
| Total | 3 titles | 5/6 | 16 | 9 | 7 | 0 | 26 | 11 |
Head-to-head record
-------------------
The following table shows Turkey's all-time international record, as of 25 March 2023.[update]
Positive Record
Neutral Record
Negative Record
| Opponents | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Albania | 12 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 13 | 14 |
| Algeria | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 |
| Andorra | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 |
| Angola | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| Armenia | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 |
| Australia | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 |
| Austria | 16 | 7 | 1 | 8 | 22 | 18 |
| Azerbaijan | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 11 | 3 |
| Belarus | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 7 |
| Belgium | 11 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 17 | 18 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 7 |
| Brazil | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 10 |
| Bulgaria | 23 | 7 | 6 | 10 | 36 | 43 |
| Cameroon | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| Canada | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 |
| Chile | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
| China | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 |
| Colombia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
| Costa Rica | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| Croatia | 10 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 9 | 13 |
| Czech Republic | 20 | 6 | 3 | 12 | 18 | 44 |
| Denmark | 10 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 12 |
| East Germany | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 5 |
| Ecuador | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| Egypt | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 10 |
| England | 11 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 33 |
| Estonia | 8 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 17 | 4 |
| Ethiopia | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
| Faroe Islands | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 3 |
| Finland | 15 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 24 | 22 |
| France | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 13 |
| Georgia | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 5 |
| Germany | 21 | 3 | 4 | 14 | 16 | 52 |
| Ghana | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
| Gibraltar | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 |
| Greece | 14 | 9 | 2 | 3 | 22 | 11 |
| Guinea | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Honduras | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| Hungary | 14 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 17 | 31 |
| Iceland | 13 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 11 | 23 |
| Iran | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 2 |
| Iraq | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| Israel | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 12 |
| Italy | 15 | 0 | 4 | 11 | 10 | 29 |
| Ivory Coast | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| Japan | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Kazakhstan | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 2 |
| Kosovo | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 |
| Latvia | 8 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 18 | 15 |
| Libya | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Liechtenstein | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 |
| Lithuania | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 |
| Luxembourg | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 18 | 9 |
| Malaysia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
| Malta | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 15 | 4 |
| Moldova | 13 | 11 | 2 | 0 | 35 | 3 |
| Montenegro | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 5 |
| Netherlands | 14 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 14 | 21 |
| New Zealand | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
| North Macedonia | 8 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 14 | 9 |
| Northern Ireland | 12 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 12 | 12 |
| Norway | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 15 | 16 |
| Pakistan | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 20 | 10 |
| Paraguay | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Poland | 17 | 3 | 3 | 11 | 12 | 39 |
| Portugal | 9 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 9 | 19 |
| Qatar | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
| Republic of Ireland | 14 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 16 | 27 |
| Romania | 26 | 5 | 7 | 14 | 24 | 49 |
| Russia | 23 | 4 | 3 | 16 | 14 | 40 |
| San Marino | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 16 | 1 |
| Saudi Arabia | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 |
| Scotland | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 |
| Senegal | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| Slovakia | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 3 |
| Slovenia | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
| South Africa | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 |
| South Korea | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 13 | 4 |
| Spain | 11 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 17 |
| Serbia | 12 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 16 | 28 |
| Sweden | 12 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 15 | 14 |
| Switzerland | 16 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 22 | 23 |
| Syria | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 |
| Thailand | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
| Tunisia | 5 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 6 | 3 |
| Ukraine | 9 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 11 | 9 |
| United States | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 |
| Uruguay | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Uzbekistan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
| Wales | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 9 | 12 |
| Total (92) | 614 | 239 | 144 | 231 | 834 | 875 |
1. ↑ Includes the results of Czechoslovakia.
2. ↑ Includes the results of West Germany.
3. ↑ Includes the results of Soviet Union.
4. ↑ Includes the results of Yugoslavia.
Honours
-------
* **FIFA World Cup**
+ Third place (1): 2002
* **FIFA Confederations Cup**
+ Third place (1): 2003
* **UEFA European Championship**
+ Semi-finals (1): 2008
### Decoration
In 2002, the national team was honored with the Turkish "State Medal of Distinguished Service" for their third place achievement at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. All the team members, coaches and officials were given medals.
See also
--------
* Turkey national under-21 football team
* Turkey national under-20 football team
* Turkey national under-19 football team
* Turkey national under-17 football team
* Turkey national youth football team
Notes
Citations
1. ↑ "Türkiye sneak through as best third-placed team". UEFA. 14 October 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
2. ↑ Jeffree, Iain (6 August 2015). "FIFA Country Codes". *RSSSF*. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
3. ↑ "The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking". *FIFA*. 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
4. ↑ "TFF » İş Ortakları" (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
5. ↑ "Türkiye". *www.fifa.com*. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
6. ↑ UEFA.com. "Turkish Football Federation". *UEFA.com*. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
7. ↑ "Futbol Denen Oyun..." [This game, refer to as "football"]. *Milliyet* (in Turkish). 10 February 1982. p. 14.
8. ↑ "Türkiye 1950 Dünya Kupası'na şartlar yüzünden gidemedi!" (in Turkish). Milliyet. Anadolu News Agency. 27 May 2014. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
9. ↑ "Zirveye Koşuyoruz". *Milliyet* (in Turkish). 10 June 2004. p. 34.
10. ↑ "Türkiye, FIFA dünya sıralamasında yeniden 10. sıraya yükseldi" (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. 17 December 2008. Archived from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
11. ↑ "A Milli Takım'ın Tarihteki 'En'leri" (in Turkish). Hürriyet. Anadolu News Agency. 20 November 2007. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
12. ↑ "Türkiye, İngiltere'ye ilk golü arıyor" (in Turkish). NTV (Turkey). 10 October 2003. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
13. ↑
14. ↑ "Türk futbolundan Turgay Şeren geçti" (in Turkish). Milliyet. Anadolu News Agency. 12 July 2016. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
15. ↑ Erdinç, Sivritepe. "Turkey 2–2 Romania". *Turkey international football matches*. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
16. ↑ "Magical Magyars beating". Retrieved 16 September 2010.
17. ↑ "Brazil beat brave Turks". *BBC Sport*. 3 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
18. ↑ "Parks strike denies Turkey". *BBC Sport*. 14 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
19. ↑ "Turkey reach last 16". *BBC Sport*. 13 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
20. ↑ "Turkey end Japan's dream". *BBC Sport*. 18 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
21. ↑ "Turkey's golden delight". *BBC Sport*. 22 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
22. ↑ "Brazil stride into final". *BBC Sport*. 26 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
23. ↑ "Turkey finish in style". *BBC Sport*. 29 June 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
24. ↑ "World Cup Rewind: Hakan Şükür scores the tournament's fastest ever goal". *guinnessworldrecords.com*. Guinness World Records. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
25. ↑ Fastest Goals in World Cup History
26. ↑ "Turkey heroes return home". *BBC Sport*. 1 July 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
27. ↑ "Portugal 2–0 Turkey". *BBC Sport*. 7 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
28. ↑ "Switzerland 1–2 Turkey". *BBC Sport*. 11 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
29. ↑ "Turkey 3–2 Czech R & Switzerland 2–0 Portugal". *BBC Sport*. 15 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
30. ↑ "Turkey edge out Czechs in thriller". *FIFA.com*. FIFA. 15 June 2008. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
31. ↑ "Croatia 1–1 Turkey (1–3 pens)". *BBC Sport*. 20 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
32. ↑ "Germany 3–2 Turkey". *BBC Sport*. 25 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
33. ↑ "Terim Resignation". *Guardian Sport*. 7 June 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
34. ↑ "Turkey marks 500th match". *Hürriyet Daily News*. 14 November 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
35. ↑ Er, İsmail (15 November 2012). "Türkiye 1–1 Danimarka". *Hürriyet Spor* (in Turkish). Retrieved 15 November 2012.
36. ↑ "Terim leaves Turkey role after brawl". *goal.com*. Goal. 26 July 2017. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
37. ↑ "Euro 2020 team guides part 3: Turkey". *Guardian*. 1 June 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
38. ↑ "Croatia and Turkey resume old European rivalry in Paris". *AP News*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
39. ↑ "Croatia national football team: record v Turkey". *www.11v11.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
40. ↑ uefa.com (6 October 2003). "UEFA EURO 1996 - History - Turkey-Croatia – UEFA.com". *Uefa.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
41. ↑ uefa.com (20 June 2008). "UEFA EURO 2008 - History - Croatia-Turkey – UEFA.com". *Uefa.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
42. ↑ uefa.com (11 November 2011). "UEFA EURO 2012 - History - Turkey-Croatia – UEFA.com". *Uefa.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
43. ↑ uefa.com (15 November 2011). "UEFA EURO 2012 - History - Croatia-Turkey – UEFA.com". *Uefa.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
44. ↑ "Turkey 0-1 Croatia". *BBC Sport*. 12 June 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
45. ↑ "[VIDEO] Modrić golčinom srušio žestoke Turke!". *Hrvatska radiotelevizija*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
46. ↑ FIFA.com. "2018 FIFA World Cup Russia™ - Matches - Croatia-Turkey - FIFA.com". *FIFA.com*. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
47. ↑ FIFA.com. "2018 FIFA World Cup Russia™ - Matches - Turkey-Croatia - FIFA.com". *FIFA.com*. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
48. ↑ "[VIDEO] Hrvatska izgubila u Eskisehiru, Turci slavili 1:0". *Hrvatska radiotelevizija*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
49. ↑ "Turkey national football team: record v Greece". *www.11v11.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
50. ↑ Duke, Greg. "Top 10 international rivalries". *edition.cnn.com*. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
51. ↑ "Turkey vs. Luxembourg" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 22 September 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
52. ↑ "Faroe Islands vs. Turkey" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 25 September 2022. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
53. ↑ "Türkiye vs. Scotland". Mackolik. 16 November 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
54. ↑ "Türkiye vs. Czechia". Mackolik. 19 November 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
55. ↑ "Armenia vs. Turkey" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 25 March 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
56. ↑ "Turkey vs. Croatia" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 28 March 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
57. ↑ "Latvia vs. Turkey" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 16 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
58. ↑ "Turkey vs. Wales" (JSON). Union of European Football Associations. 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
59. ↑ "A Milli Takım Teknik Kadrosu" [Technical Staff of Senior National Team] (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
60. ↑ "Koçak ve Lichte, A Millî Takım teknik ekibine katıldı" [Koçak and Lichte joined in the Technical Staff of Turkey National Team] (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. 27 September 2021.
61. ↑ "TFF Yönetim Kurulu Üyeleri" [TFF Members of Board of Directors] (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
62. ↑ "Final Squad". *Twitter*. TFF.
63. ↑ "En Fazla Milli Olan Oyuncularımız" (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
64. ↑ Mamrud, Roberto. "Turkey - Record International Players". *RSSSF*.
65. ↑ "En Fazla Fazla Gol Atan Oyuncularımız" (in Turkish). Turkish Football Federation. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
66. ↑ "Milli Takım Maçları". Turkish Football Federation. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
67. ↑ "Türkiye'nin 700. golü Selçuk İnan'dan" (in Turkish). Haberturk. 4 September 2015. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
68. ↑ "A Milli Takım 700. gole yakın!" (in Turkish). Milliyet. 11 June 2015. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
69. ↑ "Hata Sayfası". *tccb.gov.tr*. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
Bibliography
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* Çakır, Ahmet (2002). *Milli Takım ve Dünya Kupası* (in Turkish). Istanbul: Altın Kitaplar. ISBN 9752102662.
* Demirkol, Mehmet (2002). *Tae Han Min Guk 2002 Dünya Kupası Mektupları* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 975050075X.
* Dilek, Hakan (2002). *İşte Böyle Bir Şey* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 9789750500206.
* Kıvanç, Halit (2004). *Futbol! Bir Aşk...* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 9789750502576.
* Yüce, Mehmet (2014). *Osmanlı Melekleri: Futbol Tarihimizin Kadim Devreleri Türkiye Futbol Tarihi - Birinci Cilt* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 9789750515804.
* Yüce, Mehmet (2015). *İdmancı Ruhlar: Futbol Tarihimizin Klasik Devreleri: 1923-1952 Türkiye Futbol Tarihi - 2. Cilt* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 9789750516955.
* Yüce, Mehmet (2016). *Romantik Yürekler: Futbol Tarihimizin Yeni Devreleri: 1952-1992 Türkiye Futbol Tarihi 3. Cilt* (in Turkish). Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları. ISBN 9789750519932. | Turkey national football team | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey_national_football_team | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt9\" class=\"infobox\" id=\"mwBw\"><caption class=\"infobox-title\">Türkiye</caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg\" title=\"Shirt badge/Association crest\"><img alt=\"Shirt badge/Association crest\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"500\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"500\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"180\" resource=\"./File:Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg/180px-Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg/270px-Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg/360px-Roundel_flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"180\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./List_of_national_association_football_teams_by_nickname\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of national association football teams by nickname\">Nickname(s)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span title=\"Turkish-language text\"><i lang=\"tr\">Ay-Yıldızlılar</i></span><br/>(The Crescent-Stars)<br/>\n<span title=\"Turkish-language text\"><i lang=\"tr\">Bizim Çocuklar</i></span><br/>(The Our Boys)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Association</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Turkish_Football_Federation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkish Football Federation\">Turkish Football Federation</a> (TFF)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Confederation</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UEFA\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA\">UEFA</a> (Europe)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Head coach</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Stefan_Kuntz\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Stefan Kuntz\">Stefan Kuntz</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Captain_(association_football)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Captain (association football)\">Captain</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Hakan_Çalhanoğlu\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hakan Çalhanoğlu\">Hakan Çalhanoğlu</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Most <a href=\"./Cap_(sport)#Association_football\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cap (sport)\">caps</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Rüştü_Reçber\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Rüştü Reçber\">Rüştü Reçber</a> (120)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Top scorer</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Hakan_Şükür\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hakan Şükür\">Hakan Şükür</a> (51)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Home stadium</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./List_of_football_stadiums_in_Turkey\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of football stadiums in Turkey\">Various</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./List_of_FIFA_country_codes\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of FIFA country codes\">FIFA code</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">TUR</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" style=\"padding: 0; background: #ffffff; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #D3D3D3;\">\n<table style=\"width:100%; text-align:center;\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td><div style=\"width: 100px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 0;\">\n<div style=\"position: relative; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 100px; height: 135px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 0;\">\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px; background-color: #FFFFFF;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Team colours\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_left_arm_tur22h.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Kit_left_arm_tur22h.png\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_left_arm.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/31px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/47px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/62px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png 2x\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 31px; top: 0px; width: 38px; height: 59px; background-color: #FFFFFF;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"38\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_body_tur22h.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Kit_body_tur22h.png\" width=\"38\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 31px; top: 0px; width: 38px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"38\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_body.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/38px-Kit_body.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/57px-Kit_body.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/76px-Kit_body.svg.png 2x\" width=\"38\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 69px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px; background-color: #FFFFFF;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_right_arm_tur22h.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Kit_right_arm_tur22h.png\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 69px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_right_arm.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/31px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/47px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/62px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png 2x\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 59px; width: 100px; height: 36px; background-color: #FFFFFF\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"36\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"36\" resource=\"./File:Kit_shorts_tur22h.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Kit_shorts_tur22h.png\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 59px; width: 100px; height: 36px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"36\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"36\" resource=\"./File:Kit_shorts.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/100px-Kit_shorts.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/150px-Kit_shorts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/200px-Kit_shorts.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 95px; width: 100px; height: 40px; background-color: #FFFFFF\"></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 95px; width: 100px; height: 40px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"40\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"40\" resource=\"./File:Kit_socks_long.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/100px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/150px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/200px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n</div>\n<div style=\"padding-top: 0.6em; text-align: center;\"><b>First <a href=\"./Kit_(association_football)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kit (association football)\">colours</a></b></div>\n</div></td><td><div style=\"width: 100px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 0;\">\n<div style=\"position: relative; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 100px; height: 135px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 0;\">\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px; background-color: #E10016;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Team colours\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_left_arm_tur22a.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Kit_left_arm_tur22a.png\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_left_arm.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/31px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/47px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg/62px-Kit_left_arm.svg.png 2x\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 31px; top: 0px; width: 38px; height: 59px; background-color: #FF0000;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"38\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_body_tur22a.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Kit_body_tur22a.png\" width=\"38\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 31px; top: 0px; width: 38px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"38\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_body.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/38px-Kit_body.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/57px-Kit_body.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kit_body.svg/76px-Kit_body.svg.png 2x\" width=\"38\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 69px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px; background-color: #E10016;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_right_arm_tur22a.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Kit_right_arm_tur22a.png\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 69px; top: 0px; width: 31px; height: 59px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"59\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"31\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"59\" resource=\"./File:Kit_right_arm.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/31px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/47px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg/62px-Kit_right_arm.svg.png 2x\" width=\"31\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 59px; width: 100px; height: 36px; background-color: #E10016\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"36\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"36\" resource=\"./File:Kit_shorts_tur22a.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Kit_shorts_tur22a.png\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 59px; width: 100px; height: 36px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"36\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"36\" resource=\"./File:Kit_shorts.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/100px-Kit_shorts.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/150px-Kit_shorts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg/200px-Kit_shorts.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 95px; width: 100px; height: 40px; background-color: #E10016\"></div>\n<div style=\"position: absolute; left: 0px; top: 95px; width: 100px; height: 40px;\"><span class=\"mw-default-size mw-valign-top\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"40\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"100\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"40\" resource=\"./File:Kit_socks_long.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/100px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/150px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg/200px-Kit_socks_long.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></span></span></div>\n</div>\n<div style=\"padding-top: 0.6em; text-align: center;\"><b>Second <a href=\"./Kit_(association_football)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kit (association football)\">colours</a></b></div>\n</div></td></tr>\n</tbody></table></td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./FIFA_Men's_World_Ranking\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"FIFA Men's World Ranking\">FIFA ranking</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Current</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"> 43 <span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Increase\"><img alt=\"Increase\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"300\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"300\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Increase2.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span> 1 (6 April 2023)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Highest</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5 (June 2004)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Lowest</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">67 (October 1993)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">First international</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a></span> 2–2 <a href=\"./Romania_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Romania national football team\">Romania</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"400\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"600\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Romania.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span><br/>(<a href=\"./Istanbul\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Istanbul\">Istanbul</a>, Turkey; 26 October 1923)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Biggest win</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a></span> 7–0 <a href=\"./Syria_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Syria national football team\">Syria</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Syria_(1932-1958;_1961-1963).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./Ankara\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ankara\">Ankara</a>, Turkey; 20 November 1949) <br/> <span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a></span> 7–0 <a href=\"./South_Korea_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"South Korea national football team\">South Korea</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"600\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"900\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_South_Korea_(1949–1984).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./Geneva\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Geneva\">Geneva</a>, Switzerland; 20 June 1954) <br/><span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a></span> 7–0 <a href=\"./San_Marino_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"San Marino national football team\">San Marino</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"960\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1280\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_San_Marino_(1862–2011).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg/31px-Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_San_Marino_%28pre_2011%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"20\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./Istanbul\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Istanbul\">Istanbul</a>, Turkey; 10 November 1996)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Biggest defeat</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1280\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Poland_(1928–1980).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Poland_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Poland national football team\">Poland</a></span> 8–0 <a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./Chorzów\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Chorzów\">Chorzów</a>, Poland; 24 April 1968) <br/> <span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a></span> 0–8 <a href=\"./England_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"England national football team\">England</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"480\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"800\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_England.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./Istanbul\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Istanbul\">Istanbul</a>, Türkiye; 14 November 1984) <br/> <span style=\"white-space:nowrap\"><span class=\"flagicon\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"480\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"800\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_England.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><a href=\"./England_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"England national football team\">England</a></span> 8–0 <a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey</a><span class=\"flagicon\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x\" width=\"23\"/></span></span></span> <br/> (<a href=\"./London\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"London\">London</a>, England; 14 October 1987)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./FIFA_World_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"FIFA World Cup\">World Cup</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Appearances</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2 (<i>first in <a href=\"./1954_FIFA_World_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"1954 FIFA World Cup\">1954</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Best result</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Third place (<a href=\"./2002_FIFA_World_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2002 FIFA World Cup\">2002</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./UEFA_European_Championship\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA European Championship\">European Championship</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Appearances</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5 (<i>first in <a href=\"./UEFA_Euro_1996\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA Euro 1996\">1996</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Best result</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Semi-finals (<a href=\"./UEFA_Euro_2008\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA Euro 2008\">2008</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Football_at_the_Summer_Olympics\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Football at the Summer Olympics\">Olympic Games</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Appearances</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">6 (<i>first in <a href=\"./Football_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Football at the 1924 Summer Olympics\">1924</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Best result</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Quarter-finals (<a href=\"./Football_at_the_1948_Summer_Olympics\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Football at the 1948 Summer Olympics\">1948</a>, <a href=\"./Football_at_the_1952_Summer_Olympics\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Football at the 1952 Summer Olympics\">1952</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./FIFA_Confederations_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"FIFA Confederations Cup\">FIFA Confederations Cup</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Appearances</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1 (<i>first in <a href=\"./2003_FIFA_Confederations_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2003 FIFA Confederations Cup\">2003</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Best result</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Third place (<a href=\"./2003_FIFA_Confederations_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2003 FIFA Confederations Cup\">2003</a>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\"text-align:center; font-size:95%\">\n<div style=\"line-height:1.6em; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ccf; font-size:105%; background-color:transparent;\"><div style=\"margin:0 4em;\">Medal record</div></div>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\"font-size:105%;\">\n<table style=\"width:100%; background-color:#f9f9f9; color:#000000; font-weight:normal;\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td></td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;background-color:#cccccc;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./FIFA_World_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"FIFA World Cup\">FIFA World Cup</a></span></th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Bronze medal – third place\"><img alt=\"Bronze medal – third place\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"16\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"16\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Bronze_medal_icon_(B_initial).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/16px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/24px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/32px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"16\"/></span></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./2002_FIFA_World_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2002 FIFA World Cup\">2002 South Korea-Japan</a></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><a href=\"./2002_FIFA_World_Cup_squads#Türkiye\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2002 FIFA World Cup squads\">Team</a></td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;background-color:#cccccc;\"><a href=\"./UEFA_European_Championship\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA European Championship\">UEFA European Championship</a></th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Bronze medal – third place\"><img alt=\"Bronze medal – third place\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"16\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"16\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Bronze_medal_icon_(B_initial).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/16px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/24px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/32px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"16\"/></span></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./UEFA_Euro_2008\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA Euro 2008\">2008 Austria & Switzerland</a></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><a href=\"./UEFA_Euro_2008_squads#Türkiye\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA Euro 2008 squads\">Team</a></td></tr>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;background-color:#cccccc;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./FIFA_Confederations_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"FIFA Confederations Cup\">FIFA Confederations Cup</a></span></th></tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Bronze medal – third place\"><img alt=\"Bronze medal – third place\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"16\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"16\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Bronze_medal_icon_(B_initial).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/16px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/24px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg/32px-Bronze_medal_icon_%28B_initial%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"16\"/></span></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"./2003_FIFA_Confederations_Cup\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2003 FIFA Confederations Cup\">2003 France</a></span></td><td style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\"><a href=\"./2003_FIFA_Confederations_Cup_squads#Turkey\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2003 FIFA Confederations Cup squads\">Team</a></td></tr>\n</tbody></table>\n</div></div></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Website</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.tff.org/\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">tff.org</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Militakim1922.jpg",
"caption": "One of the early formations in 1922."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ilkmac1923.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey against Romania in 1923."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Voetbal_Nederland_tegen_Turkije_in_het_Olympisch_stadion_Elftallen,_Bestanddeelnr_909-5589.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey against Netherlands in 1958"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Stamp_of_Azerbaijan_425.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey national football team on an Azerbaijan stamp for Euro 1996."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Turkey_national_football_team_stamp.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey national football team on an Azerbaijan stamp for the 2002 FIFA World Cup."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:5_juin_2009,_stade_Gerland_à_Lyon._France_-_Turquie_(1-0).jpg",
"caption": "Turkey against France on 5 June 2009."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tuerkische_Fußballnationalmannschaft_2011-09-06_(02).jpg",
"caption": "The Turkish team during the UEFA Euro 2012 qualification."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:AUT_vs._TUR_2016-03-29_(001).jpg",
"caption": "Turkey against Austria on 29 March 2016."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Rustu_Recber_2010.jpg",
"caption": "Rüştü Reçber is Turkey's most capped player with 120 caps and Turkey's record holder in clean sheets."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Hakan.jpg",
"caption": "Hakan Şükür is Turkey's all-time record goalscorer with 51 goals."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:AUT_vs._TUR_2016-03-29_(253).jpg",
"caption": "Selçuk İnan scored Turkey's 700th overall goal in November 2015"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ilk-turk-milli-takımı.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Egypt-Turkey_1928_Summer_Olympics.jpg",
"caption": "Turkey at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam."
}
] |
55,386 | **Ashkelon** or **Ashqelon** (/ˈæʃkəlɒn/; Hebrew: , *ʾAšqəlōn*, [aʃkeˈlon]; Philistine: 𐤀𐤔𐤒𐤋𐤍 *\*ʾAšqalōn*), also known as **Ascalon** (/ˈæskəlɒn/; Ancient Greek: Ἀσκάλων, *Askalōn*; Arabic: عَسْقَلَان, *ʿAsqalān*), is a coastal city in the Southern District of Israel on the Mediterranean coast, 50 kilometres (30 mi) south of Tel Aviv, and 13 kilometres (8 mi) north of the border with the Gaza Strip.
The modern city is named after the ancient seaport of Ashkelon, which was destroyed in 1270 and whose remains can now be seen at the archaeological site known as Tel Ashkelon on the southwestern edge of the modern metropolis. These ruins date back to the Neolithic Age, and saw the passage of numerous civilizations, including the Ancient Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Hasmoneans, Romans, Persians, the Arabs and Crusaders. The Palestinian village of Al-Jura was formerly immediately adjacent to the ruins.
The modern urban development of the area began approximately 4 km inland from the ancient site as the Palestinian town of **al-Majdal** (Arabic: الْمِجْدَل *al-Mijdal*; Hebrew: אֵל־מִגְ׳דַּל *ʾĒl-Mīǧdal*). Its inhabitants were exclusively Muslims and Christians; on the eve of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War the inhabitants numbered 10,000 and in October 1948, the city accommodated thousands more Palestinian refugees from nearby villages. The town was conquered by Israeli forces on 5 November 1948, by which time much of the Arab population had fled, leaving some 2,700 inhabitants, of which 500 were deported by Israeli soldiers in December 1948 and most of the rest were deported by 1950. Today, the city's population is almost entirely Jewish.
Migdal was initially repopulated by Jewish immigrants and demobilized soldiers. It was subsequently renamed multiple times, first as Migdal Gaza, Migdal Gad and Migdal Ashkelon, until in 1953 the coastal neighborhood of Afridar was incorporated and the name "Ashkelon" was adopted for the combined town. By 1961, Ashkelon was ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000. In 2021 the population of Ashkelon was 149,160, making it the third-largest city in Israel's Southern District.
Etymology
---------
The name Ashkelon is probably western Semitic, and might be connected to the triliteral root *š-q-l* ("to weigh" from a Semitic root *ṯql*, akin to Hebrew *šāqal* שָקַל or Arabic *θiql* ثِقْل "weight") perhaps attesting to its importance as a center for mercantile activities. Its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic as ŠQLN (𐤔𐤒𐤋𐤍) and ʾŠQLN (𐤀𐤔𐤒𐤋𐤍). *Scallion* and *shallot* are derived from *Ascalonia*, the Latin name for Ashkelon.
History
-------
The area of modern Ashkelon cover the land of: Al Majdal, Hamama, Al-Jura, Al-Khisas and Ni'ilya.The ruins of the ancient cityImages from the 1871-77 PEF Survey of Palestine
### Early history
#### Tel Ashkelon
The archaeological site of Ashkelon, today known as Tel Ashkelon, was the oldest and largest seaport in Canaan, part of the pentapolis (a grouping of five cities) of the Philistines, north of Gaza and south of Jaffa.
The site was an important city during the Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic periods, and particularly during the period of the Crusades, due to its location near the coast and between the Crusader States and Egypt. The Battle of Ascalon was the last action of the First Crusade. In 1270, the Mamluk sultan Baybars ordered the citadel and harbour at the site to be destroyed. As a result of this destruction, the city was abandoned by its inhabitants and fell into disuse.
#### El-Jurah
The Palestinian village of Al-Jura (El-Jurah) stood northeast of and immediately adjacent to Tel Ashkelon and is documented in Ottoman tax registers.
#### Majdal
The Arab village of Majdal was mentioned by historians and tourists at the end of the 15th century. In 1596, Ottoman records showed Majdal to be a large village of 559 Muslim households, making it the 7th-most-populous locality in Palestine after Safad, Jerusalem, Gaza, Nablus, Hebron and Kafr Kanna.
An official Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that *Medschdel* had a total of 420 houses and a population of 1175, though the population count included men only.
### Mandatory Palestine
2018 street map overlaid on 1941 map
1942 map without overlayAshkelon street map (date 2018, white text and light grey streets) overlaid on a Survey of Palestine map (date 1942, black text, red urban areas and black streets), showing the relative locations of Al Majdal, Hamama, Al-Jura, Al-Khisas and Ni'ilya
#### El-Jurah
El-Jurah was depopulated during the 1948 war.
#### Majdal
In the 1922 census of Palestine, *Majdal* had a population of 5,064; 33 Christians and 5,031 Muslims, increasing in the 1931 census to 6,166 Muslims and 41 Christians.
In the 1945 statistics Majdal had a population of 9,910; ninety Christians and 9,820 Muslims, with a total (urban and rural) of 43,680 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Two thousand two hundred and fifty dunes were public land; all the rest was owned by Arabs. of the dunams, 2,337 were used for citrus and bananas, 2,886 were plantations and irrigable land, 35,442 for cereals, while 1,346 were built-up land.
Majdal was especially known for its weaving industry. The town had around 500 looms in 1909. In 1920 a British Government report estimated that there were 550 cotton looms in the town with an annual output worth 30–40 million francs. But the industry suffered from imports from Europe and by 1927 only 119 weaving establishments remained. The three major fabrics produced were "malak" (silk), 'ikhdari' (bands of red and green) and 'jiljileh' (dark red bands). These were used for festival dresses throughout Southern Palestine. Many other fabrics were produced, some with poetic names such as *ji'nneh u nar* ("heaven and hell"), *nasheq rohoh* ("breath of the soul") and *abu mitayn* ("father of two hundred").
### Israel
During the 1948 war, the Egyptian army occupied a large part of the Gaza region including Majdal. Over the next few months, the town was subjected to Israeli air-raids and shelling. All but about 1,000 of the town's residents were forced to leave by the time it was captured by Israeli forces as a sequel to Operation Yoav on 4 November 1948. General Yigal Allon ordered the expulsion of the remaining Palestinians but the local commanders did not do so and the Arab population soon recovered to more than 2,500 due mostly to refugees slipping back and also due to the transfer of Palestinians from nearby villages. Most of them were elderly, women, or children. During the next year or so, the Palestinians were held in a confined area surrounded by barbed wire, which became commonly known as the "ghetto". Moshe Dayan and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion were in favor of expulsion, while Mapam and the Israeli labor union Histadrut objected. The government offered the Palestinians positive inducements to leave, including a favorable currency exchange, but also caused panic through night-time raids. The first group was deported to the Gaza Strip by truck on 17 August 1950 after an expulsion order had been served. The deportation was approved by Ben-Gurion and Dayan over the objections of Pinhas Lavon, secretary-general of the Histadrut, who envisioned the town as a productive example of equal opportunity. By October 1950, twenty Palestinian families remained, most of whom later moved to Lydda or Gaza. According to Israeli records, in total 2,333 Palestinians were transferred to the Gaza Strip, 60 to Jordan, 302 to other towns in Israel, and a small number remained in Ashkelon. Lavon argued that this operation dissipated "the last shred of trust the Arabs had in Israel, the sincerity of the State's declarations on democracy and civil equality, and the last remnant of confidence the Arab workers had in the Histadrut." Acting on an Egyptian complaint, the Egyptian-Israel Mixed Armistice Commission ruled that the Palestinians transferred from Majdal should be returned to Israel, but this was not done.
Ashkelon was formally granted to Israel in the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Re-population of the recently vacated Arab dwellings by Jews had been official policy since at least December 1948, but the process began slowly. The Israeli national plan of June 1949 designated al-Majdal as the site for a regional urban center of 20,000 people. From July 1949, new immigrants and demobilized soldiers moved to the new town, increasing the Jewish population to 2,500 within six months. These early immigrants were mostly from Yemen, North Africa, and Europe. During 1949, the town was renamed Migdal Gaza, and then Migdal Gad. Soon afterwards it became Migdal Ashkelon. The city began to expand as the population grew. In 1951, the neighborhood of Afridar was established for Jewish immigrants from South Africa, and in 1953 it was incorporated into the city. The current name Ashkelon was adopted and the town was granted local council status in 1953. In 1955, Ashkelon had more than 16,000 residents. By 1961, Ashkelon ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000. This grew to 43,000 in 1972 and 53,000 in 1983. In 2005, the population was more than 106,000.
On 1–2 March 2008, rockets fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip (some of them Grad rockets) hit Ashkelon, wounding seven, and causing property damage. Mayor Roni Mahatzri stated that "This is a state of war, I know no other definition for it. If it lasts a week or two, we can handle that, but we have no intention of allowing this to become part of our daily routine." In March 2008, 230 buildings and 30 cars were damaged by rocket fire on Ashkelon.
On 12 May 2008, a rocket fired from the northern Gazan city of Beit Lahiya hit a shopping mall in southern Ashkelon, causing significant structural damage. According to *The Jerusalem Post*, four people were seriously injured and 87 were treated for shock. Fifteen people suffered minor to moderate injuries as a result of the collapsed structure. Southern District Police chief Uri Bar-Lev believed the Grad-model Katyusha rocket was manufactured in Iran.
In March 2009, a Qassam rocket hit a school, destroying classrooms and injuring two people.
In November 2014, the mayor, Itamar Shimoni, began a policy of discrimination against Arab workers, refusing to allow them to work on city projects to build bomb shelters for children. His discriminatory actions brought criticism from others, including Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat who likened the discrimination to the anti-Semitism experienced by Jews in Europe 70 years earlier.
On May 11, 2021, Hamas fired 137 rockets on Ashkelon killing 2 and injuring many others.
Panorama of modern Ashkelon
Urban development
-----------------
In 1949 and 1950, three immigrant transit camps (ma'abarot) were established alongside Majdal (renamed Migdal) for Jewish refugees from Arab countries, Romania and Poland. Northwest of Migdal and the immigrant camps, on the lands of the depopulated Palestinian village al-Jura, entrepreneur Zvi Segal, one of the signatories of Israel's Declaration of Independence, established the upscale Barnea neighborhood.
A large tract of land south of Barnea was handed over to the trusteeship of the South African Zionist Federation, which established the neighborhood of Afridar. Plans for the city were drawn up in South Africa according to the garden city model. Migdal was surrounded by a broad ring of orchards. Barnea developed slowly, but Afridar grew rapidly. The first homes, built in 1951, were inhabited by new Jewish immigrants from South Africa and South America, with some native-born Israelis. The first public housing project for residents of the transit camps, the Southern Hills Project (Hageva'ot Hadromiyot) or Zion Hill (Givat Zion), was built in 1952.
Under a plan signed in October 2015, seven new neighborhoods comprising 32,000 housing units, a new stretch of highway, and three new highway interchanges will be built, turning Ashkelon into the sixth-largest city in Israel.[*needs update*]
Economy
-------
Ashkelon is the northern terminus for the Trans-Israel pipeline, which brings petroleum products from Eilat to an oil terminal at the port. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant is the largest in the world. The project was developed as a BOT (build–operate–transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran. In March 2006, it was voted "Desalination Plant of the Year" in the Global Water Awards.
Since 1992, Israel Beer Breweries has been operating in Ashkelon, brewing Carlsberg and Tuborg beer for the Israeli market. The brewery is owned by the Central Bottling Company, which has also held the Israeli franchise for Coca-Cola products since 1968.
Education
---------
The city has 19 elementary schools, and nine junior high and high schools. The Ashkelon Academic College opened in 1998, and now hosts thousands of students. Harvard University operates an archaeological summer school program in Ashkelon.
Landmarks
---------
### Ashkelon National Park
The ancient site of Ashkelon is now a national park on the city's southern coast. The walls that encircled the city are still visible, as well as Canaanite earth ramparts. The park contains Byzantine, Crusader and Roman ruins. The largest dog cemetery in the ancient world was discovered in Ashkelon.
### Bath Houses
In 1986 ruins of 4th- to 6th-century baths were found in Ashkelon. The bath houses are believed to have been used for prostitution. The remains of nearly 100 mostly male infants were found in a sewer under the bathhouse, leading to conjectures that prostitutes had discarded their unwanted newborns there.
### Religious sites
#### Places of worship
The remains of a 4th-century Byzantine church with marble slab flooring and glass mosaic walls can be seen in the Barnea Quarter. Remains of a synagogue from this period have also been found.
#### Maqam al-Imam al-Husayn
An 11th-century mosque, Maqam al-Imam al-Husayn, a site of pilgrimage for both Sunnis and Shiites, which had been built under the Fatimids by Badr al-Jamali and where tradition held that the head of Mohammad's grandson Hussein ibn Ali was buried, was blown up by the IDF under instructions from Moshe Dayan as part of a broader programme to destroy mosques in July 1950. The area was subsequently redeveloped for a local Israeli hospital, Barzilai. After the site was re-identified on the hospital grounds, funds from Mohammed Burhanuddin, leader of a Shi'a Ismaili sect based in India, were used to construct a small marble prayer platform, which is visited by Shi'ite pilgrims from India and Pakistan.
#### Shrines
A domed structure housing the 13th-century tomb of Sheikh Awad sits atop a hill overlooking Ashkelon's northern beaches.
A Roman burial tomb two kilometres north of Ashkelon Park was discovered in 1937. There are two burial tombs, a painted Hellenistic cave and a Roman cave. The Hellenistic cave is decorated with paintings of nymphs, water scenes, mythological figures and animals.
### Museums
Ashkelon Khan and Museum contains archaeological finds, among them a replica of Ashkelon's Canaanite silver calf, whose discovery was reported on the front page of *The New York Times*.
The Outdoor Museum near the municipal cultural center displays two Roman burial coffins made of marble depicting battle and hunting scenes, and famous mythological scenes.
### Others
The Ashkelon Marina, located between Delila and Bar Kochba beaches, offers a shipyard and repair services. Ashkeluna is a water-slide park on Ashkelon beach.
Health care
-----------
Ashkelon and environs is served by the Barzilai Medical Center, established in 1961. It was built in place of Hussein ibn Ali's 11th-century mosque, a center of Muslim pilgrimages, destroyed by the Israeli army in 1950. Situated ten kilometres (6 mi) from Gaza, the hospital has been the target of numerous Qassam rocket attacks, sometimes as many as 140 over one weekend. The hospital plays a vital role in treating wounded soldiers and terror victims. A new rocket and missile-proof emergency room is under construction.
Demographics
------------
Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1955 | 16,600 | — |
| 1961 | 24,300 | +46.4% |
| 1972 | 43,000 | +77.0% |
| 1983 | 52,900 | +23.0% |
| 1995 | 83,100 | +57.1% |
| 2008 | 110,600 | +33.1% |
| 2010 | 114,500 | +3.5% |
| 2011 | 117,400 | +2.5% |
| Source: *
|
In the early years, the city was primarily settled by Mizrahi Jews, who fled to Israel after being expelled from Muslim lands. Today, Mizrahi Jews still constitute the majority of the population. In the early 1950s, many South African Jews settled in Ashkelon, establishing the Afridar neighbourhood. They were followed by an influx of immigrants from the United Kingdom. During the 1990s, the city received additional arrivals of Ethiopian Jews and Russian Jews.
Culture and sports
------------------
The Ashkelon Sports Arena opened in 1999. The "Jewish Eye" is a Jewish world film festival that takes place annually in Ashkelon. The festival marked its seventh year in 2010. The Breeza Music Festival has been held yearly in and around Ashkelon's amphitheatre since 1992. Most of the musical performances are free. Israel Lacrosse operates substantial youth lacrosse programs in the city and recently hosted the Turkey men's national team in Israel's first home international in 2013.
Photos
------
* Park AfridarPark Afridar
* Night view from Marina Night view from Marina
* Beach of Ashqelon Beach of Ashqelon
* Sea view Sea view
* Ha-Tayassim street Ha-Tayassim street
* Pedestrian mall, AshkelonPedestrian mall, Ashkelon
Twin towns – sister cities
--------------------------
Ashkelon is twinned with:
* Canada Côte Saint-Luc, Quebec, Canada
* Belarus Grodno, Belarus
* China Xinyang, China
* Chile Iquique, Chile
* France Aix-en-Provence, France
* Georgia (country) Vani, Georgia
* Georgia (country) Kutaisi, Georgia
* Italy Aviano, Italy
* Germany Berlin-Pankow, Germany
* Poland Sopot, Poland
* Uganda Entebbe, Uganda
* United States Portland, Oregon, United States
* United States Baltimore, Maryland, United States
* United States Sacramento, California, United States
Notable people
--------------
* Antiochus of Ascalon (125–68 BC), Platonic philosopher
* Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (1372–1449), Islamic hadith scholar
* Yael Abecassis (born 1967), actress and model
* Yitzhak Cohen (born 1951), politician
* Avi Dichter (born 1952), Israeli politician
* Shlomo Glickstein (born 1958), professional tennis player
* Boris Polak (born 1954), world champion and Olympic sport shooter
See also
--------
* List of cities of the ancient Near East
* Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Askalon
Bibliography
------------
* Barron, J.B., ed. (1923). *Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922*. Government of Palestine.
* Canaan, T. (1927). *Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine*. London: Luzac & Co.
* Garfinkel, Y.; Dag, D.; Hesse, B.; Wapnish, P.; Rookis, D.; Hartman, G.; Bar-Yosef, D.E.; Lernau, O. (2005). "*Neolithic Ashkelon*: Meat Processing and Early Pastoralism on the Mediterranean Coast". *Eurasian Prehistory*. **3**: 43–72.
* Garfinkel, Y.; Dag, D. (2008). *Neolithic Ashkelon*. Qedem 47. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University. OCLC 494272503.
* Golan, Arnon (2003). "Jewish Settlement of Former Arab Towns and their Incorporation into the Israeli Urban System (1948–1950)". *Israel Affairs*. **9** (1–2): 149–164. doi:10.1080/714003467. S2CID 144137499.
* Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics (1945). *Village Statistics, April, 1945*.
* Hadawi, S. (1970). *Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine*. Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center. Archived from the original on 8 December 2018. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
* Hartmann, M. (1883). "Die Ortschaftenliste des Liwa Jerusalem in dem türkischen Staatskalender für Syrien auf das Jahr 1288 der Flucht (1871)". *Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins*. **6**: 102–149.
* Hartmann, R. & Lewis, B. (1960). "Askalan". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). *The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume I: A–B*. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 710–711. OCLC 495469456.
* Huss, Werner (1985), *Geschichte der Karthager*, Munich: C.H. Beck, ISBN 9783406306549. (in German)
* Hütteroth, Wolf-Dieter; Abdulfattah, Kamal (1977). *Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century*. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft. ISBN 3-920405-41-2.
* Kafkafi, Eyal (1998). "Segregation or Integration of the Israeli Arabs: Two Concepts in Mapai". *International Journal of Middle East Studies*. **30** (3): 347–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800066216. S2CID 161862941.
* Khalidi, W. (1992). *All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948*. Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 0-88728-224-5.
* Lecker, Michael (1989). "The Estates of 'Amr b. al-'Āṣ in Palestine: Notes on a New Negev Arabic Inscription". *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London*. **52** (1): 24–37. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00023041. JSTOR 617911. S2CID 163092638.
* Mills, E., ed. (1932). *Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas*. Jerusalem: Government of Palestine.
* Morris, Benny (2004). *The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6.
* Petersen, Andrew (2001). *A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine (British Academy Monographs in Archaeology)*. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 210-213. ISBN 978-0-19-727011-0.
* Socin, A. (1879). "Alphabetisches Verzeichniss von Ortschaften des Paschalik Jerusalem". *Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins*. **2**: 135–163.
* Townsend, Christopher (2006). *God's War: A New History of the Crusades*. Penguin Books ltd. ISBN 978-0-7139-9220-5. | Ashkelon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkelon | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt11\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\" id=\"mwDA\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Ashkelon</div>\n<div class=\"nickname ib-settlement-native\"><div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><span title=\"Hebrew-language text\"><span dir=\"rtl\" lang=\"he\"><span class=\"script-hebrew\" dir=\"rtl\" style=\"font-size: 115%; \">אַשְׁקְלוֹן</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span></span></li><li><span title=\"Arabic-language text\"><span dir=\"rtl\" lang=\"ar\"><span class=\"script-arabic script-Arab\" dir=\"rtl\" style=\"font-size: 125%; \">عسقلان</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span></span></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a href=\"./List_of_cities_in_Israel\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of cities in Israel\">City</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Hebrew<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>transcription(s)</th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./ISO_259\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"ISO 259\">ISO 259</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">ʔašqlon</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Translit.</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Ashkelon</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Also spelled</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Ashqelon, Ascalon (unofficial)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Ashkelon2022No1.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2880\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2880\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"250\" resource=\"./File:Ashkelon2022No1.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ashkelon2022No1.jpg/250px-Ashkelon2022No1.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ashkelon2022No1.jpg/375px-Ashkelon2022No1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ashkelon2022No1.jpg/500px-Ashkelon2022No1.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg\" title=\"Flag of Ashkelon\"><img alt=\"Flag of Ashkelon\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"800\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1200\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"67\" resource=\"./File:Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg/100px-Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg/150px-Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg/200px-Flag_of_Ashkelon.svg.png 2x\" width=\"100\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Flag</div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"420\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"347\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"73\" resource=\"./File:Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg/60px-Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Ashqelon.svg.png 2x\" width=\"60\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Israel_outline_ashkelon.png\" title=\"Ashkelon is located in Ashkelon region of Israel\"><img alt=\"Ashkelon is located in Ashkelon region of Israel\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"430\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"692\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"155\" resource=\"./File:Israel_outline_ashkelon.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_outline_ashkelon.png/250px-Israel_outline_ashkelon.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_outline_ashkelon.png/375px-Israel_outline_ashkelon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_outline_ashkelon.png/500px-Israel_outline_ashkelon.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:45.815%;left:54.715%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Ashkelon\"><img alt=\"Ashkelon\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Ashkelon</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Ashkelon region of Israel</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Israel_relief_location_map.jpg\" title=\"Ashkelon is located in Israel\"><img alt=\"Ashkelon is located in Israel\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1141\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"614\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"465\" resource=\"./File:Israel_relief_location_map.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-Israel_relief_location_map.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-Israel_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Israel_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-Israel_relief_location_map.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:43.643%;left:33.346%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Ashkelon\"><img alt=\"Ashkelon\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Ashkelon</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Israel</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ashkelon&params=31_40_N_34_34_E_region:IL_type:city(149160)\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">31°40′N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">34°34′E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">31.667°N 34.567°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">31.667; 34.567</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt33\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./List_of_sovereign_states\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of sovereign states\">Country</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Israel\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Israel\">Israel</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Districts_of_Israel\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Districts of Israel\">District</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Southern_District_(Israel)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Southern District (Israel)\">Southern</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Founded</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"plainlist\">\n<ul><li>5880 BCE (Neolithic settlement)</li>\n<li>2000 BCE (Canaanite city)</li>\n<li>1150 BCE (Philistine rule)</li>\n<li>6th century BCE (Classical city)</li>\n<li>15th century CE (Arab village)</li>\n<li>1953 (Israeli city)</li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Mayor</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tomer Glam\"]}}' href=\"./Tomer_Glam?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tomer Glam\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Tomer Glam</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">47,788<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Dunam\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dunam\">dunams</a> (47.788<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>or<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>18.451<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(2021)</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Total</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">149,160</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,100/km<sup>2</sup> (8,100/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Website</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://www.ashkelon.muni.il/Pages/default.aspx\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">www.ashkelon.muni.il</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Majdal11.png",
"caption": "Weavers in Majdal, 1934–39"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:The_area_around_Isdud_and_Majdal_in_the_UN_Palestine_Partition_Versions_1947_(cropped).jpg",
"caption": "The area around Majdal had been allocated to the Arab state in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ashkelon_region_in_the_1950s.jpg",
"caption": "The beginnings of the modern city of Ashkelon shown in the 1950s Survey of Israel. The built up area labeled אשקלון (Ashkelon) is the area previously known as Majdal. To the left is Afridar. The ruins of Hamama, Al-Jura, Ni'ilya and Al-Khisas are also shown."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ashqelon.jpg",
"caption": "High-rise residential development along the beach"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:מרינה_אשקלון.PNG",
"caption": "Ashkelon Marina"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Rocketpopmap.jpeg",
"caption": "Ashkelon is located in the 20–30 seconds' run to safety area due to grad rocket range"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Holiday_Inn_Ashkelon_Hotel.JPG",
"caption": "Holiday Inn and 13th-century tomb of Sheikh Awad"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ashkelon_Academic_College.jpg",
"caption": "Ashkelon Academic College"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Muslim_Celebrations_at_Wady_Nemil_and_Al_Husayn_Shrine_in_Ashkelon.jpg",
"caption": "Muslims at Mejdal, April 1943, with Maqam al-Imam al-Husayn in the background."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ashkelon_Marina_Breakwater_Light_2008-03-15.jpg",
"caption": "Ashkelon marina breakwater"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Barzilai03.JPG",
"caption": "Barzilai Medical Center"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:קבוצת-עירוני-אשקלון.jpg",
"caption": "Ashkelon arena"
}
] |
156,754 | **Yogurt** (UK: /ˈjɒɡərt/; US: /ˈjoʊɡərt/, from Turkish: *yoğurt*, also spelled **yoghurt**, **yogourt** or **yoghourt**) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as *yogurt cultures*. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cow's milk is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, and yaks are also used to produce yogurt. The milk used may be homogenized or not. It may be pasteurized or raw. Each type of milk produces substantially different results.
Yogurt is produced using a culture of *Lactobacillus delbrueckii* subsp. *bulgaricus* and *Streptococcus thermophilus* bacteria. In addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. Some countries require yogurt to contain a specific amount of colony-forming units (CFU) of bacteria; in China, for example, the requirement for the number of lactobacillus bacteria is at least 1 million CFU per milliliter.
The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a warm temperature of 30–45 °C (86–113 °F) is maintained for 4 to 12 hours to allow fermentation to occur, with the higher temperatures working faster but risking a lumpy texture or whey separation.
Etymology and spelling
----------------------
The word is derived from Turkish: *yoğurt*, and is usually related to the verb *yoğurmak*, "to knead", or "to be curdled or coagulated; to thicken". It may be related to *yoğun*, meaning thick or dense. The sound ğ was traditionally rendered as "gh" in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615–1625.
In English, spelling variations include *yogurt*, *yoghurt*, and to a lesser extent *yoghourt* or *yogourt*. In the United Kingdom, the word is usually spelled *yoghurt* while in the United States the spelling is *yogurt*. In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the British spelling is dominant. Canada has its own spelling, *yogourt*, a minority variant of the French *yaourt*, although *yogurt* and *yoghurt* are also used.
History
-------
Analysis of the *L. delbrueckii* subsp. *bulgaricus* genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, or bacteria may have been transferred from the udder of domestic milk-producing animals. The origins of yogurt are unknown, but it was probably invented by Neolithic people in Central Asia and Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, when the first milk-producing animals were domesticated. They most likely found out how to ferment milk by chance and in all likelihood, yogurt was discovered independently in this way in many different places at different times.
The cuisine of ancient Greece included a dairy product known as oxygala (οξύγαλα) which was a form of yogurt. Galen (AD 129 – c. 200/c. 216) mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today. The oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain "barbarous nations" knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity". The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books *Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk* by Mahmud Kashgari and *Kutadgu Bilig* by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century. Both texts mention the word "yogurt" in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks. The earliest yogurts were probably spontaneously fermented by wild bacteria in goat skin bags.
Some accounts suggest that Mughal Indian emperor Akbar's cooks would flavor yogurt with mustard seeds and cinnamon. Another early account of a European encounter with yogurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yogurt. Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food that had cured him.
Until the 1900s, yogurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe/Balkans, Central Europe, and the Indian subcontinent. Stamen Grigorov (1878–1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod-like lactic acid-producing bacteria. In 1907, the rod-like bacterium was called *Bacillus bulgaricus* (now *Lactobacillus delbrueckii* subsp. *bulgaricus*). The Russian biologist and Nobel laureate Ilya Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov's work and hypothesized that regular consumption of yogurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing *Lactobacillus* to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularize yogurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe.
Isaac Carasso industrialized the production of yogurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yogurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel") after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanized version of the name: Dannon. Yogurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague.
Yogurt was introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff's *The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies* (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing. It was popularized by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas, and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery" in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1929.
Colombo Yogurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse-drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon" which was later changed to "yogurt", the Turkish language name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities who were the main consumers at that time. Yogurt's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food by scientists like Hungarian-born bacteriologist Stephen A. Gaymont. Plain yogurt still proved too sour for the American palate and in 1966 Colombo Yogurt sweetened the yogurt and added fruit preserves, creating "fruit on the bottom" style yogurt. This was successful and company sales soon exceeded $1 million per year. By the late 20th century, yogurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010.
Market and consumption
----------------------
In 2017, the average American ate 13.7 pounds (6.2 kg) of yogurt. The average consumption of yogurt has been declining since 2014.
Sale of yogurt was down 3.4 percent over the 12 months ending in February 2019.[*where?*] The decline of Greek-style yogurt has allowed Icelandic skyr to gain a foothold in the United States with sales of the latter increasing 24 percent in 2018 to $173 million.
Nutrition
---------
Yogurt (plain yogurt from whole milk) is 81% water, 9% protein, 5% fat, and 4% carbohydrates, including 4% sugars (table). A 100-gram amount provides 406 kilojoules (97 kcal) of dietary energy. As a proportion of the Daily Value (DV), a serving of yogurt is a rich source of vitamin B12 (31% DV) and riboflavin (23% DV), with moderate content of protein, phosphorus, and selenium (14 to 19% DV; table).
Comparison of whole milk and plain yogurt from whole milk, one cup (245 g) each| Property | Milk | Yogurt |
| --- | --- | --- |
|
| Energy | 610 kJ (146 kcal) | 620 kJ (149 kcal) |
| Total carbohydrates | 12.8 g | 12 g |
| Total fat | 7.9 g | 8.5 g |
| Cholesterol | 24 mg | 32 mg |
| Protein | 7.9 g | 9 g |
| Calcium | 276 mg | 296 mg |
| Phosphorus | 222 mg | 233 mg |
| Potassium | 349 mg | 380 mg |
| Sodium | 98 mg | 113 mg |
| Vitamin A | 249 IU | 243 IU |
| Vitamin C | 0.0 mg | 1.2 mg |
| Vitamin D | 96.5 IU | ~ |
| Vitamin E | 0.1 mg | 0.1 mg |
| Vitamin K | 0.5 μg | 0.5 μg |
| Thiamine | 0.1 mg | 0.1 mg |
| Riboflavin | 0.3 mg | 0.3 mg |
| Niacin | 0.3 mg | 0.2 mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 0.1 mg | 0.1 mg |
| Folate | 12.2 μg | 17.2 μg |
| Vitamin B12 | 1.1 μg | 0.9 μg |
| Choline | 34.9 mg | 37.2 mg |
| Betaine | 1.5 mg | ~ |
| Water | 215 g | 215 g |
| Ash | 1.7 g | 1.8 g |
|
Tilde (~) represents missing or incomplete data.
The above shows little difference exists between whole milk and yogurt made from whole milk with respect to the listed nutritional constituents.
Health research
---------------
Because it may contain live cultures, yogurt is often associated with probiotics, which have been postulated as having positive effects on immune, cardiovascular or metabolic health.
As of the early 21st century, high-quality clinical evidence was insufficient to conclude that consuming yogurt lowers the risk of diseases or otherwise improves health. Meta-analyses found that consuming 80 grams per day of low-fat yogurt was associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes and a lower incidence of hip fracture in post-menopausal women. A 2021 review found a cause-and-effect relationship between yogurt consumption and improved lactose tolerance and digestion, and that potential associations exist between yogurt consumption and improving bone health, as well as lowering the risk of some diseases, including cancers and metabolic syndrome.
Safety
------
Yogurt made with raw milk can be contaminated with bacteria that can cause significant illness and even result in death, including *Listeria*, *Cryptosporidium*, *Campylobacter*, *Brucella*, *Escherichia coli* and *Salmonella*. Yogurts can also be contaminated with aflatoxin-producing *Aspergillus flavus*, *Aspergillus parasiticus* and *Aspergillus nomius*.
Contamination occurs in traditionally prepared yogurts more often than industrially processed ones, but may affect the latter as well if manufacturing and packaging practices are suboptimal.
When mold forms on yogurt it can not be scraped away. The consistency of yogurt allows the mold to penetrate deeply under the surface where it spreads.
Varieties and presentation
--------------------------
*Dahi* is a yogurt from the Indian subcontinent, known for its characteristic taste and consistency. The word *dahi* seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word *dadhi* ("sour milk"), one of the five elixirs, or panchamrita, often used in Hindu ritual. Sweetened dahi (*mishti doi* or *meethi dahi*) is common in eastern parts of India, made by fermenting sweetened milk. While cow's milk is currently the primary ingredient for yogurt, goat and buffalo milk were widely used in the past, and valued for the fat content (see buffalo curd).
Dadiah or dadih is a traditional West Sumatran yogurt made from water buffalo milk, fermented in bamboo tubes. Yogurt is common in Nepal, where it is served as both an appetizer and dessert. Locally called *dahi*, it is a part of the Nepali culture, used in local festivals, marriage ceremonies, parties, religious occasions, family gatherings, and so on. One Nepalese yogurt is called *juju dhau*, originating from the city of Bhaktapur. In Tibet, yak milk (technically dri milk, as the word yak refers to the male animal) is made into yogurt (and butter and cheese) and consumed.
In Northern Iran, *Mâst Chekide* is a variety of kefir yogurt with a distinct sour taste. It is usually mixed with a pesto-like water and fresh herb purée called delal. Common appetizers are spinach or eggplant borani, *Mâst-o-Khiâr* with cucumber, spring onions and herbs, and *Mâst-Musir* with wild shallots. In the summertime, yogurt and ice cubes are mixed together with cucumbers, raisins, salt, pepper and onions and topped with some croutons made of Persian traditional bread and served as a cold soup. Ashe-Mâst is a warm yogurt soup with fresh herbs, spinach and lentils. Even the leftover water extracted when straining yogurt is cooked to make a sour cream sauce called kashk, which is usually used as a topping on soups and stews.
Matsoni is a Georgian yogurt in the Caucasus and Russia. Tarator and *cacık* are cold soups made from yogurt during summertime in eastern Europe. They are made with ayran, cucumbers, dill, salt, olive oil, and optionally garlic and ground walnuts. Tzatziki in Greece and milk salad in Bulgaria are thick yogurt-based salads similar to tarator.
Khyar w Laban (cucumber and yogurt salad) is a dish in Lebanon and Syria. Also, a wide variety of local Lebanese and Syrian dishes are cooked with yogurt like "Kibbi bi Laban" Rahmjoghurt, a creamy yogurt with much higher fat content (10%) than many yogurts offered in English-speaking countries. Dovga, a yogurt soup cooked with a variety of herbs and rice, is served warm in winter or refreshingly cold in summer. Jameed, yogurt salted and dried to preserve it, is consumed in Jordan. Zabadi is the type of yogurt made in Egypt, usually from the milk of the Egyptian water buffalo. It is particularly associated with Ramadan fasting, as it is thought to prevent thirst during all-day fasting.
### Sweetened and flavored
To offset its natural sourness, yogurt is also sold sweetened, sweetened and flavored or in containers with fruit or fruit jam on the bottom. The two styles of yogurt commonly found in the grocery store are set-style yogurt and Swiss-style yogurt. Set-style yogurt is poured into individual containers to set, while Swiss-style yogurt is stirred prior to packaging. Either may have fruit added to increase sweetness.
Lassi is a common Indian beverage made from stirred liquified yogurt that is either salted or sweetened with sugar commonly, less commonly honey and combined with fruit pulp to create flavored lassi. Consistency can vary widely, with urban and commercial lassis having uniform texture through being processed, whereas rural and rustic lassi has discernible curds or fruit pulp.
Large amounts of sugar – or other sweeteners for low-energy yogurts – are often used in commercial yogurt. Some yogurts contain added modified starch, pectin (found naturally in fruit) or gelatin to create thickness and creaminess. This type of yogurt may be marketed under the name Swiss-style, although it is unrelated to conventional Swiss yogurt. Some yogurts, often called "cream line", are made with whole milk which has not been homogenized so the cream rises to the top. In many countries, sweetened, flavored yogurt is common, typically sold in single-serving plastic cups. Common flavors may include vanilla, honey, and toffee, and various fruits. In the early 21st century, yogurt flavors inspired by desserts, such as chocolate or cheesecake, became common. There is concern about the health effects of sweetened yogurt due to its high sugar content, although research indicates that use of sugar in yogurt manufacturing has decreased since 2016 in response to WHO and government initiatives to combat obesity.
### Straining
Strained yogurt has been strained through a filter, traditionally made of muslin and more recently of paper or non-muslin cloth. This removes the whey, giving a much thicker consistency. Strained yogurt is made at home, especially if using skimmed milk which results in a thinner consistency. Yogurt that has been strained to filter or remove the whey is known as Labneh in Middle Eastern countries. It has a consistency between that of yogurt and cheese. It may be used for sandwiches in Middle Eastern countries. Olive oil, cucumber slices, olives, and various green herbs may be added. It can be thickened further and rolled into balls, preserved in olive oil, and fermented for a few more weeks. It is sometimes used with onions, meat, and nuts as a stuffing for a variety of pies or kibbeh balls.
Some types of strained yogurts are boiled in open vats first, so that the liquid content is reduced. The East Indian dessert, a variation of traditional dahi called mishti dahi, offers a thicker, more custard-like consistency, and is usually sweeter than western yogurts. In western Indian (Marathi and Gujarati) cuisine, strained yogurt is macerated with sugar and spices such as saffron, cardamom and nutmeg to make the dessert "shrikhand". Strained yogurt is also enjoyed in Greece and is the main component of *tzatziki* (from Turkish "*cacık*"), a well-known accompaniment to gyros and souvlaki pita sandwiches: it is a yogurt sauce or dip made with the addition of grated cucumber, olive oil, salt and, optionally, mashed garlic. Srikhand, a dessert in India, is made from strained yogurt, saffron, cardamom, nutmeg and sugar and sometimes fruits such as mango or pineapple.
In North America, strained yogurt is commonly called "Greek yogurt". Powdered milk is sometimes added in lieu of straining to achieve thickness. In Britain as "Greek-style yogurt". In Britain the name "Greek" may only be applied to yogurt made in Greece.
### Beverages
Ayran, doogh ("dawghe" in Neo-Aramaic) or dhallë is a yogurt-based, salty drink. It is made by mixing yogurt with water and (sometimes) salt.
Borhani (or burhani) is a spicy yogurt drink from Bangladesh. It is usually served with kacchi biryani at weddings and special feasts. Key ingredients are yogurt blended with mint leaves (mentha), mustard seeds and black rock salt (Kala Namak). Ground roasted cumin, ground white pepper, green chili pepper paste and sugar are often added.
Lassi is a yogurt-based beverage that is usually slightly salty or sweet, and may be commercially flavored with rosewater, mango or other fruit juice. Salty lassi is usually flavored with ground, roasted cumin and red chilies, may be made with buttermilk.
An unsweetened and unsalted yogurt drink usually called simply *jogurt* is consumed with *burek* and other baked goods in the Balkans. Sweetened yogurt drinks are the usual form in Europe (including the UK) and the US, containing fruit and added sweeteners. These are typically called "drinkable yogurt". Also available are "yogurt smoothies", which contain a higher proportion of fruit and are more like smoothies.
Production
----------
Preparing warm milk to a temperature (30–45 °C (86–113 °F)) that will not kill the live microorganisms that turn the milk into yogurt, inoculating certain bacteria (starter culture), usually *Streptococcus thermophilus* and *Lactobacillus bulgaricus*, into the milk, and finally keeping it warm for several hours (4-12 hours).
Milk with a higher concentration of solids than normal milk may be used; the higher solids content produces a firmer yogurt. Solids can be increased by adding dried milk. The yogurt-making process provides two significant barriers to pathogen growth, heat and acidity (low pH). Both are necessary to ensure a safe product. Acidity alone has been questioned by recent outbreaks of food poisoning by *E. coli O157:H7* that is acid-tolerant. *E. coli O157:H7* is easily destroyed by pasteurization (heating); the initial heating of the milk kills pathogens as well as denaturing proteins. The microorganisms that turn milk into yogurt can tolerate higher temperatures than most pathogens, so that a suitable temperature not only encourages the formation of yogurt, but inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Once the yogurt has formed it can, if desired, be strained to reduce the whey content and thicken it.
Commerce
--------
Two types of yogurt are supported by the Codex Alimentarius for import and export.
* Pasteurized yogurt ("heat treated fermented milk") is yogurt pasteurized to kill bacteria.
* Probiotic yogurt (labeled as "live yogurt" or "active yogurt") is yogurt pasteurized to kill bacteria, with *Lactobacillus* added in measured units before packaging.[*dubious – discuss*]
* Yogurt probiotic drink is a drinkable yogurt pasteurized to kill bacteria, with *Lactobacillus* added before packaging.
Under US Food and Drug Administration regulations, milk must be pasteurized *before* it is cultured, and may optionally be heat treated after culturing to increase shelf life. Most commercial yogurts in the United States are not heat treated after culturing, and contain live cultures.
Yogurt with live cultures is more beneficial than pasteurized yogurt for people with lactose malabsorption.
Lactose intolerance
-------------------
Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to the decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) determined that lactose intolerance can be alleviated by ingesting live yogurt cultures (lactobacilli) that are able to digest the lactose in other dairy products. The scientific review by EFSA enabled yogurt manufacturers to use a health claim on product labels, provided that the "yogurt should contain at least 108 CFU live starter microorganisms (*Lactobacillus delbrueckii* subsp. *bulgaricus* and *Streptococcus thermophilus*) per gram. The target population is individuals with lactose maldigestion." A 2021 review found that yogurt consumption could improve lactose tolerance and digestion.
Plant-based products
--------------------
A variety of plant-based yogurt alternatives appeared in the 2000s, using soy milk, rice milk, and nut milks such as almond milk and coconut milk fermented with cultures. These products may be suitable for people with lactose intolerance or those who prefer plant-based foods such as vegetarians or vegans. Plant-based milks have different structures and components than dairy milk. Though they can be used to make many products similar to those made from dairy, there are differences in taste and texture. For example, "soy, almond, [and] coconut yogurts do not have the same delicate and smooth structure that conventional yogurts have." Since plant-based milks do not contain lactose (the food of *Streptococcus thermophilus* and *Lactobacillus bulgaricus*), plant-based products usually contain different bacterial strains than yogurt, such as *Lactobacillus casei*, *Lactobacillus rhamnosus*, and *Bifidobacterium bifidum*. Plant-based products also vary considerably in their nutrition and ingredients, and may contain gums, stabilizers, high-intensity sweeteners, and artificial colors.
In Europe, companies may not market their plant-based products using the word "yogurt" since that term is reserved for products of animal origin only – per European Union regulation 1308/2013 and a 2017 ruling in the Court of Justice of the European Union. Reaffirmed in 2021, per the USA FDA's Standard of Identity regulations, the word "yogurt" has been reserved for a product made from lactation and is a product of "milk-derived ingredients".
Gallery
-------
* Ayran is a savory yogurt-based beverage, traditionally served cold and is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint and salt.*Ayran* is a savory yogurt-based beverage, traditionally served cold and is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint and salt.
* Skyr is an Icelandic cultured dairy product, similar to strained yogurt traditionally served cold with milk and a topping of sugar.*Skyr* is an Icelandic cultured dairy product, similar to strained yogurt traditionally served cold with milk and a topping of sugar.
* Raita is a condiment made with yogurt in the Indian subcontinent.*Raita* is a condiment made with yogurt in the Indian subcontinent.
* Dadiah in a marketDadiah in a market
* Homemade yogurt incubatorHomemade yogurt incubator
See also
--------
* Fermented milk products
* Frozen yogurt
* List of dairy products
* Probiotic
* List of yogurt-based dishes and beverages | Yogurt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogurt | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt11\" class=\"infobox hrecipe adr\" id=\"mwDA\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn\"><span>Yogurt</span></caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Joghurt.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1679\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"185\" resource=\"./File:Joghurt.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Joghurt.jpg/220px-Joghurt.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Joghurt.jpg/330px-Joghurt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Joghurt.jpg/440px-Joghurt.jpg 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\" style=\"padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;\">A dish of yogurt</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"line-height:1.15em;\n padding-right:0.65em;\">Type</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Dairy_product\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dairy product\">Dairy product</a></td></tr><tr class=\"note\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"line-height:1.15em;\n padding-right:0.65em;\">Region or state</th><td class=\"infobox-data region\"><a href=\"./Mesopotamia\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mesopotamia\">Mesopotamia</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"line-height:1.15em;\n padding-right:0.65em;\">Serving temperature</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Chilled</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"line-height:1.15em;\n padding-right:0.65em;\">Main ingredients</th><td class=\"infobox-data ingredient\">Milk, bacteria</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.25em;\"><div class=\"plainlist\"><ul><li><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Commons-logo.svg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1376\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1024\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Commons-logo.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x\" width=\"12\"/></a></span> <a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Yogurt\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"commons:Yogurt\">Media<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">:</span> Yogurt</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>",
"<table about=\"#mwt203\" class=\"infobox nowrap\" id=\"mw-w\"><caption class=\"infobox-title\" style=\"white-space:normal; padding-bottom:0.15em;\">Yogurt, Greek, plain (unsweetened), whole milk (daily value)</caption><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Nutritional value per 100<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>g (3.5<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>oz)</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Food_energy\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Food energy\">Energy</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">406<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kJ (97<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kcal)</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\"><b><a href=\"./Carbohydrate\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Carbohydrate\">Carbohydrates</a></b></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\">3.98 g</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Sugar\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sugar\">Sugars</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\">4.0 g</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Dietary_fiber\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dietary fiber\">Dietary fiber</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\">0 g</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\"><b><a href=\"./Fat\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Fat\">Fat</a></b></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\">5.0 g</div></td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\"><b><a href=\"./Protein_(nutrient)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Protein (nutrient)\">Protein</a></b></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"position:relative;left:-0.65em;\">9.0 g</div></td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><b style=\"margin-left:-0.65em\"><a href=\"./Vitamin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vitamin\">Vitamins</a></b></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><b>Quantity</b> <div style=\"float: right;\"><abbr about=\"#mwt222\" data-mw=\"\" title=\"Percentage of Daily Value\" typeof=\"mw:ExpandedAttrs\"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Vitamin_A\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vitamin A\">Vitamin A equiv.</a><div style=\"padding-left:0.65em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Beta-Carotene\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Beta-Carotene\">beta-Carotene</a></div><div style=\"padding-left:0.65em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;\"><a href=\"./Lutein\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lutein\">lutein</a> <a href=\"./Zeaxanthin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zeaxanthin\">zeaxanthin</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"padding-left:0.65em;padding-top:0.25em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">0%</div>26 μg</div><div style=\"padding-left:0.65em;padding-top:0.25em;\">22 μg</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Thiamine\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Thiamine\">Thiamine (B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.35em;\">1</span>)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">2%</div> 0.023 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Riboflavin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Riboflavin\">Riboflavin (B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.35em;\">2</span>)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">23%</div> 0.278 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Niacin_(nutrient)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Niacin (nutrient)\">Niacin (B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.35em;\">3</span>)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">1%</div> 0.208 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Pantothenic_acid\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pantothenic acid\">Pantothenic acid (B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.35em;\">5</span>)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">7%</div> 0.331 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Vitamin_B6\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vitamin B6\">Vitamin B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.3em;\">6</span></a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">5%</div> 0.063 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Folate\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Folate\">Folate (B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.35em;\">9</span>)</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">1%</div> 5 μg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Vitamin_B12\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vitamin B12\">Vitamin B<span style=\"position: relative; top: 0.3em;\">12</span></a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">31%</div> 0.75 μg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Choline\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Choline\">Choline</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">3%</div> 15.1 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Vitamin_C\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Vitamin C\">Vitamin C</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">0%</div> 0 mg</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><b style=\"margin-left:-0.65em\"><a href=\"./Mineral_(nutrient)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mineral (nutrient)\">Minerals</a></b></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><b>Quantity</b> <div style=\"float: right;\"><abbr about=\"#mwt223\" data-mw=\"\" title=\"Percentage of Daily Value\" typeof=\"mw:ExpandedAttrs\"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Calcium_in_biology#Humans\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Calcium in biology\">Calcium</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">10%</div> 100 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Human_iron_metabolism\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Human iron metabolism\">Iron</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">0%</div> 0 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Magnesium_in_biology\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Magnesium in biology\">Magnesium</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">3%</div> 11 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Manganese#Biological_role\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Manganese\">Manganese</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">0%</div> 0.009 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Phosphorus#Biological_role\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Phosphorus\">Phosphorus</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">19%</div> 135 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Potassium_in_biology\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Potassium in biology\">Potassium</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">3%</div> 141 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Sodium_in_biology\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sodium in biology\">Sodium</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">2%</div> 35 mg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><a href=\"./Zinc#Biological_role\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zinc\">Zinc</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><div style=\"float: right;\">5%</div> 0.52 mg</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\"><b style=\"margin-left:-0.65em\">Other constituents</b></th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\"><b>Quantity</b></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\">Selenium</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\">9.7 µg</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;\">Water</th><td class=\"infobox-data\" style=\"vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;\">81.3 g</td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><hr/><div class=\"wrap\" style=\"padding:0.3em;line-height:1.2em;\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171304/nutrients\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">Link to Full Report from USDA Database</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"plainlist\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div style=\"background:#e0e0e0;padding:0.15em;line-height:1.25em;\">\n<ul><li>Units</li>\n<li>μg = <a href=\"./Microgram\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Microgram\">micrograms</a><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">•</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mg = <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Milligram\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Milligram\">milligrams</a></li>\n<li>IU = <a href=\"./International_unit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"International unit\">International units</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below wrap\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#e0e0e0;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.5em;font-weight:normal;\"><sup>†</sup>Percentages are roughly approximated using <a href=\"./Dietary_Reference_Intake\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dietary Reference Intake\">US<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>recommendations</a> for adults.</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Turkish_strained_yogurt.jpg",
"caption": "Unstirred Turkish Süzme Yoğurt (strained yogurt), with a 10% fat content"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Yogurt_on_an_refrigerator_in_a_supermarket.jpg",
"caption": "Yogurt in a refrigerator in a supermarket"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tzatziki_Greek_meze_or_appetizer,_also_used_as_a_sauce.jpg",
"caption": "Tzatziki or cacık is a meze made with yogurt, cucumber, olive oil and fresh mint or dill."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:StrainYogurt.jpg",
"caption": "A coffee filter used to strain yogurt in a home refrigerator"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Drinkable_Yogurt.png",
"caption": "Yogurt drinks on sale"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Joghurtgerät.JPG",
"caption": "Commercially available home yogurt maker"
}
] |
183,403 | **Learning** is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.
Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before in terms of an embryo's need for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents, or in collaborative learning health systems). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.
Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to semiosis, and is often associated with representational systems/activity.
Types
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### Non-associative learning
*Non-associative learning* refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus." This definition exempt the changes caused by sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury.
Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization.
#### Habituation
*Habituation* is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively. Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant *Mimosa pudica* and the large protozoan *Stentor coeruleus*. This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.
#### Sensitization
*Sensitization* is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus. This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful.[*clarification needed*] Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
### Active learning
*Active learning* occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn. Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning. Conversely, passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional education).
### Associative learning
*Associative learning* is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two stimuli or events. In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.
#### Operant conditioning
In *operant conditioning*, a reinforcement (by reward) or instead a punishment is given after a given behavior, changing the frequency and/or form of that behavior. Stimulus present when the behavior/consequence occurs come to control these behavior modifications.
#### Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for *classical conditioning* involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a *conditioned response*. The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs. Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm. It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.
Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "Little Albert", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.
#### Observational learning
*Observational learning* is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.
#### Imprinting
*Imprinting* is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.
### Play
*Play* generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.
Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.
There are five types of play:
1. Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity
2. Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three
3. Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
4. Construction play involves experimentation and building
5. Movement play aka physical play
These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play. Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.
### Enculturation
*Enculturation* is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture. Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture. This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.
Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience. As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido". Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.
### Episodic learning
*Episodic learning* is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge. For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it. This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.
### Multimedia learning
*Multimedia learning* is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001) harv error: no target: CITEREFMayer2001 (help). This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971) harv error: no target: CITEREFPaivio1971 (help).
### E-learning and augmented learning
*Electronic learning* or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.
When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime. See also minimally invasive education.
Moore (1989) purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning:
* Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
* Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and
* Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance).
### Rote learning
*Rote learning* is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is *learning by repetition*, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some educators, rote learning is a necessary precursor to meaningful learning.
### Meaningful learning
*Meaningful learning* is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.
### Evidence-based learning
Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a student learns.
### Formal learning
*Formal learning* is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition.
### Non-formal learning
*Non-formal learning* is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner’s point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.
### Informal learning
*Informal learning* is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during play, and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience, thus this does not require enrolment into any course, and unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation.
Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high, and as a result information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life. Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner’s viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner’s perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself.
### Nonformal learning and combined approaches
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.
To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:
* Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
* Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "muscle memory" and speed.
* Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
* Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
* Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.
### Tangential learning
*Tangential learning* is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.
*Extra Credits* writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning". Mozelius *et al.* points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the *Civilization* games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.
### Dialogic learning
*Dialogic learning* is a type of learning based on dialogue.
### Incidental learning
In *incidental teaching* learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set.
Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:
* An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
* An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
* An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
* An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
* The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.
Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.
Domains
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Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are:
* Cognitive: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
* Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
* Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.
These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).
Transfer
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Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.
Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context. Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning. Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote.
A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer. To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.
Factors affecting learning
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### Genetics
Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.
### Socioeconomic and physical conditions
Problems like malnutrition, fatigue, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.
The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.
### Psychological factors and teaching style
Intrinsic motivation, such a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. Rote learning involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and "drill and kill" since it kills intrinsic motivation. Alternatives to rote learning include active learning and meaningful learning.
The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, energy level, and motivation of the students. Praising students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are counterproductive.[*need quotation to verify*]
Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:
* The spacing effect means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (spaced repetition) are better than cramming
* Teaching material to other people
* "Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading
* Low-stakes quizzing
### Epigenetic factors
The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins. These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.
During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that introduce epigenetic alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base excision repair are employed in learning and memory formation.
### General cognition-related factors
The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until brain death. For example:
* physical exercise has neurobiological effects
* the consumption of foods (or nutrients), obesity, alterations of the microbiome, drinks, dietary supplements, recreational drugs and medications may possibly also have effects on the development of the nervous system
* various diseases, such as COVID-19, have effects on the development of the nervous system
+ For example, several genes have been identified as to being associated with changes in brain structure over lifetime and are potential Alzheimer's disease therapy-targets.
* psychological events such as mental trauma and resilience-building
* exposure to environmental pollution and toxins such as air pollution may have effects on the further development of the nervous system
* other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as lifelong learning, retraining, and types of media- and economic activities
* broadly, brain aging
### Adult learning vs children's learning
Learning is often more efficient in children and takes longer or is more difficult with age.
A study using neuroimaging identified rapid GABA boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.
Children's brains contain more "silent synapses" that are inactive until recruited as part of neural plasticity and flexible learning or memories.
Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during child development.
What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact. Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities.
In animal evolution
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Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it. In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning evolves in the species.
### Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge
In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate knowledge.
Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.
Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing environment. The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of *Drosophila melanogaster* showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.
However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing. An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.
In plants
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In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, *Pisum sativum*. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors. Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.
Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes. In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.
During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day. For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.
While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants. One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize. Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in *Pisum sativum* is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.
Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the *mimosa pudica* plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus. There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition". Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece *The Intelligent Plant* that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants. A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of "cognition" and "learning".
Machine learning
----------------
Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output.
### Types
### Phases
See also
--------
* 21st century skills – Skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century
* Anticipatory socialization – Process in which people take on the values of groups that they aspire to join
* Epistemology – Branch of philosophy concerning knowledge
* Implicit learning – in learning psychologyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
* Instructional theory – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop
* Learning sciences – Interdisciplinary field to further scientific understanding of learning
* Lifelong learning – Ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge
* Living educational theory
* Media psychology – Area of psychology
* Subgoal labeling
### Information theory
* Algorithmic information theory – Subfield of information theory and computer science
* Algorithmic probability – mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observationPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
* Bayesian inference – Method of statistical inference
* Inductive logic programming – learning logic programs from dataPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
* Inductive probability – Determining the probability of future events based on past events
* Information theory – Scientific study of digital information
* Minimum description length – Model selection principle
* Minimum message length – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor
* Occam's razor – Philosophical problem-solving principle
* Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – mathematical formalization of Occam's razor that, assuming the world is generated by a computer program, the most likely one is the shortest, using Bayesian inferencePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
* AIXI – Mathematical formalism for artificial general intelligence
### Types of education
* Autodidacticism – Independent education without the guidance of teachers
* Andragogy – Methods, principles and theory of Andragogy used in adult education and training,
* Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education
Notes
-----
* Mayer, R.E. (2001). *Multimedia learning*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78749-9.
* Paivio, A. (1971). *Imagery and verbal processes*. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-085173-5.
Further reading
---------------
* Ulrich Boser (2019). *Learn Better: Mastering the Skills for Success in Life, Business, and School, or How to Become an Expert in Just About Anything*. Rodale Books. ISBN 978-0593135310. | Learning | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning | {
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276,984 | **Liévin** (French pronunciation: [ljevɛ̃]; Picard: *Lévin*; Dutch: *Lieven*) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. The inhabitants are called *Liévinois*.
Overview
--------
The town of Liévin is an old mining area of Pas-de-Calais. Near Lens, this town is of modest size but has several nursery schools, schools, colleges, a university, a swimming pool, a city library, a cultural and social center (CCS), a hospital, a covered stadium, several gardens and parks, two movie theaters, two cemeteries, a Catholic church, a shopping center, a National Police station, a fire station, a complete intercommunity transportation system (Tadao ), regional newspapers, the main ones being *L'Avenir de l'Artois* [the Future of Artois], *La Voix du Nord* (*Voice of the North*) and *Nord Éclair* (*Northern Flash*), etc.
Administration
--------------
Liévin is the seat of two cantons. It belongs to the Agglomeration community of Lens – Liévin) which consists of 36 communes, with a total population of 250,000 inhabitants.
History
-------
### Prehistory and Middle Ages
The history of Liévin begins in ancient times. The foothill of Riaumont (highest point in Liévin) is a rich archaeological site. Traces of Neolithic and Gallo-Roman periods have been found there, and 752 tombs attest that Liévin was once a Merovingian burial ground.
In 1414, there were barely 150 inhabitants in Liévin. At that time, it was a village mainly concerned with agriculture. The population grew steadily until the First World War.
* 600 inhabitants in 1759
* 900 inhabitants in 1789
* 1223 inhabitants in 1820
### Industrial Revolution
Coal was discovered in the vicinity of Lens, Pas-de-Calais in 1849, and near Liévin in 1857. This precipitated a time of great productivity, prosperity, and population growth. The population of Liévin was 25,698 in 1914.
From 1858, the Lens mining company opened its pit no. 3 - 3 bis in the city, the Aix mining company its pit of Aix, which ten years later became no. 2 of Liévin, and the Liévin mining company its pit no. 1 bis - 1 ter. Secondary pits opened later. From 1899, the latter opened its pit no. 5 - 5 bis. During the 20th century, the Lens mining company opened its ventilation shafts no. 9 bis, 11 bis and 16 bis. The last shafts were backfilled in 1979, the installations were destroyed, with the exception of the headframes of shafts 1 bis and 3 bis.
### World War I
The First World War brutally ended Liévin's expansion. The city was ruined, the churches and castles destroyed. Human losses were 400 civilian and 600 military, and it saw severe fighting during the Battle of Loos, which took place not far to the north. The city of Liévin was awarded the Croix de Guerre in 1920.
After the war, it was necessary to rebuild everything. After a few years, Liévin was again an active city, and mining recommenced. In 1936, the nearby (5.6 km) Canadian National Vimy Memorial was dedicated to the Battle of Vimy Ridge (part of the Battle of Arras) and the Canadian forces killed during the First World War; it is also the site of two WWI Canadian cemeteries.
### World War II
World War II again stopped the progress of the city. In 1940, Liévin was evacuated, and the city was occupied by the Germans. Resistance was organized, in particular with the help of the *Voix du Nord* newspaper which is nowadays the main daily newspaper of Nord-Pas-de-Calais. In this war, there were 220 civilian and 225 military casualties. Liévin was liberated on 2 September 1944 by the British Eighth Army.
After the war, mining recommenced in force; coal mining was vital to the reconstruction of the French economy. Silicosis, which would kill many miners, made its appearance.
### End of coal mining
In addition to silicosis, miners were in daily peril of being lost in mining catastrophes. There were five major mining catastrophes during the coal mining period:
* 28 November 1861, pit no. 1, 2 dead
* 13 August 1882, pit no. 3, 8 dead
* 14 January 1885, pit no. 1, 28 dead
* 28 January 1907, pit no. 3, 3 dead
* 16 March 1957, pit no. 3, 10 dead
* 27 December 1974, Saint-Amé pit, 42 dead
Additionally, a recession in the mining industry began and with it a recession in Liévin. From 1960 to 1970, 60 of the 67 pits closed. Following the tragedy in pit number 3 in Saint-Amé, the last coal mining pit closed in 1974. Liévin no longer produces coal, and has moved on to a new chapter.
In 2014, French Prime Minister Manuel Valls commemorates the 40th anniversary of the Saint-Amé tragedy.
### Liévin without coal and beginning of the 21st century
Liévin suffered a great deal when coal mining was abandoned, since it had depended primarily on the mines. The city converted to other industries. While it may not have the same economic dynamism of the earlier epoch, the commercial and industrial areas are a source of employment for many, and the city remains relatively prosperous with 33,430 inhabitants (see above).
A major storage facility for the Louvre is located in Liévin. It houses approximately 250,000 items.
On February 2, 2022, French current President Emmanuel Macron goes to Liévin to the remembrance stone of Saint-Amé. With members of the Young Municipal Council, the mayor Laurent Duporge and his constituents, he lays a wreath of flowers in tribute to the 42 miners who died on December 27, 1974, in the biggest European post-war mining disaster: before him, Prime Ministers Jacques Chirac, Manuel Valls and President François Mitterrand had visited the site. He then participates in a work reunion with locals politicians, especially about the renovation of mining housing and the revitalization of the territory. At the end of the day, he visits the Louvre-Lens museum where students present The Seated Scribe, a famous work of ancient Egyptian art.
### Lefebvre family and sinking of the Titanic
In 2017, a letter written in French is found sealed in a bottle on a beach in Hopewell Rocks, Bay of Fundy, in the Canadian province of New Brunswick. It claims to be written by Mathilde Lefebvre, a 12-year-old passenger of the Titanic travelling with her mother, brothers and sisters. The message says ""I am throwing this bottle into the sea in the middle of the Atlantic. We are due to arrive in New York in a few days. If anyone finds it, tell the Lefebvre family in Liévin".
In March 2022, Coraline Hausenblas, a psychomotricity specialist who carefully studied the letter, claims in a 51 pages report that the document is "fake, as long as it cannot be proved true". Even though the letter is fake, it sheds light on the history of this family. In 2002, the city of Liévin built a remembrance stone in tribute to the five family members who died during the sinking. In 1911, Franck Lefebvre, Mathilde's father, a 40-year-old coal miner, decided to settle in the United States thanks to a friend who also wanted to leave France and who offered him the trip. Franck arrived in the United States in March 1911 with one of his sons, Anselme, born in 1901, and settled in Iowa, where he worked in the Lodwick mines. During one year, he saved money and sent it to Liévin to allow his family to join him. In April 1912, his wife Marie Lefebvre, born Daumont (1872-1912), as well as their four children, Mathilde (1899-1912), 12-year-old, Jeanne (1903-1912), 8-year-old, Henri (1906-1912), 5-year-old and Ida (1908-1912), 3-year-old, left Liévin to join him. They embarked at Southampton on Wednesday, April 10, 1912 aboard the Titanic in third class. The five family members died during the sinking and their bodies were never found. In the United States, while Franck is looking for them, the American administration realizes that he entered the territory illegally and he was expelled. He then returned to Liévin, became a coal miner again and died in 1948 in Haillicourt.
### Mayors of Liévin since the French Revolution
* 1790–1810, Procope-Alexandre-Joseph de Ligne
* 1810–1819, Pierre Caron
* 1820–1822, Jacques Delaby
* 1822–1825, Pierre Caron
* 1825–1856, Henri-Antoine de Ligne
* 1856–1871, Nicolas Antoine Delaby
* 1871–1878, Alexandre-Procope Comte Jonglez de Ligne
* 1879–1892, Louis Schmidt
* 1892, Félix Pamart
* 1893–1905, Edouard Defernez
* 1905–1912, Arthur Lamendin
* 1912–1913, Pierre Leroy
* 1914, François Pouvier
* 1914–1919 : (evacuation)
* 1919–1925, Léon Degreaux
* 1925–1929, Jules Bédart
* 1930–1935, Silas Goulet
* 1936–1939, Henri-Joseph Thiébaut
* 1939–1944, Louis Thobois
* 1944–1945, Henri Bertin
* 1945–1947, Florimond Lemaire
* 1947–1952, Eugène Gossart
* 1952–1981, Henri Darras
* 1981–2013, Jean-Pierre Kucheida
* 2013–present, Laurent Duporge
Population
----------
Historical population|
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1793 | 953 | — |
| 1800 | 1,038 | +1.23% |
| 1806 | 1,017 | −0.34% |
| 1821 | 1,223 | +1.24% |
| 1831 | 1,350 | +0.99% |
| 1836 | 1,336 | −0.21% |
| 1841 | 1,392 | +0.82% |
| 1846 | 1,432 | +0.57% |
| 1851 | 1,430 | −0.03% |
| 1856 | 1,449 | +0.26% |
| 1861 | 1,941 | +6.02% |
| 1866 | 2,075 | +1.34% |
| 1872 | 3,587 | +9.55% |
| 1876 | 5,463 | +11.09% |
| 1881 | 8,309 | +8.75% |
| 1886 | 10,718 | +5.22% |
| 1891 | 12,417 | +2.99% |
| 1896 | 14,014 | +2.45% |
| 1901 | 17,600 | +4.66% |
|
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1906 | 22,070 | +4.63% |
| 1911 | 25,698 | +3.09% |
| 1921 | 10,165 | −8.86% |
| 1926 | 24,054 | +18.80% |
| 1931 | 26,698 | +2.11% |
| 1936 | 25,127 | −1.21% |
| 1946 | 28,875 | +1.40% |
| 1954 | 31,808 | +1.22% |
| 1962 | 35,127 | +1.25% |
| 1968 | 35,853 | +0.34% |
| 1975 | 33,070 | −1.15% |
| 1982 | 33,096 | +0.01% |
| 1990 | 33,623 | +0.20% |
| 1999 | 33,427 | −0.06% |
| 2006 | 32,565 | −0.37% |
| 2011 | 31,790 | −0.48% |
| 2016 | 30,936 | −0.54% |
| 2019 | 30,112 | −0.90% |
|
| |
| Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) |
Notable people
--------------
Famous people from Liévin include:
* Georges Carpentier (boxer)
* Robert Enrico (film director)
* Arnold Sowinski (footballer)
* Mounir Chouiar (footballer)
International relations
-----------------------
Liévin is twinned with:
* Germany Hohenlimburg, Germany *(since 1962)*
* Lithuania Pasvalys, Lithuania *(since 1999)*
* Austria Bruck an der Mur, Austria *(since 1999)*
* France La Valette-du-Var, France *(since 2000)*
* Italy Roccastrada, Italy
* Poland Rybnik, Poland *(since 2000)* | Liévin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A9vin | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt5\" class=\"infobox ib-settlement vcard\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"fn org\">Liévin</div></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"category\"><a href=\"./Communes_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Communes of France\">Commune</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Liévin_-_Église_Saint-Amé_des_mines_de_Lens_(09).JPG\" title=\"The church of Saint-Amé of the mines of Lens, in Liévin\"><img alt=\"The church of Saint-Amé of the mines of Lens, in Liévin\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"2736\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"3648\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"203\" resource=\"./File:Liévin_-_Église_Saint-Amé_des_mines_de_Lens_(09).JPG\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG/270px-Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG/405px-Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG/540px-Li%C3%A9vin_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Am%C3%A9_des_mines_de_Lens_%2809%29.JPG 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">The church of Saint-Amé of the mines of Lens, in Liévin</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data maptable\" colspan=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols\">\n<div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-row\"><div class=\"ib-settlement-cols-cell\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Blason_Liévin.svg\" title=\"Coat of arms of Liévin\"><img alt=\"Coat of arms of Liévin\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"660\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"600\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"80\" resource=\"./File:Blason_Liévin.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg/73px-Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg/109px-Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg/145px-Blason_Li%C3%A9vin.svg.png 2x\" width=\"73\"/></a></span><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption-link\">Coat of arms</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\" border:none; \"><div class=\"hidden-title\" style=\"text-align:center; \">Location of Liévin</div><div class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\" height:5px;\">\n<div class=\"center\" style=\"margin-top:1em\"><a about=\"#mwt22\" class=\"mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center\" data-height=\"200\" data-mw=\"\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_e3a36b48cc47ff75423dc64d6a410c7eced3288a\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"270\" data-zoom=\"11\" id=\"mwBQ\" style=\"width: 270px; height: 200px;\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"200\" id=\"mwBg\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,11,a,a,270x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Li%C3%A9vin&revid=1158030183&groups=_e3a36b48cc47ff75423dc64d6a410c7eced3288a\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,11,a,a,270x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Li%C3%A9vin&revid=1158030183&groups=_e3a36b48cc47ff75423dc64d6a410c7eced3288a 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:270px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:270px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg\" title=\"Liévin is located in France\"><img alt=\"Liévin is located in France\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1922\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"2000\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"259\" resource=\"./File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/270px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/405px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/540px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:10.259%;left:54.295%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Liévin\"><img alt=\"Liévin\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Liévin</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of France</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:270px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:270px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg\" title=\"Liévin is located in Hauts-de-France\"><img alt=\"Liévin is located in Hauts-de-France\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1742\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"1570\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"300\" resource=\"./File:Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg/270px-Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg/405px-Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg/540px-Hauts-de-France_region_location_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"270\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:32.491%;left:49.733%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Liévin\"><img alt=\"Liévin\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Liévin</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Hauts-de-France</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Li%C3%A9vin&params=50.4228_N_2.7786_E_type:city(30102)_region:FR-HDF\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">50°25′22″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">2°46′43″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">50.4228°N 2.7786°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">50.4228; 2.7786</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt26\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"France\">France</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Regions_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Regions of France\">Region</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Hauts-de-France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hauts-de-France\">Hauts-de-France</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Departments_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Departments of France\">Department</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Pas-de-Calais\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pas-de-Calais\">Pas-de-Calais</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Arrondissements_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arrondissements of France\">Arrondissement</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Arrondissement_of_Lens\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arrondissement of Lens\">Lens</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Cantons_of_France\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cantons of France\">Canton</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Canton_of_Liévin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Canton of Liévin\">Liévin</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Communes_of_France#Intercommunality\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Communes of France\">Intercommunality</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Communauté_d'agglomération_de_Lens_–_Liévin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Communauté d'agglomération de Lens – Liévin\">CA Lens-Liévin</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Mayor <span class=\"nobold\">(2020<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">–</span>2026) </span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Laurent Duporge\"]}}' href=\"./Laurent_Duporge?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Laurent Duporge\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Laurent Duporge</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><sup><b>1</b></sup></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">12.83<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (4.95<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(Jan.<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>2020)</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">30,102</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2,300/km<sup>2</sup> (6,100/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UTC+01:00\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+01:00\">UTC+01:00</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Time\">CET</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Summer (<a href=\"./Daylight_saving_time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Daylight saving time\">DST</a>)</span></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UTC+02:00\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+02:00\">UTC+02:00</a> (<a href=\"./Central_European_Summer_Time\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central European Summer Time\">CEST</a>)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./INSEE_code\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"INSEE code\">INSEE</a>/Postal code</th><td class=\"infobox-data adr\"><div class=\"postal-code\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=COM-62510\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">62510</a> /62800</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Elevation</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">32–80<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (105–262<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>ft)</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\"><sup><b>1</b></sup> French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">></span> 1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (0.386<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Pas_de_Calais_est.png",
"caption": "East of Pas-de-Calais (Béthune, Lens, Hénin-Beaumont)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Lievin_France_pano2005-08.jpg",
"caption": "View of Liévin (left) taken in 2005 from the site Écopôle 11/19 in Loos-en-Gohelle (right). "
}
] |
47,948 | **Pyongyang** (/ˌpjɒŋˈjæŋ/ *pyong-YANG*, US also /ˌpjʌŋˈjɑːŋ/ *pyung-YAHNG*, Korean: [pʰjʌŋjaŋ]) is the capital and largest city of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (also known as North Korea), where it is sometimes labeled as the "**Capital of the Revolution**". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about 109 km (68 mi) upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 population census, it has a population of 3,255,288. Pyongyang is a directly administered city (직할시; 直轄市; *chikhalsi*) with a status equal to that of the North Korean provinces.
Pyongyang is one of the oldest cities in Korea. It was the capital of two ancient Korean kingdoms, Gojoseon and Goguryeo, and served as the secondary capital of Goryeo. Following the establishment of North Korea in 1948, Pyongyang became its *de facto* capital. The city was again devastated during the Korean War, but was quickly rebuilt after the war with Soviet assistance.
Pyongyang is the political, industrial and transport center of North Korea. It is home to North Korea's major government institutions, as well as the ruling Workers' Party of Korea which has its headquarters in the Forbidden City.
Names
-----
The city's other historic names include *Ryugyong*, *Kisong*, *Hwangsong*, *Rakrang*, *Sŏgyong*, *Sodo*, *Hogyong*, *Changan*, and *Heijō* (during Japanese rule in Korea). There are several variants. During the early 20th century, Pyongyang came to be known among missionaries as being the "Jerusalem of the East", due to its historical status as a stronghold of Christianity, namely Protestantism, especially during the Pyongyang Revival of 1907.
After Kim Il Sung's death in 1994, some members of Kim Jong Il's faction proposed changing the name of Pyongyang to "Kim Il Sung City" (Korean: 김일성시; Hanja: 金日成市), but others suggested that North Korea should begin calling Seoul "Kim Il Sung City" instead and grant Pyongyang the moniker "Kim Jong Il City". In the end, neither proposal was implemented.
History
-------
### Prehistory
In 1955, archaeologists excavated evidence of prehistoric dwellings in a large ancient village in the Pyongyang area, called Kŭmtan-ni, dating to the Jeulmun and Mumun pottery periods. North Koreans associate Pyongyang with the mythological city of "Asadal" (Korean: 아사달; Hanja: 阿斯達), or *Wanggeom-seong* (Korean: 왕검성; Hanja: 王儉城), the first second millennium BC capital of Gojoseon ("Old Joseon") according to Korean historiographies beginning with the 13th-century *Samgungnyusa*.
Historians[*who?*] deny this claim because earlier Chinese historiographical works such as the *Guanzi*, *Classic of Mountains and Seas*, *Records of the Grand Historian*, and *Records of the Three Kingdoms*, mention a much later "Joseon". The connection between the two therefore may have been asserted by North Korea for the use of propaganda. Nevertheless, Pyongyang became a major city in old Joseon.
### Historical period
Pyongyang was founded in 1122 BC on the site of the capital of the legendary king Dangun. Wanggeom-seong, which was in the location of Pyongyang, became the capital of Gojoseon from 194 to 108 BC. It fell in the Han conquest of Gojoseon in 108 BC. Emperor Wu of Han ordered four commanderies be set up, with Lelang Commandery in the center and its capital established as "Joseon" (朝鮮縣, 조선현) at the location of Pyongyang. Several archaeological findings from the later, Eastern Han (20–220 AD) period in the Pyeongyang area seems to suggest that Han forces later launched brief incursions around these parts.
The area around the city was called Nanglang during the early Three Kingdoms period. As the capital of Nanglang (Korean: 낙랑국; Hanja: 樂浪國), Pyeongyang remained an important commercial and cultural outpost after the Lelang Commandery was destroyed by an expanding Goguryeo in 313.
Goguryeo moved its capital there in 427. According to Christopher Beckwith, *Pyongyang* is the Sino-Korean reading of the name they gave it in their language: *Piarna*, or "level land".
In 668, Pyongyang became the capital of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East established by the Tang dynasty of China. However, by 676, it was taken by Silla, but left on the border between Silla and Balhae. Pyongyang was left abandoned during the Later Silla period, until it was recovered by Wang Geon and decreed as the Western Capital of Goryeo. During the Joseon period, it became the provincial capital of Pyeongan Province.
During the Imjin War, Pyongyang was captured by the Japanese and held the city wall until they were defeated in the Siege of Pyongyang. Later in the 17th century, it became temporarily occupied during the Qing invasion of Joseon until peace arrangements were made between Korea and Qing China. While the invasions made Koreans suspicious of foreigners, the influence of Christianity began to grow after the country opened itself up to foreigners in the 16th century. Pyongyang became the base of Christian expansion in Korea. By 1880 it had more than 100 churches and more Protestant missionaries than any other Asian city, and was called "the Jerusalem of the East".
In 1890, the city had 40,000 inhabitants. It was the site of the Battle of Pyongyang during the First Sino-Japanese War, which led to the destruction and depopulation of much of the city. It was the provincial capital of South Pyeongan Province beginning in 1896. During the Japanese colonial rule, Japan tried to develop the city as an industrial center, but faced March First movement in 1919 and severe anti-Japanese socialist movement in 1920s due to economic exploitation. It was called Heijō (with the same Chinese characters 平壤 but read as へいじょう) in Japanese.
In July 1931, the city experienced anti-Chinese riots as a result of the Wanpaoshan Incident and the sensationalized media reports about it which appeared in Imperial Japanese and Korean newspapers.
By 1938, Pyongyang had a population of 235,000.
### After 1945
On 25 August 1945, the Soviet 25th Army entered Pyongyang and it became the temporary capital of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea. A People's Committee was already established there, led by veteran Christian nationalist Cho Man-sik. Pyongyang became the de facto capital of North Korea upon its establishment in 1948. At the time, the Pyongyang government aimed to recapture Korea's official capital, Seoul. Pyongyang was again severely damaged in the Korean War, during which it was briefly occupied by South Korean forces from 19 October to 6 December 1950. The city saw many refugees evacuate when advancing Chinese forces pushed southward towards Pyongyang. UN forces oversaw the evacuation of refugees as they retreated from Pyongyang in December 1950. In 1952, it was the target of the largest aerial raid of the entire war, involving 1,400 UN aircraft.
Already during the war, plans were made to reconstruct the city. On 27 July 1953 – the day the armistice between North Korea and South Korea was signed – *The Pyongyang Review* wrote: "While streets were in flames, an exhibition showing the general plan of restoration of Pyongyang was held at the Moranbong Underground Theater", the air raid shelter of the government under Moranbong. "On the way of victory... fireworks which streamed high into the night sky of the capital in a gun salute briefly illuminated the construction plan of the city which would rise soon with a new look". After the war, the city was quickly rebuilt with assistance from the Soviet Union, and many buildings were built in the style of Stalinist architecture. The plans for the modern city of Pyongyang were first displayed for public viewing in a theatre building. Kim Jung-hee, one of the founding members of the Korean Architects Alliance, who had studied architecture in prewar Japan, was appointed by Kim Il Sung to design the city's master plan. Moscow Architectural Institute designed the "Pyongyang City Reconstruction and Construction Comprehensive Plan" in 1951, and it was officially adopted in 1953. The transformation into a modern, propaganda-designed city featuring Stalin-style architecture with a Korean-style arrangement (and other modernist architecture that was said to have been greatly influenced by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer) began. The 1972 Constitution officially declared Pyongyang the capital.
The funeral of Kim Il Sung was held in Pyongyang in 1994. Then on 19 July, it concluded with a cortege procession when his corpse moved through the streets with a hearse as people cried out in hysteria while watching the funeral.
In 2001, North Korean authorities began a long-term modernisation programme. The Ministry of Capital City Construction Development was included in the Cabinet in that year. In 2006, Kim Jong Il's brother-in-law Jang Song-thaek took charge of the ministry.
Throughout the rule of Kim Jong Un a number of residential projects were constructed. In 2013 and 2014 residential projects dedicated to scientists were completed in Unha Scientists Street and Wisong Scientists Street while in 2015 work took place on a residential project in Mirae Scientists Street. In 2017, in dedication to the 105th birthday of the founder and first leader, Kim Il Sung, 3,000 units were built in the new Ryomyong Street complex. The second decade of the 2000s saw the construction of residential projects in Saesalim Street near the Taedonggang Brewing Company in Sadong District (2021), in Taephyong, and in the Pothong Riverside Terraced Residential District located at the city center next to the Pothong River on land previously used by the headquarters of the International Taekwon-Do Federation. Kim Jong Un ordered that the residential district be renamed "Kyongru-dong" meaning "beautiful bead terrace". From the 50s to the 70s the area was the location of the residence of Kim Il Sung and was known as "Mansion No. 5". Other recent public building projects include the Mansudae People's Theatre opened in 2012, the Munsu Water Park opened in 2013, and the renovated and expanded Sunan International Airport and Pyongyang Sci-Tech Complex, both completed in 2015, the Samjiyon Orchestra Theater, which was fitted out of the domed Korean People's Army Circus built in 1964, and the Pyongyang General Hospital, of which construction started in 2020. Additional re-development projects occurred in the area around the Arch of Triumph where the Pyongyang People's Hospital no. 1 was demolished. Apartment blocks in the area of Inhŭng-dong, in Moranbong-guyok district and in the area of Sinwon-dong in Potonggang-guyok were demolished in 2018-2019 for the construction of new apartment buildings. Also in 2018 the Youth Park Open-Air Theatre in Sungri Street, used to host political rallies, was rebuilt. In 2021-2022 a major housing project was executed along Hwasong Street in Hwasong-guyok district in northern Pyongyang with high-rises. In 2023 phase two of construction of housing in Hwasong-guyok was launched, on the former territory of the Pyongyang Vegetable Science Institute. In addition, a complex of greenhouse farm and housing was initiated on the former territory of Kangdong Airfield which was demolished in 2019.
Pyongyang, alongside Seoul, launched a bid to host the 2032 Summer Olympics, but failed to make the joint city candidate list.
Geography
---------
Pyongyang is in the west-central part of North Korea; the city lies on a flat plain about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of the Korea Bay, an arm of the Yellow Sea. The Taedong River flows southwestward through the city toward the Korea Bay. The Pyongyang plain, where the city is situated, is one of the two large plains on the Western coast of the Korean peninsula, the other being the Chaeryong plain. Both have an area of approximately 500 square kilometers.
### Climate
Pyongyang has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: *Dwa*), featuring warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters. Cold, dry winds can blow from Siberia in winter, making conditions very cold; the low temperature is usually below freezing between November and early March, although the average daytime high is at least a few degrees above freezing in every month except January. The winter is generally much drier than summer, with snow falling for 37 days on average.
The transition from the cold, dry winter to the warm, wet summer occurs rather quickly between April and early May, and there is a similarly abrupt return to winter conditions in late October and November. Summers are generally hot and humid, with the East Asian monsoon taking place from June until September; these are also the hottest months, with average temperatures of 21 to 25 °C (70 to 77 °F), and daytime highs often above 30 °C (86 °F). Although largely transitional seasons, spring and autumn experience more pleasant weather, with average high temperatures ranging from 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F) in May and 22 to 27 °C (72 to 81 °F) in September, coupled with relatively clear, sunny skies.
| Climate data for Pyongyang (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–present) |
| --- |
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 12.0(53.6) | 16.0(60.8) | 22.4(72.3) | 29.1(84.4) | 34.0(93.2) | 35.8(96.4) | 36.9(98.4) | 37.9(100.2) | 32.2(90.0) | 30.0(86.0) | 23.2(73.8) | 15.0(59.0) | 37.9(100.2) |
| Average high °C (°F) | −0.4(31.3) | 3.1(37.6) | 9.7(49.5) | 17.6(63.7) | 23.5(74.3) | 27.5(81.5) | 29.1(84.4) | 29.6(85.3) | 25.7(78.3) | 18.8(65.8) | 9.7(49.5) | 1.4(34.5) | 16.3(61.3) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −5.4(22.3) | −2.0(28.4) | 4.0(39.2) | 11.4(52.5) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.9(71.4) | 24.7(76.5) | 25.0(77.0) | 20.2(68.4) | 12.9(55.2) | 4.8(40.6) | −2.9(26.8) | 11.0(51.8) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −9.8(14.4) | −6.6(20.1) | −0.9(30.4) | 5.9(42.6) | 12.0(53.6) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.4(70.5) | 21.5(70.7) | 15.6(60.1) | 7.8(46.0) | 0.5(32.9) | −6.8(19.8) | 6.5(43.7) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −26.5(−15.7) | −23.4(−10.1) | −16.1(3.0) | −6.1(21.0) | 2.2(36.0) | 7.0(44.6) | 12.0(53.6) | 12.8(55.0) | 3.6(38.5) | −6.0(21.2) | −14.0(6.8) | −22.8(−9.0) | −26.5(−15.7) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 9.6(0.38) | 14.5(0.57) | 23.9(0.94) | 44.8(1.76) | 74.7(2.94) | 90.2(3.55) | 274.7(10.81) | 209.6(8.25) | 90.8(3.57) | 47.2(1.86) | 38.4(1.51) | 18.0(0.71) | 936.4(36.87) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 3.9 | 3.7 | 4.2 | 5.8 | 7.1 | 7.9 | 12.5 | 10.1 | 6.3 | 5.8 | 7.1 | 5.7 | 80.1 |
| Average snowy days | 5.4 | 4.0 | 1.8 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 5.5 | 19.0 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 69.1 | 65.0 | 62.5 | 60.4 | 65.3 | 72.2 | 81.1 | 80.6 | 75.3 | 72.0 | 72.2 | 70.6 | 70.5 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 184 | 197 | 231 | 237 | 263 | 229 | 181 | 204 | 222 | 214 | 165 | 165 | 2,492 |
| Average ultraviolet index | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 |
| Source 1: Korea Meteorological Administration |
| Source 2: Pogodaiklimat.ru (extremes), Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun, 1961–1990) and Weather Atlas |
Politics
--------
Major government and other public offices are located in Pyongyang, which is constitutionally designated as the country's capital. The seat of the Workers' Party Central Committee and the Pyongyang People's Committee are located in Haebangsan-dong, Chung-guyok. The Cabinet of North Korea is located in Jongro-dong, Chung-guyok.
Pyongyang is also the seat of all major North Korean security institutions. The largest of them, the Ministry of People's Security, has 130,000 employees working in 12 bureaus. These oversee activities including: police services, security of party officials, classified documents, census, civil registrations, large-scale public construction, traffic control, fire safety, civil defence, public health and customs. Another significant structure based in the city is the State Security Department, whose 30,000 personnel manage intelligence, political prison systems, military industrial security and entry and exit management.
The politics and management of the city is dominated by the Workers' Party of Korea, as they are in the national level. The city is managed by the Pyongyang Party Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea and its chairman is the *de facto* mayor. The supreme standing state organ is the Pyongyang People's Committee, responsible
for everyday events in support of the city. This includes following local Party guidance as channeled through the Pyongyang Party Committee, the distribution of resources prioritised to Pyongyang, and providing support to KWP and internal security agency personnel and families.
Administrative status and divisions
-----------------------------------
P'yŏngyang is divided into 19 wards (*ku-* or *guyŏk*) *(the city proper)*, 2 counties (*kun* or *gun*), and 1 neighborhood (*dong*).
* Chung-guyok (중구역; 中區域)
* Pyongchon-guyok (평천구역; 平川區域)
* Potonggang-guyok (보통강구역; 普通江區域)
* Moranbong-guyok (모란봉구역; 牡丹峰區域)
* Sŏsŏng-guyŏk (서성구역; 西城區域)
* Songyo-guyok (선교구역; 船橋區域)
* Tongdaewŏn-guyŏk (동대원구역; 東大院區域)
* Taedonggang-guyŏk (대동강구역; 大同江區域)
* Sadong-guyŏk (사동구역; 寺洞區域)
* Taesong-guyok (대성구역; 大城區域)
* Mangyongdae-guyok (만경대구역; 萬景台區域)
* Hyongjesan-guyok (형제산구역; 兄弟山區域)
* Hwasong-guyok (화성구역; 和盛區域)
* Ryongsong-guyok (룡성구역; 龍城區域)
* Samsok-guyok (삼석구역; 三石區域)
* Ryokpo-guyok (력포구역; 力浦區域)
* Rakrang-guyok (락랑구역; 樂浪區域)
* Sunan-guyŏk (순안구역; 順安區域)
* Unjong-guyok (은정구역; 恩情區域)
* Kangdong County (강동군; 江東郡)
* Kangnam County (강남군; 江南郡)
* Panghyŏn-dong (방현동; 方峴洞)
Foreign media reports in 2010 stated that Kangnam-gun, Chunghwa-gun, Sangwŏn-gun, and Sŭngho-guyŏk had been transferred to the administration of neighboring North Hwanghae province. However, Kangnam-gun was returned to Pyongyang in 2011.
Panghyŏn-dong, a missile base, was administrated by Kusong, North Pyongan Province. It had been transferred to the administration of P'yŏngyang on February 10, 2018.
Cityscape
---------
A panoramic view of Pyongyang from atop the Juche towerPanorama of Pyongyang, as seen from the *Juche* Tower in April 2012
After being destroyed during the Korean War, Pyongyang was entirely rebuilt according to Kim Il Sung's vision, which was to create a capital that would boost morale in the post-war years. The result was a city with wide, tree-lined boulevards and public buildings with terraced landscaping, mosaics and decorated ceilings. Its Russian-style architecture makes it reminiscent of a Siberian city during winter snowfall, although edifices of traditional Korean design somewhat soften this perception. In summer, it is notable for its rivers, willow trees, flowers and parkland.
The streets are laid out in a north–south, east–west grid, giving the city an orderly appearance. North Korean designers applied the Swedish experience of self-sufficient urban neighbourhoods throughout the entire country, and Pyongyang is no exception. Its inhabitants are mostly divided into administrative units of 5,000 to 6,000 people (*dong*). These units all have similar sets of amenities including a food store, a barber shop, a tailor, a public bathhouse, a post office, a clinic, a library and others. Many residents occupy high-rise apartment buildings. One of Kim Il Sung's priorities while designing Pyongyang was to limit the population. Authorities maintain a restrictive regime of movement into the city, making it atypical of East Asia as it is silent, uncrowded and spacious.
Structures in Pyongyang are divided into three major architectural categories: monuments, buildings with traditional Korean motifs and high-rises. Some of North Korea's most recognisable landmarks are monuments, like the *Juche* Tower, the Arch of Triumph and the Mansu Hill Grand Monument. The first of them is a 170-meter (560 ft) granite spire symbolizing the *Juche* ideology. It was completed in 1982 and contains 25,550 granite blocks, one for each day of Kim Il Sung's life up to that point. The most prominent building on Pyongyang's skyline is Ryugyong Hotel, the seventh highest building in the world terms of floor count, the tallest unoccupied building in the world, and one of the tallest hotels in the world. It has yet to open.
Pyongyang has a rapidly evolving skyline, dominated by high-rise apartment buildings. A construction boom began with the Changjon Street Apartment Complex, which was completed in 2012. Construction of the complex began after late leader Kim Jong Il described Changjon Street as "pitiful". Other housing complexes are being upgraded as well, but most are still poorly insulated, and lacking elevators and central heating. An urban renewal program continued under Kim Jong Un's leadership, with the old apartments of the 1970s and '80s replaced by taller high rise buildings and leisure parks like the Kaesong Youth Park, as well as renovations of older buildings. In 2018, the city was described as unrecognizable compared to five years before.
### Landmarks
Notable landmarks in the city include:
* the Ryugyong Hotel
* the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun
* the Arch of Triumph (heavily inspired by, but larger than, Paris's Arc de Triomphe)
* the birthplace of Kim Il Sung at Mangyongdae Hill at the city outskirts
* *Juche* Tower
* two large stadiums:
+ Rungrado 1st of May Stadium
+ Kim Il-sung Stadium
* the Mansu Hill complex, including the Korean Revolution Museum
* Kim Il-sung Square
* Yanggakdo International Hotel
Pyongyang TV Tower is a minor landmark. Other visitor attractions include the Korea Central Zoo. The Arch of Reunification has a map of a united Korea supported by two concrete Korean women dressed in traditional dress straddling the Reunification Highway, which stretches from Pyongyang to the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).
* Monuments and sights of Pyongyang
* Juche Tower Monument to the philosophy of Juche (self-reliance)*Juche* Tower Monument to the philosophy of *Juche* (self-reliance)
* Arch of TriumphArch of Triumph
* Arch of Reunification, a monument to the goal of a reunified KoreaArch of Reunification, a monument to the goal of a reunified Korea
* Monument to Party FoundingMonument to Party Founding
* Kumsusan Palace of the SunKumsusan Palace of the Sun
* Tomb of King TongmyeongTomb of King Tongmyeong
* Ryugyong HotelRyugyong Hotel
* Ryomyong New TownRyomyong New Town
* Mirae Scientists StreetMirae Scientists Street
* Rungrado May Day StadiumRungrado May Day Stadium
Culture
-------
### Cuisine
Pyongyang served as the provincial capital of South Pyongan Province until 1946, and Pyongyang cuisine shares the general culinary tradition of the Pyongan province. The most famous local food is *Pyongyang raengmyŏn*, or also called *mul raengmyŏn* or just simply *raengmyŏn*. *Raengmyŏn* literally means "cold noodles", while the affix *mul* refers to water because the dish is served in a cold broth. *Raengmyŏn* consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in a cold meat-broth with *dongchimi* (watery kimchi) and topped with a slice of sweet Korean pear.
Pyongyang *raengmyŏn* was originally eaten in homes built with *ondol* (traditional underfloor heating) during the cold winter, so it is also called *"Pyongyang deoldeori"* (shivering in Pyongyang). Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as a *haejangguk*, which is any type of food eaten as a hangover-cure, usually a warm soup.
Another representative Pyongyang dish, *Taedonggang sungeoguk*, translates as "flathead grey mullet soup from the Taedong River". The soup features flathead grey mullet (abundant in the Taedong River) along with black peppercorns and salt. Traditionally, it has been served to guests visiting Pyongyang. Therefore, there is a common saying, "How good was the trout soup?", which is used to greet people returning from Pyongyang. Another local specialty, *Pyongyang onban* (literally "warm rice of Pyongyang") comprises freshly cooked rice topped with sliced mushrooms, chicken, and a couple of *bindaetteok* (pancakes made from ground mung beans and vegetables).
### Social life
In 2018, there were many high quality restaurants in Pyongyang with Korean and international food, and imported alcoholic beverages. Famous restaurants include Okryu-gwan and Ch'ongryugwan. Some street foods exist in Pyongyang, where vendors operate food stalls. Foreign foods like hamburgers, fries, pizza, and coffee are easily found. There is an active nightlife with late-night restaurants and karaoke.
The city has water parks, amusement parks, skating rinks, health clubs, a shooting range, and a dolphinarium.
Sports
------
Pyongyang has a number of sports clubs, including the April 25 Sports Club and the Pyongyang City Sports Club.
Economy
-------
Pyongyang is North Korea's industrial center. Thanks to the abundance of natural resources like coal, iron and limestone, as well as good land and water transport systems, it was the first industrial city to emerge in North Korea after the Korean War. Light and heavy industries are both present and have developed in parallel. Heavy manufactures include cement, industrial ceramics, munitions and weapons, but mechanical engineering remains the core industry. Light industries in Pyongyang and its vicinity include textiles, footwear and food, among others. Special emphasis is put on the production and supply of fresh produce and subsidiary crops in farms on the city's outskirts. Other crops include rice, sweetcorn and soybeans. Pyongyang aims to achieve self-sufficiency in meat production. High-density facilities raise pigs, chicken and other livestock.
Until the late 2010s Pyongyang still experienced frequent shortages of electricity. To solve this problem, two power stations – Huichon Power Stations 1 and 2 – were built in Chagang Province and supply the city through direct transmission lines. A second phase of the power expansion project was launched in January 2013, consisting of a series of small dams along the Chongchon River. The first two power stations have a maximum generating capacity of 300 megawatts (MW), while the 10 dams to be built under second phase are expected to generate about 120 MW. In addition, the city has several existing or planned thermal power stations. These include Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 500 MW, East Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 50 MW, and Kangdong TPS which is under construction.
### Retail
Pyongyang is home to several large department stores including the Pothonggang Department Store, Pyongyang Department Store No. 1, Pyongyang Department Store No. 2, Kwangbok Department Store, Ragwon Department Store, Pyongyang Station Department Store, and the Pyongyang Children's Department Store.
The city also has Hwanggumbol Shop, a chain of state-owned convenience stores supplying goods at prices cheaper than those in the jangmadang markets. Hwanggumbol Shops are specifically designed to control North Korea's expanding markets by attracting consumers and guaranteeing the circulation of money in government-operated stores.
### Transportation
Pyongyang is also the main transport hub of the country: it has a network of roads, railways and air routes which link it to both foreign and domestic destinations. It is the starting point of inter-regional highways reaching Nampo, Wonsan and Kaesong. Pyongyang railway station serves the main railway lines, including the Pyongui Line and the Pyongbu Line. Regular international rail services to Beijing, the Chinese border city of Dandong and Moscow are also available.
A rail journey to Beijing takes about 25 hours and 25 minutes (K27 from Beijing/K28 from Pyongyang, on Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays); a journey to Dandong takes about 6 hours (daily); a journey to Moscow takes six days. The city also connects to the Eurasian Land Bridge via the Trans-Siberian Railway. A high-speed rail link to Wonsan is planned.
The Metro, tram and trolleybus systems are used mainly by commuters as a primary means of urban transportation. Cycle lanes were introduced on main thoroughfares in July 2015. There are relatively few cars in the city. Cars are a symbol of status in the country due to their scarcity as a result of restrictions on import because of international sanctions and domestic regulations. Some roads are also reported to be in poor condition. However, by 2018, Pyongyang had begun to experience traffic jams.
State-owned Air Koryo has scheduled international flights from Pyongyang Sunan International Airport to Beijing (PEK), Shenyang (SHE), Vladivostok (VVO), Shanghai (PVG) and Dandong. The only domestic destinations are Hamhung,
Wonsan, Chongjin, Hyesan and Samjiyon. Since 31 March 2008, Air China launched a regular service between Beijing and Pyongyang, although Air China's flights are often canceled due to lack of passengers.
Education and science
---------------------
Kim Il Sung University, North Korea's oldest university, was established in 1946. It has 21 faculties, 4 research institutes, and 10 other university units. These include the primary medical education and health personnel training unit, the medical college; a physics faculty which covers a range of studies including theoretical physics, optical science, geophysics and astrophysics; an atomic energy institute and the largest law firm in the country (Ryongnamsan Law Office). Kim Il Sung University also has its own publishing house, sports club (Ryongnamsan Sports Club), revolutionary museum, nature museum, libraries, a gym, indoor swimming pool and educator apartment houses. Its four main buildings were completed in 1965 (Building 1), 1972 (Building 2), and 2017 (Buildings 3 and 4).
Other higher education establishments include Kim Chaek University of Technology, Pyongyang University of Music and Dance and Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies. Pyongyang University of Science and Technology (PUST) is the country's first private university where most of the lecturers are American and courses are carried out in English. A science and technology hall is under construction on Ssuk Islet. Its stated purpose is to contribute to the "informatization of educational resources" by centralizing teaching materials, compulsory literature and experimental data for state-level use in a digital format.
Sosong-guyok hosts a 20 MeV cyclotron called MGC-20. The initial project was approved by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1983 and funded by the IAEA, the United States and the North Korean government. The cyclotron was ordered from the Soviet Union in 1985 and constructed between 1987 and 1990. It is used for student training, production of medical isotopes for nuclear medicine as well as studies in biology, chemistry and physics.
Health care
-----------
Medical centers include the Red Cross Hospital, the First People's Hospital which is located near Moran Hill and was the first hospital to be built in North Korea after the liberation of Korea in 1945, the Second People's Hospital, Ponghwa Recuperative Center (also known as Bonghwa Clinic or Presidential Clinic) located in Sokam-dong, Potonggang-guyok, 1.5 km (1 mi) northwest of Kim Il-sung Square, Pyongyang Medical School Hospital, Namsan Treatment Center which is adjacent Pyongyang's Maternity Hospital, Taesongsan General Hospital, Kim Man-yoo Hospital, Staff Treatment Center and Okryu Children's Hospital. A new hospital named Pyongyang General Hospital began construction in Pyongyang in 2020.
Twin towns – sister cities
--------------------------
Pyongyang is twinned with:
* Iraq Baghdad, Iraq
* Thailand Chiang Mai, Thailand
* United Arab Emirates Dubai, United Arab Emirates
* Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia
* Nepal Kathmandu, Nepal
* Russia Moscow, Russia
* China Tianjin, China
* Mongolia Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
See also
--------
* List of cities in North Korea
Further reading
---------------
* Dormels, Rainer. *North Korea's Cities: Industrial Facilities, Internal Structures and Typification*. Seoul, Jimoondang, 2014. ISBN 978-89-6297-167-5.
* Em, Pavel P.; et al. (Spring 2021). "City Profile of Pyongyang 3.0: Inside Out". *North Korean Review*. **17** (1): 30–56. ISSN 1551-2789. JSTOR 27033549.
* Kim Chun-hyok (2014). *Panorama of Pyongyang* (PDF). Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House. ISBN 978-9946-0-1176-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2020.
* Kracht, Christian, Eva Munz & Lukas Nikol. *The Ministry of Truth: Kim Jong Il's North Korea*. Feral House, October 2007. ISBN 978-1-93259527-7.
* Meuser, Philipp, editor. *Architectural and Cultural Guide Pyongyang*. Berlin, DOM, 2012. ISBN 978-3-86922-187-8.
* Springer, Chris. *Pyongyang: The Hidden History of the North Korean Capital.* Saranda Books, 2003. ISBN 963-00-8104-0.
* Thak, Song Il; Jang, Hyang Ok, eds. (2021). *Pyongyang in Kim Jong Un's Era* (PDF). Translated by Tong, Kyong Chol. DPRK Korea: Foreign Languages Publishing House. ISBN 978-9946-0-2016-7.
* Willoughby, Robert. *North Korea: The Bradt Travel Guide.* Globe Pequot, 2003. ISBN 1-84162-074-2.
### Pyongyang at night
* Pyongyang at Night on 15 April 2012 on YouTube
* Pyongyang at Night River View DPRK on YouTube | Pyongyang | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyongyang | {
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src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg/124px-Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg/186px-Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg/248px-Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong%2C_Pyongyang%2C_North_Korea-1.jpg 2x\" width=\"124\"/></a></span></div></div><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:142px;max-width:142px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"border:1;;height:92px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Arch_of_Reunification.jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"768\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1162\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"93\" resource=\"./File:Arch_of_Reunification.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arch_of_Reunification.jpg/140px-Arch_of_Reunification.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arch_of_Reunification.jpg/210px-Arch_of_Reunification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Arch_of_Reunification.jpg/280px-Arch_of_Reunification.jpg 2x\" width=\"140\"/></a></span></div></div></div><div class=\"trow\"><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:178px;max-width:178px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"border:1;;height:116px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pjöngjang_-_Metro_(22356826393).jpg\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3264\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"4928\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"117\" resource=\"./File:0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pjöngjang_-_Metro_(22356826393).jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg/176px-0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg/264px-0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg/352px-0855_-_Nordkorea_2015_-_Pj%C3%B6ngjang_-_Metro_%2822356826393%29.jpg 2x\" width=\"176\"/></a></span></div></div><div class=\"tsingle\" style=\"width:90px;max-width:90px\"><div class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"border:1;;height:116px;overflow:hidden\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Chollima_statue_04.JPG\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"3488\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2616\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"117\" resource=\"./File:Chollima_statue_04.JPG\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chollima_statue_04.JPG/88px-Chollima_statue_04.JPG\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chollima_statue_04.JPG/132px-Chollima_statue_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chollima_statue_04.JPG/176px-Chollima_statue_04.JPG 2x\" width=\"88\"/></a></span></div></div></div></div></div><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\">Clockwise from top: Pyongyang skyline and the <a href=\"./Taedong_River\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Taedong River\">Taedong River</a>; <a href=\"./Juche_Tower\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Juche Tower\"><i>Juche</i> Tower</a>; <a href=\"./Arch_of_Reunification\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arch of Reunification\">Arch of Reunification</a>; <a href=\"./Chollima_Statue\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Chollima Statue\">Chollima Statue</a>; Puhŭng Station in the <a href=\"./Pyongyang_Metro\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pyongyang Metro\">Pyongyang Metro</a>; <a href=\"./Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tomb of King Tongmyong\">Tomb of King Tongmyong</a> and <a href=\"./Arch_of_Triumph_(Pyongyang)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang)\">Arch of Triumph</a></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Nickname(s):<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><div class=\"ib-settlement-nickname nickname\"><span style=\"line-height:1.5em;\"> (류경/<span title=\"Korean-language text\"><span lang=\"ko\">柳京</span></span>)<span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span><small>(<a href=\"./Korean_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Korean language\">Korean</a>)<br/>\"Capital of Willows\"</small></span></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a about=\"#mwt45\" class=\"mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center\" data-height=\"200\" data-mw=\"\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_26f08d5a42d940be1c12b01d94d5396e02bcd762\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"280\" data-zoom=\"8\" id=\"mwDw\" style=\"width: 280px; height: 200px;\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"200\" id=\"mwEA\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,8,a,a,280x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Pyongyang&revid=1162347649&groups=_26f08d5a42d940be1c12b01d94d5396e02bcd762\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,8,a,a,280x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Pyongyang&revid=1162347649&groups=_26f08d5a42d940be1c12b01d94d5396e02bcd762 2x\" width=\"280\"/></a><div class=\"ib-settlement-caption\"><i>Location of Pyongyang in North Korea</i></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"switcher-container\"><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:North_Korea_physical_map.svg\" title=\"Pyongyang is located in North Korea\"><img alt=\"Pyongyang is located in North Korea\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"713\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"851\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"209\" resource=\"./File:North_Korea_physical_map.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/North_Korea_physical_map.svg/250px-North_Korea_physical_map.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/North_Korea_physical_map.svg/375px-North_Korea_physical_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/North_Korea_physical_map.svg/500px-North_Korea_physical_map.svg.png 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:73.343%;left:24.089%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Pyongyang\"><img alt=\"Pyongyang\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pr\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;left:4px\"><div>Pyongyang</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of North Korea</span></div></div></div><div class=\"center\"><div class=\"locmap\" style=\"width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto\"><div style=\"width:250px;padding:0\"><div style=\"position:relative;width:250px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg\" title=\"Pyongyang is located in Asia\"><img alt=\"Pyongyang is located in Asia\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1050\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1181\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"222\" resource=\"./File:Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-Asia_laea_relief_location_map.jpg 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></span><div class=\"od\" style=\"top:47.11%;left:71.485%\"><div class=\"id\" style=\"left:-3px;top:-3px\"><span class=\"notpageimage\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Pyongyang\"><img alt=\"Pyongyang\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"64\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"64\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"6\" resource=\"./File:Red_pog.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></span></span></div><div class=\"pl\" style=\"font-size:91%;width:6em;right:4px\"><div>Pyongyang</div></div></div></div><div style=\"padding-top:0.2em\"></div><span class=\"switcher-label\" style=\"display:none\">Show map of Asia</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedbottomrow\"><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\">Coordinates: <span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pyongyang&params=39_1_10_N_125_44_17_E_type:city_region:KP\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">39°1′10″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">125°44′17″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">39.01944°N 125.73806°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">39.01944; 125.73806</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Country</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./North_Korea\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"North Korea\">Democratic People's Republic of Korea</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Administrative_divisions_of_North_Korea#Second-level_divisions\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Administrative divisions of North Korea\">Districts</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div class=\"collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\" style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<div style=\"line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;\"><div>19 districts(or wards), 2 counties,1 neighbourhood</div></div>\n<ul class=\"mw-collapsible-content\" style=\"margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;\"><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Chung-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Chung-guyok\">Chung-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Pyongchon-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pyongchon-guyok\">Pyongchon-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Potonggang-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Potonggang-guyok\">Potonggang-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Moranbong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Moranbong-guyok\">Moranbong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Sosong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sosong-guyok\">Sosong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Songyo-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Songyo-guyok\">Songyo-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Tongdaewon-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tongdaewon-guyok\">Tongdaewon-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Taedonggang-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Taedonggang-guyok\">Taedonggang-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Sadong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sadong-guyok\">Sadong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Taesong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Taesong-guyok\">Taesong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Mangyongdae-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mangyongdae-guyok\">Mangyongdae-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Hyongjesan-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hyongjesan-guyok\">Hyongjesan-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Ryongsong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ryongsong-guyok\">Ryongsong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Samsok-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Samsok-guyok\">Samsok-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Ryokpo-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ryokpo-guyok\">Ryokpo-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Rangrang-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Rangrang-guyok\">Rangrang-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Sunan-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sunan-guyok\">Sunan-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Unjong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Unjong-guyok\">Unjong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Hwasong-guyok\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hwasong-guyok\">Hwasong-guyok</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Kangdong_County\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kangdong County\">Kangdong County</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a href=\"./Kangnam_County\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kangnam County\">Kangnam County</a></li><li style=\"line-height: inherit; margin: 0\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Banghyundong\"]}}' href=\"./Banghyundong?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Banghyundong\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">banghyundong</a></li></ul>\n</div></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Government<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Type</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Special_cities_of_North_Korea\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Special cities of North Korea\">Directly governed city</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Body</th><td class=\"infobox-data agent\">Pyongyang City People's Assembly</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Secretary of the City Committee</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Kim_Yong-hwan_(politician)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kim Yong-hwan (politician)\">Kim Yong-hwan</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Chairman of the People's Committee</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Cha_Hui-rim\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cha Hui-rim\">Cha Hui-rim</a></td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Area<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Special_cities_of_North_Korea\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Special cities of North Korea\">Directly governed city</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">829.1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (320.1<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Metro<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,194<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (1,233<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\">Population<div class=\"ib-settlement-fn\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span></span>(2023)</div></th></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Special_cities_of_North_Korea\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Special cities of North Korea\">Directly governed city</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,157,538</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedrow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>•<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>Density</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">3,800/km<sup>2</sup> (9,900/sq<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Demonym\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Demonym\">Demonym</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Pyongyangite(s)</td></tr><tr class=\"mergedtoprow\"><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Time_zone\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time zone\">Time zone</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./UTC+09:00\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UTC+09:00\">UTC+09:00</a> (<a href=\"./Time_in_North_Korea\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Time in North Korea\">Pyongyang Time</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table>",
"<table class=\"infobox\" style=\"width: 22em\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size: 125%; background-color: \n#b0c4de;\">Pyongyang</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Pyongyang_(East_Asian_characters).svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"363\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"302\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"138\" resource=\"./File:Pyongyang_(East_Asian_characters).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg/115px-Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg/173px-Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg/230px-Pyongyang_%28East_Asian_characters%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"115\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">\"Pyongyang\" in <i><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Chosŏn'gŭl\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Chosŏn'gŭl\">Chosŏn'gŭl</a></i> (top) and <i><a href=\"./Hanja\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hanja\">hanja</a></i> (bottom)</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color: \n#b0c4de;\">Korean name</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight: normal;\"><a href=\"./Hangul\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hangul\">Chosŏn'gŭl</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div style=\"display: inline; font-size: 1rem;\"><span title=\"Korean-language text\"><span lang=\"ko-Hang\"><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/평양\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:평양\">평양</a></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight: normal;\"><a href=\"./Hanja\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hanja\">Hancha</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><div style=\"display: inline; font-size: 1rem;\"><span title=\"Korean-language text\"><span lang=\"ko-Hani\"><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/平壤\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:平壤\">平壤</a></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight: normal;\"><a href=\"./Revised_Romanization_of_Korean\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Revised Romanization of Korean\">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span title=\"Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration\"><i lang=\"ko-Latn\">Pyeongyang</i></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight: normal;\"><a href=\"./McCune–Reischauer\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"McCune–Reischauer\">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span title=\"McCune–Reischauer transliteration\"><i lang=\"ko-Latn\">P'yŏngyang</i></span></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Literal_translation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Literal translation\">lit.</a> \"Flat Soil\"</td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Tomb_of_King_Tongmyong,_Pyongyang,_North_Korea.jpg",
"caption": "Tomb of King Tongmyong"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:De_daken_van_Pyongyang_Gezicht_op_de_daken_van_eenvoudige,_dicht_op_elkaar_gebouwde_huizen,_Pyongyang,_Noord-Korea,_RP-F-2000-9-51.jpg",
"caption": "Pyongyang, 1907"
},
{
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358,226 | **Eid al-Adha** (Arabic: عيد الأضحى *ʿĪd al-ʾAḍḥā* [ˈʕiːd æl ˈʔɑdˤħæː], "Feast of the Sacrifice") or the **Feast of Sacrifice** is the second and the largest of the two main holidays celebrated in Islam (the other being Eid al-Fitr). It honours the willingness of Abraham (Ibrahim) to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (Ismail), as an act of obedience to God's command. However, before Abraham could sacrifice his son in the name of God, and because of his willingness to do so, God provided him with a ram to sacrifice in his son's place. In commemoration of this intervention, animals are ritually sacrificed. Part of their meat is consumed by the family that offers the animal, while the rest of the meat is distributed to the poor and the needy. Sweets and gifts are given, and extended family members typically visit and are welcomed. The day is also sometimes called the Greater Eid. The celebration of Eid, however, is not mentioned in the Qur'an.
In the Islamic lunar calendar, *Eid al-Adha* falls on the tenth day of Dhu al-Hijja and lasts for four days. In the international (Gregorian) calendar, the dates vary from year to year, shifting approximately 11 days earlier each year.
Pronunciation
-------------
Eid al-Adha is also pronounced *Eid al-Azha* and *Eidul Azha*, primarily in Iran and regions influenced by the Persian language like the Indian subcontinent; /ˌiːd əl ˈɑːdə, - ˈɑːdhɑː/ *EED əl AH-də, - AHD-hah*; Arabic: عيد الأضحى, romanized: *ʿĪd al-ʾAḍḥā*, IPA: [ʕiːd al ˈʔadˤħaː].
Etymology
---------
The Arabic word عيد (*ʿīd*) means 'festival', 'celebration', 'feast day', or 'holiday'. It itself is a triliteral root عيد (*ʕ-y-d*) with associated root meanings of "to go back, to rescind, to accrue, to be accustomed, habits, to repeat, to be experienced; appointed time or place, anniversary, feast day". Arthur Jeffery contests this etymology, and believes the term to have been borrowed into Arabic from Syriac, or less likely Targumic Aramaic.
The holiday is called عيد الأضحى (*Eid-al-Adha*) or العيد الكبير (*Eid-al-Kabir*) in Arabic. The words أضحى (*aḍḥā*) and قربان (*qurbān*) are synonymous in meaning 'sacrifice' (animal sacrifice), 'offering' or 'oblation'. The first word comes from the triliteral root ضحى (*ḍaḥḥā*) with associated meanings of "immolate ; offer up ; sacrifice ; victimize". No occurrence of this root with a meaning related to sacrifice occurs in the Qur'an but in the Hadith literature. Assyrians and other Middle Eastern Christians use the term to mean the Eucharistic host. The second word derives from the triliteral root قرب (*qaraba*) with associated meanings of "closeness, proximity... to moderate; kinship...; to hurry; ...to seek, to seek water sources...; scabbard, sheath; small boat; sacrifice". Arthur Jeffery recognizes the same Semitic root, but believes the sense of the term to have entered Arabic through Aramaic. The word is still used by Assyrians and other Middle Eastern Christians for the Communion service, see Eucharist above. Compare Hebrew *korban* קָרבן (*qorbān*).
Origin
------
One of the main trials of Abraham's life was to receive and obey the command of God to slaughter his beloved son. According to the narrative, Abraham kept having dreams that he was sacrificing his son Ishmael, son of Hagar (Hajar). Abraham knew that this was a command from God and he told his son, as stated in the Quran,
> "Oh son, I keep dreaming that I am slaughtering you". he replied, "Father, do what you are ordered to do."
>
> — Surah As-Saaffat 37:102
Abraham prepared to submit to the will of God and to slaughter his son as an act of faith and obedience to God. During the preparation, Iblis (Satan) tempted Abraham and his family by trying to dissuade them from carrying out God's commandment, and Abraham drove Iblis away by throwing pebbles at him. In commemoration of their rejection of Iblis, stones are thrown during Hajj rites at symbolic pillars, symbolising the place at which Iblis tried to dissuade Abraham.
Acknowledging that Abraham was willing to sacrifice what is dear to him, God honoured both Abraham and Ishmael. Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) called Abraham, "O' Ibrahim, you have fulfilled the revelations." and a ram from heaven was offered by Angel Gabriel to prophet Abraham to slaughter instead of Ishmael. Muslims worldwide celebrate Eid al Adha to commemorate both the devotion of Abraham and the survival of Ishmael.
This story is known as the Akedah in Judaism (Binding of Isaac) and originates in the Torah, the first book of Moses (Genesis, Ch. 22). The Quran refers to the Akedah as follows:
> 100 My Lord! Bless me with righteous offspring.”
>
> 101 So We gave him good news of a forbearing son.
>
> 102 Then when the boy reached the age to work with him, Abraham said, “O my dear son! I have seen in a dream that I ˹must˺ sacrifice you. So tell me what you think.” He replied, “O my dear father! Do as you are commanded. Allah willing, you will find me steadfast.”
>
> 103 Then when they submitted ˹to Allah’s Will˺, and Abraham laid him on the side of his forehead ˹for sacrifice˺,
>
> 104 We called out to him, “O Abraham!
>
> 105 You have already fulfilled the vision.” Indeed, this is how We reward the good-doers.
>
> 106 That was truly a revealing test.
>
> 107 And We ransomed his son with a great sacrifice,
>
> 108 and blessed Abraham ˹with honourable mention˺ among later generations:
>
> 109 “Peace be upon Abraham.”
>
> 110 This is how We reward the good-doers.
>
> 111 He was truly one of Our faithful servants.
>
> 112 We ˹later˺ gave him good news of Isaac—a prophet, and one of the righteous.
>
> — Surah As-Saaffat 37:100–112
The word "Eid" appears once in Al-Ma'ida, the fifth surah of the Quran, with the meaning "a festival or a feast".
Slaughter on Eid al-Adha
------------------------
The tradition for Eid al-Adha involves slaughtering an animal and sharing the meat in three equal parts – for family, for relatives and friends, and for poor people. The goal is to make sure every Muslim gets to eat meat.
Eid prayers
-----------
Devotees offer the Eid al-Adha prayers at the mosque. The Eid al-Adha prayer is performed any time after the sun completely rises up to just before the entering of *Zuhr* time, on the tenth of Dhu al-Hijja. In the event of a *force majeure* (e.g. natural disaster), the prayer may be delayed to the 11th of Dhu al-Hijja and then to the 12th of Dhu al-Hijja.
Eid prayers must be offered in congregation. Participation of women in the prayer congregation varies from community to community. It consists of two *rakats* (units) with seven *takbirs* in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah. For Shia Muslims, Salat al-Eid differs from the five daily canonical prayers in that no *adhan* (call to prayer) or *iqama* (call) is pronounced for the two Eid prayers. The *salat* (prayer) is then followed by the khutbah, or sermon, by the Imam.
At the conclusion of the prayers and sermon, Muslims embrace and exchange greetings with one another (*Eid Mubarak*), give gifts and visit one another. Many Muslims also take this opportunity to invite their friends, neighbours, co-workers and classmates to their Eid festivities to better acquaint them about Islam and Muslim culture.
Traditions and practices
------------------------
During Eid al-Adha, distributing meat amongst the people, chanting the *takbir* out loud before the Eid prayers on the first day and after prayers throughout the four days of Eid, are considered essential parts of this important Islamic festival.
The *takbir* consists of:
| | |
| --- | --- |
| الله أكبر الله أكبر الله أكبر
لا إله إلا الله
الله أكبر الله أكبر
ولله الحمد | *Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar*
*lā Ilāha illAllāh*
*Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar*
*waliLlāhi l-ḥamd* |
Adults and children are expected to dress in their finest clothing to perform Eid prayer in a large congregation in an open *waqf* ("stopping") field called Eidgah or mosque. Affluent Muslims who can afford it sacrifice their best halal domestic animals (usually a camel, goat, sheep, or ram depending on the region) as a symbol of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his only son. The sacrificed animals, called *aḍḥiya* (Arabic: أضحية), known also by the Perso-Arabic term *qurbāni*, have to meet certain age and quality standards or else the animal is considered an unacceptable sacrifice. In Pakistan alone nearly ten million animals are sacrificed on Eid days, costing over $2 billion.
The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be divided into three parts. The family retains one-third of the share; another third is given to relatives, friends, and neighbors; and the remaining third is given to the poor and needy.
Muslims wear their new or best clothes. People cook special sweets, including ma'amoul (filled shortbread cookies) and samosas. They gather with family and friends.
Eid al-Adha in the Gregorian calendar
-------------------------------------
Conversion of Hijri years 1343 to 1500 to the Gregorian calendar, with first days of al-Muharram (brown), Ramadan (grey) and Shawwal (black) bolded, and Eid al-Adha dotted – in the SVG file, hover over a spot to show its dates and a line to show the month
While Eid al-Adha is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar, the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. The lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar. Each year, Eid al-Adha (like other Islamic holidays) falls on one of about two to four Gregorian dates in parts of the world, because the boundary of crescent visibility is different from the International Date Line.
The following list shows the official dates of Eid al-Adha for Saudi Arabia as announced by the Supreme Judicial Council. Future dates are estimated according to the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia. The Umm al-Qura calendar is just a guide for planning purposes and not the absolute determinant or fixer of dates. Confirmations of actual dates by moon sighting are applied on the 29th day of the lunar month prior to Dhu al-Hijja to announce the specific dates for both Hajj rituals and the subsequent Eid festival. The three days after the listed date are also part of the festival. The time before the listed date the pilgrims visit Mount Arafat and descend from it after sunrise of the listed day.
In many countries, the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality.
| Islamic year | Gregorian date |
| --- | --- |
| 1400 | 20 October 1980 |
| 1401 | 08 October 1981 |
| 1402 | 27 September 1982 |
| 1403 | 17 September 1983 |
| 1404 | 05 September 1984 |
| 1405 | 26 August 1985 |
| 1406 | 15 August 1986 |
| 1407 | 04 August 1987 |
| 1408 | 25 July 1988 |
| 1409 | 13 July 1989 |
| 1410 | 02 July 1990 |
| 1411 | 22 June 1991 |
| 1412 | 11 June 1992 |
| 1413 | 31 May 1993 |
| 1414 | 20 May 1994 |
| 1415 | 09 May 1995 |
| 1416 | 29 April 1996 |
| 1417 | 17 April 1997 |
| 1418 | 07 April 1998 |
| 1419 | 27 March 1999 |
| 1420 | 16 March 2000 |
| 1421 | 05 March 2001 |
| 1422 | 22 February 2002 |
| 1423 | 11 February 2003 |
| 1424 | 01 February 2004 |
| 1425 | 20 January 2005 |
| 1426 | 10 January 2006 |
| 1427 | 30 December 2006 |
| 1428 | 20 December 2007 |
| 1429 | 08 December 2008 |
| 1430 | 27 November 2009 |
| 1431 | 16 November 2010 |
| 1432 | 06 November 2011 |
| 1433 | 26 October 2012 |
| 1434 | 14 October 2013 |
| 1435 | 05 October 2014 |
| 1436 | 24 September 2015 |
| 1437 | 12 September 2016 |
| 1438 | 01 September 2017 |
| 1439 | 20 August 2018 |
| 1440 | 11 August 2019 |
| 1441 | 31 July 2020 |
| 1442 | 20 July 2021 |
| 1443 | 09 July 2022 |
| 1444 | 28 June 2023 |
| 1445 | 16 June 2024 (calculated) |
| 1446 | 06 June 2025 (calculated) |
| 1447 | 26 May 2026 (calculated) |
| 1448 | 16 May 2027 (calculated) |
| 1449 | 04 May 2028 (calculated) |
| 1450 | 23 April 2029 (calculated) |
| 1451 | 13 April 2030 (calculated) |
| 1452 | 02 April 2031 (calculated) |
| 1453 | 21 March 2032 (calculated) |
| 1454 | 11 March 2033 (calculated) |
| 1455 | 28 February 2034 (calculated) |
| 1456 | 17 February 2035 (calculated) |
| 1457 | 07 February 2036 (calculated) |
| 1458 | 26 January 2037 (calculated) |
| 1459 | 16 January 2038 (calculated) |
| 1460 | 05 January 2039 (calculated) |
| 1461 | 14 December 2040 (calculated) |
Explanatory notes
-----------------
1. ↑ Translation: Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest
There is no god but Allah
Allah is greatest, Allah is greatest
and to Allah goes all praise.
**Note:** Because the Hijri year differs by about 11 days from the AD year, Eid al-Adha can occur twice a year, in the year 1029, 1062, 1094, 1127, 1159, 1192, 1224, 1257, 1290, 1322, 1355, 1387, 1420, 1452, 1485, 1518, 1550, 1583, 1615, 1648, 1681, 1713, 1746, 1778, 1811, 1844, 1876, 1909, 1941, 1974, 2007, 2039, 2072, 2104, 2137, 2169, 2202, 2235, 2267 and 2300 (will continue to occur every 32 or 33 years). | Eid al-Adha | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eid_al-Adha | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt13\" class=\"infobox vevent\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above hd\" colspan=\"2\">Eid al-Adha</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1550\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"1024\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"363\" resource=\"./File:Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png/240px-Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png/360px-Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png/480px-Eid_Blessings_WDL6855.png 2x\" width=\"240\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\" style=\"caption\">Calligraphic fragment dated to 1729–30 displaying blessings for Eid al-Adha in Arabic</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Official name</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Eid al-Adha</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Observed<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>by</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Muslim\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Muslim\">Muslims</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Type</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Islamic</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Significance</th><td class=\"infobox-data summary\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Commemoration of <a href=\"./Abraham_in_Islam\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abraham in Islam\">Abraham (Ibrahim)</a>'s willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to a command from <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Allah_in_Islam\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Allah in Islam\">God</a></div><br/><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">End of the annual <a href=\"./Hajj\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hajj\">Hajj</a> to <a href=\"./Mecca\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mecca\">Mecca</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Celebrations</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">During the Eid al-Fitr celebration, Muslims greet each other by saying 'Eid Mubarak', which is Arabic for \"Blessed Eid\". As it comes after a month of fasting, sweet dishes and foods are often prepared and consumed during the celebration.</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Observances</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Eid_prayers\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eid prayers\">Eid prayers</a>, <a href=\"./Dhabihah\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dhabihah\">animal slaughter</a>, charity, social gatherings, festive meals, <a href=\"./Eidi_(gift)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eidi (gift)\">gift-giving</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Begins</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">10 <a href=\"./Dhu_al-Hijja\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dhu al-Hijja\">Dhu al-Hijja</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Ends</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">13 Dhu al-Hijja</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Date</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">10 Dhu al-Hijjah</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">2023<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>date</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">June 28 (Kyrgyztsan, Uzbekistan)<br/>June 28 – June 30 (Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan)<br/>June 29 – July 2 (United Kingdom, Brunei, Singapore, Japan, Morocco, Indonesia, Malaysia)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">2024<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>date</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">June 16 – June 19 </td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">First<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>time</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">622 AD</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Related<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>to</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Hajj\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hajj\">Hajj</a>; <a href=\"./Eid_al-Fitr\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eid al-Fitr\">Eid al-Fitr</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
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12,243,387 | **Nef Stadium** (officially known as the **Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi – Nef Stadyumu**) is a football stadium serving as the home ground of the Süper Lig club Galatasaray It is located in the Seyrantepe quarter of the Sarıyer district, on the European side of Istanbul, Turkey. The all-seater stadium has the capacity to host 52,280 spectators during football games. The Nef Stadyumu is part of the Ali Sami Yen Sports Complex, named after club's founder.
Nef Stadium was the first stadium in Turkey that met the UEFA Euro 2016 requirements during the country's bid to host the European Championship. In 2011, Nef Stadium was one of the six nominees for the *Venue of the Year* and *New Venue* categories of the Stadium Business Awards. Galatasaray S.K. won the Süper Lig in the first season at Nef Stadium. Nef Stadium and Galatasaray S.K. were mentioned in the first chapter of Tom Clancy's 2012 novel *Threat Vector*.
History
-------
Association football was first played in Istanbul by some British players in a field known as Papazın Çayırı ("Priest's Field") in the area that is now the site of Fenerbahçe's Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium. With the opening of the Taksim Stadium in 1921, it was this new stadium that became the new football headquarters. In the urban development of 1939, the military barracks in which the Taksim Stadium was located was demolished in 1940. The stadium was thus lost. In this period, Fenerbahçe bought the land encompassing Papazın Çayırı and built the Fenerbahçe Stadium, while the Beşiktaş Club moved into the Şeref Stadium, located in the area where today's Çırağan Palace Hotel stands. It was Galatasaray that experienced the biggest problem with the use of a stadium in that period.
The first steps to overcome this problem were taken in the initial years of the 1930s. The first initiative to acquire a plot of land for Galatasaray was in 1933, when the then president of the club Ali Haydar Barşal showed an interest in a mulberry orchard in Mecidiyeköy. In the period between 1933 and 1935, negotiations with the government resulted in the allocation of a plot of land outside of the city limits in Mecidiye Köyü (Mecidiye Village, present-day Mecidiyeköy quarter of the Şişli district) for a stadium to be built for Galatasaray. Excavations for the construction began in 1936. The President of the Turkish Sports Organization at the time, Adnan Menderes, provided financial assistance for the project. However, the efforts were left in the excavation stage.
In 1940, the matter of the stadium came up again under the presidency of Tevfik Ali Çınar. The same plot of land was leased to Galatasaray for a term of 30 years at a symbolic yearly rental fee of 1 lira. Galatasaray thus acquired the right to the use of the land. In leasing the land, Galatasaray committed to building a modern stadium as well as a bicycle velodrome. The construction could not start, however, due to limited funds and the general atmosphere of the war years. In 1943, Osman Dardağan led an initiative to build a modest stadium that would answer the immediate need. In the atmosphere of war, only a small open tribune was allowed in the stadium, which was set on a field of earth and inaugurated under the presidency of Muslihittin Peykoğlu in 1945. However, its distance from the city center in those days, its inaccessibility by public transportation, and the rough winds that characterized the district were factors that contributed to a long period in which the stadium would lay idle and football games never took place.
When the İnönü Stadium in the center of the city was opened in that period, Galatasaray abandoned the stadium building project in Mecidiyeköy, putting the project aside before fruition. In 1955, 30 more years were added to the right of utilization agreement, which at the time had 22 years to go, extending the terms until 2007. When the Club failed to undertake the building of the Stadium, the project was taken on by the Physical Education General Directorate. The construction started in 1959. In 1961, during the presidency of Refik Selimoğlu, a new agreement was signed with the Physical Education General Directorate whereby the utilization rights of the newly completed stadium were explicitly given to Galatasaray.
The stadium was opened on an eventful December 20, 1964. In the midst of the extreme crowds present, panic broke out, resulting in the death of one spectator and the injury of 80 others. In 1965, the stadium was illuminated for the first time. Despite this, however, not many night games were played. At the beginning of the 1970s, the stadium was abandoned for another period during which the İnönü Stadium began to be used again. In the 1970s, the stadium was mostly used by Galatasaray for training sessions. In those years, it remained in a squalid state of neglect.
In 1981, grass was planted on the field and the stadium was opened again. The lighting system was renewed in 1993, after which night games began to be played once more. In the same year, the system of combined tickets was initiated in Turkey at the Ali Sami Yen Stadium. Also in the same year, the stadium was furnished with seats to replace the old benches. The capacity of the stadium was thus reduced from 35,000 to an all-seater capacity of 22,000. In 1997, the Galatasaray administration assigned a Canadian architectural firm for the task of designing Turkey's first multi-function, modern stadium to be built in place of the Ali Sami Yen Stadium, which was planned to be torn down.
On 10 December 2013, a UEFA Champions League match between Galatasaray and Juventus had to be abandoned due to heavy snow in the 32nd minute with the score 0–0, the remaining minutes of the match were played the next day.
### New stadium projects
#### Faruk Süren project
The new stadium project was launched in 1998 and it attracted wide interest. During the promotion of the modern loge system, the entire loge section was sold at a symbolical fee. The proposed capacity was 40,484. However, the mayor and the state did not allow of a stadium to be built.
#### Mehmet Cansun project
Over the period of 2001–2002, a revision was made in the project with an eye toward reducing the amount needed for financing but this time, although costs were brought down, the economic crisis of 2001 stood in the way of overcoming the financial issue. Capacity was reduced to 35,000.
#### Özhan Canaydın: Back to Süren's project
In the 2002–04 season, the old project came up again but was abandoned in favor of building a new and modern stadium. Again, financing needs could not be met. After a general renovation that took place in the 2004–05 season, the club returned to the Ali Sami Yen Stadium. Following the 1999 İzmit earthquake, the old Open Tribune was demolished and replaced in the 2005–2006 season for safety reasons.
#### Özhan Canaydın: Leaving Mecidiyeköy, new home in Aslantepe
Because Mecidiyeköy was now a part of the city center, state authorities objected to the expansion of the stadium in this district. A new piece of land was suggested to Galatasaray as an alternative.
The search for financing for the new stadium that would be built on this new plot continued over the period of 2004–07. In 2007, discussions with state authorities regarding the erection of a new Galatasaray stadium in Aslantepe yielded positive results. It was decided that the new stadium would be built within two years on the new land plot that would be transferred to Galatasaray, in exchange for the club's property in Mecidiyeköy on which the Ali Sami Yen Stadium stood.
#### A dream comes true
At the end of 2007, ten years after the initial announcement of the project in 1997, the groundbreaking for the new stadium was carried out (December 13, 2007) at a ceremony attended by state officials. The old project was put aside and a new project was contracted to Mete Arat in Germany.
2008, In Galatasaray's last year at the Ali Sami Yen Stadium, the Lower Closed Tribune was renovated in line with UEFA standards.
2009, The construction of the new stadium, the Nef Stadium, gained speed when the contracting company was changed.
2010, It was announced that the official opening of the new stadium would take place on January 15, 2011, with Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan presiding. But in the opening ceremony, he was protested by spectators of Galatasaray.
#### Project overview
| Project | Year | Location | Capacity | Suites | Architect | Cost | Info |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Faruk Süren project | 1997–2001 | Mecidiyeköy | 40,482 | 125+72 boxes without outside seating | BBB Architects | US$118.5 million($213 million in 2022 dollars) | 2 different roof and stand styles. A Mall next to the stadium was also planned |
| Mehmet Cansun project | 2001 | Mecidiyeköy | 35,000 | 132 | GS member Architecture group\* | US$35 million($57.8 million in 2022 dollars) | \*Emre Arolat, Doğan Hasol, Tabanlioglu Architects, Eren Talu, DB Architects |
| Özhan Canaydın:Back to Süren's project | 2002–2005 | Mecidiyeköy | 40,482 | 125+72 boxes without outside seating | BBB Architects | US$90 million($143 million in 2022 dollars) | Same project, just lower cost |
| Eren Talu bidding project | 2007 | Aslantepe | 52,000 | 150 | Populous | n/a | Eren Talu's project for the bid. GS logo as a ramp |
| **Özhan Canaydın project** | **2007** | **Aslantepe** | **52,652** | **157** | **asp Stuttgart** | US$**250 million**($325 million in 2022 dollars) | **Built** |
Aslantepe
---------
In recent years, numerous proposals had been put forward to demolish the current stadium and build a new, larger one on the same location, but this was impossible due to the lack of space. Finally, the club's stadium, Ali Sami Yen Stadium, was now going to be replaced with a new stadium near Maslak financial district. The former name of the district, *Seyrantepe*, was changed to *Aslantepe* (Lion Hill) after Galatasaray purchased the land; *Aslan* ("Lion") being Galatasaray's symbol. The idea was to realize a stadium on the model of Arena AufSchalke in Gelsenkirchen, Germany. The stadium will feature a retractable roof—the first of its kind in Turkey.
### Auction process
Galatasaray have been in cooperation with TOKİ (one of the biggest construction organizations of Turkey, budgeted by the Turkish government).
Among the four companies that tendered proposals, the best offer was put forward by the Eren Talu Architecture – ALKE Partnership. The contract for the tender held for the construction of Galatasaray's new stadium was signed between TOKİ and Eren Talu-ALKE consortium on 23 October 2007.
The contract of the tender was realized by TOKİ and came to be known as the "Aslantepe Tender", covering the construction of a multi-purpose sports complex with 52,652 spectator capacity on Aslantepe (formerly known as Seyrantepe) premises in return for building "Urban Social Infrastructure Areas" on 34.640 sq meters of land on which the present Ali Sami Yen Stadium is located.
There is a set period of 720 days for the construction of the stadium that will be built on the Aslantepe (formerly known as Seyrantepe) premises. The box count is 198 Part of the catering areas Turk Telekom Stadium consists of, is a VIP lounge room, VIP Market Area, Premium Food Court, Galatasaray Museum, Galatasaray Mega Store, 11 Galatasaray Store and a VIP restaurant. The modern stadium, contains five top and four underground levels.
### Partnership
Once the Eren Talu-ALKE consortium had won the tender for the stadium project, they proceeded to find a foreign technical partner with previous experience in sports-construction related projects. They were introduced to the Abu Dhabi Group and Al Zarooni Group, both headquartered in the UAE. Abu Dhabi Group (also known as Dhabi Group), the largest foreign investor group in Pakistan, and the Al Zarooni Group are investors in the gigantic 5.5 million sq.m. Dubai Sports City project that is currently under construction in Dubai. The Chairman of Abu Dhabi Group is His Highness Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan, who is also the Federal Minister for Higher Education & Scientific Research of the UAE and a very important member of Abu Dhabi's Ruling Family. The Dhabi-Zarooni consortium acquired 51% of the Eren Talu-ALKE consortium's shares to co-invest a total of $650 million with them in the Aslantepe (New Stadium) and Mecidiyeköy (Old Stadium) projects.
Stating that a total amount of $650 million will be invested for the entire project, Eren Talu said, "$170 million of this amount will be spent for the stadium, in addition to $180 million which is the guaranteed TOKİ share, a $50 million additional TOKİ share and the remaining $250 million+ to be invested in the mixed-use development project intended in Mecidiyeköy". Talu added that TOKİ's participation in the project provides great advantage for the partnership and continued, "our partners had confidence in the public benefit of the project and decided to join within a short period of just 2 months". Talu said they have already spent $37 million so far in order to construct up to the current level of the stadium. Stating that the stadium is to be delivered on time on 29 October 2010, Talu said, "We are casting 1,500 cubic meters of concrete every day. We have driven 4,500 meters of piles into the ground. A labour force of above 350 workers is busy at the construction site 24 hours a day. The stadium is going to be so strong that it may even be used as a catastrophe relief center if required."
Talu said the project being contemplated on the land in Mecidiyeköy in lieu of the old Ali Sami Yen Stadium will be initiated in June 2009, and added, "the mixed-use development project that we are going to build on land measuring 34,600 square meters will include apartments, a large shopping center, offices and a five-star hotel. A total of $650 million will be invested in these two projects, and in return, we expect an income of about $1.3 billion when the Mecidiyeköy mixed-use complex is completed. Therefore, this is a highly profitable venture."
The total stadium construction is expected to cost around US$191 million, not including the US$145+ million which will be spent on upgrading the nearby infrastructure.
The construction of the stadium stopped twice a time. When Talu had financial problems once again, TOKİ cancelled the process in July 2009. After termination of TOKİ-Talu agreement, TOKİ announced a new auction. Varyap-Uzunlar consortium won the auction and construction restarted in September 2009. Galatasaray and TOKİ had an agreement that the stadium would be opened without retractable roofs which will be installed at the end of the season.
### Groundbreaking ceremony
As of 13 December 2007, the construction has officially started after a glitzy reception where the club's board, some players, the minister of sports for Turkey and many other ministers attended. In the ceremony, then President Özhan Canaydın stated, in summary: "The Turkish World of Sports will gain another big facility with the Ali Sami Yen Sports Complex and we've gathered here to celebrate its groundbreaking ceremony. This work, which will be a value add to Istanbul and Turkey along with Turkish Sports, will also serve as an honorable monument that will signify the advanced position Turkish Sports has achieved and the phases it has passed through."
### Name
#### Türk Telekom Sponsorship
The naming rights were sold to Türk Telekom for a period of 10 years for US$10.25 million a year. The stadium has officially replaced the Ali Sami Yen Stadium at the middle of the 2010–2011 Süper Lig season, under the name of *Türk Telekom Arena*. North tribune's name of this stadium were sold to Pegasus Airlines for €4 million a year. The contract ended in October 2013. The naming rights of the first tier of the east tribune of Türk Telekom Stadium were also sold to Ülker for $2 million a year and will be named as *Ülker Family Tribune*.
All 198 suites' and 4,844 VIP seats' naming rights were sold to Denizbank for three years.
On 18 December 2012 Galatasaray S.K. and Opel signed a 2.5-year contract for the naming rights of the Southstand. The club will receive €1.5 million per year (€3.75 million in total). On 24 September 2013 Galatasaray S.K. and Odeabank signed a five-year contract (€590,000 a year) for naming rights to the Northstand.
#### NEF Sponsorship
In the statement made by Galatasaray Sports Club on 11 October 2021, it was announced that a stadium name sponsorship agreement would be made with the real estate developer NEF Gayrimenkul [tr].
In the new notification made on 12 October 2021, a sponsorship and advertising promotion agreement regarding stadium naming rights worth 725.000.000 Turkish Liras + VAT for a total of 10 (5+5) seasons, including 5 seasons, was signed between Galatasaray Sports Club and Timur Şehircilik Planning A.Ş. explanation has been made.
At the press conference held at the Ali Sami Yen Sports Complex on 12 October 2021, Galatasaray and Nef signed the largest stadium naming sponsorship agreement in Turkish sports history. The press launch of the agreement, which took place at the newly named *Ali Sami Yen Sports Complex Nef Stadium*, was held with the participation of Burak Elmas, President of Galatasaray Sports Club, and Erden Timur, Chairman of Nef Board of Directors.
| Stand | Sponsor | Duration | € M/year | Total € M |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Stadium** | Türk Telekom | 10 years (2011–2021) | 7.5 | 75 |
| Nef | 5+5 years (2021–2031) | ? | ? |
| **North** | Pegasus Airlines | 2 years (2011–2013) | 4 | 8 |
| Odeabank | 5 years (2013–2018) | 0.59 | 2.95 |
| **South** | Opel | 2.5 years (2012–2015) | 1.5 | 3.75 |
| MNG Kargo | 2 years (2015–2017) | ? | ? |
| 1st tier East | Ülker | 2 years (2011–2013) | 2 | 4 |
Facts
-----
### Dimensions
* Stadium: 195,000 m2 – 228m x 190m x 70m
* Playing level: 120 m x 83 m
* Gross grass area: 111 m x 72 m
* Playing field: 105 m x 68 m
### Capacity
* West Stand: 10,713
+ 1st tier: 5,525
+ 1st suit level: 399
+ 2nd suit level: 266
+ 2nd tier: 4,523
* East Stand: 11,425
+ 1st tier: 5,751
+ 1st suit level: 399
+ 2nd suit level: 266
+ 2nd tier: 5,009
* South Stand: 15,246
+ 1st tier: 8,209
+ 1st suit level: (no suites existing)
+ 2nd suit level: 484
+ 2nd tier: 6,553
* North Stand: 15,268
+ 1st tier: 8,028
+ 1st suit level: (no suites existing)
+ 2nd suit level: 622
+ 2nd tier: 6,618
### Stands
* 1st Tier: 19.93° – 29.54° (average 23.96°)
* 2nd Tier: 34.61° – 35.474° (average 35.10°)
* Distance West/East stand to the pitch: 6.2 m
* Distance North/South stand to the pitch: 8.2 m
* First row is 6 cm above pitch level
* Highest row at West/East stand: 36.07 m
* Highest row at north–south: 34.93 m
* 1st tier: 37 rows
* Suit balcony: 3 rows
* 2nd tier: 20–27 rows
### Suites
* South stand: 65 suites
* West stand: 49 suites
* East stand: 52 suites
* North stand: 32 suites
* Total: 198 suites
* 6.321 seats
* capacity: 6 – 27 person
### Construction
* Total concrete used during stadium construction: 190,000 m³
* Total steel used during stadium construction: 35,000 tonnes
* Total steel used for the roof: 5,500 tonnes
### Additions
#### 2012
In time for the 2012–13 season the club added 41 new suites at the North Corners of Level 4. So the total amount raised from 157 to 198, making it second in Europe behind Estadio Santiago Bernabéu which has got 245 suites.
The capacity decreased from 52,652 to 52,223.
#### 2018 - Hybrid grass
In January 2018 a SISGrass hybrid pitch was relaid to improve the pitch quality.
Concerts
--------
The stadium can also be turned into a concert arena with a capacity for over 70,000 people. The first band to play at Nef Stadium was Bon Jovi on 8 July 2011. The second singer at the stadium was Madonna, who performed on 7 June 2012 as part of her MDNA Tour. She played in front of 47,789 fans.
Surroundings
------------
### Aslanlı Yol
From the Seyrantepe Metro Station just east of the stadium, visitors approach the stadium through a road called *Aslanlı Yol*, which was designed to disentangle and guide them to the entrance. It is 200 meters long and 45 meters wide.
Ticket sales, Simit Sarayı Restaurant and Yüzevler Restaurant are also located at the *Aslanlı Yol*.
### Aslantepe GSStore
On 7 February 2012 a new GS Store opened next to the stadium. It has got a similar architecture and was designed by Galatasaray S.K. project coordinator Coşkun Peküstün and the architect Ayşegül Uslu. it is built on a 950 m2 area and the floor area is 1,650 m2. It has got two floor, while the first floor is used for the retail and the second the *Ülker Fan Zone*.
Transportation
--------------
### Public transport
Nef Stadium is served by a number of bus routes and the shuttle line of Metro M2, which runs from the Sanayi Mahallesi Station to Seyrantepe at the stadium.
| Service/Operator | Station/Wharf | Line |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Train | Seyrantepe Metro station Disabled access | Yenikapı ↔ Hacıosman |
|
### Car
The stadium is located next to the Otoyol 2 motorway.
There are four four-story parking garages with 3,225 (3,025 covered and 200 open) parking places. In addition, there are also 28 places available for buses at the west entrance.
Payment methods
---------------
### GS Bonus Card
GS Bonus Card is the stadium card of Galatasaray S.K. which can also be used as a credit card. Unified RFID cards are used as season tickets at Nef Stadium. The card can be used for all services at the stadium.
### fastPay
On March 12, 2019, Galatasaray and DenizBank started an important cooperation which will lay the foundation of the cash-free payment period at Ali Sami Yen Sports Complex Nef Stadium for the first time in Turkey. Accordingly, the fans will be able to make payment through *fastPay*, the first digital wallet of Turkey, while shopping at the stadium, the stores and the snack bars around the stadium and at the GS Store, easily and safely without having to pay any cash.
Records
-------
### Attendance
* The highest attendance recorded at Nef Stadium was 52,044 for an UEFA Champions League quarter-final match between Galatasaray and Real Madrid CF on 9 April 2013.
* The highest attendance for a Süper Lig match is 51,983, between Galatasaray S.K. and Trabzonspor on 18 May 2013.
* The highest attendance for a non-competitive game is 40,000, set on 15 January 2011 for a pre-season testimonial between Galatasaray and AFC Ajax.
* The highest attendance for a Turkish Cup match is 31,930, set on 2 March 2011, when Galatasaray played against Gaziantepspor.
* The highest attendance for a national team match is 49,532. Set on 7 October 2011, when Turkey played against Germany.
* The highest attendance for a concert is 47,789. Set on 7 June 2012, when Madonna performed a concert as part of her MDNA Tour.
### List
| Rank | Attendance | Date | Game |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 52,044 | 9 April 2013 | Galatasaray S.K. – Real Madrid CF |
| 2 | 51,983 | 18 May 2013 | Galatasaray S.K. – Trabzonspor |
| 3 | 51,793 | 5 May 2013 | Galatasaray S.K. – Sivasspor |
| 4 | 51,663 | 28 September 2019 | Galatasaray S.K. – Fenerbahçe SK |
| 5 | 51,578 | 5 May 2019 | Galatasaray S.K. – Beşiktaş J.K |
| 6 | 51,567 | 22 April 2012 | Galatasaray S.K. – Fenerbahçe SK |
| 7 | 51,393 | 18 March 2011 | Galatasaray S.K. – Fenerbahçe SK |
| 8 | 51,350 | 6 April 2014 | Galatasaray S.K. – Fenerbahçe SK |
| 9 | 51,311 | 16 December 2012 | Galatasaray S.K. – Fenerbahçe SK |
| 10 | 51,278 | 16 November 2012 | Galatasaray S.K. – Manchester United F.C. |
|
### Loudest crowd
On March 18, 2011, the Nef Stadium recorded 131.76 decibels which was considered to be the world record for "loudest crowd roar at a sport stadium" in Guinness World Records The record has since then been raised by NFL American football games starting with September 15, 2013 at CenturyLink Field in a Seattle Seahawks game that reached 136.6 decibels; on October 13, 2013, at Arrowhead Stadium in a Kansas City Chiefs game that reached 137.5 dB,; again at CenturyLink Field on December 2, 2013, with 137.6 decibels; and most recently reclaimed by Arrowhead Stadium on September 29, 2014, in a game that reached 142.2 dB.
Matches
-------
### Turkey national team
Nef Stadium is one of the main home stadiums of the Turkey national team
| Date | Time (CEST) | Team #1 | Res. | Team #2 | Round | Attendance |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 10 August 2011 | 20.30 | Turkey Turkey | 3–0 | Estonia Estonia | Friendly | 25,000 |
| 2 September 2011 | 19.00 | Turkey Turkey | 2–1 | Kazakhstan Kazakhstan | Euro 2012 qualifying | 47,756 |
| 7 October 2011 | 20.30 | Turkey Turkey | 1–3 | Germany Germany | Euro 2012 qualifying | 49,532 |
| 11 October 2011 | 19.00 | Turkey Turkey | 1–0 | Azerbaijan Azerbaijan | Euro 2012 qualifying | 32,174 |
| 11 November 2011 | 20.05 | Turkey Turkey | 0–3 | Croatia Croatia | Euro 2012 qualifying | 42,863 |
| 14 November 2012 | 20.30 | Turkey Turkey | 1–1 | Denmark Denmark | Friendly | 30,000 |
| 17 November 2014 | 20.45 | Turkey Turkey | 3–1 | Kazakhstan Kazakhstan | Euro 2016 qualifying | 27,549 |
| 14 November 2019 | 18.00 | Turkey Turkey | 0–0 | Iceland Iceland | Euro 2020 qualifying | 48,329 |
### 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup
The stadium was one of the venues for the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. However, due to sponsorship contracts, the stadium was called *Ali Sami Yen Arena* during the World Cup.
The following games were played at the stadium during the World Cup of 2013:
| Date | Time (CEST) | Team #1 | Res. | Team #2 | Round | Attendance |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 21 June 2013 | 18.00 | France France | 3–1 | Ghana Ghana | Group A | 4,133 |
| 21 June 2013 | 21.00 | United States USA | 1–4 | Spain Spain | Group A | 4,133 |
| 24 June 2013 | 18.00 | France France | 1–1 | United States USA | Group A | 4,120 |
| 24 June 2013 | 21.00 | Spain Spain | 1–0 | Ghana Ghana | Group A | 4,120 |
| 27 June 2013 | 20.00 | Spain Spain | 2–1 | France France | Group A | 7,511 |
| 27 June 2013 | 17.00 | South Korea South Korea | 0–1 | Nigeria Nigeria | Group B | 7,511 |
| 2 July 2013 | 18.00 | Spain Spain | 2–1 | Mexico Mexico | Round of 16 | 7,211 |
| 2 July 2013 | 21.00 | Nigeria Nigeria | 1–2 | Uruguay Uruguay | Round of 16 | 7,211 |
| 7 July 2013 | 21.00 | Ghana Ghana | 4–3 | Chile Chile | Quarterfinals | 6,632 |
| 13 July 2013 | 18.00 | Ghana Ghana | 3–0 | Iraq Iraq | Third place match | 20,601 |
| 13 July 2013 | 18.00 | France France | 0–0 | Uruguay Uruguay | Final | 20,601 |
Season tickets and average attendance
-------------------------------------
| Season | Sold season tickets | average league attendance |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2011 (just 2nd half) | 20,000 | 29,887 |
| 2011–2012 | 27,900 | 34,685 |
| 2012–2013 | 47,200 | 43,262 |
| 2013–2014 | 46,250\* | 40,094 |
| 2014–2015 | 43,108 | 26,193 |
| 2015–2016 | 39,849 | 18,996 |
| 2016–2017 | 22,167 | 21,751 |
| 2017–2018 | 41,167 | 41,076 |
| 2018–2019 | 46,716 | 36,439 |
| 2019–2020 | 47,729 | 35,231 |
| 2020–2021 | N/A due to COVID-19 pandemic |
| 2021–2022 | N/A due to COVID-19 pandemic | 21,425 |
| 2022–2023 | 40,105 | 45,516 |
\*Stopped at 46,250. Demand was 65,000.
Gallery
-------
A panoramic view of the interior
Galatasaray – Fenerbahçe 3–1, 7 December 2011
* Dressing RoomDressing Room
* Press RoomPress Room
* VIP LoungeVIP Lounge
* SuiteSuite
* Galatasaray StoreGalatasaray Store
* Galatasaray StoreGalatasaray Store
* Aslanlı YolAslanlı Yol
* Aslantepe Metro StationAslantepe Metro Station
See also
--------
* List of football stadiums in Turkey
* Istanbul bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics
|
| |
| Preceded byEstadio Nemesio Camacho Bogotá | **FIFA U-20 World CupFinal Venue** 2013 | Succeeded byNorth Harbour Stadium Auckland | | Nef Stadium | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nef_Stadium | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt10\" class=\"infobox vcard\" id=\"mwBQ\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn org\">Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi Nef Stadyumu</caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"nickname\">Nef Stadium</div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"193\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"512\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"83\" resource=\"./File:Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg/220px-Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg/330px-Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg/440px-Nef_Stadyumu_logo.svg.png 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"1152\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"2048\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"169\" resource=\"./File:Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg/300px-Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg/450px-Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg/600px-Galatasaray_Arena_North-West_Corner.jpg 2x\" width=\"300\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\"><b><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./UEFA_Elite_stadium\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"UEFA Elite stadium\">UEFA</a></b> <span role=\"img\" style=\"white-space:nowrap\" title=\"4/4 stars\"><span data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"4/4 stars\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"110\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"108\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Star_full.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/11px-Star_full.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/17px-Star_full.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/22px-Star_full.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"110\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"108\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Star_full.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/11px-Star_full.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/17px-Star_full.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/22px-Star_full.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"110\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"108\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Star_full.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/11px-Star_full.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/17px-Star_full.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/22px-Star_full.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"110\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"108\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Star_full.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/11px-Star_full.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/17px-Star_full.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Star_full.svg/22px-Star_full.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></span></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><a about=\"#mwt25\" class=\"mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center\" data-height=\"200\" data-lat=\"41.102777777778\" data-lon=\"28.990555555556\" data-mw=\"\" data-mw-kartographer=\"\" data-overlays='[\"_30c82abe7339219f141ad930e99cb43d11041a43\"]' data-style=\"osm-intl\" data-width=\"250\" data-zoom=\"13\" href=\"/wiki/Special:Map/13/41.102777777778/28.990555555556/en\" id=\"mwBg\" style=\"width: 250px; height: 200px;\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/mapframe\"><img alt=\"Map\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"200\" id=\"mwBw\" src=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,41.102777777778,28.990555555556,250x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Nef+Stadium&revid=1162155609&groups=_30c82abe7339219f141ad930e99cb43d11041a43\" srcset=\"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,41.102777777778,28.990555555556,250x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Nef+Stadium&revid=1162155609&groups=_30c82abe7339219f141ad930e99cb43d11041a43 2x\" width=\"250\"/></a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Full name</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi<br/> NEF Stadyumu</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Former names</th><td class=\"infobox-data nickname\">Türk Telekom Arena (2011–2017)<br/>Türk Telekom Stadium (2017–2021)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Location</th><td class=\"infobox-data label\"><a href=\"./Sarıyer\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sarıyer\">Sarıyer</a>, <a href=\"./Istanbul\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Istanbul\">Istanbul</a>, <a href=\"./Turkey\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey\">Turkey</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Geographic_coordinate_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Geographic coordinate system\">Coordinates</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"geo-inline\"><span class=\"plainlinks nourlexpansion\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Nef_Stadium&params=41_6_10_N_28_59_26_E_\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink\"><span class=\"geo-default\"><span class=\"geo-dms\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\"><span class=\"latitude\">41°6′10″N</span> <span class=\"longitude\">28°59′26″E</span></span></span><span class=\"geo-multi-punct\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span></span><span class=\"geo-nondefault\"><span class=\"geo-dec\" title=\"Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location\">41.10278°N 28.99056°E</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"></span> / <span class=\"geo\">41.10278; 28.99056</span></span></span></a></span></span><link about=\"#mwt27\" data-mw=\"\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/indicator\"/></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Public transit</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Istanbul_Metro\" title=\"Istanbul Metro\"><img alt=\"Istanbul Metro\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"589\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"512\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"20\" resource=\"./File:Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg/17px-Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg/26px-Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg/34px-Istanbul_Metro_Logo.svg.png 2x\" width=\"17\"/></a></span> <span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./M2_(Istanbul_Metro)\" title=\"M2 (Istanbul Metro)\"><img alt=\"Line M2\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"513\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"512\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"17\" resource=\"./File:Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg/17px-Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg/26px-Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg/34px-Istanbul_M2_Line_Symbol.svg.png 2x\" width=\"17\"/></a></span> <span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./F3_(Istanbul_Metro)\" title=\"F3 (Istanbul Metro)\"><img alt=\"Line F3\" class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"512\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"512\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"17\" resource=\"./File:Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg/17px-Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg/26px-Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg/34px-Istanbul_F3_Line_Symbol.svg.png 2x\" width=\"17\"/></a></span> <a href=\"./Seyrantepe_(Istanbul_Metro)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Seyrantepe (Istanbul Metro)\">Seyrantepe</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Owner</th><td class=\"infobox-data agent\"><a href=\"./Galatasaray_S.K.\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Galatasaray S.K.\">Galatasaray</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Operator</th><td class=\"infobox-data agent\"><a href=\"./Galatasaray_S.K._(football)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Galatasaray S.K. (football)\">Galatasaray</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Executive suites</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">198</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Seating_capacity\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Seating capacity\">Capacity</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><small>52,652 (2011–2013)</small><br/>52,280 (<a href=\"./All-seater_stadium\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"All-seater stadium\">all-seater</a>) <br/></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Record<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>attendance</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">52,044 (<a href=\"./Galatasaray_S.K.\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Galatasaray S.K.\">Galatasaray</a>–<a href=\"./Real_Madrid_CF\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Real Madrid CF\">Real Madrid</a>, 9 April 2013)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Field size</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">105<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m ×<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>68<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m (115<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>yd ×<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>74<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>yd)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Area\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Area\">Acreage</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">190,000 m²</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Surface</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><small>Grass (2011–2018)</small><br/><a href=\"./Hybrid_grass\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hybrid grass\">SISGrass</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Scoreboard</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2 x 77,41m²</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#ccc\">Construction</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Broke ground</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">13<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>December 2007<span class=\"noprint\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">;</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>15 years ago</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(<span class=\"bday dtstart published updated\">2007-12-13</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Built</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2007–2011</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Opened</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">15<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>January 2011<span class=\"noprint\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">;</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>12 years ago</span><span style=\"display:none\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>(<span class=\"bday dtstart published updated\">2011-01-15</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Construction cost</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">US$250 million<br/>($325<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>million in 2022 dollars)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Architect</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">'asp' architekten Stuttgart</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Structural engineer</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">İz Mühendislik<br/>Yüksel Proje<br/><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Schlaich_Bergermann_&_Partner\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Schlaich Bergermann & Partner\">Schlaich Bergermann & Partner</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Services engineer</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">OBERMEYER: Planungsgesellschaft</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Main contractors</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Varyap\"]}}' href=\"./Varyap?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Varyap\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Varyap</a>\n<p><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Uzunlar Ortak Girişimi\"]}}' href=\"./Uzunlar_Ortak_Girişimi?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Uzunlar Ortak Girişimi\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Uzunlar Ortak Girişimi</a></p>\n<a href=\"./TOKİ\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"TOKİ\">TOKİ</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#ccc\">Tenants</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a href=\"./Galatasaray_S.K._(football)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Galatasaray S.K. (football)\">Galatasaray</a> (2011–present)<br/><a href=\"./Turkey_national_football_team\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Turkey national football team\">Turkey national football team</a> (selected matches)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#ccc\">Website</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://nefstadyumu.com\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">New website of Nef Stadium</a></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Turktelekomarenaskgalatasaray.jpg",
"caption": "Exterior of the stadium"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Turk_Telekom_Arena_-_panoramio.jpg",
"caption": "Main road to the stadium"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Galatasaray_Nef_Stadium_before_match_2022.jpg",
"caption": "Interior view of the stadium"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Saracoglunuyakinsampiyonlukdahayakin.JPG",
"caption": "Galatasaray fans teasing their arch-rival Fenerbahçe. The matches between the two teams are known as the Intercontinental Derby."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ali_Sami_Yen_Spor_Kompleksi_Türk_Telekom_Arena6.jpg",
"caption": "Exterior view"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Galatasaray_Arena_South-East_Corner.jpg",
"caption": "View of the stadium from the southeast stand corner, June 2017"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Galatasaray_Arena_North-East_Corner.jpg",
"caption": "View of the stadium from the northeast stand corner, June 2017"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Türk_Telekom_Arena_inşaat_aşamasından_bir_görünüm.JPG",
"caption": "A view of the stadium during its construction"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Türk_Telekom_Arena_logo.svg",
"caption": "Special logo prepared for Türk Telekom Stadium"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Türk_Telekom_Arena_Galatasaray_Store.jpg",
"caption": "Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi Galatasaray Store"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Ali_Sami_Yen_Spor_Kompleksi_Aslanlı_Yol_Ticket_Sales.JPG",
"caption": "Ticket sales"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Türk_Telekom_Arena_Suite.jpg",
"caption": "One of the 198 suites"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Turk_Telekom_Arena_Bon_Jovi_Concert.jpg",
"caption": "Bon Jovi concert on 8 July 2011"
}
] |
208,161 | **4** (**four**) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number following 3 and preceding 5. It is a square number, the smallest semiprime and composite number, and is considered unlucky in many East Asian cultures.
In mathematics
--------------
Four is the smallest composite number, its proper divisors being 1 and 2. Four is the sum and product of two with itself:
2
+
2
=
4
=
2
×
2
{\displaystyle 2+2=4=2\times 2}
{\displaystyle 2+2=4=2\times 2}, the only number b such that
a
+
a
=
b
=
a
×
a
{\displaystyle a+a=b=a\times a}
{\displaystyle a+a=b=a\times a}, which also makes four the smallest squared prime number
2
2
{\displaystyle 2^{2}}
{\displaystyle 2^{2}}. In Knuth's up-arrow notation, 2 ↑↑ 2 = 2 ↑↑↑ 2 = 4, and so forth, for any number of up arrows. By consequence, four is the only square one more than a prime number, specifically three. The sum of the first four prime numbers two + three + five + seven is the only sum of four consecutive prime numbers that yields an odd prime number, seventeen, which is the fourth super-prime. Four lies between the first proper pair of twin primes, three and five, which are the first two Fermat primes, like seventeen, which is the third. On the other hand, the square of four (
4
2
{\displaystyle 4^{2}}
4^{2}), equivalently the fourth power of two (
2
4
{\displaystyle 2^{4}}
2^{4}), is sixteen; the only number that has
a
b
=
b
a
{\displaystyle a^{b}=b^{a}}
{\displaystyle a^{b}=b^{a}} as a form of factorization. Holistically, there are four elementary arithmetic operations in mathematics: addition (**+**), subtraction (**−**), multiplication (**×**), and division (**÷**); and four basic number systems, the real numbers
R
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
\mathbb {R} , rational numbers
Q
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }
\mathbb {Q} , integers
Z
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} }
\mathbb {Z} , and natural numbers
N
{\displaystyle \mathbb {N} }
\mathbb {N} .
Each natural number divisible by 4 is a difference of squares of two natural numbers, i.e.
4
x
=
y
2
−
z
2
{\displaystyle 4x=y^{2}-z^{2}}
{\displaystyle 4x=y^{2}-z^{2}}. A number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a multiple of 4. For example, 1092 is a multiple of 4 because 92 = 4 × 23.
Lagrange's four-square theorem states that every positive integer can be written as the sum of at most four square numbers. Three are not always sufficient; 7 for instance cannot be written as the sum of three squares.
There are four all-Harshad numbers: 1, 2, *4*, and 6. 12, which is divisible by four thrice over, is a Harshad number in all bases except octal.
A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral or quadrangle, sometimes also called a *tetragon*. It can be further classified as a rectangle or *oblong*, kite, rhombus, and square.
Four is the highest degree general polynomial equation for which there is a solution in radicals.
The four-color theorem states that a planar graph (or, equivalently, a flat map of two-dimensional regions such as countries) can be colored using four colors, so that adjacent vertices (or regions) are always different colors. Three colors are not, in general, sufficient to guarantee this. The largest planar complete graph has four vertices.
A solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is a tetrahedron, which is the smallest possible number of faces and vertices a polyhedron can have. The regular tetrahedron, also called a 3-simplex, is the simplest Platonic solid. It has four regular triangles as faces that are themselves at dual positions with the vertices of another tetrahedron. Tetrahedra can be inscribed inside all other four Platonic solids, and tessellate space alongside the regular octahedron in the alternated cubic honeycomb.
Four-dimensional space is the highest-dimensional space featuring more than three regular convex figures:
* Two-dimensional: infinitely many regular polygons.
* Three-dimensional: five regular polyhedra; the five Platonic solids which are the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron.
* Four-dimensional: six regular polychora; the 5-cell, 8-cell or tesseract, 16-cell, 24-cell, 120-cell, and 600-cell. The 24-cell, made of regular octahedra, has no analogue in any other dimension; it is self-dual, with its 24-cell honeycomb dual to the 16-cell honeycomb.
* Five-dimensional and every higher dimension: three regular convex
n
{\displaystyle n}
n-polytopes, all within the infinite family of regular
n
{\displaystyle n}
n-simplexes,
n
{\displaystyle n}
n-hypercubes, and
n
{\displaystyle n}
n-orthoplexes.
The fourth dimension is also the highest dimension where regular self-intersecting figures exist:
* Two-dimensional: infinitely many regular star polygons.
* Three-dimensional: *four* regular star polyhedra, the regular Kepler-Poinsot star polyhedra.
* Four-dimensional: ten regular star polychora, the Schläfli–Hess star polychora. They contain cells of Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra alongside regular tetrahedra, icosahedra and dodecahedra.
* Five-dimensional and every higher dimension: zero regular star-polytopes; uniform star polytopes in dimensions
n
{\displaystyle n}
n >
4
{\displaystyle 4}
4 are the most symmetric, which mainly originate from stellations of regular
n
{\displaystyle n}
n-polytopes.
Altogether, sixteen (or 16 = **42**) regular convex and star polychora are generated from symmetries of *four* (**4**) Coxeter Weyl groups and point groups in the fourth dimension: the A
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {A} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {A} _{4}} simplex, B
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {B} _{4}} hypercube, F
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {F} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {F} _{4}} icositetrachoric, and H
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{4}} hexacosichoric groups; with the D
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {D} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {D} _{4}} demihypercube group generating two alternative constructions.
There are also sixty-four (or 64 = **43**) four-dimensional Bravais lattices, *and* sixty-four uniform polychora in the fourth dimension based on the same
A
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {A} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {A} _{4}},
B
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {B} _{4}},
F
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {F} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {F} _{4}} and
H
4
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} \_{4}}
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{4}} Coxeter groups, and extending to prismatic groups of uniform polyhedra, including one special non-Wythoffian form, the grand antiprism. There are also two infinite families of duoprisms and antiprismatic prisms in the fourth dimension.
Four-dimensional differential manifolds have some unique properties. There is only one differential structure on
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
\mathbb {R} ^{n} except when
n
{\displaystyle n}
n =
4
{\displaystyle 4}
4, in which case there are uncountably many.
The smallest non-cyclic group has four elements; it is the Klein four-group. *An* alternating groups are not simple for values
n
{\displaystyle n}
n ≤
4
{\displaystyle 4}
4.
There are four Hopf fibrations of hyperspheres:
S
0
↪
S
1
→
S
1
,
S
1
↪
S
3
→
S
2
,
S
3
↪
S
7
→
S
4
,
S
7
↪
S
15
→
S
8
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S^{0}&\hookrightarrow S^{1}\to S^{1},\\S^{1}&\hookrightarrow S^{3}\to S^{2},\\S^{3}&\hookrightarrow S^{7}\to S^{4},\\S^{7}&\hookrightarrow S^{15}\to S^{8}.\\\end{aligned}}}
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S^{0}&\hookrightarrow S^{1}\to S^{1},\\S^{1}&\hookrightarrow S^{3}\to S^{2},\\S^{3}&\hookrightarrow S^{7}\to S^{4},\\S^{7}&\hookrightarrow S^{15}\to S^{8}.\\\end{aligned}}}
They are defined as locally trivial fibrations that map
f
:
S
2
n
−
1
→
S
n
{\displaystyle f:S^{2n-1}\rightarrow S^{n}}
{\displaystyle f:S^{2n-1}\rightarrow S^{n}} for values of
n
=
2
,
4
,
8
{\displaystyle n=2,4,8}
n=2,4,8 (aside from the trivial fibration mapping between two points and a circle).
Further extensions of the real numbers under Hurwitz's theorem states that there are four normed division algebras: the real numbers
R
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
\mathbb {R} , the complex numbers
C
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }
\mathbb {C} , the quaternions
H
{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} }
\mathbb {H} , and the octonions
O
{\displaystyle \mathbb {O} }
\mathbb {O} . Under Cayley–Dickson constructions, the sedenions
S
{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} }
{\mathbb S} constitute a further fourth extension over
R
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
\mathbb {R} . The real numbers are ordered, commutative and associative algebras, as well as alternative algebras with power-associativity. The complex numbers
C
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }
\mathbb {C} share all four multiplicative algebraic properties of the reals
R
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
\mathbb {R} , without being ordered. The quaternions loose a further commutative algebraic property, while holding associative, alternative, and power-associative properties. The octonions are alternative and power-associative, while the sedenions are only power-associative. The sedenions and all further *extensions* of these four normed division algebras are solely power-associative with non-trivial zero divisors, which makes them non-division algebras.
R
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
\mathbb {R} has a vector space of dimension 1, while
C
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }
\mathbb {C} ,
H
{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} }
\mathbb {H} ,
O
{\displaystyle \mathbb {O} }
\mathbb {O} and
S
{\displaystyle \mathbb {S} }
{\mathbb S} work in algebraic number fields of dimensions 2, 4, 8, and 16, respectively.
List of basic calculations
--------------------------
| Multiplication | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | | 50 | 100 | 1000 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **4 × *x*** | **4** | 8 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 40 | | 44 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 100 | | 200 | 400 | 4000 |
| Division | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **4 ÷ *x*** | **4** | 2 | 1.3 | 1 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.571428 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4 | | 0.36 | 0.3 | 0.307692 | 0.285714 | 0.26 | 0.25 |
| ***x* ÷ 4** | 0.25 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 1 | 1.25 | 1.5 | 1.75 | 2 | 2.25 | 2.5 | | 2.75 | 3 | 3.25 | 3.5 | 3.75 | 4 |
| Exponentiation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **4*x*** | 4 | 16 | 64 | 256 | 1024 | 4096 | 16384 | 65536 | 262144 | 1048576 | | 4194304 | 16777216 | 67108864 | 268435456 | 1073741824 | 4294967296 |
| ***x*4** | 1 | 16 | 81 | 256 | 625 | 1296 | 2401 | 4096 | 6561 | 10000 | | 14641 | 20736 | 28561 | 38416 | 50625 | 65536 |
Evolution of the Hindu-Arabic digit
-----------------------------------
Brahmic numerals represented 1, 2, and 3 with as many lines. 4 was simplified by joining its four lines into a cross that looks like the modern plus sign. The Shunga would add a horizontal line on top of the digit, and the Kshatrapa and Pallava evolved the digit to a point where the speed of writing was a secondary concern. The Arabs' 4 still had the early concept of the cross, but for the sake of efficiency, was made in one stroke by connecting the "western" end to the "northern" end; the "eastern" end was finished off with a curve. The Europeans dropped the finishing curve and gradually made the digit less cursive, ending up with a digit very close to the original Brahmin cross.
While the shape of the character for the digit 4 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the glyph usually has a descender, as, for example, in .
On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, as well as certain optical character recognition fonts, 4 is seen with an open top.
Television stations that operate on channel 4 have occasionally made use of another variation of the "open 4", with the open portion being on the side, rather than the top. This version resembles the Canadian Aboriginal syllabics letter ᔦ. The magnetic ink character recognition "CMC-7" font also uses this variety of "4".
In religion
-----------
### Buddhism
* Four Noble Truths – Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga
* Four sights – observations which affected Prince Siddhartha deeply and made him realize the sufferings of all beings, and compelled him to begin his spiritual journey—an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and an ascetic
* Four Great Elements – earth, water, fire, and wind
* Four Heavenly Kings
* Four Foundations of Mindfulness – contemplation of the body, contemplation of feelings, contemplation of mind, contemplation of mental objects
* Four Right Exertions
* Four Bases of Power
* Four jhānas
* Four arūpajhānas
* Four Divine Abidings – loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity
* Four stages of enlightenment – stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner, and arahant
* Four main pilgrimage sites – Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinara
### Judeo-Christian symbolism
* The Tetragrammaton is the four-letter name of God.
* Ezekiel has a vision of four living creatures: a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle.
* The four Matriarchs (foremothers) of Judaism are Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel.
* The Four Species (lulav, hadass, aravah and etrog) are taken as one of the mitzvot on the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. (Judaism)
* The Four Cups of Wine to drink on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
* The Four Questions to be asked on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
* The Four Sons to be dealt with on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
* The Four Expressions of Redemption to be said on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
* The four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. (Christianity)
* The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse ride in the Book of Revelation. (Christianity)
* The four holy cities of Judaism: Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed, and Tiberius
### Hinduism
* There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
* In Puruṣārtha, there are four aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Moksha.
* The four stages of life Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (household life), Vanaprastha (retired life) and Sannyasa (renunciation).
* The four primary castes or strata of society: Brahmana (priest/teacher), Kshatriya (warrior/politician), Vaishya (landowner/entrepreneur) and Shudra (servant/manual laborer).
* The swastika symbol is traditionally used in Hindu religions as a sign of good luck and signifies good from all four directions.
* The god Brahma has four faces.
* There are four *yugas*: *Satya*, *Dvapara*, *Treta* and *Kali*
### Islam
* Eid al-Adha lasts for four days, from the 10th to the 14th of Dhul Hijja.
* The four holy cities of Islam: Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem and Damascus.
* The four tombs in the Green Dome: Muhammad, Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Khattab and Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus).
* There are four Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
* The Four Arch Angels in Islam are: Jibraeel (Gabriel), Mikaeel (Michael), Izraeel (Azrael), and Israfil (Raphael)
* There are four months in which war is not permitted: Muharram, Rajab, Dhu al-Qi'dah and Dhu al-Hijjah.
* There are four Sunni schools of fiqh: Hanafi, Shafi`i, Maliki and Hanbali.
* There are four major Sunni Imams: Abū Ḥanīfa, Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i, Malik ibn Anas and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
* There are four books in Islam: Taurāt, Zābūr, Injīl, Qur'ān.
* Waiting for four months is ordained for those who take an oath for abstention from their wives.
* The waiting period of the woman whose husband dies is four months and ten days.
* When Abraham said: "My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead," Allah said: "Why! Do you have no faith?" Abraham replied: "Yes, but in order that my heart be at rest." He said: "Then take four birds, and tame them to yourself, then put a part of them on every hill, and summon them; they will come to you flying. [Al-Baqara 2:260]
* The respite of four months was granted to give time to the mushriks in Surah At-Tawba so that they should consider their position carefully and decide whether to make preparation for war or to emigrate from the country or to accept Islam.
* Those who accuse honorable women (of unchastity) but do not produce four witnesses, flog them with eighty lashes, and do not admit their testimony ever after. They are indeed transgressors. [An-Noor 24:4]
### Taoism
* Four Symbols of I Ching
### Other
* In a more general sense, numerous mythological and cosmogonical systems consider Four corners of the world as essentially corresponding to the four points of the compass.
* Four is the sacred number of the Zia, an indigenous tribe located in the U.S. state of New Mexico.
* The Chinese, the Koreans, and the Japanese are superstitious about the number four because it is a homonym for "death" in their languages.
* In Slavic mythology, the god Svetovid has four heads.
In politics
-----------
* Four Freedoms: four fundamental freedoms that Franklin D. Roosevelt declared ought to be enjoyed by everyone in the world: Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Religion, Freedom from Want, Freedom from Fear.
* Gang of Four: Popular name for four Chinese Communist Party leaders who rose to prominence during China's Cultural Revolution, but were ousted in 1976 following the death of Chairman Mao Zedong. Among the four was Mao's widow, Jiang Qing. Since then, many other political factions headed by four people have been called "Gangs of Four".
In computing
------------
* Four bits (half a byte) are sometimes called a nibble.
In science
----------
* A tetramer is an oligomer formed out of four sub-units.
### In astronomy
* Four terrestrial (or rocky) planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
* Four giant gas/ice planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
* Four of Jupiter's moons (the Galilean moons) are readily visible from Earth with a hobby telescope.
* Messier object M4, a magnitude 7.5 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius.
* The Roman numeral IV stands for subgiant in the Yerkes spectral classification scheme.
### In biology
* Four is the number of nucleobase types in DNA and RNA – adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (uracil in RNA).
* Many chordates have four feet, legs or leglike appendages (tetrapods).
* The mammalian heart consists of four chambers.
* Many mammals (Carnivora, Ungulata) use four fingers for movement.
* All insects with wings except flies and some others have four wings.
* Insects of the superorder Endopterygota, also known as Holometabola, such as butterflies, ants, bees, beetles, fleas, flies, moths, and wasps, undergo holometabolism—complete metamorphism in four stages—from (1) embryo (ovum, egg), to (2) larva (such as grub, caterpillar), then (3) pupa (such as the chrysalis), and finally (4) the imago.
* In the common ABO blood group system, there are four blood types (A, B, O, AB).
* Humans have four canines and four wisdom teeth.
* The cow's stomach is divided in four digestive compartments: reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum.
### In chemistry
* Valency of carbon (that is basis of life on the Earth) is four. Also because of its tetrahedral crystal bond structure, diamond (one of the natural allotropes of carbon) is the hardest known naturally occurring material. It is also the valence of silicon, whose compounds form the majority of the mass of the Earth's crust.
* The atomic number of beryllium
* There are four basic states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
### In physics
* Special relativity and general relativity treat nature as four-dimensional: 3D regular space and one-dimensional time are treated together and called spacetime. Also, any event *E* has a light cone composed of four zones of possible communication and cause and effect (outside the light cone is strictly incommunicado).
* There are four fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force).
* In statistical mechanics, the four functions inequality is an inequality for four functions on a finite distributive lattice.
In logic and philosophy
-----------------------
* The symbolic meanings of the number four are linked to those of the cross and the square. "Almost from prehistoric times, the number four was employed to signify what was solid, what could be touched and felt. Its relationship to the cross (four points) made it an outstanding symbol of wholeness and universality, a symbol which drew all to itself". Where lines of latitude and longitude intersect, they divide the earth into four proportions. Throughout the world kings and chieftains have been called "lord of the four suns" or "lord of the four quarters of the earth", which is understood to refer to the extent of their powers both territorially and in terms of total control of their subjects' doings.
* The Square of Opposition, in both its Aristotelian version and its Boolean version, consists of four forms: A ("All *S* is *R*"), I ("Some *S* is *R*"), E ("No *S* is *R*"), and O ("Some *S* is not *R*").
* In regard to whether two given propositions can have the same truth value, there are four separate logical possibilities: the propositions are *subalterns* (possibly both are true, and possibly both are false); *subcontraries* (both may be true, but not that both are false); *contraries* (both may be false, but not that both are true); or *contradictories* (it is not possible that both are true, and it is not possible that both are false).
* Aristotle held that there are basically four causes in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final.
* The Stoics held with four basic categories, all viewed as bodies (substantial and insubstantial): (1) *substance* in the sense of substrate, primary formless matter; (2) *quality*, matter's organization to differentiate and individualize something, and coming down to a physical ingredient such as *pneuma*, breath; (3) *somehow holding* (or *disposed*), as in a posture, state, shape, size, action, and (4) *somehow holding* (or *disposed*) *toward something,* as in relative location, familial relation, and so forth.
* Immanuel Kant expounded a table of judgments involving four three-way alternatives, in regard to (1) Quantity, (2) Quality, (3) Relation, (4) Modality, and, based thereupon, a table of four categories, named by the terms just listed, and each with three subcategories.
* Arthur Schopenhauer's doctoral thesis was *On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason*.
* Franz Brentano held that any major philosophical period has four phases: (1) Creative and rapidly progressing with scientific interest and results; then declining through the remaining phases, (2) practical, (3) increasingly skeptical, and (4) literary, mystical, and scientifically worthless—until philosophy is renewed through a new period's first phase. (See Brentano's essay "The Four Phases of Philosophy and Its Current State" 1895, tr. by Mezei and Smith 1998.)
* C. S. Peirce, usually a trichotomist, discussed four methods for overcoming troublesome uncertainties and achieving secure beliefs: (1) the method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief), (2) the method of authority, (3) the method of congruity (following a fashionable paradigm), and (4) the fallibilistic, self-correcting method of science (see "The Fixation of Belief", 1877); and four barriers to inquiry, barriers refused by the fallibilist: (1) assertion of absolute certainty; (2) maintaining that something is unknowable; (3) maintaining that something is inexplicable because absolutely basic or ultimate; (4) holding that perfect exactitude is possible, especially such as to quite preclude unusual and anomalous phenomena (see "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic], 1899).
* Paul Weiss built a system involving four modes of being: Actualities (substances in the sense of substantial, spatiotemporally finite beings), Ideality or Possibility (pure normative form), Existence (the dynamic field), and God (unity). (See Weiss's *Modes of Being*, 1958).
* Karl Popper outlined a tetradic schema to describe the growth of theories and, via generalization, also the emergence of new behaviors and living organisms: (1) problem, (2) tentative theory, (3) (attempted) error-elimination (especially by way of critical discussion), and (4) new problem(s). (See Popper's *Objective Knowledge*, 1972, revised 1979.)
* John Boyd (military strategist) made his key concept the decision cycle or OODA loop, consisting of four stages: (1) observation (data intake through the senses), (2) orientation (analysis and synthesis of data), (3) decision, and (4) action. Boyd held that his decision cycle has philosophical generality, though for strategists the point remains that, through swift decisions, one can disrupt an opponent's decision cycle.
* Richard McKeon outlined four classes (each with four subclasses) of modes of philosophical inquiry: (1) Modes of Being (Being); (2) Modes of Thought (That which is); (3) Modes of Fact (Existence); (4) Modes of Simplicity (Experience)—and, corresponding to them, four classes (each with four subclasses) of philosophical semantics: Principles, Methods, Interpretations, and Selections. (See McKeon's "Philosophic Semantics and Philosophic Inquiry" in *Freedom and History and Other Essays*, 1989.)
* Jonathan Lowe (E.J. Lowe) argues in *The Four-Category Ontology*, 2006, for four categories: *kinds* (substantial universals), *attributes* (relational universals and property-universals), *objects* (substantial particulars), and *modes* (relational particulars and property-particulars, also known as "tropes"). (See Lowe's "Recent Advances in Metaphysics," 2001, Eprint)
* Four opposed camps of the morality and nature of evil: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, and moral universalism.
In technology
-------------
* The resin identification code used in recycling to identify low-density polyethylene.
* Most furniture has four legs – tables, chairs, etc.
* The four color process (CMYK) is used for printing.
* Wide use of rectangles (with four angles and four sides) because they have effective form and capability for close adjacency to each other (houses, rooms, tables, bricks, sheets of paper, screens, film frames).
* In the Rich Text Format specification, language code 4 is for the Chinese language. Codes for regional variants of Chinese are congruent to 4 mod 256.
* Credit card machines have four-twelve function keys.
* On most phones, the 4 key is associated with the letters G, H, and I, but on the BlackBerry Pearl, it is the key for D and F.
* On many computer keyboards, the "4" key may also be used to type the dollar sign ($) if the shift key is held down.
* It is the number of bits in a nibble, equivalent to half a byte
* In internet slang, "4" can replace the word "for" (as "four" and "for" are pronounced similarly). For example, typing "4u" instead of "for you".
* In Leetspeak, "4" may be used to replace the letter "A".
* The TCP/IP stack consists of four layers.
In transport
------------
* Many internal combustion engines are called four-stroke engines because they complete one thermodynamic cycle in four distinct steps: Intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
* Most vehicles, including motor vehicles, and particularly cars/automobiles and light commercial vehicles have four road wheels.
* "Quattro", meaning four in the Italian language, is used by Audi as a trademark to indicate that all-wheel drive (AWD) technologies are used on Audi-branded cars. The word "Quattro" was initially used by Audi in 1980 in its original 4WD coupé, the Audi Quattro. Audi also has a privately held subsidiary company called quattro GmbH.
* List of highways numbered 4
In sports
---------
* In the Australian Football League, the top level of Australian rules football, each team is allowed 4 "interchanges" (substitute players), who can be freely substituted at any time, subject to a limit on the total number of substitutions.
* In baseball:
+ There are four bases in the game: first base, second base, third base, and home plate; to score a run, an offensive player must complete, in the sequence shown, a circuit of those four bases.
+ When a batter receives four pitches that the umpire declares to be "balls" in a single at-bat, a base on balls, informally known as a "walk", is awarded, with the batter sent to first base.
+ For scoring, number 4 is assigned to the second baseman.
+ Four is the most runs that can be scored on any single at bat, whereby all three baserunners and the batter score (the most common being via a grand slam).
+ The fourth batter in the batting lineup is called the cleanup hitter.
* In basketball, the number four is used to designate the power forward position, often referred to as "the four spot" or "the four".
* In cricket, a four is a specific type of scoring event, whereby the ball crosses the boundary after touching the ground at least one time, scoring four runs. Taking four wickets in four consecutive balls is typically referred to as a double hat trick (two consecutive, overlapping hat tricks).
* In American Football teams get four downs to reach the line of gain.
* In rowing, a four refers to a boat for four rowers, with or without coxswain. In rowing nomenclature, 4− represents a coxless four and 4+ represents a coxed four.
* In rugby league:
+ A try is worth 4 points.
+ One of the two starting centres wears the jersey number 4. (An exception to this rule is the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.)
* In rugby union:
+ One of the two starting locks wears the jersey number 4.
+ In the standard bonus points system, a point is awarded in the league standings to a team that scores at least 4 tries in a match, regardless of the match result.
In other fields
---------------
* The phrase "four-letter word" is used to describe many swear words in the English language.
* Four is the only number whose name in English has the same number of letters as its value.
* Four (四, formal writing: 肆, pinyin sì) is considered an unlucky number in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese cultures mostly in Eastern Asia because it sounds like the word "death" (死, pinyin sǐ). To avoid complaints from people with tetraphobia, many numbered product lines skip the "four": e.g. Nokia cell phones (there was no series beginning with a 4 until the Nokia 4.2), Palm PDAs, etc. Some buildings skip floor 4 or replace the number with the letter "F", particularly in heavily Asian areas. *See tetraphobia* and *Numbers in Chinese culture*.
* In Pythagorean numerology (a pseudocience) the number 4 represents security and stability.
* The number of characters in a canonical four-character idiom.
* In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the digit 4 is called "fower".
* In astrology, Cancer is the 4th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
* In Tarot, The Emperor is the fourth trump or Major Arcana card.
* In *Tetris*, a game named for the Greek word for 4, every shape in the game is formed of 4 blocks each.
* 4 represents the number of Justices on the Supreme Court of the United States necessary to grant a writ of certiorari (i.e., agree to hear a case; it is one less than the number necessary to render a majority decision) at the court's current size.
* Number Four is a character in the book series *Lorien Legacies.*
* In the performing arts, the fourth wall is an imaginary barrier which separates the audience from the performers, and is "broken" when performers communicate directly to the audience.
In music
--------
* In written music, common time is constructed of four beats per measure and a quarter note receives one beat.
* In popular or modern music, the most common time signature is also founded on four beats, i.e., 4/4 having four quarter note beats.
* The common major scale is built on two sets of four notes (e.g., CDEF, GABC), where the first and last notes create an octave interval (a pair-of-four relationship).
* The interval of a perfect fourth is a foundational element of many genres of music, represented in music theory as the tonic and subdominant relationship. Four is also embodied within the circle of fifths (also known as circle of fourths), which reveals the interval of four in more active harmonic contexts.
* The typical number of movements in a symphony.
* The number of completed, numbered symphonies by Johannes Brahms.
* The number of strings on a violin, a viola, a cello, double bass, a cuatro, a typical bass guitar, and a ukulele, and the number of string pairs on a mandolin.
* "Four calling birds" is the gift on the fourth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
Groups of four
--------------
* Big Four (disambiguation)
* Four basic operations of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
* Greek classical elements (fire, air, water, earth).
* Four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, winter.
* The Four Seasons (disambiguation)
* A leap year generally occurs every four years.
* Approximately four weeks (4 times 7 days) to a lunar month (synodic month = 29.53 days). Thus the number four is universally an integral part of primitive sacred calendars.
* Four weeks of Advent (and four Advent candles on the Advent wreath).
* Four cardinal directions: north, south, east, west.
* Four Temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic.
* Four Humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm.
* Four Great Ancient Capitals of China.
* Four-corner method.
* Four Asian Tigers, referring to the economies of Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore
* Cardinal principles.
* Four cardinal virtues: justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude.
* Four suits of playing cards: hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades.
* Four nations of the United Kingdom: England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland.
* Four provinces of Ireland: Munster, Ulster, Leinster, Connacht.
* Four estates: politics, administration, judiciary, journalism. Especially in the expression "Fourth Estate", which means journalism.
* Four Corners is the only location in the United States where four states come together at a single point: Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona.
* Four Evangelists – Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
* Four Doctors of Western Church – Saint Gregory the Great, Saint Ambrose, Saint Augustine, and Saint Jerome
* Four Doctors of Eastern Church – Saint John Chrysostom, Saint Basil the Great, and Gregory of Nazianzus and Saint Athanasius
* Four Galilean moons of Jupiter – Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto
* The Gang of Four was a Chinese communist political faction.
* The Fantastic Four: Mr. Fantastic, The Invisible Woman, The Human Torch, The Thing.
* The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Leonardo, Michelangelo, Donatello, Raphael
* The Beatles were also known as the "Fab Four": John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Ringo Starr.
* Gang of Four is a British post-punk rock band formed in the late 1970s.
* Four rivers in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:10–14): Pishon (perhaps the Jaxartes or Syr Darya), Gihon (perhaps the Oxus or Amu Darya), Hiddekel (Tigris), and P'rat (Euphrates).
* There are also four years in a single Olympiad (duration between the Olympic Games). Many major international sports competitions follow this cycle, among them the FIFA World Cup and its women's version, the FIBA World Championships for men and women, and the Rugby World Cup.
* There are four limbs on the human body.
* Four Houses of Hogwarts in the Harry Potter series: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, Slytherin.
* Four known continents of the world in the *A Song of Ice and Fire* series: Westeros, Essos, Sothoryos, Ulthos.
* Each Grand Prix in Nintendo's *Mario Kart* series is divided into four cups and each cup is divided into four courses. The Mushroom Cup, Flower Cup, Star Cup, and Special Cup make up the Nitro Grand Prix, while the Shell Cup, Banana Cup, Leaf Cup, and the Lightning Cup make up the Retro Grand Prix.
See also
--------
* List of highways numbered 4
* Wells, D. *The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers* London: Penguin Group. (1987): 55–58 | 4 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4 | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt7\" class=\"infobox\" id=\"mwCg\" style=\"line-height: 1.5em\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size: 150%\"><table style=\"width:100%; margin:0\"><tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"width:15%; text-align:left; white-space: nowrap; font-size:smaller\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./3_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"3 (number)\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">←</span> 3 </a></td>\n<td style=\"width:70%; padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em; text-align: center;\">4</td>\n<td style=\"width:15%; text-align:right; white-space: nowrap; font-size:smaller\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./5_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"5 (number)\"> 5 <span typeof=\"mw:Entity\">→</span></a></td>\n</tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-subheader\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:100%;\"><div style=\"text-align:center;\"> <a href=\"./−1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"−1\">−1</a> <a href=\"./0\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"0\">0</a> <a href=\"./1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"1\">1</a> <a href=\"./2\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"2\">2</a> <a href=\"./3\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"3\">3</a> <a href=\"./4\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"4\">4</a> <a href=\"./5\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"5\">5</a> <a href=\"./6\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"6\">6</a> <a href=\"./7\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"7\">7</a> <a href=\"./8\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"8\">8</a> <a href=\"./9\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"9\">9</a> <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./10_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"10 (number)\">→</a></div><div style=\"text-align:center;\"> <div class=\"hlist\"><ul><li><a href=\"./List_of_numbers\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of numbers\">List of numbers</a></li><li><a href=\"./Integer\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Integer\">Integers</a></li></ul></div></div><div style=\"text-align:center;\"><a href=\"./Negative_number\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Negative number\">←</a> <a href=\"./0\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"0\">0</a> <a href=\"./10\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"10\">10</a> <a href=\"./20_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"20 (number)\">20</a> <a href=\"./30_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"30 (number)\">30</a> <a href=\"./40_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"40 (number)\">40</a> <a href=\"./50_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"50 (number)\">50</a> <a href=\"./60_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"60 (number)\">60</a> <a href=\"./70_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"70 (number)\">70</a> <a href=\"./80_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"80 (number)\">80</a> <a href=\"./90_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"90 (number)\">90</a> <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./100_(number)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"100 (number)\">→</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Cardinal_numeral\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cardinal numeral\">Cardinal</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">four</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Ordinal_numeral\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ordinal numeral\">Ordinal</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4th<br/>(fourth)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Numeral_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Numeral system\">Numeral system</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Quaternary_numeral_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Quaternary numeral system\">quaternary</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Factorization\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Factorization\">Factorization</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">2<sup>2</sup></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Divisor\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Divisor\">Divisors</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">1, 2, 4</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Greek_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Greek numerals\">Greek numeral</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Δ´</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Roman_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Roman numerals\">Roman numeral</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">IV, iv</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Greek_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Greek language\">Greek</a> <a href=\"./Numeral_prefix\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Numeral prefix\">prefix</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tetra-\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:tetra-\">tetra-</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Latin\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Latin\">Latin</a> <a href=\"./Numeral_prefix\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Numeral prefix\">prefix</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadri-\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:quadri-\">quadri-</a>/<a class=\"extiw\" href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadr-\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink/Interwiki\" title=\"wikt:quadr-\">quadr-</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Binary_number\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Binary number\">Binary</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">100<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Ternary_numeral_system\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ternary numeral system\">Ternary</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">11<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Senary\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Senary\">Senary</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4<sub>6</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Octal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Octal\">Octal</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4<sub>8</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Duodecimal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Duodecimal\">Duodecimal</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4<sub>12</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Hexadecimal\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hexadecimal\">Hexadecimal</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4<sub>16</sub></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Eastern_Arabic_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Eastern Arabic numerals\">Arabic</a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Central_Kurdish\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Central Kurdish\">Kurdish</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">٤</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Persian_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Persian language\">Persian</a>, <a href=\"./Sindhi_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sindhi language\">Sindhi</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\"><span title=\"Sindhi-language text\"><span dir=\"rtl\" lang=\"sd\">۴</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Shahmukhi_alphabet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shahmukhi alphabet\">Shahmukhi</a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Urdu_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Urdu numerals\">Urdu</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\"><span title=\"Urdu-language text\"><span dir=\"rtl\" lang=\"ur\">۴</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Ge'ez_alphabet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge'ez alphabet\">Ge'ez</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">፬</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Bengali_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bengali language\">Bengali</a>, <a href=\"./Assamese_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Assamese language\">Assamese</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">৪</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Chinese_numeral\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Chinese numeral\">Chinese numeral</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">四，亖，肆</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Devanāgarī\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Devanāgarī\">Devanagari</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">४</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Telugu_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Telugu language\">Telugu</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">౪</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Malayalam\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Malayalam\">Malayalam</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">൪</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Tamil_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tamil language\">Tamil</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">௪</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Hebrew_(language)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hebrew (language)\">Hebrew</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">ד</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Khmer_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Khmer numerals\">Khmer</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">៤</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Thai_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Thai numerals\">Thai</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">๔</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Kannada_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kannada language\">Kannada</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">೪</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"font-weight:normal\"><a href=\"./Burmese_language\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Burmese language\">Burmese</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span style=\"font-size:150%;\">၄</span></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Vier.jpg",
"caption": "Two modern handwritten fours"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Mugs_of_tea_viewed_from_above.jpg",
"caption": "Four mugs"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:U+2676_DejaVu_Sans.svg",
"caption": "4 as a resin identification code, used in recycling"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:ICS_Four.svg",
"caption": "International maritime signal flag for 4"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:I-p-c-s_org_journal.TIF",
"caption": "Playing cards for 4"
}
] |
849,502 | **De** (Д д; italics: *Д ∂*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiced dental stop /d̪/, like the pronunciation of ⟨d⟩ in "**d**oor", except closer to the teeth. De is usually romanised using the Latin letter D.
History
-------
The Cyrillic letter De was derived from the Greek letter Delta (Δ δ).
In the Early Cyrillic alphabet its name was добро (*dobro*), meaning "good".
In the Cyrillic numeral system, De had a value of 4.
Form
----
The major graphic difference between De and its modern Greek equivalent lies in the two descenders ("feet") below the lower corners of the Cyrillic letter. The descenders were borrowed from a Byzantine uncial shape of uppercase Delta.
De, like the Cyrillic letter El, has two typographical variants: an older variant where its top is pointed (like Delta), and a modern one (first used in mid-19th-century fonts) where it is square. Nowadays, almost all books and magazines are printed with fonts with the second variant of the letter; the first one is rather stylish and only a few popular text fonts use it (the best known example is "Baltika" designed in 1951-52 by V. G. Chiminova and others).
In italic (Russian) type, the lowercase form looks more like the lowercase Latin ⟨d⟩, a mirrored numeral 6 or a partial derivative symbol ⟨∂⟩. Southern (Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian) typography may prefer a variant that looks like a single-storey lowercase Latin ⟨g⟩. Cursive lowercase De has the same two shapes, but with a different distribution: for example, the *g*-shaped variant is a standard for Russian schools.
The (Russian-Ukrainian-Belarusian-Bulgarian) cursive form of capital De looks like Latin D as the printed version is not comfortable enough to be written quickly. The Serbian cursive form is closer to the shape of a numeral "2" (identical to the form sometimes used for uppercase cursive Latin Q); this form is unknown in Russia.
Usage
-----
It most often represents the voiced dental plosive /d/. However, word-finally and before voiceless consonants, it represents a voiceless [t]. Before a palatalizing vowel, it represents /dʲ/.
Related letters and other similar characters
--------------------------------------------
* Δ δ : Greek letter Delta
* D d : Latin letter D
* Л л : Cyrillic letter El
* Ԁ ԁ : Cyrillic letter Komi De
* G g : Latin letter G
* ∂ : Partial derivative symbol
Computing codes
---------------
Character information| Preview | Д | д | ᲁ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER DE | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER DE | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER LONG-LEGGED DE |
| Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | dec | hex |
| Unicode | 1044 | U+0414 | 1076 | U+0434 | 7297 | U+1C81 |
| UTF-8 | 208 148 | D0 94 | 208 180 | D0 B4 | 225 178 129 | E1 B2 81 |
| Numeric character reference | Д | Д | д | д | ᲁ | ᲁ |
| Named character reference | Д | д | |
| KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 228 | E4 | 196 | C4 | | |
| Code page 855 | 167 | A7 | 166 | A6 | | |
| Windows-1251 | 196 | C4 | 228 | E4 | | |
| ISO-8859-5 | 180 | B4 | 212 | D4 | | |
| Macintosh Cyrillic | 132 | 84 | 228 | E4 | | | | De (Cyrillic) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_(Cyrillic) | {
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"<table about=\"#mwt8\" class=\"infobox\" style=\"width: 14em;\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"infobox-above\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"font-size:100%; background:lavender;\">Cyrillic letter De</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Cyrillic_letter_De_(v2).svg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"300\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"450\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"80\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_letter_De_(v2).svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg/120px-Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg/180px-Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg/240px-Cyrillic_letter_De_%28v2%29.svg.png 2x\" width=\"120\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Phonetic usage:</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"IPA\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[d]</span>, <span class=\"IPA\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[t]</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Name:</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"script-Cyrs\" title=\"Slavonic\">добро</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\"><a href=\"./Cyrillic_numerals\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cyrillic numerals\">Numeric value</a>:</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">4</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\">Derived from:</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Delta_(letter)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Delta (letter)\">Greek letter Delta</a> (Δ<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>δ)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#efefef;\">The <a href=\"./Cyrillic_script\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cyrillic script\">Cyrillic script</a></th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#efefef;\"><a href=\"./Slavic_languages\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Slavic languages\">Slavic</a> letters</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table style=\"width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none\"><tbody><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./A_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A (Cyrillic)\">А</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with acute (Cyrillic)\">А́</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_grave_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with grave (Cyrillic)\">А̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"A with circumflex (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./A_with_circumflex_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with circumflex (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">А̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with macron (Cyrillic)\">А̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_diaeresis_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with diaeresis (Cyrillic)\">Ӓ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Be_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Be (Cyrillic)\">Б</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ve_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ve (Cyrillic)\">В</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Ge_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge (Cyrillic)\">Г</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ghe_with_upturn\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ghe with upturn\">Ґ</a></td><td><a href=\"./De_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De (Cyrillic)\">Д</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dje\">Ђ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Gje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Gje\">Ѓ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ye_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye (Cyrillic)\">Е</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ye_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with acute\">Е́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ye_with_grave\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with grave\">Ѐ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Ye_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with macron\">Е̄</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ye with circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Ye_with_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Е̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yo_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yo (Cyrillic)\">Ё</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ukrainian_Ye\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ukrainian Ye\">Є</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ukrainian Ye with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Ukrainian_Ye_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ukrainian Ye with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Є́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zhe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhe (Cyrillic)\">Ж</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ze_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze (Cyrillic)\">З</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zje\">З́</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Dze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dze\">Ѕ</a></td><td><a href=\"./I_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I (Cyrillic)\">И</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dotted_I_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dotted I (Cyrillic)\">І</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Dotted I with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Dotted_I_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dotted I with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">І́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yi_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yi (Cyrillic)\">Ї</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yi with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Yi_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yi with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ї́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Iota_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Iota (Cyrillic)\">Ꙇ</a></td><td><a href=\"./I_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with acute (Cyrillic)\">И́</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./I_with_grave_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with grave (Cyrillic)\">Ѝ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"I with circumflex (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./I_with_circumflex_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with circumflex (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">И̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./I_with_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with macron (Cyrillic)\">Ӣ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Short_I\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Short I\">Й</a></td><td><a href=\"./Je_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Je (Cyrillic)\">Ј</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka (Cyrillic)\">К</a></td><td><a href=\"./El_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El (Cyrillic)\">Л</a></td><td><a href=\"./Lje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lje\">Љ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Em_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Em (Cyrillic)\">М</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En (Cyrillic)\">Н</a></td><td><a href=\"./Nje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Nje\">Њ</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O (Cyrillic)\">О</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with acute (Cyrillic)\">О́</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_with_grave_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with grave (Cyrillic)\">О̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"O with circumflex (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./O_with_circumflex_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with circumflex (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">О̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_with_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with macron (Cyrillic)\">Ō</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./O_with_diaeresis_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with diaeresis (Cyrillic)\">Ӧ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Pe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe (Cyrillic)\">П</a></td><td><a href=\"./Er_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er (Cyrillic)\">Р</a></td><td><a href=\"./Es_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es (Cyrillic)\">С</a></td><td><a href=\"./Sje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sje\">С́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Te_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te (Cyrillic)\">Т</a></td><td><a href=\"./Tshe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tshe\">Ћ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Kje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kje\">Ќ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./U_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U (Cyrillic)\">У</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with acute (Cyrillic)\">У́</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_grave_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with grave (Cyrillic)\">У̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"U with circumflex (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./U_with_circumflex_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with circumflex (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">У̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with macron (Cyrillic)\">Ӯ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Short_U_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Short U (Cyrillic)\">Ў</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_diaeresis_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with diaeresis (Cyrillic)\">Ӱ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ef_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ef (Cyrillic)\">Ф</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Kha_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha (Cyrillic)\">Х</a></td><td><a href=\"./Tse_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse (Cyrillic)\">Ц</a></td><td><a href=\"./Che_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che (Cyrillic)\">Ч</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dzhe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dzhe\">Џ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Sha_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sha (Cyrillic)\">Ш</a></td><td><a href=\"./Shcha\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shcha\">Щ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Neutral_Yer\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Neutral Yer\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙏ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Hard_sign\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hard sign\">Ъ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Hard_sign_with_grave\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hard sign with grave\">Ъ̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yery\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery\">Ы</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yery_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with acute\">Ы́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Soft_sign\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Soft sign\">Ь</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yat\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yat\">Ѣ</a></td><td><a href=\"./E_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E (Cyrillic)\">Э</a></td><td><a href=\"./E_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with acute (Cyrillic)\">Э́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yu_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu (Cyrillic)\">Ю</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Yu_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with acute\">Ю́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yu with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Yu_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ю̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ya_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya (Cyrillic)\">Я</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ya_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with acute\">Я́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ya with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ya_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Я̀</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#efefef;\">Non-Slavic letters</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table style=\"width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none\"><tbody><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./A_with_breve_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with breve (Cyrillic)\">Ӑ</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_ring_above_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with ring above (Cyrillic)\">А̊</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_tilde_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with tilde (Cyrillic)\">А̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_diaeresis_and_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with diaeresis and macron (Cyrillic)\">Ӓ̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ӕ_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ӕ (Cyrillic)\">Ӕ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Schwa_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Schwa (Cyrillic)\">Ә</a></td><td><a href=\"./Schwa_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Schwa with acute\">Ә́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Schwa_with_tilde\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Schwa with tilde\">Ә̃</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Schwa_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Schwa with diaeresis\">Ӛ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ve_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ve with caron\">В̌</a></td><td><a href=\"./We_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"We (Cyrillic)\">Ԝ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_inverted_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with inverted breve\">Г̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with caron\">Г̌</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̂</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_middle_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with middle hook\">Ҕ</a></td><td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Ghayn_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ghayn (Cyrillic)\">Ғ</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Ge_with_stroke_and_descender\" title=\"Ge with stroke and descender\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"466\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"293\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"10\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg/6px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg/9px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_stroke_and_descender.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_stroke_and_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with stroke and hook\">Ӻ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_stroke_and_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with stroke and caron\">Ғ̌</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with descender\">Ӷ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Ge_with_hook\" title=\"Ge with hook\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"178\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ghe_with_hook.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with acute\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д́</a></td><td><a href=\"./De_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with caron\">Д̌</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д̈</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./De_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with breve\">Д̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ye_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with breve\">Ӗ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ye_with_tilde\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with tilde\">Е̃</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Yo_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yo with macron\">Ё̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ukrainian_Ye_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ukrainian Ye with diaeresis\">Є̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zhje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhje\">Җ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zhe_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhe with diaeresis\">Ӝ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zhe_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhe with breve\">Ӂ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Zhe with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Zhe_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhe with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ж̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dhe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dhe (Cyrillic)\">Ҙ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ze_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with diaeresis\">Ӟ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Ze_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with caron\">З̌</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ze with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Ze_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">З̣</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ze with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ze_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">З̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Reversed_Ze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Reversed Ze\">Ԑ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Reversed_Ze_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Reversed Ze with diaeresis\">Ԑ̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Abkhazian_Dze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abkhazian Dze\">Ӡ</a></td><td><a href=\"./I_with_tilde_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with tilde (Cyrillic)\">И̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./I_with_diaeresis_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"I with diaeresis (Cyrillic)\">Ӥ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Short_I_with_tail\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Short I with tail\">Ҋ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Qaf_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Qaf (Cyrillic)\">Қ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_with_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with hook\">Ӄ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Bashkir_Qa\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Bashkir Qa\">Ҡ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_with_stroke\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with stroke\">Ҟ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_with_vertical_stroke\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with vertical stroke\">Ҝ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./Qa_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Qa (Cyrillic)\">Ԛ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"El with acute\"]}}' href=\"./El_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Л́</a></td><td><a href=\"./El_with_tail\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with tail\">Ӆ</a></td><td><a href=\"./El_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with descender\">Ԯ</a></td><td><a href=\"./El_with_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with hook\">Ԓ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"El with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./El_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Л̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Em_with_tail\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Em with tail\">Ӎ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Superscript_En\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Superscript En\">ᵸ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"En with acute\"]}}' href=\"./En_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Н́</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./En_with_tail\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with tail\">Ӊ</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with descender\">Ң</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_with_left_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with left hook\">Ԩ</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_with_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with hook\">Ӈ</a></td><td><a href=\"./En-ge\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En-ge\">Ҥ</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_with_breve_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with breve (Cyrillic)\">О̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./O_with_tilde_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with tilde (Cyrillic)\">О̃</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"O with diaresis and macron\"]}}' href=\"./O_with_diaresis_and_macron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O with diaresis and macron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ӧ̄</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Oe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oe (Cyrillic)\">Ө</a></td><td><a href=\"./Oe_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oe with macron\">Ө̄</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Oe with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Oe_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oe with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ө́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Oe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Oe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ө̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Oe_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Oe with diaeresis\">Ӫ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Pe_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with descender\">Ԥ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Er_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er with caron\">Р̌</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Er_with_tick\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er with tick\">Ҏ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Es with caron\"]}}' href=\"./Es_with_caron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es with caron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">С̌</a></td><td><a href=\"./The_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"The (Cyrillic)\">Ҫ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Es with dot below (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./Es_with_dot_below_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es with dot below (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">С̣</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Es with macron below\"]}}' href=\"./Es_with_macron_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es with macron below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">С̱</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Te_with_caron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with caron\">Т̌</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./Te_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with descender\">Ҭ</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Tje\" title=\"Tje\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"194\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"207\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg/10px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg/15px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg/20px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Te_Soft-sign.svg.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_tilde_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with tilde (Cyrillic)\">У̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_double_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with double acute (Cyrillic)\">Ӳ</a></td><td><a href=\"./U_with_ring_above_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with ring above (Cyrillic)\">У̊</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"U with diaeresis and macron\"]}}' href=\"./U_with_diaeresis_and_macron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with diaeresis and macron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ӱ̄</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Kazakh_Short_U\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kazakh Short U\">Ұ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ue_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ue (Cyrillic)\">Ү</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ue_with_acute_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ue with acute (Cyrillic)\">Ү́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̣</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with macron below\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_macron_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with macron below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̱</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with inverted breve below\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_inverted_breve_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with inverted breve below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̮</a></td><td><a href=\"./Kha_with_inverted_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with inverted breve\">Х̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with caron\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_caron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with caron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̌</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Kha_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with descender\">Ҳ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Kha_with_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with hook\">Ӽ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Kha_with_stroke\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with stroke\">Ӿ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Shha\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shha\">Һ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Shha_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shha with descender\">Ԧ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tse with caron\"]}}' href=\"./Tse_with_caron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse with caron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ц̌</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tse with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Tse_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ц̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Te_Tse_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te Tse (Cyrillic)\">Ҵ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Che_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with descender\">Ҷ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Che_with_descender_and_dot_below\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with descender and dot below\">Ҷ̣</a></td><td><a href=\"./Che_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with diaeresis\">Ӵ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Khakassian_Che\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Khakassian Che\">Ӌ</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Che_with_hook\" title=\"Che with hook\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"187\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_with_hook.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Che_with_vertical_stroke\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with vertical stroke\">Ҹ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч̣</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Abkhazian_Che\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abkhazian Che\">Ҽ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Abkhazian_Che_with_descender\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abkhazian Che with descender\">Ҿ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Sha with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Sha_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sha with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ш̈</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Sha with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Sha_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sha with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ш̣</a></td><td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Unicode_superscripts_and_subscripts\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Unicode superscripts and subscripts\">ꚜ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yery_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with breve\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ы̆</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Yery_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with macron\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ы̄</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Yery_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with diaeresis\">Ӹ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Unicode_superscripts_and_subscripts\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Unicode superscripts and subscripts\">ꚝ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Semisoft_sign\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Semisoft sign\">Ҍ</a></td><td><a href=\"./O-hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"O-hook\">Ҩ</a></td><td><a href=\"./E_with_breve_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with breve (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Э̆</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./E_with_macron_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with macron (Cyrillic)\">Э̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./E_with_dot_above_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with dot above (Cyrillic)\">Э̇</a></td><td><a href=\"./E_with_diaeresis_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with diaeresis (Cyrillic)\">Ӭ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"E with diaeresis and acute\"]}}' href=\"./E_with_diaeresis_and_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with diaeresis and acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ӭ́</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./E_with_diaeresis_and_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with diaeresis and macron\">Ӭ̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yu_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with breve\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ю̆</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Yu_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with diaeresis\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ю̈</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yu with diaeresis and acute\"]}}' href=\"./Yu_with_diaeresis_and_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with diaeresis and acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ю̈́</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Yu_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu with macron\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ю̄</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Ya_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with breve\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Я̆</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Ya_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with macron\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Я̄</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Ya_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with diaeresis\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Я̈</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ya with diaeresis and acute\"]}}' href=\"./Ya_with_diaeresis_and_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with diaeresis and acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Я̈́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Palochka\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Palochka\">Ӏ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#efefef;\"><a href=\"./Early_Cyrillic_alphabet\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Early Cyrillic alphabet\">Archaic</a> or unused letters</th></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-full-data\" colspan=\"2\"><table style=\"width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none\"><tbody><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Script_A\" title=\"Script A\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"203\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"174\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_A.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./A_with_ogonek_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"A with ogonek (Cyrillic)\">А̨</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Be with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Be_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Be with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Б̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Be_with_dot_below\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Be with dot below\">Б̣</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Be with macron\"]}}' href=\"./Be_with_macron?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Be with macron\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Б̱</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ve with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ve_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ve with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">В̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_cedilla\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with cedilla\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Г̧</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Ge_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with macron\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Г̄</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̓</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Г̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with middle hook and grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_middle_hook_and_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with middle hook and grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ҕ̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ge with middle hook and breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ge_with_middle_hook_and_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ge with middle hook and breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ҕ̆</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Ge_split_by_middle_ring\" title=\"Ge split by middle ring\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"194\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"155\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"10\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_split_by_middle_ring_Ghe.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_De\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi De\">Ԁ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with comma\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д̓</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with grave\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"De with ogonek\"]}}' href=\"./De_with_ogonek?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"De with ogonek\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Д̨</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Dje\" title=\"Dje\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"232\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"270\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"10\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg/18px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg/24px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_archaic_Dje.svg.png 2x\" width=\"12\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Dje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Dje\">Ԃ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dwe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dwe (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚁ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Soft_De\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Soft De\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙣ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ye with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Ye_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Е̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ye with ogonek\"]}}' href=\"./Ye_with_ogonek?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ye with ogonek\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Е̨</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Zhe with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Zhe_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhe with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ж̑</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Zhe_with_stroke\" title=\"Zhe with stroke\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"196\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"221\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_stroke.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg/13px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg/20px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg/26px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Zhe_with_long_middle_leg_and_stroke_through_descender.svg.png 2x\" width=\"13\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Je_with_belt\" title=\"Je with belt\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"254\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"138\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Je_with_inverted_belt.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg/6px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg/9px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ie.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Dze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dze\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙃ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Dze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dze\">Ꙅ</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif\" title=\"Dje with high right breve serif\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"119\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"17\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/8px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/12px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/16px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Dje_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Dzhe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Dzhe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dzhe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Џ̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Zhwe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhwe\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚅ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Zhwe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Zhwe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Zhwe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꚅ̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ze_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙁ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ze with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ze_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">З̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ze with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ze_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ze with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">З̑</a></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Zje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Zje\">Ԅ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Dzje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Dzje\">Ԇ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Dzze\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dzze\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚉ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Dzzhe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dzzhe\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԫ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Dzwe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dzwe\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚃ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Hwe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hwe (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚕ</span></a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Shha_with_Cil_top\" title=\"Shha with Cil top\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"201\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"187\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_Cil_top.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif\" title=\"Shha with high right breve serif\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"194\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"187\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"8\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Dotted I with circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Dotted_I_with_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dotted I with circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">І̂</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Dotted I with dot below\"]}}' href=\"./Dotted_I_with_dot_below?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dotted I with dot below\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">І̣</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Dotted I with ogonek\"]}}' href=\"./Dotted_I_with_ogonek?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dotted I with ogonek\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">І̨</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Dotted_I_with_curve_at_bottom\" title=\"Dotted I with curve at bottom\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"315\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"175\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_byelorussian-ukrainian_I_with_curve_at_bottom.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg/6px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg/9px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Dha.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Je with stroke (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./Je_with_stroke_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Je with stroke (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ј̵</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Je with tilde\"]}}' href=\"./Je_with_tilde?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Je with tilde\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ј̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./Djerv\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Djerv\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙉ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̓</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with hook and breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_hook_and_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with hook and breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ӄ̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̑</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ka with diaeresis\"]}}' href=\"./Ka_with_diaeresis?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with diaeresis\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">К̈</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with macron\">К̄</a></td><td><a href=\"./Aleut_Ka\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Aleut Ka\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԟ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Ka_with_circumflex\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ka with circumflex\">К̂</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Ka_with_loop\" title=\"Ka with loop\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"201\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"199\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg/18px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg/24px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Ka_with_loop.svg.png 2x\" width=\"12\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Ka_with_ascender\" title=\"Ka with ascender\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"376\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"271\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg/8px-Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg/12px-Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg/16px-Cyrillic_small_letter_ka_with_ascender.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"El with grave\"]}}' href=\"./El_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Л̀</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./El_with_middle_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with middle hook\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԡ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Soft_El\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Soft El\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙥ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Lje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Lje\">Ԉ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"El with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./El_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Л̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"El with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./El_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"El with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Л̇</a></td><td><a href=\"./Lha_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Lha (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԕ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Em with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Em_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Em with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">М̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Em with tilde\"]}}' href=\"./Em_with_tilde?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Em with tilde\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">М̃</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Soft_Em\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Soft Em\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙧ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"En with grave\"]}}' href=\"./En_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Н̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_with_macron\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with macron\">Н̄</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"En with cedilla\"]}}' href=\"./En_with_cedilla?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with cedilla\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Н̧</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"En with tilde (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./En_with_tilde_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with tilde (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Н̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Nje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Nje\">Ԋ</a></td><td><a href=\"./En_with_middle_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with middle hook\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԣ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"En with palatal hook\"]}}' href=\"./En_with_palatal_hook?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"En with palatal hook\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Н̡</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Broad_On\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Broad On\">Ѻ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Monocular_O\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Monocular O\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙩ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Binocular_O\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Binocular O\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙫ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Double_monocular_O\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Double monocular O\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙭ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Multiocular_O\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Multiocular O\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">ꙮ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Double_O_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Double O (Cyrillic)\">Ꚙ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Crossed_O\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Crossed O\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚛ</span></a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./O_with_open_bottom\" title=\"O with open bottom\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"202\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"279\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_notch_at_bottom.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg/18px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg/24px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_open_at_bottom_O.svg.png 2x\" width=\"12\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./O_with_left_notch\" title=\"O with left notch\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"220\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_O_with_left_notch.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П̓</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with cedilla\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_cedilla?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with cedilla\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П̧</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Pe with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Pe_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">П̑</a></td><td><a href=\"./Pe_with_middle_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pe with middle hook\">Ҧ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Koppa_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Koppa (Cyrillic)\">Ҁ</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Qa with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Qa_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Qa with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ԛ̆</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Shha_with_hook\" title=\"Shha with hook\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"161\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"12\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg/7px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg/11px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg/15px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Shha_with_hook.svg.png 2x\" width=\"7\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Er with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Er_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Р́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Er with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Er_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Р̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Er with tilde\"]}}' href=\"./Er_with_tilde?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Er with tilde\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Р̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./Rha_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Rha (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԗ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Es with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Es_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">С̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Es_with_diaresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Es with diaresis\">С̈</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Komi_Sje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Sje\">Ԍ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"The with comma\"]}}' href=\"./The_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"The with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ҫ̓</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Long_Es\" title=\"Long Es\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"257\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"145\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg/6px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg/9px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_long_Es.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></a></span></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̓</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̀</a></td><td><a href=\"./Komi_Tje\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Komi Tje\">Ԏ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̑</a></td><td><a href=\"./Te_with_middle_hook\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with middle hook\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚋ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Te with cedilla\"]}}' href=\"./Te_with_cedilla?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Te with cedilla\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Т̧</a></td><td><a href=\"./Twe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Twe\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚍ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Twe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Twe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Twe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꚍ̆</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Voiceless_El\" title=\"Voiceless El\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"136\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"202\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg/13px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg/20px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg/26px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Te_El_Soft-sign.svg.png 2x\" width=\"13\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Voiceless_El_with_comma\" title=\"Voiceless El with comma\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"427\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"376\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg/13px-Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg/20px-Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg/26px-Cyrillic_small_letter_voiceless_L_with_comma_above.svg.png 2x\" width=\"13\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Uk_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Uk (Cyrillic)\">Ѹ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Uk_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Uk (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙋ</span></a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Script_U\" title=\"Script U\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"259\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"318\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg/11px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg/17px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg/22px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_script_U.svg.png 2x\" width=\"11\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"U with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./U_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">У̇</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"U with ogonek (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./U_with_ogonek_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"U with ogonek (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">У̨</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ef with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Ef_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ef with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ф̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ef with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Ef_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ef with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ф̓</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with dot above\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_dot_above?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with dot above\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̇</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with cedilla\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_cedilla?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with cedilla\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̧</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Kha with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Kha_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Kha with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Х̓</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Bashkir_Ha\" title=\"Bashkir Ha\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"256\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"141\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg/6px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg/9px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_bashkir_Ha.svg.png 2x\" width=\"6\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Omega_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Omega (Cyrillic)\">Ѡ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Omega_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Omega (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙍ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Omega_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Omega (Cyrillic)\">Ѽ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ot_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ot (Cyrillic)\">Ѿ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Reversed_Tse\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Reversed Tse\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙡ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tse with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Tse_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ц̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tse with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Tse_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ц́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tse with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Tse_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tse with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ц̓</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Tse_with_long_left_leg\" title=\"Tse with long left leg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"232\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"203\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"11\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg/10px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg/15px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg/20px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Tse_with_long_left_leg.svg.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Tswe\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tswe\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚏ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Tswe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Tswe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tswe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꚏ̆</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Cil_(Cyrillic)\" title=\"Cil (Cyrillic)\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"265\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"129\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Cil_with_bar\" title=\"Cil with bar\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"265\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"129\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"16\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg/8px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg/12px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg/16px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Cil_with_bar.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Tsse_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tsse (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚑ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with acute\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_acute?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with acute\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч́</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with grave\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_grave?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with grave\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч̀</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Che with comma\"]}}' href=\"./Che_with_comma?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Che with comma\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ч̓</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Char_(Cyrillic)\" title=\"Char (Cyrillic)\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"257\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"179\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"14\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg/10px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg/15px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg/20px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Char.svg.png 2x\" width=\"10\"/></a></span></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Char_with_high_right_breve_serif\" title=\"Char with high right breve serif\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"258\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"134\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"15\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/8px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/12px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg/16px-Cyrillic_small_letter_Char_with_high_right_breve_serif.svg.png 2x\" width=\"8\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Dche\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Dche\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԭ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Tche\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Tche\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚓ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Cche\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cche\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚇ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Cche with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Cche_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Cche with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꚇ̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Abkhazian Che with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Abkhazian_Che_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Abkhazian Che with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ҽ̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Sha_with_breve\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sha with breve\">Ш̆</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Sha with inverted breve\"]}}' href=\"./Sha_with_inverted_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Sha with inverted breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ш̑</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Shcha with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Shcha_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shcha with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Щ̆</a></td><td><a href=\"./Shwe_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shwe (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꚗ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Shwe with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Shwe_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Shwe with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꚗ̆</a></td><td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"./Che_Sha\" title=\"Che Sha\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"194\" data-file-type=\"drawing\" data-file-width=\"395\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"9\" resource=\"./File:Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg/18px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg.png\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg/27px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg/36px-Cyrillic_capital_letter_Che_Sha.svg.png 2x\" width=\"18\"/></a></span></td><td><a href=\"./Yery\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery\">Ꙑ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yery with circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Yery_with_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ы̂</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yery with tilde\"]}}' href=\"./Yery_with_tilde?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yery with tilde\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ы̃</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yat_with_acute\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yat with acute\">Ѣ́</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yat_with_diaeresis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yat with diaeresis\">Ѣ̈</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yat with breve\"]}}' href=\"./Yat_with_breve?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yat with breve\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ѣ̆</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Yat\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yat\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙓ</span></a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"E with ogonek (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./E_with_ogonek_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with ogonek (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Э̨</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"E with circumflex (Cyrillic)\"]}}' href=\"./E_with_circumflex_(Cyrillic)?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"E with circumflex (Cyrillic)\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Э̂</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Reversed Yu\"]}}' href=\"./Reversed_Yu?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Reversed Yu\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ꙕ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Yu wth circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Yu_wth_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yu wth circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Ю̂</a></td><td><a href=\"./Iotated_A\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Iotated A\">Ꙗ</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ya with circumflex\"]}}' href=\"./Ya_with_circumflex?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with circumflex\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Я̂</a></td><td><a class=\"new\" data-mw-i18n='{\"title\":{\"lang\":\"x-page\",\"key\":\"red-link-title\",\"params\":[\"Ya with ogonek\"]}}' href=\"./Ya_with_ogonek?action=edit&redlink=1\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ya with ogonek\" typeof=\"mw:LocalizedAttrs\">Я̨</a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Yae_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yae (Cyrillic)\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ԙ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Iotated_E\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Iotated E\">Ѥ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\">Ѧ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙙ</span></a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\">Ѫ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\">Ꙛ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\">Ѩ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙝ</span></a></td></tr><tr style=\"vertical-align:top\"><td><a href=\"./Yus\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yus\">Ѭ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Ksi_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Ksi (Cyrillic)\">Ѯ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Psi_(Cyrillic)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Psi (Cyrillic)\">Ѱ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Fita\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Fita\">Ѳ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Izhitsa\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Izhitsa\">Ѵ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Izhitsa\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Izhitsa\">Ѷ</a></td><td><a href=\"./Yn\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Yn\"><span style=\"font-family: 'DejaVu Sans', 'DejaVu Serif', Junicode, Quivira, sans-serif;\">Ꙟ</span></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style=\"display:none\"><td colspan=\"2\">\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below plainlist\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background:#efefef;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"./List_of_Cyrillic_letters\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of Cyrillic letters\">List of Cyrillic letters</a></li>\n<li><a href=\"./List_of_Cyrillic_multigraphs\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of Cyrillic multigraphs\">List of Cyrillic multigraphs</a></li></ul>\n</td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-navbar\" colspan=\"2\"></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Cursive_\"Д\".png",
"caption": "handwritten forms"
}
] |
47,402 | **Titan** is the largest moon of Saturn, the second-largest in the Solar System and larger than any of the dwarf planets of the Solar System. It is the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere, and is the only known object in space other than Earth on which clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found.
Titan is one of the seven gravitationally rounded moons in orbit around Saturn, and the second most distant from Saturn of those seven. Frequently described as a planet-like moon, Titan is 50% larger (in diameter) than Earth's Moon and 80% more massive. It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System after Jupiter's moon Ganymede, and is larger than the planet Mercury, but only 40% as massive.
Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, and the sixth known planetary satellite (after Earth's moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter). Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii. From Titan's surface, Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees, and if it were visible through the moon's thick atmosphere, it would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky, in diameter, than the Moon from Earth, which subtends 0.48° of arc.
Titan is primarily composed of ice and rocky material, which is likely differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by various layers of ice, including a crust of ice Ih and a subsurface layer of ammonia-rich liquid water. Much as with Venus before the Space Age, the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan's surface until the *Cassini–Huygens* mission in 2004 provided new information, including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan's polar regions. The geologically young surface is generally smooth, with few impact craters, although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found.
The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and heavy organonitrogen haze. The climate—including wind and rain—creates surface features similar to those of Earth, such as dunes, rivers, lakes, seas (probably of liquid methane and ethane), and deltas, and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth. With its liquids (both surface and subsurface) and robust nitrogen atmosphere, Titan's methane cycle bears a striking similarity to Earth's water cycle, albeit at the much lower temperature of about 94 K (−179 °C; −290 °F).
History
-------
### Discovery
Titan was discovered on March 25, 1655, by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens. Huygens was inspired by Galileo's discovery of Jupiter's four largest moons in 1610 and his improvements in telescope technology. Christiaan, with the help of his elder brother Constantijn Huygens Jr., began building telescopes around 1650 and discovered the first observed moon orbiting Saturn with one of the telescopes they built. It was the sixth moon ever discovered, after Earth's Moon and the Galilean moons of Jupiter.
### Naming
Huygens named his discovery *Saturni Luna* (or *Luna Saturni*, Latin for "moon of Saturn"), publishing in the 1655 tract *De Saturni Luna Observatio Nova* (*A New Observation of Saturn's Moon*). After Giovanni Domenico Cassini published his discoveries of four more moons of Saturn between 1673 and 1686, astronomers fell into the habit of referring to these and Titan as Saturn I through V (with Titan then in fourth position). Other early epithets for Titan include "Saturn's ordinary satellite". The International Astronomical Union officially numbers Titan as **Saturn VI**.
The name *Titan*, and the names of all seven satellites of Saturn then known, came from John Herschel (son of William Herschel, discoverer of two other Saturnian moons, Mimas and Enceladus), in his 1847 publication *Results of Astronomical Observations Made during the Years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8, at the Cape of Good Hope*. Numerous small moons have been discovered around Saturn since then. Saturnian moons are named after mythological giants. The name Titan comes from the Titans, a race of immortals in Greek mythology.
Orbit and rotation
------------------
Titan orbits Saturn once every 15 days and 22 hours. Like Earth's Moon and many of the satellites of the giant planets, its rotational period (its day) is identical to its orbital period; Titan is tidally locked in synchronous rotation with Saturn, and permanently shows one face to the planet. Longitudes on Titan are measured westward, starting from the meridian passing through this point. Its orbital eccentricity is 0.0288, and the orbital plane is inclined 0.348 degrees relative to the Saturnian equator, and hence also about a third of a degree off of the equatorial ring plane. Viewed from Earth, Titan reaches an angular distance of about 20 Saturn radii (just over 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 mi)) from Saturn and subtends a disk 0.8 arcseconds in diameter.
The small, irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion is locked in a 3:4 orbital resonance with Titan. Hyperion probably formed in a stable orbital island, whereas the massive Titan absorbed or ejected any other bodies that made close approaches.
Bulk characteristics
--------------------
Size comparison: Titan (*lower left*) with the Moon and Earth (*top and right*)A model of Titan's internal structure showing ice-six layer
Titan is 5,149.46 kilometers (3,199.73 mi) in diameter, 1.06 times that of the planet Mercury, 1.48 that of the Moon, and 0.40 that of Earth. Titan is the tenth-largest object in the solar system, including the Sun. Before the arrival of *Voyager 1* in 1980, Titan was thought to be slightly larger than Ganymede (diameter 5,262 kilometers (3,270 mi)) and thus the largest moon in the Solar System; this was an overestimation caused by Titan's dense, opaque atmosphere, with a haze layer 100-200 kilometres above its surface. This increases its apparent diameter. Titan's diameter and mass (and thus its density) are similar to those of the Jovian moons Ganymede and Callisto. Based on its bulk density of 1.88 g/cm3, Titan's composition is half ice and half rocky material. Though similar in composition to Dione and Enceladus, it is denser due to gravitational compression. It has a mass 1/4226 that of Saturn, making it the largest moon of the gas giants relative to the mass of its primary. It is second in terms of relative diameter of moons to a gas giant; Titan being 1/22.609 of Saturn's diameter, Triton is larger in diameter relative to Neptune at 1/18.092.
Titan is probably partially differentiated into distinct layers with a 3,400-kilometer (2,100 mi) rocky center. This rocky center is surrounded by several layers composed of different crystalline forms of ice. Its interior may still be hot enough for a liquid layer consisting of a "magma" composed of water and ammonia between the ice Ih crust and deeper ice layers made of high-pressure forms of ice. The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as 176 K (−97 °C) (for eutectic mixture with water). The *Cassini* probe discovered evidence for the layered structure in the form of natural extremely-low-frequency radio waves in Titan's atmosphere. Titan's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely-low-frequency radio waves, so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid–ice boundary of a subsurface ocean. Surface features were observed by the *Cassini* spacecraft to systematically shift by up to 30 kilometers (19 mi) between October 2005 and May 2007, which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior, and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer. Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and ice shell decoupled from the solid core comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn. Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR-based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid.
Formation
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The moons of Jupiter and Saturn are thought to have formed through co-accretion, a similar process to that believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System. As the young gas giants formed, they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons. Whereas Jupiter possesses four large satellites in highly regular, planet-like orbits, Titan overwhelmingly dominates Saturn's system and possesses a high orbital eccentricity not immediately explained by co-accretion alone. A proposed model for the formation of Titan is that Saturn's system began with a group of moons similar to Jupiter's Galilean satellites, but that they were disrupted by a series of giant impacts, which would go on to form Titan. Saturn's mid-sized moons, such as Iapetus and Rhea, were formed from the debris of these collisions. Such a violent beginning would also explain Titan's orbital eccentricity.
A 2014 analysis of Titan's atmospheric nitrogen suggested that it was possibly sourced from material similar to that found in the Oort cloud and not from sources present during the co-accretion of materials around Saturn.
Atmosphere
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Titan is the only known moon with a significant atmosphere, and its atmosphere is the only nitrogen-rich dense atmosphere in the Solar System aside from Earth's. Observations of it made in 2004 by *Cassini* suggest that Titan is a "super rotator", like Venus, with an atmosphere that rotates much faster than its surface. Observations from the *Voyager* space probes have shown that Titan's atmosphere is denser than Earth's, with a surface pressure about 1.45 atm. It is also about 1.19 times as massive as Earth's overall, or about 7.3 times more massive on a per surface area basis. Opaque haze layers block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and obscure Titan's surface features. Titan's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth's. The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many wavelengths and as a result, a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from orbit. It was not until the arrival of the *Cassini–Huygens* spacecraft in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan's surface were obtained.
Titan CloudsClouds (Nov 4, 2022)Clouds (Nov 6, 2022)
Titan's atmospheric composition is nitrogen (97%), methane (2.7±0.1%), and hydrogen (0.1–0.2%), with trace amounts of other gases. There are trace amounts of other hydrocarbons, such as ethane, diacetylene, methylacetylene, acetylene and propane, and of other gases, such as cyanoacetylene, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, cyanogen, argon and helium. The hydrocarbons are thought to form in Titan's upper atmosphere in reactions resulting from the breakup of methane by the Sun's ultraviolet light, producing a thick orange smog. Titan spends 95% of its time within Saturn's magnetosphere, which may help shield it from the solar wind.
Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years—a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes.
On April 3, 2013, NASA reported that complex organic chemicals, collectively called tholins, likely arise on Titan, based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan.
On June 6, 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan.
On September 30, 2013, propene was detected in the atmosphere of Titan by NASA's *Cassini* spacecraft, using its composite infrared spectrometer (CIRS). This is the first time propene has been found on any moon or planet other than Earth and is the first chemical found by the CIRS. The detection of propene fills a mysterious gap in observations that date back to NASA's *Voyager 1* spacecraft's first close planetary flyby of Titan in 1980, during which it was discovered that many of the gases that make up Titan's brown haze were hydrocarbons, theoretically formed via the recombination of radicals created by the Sun's ultraviolet photolysis of methane.
On October 24, 2014, methane was found in polar clouds on Titan. On December 1, 2022, astronomers reported viewing clouds, likely made of methane, moving across Titan, using the James Webb Space Telescope.
Polar clouds, made of methane, on Titan (left) compared with polar clouds on Earth (right), which are made of water or water ice.
Climate
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Titan's surface temperature is about 94 K (−179.2 °C). At this temperature, water ice has an extremely low vapor pressure, so the little water vapor present appears limited to the stratosphere. Titan receives about 1% as much sunlight as Earth. Before sunlight reaches the surface, about 90% has been absorbed by the thick atmosphere, leaving only 0.1% of the amount of light Earth receives.
Atmospheric methane creates a greenhouse effect on Titan's surface, without which Titan would be much colder. Conversely, haze in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an anti-greenhouse effect by absorbing sunlight, cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere.
Titan's clouds, probably composed of methane, ethane or other simple organics, are scattered and variable, punctuating the overall haze. The findings of the *Huygens* probe indicate that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto its surface.
Clouds typically cover 1% of Titan's disk, though outburst events have been observed in which the cloud cover rapidly expands to as much as 8%. One hypothesis asserts that the southern clouds are formed when heightened levels of sunlight during the southern summer generate uplift in the atmosphere, resulting in convection. This explanation is complicated by the fact that cloud formation has been observed not only after the southern summer solstice but also during mid-spring. Increased methane humidity at the south pole possibly contributes to the rapid increases in cloud size. It was summer in Titan's southern hemisphere until 2010, when Saturn's orbit, which governs Titan's motion, moved Titan's northern hemisphere into the sunlight. When the seasons switch, it is expected that ethane will begin to condense over the south pole.
Surface features
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* Global map of Titan – with IAU labels (August 2016).Global map of Titan – with IAU labels (August 2016).
* Titan – infrared views (2004–2017)Titan – infrared views (2004–2017)
* Titan's North Pole (2014)Titan's North Pole (2014)
* Titan's South Pole (2014)Titan's South Pole (2014)
The surface of Titan has been described as "complex, fluid-processed, [and] geologically young". Titan has been around since the Solar System's formation, but its surface is much younger, between 100 million and 1 billion years old. Geological processes may have reshaped Titan's surface. Titan's atmosphere is four times as thick as Earth's, making it difficult for astronomical instruments to image its surface in the visible light spectrum. The *Cassini* spacecraft used infrared instruments, radar altimetry and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging to map portions of Titan during its close fly-bys. The first images revealed a diverse geology, with both rough and smooth areas. There are features that may be volcanic in origin, disgorging water mixed with ammonia onto the surface. There is also evidence that Titan's ice shell may be substantially rigid, which would suggest little geologic activity.
There are also streaky features, some of them hundreds of kilometers in length, that appear to be caused by windblown particles. Examination has also shown the surface to be relatively smooth; the few objects that seem to be impact craters appeared to have been filled in, perhaps by raining hydrocarbons or volcanoes. Radar altimetry suggests height variation is low, typically no more than 150 meters. Occasional elevation changes of 500 meters have been discovered and Titan has mountains that sometimes reach several hundred meters to more than 1 kilometer in height.
Titan's surface is marked by broad regions of bright and dark terrain. These include Xanadu, a large, reflective equatorial area about the size of Australia. It was first identified in infrared images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1994, and later viewed by the *Cassini* spacecraft. The convoluted region is filled with hills and cut by valleys and chasms. It is criss-crossed in places by dark lineaments—sinuous topographical features resembling ridges or crevices. These may represent tectonic activity, which would indicate that Xanadu is geologically young. Alternatively, the lineaments may be liquid-formed channels, suggesting old terrain that has been cut through by stream systems. There are dark areas of similar size elsewhere on Titan, observed from the ground and by *Cassini*; at least one of these, Ligeia Mare, Titan's second-largest sea, is almost a pure methane sea.
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### Lakes
The possibility of hydrocarbon seas on Titan was first suggested based on *Voyager 1* and *2* data that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere of approximately the correct temperature and composition to support them, but direct evidence was not obtained until 1995 when data from Hubble and other observations suggested the existence of liquid methane on Titan, either in disconnected pockets or on the scale of satellite-wide oceans, similar to water on Earth.
The *Cassini* mission confirmed the former hypothesis. When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004, it was hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans would be detected from the sunlight reflected off their surface, but no specular reflections were initially observed. Near Titan's south pole, an enigmatic dark feature named Ontario Lacus was identified (and later confirmed to be a lake). A possible shoreline was also identified near the pole via radar imagery. Following a flyby on July 22, 2006, in which the *Cassini* spacecraft's radar imaged the northern latitudes (that were then in winter), several large, smooth (and thus dark to radar) patches were seen dotting the surface near the pole. Based on the observations, scientists announced "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn's moon Titan" in January 2007. The *Cassini–Huygens* team concluded that the imaged features are almost certainly the long-sought hydrocarbon lakes, the first stable bodies of surface liquid found outside Earth. Some appear to have channels associated with liquid and lie in topographical depressions. The liquid erosion features appear to be a very recent occurrence: channels in some regions have created surprisingly little erosion, suggesting erosion on Titan is extremely slow, or some other recent phenomena may have wiped out older riverbeds and landforms. Overall, the *Cassini* radar observations have shown that lakes cover only a small percentage of the surface, making Titan much drier than Earth. Most of the lakes are concentrated near the poles (where the relative lack of sunlight prevents evaporation), but several long-standing hydrocarbon lakes in the equatorial desert regions have also been discovered, including one near the *Huygens* landing site in the Shangri-La region, which is about half the size of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, USA. The equatorial lakes are probably "oases", i.e. the likely supplier is underground aquifers.
Evolving feature in Ligeia Mare
In June 2008, the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer on *Cassini* confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in Ontario Lacus. On December 21, 2008, *Cassini* passed directly over Ontario Lacus and observed specular reflection in radar. The strength of the reflection saturated the probe's receiver, indicating that the lake level did not vary by more than 3 mm (implying either that surface winds were minimal, or the lake's hydrocarbon fluid is viscous).
On July 8, 2009, *Cassini's* VIMS observed a specular reflection indicative of a smooth, mirror-like surface, off what today is called Jingpo Lacus, a lake in the north polar region shortly after the area emerged from 15 years of winter darkness. Specular reflections are indicative of a smooth, mirror-like surface, so the observation corroborated the inference of the presence of a large liquid body drawn from radar imaging.
Early radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicated that Ontario Lacus was extremely shallow, with an average depth of 0.4–3 m, and a maximum depth of 3 to 7 m (9.8 to 23.0 ft). In contrast, the northern hemisphere's Ligeia Mare was initially mapped to depths exceeding 8 m, the maximum discernable by the radar instrument and the analysis techniques of the time.
Later science analysis, released in 2014, more fully mapped the depths of Titan's three methane seas and showed depths of more than 200 meters (660 ft). Ligeia Mare averages from 20 to 40 m (66 to 131 ft) in depth, while other parts of *Ligeia* did not register any radar reflection at all, indicating a depth of more than 200 m (660 ft). While only the second largest of Titan's methane seas, *Ligeia* "contains enough liquid methane to fill three Lake Michigans".
In May 2013, *Cassini'*s radar altimeter observed Titan's Vid Flumina channels, defined as a drainage network connected to Titan's second-largest hydrocarbon sea, Ligeia Mare. Analysis of the received altimeter echoes showed that the channels are located in deep (up to ~570 m), steep-sided, canyons and have strong specular surface reflections that indicate they are currently filled with liquid. Elevations of the liquid in these channels are at the same level as Ligeia Mare to within a vertical precision of about 0.7 m, consistent with the interpretation of drowned river valleys. Specular reflections are also observed in lower order tributaries elevated above the level of Ligeia Mare, consistent with drainage feeding into the main channel system. This is likely the first direct evidence of the presence of liquid channels on Titan and the first observation of hundred-meter deep canyons on Titan. Vid Flumina canyons are thus drowned by the sea but there are a few isolated observations to attest to the presence of surface liquids standing at higher elevations.
During six flybys of Titan from 2006 to 2011, *Cassini* gathered radiometric tracking and optical navigation data from which investigators could roughly infer Titan's changing shape. The density of Titan is consistent with a body that is about 60% rock and 40% water. The team's analyses suggest that Titan's surface can rise and fall by up to 10 metres during each orbit. That degree of warping suggests that Titan's interior is relatively deformable, and that the most likely model of Titan is one in which an icy shell dozens of kilometres thick floats atop a global ocean. The team's findings, together with the results of previous studies, hint that Titan's ocean may lie no more than 100 kilometers (62 mi) below its surface. On July 2, 2014, NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be as salty as the Dead Sea. On September 3, 2014, NASA reported studies suggesting methane rainfall on Titan may interact with a layer of icy materials underground, called an "alkanofer", to produce ethane and propane that may eventually feed into rivers and lakes.
In 2016, Cassini found the first evidence of fluid-filled channels on Titan, in a series of deep, steep-sided canyons flowing into Ligeia Mare. This network of canyons, dubbed Vid Flumina, ranges in depth from 240 to 570 m and has sides as steep as 40°. They are believed to have formed either by crustal uplifting, like Earth's Grand Canyon, a lowering of sea level, or perhaps a combination of the two. The depth of erosion suggests that liquid flows in this part of Titan are long-term features that persist for thousands of years.
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| Photo of infrared specular reflection off Jingpo Lacus, a lake in the north polar region | Perspective radar view of Bolsena Lacus (lower right) and other northern hemisphere hydrocarbon lakes |
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| Contrasting images of the number of lakes in Titan's northern hemisphere (left) and southern hemisphere (right) | Two images of Titan's southern hemisphere acquired one year apart, showing changes in south polar lakes |
### Impact craters
Radar, SAR and imaging data from *Cassini* have revealed few impact craters on Titan's surface. These impacts appear to be relatively young, compared to Titan's age. The few impact craters discovered include a 392-kilometer-wide (244 mi) two-ring impact basin named Menrva seen by *Cassini's* ISS as a bright-dark concentric pattern. A smaller, 80-kilometer-wide (50 mi), flat-floored crater named Sinlap and a 30 km (19 mi) crater with a central peak and dark floor named Ksa have also been observed. Radar and *Cassini* imaging have also revealed "crateriforms", circular features on the surface of Titan that may be impact related, but lack certain features that would make identification certain. For example, a 90-kilometer-wide (56 mi) ring of bright, rough material known as Guabonito has been observed by *Cassini*. This feature is thought to be an impact crater filled in by dark, windblown sediment. Several other similar features have been observed in the dark Shangri-La and Aaru regions. Radar observed several circular features that may be craters in the bright region Xanadu during *Cassini's* April 30, 2006 flyby of Titan.
Many of Titan's craters or probable craters display evidence of extensive erosion, and all show some indication of modification. Most large craters have breached or incomplete rims, despite the fact that some craters on Titan have relatively more massive rims than those anywhere else in the Solar System. There is little evidence of formation of palimpsests through viscoelastic crustal relaxation, unlike on other large icy moons. Most craters lack central peaks and have smooth floors, possibly due to impact-generation or later eruption of cryovolcanic lava. Infill from various geological processes is one reason for Titan's relative deficiency of craters; atmospheric shielding also plays a role. It is estimated that Titan's atmosphere reduces the number of craters on its surface by a factor of two.
The limited high-resolution radar coverage of Titan obtained through 2007 (22%) suggested the existence of nonuniformities in its crater distribution. Xanadu has 2–9 times more craters than elsewhere. The leading hemisphere has a 30% higher density than the trailing hemisphere. There are lower crater densities in areas of equatorial dunes and in the north polar region (where hydrocarbon lakes and seas are most common).
Pre-*Cassini* models of impact trajectories and angles suggest that where the impactor strikes the water ice crust, a small amount of ejecta remains as liquid water within the crater. It may persist as liquid for centuries or longer, sufficient for "the synthesis of simple precursor molecules to the origin of life".
### Cryovolcanism and mountains
Scientists have long speculated that conditions on Titan resemble those of early Earth, though at a much lower temperature. The detection of argon-40 in the atmosphere in 2004 indicated that volcanoes had spawned plumes of "lava" composed of water and ammonia. Global maps of the lake distribution on Titan's surface revealed that there is not enough surface methane to account for its continued presence in its atmosphere, and thus that a significant portion must be added through volcanic processes.
Still, there is a paucity of surface features that can be unambiguously interpreted as cryovolcanoes. One of the first of such features revealed by *Cassini* radar observations in 2004, called Ganesa Macula, resembles the geographic features called "pancake domes" found on Venus, and was thus initially thought to be cryovolcanic in origin, until Kirk et al. refuted this hypothesis at the American Geophysical Union annual meeting in December 2008. The feature was found to be not a dome at all, but appeared to result from accidental combination of light and dark patches. In 2004 *Cassini* also detected an unusually bright feature (called Tortola Facula), which was interpreted as a cryovolcanic dome. No similar features have been identified as of 2010. In December 2008, astronomers announced the discovery of two transient but unusually long-lived "bright spots" in Titan's atmosphere, which appear too persistent to be explained by mere weather patterns, suggesting they were the result of extended cryovolcanic episodes.
A mountain range measuring 150 kilometers (93 mi) long, 30 kilometers (19 mi) wide and 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) high was also discovered by *Cassini* in 2006. This range lies in the southern hemisphere and is thought to be composed of icy material and covered in methane snow. The movement of tectonic plates, perhaps influenced by a nearby impact basin, could have opened a gap through which the mountain's material upwelled. Prior to *Cassini*, scientists assumed that most of the topography on Titan would be impact structures, yet these findings reveal that similar to Earth, the mountains were formed through geological processes.
In 2008 Jeffrey Moore (planetary geologist of Ames Research Center) proposed an alternate view of Titan's geology. Noting that no volcanic features had been unambiguously identified on Titan so far, he asserted that Titan is a geologically dead world, whose surface is shaped only by impact cratering, fluvial and eolian erosion, mass wasting and other exogenic processes. According to this hypothesis, methane is not emitted by volcanoes but slowly diffuses out of Titan's cold and stiff interior. Ganesa Macula may be an eroded impact crater with a dark dune in the center. The mountainous ridges observed in some regions can be explained as heavily degraded scarps of large multi-ring impact structures or as a result of the global contraction due to the slow cooling of the interior. Even in this case, Titan may still have an internal ocean made of the eutectic water–ammonia mixture with a temperature of 176 K (−97 °C), which is low enough to be explained by the decay of radioactive elements in the core. The bright Xanadu terrain may be a degraded heavily cratered terrain similar to that observed on the surface of Callisto. Indeed, were it not for its lack of an atmosphere, Callisto could serve as a model for Titan's geology in this scenario. Jeffrey Moore even called Titan *Callisto with weather*.
In March 2009, structures resembling lava flows were announced in a region of Titan called Hotei Arcus, which appears to fluctuate in brightness over several months. Though many phenomena were suggested to explain this fluctuation, the lava flows were found to rise 200 meters (660 ft) above Titan's surface, consistent with it having erupted from beneath the surface.
In December 2010, the *Cassini* mission team announced the most compelling possible cryovolcano yet found. Named Sotra Patera, it is one in a chain of at least three mountains, each between 1000 and 1500 m in height, several of which are topped by large craters. The ground around their bases appears to be overlaid by frozen lava flows.
Crater-like landforms possibly formed via explosive, maar-like or caldera-forming cryovolcanic eruptions have been identified in Titan's polar regions. These formations are sometimes nested or overlapping and have features suggestive of explosions and collapses, such as elevated rims, halos, and internal hills or mountains. The polar location of these features and their colocalization with Titan's lakes and seas suggests volatiles such as methane may help power them. Some of these features appear quite fresh, suggesting that such volcanic activity continues to the present.
Most of Titan's highest peaks occur near its equator in so-called "ridge belts". They are believed to be analogous to Earth's fold mountains such as the Rockies or the Himalayas, formed by the collision and buckling of tectonic plates, or to subduction zones like the Andes, where upwelling lava (or cryolava) from a melting descending plate rises to the surface. One possible mechanism for their formation is tidal forces from Saturn. Because Titan's icy mantle is less viscous than Earth's magma mantle, and because its icy bedrock is softer than Earth's granite bedrock, mountains are unlikely to reach heights as great as those on Earth. In 2016, the Cassini team announced what they believe to be the tallest mountain on Titan. Located in the Mithrim Montes range, it is 3,337 m tall.
If volcanism on Titan really exists, the hypothesis is that it is driven by energy released from the decay of radioactive elements within the mantle, as it is on Earth. Magma on Earth is made of liquid rock, which is less dense than the solid rocky crust through which it erupts. Because ice is less dense than water, Titan's watery magma would be denser than its solid icy crust. This means that cryovolcanism on Titan would require a large amount of additional energy to operate, possibly via tidal flexing from nearby Saturn. The low-pressure ice, overlaying a liquid layer of ammonium sulfate, ascends buoyantly, and the unstable system can produce dramatic plume events. Titan is resurfaced through the process by grain-sized ice and ammonium sulfate ash, which helps produce a wind-shaped landscape and sand dune features. Titan may have been much more geologically active in the past; models of Titan's internal evolution suggest that Titan's crust was only 10 kilometers thick until about 500 million years ago, allowing vigorous cryovolcanism with low viscosity water magmas to erase all surface features formed before that time. Titan's modern geology would have formed only after the crust thickened to 50 kilometers and thus impeded constant cryovolcanic resurfacing, with any cryovolcanism occurring since that time producing much more viscous water magma with larger fractions of ammonia and methanol; this would also suggest that Titan's methane is no longer being actively added to its atmosphere and could be depleted entirely within a few tens of millions of years.
Many of the more prominent mountains and hills have been given official names by the International Astronomical Union. According to JPL, "By convention, mountains on Titan are named for mountains from Middle-earth, the fictional setting in fantasy novels by J. R. R. Tolkien." Colles (collections of hills) are named for characters from the same Tolkien works.
### Dark equatorial terrain
In the first images of Titan's surface taken by Earth-based telescopes in the early 2000s, large regions of dark terrain were revealed straddling Titan's equator. Prior to the arrival of *Cassini*, these regions were thought to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons. Radar images captured by the *Cassini* spacecraft have instead revealed some of these regions to be extensive plains covered in longitudinal dunes, up to 330 ft (100 m) high, about a kilometer wide, and tens to hundreds of kilometers long. Dunes of this type are always aligned with average wind direction. In the case of Titan, steady zonal (eastward) winds combine with variable tidal winds (approximately 0.5 meters per second). The tidal winds are the result of tidal forces from Saturn on Titan's atmosphere, which are 400 times stronger than the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth and tend to drive wind toward the equator. This wind pattern, it was hypothesized, causes granular material on the surface to gradually build up in long parallel dunes aligned west-to-east. The dunes break up around mountains, where the wind direction shifts.
The longitudinal (or linear) dunes were initially presumed to be formed by moderately variable winds that either follow one mean direction or alternate between two different directions. Subsequent observations indicate that the dunes point to the east although climate simulations indicate Titan's surface winds blow toward the west. At less than 1 meter per second, they are not powerful enough to lift and transport surface material. Recent computer simulations indicate that the dunes may be the result of rare storm winds that happen only every fifteen years when Titan is in equinox. These storms produce strong downdrafts, flowing eastward at up to 10 meters per second when they reach the surface.
The "sand" on Titan is likely not made up of small grains of silicates like the sand on Earth, but rather might have formed when liquid methane rained and eroded the water-ice bedrock, possibly in the form of flash floods. Alternatively, the sand could also have come from organic solids called tholins, produced by photochemical reactions in Titan's atmosphere. Studies of dunes' composition in May 2008 revealed that they possessed less water than the rest of Titan, and are thus most likely derived from organic soot like hydrocarbon polymers clumping together after raining onto the surface. Calculations indicate the sand on Titan has a density of one-third that of terrestrial sand. The low density combined with the dryness of Titan's atmosphere might cause the grains to clump together because of static electricity buildup. The "stickiness" might make it difficult for the generally mild breeze close to Titan's surface to move the dunes although more powerful winds from seasonal storms could still blow them eastward.
Around equinox, strong downburst winds can lift micron-sized solid organic particles up from the dunes to create Titanian dust storms, observed as intense and short-lived brightenings in the infrared.
Observation and exploration
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Titan is never visible to the naked eye, but can be observed through small telescopes or strong binoculars. Amateur observation is difficult because of the proximity of Titan to Saturn's brilliant globe and ring system; an occulting bar, covering part of the eyepiece and used to block the bright planet, greatly improves viewing. Titan has a maximum apparent magnitude of +8.2, and mean opposition magnitude 8.4. This compares to +4.6 for the similarly sized Ganymede, in the Jovian system.
Observations of Titan prior to the space age were limited. In 1907 Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà observed limb darkening of Titan, the first evidence that the body has an atmosphere. In 1944 Gerard P. Kuiper used a spectroscopic technique to detect an atmosphere of methane.
### Fly-by missions: Pioneer and Voyager
The first probe to visit the Saturnian system was *Pioneer 11* in 1979, which revealed that Titan was probably too cold to support life. It took images of Titan, including Titan and Saturn together in mid to late 1979. The quality was soon surpassed by the two *Voyagers*.
Titan was examined by both *Voyager 1* and *2* in 1980 and 1981, respectively. *Voyager 1*'s trajectory was designed to provide an optimized Titan flyby, during which the spacecraft was able to determine the density, composition, and temperature of the atmosphere, and obtain a precise measurement of Titan's mass. Atmospheric haze prevented direct imaging of the surface, though in 2004 intensive digital processing of images taken through *Voyager 1*'s orange filter did reveal hints of the light and dark features now known as Xanadu and Shangri-la, which had been observed in the infrared by the Hubble Space Telescope. *Voyager 2*, which would have been diverted to perform the Titan flyby if *Voyager 1* had been unable to, did not pass near Titan and continued on to Uranus and Neptune.
### *Cassini–Huygens*
*Cassini* image of Titan in front of the rings of Saturn*Cassini* image of Titan, behind Epimetheus and the rings
Even with the data provided by the *Voyagers*, Titan remained a body of mystery—a large satellite shrouded in an atmosphere that makes detailed observation difficult.
The *Cassini–Huygens* spacecraft reached Saturn on July 1, 2004, and began the process of mapping Titan's surface by radar. A joint project of the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA, *Cassini–Huygens* proved a very successful mission. The *Cassini* probe flew by Titan on October 26, 2004, and took the highest-resolution images ever of Titan's surface, at only 1,200 kilometers (750 mi), discerning patches of light and dark that would be invisible to the human eye.
On July 22, 2006, *Cassini* made its first targeted, close fly-by at 950 kilometers (590 mi) from Titan; the closest flyby was at 880 kilometers (550 mi) on June 21, 2010. Liquid has been found in abundance on the surface in the north polar region, in the form of many lakes and seas discovered by *Cassini*.
#### *Huygens* landing
*Huygens* *in situ* image from Titan's surface—the only image from the surface of a body permanently farther away than MarsSame image with contrast enhanced
*Huygens* was an atmospheric probe that touched down on Titan on January 14, 2005, discovering that many of its surface features seem to have been formed by fluids at some point in the past. Titan is the most distant body from Earth to have a space probe land on its surface.
The *Huygens* probe landed just off the easternmost tip of a bright region now called Adiri. The probe photographed pale hills with dark "rivers" running down to a dark plain. Current understanding is that the hills (also referred to as highlands) are composed mainly of water ice. Dark organic compounds, created in the upper atmosphere by the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, may rain from Titan's atmosphere. They are washed down the hills with the methane rain and are deposited on the plains over geological time scales.
After landing, *Huygens* photographed a dark plain covered in small rocks and pebbles, which are composed of water ice. The two rocks just below the middle of the image on the right are smaller than they may appear: the left-hand one is 15 centimeters across, and the one in the center is 4 centimeters across, at a distance of about 85 centimeters from *Huygens*. There is evidence of erosion at the base of the rocks, indicating possible fluvial activity. The ground surface is darker than originally expected, consisting of a mixture of water and hydrocarbon ice.
In March 2007, NASA, ESA, and COSPAR decided to name the *Huygens* landing site the *Hubert Curien Memorial Station* in memory of the former president of the ESA.
### *Dragonfly*
The *Dragonfly* mission, developed and operated by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, will launch in June 2027. It consists of a large drone powered by an RTG to fly in the atmosphere of Titan as New Frontiers 4. Its instruments will study how far prebiotic chemistry may have progressed. The mission is planned to arrive at Titan in 2034.
### Proposed or conceptual missions
There have been several conceptual missions proposed in recent years for returning a robotic space probe to Titan. Initial conceptual work has been completed for such missions by NASA (and JPL), and ESA. At present, none of these proposals have become funded missions.
The Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM) was a joint NASA/ESA proposal for exploration of Saturn's moons. It envisions a hot-air balloon floating in Titan's atmosphere for six months. It was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) proposal for funding. In February 2009 it was announced that ESA/NASA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of the TSSM.
The proposed Titan Mare Explorer (TiME) was a low-cost lander that would splash down in a lake in Titan's northern hemisphere and float on the surface of the lake for three to six months. It was selected for a Phase-A design study in 2011 as a candidate mission for the 12th NASA Discovery Program opportunity, but was not selected for flight.
Another mission to Titan proposed in early 2012 by Jason Barnes, a scientist at the University of Idaho, is the Aerial Vehicle for In-situ and Airborne Titan Reconnaissance (AVIATR): an uncrewed plane (or drone) that would fly through Titan's atmosphere and take high-definition images of the surface of Titan. NASA did not approve the requested $715 million, and the future of the project is uncertain.
A conceptual design for another lake lander was proposed in late 2012 by the Spanish-based private engineering firm SENER and the Centro de Astrobiología in Madrid. The concept probe is called Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer (TALISE). The major difference compared to the TiME probe would be that TALISE is envisioned with its own propulsion system and would therefore not be limited to simply drifting on the lake when it splashes down.
A Discovery Program contestant for its mission #13 is Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET), an astrobiology Saturn orbiter that would assess the habitability potential of Enceladus and Titan.
In 2015, the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts program (NIAC) awarded a Phase II grant to a design study of a Titan Submarine to explore the seas of Titan.
Prebiotic conditions and life
-----------------------------
Titan is thought to be a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic compounds, but its surface is in a deep freeze at −179 °C (−290.2 °F; 94.1 K) so life as we know it cannot exist on the moon's frigid surface. However, Titan seems to contain a global ocean beneath its ice shell, and within this ocean, conditions are potentially suitable for microbial life.
The *Cassini–Huygens* mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organic compounds; it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones hypothesized for the primordial Earth. Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan.
### Formation of complex molecules
The Miller–Urey experiment and several following experiments have shown that with an atmosphere similar to that of Titan and the addition of UV radiation, complex molecules and polymer substances like tholins can be generated. The reaction starts with dissociation of nitrogen and methane, forming hydrogen cyanide and acetylene. Further reactions have been studied extensively.
It has been reported that when energy was applied to a combination of gases like those in Titan's atmosphere, five nucleotide bases, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, were among the many compounds produced. In addition, amino acids, the building blocks of protein were found. It was the first time nucleotide bases and amino acids had been found in such an experiment without liquid water being present.
On April 3, 2013, NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan.
On June 6, 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the upper atmosphere of Titan.
On July 26, 2017, Cassini scientists positively identified the presence of carbon chain anions in Titan's upper atmosphere which appeared to be involved in the production of large complex organics.
These highly reactive molecules were previously known to contribute to building complex organics in the Interstellar Medium, therefore highlighting a possibly universal stepping stone to producing complex organic material.
On July 28, 2017, scientists reported that acrylonitrile, or vinyl cyanide, (C2H3CN), possibly essential for life by being related to cell membrane and vesicle structure formation, had been found on Titan.
In October 2018, researchers reported low-temperature chemical pathways from simple organic compounds to complex polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) chemicals. Such chemical pathways may help explain the presence of PAHs in the low-temperature atmosphere of Titan, and may be significant pathways, in terms of the PAH world hypothesis, in producing precursors to biochemicals related to life as we know it.
### Possible subsurface habitats
Laboratory simulations have led to the suggestion that enough organic material exists on Titan to start a chemical evolution analogous to what is thought to have started life on Earth. The analogy assumes the presence of liquid water for longer periods than is currently observable; several hypotheses postulate that liquid water from an impact could be preserved under a frozen isolation layer. It has also been hypothesized that liquid-ammonia oceans could exist deep below the surface. Another model suggests an ammonia–water solution as much as 200 kilometers (120 mi) deep beneath a water-ice crust with conditions that, although extreme by terrestrial standards, are such that life could survive. Heat transfer between the interior and upper layers would be critical in sustaining any subsurface oceanic life. Detection of microbial life on Titan would depend on its biogenic effects, with the atmospheric methane and nitrogen examined.
### Methane and life at the surface
It has been speculated that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan, just as organisms on Earth live in water. Such organisms would inhale H2 in place of O2, metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose, and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide. However, such hypothetical organisms would be required to metabolize at a deep freeze temperature of −179.2 °C (−290.6 °F; 94.0 K).
All life forms on Earth (including methanogens) use liquid water as a solvent; it is speculated that life on Titan might instead use a liquid hydrocarbon, such as methane or ethane, although water is a stronger solvent than methane. Water is also more chemically reactive, and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life form whose solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the risk of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way.
In 2005, astrobiologist Chris McKay argued that if methanogenic life did exist on the surface of Titan, it would likely have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the Titan troposphere: levels of hydrogen and acetylene would be measurably lower than otherwise expected. Assuming metabolic rates similar to those of methanogenic organisms on Earth, the concentration of molecular hydrogen would drop by a factor of 1000 on the Titanian surface solely due to a hypothetical biological sink. McKay noted that, if life is indeed present, the low temperatures on Titan would result in very slow metabolic processes, which could conceivably be hastened by the use of catalysts similar to enzymes. He also noted that the low solubility of organic compounds in methane presents a more significant challenge to any possible form of life. Forms of active transport, and organisms with large surface-to-volume ratios could theoretically lessen the disadvantages posed by this fact.
In 2010, Darrell Strobel, from Johns Hopkins University, identified a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward flow at a rate of roughly 1028 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan's surface; as Strobel noted, his findings were in line with the effects McKay had predicted if methanogenic life-forms were present. The same year, another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan's surface, which were interpreted by McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms consuming hydrocarbons. Although restating the biological hypothesis, he cautioned that other explanations for the hydrogen and acetylene findings are more likely: the possibilities of yet unidentified physical or chemical processes (e.g. a surface catalyst accepting hydrocarbons or hydrogen), or flaws in the current models of material flow. Composition data and transport models need to be substantiated, etc. Even so, despite saying that a non-biological catalytic explanation would be less startling than a biological one, McKay noted that the discovery of a catalyst effective at 95 K (−180 °C) would still be significant. With regards to the acetylene findings, Mark Allen, the principal investigator with the NASA Astrobiology Institute Titan team, provided a speculative, non-biological explanation: sunlight or cosmic rays could transform the acetylene in icy aerosols in the atmosphere into more complex molecules that would fall to the ground with no acetylene signature.
As NASA notes in its news article on the June 2010 findings: "To date, methane-based life forms are only hypothetical. Scientists have not yet detected this form of life anywhere." As the NASA statement also says: "some scientists believe these chemical signatures bolster the argument for a primitive, exotic form of life or precursor to life on Titan's surface."
In February 2015, a hypothetical cell membrane capable of functioning in liquid methane at cryogenic temperatures (deep freeze) conditions was modeled. Composed of small molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, it would have the same stability and flexibility as cell membranes on Earth, which are composed of phospholipids, compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus. This hypothetical cell membrane was termed an "azotosome", a combination of "azote", French for nitrogen, and "liposome".
### Obstacles
Despite these biological possibilities, there are formidable obstacles to life on Titan, and any analogy to Earth is inexact. At a vast distance from the Sun, Titan is frigid, and its atmosphere lacks CO2. At Titan's surface, water exists only in solid form. Because of these difficulties, scientists such as Jonathan Lunine have viewed Titan less as a likely habitat for life than as an experiment for examining hypotheses on the conditions that prevailed prior to the appearance of life on Earth. Although life itself may not exist, the prebiotic conditions on Titan and the associated organic chemistry remain of great interest in understanding the early history of the terrestrial biosphere. Using Titan as a prebiotic experiment involves not only observation through spacecraft, but laboratory experiments, and chemical and photochemical modeling on Earth.
### Panspermia hypothesis
It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth's surface may have caused fragments of microbe-laden rock to escape Earth's gravity, suggesting the possibility of panspermia. Calculations indicate that these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System, including Titan. On the other hand, Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other.
### Future conditions
Conditions on Titan could become far more habitable in the far future. Five billion years from now, as the Sun becomes a red giant, its surface temperature could rise enough for Titan to support liquid water on its surface, making it habitable. As the Sun's ultraviolet output decreases, the haze in Titan's upper atmosphere will be depleted, lessening the anti-greenhouse effect on the surface and enabling the greenhouse created by atmospheric methane to play a far greater role. These conditions together could create a habitable environment, and could persist for several hundred million years. This is proposed to have been sufficient time for simple life to spawn on Earth, though the higher viscosity of ammonia-water solutions coupled with low temperatures would cause chemical reactions to proceed more slowly on Titan.
See also
--------
* Colonization of Titan
* Lakes of Titan
* Atmosphere of Titan
* Life on Titan
* List of natural satellites
* Saturn's moons in fiction
* The sky of Titan
* Titan in fiction
* Titan Winged Aerobot
* Vid Flumina a river of methane and ethane on Titan
Further reading
---------------
* Lorenz, Ralph; Mitton, Jacqueline (2002). *Lifting Titan's Veil: Exploring the Giant Moon of Saturn*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79348-3.
* Lorenz, Ralph; Mitton, Jacqueline (2008). *Titan Unveiled*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14633-1.
* Lorenz, Ralph (2017). *NASA/ESA/ASI Cassini-Huygens: 1997 onwards (Cassini orbiter, Huygens probe and future exploration concepts) (Owners' Workshop Manual)*. Haynes Manuals, UK. ISBN 978-1-78521-111-9.
* O'Callaghan, Jonathan (November 21, 2019). "A Map of Saturn's Largest Moon" (PDF). *Nature*. **575** (7783): 426–427. Bibcode:2019Natur.575..426O. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-03539-8. PMID 31745360. S2CID 208171884.
Listen to this article (56 minutes)
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"<table about=\"#mwt27\" class=\"infobox\" id=\"mwDg\"><caption class=\"infobox-title fn org\">Titan</caption><tbody><tr><td class=\"infobox-image\" colspan=\"2\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File/Frameless\"><a class=\"mw-file-description\" href=\"./File:Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg\"><img class=\"mw-file-element\" data-file-height=\"750\" data-file-type=\"bitmap\" data-file-width=\"750\" decoding=\"async\" height=\"220\" resource=\"./File:Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg\" src=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg/220px-Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg\" srcset=\"//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg/330px-Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg/440px-Titan_in_true_color_by_Kevin_M._Gill.jpg 2x\" width=\"220\"/></a></span><div class=\"infobox-caption\">Titan pictured in 2011 in natural color. The thick atmosphere is orange due to a dense <a href=\"./Category:Organonitrogen_compounds\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Category:Organonitrogen compounds\">organonitrogen</a> haze.</div></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E0CCFF\">Discovery</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./List_of_minor_planet_discoverers\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of minor planet discoverers\">Discovered<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>by</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Christiaan_Huygens\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Christiaan Huygens\">Christiaan Huygens</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\">Discovery<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>date</th><td class=\"infobox-data\">March 25, 1655</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E0CCFF\">Designations</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Designation</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Saturn VI</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\">Pronunciation</th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"./Help:IPA/English\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"/ˈ/: primary stress follows\">ˈ</span><span title=\"'t' in 'tie'\">t</span><span title=\"/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'\">aɪ</span><span title=\"'t' in 'tie'\">t</span><span title=\"/ən/: 'on' in 'button'\">ən</span></span>/</a></span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><span class=\"nowrap\" style=\"font-size:85%\">()</span></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Named after</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Titan_(mythology)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Titan (mythology)\">Τῑτάν</a> <i>Tītan</i></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./List_of_adjectivals_and_demonyms_of_astronomical_bodies\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies\">Adjectives</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Titanian or Titanean (both <span class=\"rt-commentedText nowrap\"><span class=\"IPA nopopups noexcerpt\" lang=\"en-fonipa\"><a href=\"./Help:IPA/English\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Help:IPA/English\">/<span style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted\"><span title=\"'t' in 'tie'\">t</span><span title=\"/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'\">aɪ</span><span title=\"/ˈ/: primary stress follows\">ˈ</span><span title=\"'t' in 'tie'\">t</span><span title=\"/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'\">eɪ</span><span title=\"'n' in 'nigh'\">n</span><span title=\"/i/: 'y' in 'happy'\">i</span><span title=\"/ə/: 'a' in 'about'\">ə</span><span title=\"'n' in 'nigh'\">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E0CCFF\"><a href=\"./Osculating_orbit\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Osculating orbit\">Orbital characteristics</a></th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Apsis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Apsis\">Periapsis</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7009118668000000000♠\"></span>1<span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">186</span><span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">680</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Apsis\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Apsis\">Apoapsis</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7009125706000000000♠\"></span>1<span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">257</span><span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">060</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Semi-major and semi-minor axes\">Semi-major axis</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7009122187000000000♠\"></span>1<span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">221</span><span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">870</span><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Orbital_eccentricity\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Orbital eccentricity\">Eccentricity</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"6998288000000000000♠\"></span>0.0288</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Orbital_period\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Orbital period\">Orbital period (sidereal)</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7006137764800000000♠\"></span>15.945<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>d</span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Average <a href=\"./Orbital_speed\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Orbital speed\">orbital speed</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">5.57 km/s (calculated)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Orbital_inclination\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Orbital inclination\">Inclination</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"6997608317057490105♠\"></span>0.348<span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">54</span>°</span> (to Saturn's equator)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Natural_satellite\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Natural satellite\">Satellite<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>of</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a href=\"./Saturn\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Saturn\">Saturn</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E0CCFF\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Infobox_Physical_characteristics\"></span>Physical characteristics</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Mean radius</div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7006257473000000000♠\"></span>2<span style=\"margin-left:.25em;\">574</span>.73<span style=\"margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;\">±</span>0.09<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km</span> (0.404 <a href=\"./Earth\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Earth\">Earth</a>'s) (1.480 <a href=\"./Moon\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Moon\">Moon</a>'s)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Spheroid#Surface_area\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Spheroid\">Surface area</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7013830000000000000♠\"></span>8.3<span style=\"margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;\">×</span>10<sup>7</sup><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>2</sup></span> (0.163 Earth's) (2.188 Moon's)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Volume\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Volume\">Volume</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7019716000000000000♠\"></span>7.16<span style=\"margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;\">×</span>10<sup>10</sup><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km<sup>3</sup></span> (0.066 Earth's) (3.3 Moon's)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Mass\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Mass\">Mass</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7023134520000000000♠\"></span>(1.3452<span style=\"margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;\">±</span>0.0002)<span style=\"margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;\">×</span>10<sup>23</sup><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>kg</span> <br/>(0.0225 Earth's) (1.829 Moon's) (0.21 Mars')</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Mean <a href=\"./Density\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Density\">density</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7003187980000000000♠\"></span>1.8798<span style=\"margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;\">±</span>0.0044<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>g/cm<sup>3</sup></span></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Surface_gravity\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Surface gravity\">Surface gravity</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7000135200000000000♠\"></span>1.352<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>m/s<sup>2</sup></span> (<span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"6999138000000000000♠\"></span>0.138<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./G-force\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"G-force\"><i>g</i></a></span>) (0.835 Moon's)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Moment_of_inertia_factor\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Moment of inertia factor\">Moment of inertia factor</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"6999341400000000000♠\"></span>0.3414<span style=\"margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;\">±</span>0.0005</span> (estimate)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Escape_velocity\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Escape velocity\">Escape velocity</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7003264100000000000♠\"></span>2.641<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>km/s</span> (0.236 Earth's) (1.11 Moon's)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Synodic_rotation_period\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Synodic rotation period\">Synodic rotation period</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Synchronous_rotation\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Synchronous rotation\">Synchronous</a></td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Axial_tilt\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Axial tilt\">Axial tilt</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Zero (to the orbital plane);<br/><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"6999471238898038470♠\"></span>27°</span> (to the sun)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Albedo\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Albedo\">Albedo</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">0.22</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Temperature\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Temperature\">Temperature</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">93.7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>K (−179.5<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span>°C)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \"><a href=\"./Apparent_magnitude\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Apparent magnitude\">Apparent magnitude</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">8.2 to 9.0</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-header\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:#E0CCFF\">Atmosphere</th></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; \">Surface <a href=\"./Atmospheric_pressure\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Atmospheric pressure\">pressure</a></div></th><td class=\"infobox-data\"><span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7005146700000000000♠\"></span>146.7<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a href=\"./Pascal_(unit)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Pascal (unit)\">kPa</a></span> (<span class=\"nowrap\"><span data-sort-value=\"7005146921250000000♠\"></span>1.45<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" href=\"./Atmosphere_(unit)\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Atmosphere (unit)\">atm</a></span>)</td></tr><tr><th class=\"infobox-label\" scope=\"row\" style=\"max-width:11em;\"><a href=\"./Atmospheric_chemistry#Atmospheric_composition\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Atmospheric chemistry\">Composition by volume</a></th><td class=\"infobox-data\">Variable\n\n<p><a href=\"./Stratosphere\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Stratosphere\">Stratosphere</a>:<br/>98.4% <a href=\"./Nitrogen\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Nitrogen\">nitrogen</a> (<span class=\"chemf nowrap\">N<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">2</sub></span></span>),<br/>1.4% <a href=\"./Methane\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Methane\">methane</a> (<span class=\"chemf nowrap\">CH<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">4</sub></span></span>),<br/>0.2% <a href=\"./Hydrogen\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Hydrogen\">hydrogen</a> (<span class=\"chemf nowrap\">H<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">2</sub></span></span>);</p>\n\nLower <a href=\"./Troposphere\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Troposphere\">troposphere</a>:<br/>95.0% <span class=\"chemf nowrap\">N<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">2</sub></span></span>, 4.9% <span class=\"chemf nowrap\">CH<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">4</sub></span></span>;<br/><span class=\"nowrap\">97% <span class=\"chemf nowrap\">N<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">2</sub></span></span>,</span> <span class=\"nowrap\">2.7±0.1% <span class=\"chemf nowrap\">CH<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">4</sub></span></span>,</span> <span class=\"nowrap\">0.1–0.2% <span class=\"chemf nowrap\">H<span style=\"display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left\"><sup style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\"></sup><br/><sub style=\"font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline\">2</sub></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class=\"infobox-below\" colspan=\"2\"><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div about=\"#mwt92\" class=\"mw-references-wrap\" data-mw=\"\" id=\"mwLQ\" typeof=\"mw:Extension/references\"><ol class=\"mw-references references\" data-mw-group=\"note\" id=\"mwLg\"></ol></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>"
] | [
{
"file_url": "./File:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg",
"caption": "Christiaan Huygens discovered Titan in 1655."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan's_orbit.svg",
"caption": "Titan's orbit (highlighted in red) among the other large inner moons of Saturn. The moons outside its orbit are (from the outside to the inside) Iapetus and Hyperion; those inside are Rhea, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, and Mimas."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan_-_June_18_2014.png",
"caption": "True-color image of layers of haze in Titan's atmosphere"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan-SaturnMoon-Maps-TraceGases-20141022.jpg",
"caption": "Trace organic gases in Titan's atmosphere—HNC (left) and HC3N (right)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Vortex_on_saturn's_moon_titan.png",
"caption": "Atmospheric polar vortex over Titan's south pole"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA18420-Titan-MethaneClouds-20140722.gif",
"caption": "Methane clouds (animated; July 2014)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:First_global_geologic_map_of_Titan_(PIA23174).jpg",
"caption": "Global geologic map\n of Titan (2019)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan2005.jpg",
"caption": "Titan mosaic from a Cassini flyby. The large dark region is Shangri-La."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan_multi_spectral_overlay.jpg",
"caption": "Titan in false color showing surface details and atmosphere. Xanadu is the bright region at the bottom-center."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA20016-SaturnMoon-Titan-20151113.jpg",
"caption": "Titan composite image in infrared. It features the dark, dune-filled regions Fensal (north) and Aztlan (south)."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA22481-SaturnMoon-Titan-Lakes-20170911.jpg",
"caption": "Titan lakes (September 11, 2017)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA10008_Seas_and_Lakes_on_Titan.jpg",
"caption": "False-color Cassini radar mosaic of Titan's north polar region. Blue coloring indicates low radar reflectivity, caused by hydrocarbon seas, lakes and tributary networks filled with liquid ethane, methane and dissolved N2. About half of the large body at lower left, Kraken Mare, is shown. Ligeia Mare is at lower right."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:HRICoastLineMoasic_H.jpg",
"caption": "Mosaic of three Huygens images of channel system on Titan"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA23172-SaturnMoon-Titan-RimmedLakes-ArtistConcept-20190906.jpg",
"caption": "Rimmed lakes of Titan(artist concept)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Specular_Spectacular_(PIA18432).jpg",
"caption": "Near-infrared radiation from the Sun reflecting off Titan's hydrocarbon seas"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titancrater.jpg",
"caption": "Radar image of a 139 km-diameter impact crater on Titan's surface, showing a smooth floor, rugged rim, and possibly a central peak."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA19052-SaturnMoon-Titan-LigeiaMare-SAR&DespeckledViews-20150212.jpg",
"caption": "Ligeia Mare – SAR and clearer despeckled views."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Tortola_Facula_in_infrared.jpg",
"caption": "Near-infrared image of Tortola Facula, thought to be a possible cryovolcano"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Sotra_Facula.jpg",
"caption": "False-color VIMS image of the possible cryovolcano Sotra Patera, combined with a 3D map based on radar data, showing 1000-meter-high peaks and a 1500-meter-deep crater."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan_dunes_crop.png",
"caption": "Sand dunes in the Namib Desert on Earth (top), compared with dunes in Belet on Titan"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:PIA22484-SaturnMoon-Titan-3DustStorms-20180924.jpg",
"caption": "Titan – three dust storms detected in 2009–2010."
},
{
"file_url": "./File:Titan's_thick_haze_layer-picture_from_voyager1.jpg",
"caption": "Voyager 1 view of haze on Titan's limb (1980)"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:NASA-Cassini-Saturn-TitanFlybyTests-20140617.jpg",
"caption": "Cassini's Titan flyby radio signal studies (artist's concept)"
},
{
"file_url": "./Huygens_(spacecraft)",
"caption": "The Huygens probe descends by parachute and lands on Titan on January 14, 2005"
},
{
"file_url": "./File:TSSM-TandEM-Montgolfiere.jpg",
"caption": "The balloon proposed for the Titan Saturn System Mission (artistic rendition)"
}
] |
94,535 | A **generation** refers to all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–30 years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children." In kinship terminology, it is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. It is known as biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in the biological sciences.
*Generation* is also often used synonymously with *birth/age cohort* in demographics, marketing, and social science; under this formulation it means "people within a delineated population who experience the same significant events within a given period of time." Generations in this sense of birth cohort, also known as "social generations", are widely used in popular culture, and have been the basis for sociological analysis. Serious analysis of generations began in the nineteenth century, emerging from an increasing awareness of the possibility of permanent social change and the idea of youthful rebellion against the established social order. Some analysts believe that a generation is one of the fundamental social categories in a society, while others view its importance as being overshadowed by other factors including class, gender, race, and education.
Etymology
---------
The word *generate* comes from the Latin *generāre*, meaning "to beget". The word *generation* as a *group or cohort* in social science signifies the entire body of individuals born and living at about the same time, most of whom are approximately the same age and have similar ideas, problems, and attitudes (e.g., Beat Generation and Lost Generation).
Familial generation
-------------------
A familial generation is a group of living beings constituting a single step in the line of descent from an ancestor. In developed nations the average familial generation length is in the high 20s and has even reached 30 years in some nations. Factors such as greater industrialisation and demand for cheap labour, urbanisation, delayed first pregnancy and a greater uncertainty in both employment income and relationship stability have all contributed to the increase of the generation length from the late 18th century to the present. These changes can be attributed to social factors, such as GDP and state policy, globalization, automation, and related individual-level variables, particularly a woman's educational attainment. Conversely, in less-developed nations, generation length has changed little and remains in the low 20s.
An intergenerational rift in the nuclear family, between the parents and two or more of their children, is one of several possible dynamics of a dysfunctional family. Coalitions in families are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction.
Social generation
-----------------
Social generations are cohorts of people born in the same date range and who share similar cultural experiences.
The idea of a social generation has a long history and can be found in ancient literature, but did not gain currency in the sense that it is used today until the 19th century. Prior to that the concept "generation" had generally referred to family relationships and not broader social groupings. In 1863, French lexicographer Emile Littré had defined a generation as "all people coexisting in society at any given time."
Several trends promoted a new idea of generations, as the 19th century wore on, of a society divided into different categories of people based on age. These trends were all related to the processes of modernisation, industrialisation, or westernisation, which had been changing the face of Europe since the mid-18th century. One was a change in mentality about time and social change. The increasing prevalence of enlightenment ideas encouraged the idea that society and life were changeable, and that civilization could progress. This encouraged the equation of youth with social renewal and change. Political rhetoric in the 19th century often focused on the renewing power of youth influenced by movements such as Young Italy, Young Germany, Sturm und Drang, the German Youth Movement, and other romantic movements. By the end of the 19th century, European intellectuals were disposed toward thinking of the world in generational terms—in terms of youth rebellion and emancipation.
Two important contributing factors to the change in mentality were the change in the economic structure of society. Because of the rapid social and economic change, young men particularly were less beholden to their fathers and family authority than they had been. Greater social and economic mobility allowed them to flout their authority to a much greater extent than had traditionally been possible. Additionally, the skills and wisdom of fathers were often less valuable than they had been due to technological and social change. During this time, the period between childhood and adulthood, usually spent at university or in military service, was also increased for many people entering white-collar jobs. This category of people was very influential in spreading the ideas of youthful renewal.
Another important factor was the breakdown of traditional social and regional identifications. The spread of nationalism and many of the factors that created it (a national press, linguistic homogenisation, public education, suppression of local particularities) encouraged a broader sense of belonging beyond local affiliations. People thought of themselves increasingly as part of a society, and this encouraged identification with groups beyond the local. Auguste Comte was the first philosopher to make a serious attempt to systematically study generations. In *Cours de philosophie positive*, Comte suggested that social change is determined by generational change and in particular conflict between successive generations. As the members of a given generation age, their "instinct of social conservation" becomes stronger, which inevitably and necessarily brings them into conflict with the "normal attribute of youth"—innovation. Other important theorists of the 19th century were John Stuart Mill and Wilhelm Dilthey.
### Generational theory
Sociologist Karl Mannheim was a seminal figure in the study of generations. He elaborated a theory of generations in his 1923 essay *The Problem of Generations*. He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time. Firstly, positivists such as Comte measured social change in designated life spans. Mannheim argued that this reduced history to "a chronological table". The other school, the "romantic-historical" was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger. This school focused on the individual qualitative experience at the expense of social context. Mannheim emphasised that the rapidity of social change in youth was crucial to the formation of generations, and that not every generation would come to see itself as distinct. In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. He also believed that a number of distinct sub-generations could exist. According to Gilleard and Higgs, Mannheim identified three commonalities that a generation shares:
* Shared temporal location: generational site or birth cohort
* Shared historical location: generation as actuality or exposure to a common era
* Shared sociocultural location: generational consciousness or "entelechy"
Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe developed the Strauss–Howe generational theory outlining what they saw as a pattern of generations repeating throughout American history. This theory became quite influential with the public and reignited an interest in the sociology of generations. This led to the creation of an industry of consulting, publishing, and marketing in the field (corporations spent approximately 70 million dollars on generational consulting in the U.S. in 2015). The theory has alternatively been criticized by social scientists and journalists who argue it is non-falsifiable, deterministic, and unsupported by rigorous evidence.
There are psychological and sociological dimensions in the sense of belonging and identity which may define a generation. The concept of a generation can be used to locate particular birth cohorts in specific historical and cultural circumstances, such as the "Baby boomers". Historian Hans Jaeger shows that, during the concept's long history, two schools of thought coalesced regarding how generations form: the "pulse-rate hypothesis" and the "imprint hypothesis." According to the pulse-rate hypothesis, a society's entire population can be divided into a series of non-overlapping cohorts, each of which develops a unique "peer personality" because of the time period in which each cohort came of age. The movement of these cohorts from one life-stage to the next creates a repeating cycle that shapes the history of that society. A prominent example of pulse-rate generational theory is Strauss and Howe's theory. Social scientists tend to reject the pulse-rate hypothesis because, as Jaeger explains, "the concrete results of the theory of the universal pulse rate of history are, of course, very modest. With a few exceptions, the same goes for the partial pulse-rate theories. Since they generally gather data without any knowledge of statistical principles, the authors are often least likely to notice to what extent the jungle of names and numbers which they present lacks any convincing organization according to generations."
Social scientists follow the "imprint hypothesis" of generations (i.e., that major historical events—such as the Vietnam War, the September 11 attacks, the COVID-19 pandemic, etc.—leave an "imprint" on the generation experiencing them at a young age), which can be traced to Karl Mannheim's theory. According to the imprint hypothesis, generations are only produced by specific historical events that cause young people to perceive the world differently than their elders. Thus, not everyone may be part of a generation; only those who share a unique social and biographical experience of an important historical moment will become part of a "generation as an actuality." When following the imprint hypothesis, social scientists face a number of challenges. They cannot accept the labels and chronological boundaries of generations that come from the pulse-rate hypothesis (like Generation X or Millennial); instead, the chronological boundaries of generations must be determined inductively and who is part of the generation must be determined through historical, quantitative, and qualitative analysis.
While all generations have similarities, there are differences among them as well. A 2007 Pew Research Center report called "Millennials: Confident. Connected. Open to Change" noted the challenge of studying generations:
> Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an exact science. We are mindful that there are as many differences in attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles within a generation as there are between generations. But we believe this reality does not diminish the value of generational analysis; it merely adds to its richness and complexity.
>
>
Another element of generational theory is recognizing how youth experience their generation, and how that changes based on where they reside in the world. "Analyzing young people's experiences in place contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes of individualization, inequality, and of generation." Being able to take a closer looks at youth cultures and subcultures in different times and places adds an extra element to understanding the everyday lives of youth. This allows a better understanding of youth and the way generation and place play in their development. It is not where the birth cohort boundaries are drawn that is important, but how individuals and societies interpret the boundaries and how divisions may shape processes and outcomes. However, the practice of categorizing age cohorts is useful to researchers for the purpose of constructing boundaries in their work.
### Generational tension
Norman Ryder, writing in *American Sociological Review* in 1965, shed light on the sociology of the discord between generations by suggesting that society "persists despite the mortality of its individual members, through processes of demographic metabolism and particularly the annual infusion of birth cohorts". He argued that generations may sometimes be a "threat to stability" but at the same time they represent "the opportunity for social transformation". Ryder attempted to understand the dynamics at play between generations.
Amanda Grenier, in a 2007 essay published in *Journal of Social Issues*, offered another source of explanation for why generational tensions exist. Grenier asserted that generations develop their own linguistic models that contribute to misunderstanding between age cohorts, "Different ways of speaking exercised by older and younger people exist, and may be partially explained by social historical reference points, culturally determined experiences, and individual interpretations".
Karl Mannheim, in his 1952 book *Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge* asserted the belief that people are shaped through lived experiences as a result of social change. Howe and Strauss also have written on the similarities of people within a generation being attributed to social change. Based on the way these lived experiences shape a generation in regard to values, the result is that the new generation will challenge the older generation's values, resulting in tension. This challenge between generations and the tension that arises is a defining point for understanding generations and what separates them.
### Criticism
Philip N. Cohen, a sociology professor at the University of Maryland, criticized the use of "generation labels", stating that the labels are "imposed by survey researchers, journalists or marketing firms" and "drive people toward stereotyping and rash character judgment." Cohen's open letter to the Pew Research Center, which outlines his criticism of generational labels, received at least 150 signatures from other demographers and social scientists.
Louis Menand, writer at *The New Yorker*, stated that "there is no empirical basis" for the contention "that differences within a generation are smaller than differences between generations." He argued that generational theories "seem to require" that people born at the tail end of one generation and people born at the beginning of another (e.g. a person born in 1965, the first year of Generation X, and a person born in 1964, the last of the Boomer era) "must have different values, tastes, and life experiences" or that people born in the first and last birth years of a generation (e.g. a person born in 1980, the last year of Generation X, and a person born in 1965, the first year of Generation X) "have more in common" than with people born a couple years before or after them.
In 2023, after a review of their research and methods, and consulting with external experts, the Pew Research Center announced a change in their use of generation labels, to "avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences" and said that, going forward, "our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens."
List of social generations
--------------------------
### Western world
Timeline of generations in the Western world – retirement age and life expectancy are approximate
The Western world includes Western Europe, the Americas, and Australasia. Many variations may exist within these regions, both geographically and culturally, which means that the list is broadly indicative, but very general. The contemporary characterization of these cohorts used in media and advertising borrows, in part, from the Strauss–Howe generational theory and generally follows the logic of the pulse-rate hypothesis.
* The **Lost Generation**, also known as the "Generation of 1914" in Europe, is a term originating from Gertrude Stein to describe those who fought in World War I. The Lost Generation is defined as the cohort born from 1883 to 1900 who came of age during World War I and the Roaring Twenties.
* The **Greatest Generation**, also known in American usage as the "G.I. Generation", includes the veterans who fought in World War II. They were born from 1901 to 1927; older G.I.s (or the Interbellum Generation) came of age during the Roaring Twenties, while younger G.I.s came of age during the Great Depression and World War II. Journalist Tom Brokaw wrote about American members of this cohort in his book *The Greatest Generation*, which popularized the term.
* The **Silent Generation**, also known as the "Lucky Few", is the cohort who came of age in the post–World War II era. They were born from 1928 to 1945. In the U.S., this group includes most of those who may have fought the Korean War and many of those who may have fought during the Vietnam War.
* **Baby boomers** (sometimes shortened to Boomers), are the people born following World War II from 1946 to 1964. Increased birth rates were observed during the post–World War II baby boom, making them a relatively large demographic cohort. In the U.S., many older boomers may have fought in the Vietnam War or participated in the counterculture of the 1960s, while younger boomers (or Generation Jones) came of age in the "malaise" years of the 1970s.
* **Generation X** (or Gen X for short) is the cohort following the baby boomers. The generation is generally defined as people born between 1965 and 1980. The term has also been used in different times and places for a number of different subcultures or countercultures since the 1950s. In the U.S., some called Xers the "baby bust" generation because of a drop in birth rates following the baby boom.
* **Millennials**, also known as Generation Y (or Gen Y for short), are the generation following Generation X who grew up around the turn of the 3rd millennium. This generation is typically defined as those born from 1981 to 1996. The Pew Research Center reported that Millennials surpassed the Baby Boomers in U.S. numbers in 2019, with an estimated 71.6 million Boomers and 72.1 million Millennials.
* **Generation Z** (or Gen Z for short and colloquially as "Zoomers"), are the people succeeding the Millennials. Pew Research Center describes Generation Z as spanning from 1997 to 2012. Both the United States Library of Congress and Statistics Canada have cited Pew's definition of 1997–2012 for Generation Z. In a 2022 report, the U.S. Census designates Generation Z as those born 1997 to 2013. The Australian Bureau of Statistics uses 1996 to 2010 to define Generation Z in a 2022 publication.
* **Generation Alpha** (or Gen Alpha for short) are the generation succeeding Generation Z. Researchers and popular media typically use the early 2010s as starting birth years and the mid-2020s as ending birth years. Generation Alpha is the first to be born entirely in the 21st century. As of 2015, there were some two-and-a-half million people born every week around the globe, and Gen Alpha is expected to reach two billion in size by 2025.
### Other areas
* In Armenia, people born after the country's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 are known as the "Independence generation".
* In Bulgaria, people born in the final years of communism and early years of democracy (mid-1980s to mid-1990s) are known as "the children of the transition". They are believed to have had a difficult time adapting, due to many changes in the country occurring along the same time period as them growing up into adulthood. Regime and economic changes, shifts from eastern to western cultural values and influences, among other factors, were things their parents from previous generations, could not prepare them for.
* In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the generation of people born in Czechoslovakia during the baby boom which started in the early 1970s, during the period of "normalization" are called "Husák's children". The generation was named after the President and long-term Communist leader of Czechoslovakia, Gustáv Husák. This was due to his political program to boost the growth of population.
* In the People's Republic of China, the "Post-80s" (Chinese: 八零后世代 or 八零后) (born-after-1980 generation) are those who were born in the 1980s in urban areas of Mainland China. Growing up in modern China, the Post-80s has been characterised by its optimism for the future, newfound excitement for consumerism and entrepreneurship and acceptance of its historic role in transforming modern China into an economic power. There is also the similarly named "Post-90s" (Chinese: 九零后), those born in the post-Tiananmen era of the 1990s. A broader generational classification would be the "one-child generation" born between the introduction of the one-child policy in 1980 and its softening into a "two-child policy" in 2013. The lack of siblings has had profound psychological effects on this generation, such as egoism due to always being at the centre of parents' attention as well as the stress of having to be the sole provider once the parents retire.
* People born post-1980s in Hong Kong are for the most part different from the same generation in mainland China. The term "Post-80s" (zh: 八十後) came into use in Hong Kong between 2009 and 2010, particularly during the opposition to the Guangzhou-Hong Kong Express Rail Link, during which a group of young activists came to the forefront of Hong Kong's political scene. They are said to be "post-materialist" in outlook, and they are particularly vocal in issues such as urban development, culture and heritage, and political reform. Their campaigns include the fight for the preservation of Lee Tung Street, the Star Ferry Pier and the Queen's Pier, Choi Yuen Tsuen Village, real political reform (on 23 June), and a citizen-oriented Kowloon West Art district. Their discourse mainly develops around themes such as anti-colonialism, sustainable development, and democracy.
* In Israel, where most Ashkenazi Jews born before the end of World War II were Holocaust survivors, children of survivors and people who survived as babies are sometimes referred to as the "second generation (of Holocaust survivors)" (Hebrew: דור שני לניצולי שואה, *dor sheni lenitsolei shoah*; or more often just דור שני לשואה, *dor sheni lashoah*, literally "second generation to the Holocaust"). This term is particularly common in the context of psychological, social, and political implications of the individual and national transgenerational trauma caused by the Holocaust. Some researchers have also found signs of trauma in third-generation Holocaust survivors.
* In Norway, the term "the dessert generation" has been applied to the baby boomers and every generation afterwards.
* In Singapore, people born before 1949 are referred to as the "Pioneer Generation" for their contributions to Singapore during the nation's earliest years. Likewise, those born between 1950 and 1959 are referred to as the "Merdeka Generation" as their formative years were during the political turbulence of the 1950s to 1960s in Singapore.
* In South Africa, people born after the 1994 general election, the first after apartheid was ended, are often referred to in media as the "born-free generation". People born after the year 2000 are often referred to as "Ama2000", a term popularized by music and a Coca-Cola advert.
* In South Korea, generational cohorts are often defined around the democratization of the country, with various schemes suggested including names such as the "democratization generation", 386 generation (named after Intel 386 computer in the 1990s to describe people in their late 30s and early 40s who were born in the 1960s, and attended university/college in the 1980s, also called the "June 3, 1987 generation"), that witnessed the June uprising, the "April 19 generation" (that struggled against the Syngman Rhee regime in 1960), the "June 3 generation" (that struggled against the normalization treaty with Japan in 1964), the "1969 generation" (that struggled against the constitutional revision allowing three presidential terms), and the *shin-se-dae* ("new") generation. The term *Shin-se-dae generation* refers to the generation following Millennials in the Korean language. The *Shin-se-dae generation* are mostly free from ideological or political bias.
* In India, generations tend to follow a pattern similar to the broad Western model, although there are still major differences, especially in the older generations. One interpretation sees India's independence in 1947 as India's major generational shift. People born in the 1930s and 1940s tended to be loyal to the new state and tended to adhere to "traditional" divisions of society. Indian "boomers", those born after independence and into the early 1960s, witnessed events like the Indian Emergency between 1975 and 1977 which made a number of them somewhat skeptical of the government.
* In the Philippines people born before or during the Second World War (as well as those living as adults in that period) constituting an unofficial generation. "Martial Law Babies" are generally defined as people born in the time period between the imposition of Martial Law by President Ferdinand Marcos on 21 September 1972 and its formal lifting in January 1981. The term is sometimes extended to anyone born within Marcos' entire 21-year rule, while those born after the 1986 People Power Revolution that toppled the regime are sometimes termed "EDSA Babies".
* In Russia, characteristics of Russian generations are determined by fateful historical events that significantly change either the foundations of the life of the country as a whole or the rules of life in a certain period of time. Names and given descriptions of Russian generations: the Generation of Winners, the generation of the Cold War, the generation of Perestroika, the first non-Soviet generation (the children of Perestroika, the Witnesses of Perestroika), the digital generation.
* In Sweden, it is common to talk about people based on the decades of their births: "40-talist" (a person that was born in the 1940s), "50-talist" (a person that was born in the 1950s), etc.
* In Taiwan, the term Strawberry generation refers to Taiwanese people born after 1981 who "bruise easily" like strawberries—meaning they can not withstand social pressure or work hard like their parents' generation; the term refers to people who are insubordinate, spoiled, selfish, arrogant, and sluggish in work.
### Other terminology
The term generation is sometimes applied to a cultural movement, or more narrowly defined group than an entire demographic. Some examples include:
* The Stolen Generations, refers to children of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander descent, who were forcibly removed from their families by Australian federal and state government agencies and church missions, under Acts of their respective parliaments between approximately 1869 and 1969.
* The Beat Generation, refers to a popular American cultural movement widely cited by social scholars as having laid the foundation of the pro-active American counterculture of the 1960s. It consisted of Americans born between the two world wars who came of age in the rise of the automobile era, and the surrounding accessibility they brought to the culturally diverse, yet geographically broad and separated nation.
* Generation Jones is a term coined by Jonathan Pontell to describe the cohort of people born between 1954 and 1965. The term is used primarily in English-speaking countries. Pontell defined Generation Jones as referring to the second half of the post–World War II baby boom. The term also includes first-wave Generation X.
* MTV Generation, a term referring to the adolescents and young adults of the 1980s and early-mid 1990s who were heavily influenced by the MTV television channel. It is often used synonymously with Generation X.
* In Europe, a variety of terms have emerged in different countries particularly hard hit following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 to designate young people with limited employment and career prospects.
+ *The Generation of 500* is a term popularized by the Greek mass media and refers to educated Greek twixters of urban centers who generally fail to establish a career. Young adults are usually forced into underemployment in temporary and occasional jobs, unrelated to their educational background, and receive the minimum allowable base salary of €500. This generation evolved in circumstances leading to the Greek debt crisis and participated in the 2010–2011 Greek protests.
+ In Spain, they are referred to as the *mileuristas* (for €1,000, "the thousand-euro-ists").
+ In Portugal, they are called the *Geração à Rasca* (the "Scraping-By Generation"); a twist on the older term *Geração Rasca* ("the Lousy Generation") used by detractors to refer to student demonstrations in the 1990s against Education Ministers António Couto dos Santos and later Manuela Ferreira Leite.
+ In France, *Génération précaire* ("The Precarious Generation").
+ In Italy also the generation of 1,000 euros.
* Xennials, Oregon Trail Generation, and Generation Catalano are terms used to describe individuals born during Generation X/Millennial cusp years. *Xennials* is a portmanteau blending the words Generation X and Millennials to describe a microgeneration of people born from the late 1970s to early 1980s.
* Zillennials, Zennials, Snapchat Generation, and MinionZ are terms used to describe individuals born during the Millennial/Generation Z cusp years. *Zillennials* is a portmanteau blending the words Millennials and Generation Z to describe a microgeneration of people born from the early 1990s to the early 2000s.
See also
--------
* Age set
* Cusper
* Generational accounting
* Generationism
* Intergenerational equity
* Intergenerationality
* Transgenerational design
Further reading
---------------
* Fry, Richard (16 January 2015). "This Year, Millennials Will Overtake Baby Boomers". Pew Center.
* Ialenti, Vincent (6 April 2016). "Generation". Society for Cultural Anthropology.
* Ulrike Jureit: "Generation, Generationality, Generational Research", version: 2, in: *Docupedia Zeitgeschichte*, 09. August 2017 | Generation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation | {
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9,763 | An **exoplanet** or **extrasolar planet** is a planet outside the Solar System. The first possible evidence of an exoplanet was noted in 1917 but was not recognized as such. The first confirmation of detection occurred in 1992. A different planet, initially detected in 1988, was confirmed in 2003. As of 1 June 2023, there are 5,388 confirmed exoplanets in 3,979 planetary systems, with 859 systems having more than one planet. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is expected to discover more exoplanets, and also much more about exoplanets, including composition, environmental conditions and potential for life.
There are many methods of detecting exoplanets. Transit photometry and Doppler spectroscopy have found the most, but these methods suffer from a clear observational bias favoring the detection of planets near the star; thus, 85% of the exoplanets detected are inside the tidal locking zone. In several cases, multiple planets have been observed around a star. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an "Earth-sized" planet in the habitable zone. Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, it can be hypothesized that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included.
The least massive exoplanet known is Draugr (also known as PSR B1257+12 A or PSR B1257+12 b), which is about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive exoplanet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is HR 2562 b, about 30 times the mass of Jupiter. However, according to some definitions of a planet (based on the nuclear fusion of deuterium), it is too massive to be a planet and might be a brown dwarf instead. Known orbital times for exoplanets vary from less than an hour (for those closest to their star) to thousands of years. Some exoplanets are so far away from the star that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to it.
Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way. However, there is evidence that extragalactic planets, exoplanets farther away in galaxies beyond the local Milky Way galaxy, may exist. The nearest exoplanets are located 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth and orbit Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun.
The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life. There is special interest in planets that orbit in a star's habitable zone (or sometimes called "goldilocks zone"), where it is possible for liquid water, a prerequisite for life as we know it, to exist on the surface. However, the study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.
Rogue planets are those that do not orbit any star. Such objects are considered a separate category of planets, especially if they are gas giants, often counted as sub-brown dwarfs. The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions or more.
Definition
----------
### IAU
The official definition of the term *planet* used by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) only covers the Solar System and thus does not apply to exoplanets. The IAU Working Group on Extrasolar Planets issued a position statement containing a working definition of "planet" in 2001 and which was modified in 2003. An *exoplanet* was defined by the following criteria:
>
> * Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 Jupiter masses for objects of solar metallicity) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). The minimum mass/size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System.
> * Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are "brown dwarfs", no matter how they formed or where they are located.
> * Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not "planets", but are "sub-brown dwarfs" (or whatever name is most appropriate).
>
>
>
This working definition was amended by the IAU's Commission F2: Exoplanets and the Solar System in August 2018. The official working definition of an *exoplanet* is now as follows:
>
> * Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 Jupiter masses for objects of solar metallicity) that orbit stars, brown dwarfs or stellar remnants and that have a mass ratio with the central object below the L4/L5 instability (M/Mcentral < 2/(25+√621)) are "planets" (no matter how they formed).
> * The minimum mass/size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in our Solar System.
>
>
>
The IAU noted that this definition could be expected to evolve as knowledge improves.
### Alternatives
The IAU's working definition is not always used. One alternate suggestion is that planets should be distinguished from brown dwarfs on the basis of formation. It is widely thought that giant planets form through core accretion, which may sometimes produce planets with masses above the deuterium fusion threshold; massive planets of that sort may have already been observed. Brown dwarfs form like stars from the direct gravitational collapse of clouds of gas and this formation mechanism also produces objects that are below the 13 MJup limit and can be as low as 1 MJup. Objects in this mass range that orbit their stars with wide separations of hundreds or thousands of AU and have large star/object mass ratios likely formed as brown dwarfs; their atmospheres would likely have a composition more similar to their host star than accretion-formed planets which would contain increased abundances of heavier elements. Most directly imaged planets as of April 2014 are massive and have wide orbits so probably represent the low-mass end of brown dwarf formation.
One study suggests that objects above 10 MJup formed through gravitational instability and should not be thought of as planets.
Also, the 13-Jupiter-mass cutoff does not have precise physical significance. Deuterium fusion can occur in some objects with a mass below that cutoff. The amount of deuterium fused depends to some extent on the composition of the object. As of 2011 the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia included objects up to 25 Jupiter masses, saying, "The fact that there is no special feature around 13 MJup in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit".
As of 2016 this limit was increased to 60 Jupiter masses based on a study of mass–density relationships.
The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory: "The 13 Jupiter-mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores, and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity."
The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass (or minimum mass) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses.
Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium fusion, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by Coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses.
Nomenclature
------------
The convention for designating exoplanets is an extension of the system used for designating multiple-star systems as adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). For exoplanets orbiting a single star, the IAU designation is formed by taking the designated or proper name of its parent star, and adding a lower case letter. Letters are given in order of each planet's discovery around the parent star, so that the first planet discovered in a system is designated "b" (the parent star is considered to be "a") and later planets are given subsequent letters. If several planets in the same system are discovered at the same time, the closest one to the star gets the next letter, followed by the other planets in order of orbital size. A provisional IAU-sanctioned standard exists to accommodate the designation of circumbinary planets. A limited number of exoplanets have IAU-sanctioned proper names. Other naming systems exist.
History of detection
--------------------
For centuries scientists, philosophers, and science fiction writers suspected that extrasolar planets existed, but there was no way of knowing whether they were real in fact, how common they were, or how similar they might be to the planets of the Solar System. Various detection claims made in the nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers.
The first evidence of a possible exoplanet, orbiting Van Maanen 2, was noted in 1917, but was not recognized as such. The astronomer Walter Sydney Adams, who later became director of the Mount Wilson Observatory, produced a spectrum of the star using Mount Wilson's 60-inch telescope. He interpreted the spectrum to be of an F-type main-sequence star, but it is now thought that such a spectrum could be caused by the residue of a nearby exoplanet that had been pulverized into dust by the gravity of the star, the resulting dust then falling onto the star.
The first suspected scientific detection of an exoplanet occurred in 1988. Shortly afterwards, the first confirmation of detection came in 1992 from the Arecibo Observatory, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi. Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method and the radial-velocity method. In February 2018, researchers using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, combined with a planet detection technique called microlensing, found evidence of planets in a distant galaxy, stating, "Some of these exoplanets are as (relatively) small as the moon, while others are as massive as Jupiter. Unlike Earth, most of the exoplanets are not tightly bound to stars, so they're actually wandering through space or loosely orbiting between stars. We can estimate that the number of planets in this [faraway] galaxy is more than a trillion."
On 21st March 2022, the 5000th exoplanet beyond the Solar System was confirmed.
On 11 January 2023, NASA scientists reported the detection of LHS 475 b, an Earth-like exoplanet - and the first exoplanet discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope.
### Early speculations
> This space we declare to be infinite... In it are an infinity of worlds of the same kind as our own.
>
> — Giordano Bruno (1584)
In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun (heliocentrism), put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets.
In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the "General Scholium" that concludes his *Principia*. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of *One*."
In 1952, more than 40 years before the first hot Jupiter was discovered, Otto Struve wrote that there is no compelling reason why planets could not be much closer to their parent star than is the case in the Solar System, and proposed that Doppler spectroscopy and the transit method could detect super-Jupiters in short orbits.
### Discredited claims
Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since the nineteenth century. Some of the earliest involve the binary star 70 Ophiuchi. In 1855 William Stephen Jacob at the East India Company's Madras Observatory reported that orbital anomalies made it "highly probable" that there was a "planetary body" in this system. In the 1890s, Thomas J. J. See of the University of Chicago and the United States Naval Observatory stated that the orbital anomalies proved the existence of a dark body in the 70 Ophiuchi system with a 36-year period around one of the stars. However, Forest Ray Moulton published a paper proving that a three-body system with those orbital parameters would be highly unstable. During the 1950s and 1960s, Peter van de Kamp of Swarthmore College made another prominent series of detection claims, this time for planets orbiting Barnard's Star. Astronomers now generally regard all the early reports of detection as erroneous.
In 1991 Andrew Lyne, M. Bailes and S. L. Shemar claimed to have discovered a pulsar planet in orbit around PSR 1829-10, using pulsar timing variations. The claim briefly received intense attention, but Lyne and his team soon retracted it.
### Confirmed discoveries
False-color, star-subtracted, direct image using a vortex coronagraph of 3 exoplanets around star HR8799The three known planets of the star HR8799, as imaged by the Hale Telescope. The light from the central star was blanked out by a vector vortex coronagraph.Hubble image of brown dwarf 2MASS J044144 and its 5–10 Jupiter-mass companion, before and after star-subtraction2MASS J044144 is a brown dwarf with a companion about 5–10 times the mass of Jupiter. It is not clear whether this companion object is a sub-brown dwarf or a planet.
As of 1 June 2023, a total of 5,388 confirmed exoplanets are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, including a few that were confirmations of controversial claims from the late 1980s. The first published discovery to receive subsequent confirmation was made in 1988 by the Canadian astronomers Bruce Campbell, G. A. H. Walker, and Stephenson Yang of the University of Victoria and the University of British Columbia. Although they were cautious about claiming a planetary detection, their radial-velocity observations suggested that a planet orbits the star Gamma Cephei. Partly because the observations were at the very limits of instrumental capabilities at the time, astronomers remained skeptical for several years about this and other similar observations. It was thought some of the apparent planets might instead have been brown dwarfs, objects intermediate in mass between planets and stars. In 1990, additional observations were published that supported the existence of the planet orbiting Gamma Cephei, but subsequent work in 1992 again raised serious doubts. Finally, in 2003, improved techniques allowed the planet's existence to be confirmed.
On 9 January 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12. This discovery was confirmed, and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets. Follow-up observations solidified these results, and confirmation of a third planet in 1994 revived the topic in the popular press. These pulsar planets are thought to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that somehow survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits. As pulsars are aggressive stars, it was considered unlikely at the time that a planet may be able to be formed in their orbit.
In the early 1990s, a group of astronomers led by Donald Backer, who were studying what they thought was a binary pulsar (PSR B1620−26 b), determined that a third object was needed to explain the observed Doppler shifts. Within a few years, the gravitational effects of the planet on the orbit of the pulsar and white dwarf had been measured, giving an estimate of the mass of the third object that was too small for it to be a star. The conclusion that the third object was a planet was announced by Stephen Thorsett and his collaborators in 1993.
On 6 October 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star, nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi. This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, ushered in the modern era of exoplanetary discovery, and was recognized by a share of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the rapid detection of many new exoplanets: astronomers could detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their host stars. More extrasolar planets were later detected by observing the variation in a star's apparent luminosity as an orbiting planet transited in front of it.
Initially, most known exoplanets were massive planets that orbited very close to their parent stars. Astronomers were surprised by these "hot Jupiters", because theories of planetary formation had indicated that giant planets should only form at large distances from stars. But eventually more planets of other sorts were found, and it is now clear that hot Jupiters make up the minority of exoplanets. In 1999, Upsilon Andromedae became the first main-sequence star known to have multiple planets. Kepler-16 contains the first discovered planet that orbits around a binary main-sequence star system.
On 26 February 2014, NASA announced the discovery of 715 newly verified exoplanets around 305 stars by the *Kepler* Space Telescope. These exoplanets were checked using a statistical technique called "verification by multiplicity". Before these results, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are more easily detected, but the *Kepler* planets are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.
On 23 July 2015, NASA announced Kepler-452b, a near-Earth-size planet orbiting the habitable zone of a G2-type star.
On 6 September 2018, NASA discovered an exoplanet about 145 light years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo. This exoplanet, Wolf 503b, is twice the size of Earth and was discovered orbiting a type of star known as an "Orange Dwarf". Wolf 503b completes one orbit in as few as six days because it is very close to the star. Wolf 503b is the only exoplanet that large that can be found near the so-called Fulton gap. The Fulton gap, first noticed in 2017, is the observation that it is unusual to find planets within a certain mass range. Under the Fulton gap studies, this opens up a new field for astronomers, who are still studying whether planets found in the Fulton gap are gaseous or rocky.
In January 2020, scientists announced the discovery of TOI 700 d, the first Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone detected by TESS.
### Candidate discoveries
As of January 2020, NASA's *Kepler* and TESS missions had identified 4374 planetary candidates yet to be confirmed, several of them being nearly Earth-sized and located in the habitable zone, some around Sun-like stars.
Exoplanet populations – June 2017Exoplanet populationsSmall planets come in two sizesKepler habitable zone planets
In September 2020, astronomers reported evidence, for the first time, of an extragalactic planet, M51-ULS-1b, detected by eclipsing a bright X-ray source (XRS), in the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51a).
Also in September 2020, astronomers using microlensing techniques reported the detection, for the first time, of an Earth-mass rogue planet unbounded by any star, and free floating in the Milky Way galaxy.
Detection methods
-----------------
### Direct imaging
Planets are extremely faint compared with their parent stars. For example, a Sun-like star is about a billion times brighter than the reflected light from any exoplanet orbiting it. It is difficult to detect such a faint light source, and furthermore the parent star causes a glare that tends to wash it out. It is necessary to block the light from the parent star in order to reduce the glare while leaving the light from the planet detectable; doing so is a major technical challenge which requires extreme optothermal stability. All exoplanets that have been directly imaged are both large (more massive than Jupiter) and widely separated from their parent star.
Specially designed direct-imaging instruments such as Gemini Planet Imager, VLT-SPHERE, and SCExAO will image dozens of gas giants, but the vast majority of known extrasolar planets have only been detected through indirect methods.
### Indirect methods
* Transit method
If a planet crosses (or transits) in front of its parent star's disk, then the observed brightness of the star drops by a small amount. The amount by which the star dims depends on its size and on the size of the planet, among other factors. Because the transit method requires that the planet's orbit intersect a line-of-sight between the host star and Earth, the probability that an exoplanet in a randomly oriented orbit will be observed to transit the star is somewhat small. The Kepler telescope used this method.
* Radial velocity or Doppler method
As a planet orbits a star, the star also moves in its own small orbit around the system's center of mass. Variations in the star's radial velocity—that is, the speed with which it moves towards or away from Earth—can be detected from displacements in the star's spectral lines due to the Doppler effect. Extremely small radial-velocity variations can be observed, of 1 m/s or even somewhat less.
* Transit timing variation (TTV)
When multiple planets are present, each one slightly perturbs the others' orbits. Small variations in the times of transit for one planet can thus indicate the presence of another planet, which itself may or may not transit. For example, variations in the transits of the planet Kepler-19b suggest the existence of a second planet in the system, the non-transiting Kepler-19c.
* Transit duration variation (TDV)
When a planet orbits multiple stars or if the planet has moons, its transit time can significantly vary per transit. Although no new planets or moons have been discovered with this method, it is used to successfully confirm many transiting circumbinary planets.
* Gravitational microlensing
Microlensing occurs when the gravitational field of a star acts like a lens, magnifying the light of a distant background star. Planets orbiting the lensing star can cause detectable anomalies in the magnification as it varies over time. Unlike most other methods which have detection bias towards planets with small (or for resolved imaging, large) orbits, microlensing method is most sensitive to detecting planets around 1–10 AU away from Sun-like stars.
* Astrometry
Astrometry consists of precisely measuring a star's position in the sky and observing the changes in that position over time. The motion of a star due to the gravitational influence of a planet may be observable. Because the motion is so small, however, this method has not yet been very productive. It has produced only a few disputed detections, though it has been successfully used to investigate the properties of planets found in other ways.
* Pulsar timing
A pulsar (the small, ultradense remnant of a star that has exploded as a supernova) emits radio waves extremely regularly as it rotates. If planets orbit the pulsar, they will cause slight anomalies in the timing of its observed radio pulses. The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet was made using this method. But as of 2011, it has not been very productive; five planets have been detected in this way, around three different pulsars.
* Variable star timing (pulsation frequency)
Like pulsars, there are some other types of stars which exhibit periodic activity. Deviations from the periodicity can sometimes be caused by a planet orbiting it. As of 2013, a few planets have been discovered with this method.
* Reflection/emission modulations
When a planet orbits very close to the star, it catches a considerable amount of starlight. As the planet orbits around the star, the amount of light changes due to planets having phases from Earth's viewpoint or planet glowing more from one side than the other due to temperature differences.
* Relativistic beaming
Relativistic beaming measures the observed flux from the star due to its motion. The brightness of the star changes as the planet moves closer or further away from its host star.
* Ellipsoidal variations
Massive planets close to their host stars can slightly deform the shape of the star. This causes the brightness of the star to slightly deviate depending how it is rotated relative to Earth.
* Polarimetry
With polarimetry method, a polarized light reflected off the planet is separated from unpolarized light emitted from the star. No new planets have been discovered with this method although a few already discovered planets have been detected with this method.
* Circumstellar disks
Disks of space dust surround many stars, thought to originate from collisions among asteroids and comets. The dust can be detected because it absorbs starlight and re-emits it as infrared radiation. Features in the disks may suggest the presence of planets, though this is not considered a definitive detection method.
Formation and evolution
-----------------------
Planets may form within a few to tens (or more) of millions of years of their star forming.
The planets of the Solar System can only be observed in their current state, but observations of different planetary systems of varying ages allows us to observe planets at different stages of evolution. Available observations range from young proto-planetary disks where planets are still forming to planetary systems of over 10 Gyr old. When planets form in a gaseous protoplanetary disk, they accrete hydrogen/helium envelopes. These envelopes cool and contract over time and, depending on the mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen/helium is eventually lost to space. This means that even terrestrial planets may start off with large radii if they form early enough. An example is Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times the mass of Earth. Kepler-51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old.
Planet-hosting stars
--------------------
There is at least one planet on average per star.
About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an "Earth-sized" planet in the habitable zone.
Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the Sun, i.e. main-sequence stars of spectral categories F, G, or K. Lower-mass stars (red dwarfs, of spectral category M) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be detected by the radial-velocity method. Despite this, several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been discovered by the Kepler telescope, which uses the transit method to detect smaller planets.
Using data from Kepler, a correlation has been found between the metallicity of a star and the probability that the star hosts a giant planet, similar to the size of Jupiter. Stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets, especially giant planets, than stars with lower metallicity.
Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system, and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star. A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64.
Orbital and physical parameters
-------------------------------
General features
----------------
### Color and brightness
In 2013 the color of an exoplanet was determined for the first time. The best-fit albedo measurements of HD 189733b suggest that it is deep dark blue. Later that same year, the colors of several other exoplanets were determined, including GJ 504 b which visually has a magenta color, and Kappa Andromedae b, which if seen up close would appear reddish in color. Helium planets are expected to be white or grey in appearance.
The apparent brightness (apparent magnitude) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is, how reflective the planet is (albedo), and how much light the planet receives from its star, which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is. So, a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from the star.
The darkest known planet in terms of geometric albedo is TrES-2b, a hot Jupiter that reflects less than 1% of the light from its star, making it less reflective than coal or black acrylic paint. Hot Jupiters are expected to be quite dark due to sodium and potassium in their atmospheres but it is not known why TrES-2b is so dark—it could be due to an unknown chemical compound.
For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect. Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.
There is more thermal emission than reflection at some near-infrared wavelengths for massive and/or young gas giants. So, although optical brightness is fully phase-dependent, this is not always the case in the near infrared.
Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with distance from their star. Lowering the temperature increases optical albedo even without clouds. At a sufficiently low temperature, water clouds form, which further increase optical albedo. At even lower temperatures ammonia clouds form, resulting in the highest albedos at most optical and near-infrared wavelengths.
### Magnetic field
In 2014, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet. It is the first (indirect) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet. The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter's.
The magnetic fields of exoplanets may be detectable by their auroral radio emissions with sensitive enough radio telescopes such as LOFAR. The radio emissions could enable determination of the rotation rate of the interior of an exoplanet, and may yield a more accurate way to measure exoplanet rotation than by examining the motion of clouds.
Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but in massive super-Earths with high pressure, different compounds may form which do not match those created under terrestrial conditions. Compounds may form with greater viscosities and high melting temperatures which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles. Forms of magnesium oxide such as MgSi3O12 could be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths.
Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up (Joule heating) causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.
In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic hydrogen form. This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.
Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system. The failure to detect "star-planet interactions" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.
In 2019, the strength of the surface magnetic fields of 4 hot Jupiters were estimated and ranged between 20 and 120 gauss compared to Jupiter's surface magnetic field of 4.3 gauss.
### Plate tectonics
In 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.
If super-Earths have more than 80 times as much water as Earth then they become ocean planets with all land completely submerged. However, if there is less water than this limit, then the deep water cycle will move enough water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents to exist.
### Volcanism
Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions.
### Rings
The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6 is orbited by an object that is circled by a ring system much larger than Saturn's rings. However, the mass of the object is not known; it could be a brown dwarf or low-mass star instead of a planet.
The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could be due to starlight reflecting off a circumplanetary ring system with a radius between 20 and 40 times that of Jupiter's radius, about the size of the orbits of the Galilean moons.
The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.
### Moons
In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet was announced. On 3 October 2018, evidence suggesting a large exomoon orbiting Kepler-1625b was reported.
### Atmospheres
Atmospheres have been detected around several exoplanets. The first to be observed was HD 209458 b in 2001.
As of February 2014, more than fifty transiting and five directly imaged exoplanet atmospheres have been observed, resulting in detection of molecular spectral features; observation of day–night temperature gradients; and constraints on vertical atmospheric structure. Also, an atmosphere has been detected on the non-transiting hot Jupiter Tau Boötis b.
In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.
#### Comet-like tails
KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet, very close to its star, that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud and dust like a comet. The dust could be ash erupting from volcanos and escaping due to the small planet's low surface-gravity, or it could be from metals that are vaporized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star with the metal vapor then condensing into dust.
In June 2015, scientists reported that the atmosphere of GJ 436 b was evaporating, resulting in a giant cloud around the planet and, due to radiation from the host star, a long trailing tail 14 million km (9 million mi) long.
### Insolation pattern
Tidally locked planets in a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance would have their star always shining directly overhead on one spot which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere receiving no light and being freezing cold. Such a planet could resemble an eyeball with the hotspot being the pupil. Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked in other resonances. 3:2 and 5:2 resonances would result in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres. Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns.
Surface
-------
### Surface composition
Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy. Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.
### Surface temperature
The temperature of an exoplanet can be estimated by measuring the intensity of the light it receives from its parent star. For example, the planet OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb is estimated to have a surface temperature of roughly −220 °C (50 K). However, such estimates may be substantially in error because they depend on the planet's usually unknown albedo, and because factors such as the greenhouse effect may introduce unknown complications. A few planets have had their temperature measured by observing the variation in infrared radiation as the planet moves around in its orbit and is eclipsed by its parent star. For example, the planet HD 189733b has been estimated to have an average temperature of 1,205 K (932 °C) on its dayside and 973 K (700 °C) on its nightside.
Habitability
------------
As more planets are discovered, the field of exoplanetology continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on planets beyond the Solar System. At cosmic distances, life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary scale and strongly modified the planetary environment, in such a way that the modifications cannot be explained by classical physico-chemical processes (out of equilibrium processes). For example, molecular oxygen (O
2) in the atmosphere of Earth is a result of photosynthesis by living plants and many kinds of microorganisms, so it can be used as an indication of life on exoplanets, although small amounts of oxygen could also be produced by non-biological means. Furthermore, a potentially habitable planet must orbit a stable star at a distance within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their surfaces.
### Habitable zone
The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on the surface of planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.
Planetary rotation rate is one of the major factors determining the circulation of the atmosphere and hence the pattern of clouds: slowly rotating planets create thick clouds that reflect more and so can be habitable much closer to their star. Earth with its current atmosphere would be habitable in Venus's orbit, if it had Venus's slow rotation. If Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect, it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past. Alternatively, Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history.
Tidally locked planets (a.k.a. "eyeball" planets) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds: at high stellar flux, strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary albedo and reduce surface temperatures.
Planets in the habitable zones of stars with low metallicity are more habitable for complex life on land than high metallicity stars because the stellar spectrum of high metallicity stars is less likely to cause the formation of ozone thus enabling more ultraviolet rays to reach the planet's surface.
Habitable zones have usually been defined in terms of surface temperature, however over half of Earth's biomass is from subsurface microbes, and the temperature increases with depth, so the subsurface can be conducive for microbial life when the surface is frozen and if this is considered, the habitable zone extends much further from the star, even rogue planets could have liquid water at sufficient depths underground. In an earlier era of the universe the temperature of the cosmic microwave background would have allowed any rocky planets that existed to have liquid water on their surface regardless of their distance from a star. Jupiter-like planets might not be habitable, but they could have habitable moons.
### Ice ages and snowball states
The outer edge of the habitable zone is where planets are completely frozen, but planets well inside the habitable zone can periodically become frozen. If orbital fluctuations or other causes produce cooling then this creates more ice, but ice reflects sunlight causing even more cooling, creating a feedback loop until the planet is completely or nearly completely frozen. When the surface is frozen, this stops carbon dioxide weathering, resulting in a build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from volcanic emissions. This creates a greenhouse effect which thaws the planet again. Planets with a large axial tilt are less likely to enter snowball states and can retain liquid water further from their star. Large fluctuations of axial tilt can have even more of a warming effect than a fixed large tilt. Paradoxically, planets orbiting cooler stars, such as red dwarfs, are less likely to enter snowball states because the infrared radiation emitted by cooler stars is mostly at wavelengths that are absorbed by ice which heats it up.
### Tidal heating
If a planet has an eccentric orbit, then tidal heating can provide another source of energy besides stellar radiation. This means that eccentric planets in the radiative habitable zone can be too hot for liquid water. Tides also circularize orbits over time so there could be planets in the habitable zone with circular orbits that have no water because they used to have eccentric orbits. Eccentric planets further out than the habitable zone would still have frozen surfaces but the tidal heating could create a subsurface ocean similar to Europa's. In some planetary systems, such as in the Upsilon Andromedae system, the eccentricity of orbits is maintained or even periodically varied by perturbations from other planets in the system. Tidal heating can cause outgassing from the mantle, contributing to the formation and replenishment of an atmosphere.
### Potentially habitable planets
A review in 2015 identified exoplanets Kepler-62f, Kepler-186f and Kepler-442b as the best candidates for being potentially habitable. These are at a distance of 1200, 490 and 1,120 light-years away, respectively. Of these, Kepler-186f is in similar size to Earth with its 1.2-Earth-radius measure, and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf star.
When looking at the nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates, Proxima Centauri b is about 4.2 light-years away. Its equilibrium temperature is estimated to be −39 °C (234 K).
#### Earth-size planets
* In November 2013 it was estimated that 22±8% of Sun-like stars in the Milky Way galaxy may have an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone. Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earths, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included.
* Kepler-186f, a 1.2-Earth-radius planet in the habitable zone of a red dwarf, reported in April 2014.
* Proxima Centauri b, a planet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, the nearest known star to the solar system with an estimated minimum mass of 1.27 times the mass of the Earth.
* In February 2013, researchers speculated that up to 6% of small red dwarfs may have Earth-size planets. This suggests that the closest one to the Solar System could be 13 light-years away. The estimated distance increases to 21 light-years when a 95% confidence interval is used. In March 2013 a revised estimate gave an occurrence rate of 50% for Earth-size planets in the habitable zone of red dwarfs.
* At 1.63 times Earth's radius Kepler-452b is the first discovered near-Earth-size planet in the "habitable zone" around a G2-type Sun-like star (July 2015).
Planetary system
----------------
Exoplanets are often members of planetary systems of multiple planets around a star. The planets interact with each other gravitationally and sometimes form resonant systems where the orbital periods of the planets are in integer ratios. The Kepler-223 system contains four planets in an 8:6:4:3 orbital resonance.
Some hot Jupiters orbit their stars in the opposite direction to their stars' rotation. One proposed explanation is that hot Jupiters tend to form in dense clusters, where perturbations are more common and gravitational capture of planets by neighboring stars is possible.
Search projects
---------------
* CoRoT - Mission to look for exoplanets using the transit method.
* Kepler - Mission to look for large numbers of exoplanets using the transit method.
* TESS - To search for new exoplanets; rotating so by the end of its two-year mission it will have observed stars from all over the sky. It is expected to find at least 3,000 new exoplanets.
* HARPS - High-precision echelle planet-finding spectrograph installed on the ESO's 3.6m telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile.
* ESPRESSO - A rocky planet-finding, and stable spectroscopic observing, spectrograph mounted on ESO's 4 by 8.2m VLT telescope, sited on the levelled summit of Cerro Paranal in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile.
* ANDES - The ArmazoNes high Dispersion Echelle Spectrograph, a planet finding and planet characterisation spectrograph, is expected to be fitted onto ESO's ELT 39.3m telescope. ANDES was formally known as HIRES, which itself was created after a merger of the consortia behind the earlier CODEX (optical high-resolution) and SIMPLE (near-infrared high-resolution) spectrograph concepts.
See also
--------
* Lists of exoplanets
* Planets in science fiction (about fictional planets)
* Planetary capture
Further reading
---------------
* Boss, Alan (2009). *The Crowded Universe: The Search for Living Planets*. Basic Books. Bibcode:2009cusl.book.....B. ISBN 978-0-465-00936-7 (Hardback); ISBN 978-0-465-02039-3 (Paperback).
* Dorminey, Bruce (2001). *Distant Wanderers*. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-95074-7 (Hardback); ISBN 978-1-4419-2872-6 (Paperback).
* Jayawardhana, Ray (2011). *Strange New Worlds: The Search for Alien Planets and Life beyond Our Solar System*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14254-8 (Hardcover).
* Perryman, Michael (2011). *The Exoplanet Handbook*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76559-6.
* Seager, Sara, ed. (2011). *Exoplanets*. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2945-2.
* Villard, Ray; Cook, Lynette R. (2005). *Infinite Worlds: An Illustrated Voyage to Planets Beyond Our Sun*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23710-0.
* Yaqoob, Tahir (2011). *Exoplanets and Alien Solar Systems*. New Earth Labs (Education and Outreach). ISBN 978-0-9741689-2-0 (Paperback).
* van Dishoeck, Ewine F.; Bergin, Edwin A.; Lis, Dariusz C.; Lunine, Jonathan I. (2014). "Water: From Clouds to Planets". *Protostars and Planets VI*. *Protostars and Planets Vi*. p. 835. arXiv:1401.8103. Bibcode:2014prpl.conf..835V. doi:10.2458/azu\_uapress\_9780816531240-ch036. ISBN 978-0-8165-3124-0. S2CID 55875067.
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