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Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology is the sacred spirituality represented in the stories performed by Aboriginal Australians within each of the language groups across Australia in their ceremonies. Aboriginal spirituality includes the Dreamtime (the Dreaming), songlines, and Aboriginal oral literature.
Aboriginal spirituality often conveys descriptions of each group's local cultural landscape, adding meaning to the whole country's topography from oral history told by ancestors from some of the earliest recorded history. Most of these spiritualities belong to specific groups, but some span the whole continent in one form or another. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Antiquity
An Australian linguist, R. M. W. Dixon, recording Aboriginal myths in their original languages, encountered coincidences between some of the landscape details being told about within various myths, and scientific discoveries being made about the same landscapes. In the case of the Atherton Tableland, myths tell of the origins of Lake Eacham, Lake Barrine, and Lake Euramoo. Geological research dated the formative volcanic explosions described by Aboriginal myth tellers as having occurred more than 10,000 years ago. Pollen fossil sampling from the silt which had settled to the bottom of the craters confirmed the Aboriginal myth-tellers' story. When the craters were formed, eucalyptus forests dominated rather than the current wet tropical rainforests.
Dixon observed from the evidence available that Aboriginal myths regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago. Further investigation of the material by the Australian Heritage Commission led to the Crater Lakes myth being listed nationally on the Register of the National Estate, and included within Australia's World Heritage nomination of the wet tropical forests, as an "unparalleled human record of events dating back to the Pleistocene era."
Since then, Dixon has assembled a number of similar examples of Australian Aboriginal myths that accurately describe landscapes of an ancient past. He particularly noted the numerous myths telling of previous sea levels, including: |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | the Port Phillip myth (recorded as told to Robert Russell in 1850), describing Port Phillip Bay as once dry land, and the course of the Yarra River being once different, following what was then Carrum Carrum swamp.
the Great Barrier Reef coastline myth (told to Dixon) in Yarrabah, just south of Cairns, telling of a past coastline (since flooded) which stood at the edge of the current Great Barrier Reef, and naming places now completely submerged after the forest types and trees that once grew there.
the Lake Eyre myths (recorded by J. W. Gregory in 1906), telling of the deserts of Central Australia as once having been fertile, well-watered plains, and the deserts around present Lake Eyre having been one continuous garden. This oral story matches geologists' understanding that there was a wet phase to the early Holocene when the lake would have had permanent water.
Other volcanic eruptions in Australia may also be recorded in Aboriginal myths, including Mount Gambier in South Australia, and Kinrara in northern Queensland. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Aboriginal mythology: whole of Australia
The stories enshrined in Aboriginal mythology variously "tell significant truths within each Aboriginal group's local landscape. They effectively layer the whole of the Australian continent's topography with cultural nuance and deeper meaning, and empower selected audiences with the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of Australian Aboriginal ancestors back to time immemorial". |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | David Horton's Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia contains an article on Aboriginal mythology observing: A mythic map of Australia would show thousands of characters, varying in their importance, but all in some way connected with the land. Some emerged at their specific sites and stayed spiritually in that vicinity. Others came from somewhere else and went somewhere else.
Many were shape changing, transformed from or into human beings or natural species, or into natural features such as rocks but all left something of their spiritual essence at the places noted in their stories.
Australian Aboriginal mythologies have been characterised as "at one and the same time fragments of a catechism, a liturgical manual, a history of civilization, a geography textbook, and to a much smaller extent a manual of cosmography." |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Diversity across a continent
There are 900 distinct Aboriginal groups across Australia,
each distinguished by unique names usually identifying particular languages, dialects, or distinctive speech mannerisms. Each language was used for original myths, from which the distinctive words and names of individual myths derive.
With so many distinct Aboriginal groups, languages, beliefs and practices, scholars cannot attempt to characterise, under a single heading, the full range and diversity of all myths being variously and continuously told, developed, elaborated, performed, and experienced by group members across the entire continent. Attempts to represent the different groupings in maps have varied widely.
The Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia nevertheless observes: "One intriguing feature [of Aboriginal Australian mythology] is the mixture of diversity and similarity in myths across the entire continent." |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Public education about Aboriginal perspectives
The Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation's booklet, Understanding Country, formally seeks to introduce non-Indigenous Australians to Aboriginal perspectives on the environment. It makes the following generalisation about Aboriginal myths and mythology: ...they generally describe the journeys of ancestral beings, often giant animals or people, over what began as a featureless domain. Mountains, rivers, waterholes, animal and plant species, and other natural and cultural resources came into being as a result of events which took place during these Dreamtime journeys. Their existence in present-day landscapes is seen by many Indigenous peoples as confirmation of their creation beliefs...
The routes taken by the Creator Beings in their Dreamtime journeys across land and sea... link many sacred sites together in a web of Dreamtime tracks criss-crossing the country. Dreaming tracks can run for hundreds, even thousands of kilometres, from desert to the coast [and] may be shared by peoples in countries through which the tracks pass... |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | An anthropological generalisation
Australian anthropologists willing to generalise suggest Aboriginal myths still being performed across Australia by Aboriginal peoples serve an important social function amongst their intended audiences: justifying the received ordering of their daily lives; helping shape peoples' ideas; and assisting to influence others' behaviour. In addition, such performance often continuously incorporates and "mythologises" historical events in the service of these social purposes in an otherwise rapidly changing modern world.
It is always integral and common... that the Law (Aboriginal law) is something derived from ancestral peoples or Dreamings and is passed down the generations in a continuous line. While... entitlements of particular human beings may come and go, the underlying relationships between foundational Dreamings and certain landscapes are theoretically eternal ... the entitlements of people to places are usually regarded strongest when those people enjoy a relationship of identity with one or more Dreamings of that place. This is an identity of spirit, a consubstantiality, rather than a matter of mere belief...: the Dreaming pre-exists and persists, while its human incarnations are temporary. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | An Aboriginal generalisation
Aboriginal specialists willing to generalise believe all Aboriginal myths across Australia, in combination, represent a kind of unwritten (oral) library within which Aboriginal peoples learn about the world and perceive a peculiarly Aboriginal 'reality' dictated by concepts and values vastly different from those of western societies: |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Aboriginal people learned from their stories that a society must not be human-centred but rather land centred, otherwise they forget their source and purpose ... humans are prone to exploitative behaviour if not constantly reminded they are interconnected with the rest of creation, that they as individuals are only temporal in time, and past and future generations must be included in their perception of their purpose in life.
People come and go but the Land, and stories about the Land, stay. This is a wisdom that takes lifetimes of listening, observing and experiencing ... There is a deep understanding of human nature and the environment... sites hold 'feelings' which cannot be described in physical terms... subtle feelings that resonate through the bodies of these people... It is only when talking and being with these people that these 'feelings' can truly be appreciated. This is... the intangible reality of these people... |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Sacred sites
Aboriginal people observe some places as sacred, owing to their central place in the mythology of the local people. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Pan-Australian mythology
Rainbow Serpent
In 1926 a British anthropologist specialising in Australian Aboriginal ethnology and ethnography, Professor Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, noted many Aboriginal groups widely distributed across the Australian continent all appeared to share variations of a single (common) myth telling of an unusually powerful, often creative, often dangerous snake or serpent of sometimes enormous size closely associated with the rainbows, rain, rivers, and deep waterholes.
Radcliffe-Brown coined the term 'Rainbow Serpent' to describe what he identified to be a common, recurring myth. Working in the field in various places on the Australian continent, he noted the key character of this myth (the 'Rainbow Serpent') is variously named: Kanmare (Boulia, Queensland); Tulloun: (Mount Isa); Andrenjinyi (Pennefather River, Queensland), Takkan (Maryborough, Queensland); Targan (Brisbane, Queensland); Kurreah (Broken Hill, New South Wales);Wawi (Riverina, New South Wales), Neitee & Yeutta (Wilcannia, New South Wales), Myndie (Melbourne, Victoria); Bunyip (Western Victoria); Arkaroo (Flinders Ranges, South Australia); Wogal (Perth, Western Australia); Wanamangura (Laverton, Western Australia); Kajura (Carnarvon, Western Australia); Numereji (Kakadu, Northern Territory).
This 'Rainbow Serpent' is generally and variously identified by those who tell 'Rainbow Serpent' myths, as a snake of some enormous size often living within the deepest waterholes of many of Australia's waterways; descended from that larger being visible as a dark streak in the Milky Way, it reveals itself to people in this world as a rainbow as it moves through water and rain, shaping landscapes, naming and singing of places, swallowing and sometimes drowning people; strengthening the knowledgeable with rainmaking and healing powers; blighting others with sores, weakness, illness, and death.
Even Australia's 'Bunyip' was identified as a 'Rainbow Serpent' myth of the above kind. The term coined by Radcliffe-Brown is now commonly used and familiar to broader Australian and international audiences, as it is increasingly used by government agencies, museums, art galleries, Aboriginal organisations and the media to refer to the pan-Australian Aboriginal myth specifically, and as a shorthand allusion to Australian Aboriginal mythology generally. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Captain Cook
A number of linguists, anthropologists and others have formally documented another common Aboriginal myth occurring across Australia. Predecessors of the myth tellers encounter a mythical, exotic (most often English) character who arrives from the sea, bringing western colonialism, either offering gifts to the performer's predecessors or bringing great harm upon the performer's predecessors.
This key mythical character is most often named "Captain Cook", this being a mythical character shared with the broader Australian community, who also attribute James Cook with playing a key role in colonising Australia. The Aboriginal Captain Cook is attributed with bringing British rule to Australia, but his arrival is not celebrated. More often within the Aboriginal telling, he proves to be a villain.
The many Aboriginal versions of this Captain Cook are rarely oral recollections of encounters with the Lieutenant James Cook who first navigated and mapped Australia's east coast on HM Bark Endeavour in 1770. Guugu Yimidhirr predecessors, along the Endeavour River, did encounter James Cook during a 7-week period beached at the site of the present town of Cooktown while the Endeavour was being repaired. From this time the Guugu Yimidhirr did receive present-day names for places occurring in their local landscape; and the Guugu Yimmidhir recollect this encounter.
The pan-Australian Captain Cook myth, however, tells of a generic, largely symbolic British character who arrives from across the oceans sometime after the Aboriginal world was formed and the original social order founded. This Captain Cook is a harbinger of dramatic transformations in the social order, bringing change and a different social order, into which present-day audiences have been born. (see above regarding this social function played by Aboriginal myths)
In 1988 Australian anthropologist Kenneth Maddock assembled several versions of this Captain Cook myth as recorded from a number of Aboriginal groups around Australia. Included in his assemblage are: |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Batemans Bay, New South Wales: Percy Mumbulla told of Captain Cook's arriving on a large ship which anchored at Snapper Island, from which he disembarked to give the myth-teller's predecessors clothes (to wear) and hard biscuits (to eat). Then he returned to his ship and sailed away. Mumbulla told how his predecessors rejected Captain Cook's gifts, throwing them into the sea.
Cardwell, Queensland: Chloe Grant and Rosie Runaway told of how Captain Cook and his group seemed to stand up out of the sea with the white skin of ancestral spirits, returning to their descendants. Captain Cook arrived first offering a pipe and tobacco to smoke (which was dismissed as a 'burning thing... stuck in his mouth'), then boiling a billy of tea (which was dismissed as scalding 'dirty water'), next baking flour on the coals (which was rejected as smelling 'stale' and thrown away untasted), finally boiling beef (which smelled well, and tasted okay, once the salty skin was wiped off). Captain Cook and group then left, sailing away to the north, leaving Chloe Grant and Rosie Runaway's predecessors beating the ground with their fists, fearfully sorry to see the spirits of their ancestors depart in this way.
South-eastern side of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland: Rolly Gilbert told of how Captain Cook and others sailed the oceans in a boat, and decided to come to see Australia. There he encountered a couple of Rolly's predecessors whom he first intended to shoot, but instead tricked them into revealing the local population's main camping area, after which they:
set up the people [cattle industry] to go down the countryside and shoot people down, just like animal, they left them lying there for the hawks and crows... So a lot of old people and young people were struck by the head with the end of a gun and left there. They wanted to get the people wiped out because Europeans in Queensland had to run their stock: horses and cattle.
Victoria River: it is told in a Captain Cook saga that Captain Cook sailed from London to Sydney to acquire land. Admiring the country, he landed bullocks and men with firearms, following which local Aboriginal peoples in the Sydney area were massacred. Captain Cook made his way to Darwin, where he sent armed horsemen to hunt down the Aboriginal people in the Victoria River country, founding the city of Darwin and giving police plus cattle station managers orders on how to treat Aboriginal people.
Kimberley: Numerous Aboriginal myth-tellers say that Captain Cook is a European culture hero who landed in Australia. Using gunpowder, he set a precedent for the treatment of Aboriginal peoples throughout Australia, including the Kimberley. On returning to his home, he claimed he had not seen any Aboriginal peoples, and advised that the country was a vast and empty land which settlers could come and claim for themselves. In this myth, Captain Cook introduced 'Cook's Law', upon which the settlers rely. The Aboriginal people note, however, that this is a recent, unjust and false law compared to Aboriginal law. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Views on death
The response to death in Aboriginal religion may seem similar in some respects to that to be found in European traditions - notably in regard to the holding of a ceremony to mark the death of an individual and the observance of a period of mourning for that individual. Any such similarity, however, is, at best, only superficial (with ceremony and mourning of some kind being common to most, if not all, human cultures). In death - as in life - Aboriginal spirituality gives pre-eminence to the land and sees the deceased as linked indissolubly, by a web of subtle connections, to that greater whole: "For Aboriginal people when a person dies some form of the persons spirit and also their bones go back to the country they were born in". "Aborigine people [sic] believe that they share their being with their country and all that is within it". "So when a person dies their country suffers, trees die and become scarred because it is believed that they came into being because of the deceased person".
When an Aboriginal person dies the families have death ceremonies called the "Sorry Business". During this time the person is mourned for days by the family and whole community, crying together and sharing their grief. Often the deceased person's family stay in one room and mourn together.
Naming a person after their death is often taboo, as it is thought that it could disturb their spirit. Photos of the deceased are often not allowed, for the same reason. A smoking ceremony may be conducted, using smoke on the belongings and in the home of the deceased, which is believed to aid in releasing the spirit. The cause of death, often of a spiritual nature, may be determined by Aboriginal elders.
Ceremonies and mourning periods can last days, weeks and even sometimes months depending upon the social status of the deceased person. It is culturally inappropriate for a non-Aboriginal person to contact and inform the next of kin of a person's passing. When someone passes away, the family of the deceased move out of their house and another family then moves in. Some families will move to "sorry camps", which are usually further away. Mourning includes the recital of symbolic chants, the singing of songs, dance, body paint, and cuts on the bodies of the mourners. In some Aboriginal cultures, the body is placed on a raised platform for several months, covered in native plants, or in a cave or tree. When only the bones remain, family and friends scatter them in various ways, or place them in a special place.
Many Aboriginal people believe in a place called the "Land of the Dead". This place was also commonly known as the "sky-world", which is really just the sky. As long as certain rituals were carried out during their life and at the time of their death, the deceased is allowed to enter The Land of the Dead in the "Sky World". The spirit of the dead is also a part of different lands and sites and then those areas become sacred sites. This explains why the Aboriginal people are very protective of sites they call sacred.
The rituals that are performed enable an Aboriginal person to return to the womb of all time, which is "Dreamtime". It allows the spirit to be connected once more to all nature, to all their ancestors, and to their own personal meaning and place within the scheme of things. "The Dreamtime is a return to the real existence for the aborigine". "Life in time is simply a passing phase – a gap in eternity". It has a beginning and it has an end. "The experience of Dreamtime, whether through ritual or from dreams, flowed through into the life in time in practical ways". "The individual who enters the Dreamtime feels no separation between themselves and their ancestors". "The strengths and resources of the timeless enter into what is needed in the life of the present". "The future is less uncertain because the individual feels their life as a continuum linking past and future in unbroken connection". Through Dreamtime the limitations of time and space are overcome. For the Aboriginal people, dead relatives are very much a part of continuing life. It is believed that in dreams dead relatives communicate their presence." At times they may bring healing if the dreamer is in pain". "Death is seen as part of a cycle of life in which one emerges from Dreamtime through birth, and eventually returns to the timeless, only to emerge again. It is also a common belief that a person leaves their body during sleep, and temporarily enters the Dreamtime". |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Link to astronomy
There are many songlines which include reference to the stars, planets and the Moon, although the complex systems which go to make up Australian Aboriginal astronomy also serve practical purposes, such as navigation. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Group-specific mythology
Yolngu
Murrinh-Patha people
The Murrinh-Patha people (whose country is the saltwater country immediately inland from the town of Wadeye) describe a Dreamtime in their myths which anthropologists believe is a religious belief equivalent to, though wholly different from, most of the world's other significant religious beliefs.
In particular, scholars suggest the Murrinh-Patha have a oneness of thought, belief, and expression unequalled within Christianity, as they see all aspects of their lives, thoughts and culture as under the continuing influence of their Dreaming. Within this Aboriginal religion, no distinction is drawn between things spiritual/ideal/mental and things material; nor is any distinction drawn between things sacred and things profane: rather all life is 'sacred', all conduct has 'moral' implication, and all life's meaning arises out of this eternal, everpresent Dreaming. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | In fact, the isomorphic fit between the natural and supernatural means that all nature is coded and charged by the sacred, while the sacred is everywhere within the physical landscape. Myths and mythic tracks cross over.. thousands of miles, and every particular form and feature of the terrain has a well-developed 'story' behind it.
Animating and sustaining this Murrinh-patha mythology is an underlying philosophy of life that has been characterised by Stanner as a belief that life is "... a joyous thing with maggots at its centre." Life is good and benevolent, but throughout life's journey, there are numerous painful sufferings that each individual must come to understand and endure as he grows. This is the underlying message repeatedly being told within the Murrinh-patha myths. It is this philosophy that gives Murrinh-patha people motive and meaning in life.
The following Murrinh-patha myth, for instance, is performed in Murrinh-patha ceremonies to initiate young men into adulthood. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | "A woman, Mutjinga (the 'Old Woman'), was in charge of young children, but instead of watching out for them during their parents' absence, she swallowed them and tried to escape as a giant snake. The people followed her, spearing her and removing the undigested children from the body." |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Within the myth and in its performance, young, unadorned children must first be swallowed by an ancestral being (who transforms into a giant snake), then regurgitated before being accepted as young adults with all the rights and privileges of young adults. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Pintupi people
Scholars of the Pintupi peoples (from within Australia's Gibson Desert region) believe they have a predominantly 'mythic' form of consciousness, within which events occur and are explained by the preordained social structures and orders told of, sung about, and performed within their superhuman mythology, rather than by reference to the possible accumulated political actions, decisions and influences of local individuals (i.e. this understanding effectively 'erases' history). The Dreaming.. provides a moral authority lying outside the individual will and outside human creation.. although the Dreaming as an ordering of the cosmos is presumably a product of historical events, such an origin is denied.
These human creations are objectified – thrust out – into principles or precedents for the immediate world.. Consequently, current action is not understood as the result of human alliances, creations, and choices, but is seen as imposed by an embracing, cosmic order.
Within this Pintupi world view, three long geographical tracks of named places dominate, being interrelated strings of significant places named and created by mythic characters on their routes through the Pintupi desert region during the Dreaming. It is a complex mythology of narratives, songs and ceremonies known to the Pintupi as Tingarri. It is most completely told and performed by Pintupi peoples at larger gatherings within Pintupi country. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Newer belief systems
In principle, census information could identify the extent of traditional Aboriginal beliefs compared to other belief systems such as Christianity; however the official census in Australia does not include traditional Aboriginal beliefs as a religion, and includes Torres Strait Islanders, a separate group of Indigenous Australians, in most of the counts.
In the 1991 census, almost 74 percent of Aboriginal respondents identified with Christianity, up from 67 percent in the 1986 census. The wording of the question changed for the 1991 census; as the religion question is optional, the number of respondents reduced. The 1996 census reported that almost 72 percent of Aboriginal people practised some form of Christianity, and that 16 percent listed no religion. The 2001 census contained no comparable updated data.
The Aboriginal population also includes a small number of followers of other mainstream religions. |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | See also
Australian Aboriginal culture
Bush medicine
Cultural landscape
Indigenous Australians § Belief systems
Indigenous Australian literature
Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship
Quinkan rock art |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Waterman, Patricia Panyity (1987). A Tale-type Index of Australian Aboriginal Oral Narratives. Folklore Fellows’ Communications. Vol. 238. Academia scientiarum Fennica. ISBN 9789514105319.
"Dreamtime Stories and The Dreaming in Aboriginal Art". ARTARK. Retrieved 28 August 2023.| |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | External links |
Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology | "Dust Echoes". ABC Education. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 16 May 2017. a series of twelve beautifully animated Dreamtime stories from Central Arnhem Land... − 12 Episodes, each with accompanying Study Guide: Whirlpool, Mermaid, Brolga, Morning Star, Namorrodor, Curse, Moon Man, Be, Spear, Wawalag (or Wagalak) sisters, Bat and the Butterfly, and Mimis. Yolngu mythology.
Australian Government 'portal' on Aboriginal 'Dreamings' and associated mythology
Ngadjonji Antiquity and Social Organisation Ngadjonji History of the Rainforest People |
Index of Australia-related articles | The following is an alphabetical list of articles related to Australia. |
Index of Australia-related articles | A
Aboriginal:
Aboriginal Australians
Aboriginal breastplate
Aboriginal deaths in custody
Aboriginal Tasmanians
Aboriginal title
Aboriginal Tent Embassy
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984
Adelaide
Alfred Deakin
Andrew Fisher
Aquaculture in Australia
Arnhem Land
Arthur Fadden
Arthur Phillip
Australia
Australian:
Australian actors
Australian archaeology
Australian birds
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
Australian Capital Territory
Australian Constitutional history
Australian cuisine
Australian Dollar
Australian electoral system
Australian English
Australian fauna
Australian Fellowship of Faith Churches and Ministers International
Australian flora
Australian Football League
Australian Greens Party
Australian hardcore
Australian House of Representatives
Australian Labor Party
Australian literature
Australian nationality law
Australian public holidays
Australian rules football
Australian Senate
Australians
States and territories of Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | B
Ballarat
Banksia
Belfast Coastal Reserve
Belinda (film)
Ben Chifley
Bennelong
Bill Hayden
Billy Hughes
Black Saturday bushfires (February 2009 in Victoria)
Bland Oak
Bob Hawke
Brisbane
Burke and Wills expedition |
Index of Australia-related articles | C
Cairns
Campdrafting
Canberra
Carbon capture and storage in Australia
Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme
Central Coast
Chain Valley Colliery
Charles Kingsford Smith
Christ Watson
Cinema of Australia
City West Housing
Climate change in Australia
Coal in Australia
Coal mining in Australia
Commonwealth Heritage
Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act
Communications in Australia
Constitution of Australia
Contribution to global warming by Australia
Convicts in Australia
Council of Australian Humanist Societies
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia
CSIRO
Culture of Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | D
Darwin
Date and time notation in Australia
Demographics of Australia
Deserts of Australia
Dharug language
Diminutives in Australian English
Don Bradman
The Dreaming
Drought in Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | E
Earle Page
Economy of Australia
Edmund Barton
Effects of global warming on Australia
Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories
Energy policy of Australia
Energy Sources in Victoria
Environment of Australia
Eucalyptus |
Index of Australia-related articles | F
Fairfield Showground
Feed-in tariffs in Australia
Foreign relations of Australia
Forests of Australia
Frank Forde |
Index of Australia-related articles | G
Garnaut Climate Change Review
Geelong
George Reid
Gender inequality in Australia
Geography of Australia
Geology of Australia
Geothermal energy exploration in Central Australia
Gija people
Gold Coast
Government of Australia
Governor-General of Australia
Grand Final
Great Barrier Reef |
Index of Australia-related articles | H
Harold Holt
Health of prisoners in Australia
High Court of Australia
History of Australia
History of Australia before 1901
History of Australia since 1901
History of Western Australia
Hobart
Hospitals in Australia
Human rights in Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | I
IDS Enterprise Systems
Indigenous Australians
List of Australian inventions
Indonesia Project (ANU)
IPP-SHR
ITCRA. |
Index of Australia-related articles | J
James Cook
James Scullin
John Curtin
John Dawkins
John Dawkins (South Australian politician)
John Gorton
John Howard
John Kerin
John McEwen
Joseph Cook
Joseph Lyons
Julia Gillard
Julian Assange |
Index of Australia-related articles | K
Kangaroo
Kangaroo paw
Kata Tjuta
Kevin Rudd |
Index of Australia-related articles | L
Australian Labor Party
LGBT rights in Australia
Liberal Party of Australia
List of Australians in international prisons
List of cities in Australia
List of people who have walked across Australia
List of political parties in Australia
List of proposed coal-fired power stations in Australia
List of cities and towns in South Australia
List of Western Australian towns
List of wind farms in Australia
List of wettest known tropical cyclones in Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | M
Malcolm Turnbull
Martu Wangka dialect
Melaleuca
Melbourne
Melocco and Moore
Metrication in Australia
Michael Jeffery (Australian Army officer)
Military of Australia
Military history of Australia during World War I
Military history of Australia during World War II
Mining in Australia
Mitigation of global warming in Australia
Monkey Mia
Mosie Burton
Music of Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | N
National Basketball League
National Party of Australia
National Sorry Day
Native Plants
Newcastle
New South Wales
Ngarigo language
Ngarinyin language
Ngunnawal language
Noongar language
North Australia
Northern Territory
NSW Minerals Council
Northmead |
Index of Australia-related articles | O
One Nation Party (Pauline Hanson's One Nation)
Optometrists Association Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | P
Paul Keating
Pauline Hanson's One Nation
Parliament of Australia, Perth
Perth
Photovoltaic engineering in Australia
Pipeline Authority Act
Pitjantjatjara
Politics of Australia
Prime Minister of Australia
Prisons
Prospect Hill
Protected areas of Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | Q
Queensland
Queensland Telugu Association |
Index of Australia-related articles | R
Renewable energy commercialization in Australia
Renewable energy in Australia
Republicanism in Australia
Revenue stamps of Australia
Revenue stamps of the Australian Capital Territory
Revenue stamps of New South Wales
Revenue stamps of the Northern Territory
Revenue stamps of Queensland
Revenue stamps of South Australia
Revenue stamps of Tasmania
Revenue stamps of Victoria
Revenue stamps of Western Australia
Road transport in Australia
Robert Menzies |
Index of Australia-related articles | S
SAFTAG
Scott Morrison
Seafood in Australia
Seven Network
Simpson Desert
Site of Ficus superba var. henneana tree
South Australia
Sydney
Sydney Central Courier
Schapelle Corby
Solar Cities in Australia
Solar hot water in Australia
Solar power in Australia
Solar power plants in Central Australia
Solar power station in Victoria
Solar thermal energy in Australia
Stanley Bruce
Sunshine Coast
Shipwrecks of Western Australia |
Index of Australia-related articles | T
Taronga Zoo
Tasmania
Television in Australia
Time in Australia
Torres Strait Islanders
Thomas Keneally
Transportation in Australia
Tent boxing
Townsville |
Index of Australia-related articles | U
Uluru
Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park |
Index of Australia-related articles | V
Victoria
Visa policy of Australia
Visa requirements for Australian citizens |
Index of Australia-related articles | W
Walkabout
Warlpiri people
Waste management in Australia
Water security in Australia
Western Australia
Whaling in Australia
William McMahon
Wind power in Australia
Wind power in South Australia
Wollongong |
Index of Australia-related articles | X
Xantippe, Western Australia
XXXX (beer) |
Index of Australia-related articles | Y
Yarra Valley
Yarra River |
Index of Australia-related articles | Z
Zetland |
Index of Australia-related articles | Search
Search all pages with prefix |
Index of Australia-related articles | All pages with titles beginning with Australia
All pages with titles beginning with Australian
Search all pages with title |
Index of Australia-related articles | All pages with titles containing Australia
All pages with titles containing Australian |
Index of Australia-related articles | See also
Outline of Australia
Lists of country-related topics
International rankings of Australia
Commonwealth of Nations |
Index of Australia-related articles | External links |
Index of Australia-related articles | Wikimedia Atlas of Australia |
History of Asian Australians | Asian Australian history is the history of Asian ethnic and racial groups in Australia who trace their ancestry to Asia. The term Asian Australian, was first used in the 1950s by European Australians who wanted to strengthen diplomatic and trade ties with Asia for the benefit of the Australian community. The term was not originally used to describe or recognise the experiences of people of Asian descent living in Australia. It was only in the late 1980s and 1990s that the term "Asian Australian" was adopted and used by Asian Australians themselves to discuss issues related to racial vilification and discrimination. Today, the term "Asian Australian" is widely accepted and used to refer to people of Asian descent who are citizens or residents of Australia, though its usage and meaning may vary within the Asian Australian community. |
History of Asian Australians | Hostility to immigration
Hostility towards Asian immigration in Australia has a long history, dating back to the implementation of the "White Australia" policy in 1901. This policy, which was in place until 1973, consisted of laws and policies aimed at excluding non-white immigrants, particularly those from Asia, from settling in the country. Despite efforts to reform or repeal the policy over the years, the legacy of the White Australia policy and hostility towards Asian immigration has persisted in various forms, including instances of racism and discrimination towards Asian Australians |
History of Asian Australians | Chronology
Early immigration
Around 4,000 years ago, genetic and archaeological evidence suggests contact and potential migration between India and Australia.This influx is believed to have influenced the genetic makeup of Aboriginal Australians. |
History of Asian Australians | 17th century
Filipinos have been present in Australia since at least the 17th century, with some sources suggesting possible arrivals as early as the 16th century. |
History of Asian Australians | 19th century
1867: The arrival of Indian indentured labourers in Queensland marked the beginning of a significant period of Indian migration to Australia. This period also saw other forms of migration beyond indentured labour.
1806: The first Chinese-born person, William Ah Sing, arrives in Australia.
1817: Filipino sailors known as "Manilamen" begin to work on British and American whaling ships, including some that sail to Australia.
1818: Mak Sai Ying, also known as John Shying, arrived in Australia in 1818 as a free settler, becoming the first known Chinese immigrant to the country.
1823 : First recorded Nepalese migrant to Australia, Darjee Doulat, arrives in New South Wales.
1830s-1850s: Afghan traders, known as "Afghan cameleers," begin arriving in Australia to participate in the trade of goods and animals between South Australia and Western Australia
1850s: The discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria leads to a significant influx of Chinese immigrants to Australia.
1851: The first recorded Japanese person arrives in Australia.
1860s: Japanese pearl divers begin working in the pearling industry in Northern Australia.
1861: The Chinese Immigration Act is passed, which imposes a tax on Chinese immigrants in an effort to restrict their migration to Australia.
1878: The first Japanese embassy to Australia is established.
1880s: The first recorded arrival of Pakistanis in Australia is in the 1880s, when a small number of camel drivers, known as "Afghans," arrived in the country. These men were primarily from what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan and were hired to help explore and open up new areas of Australia.
1881: The Chinese Immigration Act is amended to exclude "all Chinese from entering the colony".
1882: The first recorded Korean immigrants to Australia arrive in the country. John Corea, a sailor from the Korean peninsula, arrives in Sydney and becomes the first known Korean Australian. |
History of Asian Australians | 20th century
Early 1900s: Indian migration to Australia slowed down and largely stopped due to the White Australia Policy, which restricted non-white immigration
1900s: Pakistani immigration to Australia continues to be small and sporadic throughout the early 20th century Many Pakistanis who do come to Australia at this time are students or professionals, rather than labourers.
1900-1945: During this time, a small number of Korean immigrants come to Australia to work as labourers, particularly on sugarcane farms in Queensland.
1901: The Australian colonies unite to form the Commonwealth of Australia, and the new federal government passes the Immigration Restriction Act, which effectively bans non-European immigration to Australia.
1901: Australia becomes a nation and the first federal parliament is established. Afghan cameleers and their families become Australian citizens.
1914-1918: During World War I, Japan is an ally of Australia and many Japanese Australians serve in the Australian military.
1920s-1930s: The construction of railways and improved transportation infrastructure leads to a decrease in the demand for cameleers and many Afghans return to Afghanistan or settle in other parts of Australia
1939-1945: During World War II, Japan becomes a enemy of Australia and many Japanese Australians are interned as "enemy aliens".
1942: The Australian government begins interning Japanese Australians, most of whom are Australian citizens. Many are sent to camps in New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia.
1945: World War II ends and the internment of Japanese Australians ends.
1945: The Chinese Immigration Act is repealed and Chinese people are allowed to migrate to Australia again.
1947: The first group of Afghan students arrive in Australia to study at Australian universities.
1950s: The immigration policies of Australia become more relaxed in the 1950s, and the number of Pakistani immigrants begins to increase. Many of these immigrants are skilled workers who are recruited to help rebuild Australia after World War II
1950s: Filipinos begin to migrate to Australia as students, professionals, and skilled workers.
1950s-1960s: More Afghan students come to Australia to study, and some stay to work and settle permanently in the country.
1952: The White Australia Policy is officially dismantled.
1950-1953: The Korean War takes place, leading to a large number of Korean refugees seeking asylum in countries around the world, including Australia.
1954-1975: Vietnam War takes place, causing significant numbers of Vietnamese people to flee the country as refugees.
1956: The first recorded arrival of Vietnamese immigrants in Australia took place, with three Vietnamese students arriving to study in Sydney.
1960s : The Immigration Restriction Act 1901, also known as the White Australia Policy, is dismantled, leading to a rise in Indian immigration to Australia.
1960s: The number of Pakistani immigrants to Australia continues to increase in the 1960s, with many settling in larger cities such as Sydney and Melbourne
1960s : Some Nepalese students come to Australia to study.
1960s: Japanese immigration to Australia increases and the Japanese community begins to establish itself more permanently in the country.
1960s: Taiwanese students begin studying in Australia, with the first group arriving in 1963
1962: The Australian government passes the Migration Act, which allows for the non-discriminatory selection of immigrants based on their skills and qualifications. This helps to increase the number of Korean immigrants coming to Australia.
1970s: Indian students start coming to Australia for higher education.
1970s: The Korean community in Australia begins to grow and become more established, with the opening of Korean language schools, churches, and cultural organizations.
1970s: In the 1970s, the Pakistani community in Australia becomes more established and begins to form cultural and social organizations.
1970s: Cambodia experiences political instability and violence during the Khmer Rouge regime, leading many Cambodians to flee the country as refugees.
1970s: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan leads to an increase in the number of Afghan refugees seeking asylum in Australia.
1970s: The Taiwanese government begins encouraging emigration to developed countries, including Australia. Many Taiwanese migrate to Australia for economic and political reasons.
1971: Australia's first formal refugee program is established, which allows Vietnamese people displaced by the war to apply for entry to Australia.
1971: The first Nepalese community organization, the Nepal Australia Association, is established in Adelaide, South Australia.
1972: The first group of Vietnamese refugees arrive in Australia, consisting of 29 people sponsored by the Red Cross.
1973: The Whitlam government formally apologises to the Chinese community for the discriminatory legislation passed in the past.
1973-1975: The number of Vietnamese refugees arriving in Australia increases significantly, with many arriving by boat.
1975: The Fall of Saigon on April 30 leads to a significant increase in the number of Vietnamese refugees arriving in Australia, with over 5,000 people arriving in the following months.
1978: The first generation of Vietnamese Australians, who arrived as refugees in the 1970s, become eligible for citizenship.
1979: Australia begins accepting Cambodian refugees for resettlement.
1980s: Indian migration to Australia increases, with many Indians settling in Sydney and Melbourne.
1980s- Nepal becomes a major source of refugees due to political instability and human rights abuses. Many Nepalese refugees come to Australia through the Humanitarian Program.
1980s: The Vietnamese Australian community begins to establish itself, with Vietnamese businesses and community organizations being established.
1980s: In the 1980s, Pakistan becomes one of the top ten countries of origin for immigrants to Australia. Many Pakistanis come to the country as skilled workers or through family reunification programs.
1980s: Cambodian Australians begin to arrive in Australia in significant numbers, with many settling in Sydney and Melbourne.
1989: The Australian government apologises to Japanese Australians for their internment during World War II.
1990s: The number of Indians in Australia reaches 100,000.
1990s: The second generation of Vietnamese Australians, who were born in Australia to Vietnamese refugee parents, come of age.
1990s: The number of Filipinos in Australia increases significantly, with many working as healthcare professionals and in other industries.
1990s: The Korean community in Australia continues to grow, with many young Koreans coming to study at Australian universities.
1990s: The Pakistani community in Australia continues to grow and thrive in the 1990s. Many Pakistanis who arrived in the country in earlier decades become Australian citizens and work to preserve their cultural heritage while also participating in mainstream Australian society.
1990s: The number of Taiwanese immigrants to Australia increases significantly, with many settling in Melbourne and Sydney
1992: The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission releases the report "Nation to Nation", which documents the experiences of Chinese Australians and makes recommendations for reconciliation.
1997: The Nepalese Australian Welfare Association is established in Adelaide to support newly arrived Nepalese refugees.
1998: The Nepal Australia Community Services organization is established in Sydney to support the Nepalese community in New South Wales.
1999: The Australia-Cambodia Migration and Cooperation Agreement is signed, allowing for the recruitment of Cambodian workers to fill labour shortages in certain industries in Australia. |
History of Asian Australians | 21st century
Early 2000s: Indian migration to Australia continues to grow, with many Indians coming to Australia as skilled workers and professionals
2000s- The Nepalese community in Australia continues to grow, with many Nepalese students coming to study in Australian universities.
2000s: The Korean community in Australia becomes more diverse, with a mix of immigrants from both North and South Korea. The number of Korean-born Australians also increases, as more Korean couples choose to have children in Australia.
2000s: The Taiwanese Australian community becomes more established and begins to actively participate in Australian society.
2001: The September 11th terrorist attacks in the United States lead to the invasion of Afghanistan by coalition forces. This results in a further increase in the number of Afghan refugees seeking asylum in Australia</ref>
2001: Vietnam is officially recognised as a source country for refugees in Australia.
2002: The first Cambodian-born member of the Australian Parliament, Hong Lim, is elected.
2006: The Australian government apologises to the Chinese community for the White Australia policy and the effects it had on the Chinese community.
2010s: The number of Indians in Australia reaches over 500,000, making it one of the largest migrant communities in Australia.
2010s: The Filipino community in Australia continues to grow, with Filipinos now making up the fourth largest group of overseas-born residents in the country.
2010s: The Vietnamese Australian community continues to grow and thrive, with Vietnamese Australians making significant contributions to Australian society in a variety of fields.
2010s: The Korean community in Australia continues to thrive, with a strong presence in many major cities and a vibrant culture that includes food, music, and festivals.
2010s: The number of Afghan refugees arriving in Australia begins to decrease as conditions in Afghanistan improve. Afghan Australians continue to make significant contributions to Australian society in a variety of fields, including business, education, and the arts
2010s: Taiwanese Australians continue to contribute to Australian culture and economy, with many running successful businesses and participating in various cultural and community events
2018: The Australian government marks the 200th anniversary of Mak Sai Ying's arrival in Australia and the contribution of Chinese Australians to the country.
2020s: Indian migration to Australia continues to grow, with Indians making up a significant portion of the Australian population. Many Indian Australians have achieved success in various fields, including business, politics, and the arts.
2020s: The Nepalese community in Australia continues to thrive, with Nepalese cultural organizations and events held throughout the country. The Nepalese Australian Women's Association is established to support and empower Nepalese women in Australia. |
History of Asian Australians | Timeline of key legislation and judicial rulings
1855 Chinese Immigration Act, which imposed a tax on Chinese immigrants in Victoria.
1861 Chinese Immigration Act, imposed a tax on Chinese immigrants in an effort to restrict their migration to Australia, is later amended to exclude "all Chinese from entering the colony".
1870 Naturalization Act, which granted British subjects the right to become naturalised citizens of Australia, but excluded "any person of Asiatic race" from this right.
1877 Chinese Immigration Amendment Act, which extended the tax to all of Australia and required Chinese immigrants to obtain a certificate of exemption from the tax before landing.
1881 Influx of Chinese Restriction Act, which imposed a tax on Chinese immigrants in an attempt to limit their numbers in Australia.
1901 Immigration Restriction Act, effectively bans non-European immigration to Australia.
1914 War Precautions Act, restricted the freedom of groups and individuals thought to be a threat, including those critical of Australia's involvement in World War I. These measures required individuals with connections to enemy nations to register as 'aliens' and many were interned in camps across the country. During World War II, Japanese Australians, many of whom were Australian citizens, were also interned as "enemy aliens" and sent to camps in New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia.
1945 Darwin Lands Acquisition Act, forcibly acquired land owned by Chinese Australians in Darwin, ending the local Chinatown. Proposed as a means of "eliminating undesirable elements," the act resulted in the destruction of homes and businesses in the area.
1948 Nationality and Citizenship Act, established Australian citizenship as a legal status separate from British nationality. It also established the process for acquiring Australian citizenship through birth, descent, adoption, or naturalisation. The act also included provisions for the loss of Australian citizenship, such as through marriage to a foreign national or through membership in a foreign military organization.
1958 Migration Act, which established the legal framework for the management of immigration to Australia.
1975 Racial Discrimination Act, made it unlawful to discriminate against a person on the grounds of their race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. This act also established the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) to deal with complaints of racial discrimination and to promote understanding and acceptance of the principle of equal rights. The act applies to various areas of public life, including employment, education, and the provision of goods and services.
This is not an exhaustive list, and there may be other legislation and judicial rulings that are relevant to the history of Asians in Australia. |
History of Asian Australians | See also
Asian Australians
Asian immigration to Australia
History of Asian Americans |
History of Asian Australians | Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Ikegami, Shigehiro (2005). "A Profile of Indonesian People in Australia". Memoirs of the Shizuoka University of Art and Culture. 6: 21–30. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
Lockwood, Rupert (October 1970). "The Indonesian Exiles in Australia, 1942–1947". Indonesia. 10 (10): 37–56. doi:10.2307/3350634. hdl:1813/53499. JSTOR 3350634. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia establishes the executive branch of the Commonwealth of Australia. It provides for the exercise of executive power by the Governor-General of Australia advised by a Federal Executive Council. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Sections
Section 61: Executive power
The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor‑General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.
Section 61 vests the executive power of the Commonwealth in the monarch of Australia, and makes this power exercisable by the governor-general on behalf of the monarch as their representative. In practice, the governor-general only exercises this power on the advice of the Federal Executive Council which he or she presides over. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 62: Federal Executive Council
There shall be a Federal Executive Council to advise the Governor‑General in the government of the Commonwealth, and the members of the Council shall be chosen and summoned by the Governor‑General and sworn as Executive Councillors, and shall hold office during his pleasure.
Section 62 establishes the Federal Executive Council which advises the governor-general. In practice the governor-general is bound by convention to follow this advice, and although he or she is described as having the power to choose the members of the Federal Executive Council, generally all parliamentarians who are appointed a ministerial portfolio automatically become members and remain so for life. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 63: Provisions referring to Governor-General
The provisions of this Constitution referring to the Governor‑General in Council shall be construed as referring to the Governor‑General acting with the advice of the Federal Executive Council. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 64: Ministers of State
The Governor‑General may appoint officers to administer such departments of State of the Commonwealth as the Governor‑General in Council may establish.
Such officers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor‑General. They shall be members of the Federal Executive Council, and shall be the Queen's Ministers of State for the Commonwealth. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | After the first general election no Minister of State shall hold office for a longer period than three months unless he is or becomes a senator or a member of the House of Representatives. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 65: Numbers of Ministers
Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the Ministers of State shall not exceed seven in number, and shall hold such offices as the Parliament prescribes, or, in the absence of provision, as the Governor‑General directs. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 66: Salaries of Ministers
There shall be payable to the Queen, out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Commonwealth, for the salaries of the Ministers of State, an annual sum which, until the Parliament otherwise provides, shall not exceed twelve thousand pounds a year. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 67: Appointment of civil servants
Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the appointment and removal of all other officers of the Executive Government of the Commonwealth shall be vested in the Governor‑General in Council, unless the appointment is delegated by the Governor‑General in Council or by a law of the Commonwealth to some other authority. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 68: Command of naval and military forces
The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor‑General as the Queen's representative.
Section 68 vests command of the Australian Defence Force in the governor-general, as the representative of the Sovereign. In practice this role is limited to ceremonial duties, including attending military parades and services, and appointing the chiefs of the Defence Force, Army, Navy, and Air Force, which (along with all decisions made by the governor-general in his or her capacity as commander-in-chief) is done on the advice of the Federal Executive Council. Actual command of the armed forces is wielded by the Minister for Defence, who is responsible for defence policy, and the Chief of the Defence Force, who is responsible for the administration and operation of the military. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 69: Transfer of certain departments
On a date or dates to be proclaimed by the Governor‑General after the establishment of the Commonwealth the following departments of the public service in each State shall become transferred to the Commonwealth:—
Posts, telegraphs, and telephones:
Naval and military defence:
Lighthouses, lightships, beacons, and buoys:
Quarantine.
But the departments of customs and of excise in each State shall become transferred to the Commonwealth on its establishment. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Section 70: Certain powers of Governors to vest in Governor-General
In respect of matters which, under this Constitution, pass to the Executive Government of the Commonwealth, all powers and functions which at the establishment of the Commonwealth are vested in the Governor of a Colony, or in the Governor of a Colony with the advice of his Executive Council, or in any authority of a Colony, shall vest in the Governor‑General, or in the Governor‑General in Council, or in the authority exercising similar powers under the Commonwealth, as the case requires. |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | References
External links |
Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia | Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act: Chapter II – The Executive Government |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | The COVID-19 pandemic in Australia was a part of the worldwide pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first confirmed case in Australia was identified on 25 January 2020, in Victoria, when a man who had returned from Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, tested positive for the virus. As of 6 August 2022, Australia has reported over 11,350,000 cases and 19,265 deaths, with Victoria's 2020 second wave having the highest fatality rate per case.
In March 2020, the Australian government established the intergovernmental National Cabinet and declared a human biosecurity emergency in response to the outbreak. Australian borders were closed to all non-residents on 20 March, and returning residents were required to spend two weeks in supervised quarantine hotels from 27 March. Many individual states and territories also closed their borders to varying degrees, with some remaining closed until late 2020, and continuing to periodically close during localised outbreaks. Social distancing rules were introduced on 21 March, and state governments started to close "non-essential" services. "Non-essential services" included social gathering venues such as pubs and clubs but unlike many other countries did not include most business operations such as construction, manufacturing and many retail categories. The number of new cases initially grew sharply, then levelled out at about 350 per day around 22 March, and started falling at the beginning of April to under 20 cases per day by the end of the month.
Australia was one of few countries to pursue a zero-COVID "suppression" strategy until late 2021, meaning it aimed to minimise domestic community transmission. Implementation involved strict controls on international arrivals and aggressively responding to local outbreaks with lockdowns and exhaustive contact tracing of domestic COVID-19 clusters. A second wave of infections emerged in Victoria during May and June 2020, which was attributed to an outbreak at a Melbourne quarantine hotel. The second wave, though largely localised to Melbourne, was much more widespread and deadlier than the first; at its peak, the state had over 7,000 active cases. Victoria underwent a second strict lockdown which eventually lasted almost four months. The wave ended with zero new cases being recorded on 26 October 2020. No deaths from COVID-19 were recorded in Australia from 28 December 2020 until 13 April 2021, when one death occurred in Queensland.
The nationwide vaccination program began with the first doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine being administered in Sydney on 21 February 2021. The country's vaccine rollout, which fell short of its initial targets and was described as slow, was criticised. Further cluster outbreaks occurred in late 2020 and mid-2021, with several brief "snap lockdowns" announced in certain states to contain their spread, particularly as novel variants of SARS-CoV-2 arrived in Australia.
In July 2021, the Australian government after continually stating COVID-zero was not sustainable, published the 'National Plan' to live with COVID. As outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant which started in June 2021 in New South Wales spread, almost half of Australia's population and most major cities were in lockdown for at least 3 days during July 2021. The outbreak worsened in New South Wales and spread to Victoria in the following weeks causing new record daily cases in both stated later in 2021. Lockdowns were phased out after 70% of the population was vaccinated in October with most public health restrictions removed after vaccinating 90% of its population in December 2021, as the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant drove further records of infections. International travel began to resume in November 2021 and returned to normal in early 2022.
The government declared the emergency response "finished" in September 2022 and removed all restrictions including the requirement to isolate if one was infected from 14 October 2022. On 20 October 2023, the Australian Chief Medical Officer declared that COVID-19 was no longer a Communicable Disease Incident of National Significance (CDINS) and ended all national emergency response and coordination, shifting COVID-19 management to a more general infectious disease framework. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Background
A novel coronavirus that caused a respiratory illness was identified in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019, and was reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) on 31 December 2019, which confirmed its concern on 12 January 2020. WHO declared the outbreak a Public health emergency of international concern on 30 January, and a pandemic on 11 March.
The case fatality rate of COVID-19 is much lower than that of SARS, a related disease which emerged in 2002, but its transmission has been significantly greater, leading to a much greater total death toll.
The widespread reporting of the bushfire season in major media and social media around the world caused a significant drop in the number of tourists coming to Australia, including those from China. The absence of tourist arrivals during this time could have played a significant role in sparing Australia from the spread of COVID-19 in the early stages of the pandemic. This is in contrast to other major cities in Europe and North America, where the early spread of the virus continued undetected until late February 2020 or early March 2020. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Timeline
On 23 January 2020, biosecurity officials began screening arrivals on flights from Wuhan to Sydney. Two days later the first case of a SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported, that of a Chinese citizen who arrived from Guangzhou on 19 January. The patient was tested and received treatment in Melbourne. On the same day, three other patients tested positive in Sydney after returning from Wuhan. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | First wave: March–April 2020
Australia reported its 100th case on 10 March 2020 roughly corresponding to the start of Australia's first wave. Case numbers and deaths continued to climb during March and April, but by late April the first wave had effectively ended. On 6 June, both New South Wales and Victoria reported no new cases for the previous 24 hours, with only Queensland and Western Australia reporting one new (international) case each, the lowest national total since February. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Second wave: June–October 2020
On 20 June, the Victorian Government announced the re-tightening of restrictions on household gatherings following a spike in community transmitted cases over the previous week, reported to be mainly caused by family-to-family transmission in large household gatherings. Most easing of restrictions that were to take place were postponed. The same day restrictions were re-tightened in Victoria, the Western Australian Government announced the state would move into "Phase 4" from 27 June, permitting some of the most relaxed restrictions in the country.
On 26 October, the "second wave" ended when Victoria recorded zero new cases and zero deaths statewide for the first time since 9 June. On the same day, Daniel Andrews announced a significant easing of restrictions to take effect over the coming weeks. From 11.59 pm on 27 October, people no longer required a reason to leave home, all retail, restaurants, hotels, cafes and bars were allowed to open with capacity limits, beauty, personal services and tattooing were allowed to reopen, outdoor community sport for under 18 and outdoor non-contact sport for adults recommenced, a maximum of 10 people were allowed to attend weddings, a maximum of 20 mourners were allowed to attend funerals, and faith and religious gatherings were allowed to resume, subject to patron limitations. With a length of 112 days, this Victorian COVID-19 lockdown was the longest continuous lockdown world-wide, as of October 2020. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Third wave: June 2021 – October 2021
Victoria recorded no deaths between late October 2020 and August 2021. New South Wales recorded their first death of the 2021 wave on 10 July 2021.
On 18 June in NSW, a SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant COVID-19 cluster in Sydney's Eastern Suburbs had grown to 4 cases. On 25 June in NSW, after 22 new cases of the Delta variant brought infections linked to the Bondi cluster to 65 total, an initial lockdown was announced for four Sydney local government areas (LGAs).
New South Wales recorded its "worst day" of its continuing June 2021 outbreak of the COVID-19 Delta variant on 29 August 2021, with six deaths, and a record 1,218 new local confirmed cases. Whilst the daily number of cases continues to increase, at the time this was the highest daily confirmed case total Australia had received on a single day, surpassing Victoria's record in the previous wave. However, the recorded COVID-19 deaths is significantly lower than the 41 daily deaths recorded in Victoria during its peak.
On 30 August in NSW, the Ministry of Health reported four deaths in the previous 24 hours of people confirmed to have had COVID-19. One of them, a man in his 50s who died at Dubbo Hospital, is believed to be the first Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander COVID-19 related death. He was not vaccinated. The total number of COVID related deaths in NSW reached 149 since the beginning of the pandemic, and 93 during the NSW Delta outbreak. The official national death toll broke 1,000 at 1,002.
On 31 August in Victoria, the deaths of two women were reported, the first COVID deaths in that state since 30 November 2020, which ended a nine-month streak with no fatalities.
On 3 October 2021, Melbourne surpassed Buenos Aires as the city with the most cumulative days spent in lockdown in the entire world, having spent 245 days in lockdown since the start of the pandemic. The sixth lockdown ended in Melbourne at midnight on 21 October 2021 after a record 262 cumulative days throughout the pandemic. The lockdown in Sydney ended on 11 October 2021 after 106 days, following the initial Delta variant outbreak.
Australia began to re-open to the world from 1 November 2021, with vaccinated Australian citizens and permanent residents allowed to enter NSW and Victoria without being restricted by strict flight cap numbers or long hotel quarantine stays from that date.
On 8 November, Queensland premier Annastacia Palaszczuk announced that as of 17 December, all eligible unvaccinated citizens over the age of 16 would be banned from pubs, clubs, cafes, restaurants, cinemas, theatres, music festivals and stadiums, government-owned galleries, museums and libraries, and they would not be allowed to visit hospitals, aged care facilities, prisons or disability services, among other restrictions. The premier described this as "a reward for the fully vaccinated and a precaution for when the borders open", and stated that restrictions were expected to continue into 2022. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Omicron wave: November 2021 – February 2022
On 28 November 2021, NSW Health confirmed that two returned travellers had tested positive for the new Omicron COVID-19 variant in Sydney, making them the first known cases of the strain in Australia. On 29 November, a positive case of the Omicron variant was recorded at the Howard Springs quarantine facility, from a return traveller who arrived at Darwin on 25 November from Johannesburg, South Africa. The same day, two passengers who had flown to Sydney from southern Africa via Singapore also tested positive for the Omicron variant.
On 30 November, a positive case of the Omicron variant was recorded in Sydney. The person had visited southern Africa before arriving in Sydney prior to travel restrictions, and was subsequently active in the community in Sydney and the Central Coast.
On 3 December, a positive Omicron variant case was confirmed in the ACT.
Most public health restrictions were lifted in December 2021, after 90% of the Australian population were vaccinated. The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant drove a record rise in infections, leading to New South Wales to have one of the highest infection rates worldwide. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | 2022
On 18 January 2022, 77 COVID-19 deaths were reported in Australia, the highest number to that point far, though not all had occurred on the same day (17 January). There were 36 in New South Wales, 22 in Victoria, 16 in Queensland, 2 in South Australia, and 1 in the Australian Capital Territory.
On 22 January 2022, Australia exceeded 3,000 deaths related to COVID-19 since the beginning of the pandemic.
By 4 February 2022, 4,000 COVID-19 related deaths were exceeded. This increased to 5,000 by 23 February.
On 21 February 2022 border restrictions were removed for all vaccinated people, including non-citizens such as tourists and new immigrants, effectively opening Australia up to the world. On 18 April 2022 further restrictions on international travel that had been imposed under the Biosecurity Act were removed, allowing cruise ships to operate in Australia for the first time in over 2 years (although only in states where the state government was willing to allow cruise ships, such as NSW, Queensland and Victoria).
In May the requirement to wear a mask in the airport was removed.
On 9 September 2022 a host of restrictions were removed. This included the requirement to wear masks on aircraft, in Western Australia the requirement to wear masks on passenger transport was removed as well. The COVID-19 mandatory isolation period was also reduced to 5 days
On 21 September 2022 South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland ended the mask mandate on passenger transport
On 22 September 2022 Victoria ended the mask mandate on passenger transport.
On 14 October 2022 the mandatory COVID-19 isolation period was scrapped entirely and replaced with recommendations.
Public Health Emergencies, Pandemic declerations and States of Emergencies were ended in each states over the following month with Victoria on 13 October, Queensland on 1 November, Western Australia on 4 November, Northern Territory on 11 November, South Australia on 23 November, New South Wales on 30 November and the Australian Capital Territory on 28 February 2023 |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Post pandemic
On 23 June 2023, Queensland ended the COVID-19 traffic light advice as the disease became managed in-line with other viral diseases |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Statistics
Clusters
The largest cluster in Australia from the start of the pandemic until 5 November 2021, when Australia reached its 80 percent vaccination target and entered the consolidation phase of its COVID-19 transition plan, was the Flemington/North Melbourne public housing cluster with 310 cases. The deadliest cluster in Australia was at St Basil's Homes for the Aged in Victoria, where 45 residents died. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Responses
Australia pursued a zero-COVID strategy until late 2021; the stated goal of the National Cabinet was "suppression", meaning continually trying to drive community transmission to zero but expecting that new outbreaks may occur. This was in contrast to the mitigation strategies implemented by most other nations. Compared to other Western countries, notably the United States and European countries, Australia's handling has been commended for its effectiveness, but has been criticised by some for its curbing of civil liberties. Distinctive aspects of that response included early interventions to reduce reflected transmission from countries other than China during late January and February 2020; early recruitment of a large contact tracing workforce; comparatively high public trust in government responses to the pandemic, at least compared to the US and later on, the use of short, intense lockdowns to facilitate exhaustive contact tracing of new outbreaks. Australia's international borders have also remained largely closed, with limited numbers of arrivals strictly controlled, for the duration of the pandemic. Australia sought to develop a Bluetooth-based contact tracing app that does not use the privacy-preserving Exposure Notification framework supported natively by Android and Apple smartphones, and while these efforts were not particularly effective, QR code-based contact tracing apps became ubiquitous in Australia's businesses. These apps, which are effectively required by State Governments, give government health departments the ability to reconstruct the presence and possible contacts of anyone carrying a mobile telephone handset that was capable of checking-in using a QR code at the time of visiting shops, bars, restaurants or similar venues, generally for 28 days after the visit. Furthermore, venues are required to provide alternative contact registration for anyone unable to use the app. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Travel restrictions
2020
On 1 February 2020, Australia banned the entry of foreign nationals who had been in mainland China, and ordered its own returning citizens who had been in China to self-quarantine for 14 days. The country also began to assess the relative risk of reflected transmission through third countries, and to ask travelers arriving from higher-risk countries to monitor for symptoms. Australia subsequently imposed bans on Iran (1 March), South Korea (5 March), and Italy (11 March). From 16 March, all travellers arriving in or returning to Australia were required to self-isolate for 14 days. Failure to self-isolate could result in a fine of A$11,000 to A$50,000 and a possible prison sentence, depending on the state. Cruise ships were also barred from docking in the country for 30 days.
On 20 March, Australia closed its borders to all non-residents and non-Australian citizens. With limited exceptions, a ban was imposed on Australians travelling overseas.
By late March 2020, 62% of Australia's more than 3,000 coronavirus cases were among people who had returned from overseas. From then, Australians returning from overseas were subject to two weeks compulsory quarantine in hotels. The New South Wales quarantine program was helped by 150 Australian Defence Force personnel, including 30 who were stationed at hotels. In Victoria, three private security operators were contracted to provide the security, while the other states and territories used their police resources. The states and territories carried the costs of hotel quarantine. By 19 June, since the policy came into force 81,000 people had entered Australia. Of those, 63,000 had undergone hotel quarantine, while the rest, including flight crews, international businesspeople and defence members, fell under different rules. Hotel quarantine had cost $118 million as at 19 June.
Interstate border closures began on 19 March, with Tasmania imposing a mandatory 14-day quarantine on all "non-essential" travellers to the state, including returning residents. On 24 March, Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory closed their borders, with all interstate arrivals being required to self-isolate for 14 days. On 11 April, Queensland banned interstate arrivals, with only Queensland residents and those granted 'exemption' being allowed entry. On 8 July, the Victorian and NSW governments, jointly closed their common border, following a large spike in cases in parts of Melbourne.
With the spike in coronavirus infections in Victoria linked to the hotel quarantine program, a judicial inquiry into the program in Victoria was called on 2 July; and all international arrivals into Melbourne were suspended. On 9 July, other state and territory leaders agreed to reduce flights and arrivals into Australia from 8,000 to 4,000 a week to ease the burden on the hotel quarantine system. States started to charge travellers for hotel quarantine. In mid-September, the states agreed to increase the number of arrivals to 6,000 a week, to help in the repatriation of tens of thousands of Australians stranded overseas. By 15 December 2020, 39,000 Australians were registered with the government as stranded, with more unregistered (as the government advised registration only for those needing assistance to return). After repeated flight cancellations and without access to government-provided health care or welfare benefits, many families reported being forced to overstay visas, and burn down savings and incur debt to pay for accommodations. Having to pay thousands of dollars for return tickets and mandatory hotel quarantine, some chose to send one family member back to resume work and earn enough money to pay the way of the rest. Between 13 March and 15 July 2020, more than 357,000 people returned to Australia. As of 15 January 2021 over 37,000 Australians were stranded abroad. On 29 January 2021, the ability of Australians stuck overseas to return was further hampered when the UK banned direct flights from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) over the possible spread of the South African COVID-19 variant. Both Etihad Airways and Emirates airlines are UAE-based.
An overnight curfew was introduced in Victoria on 2 August 2020, extended on 13 September and suspended on 27 September. A Supreme Court judge has ruled the curfew was legal. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | 2021
On 25 January 2021, Health Minister Greg Hunt suspended Australia's travel bubble with New Zealand for a period of 72 hours after New Zealand authorities confirmed a community transmission case in the country's Northland Region. On 28 January the suspension of the travel bubble was extended for 3 more days.
On 5 February 2021, National Cabinet decided to increase the number of international passenger arrivals to Australia as from mid-February. New South Wales returned to a weekly cap of 3,010 people and Queensland to 1,000. South Australia increased by 40 people a week to 530, and Victoria by almost 200 to 1,310. Western Australia remained at a reduced arrival cap. The total national weekly cap of 4,100 increased to approximately 6,300.
On 11 February 2021, the airline Cathay Pacific decided that, excepting Sydney, from 20 February it would cease all flights to Australia until the end of the month. This was in response to the Hong Kong government's new COVID rules requiring Hong Kong based aircrew to quarantine for 14 days on return to HK.
On 24 February, Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria suspended their travel bubble arrangements with New Zealand in response to a recent community outbreak in South Auckland. As a result, New Zealanders traveling to these states would have to enter quarantine.
On 2 March 2021, the general closure of Australia's international borders to travel was extended another three months to 17 June 2021. Australia's borders had now already been closed for 12 months. The border could reopen earlier if the closure was "no longer needed". Despite the border closure, between 25 March and 31 December 2020 over 105,000 exemptions were approved for people to leave Australia.
By April 2021, there were still about 40,000 Australians stranded overseas by the high cost of plane tickets and the cap on the number of people in the quarantine system, which was criticised for special treatment of sportspeople and celebrities. Australia was chastised by the United Nations Human Rights Committee, which requested a prompt return for the country's citizens; the government has given out A$29 million to about 3,900 stranded people as a last resort, and operated 28 repatriation flights.
On 23 April, Prime Minister Morrison announced that travellers to Australia from "high risk" countries, in particular India, were to be reduced by 30 per cent. This decision was based on an increase in positive results for COVID-19 among travellers from India at the Howard Springs, Northern Territory quarantine facility. Travel to such countries was also to be limited.
In general, the border restrictions had had broad public support, though critics suggested safety could be improved by constructing more outdoor quarantine centres rather than relying on urban hotels, which had suffered 16 leaks to the surrounding communities as of April 2021, out of about half a million quarantined. The government did not have an ordered queue of returnees; outside of repatriation flights, the order in which people returned was determined by commercial airlines, resulting in Australian citizens making up fewer than half of incoming travellers in February 2021.
On 27 April, due to the "record-breaking" outbreak of COVID-19 in India, with 323,000 new infections that day after five days with new cases peaking above 350,000, and another 2,771 COVID deaths there, the Federal Government "paused" all incoming flights from India until at least 15 May. The pause includes repatriation flights into the Howard Springs quarantine facility near Darwin with more than 9,000 Australians in India at this date wanting to come to Australia.
Late on 30 April, the Federal Government announced a ban on Australian citizens and permanent residents in India from entering Australia via any route. These measures came into effect on 3 May and would remain in force until 15 May. Breaches would be subject to punishment under the Biosecurity Act 2015, with penalties for breaches including up to five years' jail, a fine of A$66,600,or both. Foreign Minister Marise Payne reported that 57% of positive cases in quarantine had come from India in April, compared with 10% in March. Unlike the prior travel bans imposed in 2020 on Iran, South Korea and Italy, and the interstate travel bans regularly imposed as outbreaks occur, the move was branded as racist by some critics, and a potential breach of international human rights law. On 3 May 2021 the government announced that it would review this decision earlier than originally intended, possibly within the same week. There were about 9,000 Australian citizens in India, of whom 650 were considered vulnerable.
On 26 June 2021 at 8:30 pm (AEST), due to multiple outbreaks across Australia of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, New Zealand immediately paused trans-Tasman travel with Australia until 10 pm (AEST) on 30 June.
On 2 July, National Cabinet decided that from 14 July, the number of airline passengers allowed into Australia would be capped at 3,035, half what it was before. The Victorian, Western Australian and Queensland governments had been advocating a large decrease in incoming passenger numbers because of the highly infectious nature of the Delta COVID strain. More repatriation flights to the Howard Springs quarantine facility were to be organised in response.
The states would receive passengers thus: |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Sydney: 1,505
Perth: 265
Adelaide: 265
Melbourne: 500
Brisbane: 500 (additional 150 surge capacity)
On 1 November, Australia began to re-open to the world, with vaccinated Australian citizens and permanent residents allowed to enter NSW and Victoria without being restricted by strict flight cap numbers or long hotel quarantine stays. Other states and territories followed over the next few months. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | 2022
On 21 February 2022, border restrictions were removed for all vaccinated people, including non-citizens such as tourists and new immigrants, effectively opening Australia up to the world.
On 18 April 2022 further restrictions on international travel that had been imposed under the Biosecurity Act were removed, allowing cruise ships to operate in Australia for the first time in over 2 years (although only in states where the state government was willing to allow cruise ships, such as NSW, Queensland and Victoria). |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | National Cabinet
On 13 March 2020, the National Cabinet, a form of national crisis cabinet akin to a war cabinet, was created following a meeting of the Council of Australian Governments (COAG). This is the first time such a cabinet has been proclaimed since World War II, and the only time in Australian history that a crisis cabinet has included state and territory leaders. The cabinet consists of the premiers and chief ministers of the Australian states and territories and meets weekly during the crisis. At its first meeting on 13 March, the National Cabinet announced that gatherings of more than 500 people should be cancelled from 15 March. Schools, universities, workplaces, public transport and airports were not included in this recommendation. Prime Minister Morrison also announced that he intended to attend a Rugby League match on 14 March; "I do still plan to go to the football on Saturday" but later decided against attending the match.
On 29 March, the Cabinet agreed to stricter limits to apply from midnight on 30 March: a limit on both indoor and outdoor gatherings of two people except weddings (5) and funerals (10), and people of the same household or family; strong guidance to all Australians is to stay home unless for necessary shopping, health care, exercise, and work and study that can't be done remotely; public playgrounds, skate parks and outside gyms to be closed. It was left to individual states to enforce these guidelines. They also agreed to a moratorium on evictions for six months for both commercial and residential tenancies suffering financial distress.
On 2 April 2020, the Federal government announced the temporary provision of free childcare so that people could continue working, and to prevent closure of childcare centres. The Government paid half each centre's operating costs. The free childcare ended on 12 July, and the previous Child Care Subsidy was reintroduced. |
COVID-19 pandemic in Australia | Human biosecurity emergency declaration
On 18 March 2020 a human biosecurity emergency was declared in Australia owing to the risks to human health posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, after a National Security Committee meeting the previous day. The Biosecurity Act 2015 specifies that the Governor-General may declare such an emergency exists if the Health Minister (currently Greg Hunt) is satisfied that "a listed human disease is posing a severe and immediate threat, or is causing harm, to human health on a nationally significant scale". This gives the minister sweeping powers, including imposing restrictions or preventing the movement of people and goods between specified places, and evacuations. The Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) Declaration 2020 was declared by the Governor-General, David Hurley, under Section 475 of the Act. The Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) (Emergency Requirements) Determination 2020, made by the Health Minister on the same day, forbids international cruise ships from entering Australian ports. This ban remains in place until 17 December 2021 at the earliest.
A social distancing rule of four square metres (43 sq ft) per person in any enclosed space was agreed by National Cabinet on 20 March, to be implemented through State and Territory laws. On 22 March 2020, the State governments of New South Wales and Victoria imposed a mandatory closure of non-essential services, while the Governments of Western Australia and South Australia imposed border closures.
On 22 March Morrison announced a closure of places of social gathering, including registered and licensed clubs, licensed premises in hotels and bars, entertainment venues, including but not restricted to cinemas, casinos and nightclubs and places of worship. Cafes and restaurants could remain open but were limited to takeaway food. Similarly, enclosed spaces for funerals and things of that nature would have to follow the strict four-square-metre rule. These measures (labelled stage 1 in anticipation of possible future measures) were effective immediately at midday, 23 March. Morrison stated that he would like schools to remain open, but parents could keep children at home if they wished to.
On 25 March 2020, the Health Minister made a second determination under the Biosecurity Act 2015, the Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) (Overseas Travel Ban Emergency Requirements) Determination 2020, which "forbids Australian citizens and permanent residents from leaving Australian territory by air or sea as a passenger". On the same day, the Prime Minister announced a further set of restrictions, labelled stage 2 restrictions, effective midnight that night. These involved mainly smaller businesses, such as nail salons and tattoo parlours, while some, such as personal training sessions, were limited to 10 people. At the same time, other gatherings were restricted, such as weddings (5 people) and funerals (10 people).
At 12:00 am on Tuesday 31 March, restrictions were announced on indoor and outdoor gatherings, which were called stage 3 by the media, although the label "stage 3" was not part of the official announcement. The new rule limited gatherings to two people, although it did not apply to members of the same household.
On 14 April, the Federal government announced the "COVIDSafe" digital contact tracing app.
On 25 April 2020, the Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) (Emergency Requirements—Public Health Contact Information) Determination 2020, made under subsection 477(1) of the Act, was signed into law by the Health Minister. The purpose of the new legislation was "to make contact tracing faster and more effective by encouraging public acceptance and uptake of COVIDSafe", COVIDSafe being the new mobile app created for the purpose. The function of the app was to record contact between any two people who both had the app on their phones when they come within 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) of each other. The encrypted data would remain on the phone for 21 days of not encountering a person logged with confirmed COVID-19.
On 3 September 2020, the human biosecurity emergency period under the Biosecurity Act 2015 was extended until 17 December. |