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Tonic water

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Tonic water (or Indian tonic water) is a carbonated soft drink in which quinine is dissolved. Originally used as a prophylactic against malaria, tonic water usually now has a significantly lower quinine content and is consumed for its distinctive bitter flavor, though it is nowadays also often sweetened. It is often used in mixed drinks, particularly in gin and tonic. History As early as the 17th century the Spanish used quinine from the bark of Cinchona trees to treat malaria after being shown the remedy from the Indigenous peoples of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. In early 19th century India and other tropical posts of the British Empire, medicinal quinine was recommended to British officials and soldiers to prevent malaria, where it was mixed with soda and sugar to mask its bitter taste, creating tonic water. The first commercial tonic water was produced in 1858 when it was patented by the owner of Pitt & Co., Erasmus Bond. The mixed drink gin and tonic also originated in British colonial India, when the British mixed their medicinal quinine tonic with gin and other ingredients to make the bitter medicine more palatable. Soldiers in India were already given a gin ration, so the sweet concoction was easy to make. In 1868 the first known record of a Gin & Tonic was in the “Oriental Sporting Magazine” and was described as a refreshing cocktail for spectators of horse racing, not as a medicine. Quinine content Medicinal tonic water originally contained only carbonated water and a large amount of quinine; most modern tonic waters contain comparatively less quinine, and are often enhanced by citrus flavors. As a result of the lower quinine content, tonic water is less bitter, and is also usually sweetened, often with the addition of high-fructose corn syrup or sugar. Some manufacturers also produce diet (or "slimline") tonic water, which may contain artificial sweeteners such as aspartame. Traditional-style tonic water with little more than quinine and carbonated water is less common, but may be preferred by those who desire the bitter flavor. In the United States, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limits the quinine content in tonic water to 83 ppm (83 mg per liter if calculated by volume), while the daily therapeutic dose of quinine is in the range of 500–1000 mg, and 10 mg/kg every eight hours for effective malaria prevention (2100 mg daily for a adult). It is often recommended as a relief for leg cramps, but medical research suggests some care is needed in monitoring doses. Because of quinine's risks, the FDA cautions consumers against using "off-label" quinine drugs to treat leg cramps. Use Tonic water is often used as a drink mixer for cocktails, especially gin and tonic. Vodka tonic is also popular. Tonic water with lemon or lime juice added is known as bitter lemon or bitter lime, respectively. It is popular for its signature bitter but sweet taste, and it differs from soda water due to its additional components of quinine and sugar to carbonated water. Another use of tonic water is in Coffee. The Espresso & Tonic was created in Helsingborg, Sweden at Koppi Roasters after a staff party where they mixed tonic water, syrup, and an espresso. Since 2007, the drink has grown in popularity in Scandinavia, Europe, and the United States. Negative effects Tonic water is known to cause fixed eruptions, which is a type of skin reaction to drugs, due to the quinine content. Various scientific journals have reported the repeated intake of tonic water can cause fixed eruptions with varying severity, with one reporting the onset of Stevens-Johnson syndrome. The cases of fixed eruptions were seen after the patients drank tonic water, by itself or mixed with gin. Some symptoms of the fixed eruptions include pigmented macules, high fever, erythematous plaques, and bullous. There is a higher chance of reaction if someone has an abnormal heart rhythm, low blood sugar, is pregnant, or has a kidney or liver disease. Fluorescence The quinine in tonic water will fluoresce under ultraviolet light. In fact, the sensitivity of quinine to ultraviolet light is such that it will appear visibly fluorescent in direct sunlight against a dark background. The quinine molecules release the light energy as light instead of energy in the form of heat, like most molecules. The release of light energy is when the glow is visible to human eyes, but this state is not stable and the molecules will eventually return to ground state and no longer glow. See also Água de Inglaterra References External links Carbonated water Drink mixers Quinine Soft drinks

SoHo, Manhattan

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SoHo, sometimes written Soho, is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan in New York City. Since the 20th century it has been the location of many artists' lofts and art galleries, and has also been known for its variety of shops ranging from trendy upscale boutiques to national and international chain store outlets. The area's history is an archetypal example of inner-city regeneration and gentrification, encompassing socioeconomic, cultural, political, and architectural developments. The name "SoHo" derives from the area being "South of Houston Street", and was coined in 1962 by Chester Rapkin, an urban planner and author of The South Houston Industrial Area study, also known as the "Rapkin Report". The name also recalls Soho, an area in London's West End. Almost all of SoHo is included in the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District, which was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1973, extended in 2010, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978. It consists of 26 blocks and approximately 500 buildings, many of them incorporating cast-iron architectural elements. Many side streets in the district are paved with Belgian blocks. SoHo is part of Manhattan Community District 2 and its primary ZIP Codes are 10012 and 10013. It is patrolled by the 1st and 5th Precincts of the New York City Police Department. Geography Boundaries Because of the nature of neighborhoods in New York City, different sources will often give different boundaries for each one. In the case of SoHo, all sources appear to agree that the northern boundary is Houston Street, and the southern boundary is Canal Street, but the location of the eastern and western boundaries is disputed. In 1974, shortly after SoHo first came into existence, The New York Times described the boundaries as "stretching from Houston to Canal Streets between West Broadway and Lafayette Street" – a definition it continued to hold to in 2016 – but The Encyclopedia of New York City reports that SoHo is bounded by Crosby Street on the east, and Sixth Avenue to the west. These are the same boundaries shown by Google Maps. However, the AIA Guide to New York City gives the western boundary of SoHo north of Broome Street as being West Broadway, and New York magazine gives the eastern boundary as Lafayette Street and the western boundary as the Hudson River. The map at the Community Board 2 profile page on New York City's official website has "SOHO" written near Broadway in the space roughly equidistant between Houston Street and Canal Street. In the 1990s, real estate agents began giving an adjacent neighborhood below West Houston Street various appellations, with no general agreement on whether it should be called (or included as part of) West SoHo, Hudson Square or the South Village. The AIA Guide calls that neighborhood "An intersection of brick and glass, searching for an identity", and refers to the western section of it as "The Glass Box District". Unlike Hudson Square, the South Village has traditionally appeared on maps of Community District 2, centered near the intersection of Houston Street and Avenue of the Americas. The more recent map of Community District 2 contains both the South Village and Hudson Square, with the latter written in the area below Houston Street, between Hudson Street and the Hudson River. Historic District The SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District is contained within the zoned SoHo neighborhood. Originally ending in the west at the eastern side of West Broadway and to the east at the western side of Crosby Street, the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District was expanded in 2010 to cover most of West Broadway and to extend east to Lafayette and Centre Streets. The boundary lines are not straight, and some block-fronts on West Broadway and Lafayette are excluded from the District. History Early years During the colonial period, the land that is now SoHo was part of a grant of farmland given to freed slaves of the Dutch West Indies Company, and the site of the first free Black settlement on Manhattan island. This land was acquired in the 1660s by Augustine Hermann, and then passed to his brother-in-law, Nicholas Bayard. The estate was confiscated by the state as a result of Bayard's part in Leisler's Rebellion, but was returned to him after the sentence was annulled. In the 18th century natural barriers – streams and hills – impeded the growth of the city northward into the Bayard estate, and the area maintained its rural character. During the American Revolution, the area was the location of numerous fortifications, redoubts and breastworks. After the war, Bayard, who had suffered financially because of it, was forced to mortgage some of the property, which was divided up into lots, but even then there was very little development in the area, aside from some manufacturing at Broadway and Canal Street. Serious development of the area did not begin until the Common Council, answering the complaints of landowners in the area, drained the Collect Pond, which had once been an important source of fresh water for the island, but which had become polluted and rank and a breeding ground for mosquitoes. A canal was built to drain the pond into the Hudson, and the canal and pond were both later filled in using earth from nearby Bayard's Hill. Once Broadway was paved and sidewalks were built there and along Canal Street, more people began to make their homes there, joining earlier arrivals such as James Fennimore Cooper. Commerce, entertainment, and decline By the mid-19th century, the early Federal- and Greek Revival-style homes were replaced by more-solid structures of masonry and cast iron, and along Broadway, large marble-skinned commercial establishments began to open, such as Lord & Taylor, Arnold Constable & Company and Tiffany & Company, as well as grand hotels such as the St. Nicholas and the Metropolitan. Theatres followed in their wake, and Broadway between Canal and Houston Streets became a lively theater and shopping district and the entertainment center of New York; as usual with such areas, it was home to many brothels as well, and the side streets off of Broadway became the city's red-light district. As this change in character drove out the middle-class, their place was taken by small manufacturing concerns, including cabinet-makers and the lumberyards that supplied them, brass and copper firms, makers of china and glassware, locksmiths, snuff manufacturers and book publishers. This dramatic shift in the nature of the neighborhood continued to drive out residents, and between 1860 and 1865 the Eighth Ward, which included the SoHo area, lost 25% of its population. After the Civil War and the Panic of 1873, in the 1880s and 1890s, large manufacturers began to move into the area, especially textile firms, and the area became the mercantile and wholesale dry-goods trade center of the city, and was the subject of significant real-estate speculation. This phase came to an end by the close of the 19th century, and as the center of the city continued to move uptown, the quality of the area declined. After World War II, the textile industry largely moved to the South, leaving many large buildings in the district unoccupied. In some buildings they were replaced by warehouses and printing plants, and other buildings were torn down to be replaced by gas stations, auto repair shops and parking lots and garages. By the 1950s, the area had become known as Hell's Hundred Acres, an industrial wasteland, full of sweatshops and small factories in the daytime, but empty at night. It would not be until the 1960s, when artists began to be interested in the tall ceilings and many windows of the empty manufacturing lofts, that the character of the neighborhood began to change again. Cast-iron architecture SoHo boasts the greatest collection of cast-iron architecture in the world. Approximately 250 cast-iron buildings stand in New York City, and the majority are in SoHo. Cast iron was initially used as a decorative front over a pre-existing building. With the addition of modern, decorative facades, older industrial buildings were able to attract new commercial clients. Most of these facades were constructed during the period from 1840 to 1880. In addition to revitalizing older structures, buildings in SoHo were later designed to feature the cast iron. An American architectural innovation, cast iron was cheaper to use for facades than materials such as stone or brick. Molds of ornamentation, prefabricated in foundries, were used interchangeably for many buildings, and a broken piece could be easily recast. The buildings could be erected quickly; some were built in four months. Despite the brief construction period, the quality of the cast-iron designs was not sacrificed. Bronze had previously been the metal most frequently used for architectural detail. Architects found that the relatively inexpensive cast iron could provide intricately designed patterns. Classical French and Italian architectural designs were often used as models for these facades. Because stone was the material associated with architectural masterpieces, cast iron, painted in neutral tints such as beige, was used to simulate stone. There was a profusion of cast iron foundries in New York, including Badger's Architectural Iron Works, James L. Jackson's Iron Works, and Cornell Iron Works. Since the iron was pliable and easily molded, sumptuously curved window frames were created, and the strength of the metal allowed these frames considerable height. The once-somber, gas-lit interiors of the industrial district were flooded with sunlight through the enlarged windows. The strength of cast iron permitted high ceilings with sleek supporting columns, and interiors became expansive and functional. During cast iron's heyday, many architects thought it to be structurally more sound than steel. It was also thought that cast iron would be fire-resistant, and facades were constructed over many interiors built of wood and other flammable materials. When exposed to heat, cast iron buckled, and later cracked under the cold water used to extinguish fire. In 1899, a building code mandating the backing of cast-iron fronts with masonry was passed. Most of the buildings that stand today are constructed in this way. It was the advent of steel as a major construction material that brought an end to the cast iron era. Lower Manhattan Expressway In the 1960s, the SoHo area was to have been the location of two enormous elevated highways that comprised the two branches of the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a Robert Moses project that was intended to create an automobile and truck through-route connecting the Manhattan Bridge and Williamsburg Bridge on the east with the Holland Tunnel on the west. The young historic preservation movement and architectural critics, stung by the destruction of the original Pennsylvania Station in 1963 and the threat to other historic structures, challenged the plans because of the threatened loss of a huge quantity of 19th-century cast-iron buildings. When John V. Lindsay became mayor of New York City in 1966, his initial reaction was to try to push the expressways through, dubbing the project the Lower Manhattan Expressway, depressing some of the proposed highway in residential areas and stressing the importance of the artery to the city. Nevertheless, through the efforts of Jane Jacobs, Tony D'Apolito, Margot Gayle, and other local, civic, and cultural leaders, as well as SoHo artist residents themselves, the project was derailed. Artists move in After the abandonment of the highway scheme, the city was left with a large number of historic buildings that were unattractive for the kinds of manufacturing and commerce that survived in the city in the 1970s. The upper floors of many of these buildings had been built as commercial Manhattan lofts, which provided large, unobstructed spaces for manufacturing and other industrial uses. These spaces attracted artists who valued them for their large areas, large windows admitting natural light and low rents. Most of these spaces were also used illegally as living space, despite being neither zoned nor equipped for residential use. This widespread zoning violation was ignored for a long period of time, as the artist-occupants were using space for which there was little demand due to the city's poor economy at the time, and would have lain dormant or been abandoned otherwise. Nevertheless, as the artist population grew, the city made some attempts to stem the movement, concerned about the occupation of space that did not meet residential building codes, and the possibility that the occupied space might be needed for the return of manufacturing to New York City. Pressured on many sides, and organizations such as the Artist Tenant Association and later the Soho Artist Association, the city abandoned attempts to keep the district as strictly industrial space, and in 1971, the Zoning Resolution was amended to permit Joint Live-Work Quarters for artists, and the M1-5a and M-5b districting was established to permit visual artists, certified as such by the Department of Cultural Affairs, to live where they worked. In 1987, non-artists residing in SoHo and NoHo were permitted to grandfather themselves, but that was the only extension to non-artists and was a one-time agreement. The area received landmark designation as the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District in 1973. Gentrification and shopping In 2005, the construction of residential buildings on empty lots in the historic district was permitted. Nevertheless, with no enforcement of the new zoning laws by the city, beginning in the 1980s, in a way that would later apply elsewhere, the neighborhood began to draw more affluent residents. Due to rent protection and stability afforded by the 1982 Loft Law, in addition to the fact that many of the artists owned their co-ops, many of the original pioneering artists remained despite the popular misconception that gentrification forced them to flee. Many residents have lived in the neighborhood for decades. In the mid-1990s, most of the galleries moved to Chelsea, but several galleries remain as of 2013, including DTR Modern Galleries, William Bennett Gallery, Martin Lawrence Galleries, Terrain Gallery, Franklin Bowles Gallery, and Pop International Gallery. SoHo's location, the appeal of lofts as living spaces, its architecture, and its reputation as a haven for artists all contributed to this change. The pattern of gentrification is typically known as the "SoHo Effect" and has been observed elsewhere in the United States. A backwater of poor artists and small factories in the 1970s, SoHo became a popular tourist destination for people seeking fashionable clothing and exquisite architecture, and home to some of the most expensive real estate in the country. SoHo's chain outlets are clustered in the northern area of the neighborhood, along Broadway and Prince and Spring Streets. The sidewalks in this area are often crowded with tourists and with vendors selling jewelry, T-shirts, and other works. SoHo is known for its commercialization and eclectic mix of boutiques for shopping—although in 2010, it had twice as many chain stores as boutiques and three times as many boutiques as art galleries. Rezoning Despite the significant change in the neighborhood's character in the previous decades, by the end of the 2010s the area's zoning still reflected its industrial heritage; any new residential development required special permits. As such, in 2019 the city began a public consultation process called "Envision SoHo/NoHo" to plan for future growth and manage change, and ultimately to bring land use rules in line with the mainly residential and commercial present-day reality of the neighborhood. A coalition of nearly two dozen housing and social organizations, led by pro-housing advocacy group Open New York, and including the Citizens Housing and Planning Council, the Regional Plan Association, and Habitat for Humanity, seized on the idea of a rezoning as a means of alleviating the city's housing shortage. In October 2019, the coalition put forward a rezoning plan that would produce 3,400 additional housing units, nearly 700 of which would be affordable, and later that month the city officially proposed a similar plan that envisaged the creation of 3,200 new residential units and up to 800 affordable units. Observers suggested that the coalition's campaign for a residential rezoning had spurred a previously reluctant mayor to act, noting that even real estate industry groups like the Real Estate Board of New York (REBNY), the city's largest real estate trade organization, had shown no interest in a rezoning of SoHo and NoHo. The proposal was immediately contentious; while most major candidates in the Democratic mayoral and Manhattan borough president primaries endorsed the plan, at least in principle, candidates for the city council district were more divided. A group of a half-dozen neighborhood groups, led by the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation, put forth a "community alternative plan" which they claimed would create more affordable housing without any major new development, and a report attacking the city's plan, a claim that was challenged by the city and other civic organizations. Carl Weisbrod, former chairman of the New York City Planning Commission said the GVSHP's report was "misleading and disingenuous", and a spokesman for the mayor's office described the "community alternative plan" as "an exercise in magical thinking". In July 2021, the area's community board voted to reject the proposal, although the vote was ultimately non-binding. In September 2021, Manhattan Borough president Gale Brewer expressed concerns about the plan, particularly the potential for the plan to incentivize commercial development rather than residential, a criticism echoed by some of the housing advocates who had initially pushed for the plan. Demographics For census purposes, the New York City government classifies SoHo as part of a larger neighborhood tabulation area called SoHo-TriBeCa-Civic Center-Little Italy. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of SoHo-TriBeCa-Civic Center-Little Italy was 42,742, a change of 5,985 (14%) from the 36,757 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 66.1% (28,250) White, 2.2% (934) African American, 0.1% (30) Native American, 22.2% (9,478) Asian, 0% (11) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (171) from other races, and 2.6% (1,098) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.5% (2,770) of the population. The entirety of Community District 2, which comprises SoHo and Greenwich Village, had 91,638 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 85.8 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (42%) are between the ages of 25–44, while 24% are between 45–64, and 15% are 65 or older. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 9% and 10% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community Districts 1 and 2 (including the Financial District and Tribeca) was $144,878, though the median income in SoHo individually was $124,396. In 2018, an estimated 9% of SoHo and Greenwich Village residents lived in poverty, compared to 20% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. One in twenty-five residents (4%) were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 38% in SoHo and Greenwich Village, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , SoHo and Greenwich Village are considered high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying. Police and crime SoHo and Lower Manhattan are patrolled by the 1st Precinct of the NYPD, at 16 Ericsson Place. The 1st Precinct ranked 63rd safest out of 69 city precincts for per-capita crime in 2010. Though the number of crimes is low compared to other NYPD precincts, the residential population is also much lower. With a non-fatal assault rate of 10 per 100,000 people, SoHo's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 100 per 100,000 people is also lower than that of the city as a whole. The 1st Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 86.3% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct saw 1 murder, 23 rapes, 80 robberies, 61 felony assaults, 85 burglaries, 1,085 grand larcenies, and 21 grand larcenies auto in 2018. Fire safety SoHo is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations: Engine Co. 24/Ladder Co. 5/Battalion 2 – 227 6th Avenue Ladder Co. 20/Division 1 – 253 Lafayette Street Health Preterm births are more common in SoHo and Greenwich Village than in other places citywide, though teenage births are less common. In SoHo and Greenwich Village, there were 91 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 1 teenage birth per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide), though the teenage birth rate is based on a small sample size. SoHo and Greenwich Village have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, less than the citywide rate of 12%, though this was based on a small sample size. The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in SoHo and Greenwich Village is , more than the city average. Sixteen percent of SoHo and Greenwich Village residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In SoHo and Greenwich Village, 4% of residents are obese, 3% are diabetic, and 15% have high blood pressure, the lowest rates in the city—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 5% of children are obese, the lowest rate in the city, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Ninety-six percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is more than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 91% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in SoHo and Greenwich Village, there are 7 bodegas. The nearest major hospitals are Beth Israel Medical Center in Stuyvesant Town, as well as the Bellevue Hospital Center and NYU Langone Medical Center in Kips Bay, and NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area. Post offices and ZIP Codes SoHo is within two primary ZIP Codes. The area north of Broome Street is in 10012 while the area south of Broome Street is in 10013. The United States Postal Service operates two post offices, both in ZIP 10014, near SoHo: Village Station – 201 Varick Street at King Street. West Village Station – 527 Hudson Street between West 10th and Charles streets. Education SoHo and Greenwich Village generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. The vast majority of residents age 25 and older (84%) have a college education or higher, while 4% have less than a high school education and 12% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of SoHo and Greenwich Village students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period. SoHo and Greenwich Village's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In SoHo and Greenwich Village, 7% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 91% of high school students in SoHo and Greenwich Village graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%. Schools There are no New York City Department of Education schools in SoHo, although there are several just outside its borders, including: Broome Street Academy Charter School (M522, 121 Avenue of the Americas) Chelsea Career & Technical Education High School (M615, 131 Avenue of the Americas) NYC Ischool (M376, 131 Avenue of the Americas) P.S. 130 Hernando de Soto School (M130, 143 Baxter Street) Unity Center for Urban Technologies (M500, 121 Avenue of the Americas) The Montessori School in SoHo is at 75 Sullivan Street. Library The New York Public Library's Mulberry Street branch at 10 Jersey Street. The library occupies three floors of a former chocolate factory in SoHo, including two basement levels. Transportation SoHo can be reached by the New York City Subway, using the to Spring Street; to Houston Street; the to Prince Street; and the to Spring Street. The crosstown on Houston Street and the north-south bus routes also serve the neighborhood. See also Leslie Lohman Gay Art Foundation Soho Grand Hotel Vesuvio Playground References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links SoHo Alliance Community organization SoHo, New York – Mixed Use, Density and the Power of Myth by Alistair Barr, Architect Arts districts Cast-iron architecture in New York City Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan Historic districts in Lower Manhattan New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan New York City designated historic districts National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan Historical red-light districts in the United States Red-light districts in New York (state)

Piazza San Marco

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Piazza San Marco (; ), often known in English as St Mark's Square, is the principal public square of Venice, Italy, where it is generally known just as la Piazza ("the Square"). All other urban spaces in the city (except the Piazzetta and the Piazzale Roma) are called campi ("fields"). The Piazzetta ("little Piazza/Square") is an extension of the Piazza towards San Marco basin in its south east corner (see plan). The two spaces together form the social, religious and political centre of Venice and are commonly considered together. This article relates to both of them. A remark usually attributed (though without proof) to Napoleon calls the Piazza San Marco "the drawing room of Europe". Description The square is dominated at its eastern end by St Mark's Basilica. It is described here by a perambulation starting from the west front of the church (facing the length of the piazza) and proceeding to the right. The church is described in the article St Mark's Basilica, but there are aspects of it which are so much a part of the piazza that mentioned here, including the whole of its western facade with its great arches and marble decoration, the Romanesque carvings around the central doorway and, the four horses which preside over the whole piazza and are such potent symbols of the pride and power of Venice that the Genoese in 1379 said that there could be no peace between the two cities until these horses had been bridled; four hundred years later, Napoleon, after he had conquered Venice, had them taken down and shipped to Paris. The Piazzetta dei Leoncini is an open space on the north side of the church named after the two marble lions (presented by Doge Alvise Mocenigo in 1722), but now officially called the Piazzetta San Giovanni XXIII. The neo-classic building on the east side adjoining the Basilica is the Palazzo Patriarcale, the seat of the Patriarch of Venice. Beyond that is St Mark's Clocktower (Torre dell'Orologio), completed in 1499, above a high archway where the street known as the Merceria (a main thoroughfare of the city) leads through shopping streets to the Rialto, the commercial and financial centre. To the right of the clock-tower is the closed church of San Basso, designed by Baldassarre Longhena (1675), sometimes open for exhibitions. To the left is the long arcade along the north side of the piazza, the buildings on this side are known as the Procuratie Vecchie, the old procuracies, formerly the homes and offices of the Procurators of St Mark, high officers of state in the days of the republic of Venice. They were built in the early 16th century. The arcade is lined with shops and restaurants at ground level, with offices above. The restaurants include the famous Caffè Quadri, which was patronized by the Austrians when Venice was ruled by Austria in the 19th century, while the Venetians preferred Florian's on the other side of the piazza. Turning left at the end, the arcade continues along the west end of the piazza, which was rebuilt by Napoleon about 1810 and is known as the Ala Napoleonica (Napoleonic Wing). It holds, behind the shops, a ceremonial staircase which was to have led to a royal palace but now forms the entrance to the Museo Correr (Correr Museum). Turning left again, the arcade continues down the south side of the Piazza. The buildings on this side are known as the Procuratie Nuove (new procuracies), which were designed by Jacopo Sansovino in the mid-16th century but partly built (1582–86) after his death by Vincenzo Scamozzi apparently with alterations required by the procurators and finally completed by Baldassarre Longhena about 1640. Again, the ground floor has shops and also the Caffè Florian, a famous cafe opened in 1720 by Floriano Francesconi, which was patronised by the Venetians when the hated Austrians were at Quadri's. The upper floors were intended by Napoleon to be a palace for his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, his viceroy in Venice, and now houses the Museo Correr. At the far end the Procuratie meet the north end of Sansovino's Libreria (mid-16th century), whose main front faces the piazzetta and is described there. The arcade continues round the corner into the Piazzetta. Opposite to this, standing free in the piazza, is St Mark's Campanile (1156–73 last restored in 1514), rebuilt in 1912 com'era, dov'era ("as it was, where it was") after the collapse of the former campanile on 14 July 1902. Adjacent to the campanile, facing towards the church, is the small building known as the Loggetta del Sansovino, built by Sansovino in 1537–46 and used as a lobby by patricians waiting to go into a meeting of the Great Council in the Doge's Palace and by guards when the council was sitting. Across the piazza in front of the church are three large mast-like flagpoles with bronze bases decorated in high relief by Alessandro Leopardi in 1505. The Venetian flag of St Mark used to fly from them in the time of the republic of Venice and now shares them with the Italian flag. Description of the Piazzetta The Piazzetta di San Marco is, strictly speaking, not part of the Piazza but an adjoining open space connecting the south side of the Piazza to the waterway of the lagoon. The Piazzetta lies between the Doge's Palace on the east and Jacopo Sansovino's Biblioteca (Library) which holds the Biblioteca Marciana on the west. At the corner near the campanile, this (west) side is occupied entirely by the Biblioteca (Library) designed by Jacopo Sansovino to hold the Biblioteca Marciana (library of St Mark). Building started in 1537 and it was extended, after the death of Sansovino, by Vincenzo Scamozzi in 1588–91. The building was said by Palladio to be "the most magnificent and ornate structure built since ancient times". The arcade continues to the end of the building with cafés and shops and also the entrances to the Archaeological Museum, the Biblioteca Marciana and the National Library, which occupy the floors above. At the end of this building is the Molo (the quay fronting the lagoon) and the adjoining building to the right is the Zecca (mint) also by Sansovino (completed 1547) and now part of the Biblioteca Marciana. Turning to the left at the end of the Biblioteca one crosses the open end of the Piazzetta marked by two large granite columns carrying symbols of the two patron saints of Venice. The first is Saint Theodore, who was the patron of the city before St Mark, holding a spear and with a crocodile to represent the dragon which he was said to have slain. This is made up of parts of antique statues and is a copy (the original is kept in the Doge's Palace). The second (eastern) column has a creature representing a winged lion — the Lion of Venice — which is the symbol of St Mark. This has a long history, probably starting as a winged lion-griffin on a monument to the god Sandon at Tarsus in Cilicia (Southern Turkey) about 300 BC. The columns are now thought to have been erected about 1268, when the water was closer and they would have been on the edge of the lagoon, framing the entry to the city from the sea. Gambling was permitted in the space between the columns and this right was said to have been granted as a reward to the man who first raised the columns. Public executions also took place between the columns. On the far side of the Piazzetta is the side wall of the Doge's Palace with Gothic arcades at ground level and a loggia on the floor above. Up to the seventh pillar from the front this is the building as rebuilt in 1340, while the extension towards the Basilica was added in 1424. The capitals of the columns of the extended part are mostly copies of those in the front of the Palace. The seventh pillar is marked by a tondo (circular sculpture) of Venice as Justice above the first floor loggia. To the left of this, there are two red pillars in front of the first-floor loggia, contrasting with the other pillars which are of white Istrian stone. The red pillars are made of red Verona marble. They may have framed the Doge's chair on ceremonial occasions, but it seems that important malefactors found guilty of crimes against the state would sometimes be executed there. On the rear corner of the Doge's Palace is a sculpture of the Judgment of Solomon with the archangel Gabriel above. The sculptors are not known. Set back from this corner is the Porta della Carta, the ceremonial entrance to the palace, built in fine Gothic style in 1438–43, probably by Giovanni and Bartolomeo Bon. Again, there is at the top a figure of Venice as Justice, the theme of fair judgment and justice being much emphasised on this side of the palace. Below this, the head of Doge Francisco Foscari and the lion before which he is kneeling were replaced in 1885, the originals having been destroyed on French orders in 1797. The statues on either side of the gateway represent the cardinal virtues of Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence and Charity. Next to this, on an outside corner of the basilica of St Mark, are four antique figures carved in porphyry, a very hard red granite. They are usually known as the Tetrarchs and said to represent the four joint rulers of the Roman Empire appointed by Diocletian and were formerly thought to be Egyptian. It is now thought probable (or, at least very possible) that they represent the sons of the Emperor Constantine, praised for their loving co-operation on his death in 337, especially as the work originally stood in the Philadelphion (Place of Brotherly Love) in Constantinople, where the missing foot of one of the figures has been found. Beyond this, in front of the South wall of the Basilica are two rectangular pillars always known as the Pillars of Acre. They were thought to be booty taken by the Venetians from Acre after their great victory over the Genoese there in 1258, but this traditional story has also had to be revised. The pillars actually came from the church of St Polyeuktos in Constantinople (524-7), and were probably taken by the Venetians soon after the fourth crusade in 1204. The ruins of this church were discovered in 1960 and it was excavated in the 1990s, when capitals were found, which matched the pillars. Beyond these pillars, opposite the corner of the Basilica, is a great circular stone of red porphyry known as the Pietra del Bando (Proclamation Stone) from which official proclamations used to be read. It has been suggested that this may have formed part of a column on which the so-called Tetrarchs stood. Across the water (the Bacino di San Marco) at the end of the Piazzetta can be seen the island of San Giorgio Maggiore and the brilliant white facade of Palladio's church there. History The history of the Piazza San Marco can be conveniently covered in four periods, but the only pre-renaissance buildings and monuments still standing there are St Mark's, the Doge's Palace and the two great columns in the Piazzetta. Beginnings (800–1100) The first patron saint of Venice was St Theodore, a Greek warrior saint, and the first chapel of the Doge was dedicated to him. It was probably built about 819 and stood near the site of the present church of St Mark. In 828–829 relics of St Mark were stolen from Alexandria and brought to Venice, and in time the Venetians and the Doge adopted the apostle as their new patron. He was the missionary-apostle who was said to have converted their district; the relics of an apostle would increase the importance of the city and their acquisition was a further step in the gradual process of freeing Venice from the domination of Byzantium. The relics were temporarily placed in the palace (or castle) of the Doge, Justinian Partecipacius, who provided in his will for a new church to be built. This first church of St Mark was begun on the south side of the existing chapel; by 836 construction was sufficiently advanced for the relics to be moved there. The design of the church was based on the Church of the Twelve Apostles in Constantinople and it seems to have covered the same area as the central part of the present church. A campanile was first built in the time of Doge Pietro Tribuno (888–91). At that time there was probably an empty space covered with grass in front of the new church, but it cannot have extended more than about 60 metres to the west, where there was a stream (the Rio Baratario) bisecting the area now occupied by the Piazza. On the other side of this stream was a small church dedicated to San Geminiano. The Doge's palace, in the same area as its modern successor, was at that time surrounded by water. The lagoon was to the south, the Rio di Palazzo (the canal beneath the Bridge of Sighs) to the east, and another stream to the north between the palace and the church. There was an inlet from the lagoon occupying much of the space now covered by the Piazzetta and this seems to have been used as a dock for the city. In 976 there was a rebellion against the Doge and the church was set on fire. The wooden parts, including the roof and wooden dome, were probably lost, but the church was not completely destroyed and it seems to have been rebuilt much as before. In 1063 a complete rebuilding commenced. The new church was finished in the time of Doge Vitale Falier (1084–96), and in its main structure this is the present church, though the west front facing the Piazza was then in the Romanesque style with undecorated brickwork (like the exterior of the apse today). It had five domes, but their exterior profile was low, unlike the present high, onion-shaped structures. Medieval piazza (1100–1490) Great changes to the area came when Sebastiano Ziani was Doge (1172–78). Venice was growing in importance and the Doge was a very wealthy man. He initiated the changes which created the piazza as we know it. The Rio Baratario was filled in and the church of San Geminiano on the far side was demolished and rebuilt much farther back at the western end of what became the Piazza. An orchard which occupied part of the area was acquired from the convent of San Zaccharia and the Doge bought up a number of buildings which obstructed the site. By his will he left these buildings to the state and in due course they were demolished to clear the area. The rebuilding of the 9th-century Doge's palace also commenced in his time as Doge. The precise date of the various new buildings is not known and much must have been done in the time of his son, Pietro Ziani, who was Doge from 1205 to 1229. The area of the piazza was now defined by the erection of buildings on the north and south sides. On the north side were the procuratie, residences and offices for the procurators of St Mark. The original procuratie were a range of two-storey buildings with a continuous arcade of stilted (i.e. tall and narrow) Byzantine arches below and a single storey above, with two windows above each arch. The ground floor rooms were let out for shops to provide an income. These buildings remained in place for about 300 years and we can see exactly how they looked in 1496 in Gentile Bellini's painting of a procession in the piazza. This painting also shows the buildings on the opposite (south) side of the Piazza, of which the most important was the Ospizio Orseolo, an inn or hostel for pilgrims going to the Holy Land. It can be seen that the piazza was then considerably narrower than it is today, because these buildings abutted directly against the west wall of the campanile. In 1204, Constantinople was captured in the course of the 4th Crusade and, both at that time and later during the 13th century, much valuable material was taken from the city and shipped back for the adornment of Venice. This included marbles and pillars for the facade of St Mark's, the two square pillars in the piazzetta known (wrongly) as the Pillars of Acre and probably also the Pietra del Bando (near the south west corner of St Mark's) and the four porphyry figures known as the Tetrarchs, which were eventually installed near the entrance to the Doge's Palace from the piazzetta. The two great granite columns in the Piazzetta are usually said to have been erected about 1170, but it is now thought more probable that this was done in the time of Doge Ranieri Zeno (1253–68) about 1268; the bases and capitals are 13th-century. Their origin is unknown, but Chios is suggested as possible. The lion is first mentioned in a decree of the Great Council in 1293, and the wording makes it clear that it was already on the pillar at that date. A statue of St Theodore (but not the present statue) was in place by 1329. It was also at this time, in the later 13th century, that St Mark's was being given its new west facade embellished with marble and mosaics and trophies from Constantinople, including the four horses. The original 9th-century Doge's palace was soon found too small for the number of patricians sitting on the Great Council after the right to do so was made hereditary in 1297, and rebuilding started in 1340. Work was held up by the Black Death in 1348 but the first stage was completed by 1365. This comprised the front part of the palace facing the lagoon, but in the Piazzetta the new building only extended to the seventh pillar back from the front corner, now marked by a circular relief of Venice as Justice on the outside of the first-floor arcade. Further back, part of the old palace, known as the Palace of Justice, remained, much as it had stood for about 200 years. Because of the great expense involved, nothing more was done for many years, but in 1422 the Doge Tomaso Mocenigo insisted that for the honour of the city the remaining part of the old palace should be demolished and the new part extended. It was resolved that the existing facade should be continued in the same style, and work started in 1424 under the new Doge Francesco Foscari. The extended facade had reached the corner by 1438 and the point where the 15th-century part joins the 14th-century part can only be recognised by the circular relief of Justice above the seventh pillar from the front corner and the fact that that pillar is larger than the others, having held up the corner of the building for 80 years. The capitals on this facade are, for the most part, copies of the existing capitals on the front facade. The last pillar, at the north-western corner of the building, is a very large column and, continuing the theme of Justice, bears a large relief carving of the Judgment of Solomon, with the archangel Gabriel above it. The sculptor is not known, although various suggestions have been made including Bartolomeo Buon from Venice and Jacopo della Quercia from Siena and several art historians think that the sculpture of the Judgment of Solomon (which must have been made in the period 1424/38) shows influence from Tuscany. Eduardo Arslan, after reviewing all the theories in 1971, concluded that this sculpture "remains for us a great mystery". In 1438 a contract was made with Giovanni and Bartolomeo Buon for the construction of a great ceremonial doorway into the palace. This was the Porta della Carta and connected the newly constructed wing of the palace with the south wall of St Mark's. Giovanni was nearing the end of his life and the gateway is mainly the work of Bartolomeo. It was completed by 1442 and included a sculpture of the Doge Francesco Foscari kneeling before the lion of St Mark. The statues of the cardinal virtues on either side were by another hand. Originally the whole gateway was painted and gilded. This is just visible in the right background of Gentile Bellini's painting of 1496, which shows the piazza in its state at this time, still narrow and with the old 13th-century buildings on either side. From the Renaissance to the fall of the Republic (1490–1797) In 1493 an astronomical clock was commissioned by Venice and it was decided to install it in a new clocktower in the Piazza with a high archway beneath it leading into the street known as the Merceria, which leads to the Rialto. The building, which was probably designed by Codussi, was started in 1496, a section of the original Procuratie being demolished for the purpose. The building was completed with the clock installed by February 1499. It can be seen, flanked by the original Procuratie building, in de Barbari's woodcut of Venice in 1500. The Procuratie then were only two storeys high and the tower stood higher above them than it does today. Buildings on either side to support the tower were added by 1506 and in 1512, when there was a fire in the old Procuratie, it became obvious that the whole range would have to be rebuilt. Despite the fact that Venice was then at war with much of Europe (War of the League of Cambrai) the whole of the south side of the Piazza was rebuilt, starting in 1517. The new buildings, known today as the Procuratie Vecchie, were three storeys high instead of two. Like the previous Procuratie they had an arcade on the ground level with two windows above each arch, but without the high Byzantine arches and with classical details. In 1527 Jacopo Sansovino came to Venice, fleeing from the sack of Rome, and by 1529 he had been appointed as Proto (consultant architect and buildings manager) to the Procurators of St. Mark. The Procurators wished to rebuild the old buildings on the south side of the Piazza, but Sansovino persuaded them that the opportunity should be taken to enlarge the Piazza and that these buildings should be demolished and the building line moved back clear of the campanile. He also convinced them that the old hostelries and shops on the west side of the Piazzetta opposite the Doge's Palace should be replaced by a new building worthy of the site. It was decided that the library of books and manuscripts, which had been bequeathed to the city by Cardinal Bessarion but had still not found a permanent home, should be housed there and Sansovino originally intended that the facade of this building (the Libreria) should eventually be continued along the south side of the Piazza and round the south-west corner as far as the church of San Geminiano in the middle of the west side. These changes also made it necessary to rebuild the Loggetta and at the same time the government of Venice had commissioned Sansovino to rebuild the mint (the Zecca) on the west side of the Libreria. All these works were proceeding together for many years after 1537. The new Loggetta was complete by 1545 and the Zecca by 1547 (though a third storey was added by 1566), but work on the Libreria was held up by the difficulty of finding new premises for the businesses which were displaced as well as by shortage of funds and only sixteen bays (out of twenty-one) had been finished before the death of Sansovino in 1570. By that date it had not yet been possible to start on the rebuilding of the south side of the Piazza beyond the Libreria. Sansovino also completed the rebuilding of the old church of San Geminiano at the west end of the Piazza, facing St Mark's. Much of the work had been done before he took it over in 1557, but he was responsible for the facade in white Istrian stone. He also continued the range of Procuratie Vecchie on the north side of the Piazza round the corner as far as this church. After the death of Sansovino funds were at last made available to start the rebuilding of the south side of the Piazza in its new position well clear of the campanile. His idea of a two-storey building continuing the facade of the Libreria had to be abandoned, as the Procurators required three storeys. However Vincenzo Scamozzi based the design on the facade of the Libreria and completed ten bays between 1582 and 1586, The Procuratie Nuove (New Procuracies), as they are called, were not completed until 1640, when the remaining bays on the south side were completed and continued round the corner to the church of San Geminiano by Baldassarre Longhena. Napoleon and later (1797 onwards) Venice surrendered to Napoleon on 12 May 1797. By 4 June a "Tree of Liberty" had been placed in the Piazza. Soon afterwards stonemasons were sent out on the orders of the Municipality to destroy images of the winged lion, which was seen as a symbol of Venetian independence and aristocratic rule. On the Porta della Carta in the Piazzetta the head of Doge Francesco Foscari was removed as well as that of the lion before which he was kneeling. (They were replaced by copies later in the century). The French ordered the four horses of San Marco to be taken down and sent to Paris together with the bronze lion on the column in the Piazzetta. They were removed in December 1797. In January 1798 under the Treaty of Campoformio the Austrians moved into Venice in place of the French. This first Austrian ascendancy lasted from 1798 to 19 January 1806, when the French moved back after Napoleon's victories at Austerlitz and Jena and his establishment of the kingdom of Italy in 1804. Napoleon appointed his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais as his viceroy and in 1807 it was ordered that the Procuratie Nuove were to become the royal palace for his occupation. Napoleon himself paid a ceremonial visit to Venice later in 1807, landing at the Piazzetta on his way to the new palace. It was decided that the new palace should extend across the whole of the west end of the Piazza and this made it necessary to demolish the church of San Geminiano, rebuilt by Sansovino, and also the buildings on either side, Sansovino's extension of the Procuratie Vecchie to the north and part of the Procuratie Nuove to the south. The original architect was Gianni Antolini from Milan, but the new building caused much controversy and in 1810 he was replaced by Giovanni Soli from Modena. The present building, known as the Ala Napoleonica (the Napoleonic Wing) was built between 1810 and 1813. The facade of the two lower storeys is in the manner of the Procuratie Nuove, but the upper storey, containing the ceremonial entrance and the ballroom, has no windows or arches and is decorated with statues and sculpture in low relief. In the centre there was originally to have been a statue of Napoleon as Jupiter with the imperial arms above, but this was abandoned after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 and there is now no focal point on the west side of the Piazza. After the abdication of Napoleon the Austrians re-occupied Venice (under the Treaty of Fontainebleau) in April 1814. The Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, was instrumental in arranging the return to Venice of the four horses of St Mark and the lion from the Piazzetta. The horses were re-installed in front of the Basilica on 13 December 1815, but the bronze lion had been badly broken and had to be repaired. It was placed back on its pillar in April 1816. Pavement The Piazza was paved in the late 12th century with bricks laid in a herringbone pattern. Bands of light-colored stone ran parallel to the long axis of the main piazza. These lines were probably used in setting up market stalls and in organizing frequent ceremonial processions. This original pavement design can be seen in paintings of the late Middle Ages and through the Renaissance, such as Gentile Bellini's Procession in Piazza San Marco of 1496. In 1723 the bricks were replaced with a more complex geometrical pavement design laid out by Venetian architect Andrea Tirali. Little is known about Tirali's reasoning for the particulars of the design. Some have speculated that the pattern was used to regulate market stalls, or to recall their former presence in the square. Others believe the pattern was drawn from oriental rugs, a popular luxury item in this trading centre. A field of dark-colored igneous trachyte with geometrical designs executed in white Istrian stone, similar to travertine composed the design. Squares of diagonally laid blocks alternated with rectangular and oval designs along broad parallel bands. The squares were pitched to the centre, like a bowl, where a drain conducted surface water into a below-grade drainage system. The pattern connected the central portal of the Basilica with the centre of the western opening into the piazza. This line more closely parallels the façade of the Procuratie Vecchie, leaving a nearly triangular space adjacent to the Procuratie Nuove with its wider end closed off by the Campanile. The pattern continued past the campanile, stopping at a line connecting the three large flagpoles and leaving the space immediately in front of the Basilica undecorated. A smaller version of the same pattern in the Piazzetta paralleled Sansovino's Library, leaving a narrow trapezoid adjacent to the Doge's palace with the wide end closed off by the southwest corner of the Basilica. This smaller pattern had the internal squares inclined to form non-orthogonal quadrilaterals. The overall alignment of the pavement pattern serves to visually lengthen the long axis and reinforce the position of the Basilica at its head. This arrangement mirrors the interior relationship of nave to altar within the cathedral. As part of the design, the level of the piazza was raised by approximately one meter to mitigate flooding and allow more room for the internal drains to carry water to the Grand Canal. In 1890, the pavement was renewed "due to wear and tear". The new work closely follows Tirali's design, but eliminated the oval shapes and cut off the west edge of the pattern to accommodate the Napoleonic wing at that end of the Piazza. Flooding The Piazza San Marco is not far above sea level and during the Acqua Alta, the "high water" from storm surges from the Adriatic or heavy rain, it is quick to flood. Water pouring into the drains in the piazza runs directly into the Grand Canal. This normally works well but, when the sea is high, it has the reverse effect, with water from the lagoon surging up into the square. References Books Arslan, Edoardo: Gothic Architecture in Venice (translated by Anne Engel). (Phaidon, London. 1971) Boucher, Bruce: Andrea Palladio. The Architect in his Time. (Abbeville Press, 1998) Demus, Otto: The Church of San Marco in Venice. History Architecture Sculpture. (Washington 1960) Goy, Richard: Venice, The City and its Architecture. (Phaidon. 1997) Howard, Deborah: Jacopo Sansovino . Architecture and Patronage in Renaissance Venice (Yale University.Press. 1975) Howard, Deborah: The Architectural History of Venice (Revised & enlarged edition. Yale University Press; New Haven & London 2002.) Janson, Alban & Thorsten Bürklin. (2002). Auftritte Scenes: Interaction with Architectural Space: the Campi of Venice. Basel: Birkhauser. Lien, Barbara. (May 2005). The Role of Pavement in the Perceived Integration of Plazas: An Analysis of the Paving Designs of Four Italian Piazzas. unpublished M.S. thesis. Washington State University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. PDF Lorenzetti, Giulio: Venice and its Lagoon (1926. 2nd edn 1956) translated by John Guthrie (Lint, Trieste. 1975) Macadam, Alta: Venice (6th edition 1998) Norwich, John Julius, Tudy Sammartini, and Gabriele Crozzoli (1999). Decorative Floors of Venice. London: Merrell Publishers. Perocco, Guido & Antonio Salvadori: Civiltà di Venezia. 3 volumes. (3rd edition, revised and corrected. Venice. 1987) Plant, Margaret: Venice Fragile City 1797-1997 (Yale U.P. 2002) Puppi, Lionello. (2002). The Stones of Venice. New York: Vendome Press. San Marco, Byzantium and the Myths of Venice edited by Henry Maguire and Robert S.Nelson (Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. 2010) Sansovino, Francesco: Venetia Città Nobilissima. (Venice. Original edition 1581. Edition of 1663 with additions by Martinioni reprinted in facsimile - Gregg International Publishers Ltd, 1968) Scarfi, Bianca Maria (ed.): The Lion of Venice. Studies & research on the bronze statue in the Piazzetta' . (Venice. 1990) Williams, Kim. (1997). Italian Pavements: Patterns in Space.'' Houston: Anchorage Press. . External links Satellite image from Google Maps St. Mark's Square High Definition Virtual Tour 360° photos of historic Buildings, Cafés, Jewelleries. Piazzas and campos in Venice Renaissance architecture in Venice Tourist attractions in Venice Odonyms referring to religion

Virtual LAN

eng_Latn

A virtual LAN (VLAN) is any broadcast domain that is partitioned and isolated in a computer network at the data link layer (OSI layer 2). LAN is the abbreviation for local area network and in this context virtual refers to a physical object recreated and altered by additional logic. VLANs work by applying tags to network frames and handling these tags in networking systems – creating the appearance and functionality of network traffic that is physically on a single network but acts as if it is split between separate networks. In this way, VLANs can keep network applications separate despite being connected to the same physical network, and without requiring multiple sets of cabling and networking devices to be deployed. VLANs allow network administrators to group hosts together even if the hosts are not directly connected to the same network switch. Because VLAN membership can be configured through software, this can greatly simplify network design and deployment. Without VLANs, grouping hosts according to their resource needs the labor of relocating nodes or rewiring data links. VLANs allow devices that must be kept separate to share the cabling of a physical network and yet be prevented from directly interacting with one another. This managed sharing yields gains in simplicity, security, traffic management, and economy. For example, a VLAN can be used to separate traffic within a business based on individual users or groups of users or their roles (e.g. network administrators), or based on traffic characteristics (e.g. low-priority traffic prevented from impinging on the rest of the network's functioning). Many Internet hosting services use VLANs to separate customers' private zones from one other, allowing each customer's servers to be grouped in a single network segment no matter where the individual servers are located in the data center. Some precautions are needed to prevent traffic "escaping" from a given VLAN, an exploit known as VLAN hopping. To subdivide a network into VLANs, one configures network equipment. Simpler equipment might partition only each physical port (if even that), in which case each VLAN runs over a dedicated network cable. More sophisticated devices can mark frames through VLAN tagging, so that a single interconnect (trunk) may be used to transport data for multiple VLANs. Since VLANs share bandwidth, a VLAN trunk can use link aggregation, quality-of-service prioritization, or both to route data efficiently. Uses VLANs address issues such as scalability, security, and network management. Network architects set up VLANs to provide network segmentation. Routers between VLANs filter broadcast traffic, enhance network security, perform address summarization, and mitigate network congestion. In a network utilizing broadcasts for service discovery, address assignment and resolution and other services, as the number of peers on a network grows, the frequency of broadcasts also increases. VLANs can help manage broadcast traffic by forming multiple broadcast domains. Breaking up a large network into smaller independent segments reduces the amount of broadcast traffic each network device and network segment has to bear. Switches may not bridge network traffic between VLANs, as doing so would violate the integrity of the VLAN broadcast domain. VLANs can also help create multiple layer 3 networks on a single physical infrastructure. VLANs are data link layer (OSI layer 2) constructs, analogous to Internet Protocol (IP) subnets, which are network layer (OSI layer 3) constructs. In an environment employing VLANs, a one-to-one relationship often exists between VLANs and IP subnets, although it is possible to have multiple subnets on one VLAN. Without VLAN capability, users are assigned to networks based on geography and are limited by physical topologies and distances. VLANs can logically group networks to decouple the users' network location from their physical location. By using VLANs, one can control traffic patterns and react quickly to employee or equipment relocations. VLANs provide the flexibility to adapt to changes in network requirements and allow for simplified administration. VLANs can be used to partition a local network into several distinctive segments, for instance: Production Voice over IP Network management Storage area network (SAN) Guest Internet access Demilitarized zone (DMZ) A common infrastructure shared across VLAN trunks can provide a measure of security with great flexibility for a comparatively low cost. Quality of service schemes can optimize traffic on trunk links for real-time (e.g. VoIP) or low-latency requirements (e.g. SAN). However, VLANs as a security solution should be implemented with great care as they can be defeated unless implemented carefully. In cloud computing VLANs, IP addresses, and MAC addresses in the cloud are resources that end users can manage. To help mitigate security issues, placing cloud-based virtual machines on VLANs may be preferable to placing them directly on the Internet. Network technologies with VLAN capabilities include: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Ethernet HiperSockets InfiniBand History After successful experiments with voice over Ethernet from 1981 to 1984, W. David Sincoskie joined Bellcore and began addressing the problem of scaling up Ethernet networks. At 10 Mbit/s, Ethernet was faster than most alternatives at the time. However, Ethernet was a broadcast network and there was no good way of connecting multiple Ethernet networks together. This limited the total bandwidth of an Ethernet network to 10 Mbit/s and the maximum distance between nodes to a few hundred feet. By contrast, although the existing telephone network's speed for individual connections was limited to 56 kbit/s (less than one hundredth of Ethernet's speed), the total bandwidth of that network was estimated at 1 Tbit/s (100,000 times greater than Ethernet). Although it was possible to use IP routing to connect multiple Ethernet networks together, it was expensive and relatively slow. Sincoskie started looking for alternatives that required less processing per packet. In the process, he independently reinvented transparent bridging, the technique used in modern Ethernet switches. However, using switches to connect multiple Ethernet networks in a fault-tolerant fashion requires redundant paths through that network, which in turn requires a spanning tree configuration. This ensures that there is only one active path from any source node to any destination on the network. This causes centrally located switches to become bottlenecks, limiting scalability as more networks are interconnected. To help alleviate this problem, Sincoskie invented VLANs by adding a tag to each Ethernet frame. These tags could be thought of as colors, say red, green, or blue. In this scheme, each switch could be assigned to handle frames of a single color, and ignore the rest. The networks could be interconnected with three spanning trees, one for each color. By sending a mix of different frame colors, the aggregate bandwidth could be improved. Sincoskie referred to this as a multitree bridge. He and Chase Cotton created and refined the algorithms necessary to make the system feasible. This color is what is now known in the Ethernet frame as the IEEE 802.1Q header, or the VLAN tag. While VLANs are commonly used in modern Ethernet networks, they are not used in the manner first envisioned here. In 1998, Ethernet VLANs were described in the first edition of the IEEE 802.1Q-1998 standard. This was extended with IEEE 802.1ad to allow nested VLAN tags in service of provider bridging. This mechanism was improved with IEEE 802.1ah-2008. Configuration and design considerations Early network designers often segmented physical LANs with the aim of reducing the size of the Ethernet collision domain—thus improving performance. When Ethernet switches made this a non-issue (because each switch port is a collision domain), attention turned to reducing the size of the data link layer broadcast domain. VLANs were first employed to separate several broadcast domains across one physical medium. A VLAN can also serve to restrict access to network resources without regard to physical topology of the network. VLANs operate at the data link layer of the OSI model. Administrators often configure a VLAN to map directly to an IP network, or subnet, which gives the appearance of involving the network layer. Generally, VLANs within the same organization will be assigned different non-overlapping network address ranges. This is not a requirement of VLANs. There is no issue with separate VLANs using identical overlapping address ranges (e.g. two VLANs each use the private network ). However, it is not possible to route data between two networks with overlapping addresses without delicate IP remapping, so if the goal of VLANs is segmentation of a larger overall organizational network, non-overlapping addresses must be used in each separate VLAN. A basic switch that is not configured for VLANs has VLAN functionality disabled or permanently enabled with a default VLAN that contains all ports on the device as members. The default VLAN typically uses VLAN identifier 1. Every device connected to one of its ports can send packets to any of the others. Separating ports by VLAN groups separates their traffic very much like connecting each group using a distinct switch for each group. Remote management of the switch requires that the administrative functions be associated with one or more of the configured VLANs. In the context of VLANs, the term trunk denotes a network link carrying multiple VLANs, which are identified by labels (or tags) inserted into their packets. Such trunks must run between tagged ports of VLAN-aware devices, so they are often switch-to-switch or switch-to-router links rather than links to hosts. (Note that the term 'trunk' is also used for what Cisco calls "channels" : Link Aggregation or Port Trunking). A router (Layer 3 device) serves as the backbone for network traffic going across different VLANs. It is only when the VLAN port group is to extend to another device that tagging is used. Since communications between ports on two different switches travel via the uplink ports of each switch involved, every VLAN containing such ports must also contain the uplink port of each switch involved, and traffic through these ports must be tagged. Switches typically have no built-in method to indicate VLAN to port associations to someone working in a wiring closet. It is necessary for a technician to either have administrative access to the device to view its configuration, or for VLAN port assignment charts or diagrams to be kept next to the switches in each wiring closet. Protocols and design The protocol most commonly used today to support VLANs is IEEE 802.1Q. The IEEE 802.1 working group defined this method of multiplexing VLANs in an effort to provide multivendor VLAN support. Prior to the introduction of the 802.1Q standard, several proprietary protocols existed, such as Cisco Inter-Switch Link (ISL) and 3Com's Virtual LAN Trunk (VLT). Cisco also implemented VLANs over FDDI by carrying VLAN information in an IEEE 802.10 frame header, contrary to the purpose of the IEEE 802.10 standard. Both ISL and IEEE 802.1Q perform explicit tagging – the frame itself is tagged with VLAN identifiers. ISL uses an external tagging process that does not modify the Ethernet frame, while 802.1Q uses a frame-internal field for tagging, and therefore does modify the basic Ethernet frame structure. This internal tagging allows IEEE 802.1Q to work on both access and trunk links using standard Ethernet hardware. IEEE 802.1Q Under IEEE 802.1Q, the maximum number of VLANs on a given Ethernet network is 4,094 (4,096 values provided by the 12-bit field minus reserved values at each end of the range, 0 and 4,095). This does not impose the same limit on the number of IP subnets in such a network since a single VLAN can contain multiple IP subnets. IEEE 802.1ad extends the number of VLANs supported by adding support for multiple, nested VLAN tags. IEEE 802.1aq (Shortest Path Bridging) expands the VLAN limit to 16 million. Both improvements have been incorporated into the IEEE 802.1Q standard. Cisco Inter-Switch Link Inter-Switch Link (ISL) is a Cisco proprietary protocol used to interconnect switches and maintain VLAN information as traffic travels between switches on trunk links. ISL is provided as an alternative to IEEE 802.1Q. ISL is available only on some Cisco equipment and has been deprecated. Cisco VLAN Trunking Protocol VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is a Cisco proprietary protocol that propagates the definition of VLANs on the whole local area network. VTP is available on most of the Cisco Catalyst Family products. The comparable IEEE standard in use by other manufacturers is GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP) or the more recent Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol (MVRP). Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol is an application of Multiple Registration Protocol that allows automatic configuration of VLAN information on network switches. Specifically, it provides a method to dynamically share VLAN information and configure the needed VLANs. Membership VLAN membership can be established either statically or dynamically. Static VLANs are also referred to as port-based VLANs. Static VLAN assignments are created by assigning ports to a VLAN. As a device enters the network, the device automatically assumes the VLAN of the port. If the user changes ports and needs access to the same VLAN, the network administrator must manually make a port-to-VLAN assignment for the new connection. Dynamic VLANs are created using software or by protocol. With a VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS), an administrator can assign switch ports to VLANs dynamically based on information such as the source MAC address of the device connected to the port or the username used to log onto that device. As a device enters the network, the switch queries a database for the VLAN membership of the port that device is connected to. Protocol methods include Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol (MVRP) and the somewhat obsolete GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP). Protocol-based VLANs In a switch that supports protocol-based VLANs, traffic may be handled on the basis of its protocol. Essentially, this segregates or forwards traffic from a port depending on the particular protocol of that traffic; traffic of any other protocol is not forwarded on the port. This allows, for example, IP and IPX traffic to be automatically segregated by the network. VLAN cross connect VLAN cross connect (CC or VLAN-XC) is a mechanism used to create Switched VLANs, VLAN CC uses IEEE 802.1ad frames where the S Tag is used as a Label as in MPLS. IEEE approves the use of such a mechanism in part 6.11 of IEEE 802.1ad-2005. See also HVLAN, hierarchical VLAN Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol, GARP VLAN Registration Protocol Network virtualization Private VLAN Software-defined networking Switch virtual interface Virtual Extensible LAN (VXLAN) Virtual Private LAN Service Virtual private network VLAN access control list Wide area network Notes References Further reading Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 2003, "Computer Networks", Pearson Education International, New Jersey. Local area networks Network protocols

8-track tape

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The 8-track tape (formally Stereo 8; commonly called eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, and eight-track) is a magnetic-tape sound recording technology that was popular from the mid-1960s to the early 1980s, when the compact cassette tape, which pre-dated the 8-track system, surpassed it in popularity for pre-recorded music. The format is obsolete and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Mexico, Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden and Japan. The main advantage of the 8-track tape cartridge was that it did not have to be "flipped over" to play other tracks. The Stereo 8 Cartridge was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear, of Lear Jet Corporation, along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records (RCA - Radio Corporation of America). It was a further development of the similar Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge, which had been introduced by pioneering businessman and engineer Earl "Madman" Muntz, who promoted and sold consumer electronics to the American public at the time. Lear had tried to create an endless-loop wire recorder in the 1940s but gave up in 1946, only to be re-inspired by Muntz's four-track design in 1963. Muntz's design had itself been adapted from the Fidelipac cartridge, which in turn had been developed by George Eash. A later quadraphonic version of the format, with four-channel sound, as opposed to earlier, more widely used stereo/two-channel sound, was announced by RCA in April 1970 and called first Quad-8 and later Q8. History The original format for magnetic tape sound reproduction was the reel-to-reel tape recorder, first available in the United States in the late 1940s, but too expensive and bulky to be practical for amateur home use until well into the 1950s. Because, in the early years, each tape had to be dubbed from the master tape in real-time to maintain good sound quality, pre-recorded tapes were more expensive to manufacture and costlier to buy than vinyl records which could be stamped far more quickly than their own playing time. Loading a reel of tape onto the machine and threading it through the various guides and rollers for playback was more difficult than putting an LP on a record player. To eliminate the inconvenience of tape-threading, various manufacturers introduced cartridges that held the tape inside a metal or plastic housing, thereby eliminating handling. Most were intended only for low-fidelity voice recording in dictation machines. The first tape cartridge designed for general consumer use, including music reproduction, was the Sound Tape or Magazine Loading Tape Cartridge (RCA tape cartridge), introduced in 1958. Pre-recorded stereophonic music cartridges were available, and blank cartridges could be used to make recordings at home, but the format failed to gain popularity. Development of tape cartridges The endless loop tape cartridge was first designed in 1952 by Bernard Cousino around a single reel carrying a continuous loop of standard 1/4-inch, plastic, oxide-coated recording tape, running at per second. Program starts and stops were signaled by a one-inch-long metal foil that activated the track-change sensor. Inventor George Eash invented a design in 1953, called the Fidelipac cartridge. The Eash cartridge was later licensed by manufacturers, notably the Collins Radio Company, which first introduced a cartridge system for broadcasting at the National Association of Broadcasters 1959 annual show. Fidelipac cartridges (nicknamed "carts" by DJs and radio engineers) were used by many radio stations for commercials, jingles, and other short items. Eash later formed the Fidelipac Corporation to manufacture and market tapes and recorders, as did several others, including Audio-Pak (Audio Devices Corp.). There were several attempts to sell music systems for cars, beginning with the Chrysler Highway Hi-Fi of the late 1950s, which used discs. However, entrepreneur, marketer and television set dealer, Earl "Madman" Muntz, of Los Angeles, California, saw a potential in the "broadcast carts" for an automobile music system. In 1962, he introduced his Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge stereo system and tapes, mostly in California and Florida. The four tracks were divided into two "programs", typically corresponding to the two sides of an LP record, with each program comprising two tracks read simultaneously for stereo (two channel) sound playback. He licensed popular music albums from the major record companies and duplicated them on the four-track cartridges, or "CARtridges", as they were first advertised. Introduction of Stereo 8 The Lear Jet Stereo 8 cartridge was designed by Richard Kraus while working for the Lear Jet Corporation, under Bill Lear, in 1963. The major change was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself, rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity. Lear also eliminated some of the internal parts of the Eash cartridge, such as the tape-tensioning mechanism and an interlock that prevented tape slippage. By doubling the number of tracks from 4 to 8, the length of any recording doubled to 80 minutes. In 1964, Lear's aircraft company constructed 100 demonstration Stereo 8 players for distribution to executives at RCA and the auto companies. Commercial success The popularity of both four-track and eight-track cartridges grew from the booming automobile industry. In September 1965, the Ford Motor Company introduced factory-installed and dealer-installed eight-track tape players as an option on three of its 1966 models (the sporty Mustang, luxurious Thunderbird, and high-end Lincoln), and RCA Victor introduced 175 Stereo-8 Cartridges from its RCA Victor and RCA Camden labels of recording artists catalogs. By the 1967 model year, all of Ford's vehicles offered this tape player upgrade option. Most of the initial factory installations were separate players from the radio (such as shown in the image), but dashboard mounted 8-track units were offered in combination with an AM radio, as well as with AM/FM receivers. Muntz, and a few other manufacturers, also offered 4/8 or "12-track" players that were capable of playing cartridges of either format, 4-track or 8-track. With the backing of the U.S. automakers, the eight-track format quickly won out over the four-track format, with Muntz abandoning it completely by late 1970. The 8-track format gained steadily in popularity because of its convenience and portability. Home players were introduced in 1966 that allowed consumers to share tapes between their homes and portable systems. By the late 1960s, the 8-track segment was the largest in the consumer electronics market and the popularity of 8-track systems for cars helped generate demand for home units. "Boombox" type portable players were also popular but eight-track player/recorders failed to gain wide popularity and few manufacturers offered them except for manufacturer Tandy Corporation (for its Radio Shack electronics stores). With the availability of cartridge systems for the home, consumers started thinking of eight-tracks as a viable alternative to 33 rpm album style vinyl records, not only as a convenience for the car. Also by the late 1960s, prerecorded releases on the 8-track tape format began to arrive within a month of the vinyl release. The 8-track format became by far the most popular and offered the largest music library of all the tape systems. Eight-track players were fitted as standard equipment in most Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars of the period for sale in Great Britain and worldwide. Optional 8-track players were available in many cars and trucks through the early 1980s. Ampex, based in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, set up a European operation (Ampex Stereo Tapes) in London, England, in 1970 to promote 8-track product and musicassettes in Britain and Europe, but it struggled and folded in 1974. GRT Corporation, General Recorded Tape of Sunnyvale, California, was another large manufacturer which duplicated many tapes for smaller record labels; it went out of business in 1979. Quadraphonic sound on eight-track cartridges was announced by RCA in April 1970. It employed four-channel receiver/amplifiers that balanced the sound via sliders or a joystick. Ford was particularly eager to promote in-car quadraphonic players as a pricey option, being the only "Big Four" American automotive company to do so. The format enjoyed moderate success in the early 1970s but faded by mid-decade. Quadraphonic cartridges provided four channels of discrete sound, unlike matrixed formats such as SQ, which Columbia/CBS Records used for their quadraphonic sound vinyl records. Early karaoke machines Daisuke Inoue invented the first karaoke machine in 1971 called the Juke-8. Nature and operation An 8-track cartridge provides four pairs of stereo tracks, whereas the later quadraphonic cartridges had two sets of four tracks. The ends of the tape were spliced with a thin strip of metal that would trigger a solenoid that would cause the playback heads to automatically jump to the next set of channels. Both types of players also provided a button for manually changing channels. Due to the design of the endless loop tape, which fed from the reel in only one direction, there was no rewind control. Due to the mechanical stress on the tape, few machines offered a fast-forward control. Quad 8 and Q8 The audio mixing process for four channel quadraphonic sound is different than for stereo versions of the same recording. Some producers opted for strong separation between channels and this was regularly used for popular music. Others chose a style in which there is only surround sound ambience or "echo" heard in the rear speakers. This type of sound, which can realistically reproduce a live concert hall experience, was commonly used for classical music. However, mixing engineers could also aim for more of a hybrid effect. In some situations sounds move in rotation around a three dimensional space. While rarely heard, the four channel effect can be quite spectacular. Quadraphonic recordings are often highly regarded and some quad 8-tracks have become highly collectible. Beginning in the 1990s many four channel recordings were reissued on modern digital formats such as Super Audio CD. Other use Milton Bradley's (MB) OMNI Entertainment System was an electronic quiz machine game first released in 1980, similar to Jeopardy! or later You Don't Know Jack video game series, using 8-track tapes for playback analog audio for questions, instructions and answers as well as digital signals in magnetic tape data storage on remaining tracks to load the right answer for counting the score. In 1978, the Mego Corporation launched the 2-XL toy robot, which utilized the tracks for determining right from wrong answers. In 1977, the Scottish company GR International released the Bandmaster Powerhouse, a drum machine that played back custom-made 8-track cartridges containing drum and percussion rhythms loops recorded with real instruments. These could be subjected to a degree of processing using the drum machine's controls, which included tempo and instrument balance. Decline 1978 was the peak year for 8-track sales in the United States, with sales declining quite rapidly from then on. Eight-track players became less common in homes and vehicles in the late 1970s. The compact cassette had arrived in 1963 and, by the late 1970s, the eight-track cartridges had greatly diminished in popularity. In some Latin American and European countries, the format was abandoned in the mid-1970s in favor of the smaller cassette tape, which was one-third the size. In the U.S., eight-track cartridges were phased out of retail stores in late 1982 and early 1983. However, some titles were still available as eight-track tapes through Columbia House and RCA (BMG) Music Service Record Clubs until late 1988. Until 1990, Radio Shack (Tandy Corporation) continued to sell blank eight-track cartridges and players for home recording use under its Realistic brand. The professional broadcast cart format survived for more than another decade, being used for jingles, advertisements, station identifications, and limited music content at most local radio stations, before being replaced by computer-generated sound in the 1990s. The format also continued in use for relatively short sound loops, in which a rapid start was more important than other criteria. The endless-loop tape concept continued to be used in newer cinema movie projectors, though their tape spool is actively rotated and not drawn by tension on the film. That technology is now almost entirely supplanted by digital cinema. See also Album era Audio format Sound recording and reproduction Birotron References External links "A Survey of Recordable Magnetic Media" by Andrew D. Crews, December, 2003, University of Texas, accessed 8 August 2006 So Wrong They're Right - A 1995 documentary about 8-track enthusiasts 8-Track Heaven 8-Track Moments Listen to the sound of the 8-Track click Bill Lear Invents the 8-Track and Brings in Ford, Motorola, and RCA Victor. Recording History.org Audiovisual introductions in 1964 Audio storage Tape recording Discontinued media formats Quadraphonic sound American inventions 1964 in music 1964 in technology Products introduced in 1964 1970s fads and trends

Celluloid

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Celluloids are a class of materials produced by mixing nitrocellulose and camphor, often with added dyes and other agents. Once much more common for its use as photographic film before the advent of safer methods, celluloid's common contemporary uses are table tennis balls, musical instruments, combs, office equipment, and guitar picks. History Nitrocellulose Nitrocellulose-based plastics slightly predate celluloid. Collodion, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing and an emulsion for photographic plates, is dried to a celluloid like film. Alexander Parkes The first celluloid as a bulk material for forming objects was made in 1855 in Birmingham, England, by Alexander Parkes, who was never able to see his invention reach full fruition, after his firm went bankrupt due to scale-up costs. Parkes patented his discovery as Parkesine in 1862 after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion. Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year. Later Parkes showcased Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics industry. Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The Parkesine company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by the Plastics Historical Society of London. There is a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works in Hackney, London. John Wesley Hyatt In the 1860s, an American, John Wesley Hyatt, acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing billiard balls, which until that time were made from ivory. He used cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the Albany Billiard Ball Company (1868–1986) in Albany, New York, to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill (see below) listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. They used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed the material "celluloid" in 1872. The Hyatts later moved their company, now called the Celluloid Manufacturing Company, to Newark, New Jersey. Over the years, celluloid became the common use term used for this type of plastic. In 1878 Hyatt was able to patent a process for injection moulding thermoplastics, although it took another fifty years before it could be realized commercially, and in later years celluloid was used as the base for photographic film. Daniel Spill and legal disputes English inventor Daniel Spill had worked with Parkes and formed the Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes' patents, describing the new plastic products as Xylonite. He took exception to the Hyatts' claims and pursued the brothers in a number of court cases between 1877 and 1884. Initially the judge found in Spill's favor, but ultimately it was judged that neither party held an exclusive claim and the true inventor of celluloid/xylonite was Alexander Parkes, due to his mention of camphor in his earlier experiments and patents. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spill's British Xylonite Company and Hyatt's' Celluloid Manufacturing Company. The main use was in movie and photography film industries, which used only celluloid film stock prior to the adoption of acetate safety film in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer widely used. Photography English photographer John Carbutt founded the Keystone Dry Plate Works in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates. The Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work, which was done by thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the celluloid strips were coated with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for Carbutt to standardize his process, but it occurred no later than 1888. A sheet of Carbutt's film was used by William Dickson for the early Edison motion picture experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the celluloid film base produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion-picture photography. By 1889, more flexible celluloids for photographic film were developed, and both Hannibal Goodwin and the Eastman Kodak Company obtained patents for a film product. (Ansco, which purchased Goodwin's patent after he died, was eventually successful in a patent-infringement suit against Kodak). This ability to produce photographic images on a flexible material (as opposed to a glass or metal plate) was a crucial step toward making possible the advent of motion pictures. Uses Most movie and photography films prior to the widespread move to acetate films in the 1950s were made of celluloid. Its high flammability was legendary since it self-explodes when exposed to temperatures over 150 °C in front of a hot movie-projector beam. While celluloid film was standard for 35mm theatrical productions until around 1950, motion-picture film for amateur use, such as 16mm and 8mm film, were on acetate "safety base", at least in the US. Celluloid is useful for producing cheaper jewellery, jewellery boxes, hair accessories and many items that would earlier have been manufactured from ivory, horn or other expensive animal products. It was often referred to as "Ivorine" or "French Ivory". For this use, a form of celluloid was developed in France that had lines in it to make it resemble ivory. It was also used for dressing table sets, dolls, picture frames, charms, hat pins, buttons, buckles, stringed instrument parts, accordions, fountain pens, cutlery handles and kitchen items. The main disadvantage the material had was that it was flammable. It was soon overtaken by Bakelite and Catalin. Table tennis balls were made from celluloid until 2014. "Parker Brothers... made some versions out of hollow Celluloid--which, because of its 'frictionless' properties, spun even faster than steel." Shelf clocks and other furniture items were often covered with celluloid in a manner similar to veneer. This celluloid was printed to look like expensive woods, or materials like marble or granite. The Seth Thomas clock company called its celluloid clock material "adamantine". Celluloid enabled clockmakers to make the typical late Victorian style of black mantel clock in such a way that the wooden case appeared to be black marble, and the various pillars and other decorative elements of the case looked like semi-precious stone. Celluloid was also a popular material in the construction of slide rules. It was primarily used to coat wooden slide rule faces, such as in early A.W. Faber rules, as well as cursor end pieces, such as in Keuffel and Esser rules. Celluloid remains in use for musical instruments, especially accordions and guitars. Celluloid is very robust and easy to mold in difficult forms, and has great acoustic performance as cover for wooden frames since it does not block wood's natural pores. Instruments covered with celluloid can easily be recognized by the material's typical nacre-like flaming pattern. Thick celluloid panels are cooked in a bain-marie which turns them into a leather-like substance. Panels are then turned on a mold and allowed to harden for as long as three months. Formulation A typical formulation of celluloid might contain 70 to 80 parts nitrocellulose, nitrated to 11% nitrogen, 30 parts camphor, 0 to 14 parts dye, 1 to 5 parts ethyl alcohol, plus stabilizers and other agents to increase stability and reduce flammability. Production Celluloid is made from a mixture of chemicals such as nitrocellulose, camphor, alcohol, as well as colorants and fillers depending on the desired product. The first step is transforming raw cellulose into nitrocellulose by conducting a nitration reaction. This is achieved by exposing the cellulose fibers to an aqueous solution of nitric acid; the hydroxyl groups (-OH) will then be replaced with nitrate groups (-ONO2) on the cellulose chain. The reaction can produce mixed products, depending on the degree of substitution of nitrogen, or the percent nitrogen content on each cellulose molecule; cellulose nitrate has 2.8 molecule of nitrogen per molecule of cellulose. It was determined that sulfuric acid was to be used as well in the reaction in order to first, catalyze the nitric acid groups so it can allow for the substitution onto the cellulose, and second, allow for the groups to easily and uniformly attach to the fibers, creating a better quality nitrocellulose. The product then must be rinsed to wash away any free acids that did not react with the fibers, dried, and kneaded. During this time, a solution of 50% camphor in alcohol is added, which then changes the macromolecule structure of nitrocellulose into a homogeneous gel of nitrocellulose and camphor. The chemical structure is not well understood, but it is determined that it is one molecule of camphor for each unit of glucose. After the mixing, the mass is pressed into blocks at a high pressure and then is fabricated for its specific use. Nitrating cellulose is an extremely flammable process in which even factory explosions are not uncommon. Many western celluloid factories closed after hazardous explosions, and only two factories in China remain in business. Environmental hazards Deterioration Many sources of deterioration in celluloid exist, such as thermal, chemical, photochemical, and physical. The most inherent flaw is as celluloid ages, the camphor molecules are ‘squeezed’ out of the mass due to the unsustainable pressure used in the production. That pressure causes the nitrocellulose molecules to bind back to each other or crystallize, and this results in the camphor molecules being shoved out of the material. Once exposed to the environment, camphor can undergo sublimation at room temperature, leaving the plastic as brittle nitrocellulose. Also, with exposure to excess heat, the nitrate groups can break off and expose nitrogen gases, such as nitrous oxide and nitric oxide, to the air. Another factor that can cause this is excess moisture, which can accelerate deterioration of nitrocellulose with the presence of nitrate groups, either newly fragmented from heat or still trapped as a free acid from production. Both of these sources allow the accumulation of nitric acid. Another form of deterioration, photochemical deterioration, is severe in celluloid because it absorbs ultraviolet light well. The absorbed light leads to chain-breakage and stiffening. Among collectors of antiques, the deterioration of celluloid is generally known as "celluloid rot." The chemical processes involved are not perfectly understood, but it is widely believed that the gases released by a piece undergoing celluloid rot can trigger celluloid rot in nearby articles of celluloid which were previously intact. See also Cel Green eyeshade References External links "Celluloid" Plastics Historical Society "History of Plastics"Society of the Plastics Industry Cellulose 1870 introductions 1862 establishments in England English inventions Film and video technology Plastic brands Thermoplastics

Don Novello

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Donald Andrew Novello (born January 1, 1943) is an American actor, comedian, singer, writer, film director and producer. He is best known for his work on NBC's Saturday Night Live from 1978 to 1980, and again from 1985 to 1986, often as the character Father Guido Sarducci. He appeared as Sarducci in many subsequent television shows, including Married... with Children, Blossom, It's Garry Shandling's Show, Unhappily Ever After, Square Pegs, and The Colbert Report, and in the 1980 documentary film Gilda Live. He is also the voice of Vincenzo "Vinny" Santorini in the franchise of Atlantis: The Lost Empire. Early life Novello was born in Ashtabula, Ohio, the son of Eleanor Eileen (née Finnerty), a nurse, and Augustine Joseph Novello, a physician. He is of Italian and Irish descent. The family moved to Lorain, Ohio, when Don was a young boy. In 1961, he graduated from Lorain High School. He subsequently enrolled at the University of Dayton and graduated in 1964. In 1965, he graduated with a Bachelor of Foreign Trade degree from the American Graduate School of International Management (since renamed the Thunderbird School of Global Management, now part of Arizona State University). Career In the late 1960s, Novello worked as an advertising copywriter for Leo Burnett in Chicago. Novello created the Father Guido Sarducci character in 1973 after finding a monsignor's outfit for $7.50 at a St. Vincent de Paul thrift shop. Adding sunglasses, a broom mustache, cigarette and a thick Italian accent, Sarducci became popular in a San Francisco nightclub. Sarducci appeared on San Francisco Channel 20's Chicken Little Comedy Show, and comic David Steinberg was watching. Steinberg hired Novello as a writer for a TV show that never aired, but he also introduced Novello to Tommy and Dick Smothers, and they hired Novello, too. Novello performed on The Smothers Brothers Show in 1975, appearing as Sarducci. In the 1970s, Novello started to write letters to famous people under the pen name of Lazlo Toth (after Laszlo Toth, a deranged man who vandalized Michelangelo's Pietà in Rome). The letters, written to suggest a serious but misinformed and obtuse correspondent, were designed to tweak the noses of politicians and corporations. Many of them received serious responses; Novello sometimes continued the charade correspondence at length, with humorous results. The letters and responses were published in the books The Lazlo Letters, Citizen Lazlo!, and From Bush to Bush: The Lazlo Toth Letters. The Lazlo Letters, Novello's first book of stilted letters to celebrities, caught the attention of Lorne Michaels, producer of Saturday Night Live. Novello was hired as a writer for the show's third season in 1977-1978 where he remained through the fifth season, and returned as a writer in the eleventh season. He also appeared numerous times on the show in the Father Guido Sarducci character. In 1980, under the name of Father Guido Sarducci, he sang lead vocals on the Warner Bros. Records release "I Won't Be Twisting This Christmas"/"Parco MacArthur" (WBS49627). Novello co-wrote the first tune with M. Davich, and the second tune is an Italian language cover of "MacArthur Park", the Jimmy Webb song, in an arrangement similar to that recorded by Richard Harris. Novello made newspapers around the world when he visited the Vatican in 1981 wearing the Father Guido Sarducci costume and, while taking photographs for a magazine article in an area where photography was prohibited, was arrested by the Swiss Guards along with his photographer (Paul Solomon), and eventually charged with "impersonating a priest". The charges were later dropped, and Solomon managed to protect the film from confiscation. In his stage show in Las Vegas and Reno with the Smothers Brothers, Sarducci rolled a wheelchair with a dummy in the robes of a cardinal. In the act, Sarducci explained he was the assistant of 108-year-old "Cardinal Dario Fungi." For a brief period in 1982, Novello was a producer on SCTV, a Toronto-based comedy show starring Martin Short, Joe Flaherty, John Candy, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, Rick Moranis, Andrea Martin and Catherine O'Hara. He was installed by NBC as one of a series of producers for the show's fourth season, and produced a total of 9 episodes. In 1983, Novello had a cameo as Father Sarducci in the video for Rodney Dangerfield's comedy rap song "Rappin' Rodney" which was heavily played on MTV. In 1984 Novello wrote The Blade, a high school yearbook parody in which the students are represented by sheep. Novello co-wrote the unfilmed script for Noble Rot with John Belushi. He also narrated Faerie Tale Theatre's third-season episode Pinocchio with Paul Reubens as the titular puppet. Also in 1984, Novello appeared in the music video for the Jefferson Starship song "No Way Out". In 1989, Novello co-starred in the anthology film New York Stories in the Francis Ford Coppola-directed segment, Life Without Zoe. In his 2 1/2 star review of the movie, Roger Ebert cited Novello for giving "the most engaging performance in the movie." In 1990, Novello portrayed "Dominic Abbandando" in the film The Godfather Part III. Abbandando appears with speaking lines in the first scene as public relations and media coordinator for Don Michael Corleone. Most notable is when he slaps down a news reporter with the challenge: "You think you know better than the Pope?" Novello appears in many other scenes as well, shadowing George Hamilton, and in the climactic scene on the steps of the Palermo opera house, Teatro Massimo. In 2001, he lent his voice to the character Vincenzo "Vinny" Santorini in the Disney animated film Atlantis: The Lost Empire, and subsequently in the direct-to-video sequel Atlantis: Milo's Return. In 2003, he filed papers to enter the 2003 California recall election, but failed to collect enough valid signatures to qualify for the ballot. In 2005, after the death of Pope John Paul II, Novello, as Father Guido Sarducci, reprised his former SNL role as "Special Vatican Reporter" for Air America Radio host (and fellow Saturday Night Live alumnus) Al Franken. He continued this role until the election of Pope Benedict XVI. In 2006, he portrayed the role of Galileo on the podcast "The Radio Adventures of Dr. Floyd". He portrayed Pope Pius XII in the 2009 short film All in the Bunker. On June 23, 2010, he appeared on The Colbert Report as Father Guido Sarducci. On October 30, 2010, he gave the benediction at the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear hosted by Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert. American recording artist Guthrie Thomas credited Don Novello as "the best performer in the room" when Novello appeared as Father Guido Sarducci on one of Thomas' albums in a recording studio full of famous performers. Personal life Novello resides in San Anselmo, California. He has one brother, Joseph "Joe" Novello and one sister Eileen. His former sister-in-law Dr. Antonia Novello M.D. served as Surgeon General of the United States from 1990 to 1993. His niece is film producer, Holly Wiersma (Wonderland, Billionaire Boys Club). Selected acting credits Saturday Night Live (1978–1980, 1985–1986) (TV) - Father Guido Sarducci Gilda Live (1980) - Father Guido Sarducci Square Pegs (1982) (TV) - Father Guido Sarducci Mr. Mike's Mondo Video (1979) - Men in Film Room (voice, uncredited) Become an Artist (1982) - Father Guido Sarducci Head Office (1985) - Sal Father Guido Sarducci Goes to College (1985) - Father Guido Sarducci It's Garry Shandling's Show (1986) (TV) - Father Guido Sarducci Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988) - Stan New York Stories (1989) - Hector (segment "Life without Zoe") The Spirit of '76 (1990) - Translator The Godfather Part III (1990) - Dominic Abbandando Teenage Bonnie and Klepto Clyde (1993) - Sanchez Blossom (1993) - Father Guido Sarducci One Night Stand (1995) - Warren Miller Casper (1995) - Father Guido Sarducci Married... with Children (1995) (TV) - Father Guido Sarducci Jack (1996) - Bartender Touch (1997) - Father Navaroli Just the Ticket (1999) - Tony The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (2000) - Fruit Vendor Twins Just One Night (2000) - Italian Drifter Nothing Sacred (2000) - Caterer Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001) - Vincenzo 'Vinny' Santorini (voice) Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003) - Vincenzo 'Vinny' Santorini (voice) Factory Girl (2006) - Mort Silvers The Colbert Report (2010) (TV) - Father Guido Sarducci Twixt (2011) - Melvin Palo Alto (2013) - Mr. Wilson Writing credits The Smothers Brothers Show (1975) (TV) Van Dyke and Company (1976) (TV) Saturday Night Live (1978–1986) (TV) Things We Did Last Summer (1978) (TV) Gilda Live (with Gilda Radner, Anne Beatts, Lorne Michaels, Michael O'Donoghue, Rosie Shuster, Marilyn Suzanne Miller, Paul Shaffer and Alan Zweibel) (1980) SCTV (1982) (TV) Noble Rot (with John Belushi) (1982) (unproduced) A Man Called Sporacaione (1982) (unproduced) Blondes vs. Brunettes (with Lisa Medway) (1984) (TV) Father Guido Sarducci Goes To College (1985) (VHS) Our Planet Tonight (1987) (TV) Bibliography The Lazlo Letters (1977) The Blade: Shellville High School Yearbook (1984) Citizen Lazlo!: The Lazlo Letters Vol. 2 (1992) From Bush to Bush: The Lazlo Toth Letters (2003) Albums Father Guido Sarducci Live at St. Douglas Convent (1980) Breakfast in Heaven (1986) Everybody's Free to Wear Camouflage (2000) (CD Single) written by; Cat McLean, Don Novello and Narada Michael Walden, which was a top 20 hit in the UK. One Hundred Bulbs on the Christmas Tree Party (2006) Appeared on the compilations Holidays in Dementia (1995) and A Classic Rock Christmas (2002). He made guest appearances on the Handsome Boy Modeling School albums So... How's Your Girl? (1999) and White People (2004). References External links 1943 births American male comedians American male film actors American male television actors American television writers American male television writers American people of Irish descent American writers of Italian descent Living people People from Ashtabula, Ohio People from San Anselmo, California Thunderbird School of Global Management alumni American sketch comedians Comedians from California Comedians from Ohio Screenwriters from California Screenwriters from Ohio Screenwriters from Arizona

Zambezi

eng_Latn

The Zambezi River (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. The area of its basin is , slightly less than half of the Nile's. The rises in Zambia and flows through eastern Angola, along the north-eastern border of Namibia and the northern border of Botswana, then along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, where it crosses the country to empty into the Indian Ocean. The Zambezi's most noted feature is Victoria Falls. Other notable falls include the Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and Ngonye Falls, near Sioma in Western Zambia. There are two main sources of hydroelectric power on the river, the Kariba Dam, which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique, which provides power to Mozambique and South Africa. There are additionally two smaller power stations along the Zambezi River in Zambia, one at Victoria Falls and the other one near Kalene Hill in Ikelenge District. Course of the river The sources The river rises in a black marshy dambo in dense undulating miombo woodland north of Mwinilunga and south of Ikelenge in the Ikelenge District of North-Western Province, Zambia at about above sea level. The area around the source is a national monument, forest reserve and Important Bird Area. Eastward of the source, the watershed between the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked belt of high ground, running nearly east–west and falling abruptly to the north and south. This distinctly cuts off the basin of the Lualaba (the main branch of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi. In the neighborhood of the source the watershed is not as clearly defined, but the two river systems do not connect. The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast broken-edged plateau 900–1200 m high, composed in the remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places. Upper Zambezi The river flows to the southwest into Angola for about , then is joined by sizeable tributaries such as the Luena and the Chifumage flowing from highlands to the north-west. It turns south and develops a floodplain, with extreme width variation between the dry and rainy seasons. It enters dense evergreen Cryptosepalum dry forest, though on its western side, Western Zambezian grasslands also occur. Where it re-enters Zambia it is nearly wide in the rainy season and flows rapidly, with rapids ending in the Chavuma Falls, where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The river drops about in elevation from its source at to the Chavuma Falls at , in a distance of about . From this point to the Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by another in a distance of around . The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the Kabompo River in the northwestern province of Zambia. A major advantage of the Kabompo River was irrigation. The savanna through which the river has flowed gives way to a wide floodplain, studded with Borassus fan palms. A little farther south is the confluence with the Lungwebungu River. This is the beginning of the Barotse Floodplain, the most notable feature of the upper Zambezi, but this northern part does not flood so much and includes islands of higher land in the middle. Thirty kilometres below the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes very flat, and the typical Barotse Floodplain landscape unfolds, with the flood reaching a width of 25 km in the rainy season. For more than 200 km downstream the annual flood cycle dominates the natural environment and human life, society and culture. Eighty kilometres further down, the Luanginga, which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A few kilometres higher up on the east the main stream is joined in the rainy season by overflow of the Luampa/Luena system. A short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is Lealui, one of the capitals of the Lozi people who populate the Zambian region of Barotseland in Western Province. The chief of the Lozi maintains one of his two compounds at Lealui; the other is at Limulunga, which is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated as one of Zambia's best known festivals, the Kuomboka. After Lealui, the river turns to south-south-east. From the east it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west is without major tributaries for 240 km. Before this, the Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's Caprivi Strip. The strip projects from the main body of Namibia, and results from the colonial era: it was added to German South-West Africa expressly to give Germany access to the Zambezi. Below the junction of the Cuando River and the Zambezi the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is broad and shallow, and flows slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa it reaches a chasm into which the Victoria Falls plunge. Middle Zambezi The Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them the river continues to flow due east for about , cutting through perpendicular walls of basalt 20 to 60 metres (66 to 200 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 metres (660 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through the Batoka Gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. It has been described as one of the world's most spectacular whitewater trips, a tremendous challenge for kayakers and rafters alike. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids which end 240 km (150 mi) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops . At this point, the river enters Lake Kariba, created in 1959 following the completion of the Kariba Dam. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Luangwa and the Kafue are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet deep stream about wide. From this point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37' S) it enters Mozambique. The middle Zambezi ends where the river enters Lake Cahora Bassa (also spelled Cabora Bassa). Formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa, the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam. Lower Zambezi The lower Zambezi's 650 km from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the Lupata Gorge, 320 km from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 m wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 km wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad fast-flowing river. About 160 km from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Malawi through the Shire River. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a delta. Each of the four primary distributaries, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe, is obstructed by a sand bar. A more northerly branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 m at the entrance and 4 m further in, and is the branch used for navigation. 100 km further north is a river called the Quelimane, after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season. Delta The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river. Before the dams were built seasonal flooding of the Zambezi had quite a different impact on the ecosystems of the delta from today as it brought nutritious fresh water down to the Indian Ocean coastal wetlands. The lower Zambezi experienced a small flood surge early in the dry season as rain in the Gwembe catchment and north-eastern Zimbabwe rushed through while rain in the Upper Zambezi, Kafue, and Lake Malawi basins, and Luangwa to a lesser extent, is held back by swamps and floodplains. The discharge of these systems contributed to a much larger flood in March or April, with a mean monthly maximum for April of per second at the delta. The record flood was more than three times as big, per second being recorded in 1958. By contrast the discharge at the end of the dry season averaged just per second. In the 1960s and 1970s the building of dams changed that pattern completely. Downstream the mean monthly minimum–maximum was to per second; now it is to per second. Medium-level floods especially, of the kind to which the ecology of the lower Zambezi was adapted, happen less often and have a shorter duration. As with the Itezhi-Tezhi Dam's deleterious effects on the Kafue Flats, this has the following effects: fish, bird and other wildlife feeding and breeding patterns disrupted less grassland after flooding for grazing wildlife and cattle traditional farming and fishing patterns disrupted. Ecology of the delta The Zambezi Delta has extensive seasonally- and permanently-flooded grasslands, savannas, and swamp forests. Together with the floodplains of the Buzi, Pungwe, and Save rivers, the Zambezi's floodplains make up the World Wildlife Fund's Zambezian coastal flooded savanna ecoregion in Mozambique. The flooded savannas lie close to the Indian Ocean coast. Mangroves fringe the delta's shoreline. Although the dams have stemmed some of the annual flooding of the lower Zambezi and caused the area of floodplain to be greatly reduced they have not removed flooding completely. They cannot control extreme floods, they have only made medium-level floods less frequent. When heavy rain in the lower Zambezi combines with good runoff upstream, massive floods still happen and the wetlands are still an important habitat. However, as well as the shrinking of the wetlands further severe damage to wildlife was caused by uncontrolled hunting of animals such as buffalo and waterbuck during the Mozambique Civil War and now the conflict has ceased it is likely the floodplains will become more populated, and further damming has also been discussed. The only protected area of floodplain is the Marromeu Game Reserve near the city of Beira. Although the region has seen a reduction in the populations of the large mammals, it is still home to some including the reedbuck and migrating eland. Carnivores found here include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and side-striped jackal (Canis adustus). The floodplains are a haven for migratory waterbirds including pintails, garganey, African openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus), saddle-billed stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis), wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus), and great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus). Reptiles include Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), Nile monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) and African rock python (Python sebae), the endemic Pungwe worm snake (Leptotyphlops pungwensis) and three other snakes that are nearly endemic; floodplain water snake (Lycodonomorphus whytei obscuriventris), dwarf wolf snake (Lycophidion nanus) and swamp viper (Proatheris). There are a number of endemic butterflies. Climate The north of the Zambezi basin has mean annual rainfall of 1100 to 1400 mm which declines towards the south, reaching about half that figure in the south-west. The rain falls in a 4-to-6-month summer rainy season when the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone moves over the basin from the north between October and March. Evaporation rates are high (1600 mm-2300 mm) and much water is lost this way in swamps and floodplains, especially in the south-west of the basin. Wildlife The river supports large populations of many animals. Hippopotamuses are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, as well as Nile crocodiles. Monitor lizards are found in many places. Birds are abundant, with species including heron, pelican, egret, lesser flamingo and African fish eagle present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as buffalo, zebras, giraffes, elephants. The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to the river. Important species include cichlids which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish, yellowfish and other large species. The bull shark is sometimes known as the Zambezi shark after the river,not to be mistaken with Glyphis freshwater shark genus that inhabit the river as well. Tributaries Upper Zambezi: 507,200 km2, discharges 1044 m3/s at Victoria Falls, comprising: Northern Highlands catchment, 222,570 km2, 850 m3/s at Lukulu: Chifumage River: Angolan central plateau Luena River: Angolan central plateau Kabompo River: 72,200 km2, NW highlands of Zambia Lungwebungu River: 47,400 km2, Angolan central plateau Central Plains catchment, 284,630 km2, 196 m3/s (Victoria Falls–Lukulu): Luanginga River: 34,600 km2, Angolan central plateau Luampa River/Luena River, Zambia: 20,500 km2, eastern side of Zambezi Cuando /Linyanti/Chobe River: 133,200 km2, Angolan S plateau & Caprivi Middle Zambezi cumulatively 1,050,000 km2, 2442 m3/s, measured at Cahora Bassa Gorge (Middle section by itself: 542,800 km2, discharges 1398 m3/s (C. Bassa–Victoria Falls) Gwembe Catchment, 156,600 km2, 232 m3/s (Kariba Gorge–Vic Falls): Gwayi River: 54,610 km2, NW Zimbabwe Sengwa River: 25,000 km2, North-central Zimbabwe Sanyati River: 43,500 km2, North-central Zimbabwe Kariba Gorge to C. Bassa catchment, 386200 km2, 1166 m3/s (C. Bassa–Kariba Gorge): Kafue River: 154,200 km2, 285 m3/s, West-central Zambia & Copperbelt Luangwa River: 151,400 km2, 547 m3/s, Luangwa Rift Valley & plateau NW of it Panhane River: 23,897 km2, North-central Zimbabwe plateau Lower Zambezi cumulatively, 1,378,000 km2, 3424 m3/s, measured at Marromeu (Lower section by itself: 328,000 km2, 982 m3/s (Marromeu–C. Bassa)) Luia River: 28,000 km2, Moravia-Angonia plateau, N of Zambezi Luenha River/Mazoe River: 54,144 km2, 152 m3/s, Manica plateau, NE Zimbabwe Shire River , 154,000 km2, 539 m3/s, Lake Malawi basin Zambezi Delta, 12,000 km2 Total Zambezi river basin: 1,390,000 km2, 3424 m3/s discharged into delta Source: Beilfuss & Dos Santos (2001) The Okavango Basin is not included in the figures because it only occasionally overflows to any extent into the Zambezi. Due to the rainfall distribution, northern tributaries contribute much more water than southern ones, for example: the Northern Highlands catchment of the upper Zambezi contributes 25%, Kafue 8%, Luangwa and Shire Rivers 16% each, total 65% of Zambezi discharge. The large Cuando basin in the south-west on the other hand contributes only about 2 m3/s because most is lost through evaporation in its swamp systems. The 1940s and 1950s were particularly wet decades in the basin. Since 1975, it has been drier, the average discharge being only 70% of that for the years 1930 to 1958. Geological history Up to the Late Pliocene or Pleistocene (more than two million years ago), the Upper Zambezi river used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan to the Limpopo River. The change of the river course is the result of epeirogenic movements that uplifted the surface at the present-day water divide between both rivers. Meanwhile, east, a western tributary of the Shire River in the East African Rift's southern extension through Malawi eroded a deep valley on its western escarpment. At the rate of a few cm per year, this river, the Middle Zambezi, started cutting back the bed of its river towards the west, aided by grabens (rift valleys) forming along its course in an east–west axis. As it did so it captured a number of south-flowing rivers such as the Luangwa and Kafue. Eventually the large lake trapped at Makgadikgadi (or a tributary of it) was captured by the Middle Zambezi cutting back towards it, and emptied eastwards. The Upper Zambezi was captured as well. The Middle Zambezi was about lower than the Upper Zambezi, and a high waterfall formed at the edge of the basalt plateau across which the upper river flows. This was the first Victoria Falls, somewhere down the Batoka Gorge near where Lake Kariba is now. History Etymology The first European to come across the Zambezi river was Vasco da Gama, in January 1498, who anchored at what he called Rio dos Bons Sinais ("River of Good Omens"), now the Quelimane or Quá-Qua, a small river on the northern end of the delta, which at that time was connected by navigable channels to the Zambezi river proper (the connection silted up by the 1830s). In a few of the oldest maps, the entire river is denoted as such. But already by the early 1500s, a new name emerged, the Cuama river (sometimes "Quama" or "Zuama"). Cuama was the local name given by the dwellers of the Swahili Coast for an outpost located on one of the southerly islands of the delta (near the Luabo channel). Most old nautical maps denote the Luabo entry as Cuama, the entire delta as the "rivers of Cuama" and the Zambezi river proper as the "Cuama River". Nonetheless, already in 1552, Portuguese chronicler João de Barros notes that the same Cuama river was called Zembere by the inland people of Monomatapa. The Portuguese Dominican friar João dos Santos, visiting Monomatapa in 1597, reported it as Zambeze (Bantu languages frequently shifts between z and r) and inquired into the origins of the name; he was told it was named after a people. Thus the term "Zambezi" is after a people who live by a great lake to the north. The most likely candidates are the "M'biza", or Bisa people (in older texts given as Muisa, Movisa, Abisa, Ambios and other variations), a Bantu people who live in what is now central-eastern Zambia, between the Zambezi River and Lake Bangweolo (at the time, before the Lunda invasion, the Bisa would have likely stretched further north, possibly to Lake Tanganyika). The Bisa had a reputation as great cloth traders throughout the region. In a curious note, the Goese-born Portuguese trader Manuel Caetano Pereira, who traveled to the Bisa homelands in 1796 was surprised to be shown a second, separate river referred to as the "Zambezi". This "other Zambezi" that puzzled Pereira is most likely what modern sources spell the Chambeshi River in northern Zambia. The Monomatapa notion (reported by Santos) that the Zambezi was sourced from a great internal lake might be a reference to one of the African Great Lakes. One of the names reported by early explorers for Lake Malawi was "Lake Zambre" (probably a corruption of "Zambezi"), possibly because Lake Malawi is connected to the lower Zambezi via the Shire River. The Monomatapa story resonated with the old European notion, drawn from classical antiquity, that all the great African rivers—the Nile, the Senegal, the Congo, now the Zambezi, too—were all sourced from the same great internal lake. The Portuguese were also told that the Mozambican Espirito Santo "river" (actually an estuary formed by the Umbeluzi, Matola and Tembe rivers) was sourced from a lake (hence its outlet became known as Delagoa Bay). As a result, several old maps depict the Zambezi and the "Espirito Santo" rivers converging deep in the interior, at the same lake. However, the Bisa-derived etymology is not without dispute. In 1845, W.D. Cooley, examining Pereira's notes, concluded the term "Zambezi" derives not from the Bisa people, but rather from the Bantu term "mbege"/"mbeze" ("fish"), and consequently it probably means merely "river of fish". David Livingstone, who reached the upper Zambezi in 1853, refers to it as "Zambesi" but also makes note of the local name "Leeambye" used by the Lozi people, which he says means "large river or river par excellence". Livingstone records other names for the Zambezi—Luambeji, Luambesi, Ambezi, Ojimbesi and Zambesi—applied by different peoples along its course, and asserts they "all possess a similar signification and express the native idea of this magnificent stream being the main drain of the country". In Portuguese records, the "Cuama River" term disappeared and gave way to the term "Sena River" (Rio de Sena), a reference to the Swahili (and later Portuguese) upriver trade station at Sena. In 1752, the Zambezi delta, under the name "Rivers of Sena" (Rios de Sena) formed a colonial administrative district of Portuguese Mozambique. But common usage of "Zambezi" led eventually to a royal decree in 1858 officially renaming the district "Zambézia". Exploration of the river The Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the Empire of Monomotapa, and the course of the river, as well as the position of lakes Ngami and Nyasa, were given broadly accurately in early maps. These were probably constructed from Arab information. The first European to visit the inland Zambezi river was the Portuguese degredado António Fernandes in 1511 and again in 1513, with the objective of reporting on commercial conditions and activities of the interior of Central Africa. The final report of these explorations revealed the importance of the ports of the upper Zambezi to the local trade system, in particular to East African gold trade. The first recorded exploration of the upper Zambezi was made by David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechuanaland between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey found the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by John Kirk, Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the Falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and reached Lake Malawi. For the next 35 years very little exploration of the river took place. Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878. In 1884 the Scottish-born Plymouth Brethren missionary Frederick Stanley Arnot traveled over the height of land between the watersheds of the Zambezi and the Congo, and identified the source of the Zambezi. He considered that the nearby high and cool Kalene Hill was a particularly suitable place for a mission. Arnot was accompanied by the Portuguese trader and army officer António da Silva Porto. In 1889 the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was seen. Two expeditions led by Major A. St Hill Gibbons in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river. Economy The population of the Zambezi river valley is estimated to be about 32 million. About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on agriculture, and the upper river's flood plains provide good agricultural land. Communities by the river fish it extensively, and many people travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to the river levy unofficial 'fish taxes' on people taking Zambezi fish to other parts of the country. As well as fishing for food, game fishing is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between Mongu and Livingstone, several safari lodges cater for tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to aquaria. The river valley is rich in mineral deposits and fossil fuels, and coal mining is important in places. The dams along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the hydroelectric power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over 100,000 visitors annually, with 141,929 visitors reported in 2015. Mana Pools and Lake Kariba also draw substantial tourist numbers. Transport The river is frequently interrupted by rapids and so has never been an important long-distance transport route. David Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition attempted to open up the river to navigation by paddle steamer, but was defeated by the Cahora Bassa rapids. Along some stretches, it is often more convenient to travel by canoe along the river rather than on the unimproved roads which are often in very poor condition due to being regularly submerged in flood waters, and many small villages along the banks of the river are only accessible by boat. In the 1930s and 40s a paddle barge service operated on the stretch between the Katombora Rapids, about upstream from Livingstone, and the rapids just upstream from Katima Mulilo. However, depending on the water level, boats could be paddled through—Lozi paddlers, a dozen or more in a boat, could deal with most of them—or they could be pulled along the shore or carried around the rapids, and teams of oxen pulled barges over land around the Ngonye Falls. Road, rail and other crossings of the river, once few and far between, are proliferating. They are, in order from the river's source: Cazombo road bridge, Angola, bombed in the civil war and not yet reconstructed Chinyingi suspension footbridge near the town of Zambezi, a footbridge built as a community project Lubosi Imwiko II Bridge linking the towns of Mongu and Kalabo, a new 1,005 meter long concrete/steel road bridge including 38.5 km of embanked highway through Barotse Floodplain constructed between 2011 and 2016 by Chinese company (2nd attempt) of 1.2 trillion kwacha. It is an extension of the Lusaka–Mongu Road, meant to be a connection between Lusaka and Angola. Sioma Bridge near the Ngonye Falls, anew 260 metres long road bridge (K 108 mln), opened in 2016 as part of the M10 Road (Sesheke - Senanga road). Katima Mulilo road bridge, , between Namibia and Sesheke in Zambia, opened 2004, completing the Trans–Caprivi Highway connecting Lusaka in Zambia with Walvis Bay on the Atlantic coast Kazungula Bridge—in August 2007 a deal was announced to replace the Kazungula Ferry, one of the largest river ferries in Southern Africa, with a road bridge where the river is wide Victoria Falls Bridge (road and rail), the first to be built, completed in April 1905 and initially intended as a link in Cecil Rhodes' scheme to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo: long Kariba Dam carries the paved Kariba/Siavonga highway across the river Otto Beit Bridge at Chirundu, road, , 1939 Second Chirundu Bridge, road, , 2002 Cahora Bassa Dam is in a remote area and does not carry a highway across the river Tete Suspension Bridge, road bridge (1970s) Dona Ana Bridge, originally railway but converted to single-lane road, (1935), the longest at , since late 2009 it is again a railway bridge, passenger and freight trains are again running across it and from 2011 on the railway line over this bridge may convey several million of tonnes of Tete coal to the port of Beira. Caia Bridge—construction started in 2007 of a road bridge to replace the Caia ferry, which, with Kazungula, is the largest ferry across the river There are a number of small pontoon ferries across the river in Angola, western Zambia, and Mozambique, notably between Mongu and Kalabo. Above Mongu in years following poor rainy seasons the river can be forded at one or two places. In tourist areas, such as Victoria Falls and Kariba, short-distance tourist boats take visitors along the river. Ecology Pollution Sewage effluent is a major cause of water pollution around urban areas, as inadequate water treatment facilities in all the major cities of the region force them to release untreated sewage into the river. This has resulted in eutrophication of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor hygiene such as cholera, typhus and dysentery. Effects of dams The construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam was completed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40% reduction in the coverage of mangroves, greatly increased erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of prawns off the mouth due to the reduction in emplacement of silt and associate nutrients. Wetland ecosystems downstream of the dam shrank considerably. Wildlife in the delta was further threatened by uncontrolled hunting during the civil war in Mozambique. Conservation measures The Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area will cover parts of Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Botswana, including the famous Okavango Delta in Botswana and Mosi-oa-Tunya (The Smoke That Thunders, or Victoria Falls). It is thought that the cross-border park will help with animal migration routes and assist in the preservation of wetlands which clean water, as sewage from communities is a problem. Funding was boosted for cross-border conservation along the Zambezi in 2008. The Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation project—which follows the Zambezi River and stretches across Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe—has received a grant of €8 million from a German nongovernmental organisation. Part of the funds will be used for research in areas covered by the project. However, Angola has warned that landmines from their civil war may impede the project. The river currently passes through Ngonye Falls National Park, Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park, and Lower Zambezi National Park (in Zambia), and Zambezi National Park, Victoria Falls National Park, Matusadona National Park, Mana Pools National Park, and the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (in Zimbabwe). Fish stocks management As of 2017 the situation of overfishing in the upper Zambezi and its tributaries was considered dire, in part due to weak enforcement of the respective fisheries acts and regulations. The fish stocks of Lake Liambezi in the eastern Caprivi were found to be totally depleted, and surveys indicated a decline in the whole Zambezi-Kwando-Chobe river system. Illegal fishing (i.a. by foreign nationals employed by Namibians) and commercially minded individuals, exploited the resources to the detriment of local markets and the communities whose culture and economy depend on these resources. Namibian officials have consequently banned monofilament nets, and imposed a closing period of about 3 months every year to allow the fish to breed. They also appointed village fish guards and the Kayasa channel in the Impalila conservancy area was declared a fisheries reserve. The Namibian ministry also promotes aquaculture and plans to distribute thousands of fingerlings to registered small-scale fish farmers of the region. EUS outbreak On 14 September 2007, epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) killed hundreds of sore-covered fish in the river. Zambia Agriculture Minister Ben Kapita asked experts to investigate the outbreak to probe the cause to find out if the disease can be transmitted to humans. Major towns Along much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important towns and cities along its course include the following: Katima Mulilo (Namibia) Mongu, Lukulu, Livingstone and Sesheke (Zambia) Victoria Falls and Kariba (Zimbabwe) Songo and Tete (Mozambique) See also 2007 Mozambican flood Nyami Nyami Zambezian flooded grasslands References Further reading Bento C.M., Beilfuss R. (2003), Wattled Cranes, Waterbirds, and Wetland Conservation in the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique, report for the Biodiversity Foundation for Africa for the IUCN - Regional Office for Southern Africa: Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilisation Project. Bourgeois S., Kocher T., Schelander P. (2003), Case study: Zambezi river basin, ETH Seminar: Science and Politics of International Freshwater Management 2003/04 Davies B.R., Beilfuss R., Thoms M.C. (2000), "Cahora Bassa retrospective, 1974–1997: effects of flow regulation on the Lower Zambezi River," Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnologie, 27, 1–9 Dunham KM (1994), The effect of drought on the large mammal populations of Zambezi riverine woodlands, Journal of Zoology, v. 234, p. 489–526 Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc. (2004). World reference atlas. New York: Dorling Kindersley. Wynn S. (2002), "The Zambezi River - Wilderness and Tourism", International Journal of Wilderness, 8, 34. H. C. N. Ridley: "Early History of Road Transport in Northern Rhodesia", The Northern Rhodesia Journal, Vol 2 No 5 (1954)—Re Zambezi River Transport Service at Katombora. Funding boost for cross-border conservation project External links Information and a map of the Zambezi's watershed Zambezi Expedition - Fighting Malaria on the "River of Life" The Zambezi Society Map of Africa's river basins Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library The Nature Conservancy's Great Rivers Partnership works to conserve the Zambezi River Border rivers Botswana–Zambia border International rivers of Africa Mozambique Channel Namibia–Zambia border Rivers of Angola Rivers of Mozambique Rivers of Namibia Rivers of Zambia Rivers of Zimbabwe Tourist attractions in Zimbabwe Zambezi basin Zambia–Zimbabwe border Rivers of Botswana

Mowgli

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Mowgli () is a fictional character and the protagonist of Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book stories. He is a feral boy from the Pench area in Seoni, Madhya Pradesh, India, who originally appeared in Kipling's short story "In the Rukh" (collected in Many Inventions, 1893) and then became the most prominent and arguably the most memorable character in the collections The Jungle Book and The Second Jungle Book (1894–1895), which also featured stories about other characters. Name In the stories, the name Mowgli is said to mean "frog", describing his lack of fur. Kipling later said "Mowgli is a name I made up. It does not mean 'frog' in any language that I know of." Kipling stated that the first syllable of "Mowgli" should rhyme with "cow" (that is, ) rather than "mow" (). Kipling's Mowgli stories The Mowgli stories, including "In the Rukh", were first collected in chronological order in one volume as The Works of Rudyard Kipling Volume VII: The Jungle Book (1907) (Volume VIII of this series contained the non-Mowgli stories from the Jungle Books), and subsequently in All the Mowgli Stories (1933).. "In the Rukh" describes how Gisborne, an English forest ranger in the Pench area in Seoni at the time of the British Raj, discovers a young man named Mowgli, who has extraordinary skills in hunting, tracking, and driving wild animals (with the help of his wolf brothers). He asks him to join the forestry service. Muller, the head of the Department of Woods and Forests of India as well as Gisborne's boss, meets Mowgli, checks his elbows and knees, noting the callouses and scars, and figures Mowgli is not using magic or demons, having seen a similar case in 30 years of service. Muller also invites Mowgli to join the service, to which Mowgli agrees. Later, Gisborne learns the reason for Mowgli's almost superhuman talents; he was raised by a pack of wolves in the jungle (explaining the scars on his elbows and knees from going on all fours). Mowgli marries the daughter of Gisborne's butler, Abdul Gafur. By the end of the story, Mowgli has a son and is back to living with his wolf brothers. Kipling then proceeded to write the stories of Mowgli's childhood in detail in The Jungle Book. Lost by his parents as a baby in the Indian jungle during a tiger attack, he is adopted by the Wolf Mother, Raksha and Father Wolf, who call him Mowgli (frog) because of his lack of fur and his refusal to sit still. Shere Khan the tiger demands that they give him the baby but the wolves refuse. Mowgli grows up with the pack, hunting with his brother wolves. In the pack, Mowgli learns he is able to stare down any wolf, and his unique ability to remove the painful thorns from the paws of his brothers is deeply appreciated as well. Bagheera, the black panther, befriends Mowgli because both he and Mowgli have parallel childhood experiences; as Bagheera often mentions, he was "raised in the King's cages at Oodeypore" from a cub, and thus knows the ways of man. Baloo the bear, teacher of wolves, has the thankless task of educating Mowgli in "The Law of the Jungle". Shere Khan continues to regard Mowgli as fair game, but eventually Mowgli finds a weapon he can use against the tiger – fire. After driving off Shere Khan, Mowgli goes to a human village where he is adopted by Messua and her husband, whose own son Nathoo was also taken by a tiger. It is uncertain if Mowgli is actually the returned Nathoo, although it is stated in "Tiger! Tiger!" that the tiger who carried off Messua's son was similar to the one that attacked Mowgli's parents. Messua would like to believe that her son has returned, however, she herself realises that this is unlikely. While herding buffalo for the village, Mowgli learns that the tiger is still planning to kill him, so with the aid of two wolves, he traps Shere Khan in a ravine where the buffalo trample him. The tiger dies and Mowgli sets to skin him. After being accused of witchcraft and cast out of the village, Mowgli returns to the jungle with Shere Khan's hide and reunites with his wolf family. In later stories in The Jungle Book'''s sequel, The Second Jungle Book, Mowgli learns that the villagers are planning to kill Messua and her husband for harboring him. He rescues them and sends elephants, water buffaloes, and other animals to trample the village and its fields to the ground. Later, Mowgli finds and then discards an ancient treasure ("The King's Ankus"), not realising it is so valuable that men would kill to own it. With the aid of Kaa the python, he leads the wolves in a war against the dhole ("Red Dog"). Finally, Mowgli stumbles across the village where his adopted human mother (Messua) is now living, which forces him to come to terms with his humanity and decide whether to rejoin his fellow humans in "The Spring Running". Play adaptations Rudyard Kipling adapted the Mowgli stories for The Jungle Play in 1899, but the play was never produced on stage. The manuscript was lost for almost a century. It was published in book form in 2000. Influences upon other works Only six years after the first publication of The Jungle Book, E. Nesbit's The Wouldbegoods (1899) included a passage in which some children act out a scene from the book. Mowgli has been cited as a major influence on Edgar Rice Burroughs who created and developed the character Tarzan. Mowgli was also an influence for a number of other "wild boy" characters. Poul Anderson and Gordon R. Dickson used the Mowgli stories as the basis for their humorous 1957 science fiction short story "Full Pack (Hokas Wild)". This is one of a series featuring a teddy bear-like race called Hokas who enjoy human literature but cannot quite grasp the distinction between fact and fiction. In this story, a group of Hokas get hold of a copy of The Jungle Book and begin to act it out, enlisting the help of a human boy to play Mowgli. The boy's mother, who is a little bemused to see teddy bears trying to act like wolves, tags along to try to keep him (and the Hokas) out of trouble. The situation is complicated by the arrival of three alien diplomats who just happen to resemble a monkey, a tiger and a snake. This story appears in the collection Hokas Pokas! (1998) and is also available online. Mowgli stories by other writersThe Third Jungle Book (1992) by Pamela Jekel is a collection of new Mowgli stories in a fairly accurate pastiche of Kipling's style.Hunting Mowgli (2001) by Maxim Antinori is a very short novel which describes a fateful meeting between Mowgli and a human hunter.The Jungle Book: Last of the Species (2013) by Mark L Miller is a series of comic books that tells the story of a female Mowgli who unintentionally started a war between animal tribes after killing Shere Khan to avenge the fallen members of the wolf tribe. Movies, television and radio The 1942 film version starred Sabu as Mowgli. Disney's 1967 animated musical film version, where he is voiced by Bruce Reitherman, son of the film's director Wolfgang Reitherman (David Bailey was originally cast in the role, but his voice changed during production, leading Bailey to not fit the "young innocence of Mowgli's character" at which the producers were aiming), and its sequel, The Jungle Book 2 (2003), in which Mowgli is voiced by Haley Joel Osment. On three special animated segments for the VHS releases of the Jungle Cubs television series, Mowgli is voiced by Tyler Mullen. Around the same time – from 1967 to 1971 – five Russian short animated films were made by Soyuzmultfilm, collectively known as Adventures of Mowgli. Of all the various adaptations, Chuck Jones's 1977 animated TV short Mowgli's Brothers, adapting the first story in The Jungle Book, may be the one that adheres most closely to the original plot and dialogue. There has also been a Japanese animated TV series Jungle Book Shonen Mowgli (where Mowgli is voiced by Urara Takano in the Japanese and Julian Bailey in the English Dub) based on the Mowgli series and the U.S. live-action series Mowgli: The New Adventures of the Jungle Book (where Mowgli is portrayed by Sean Price McConnell). There was also a BBC radio adaptation in 1994, starring actress Nisha K. Nayar as Mowgli, Freddie Jones as Baloo and Eartha Kitt as Kaa. It originally aired on BBC Radio 5 (before it became BBC Radio 5 Live and dropped its children's programming). Subsequently, it has been released on audio cassette and has been re-run a number of times on digital radio channel BBC 7 (now BBC Radio 4 Extra). Classics Illustrated #83 (1951) contains an adaptation of three Mowgli stories. Between 1953 and 1955 Dell Comics featured adaptations of six Mowgli stories in three issues (#487, #582 and #620). Some issues of Marvel Fanfare feature adaptations of the Mowgli stories by Gil Kane. These later were collected as an omnibus volume. A 1994 live-action Disney adaptation titled Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book, directed by Stephen Sommers, which starred Jason Scott Lee as Mowgli. P. Craig Russell's Jungle Book Stories (1997) collects three stories, actually adapted from The Second Jungle Book, which originally appeared between 1985 and 1996. A 2016 live action/CGI hybrid remake of Disney's animated version of The Jungle Book directed by Jon Favreau, which starred newcomer Neel Sethi as Mowgli. In October 2018, Sethi confirmed that he will reprise the role in an upcoming sequel to the film. A 2018 live action adaptation titled Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle, directed by Andy Serkis, which starred Rohan Chand as Mowgli. In 1984-85, Jonathan Larson and Seth Goldman wrote an ultimately unproduced musical called Mowgli.Actors who played the character Mowgli has been played by many actors. In the 1942 film adaptation, Mowgli was played by Sabu Dastagir. In the 1994 film adaptation, he was played by Sean Naegeli as a child, and later throughout the film he was played by Jason Scott Lee. In The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli and Baloo, he was played by Jamie Williams. In The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story, he was played by Brandon Baker. Mowgli was played by Neel Sethi in the Disney live-action reimagination, which was released in 3D in April 2016. Mowgli was played by Rohan Chand in the Netflix movie Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle'', released on November 29, 2018. See also Rima, a jungle girl character from a 1904 book and 1959 film References External links In the Rukh: Mowgli's first appearance from Kipling's Many Inventions The Jungle Book Collection and Wiki: a website demonstrating the variety of merchandise related to the book and film versions of The Jungle Books, now accompanied by a Wiki on the Jungle Books and related subjects The Jungle Book characters Adventure film characters Characters in British novels of the 19th century Child characters in animated films Child characters in literature Fictional adoptees Fictional feral children Fictional Indian people in literature Literary characters introduced in 1893 Male characters in animation Male characters in film Male characters in literature Orphan characters in literature Jungle superheroes

Solicitor General of the United States

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The solicitor general of the United States is the fourth-highest-ranking official in the United States Department of Justice. Elizabeth Prelogar has been serving in the role since October 28, 2021. The United States solicitor general represents the federal government of the United States before the Supreme Court of the United States. The solicitor general determines the legal position that the United States will take in the Supreme Court. In addition to supervising and conducting cases in which the government is a party, the Office of the Solicitor General also files amicus curiae briefs in cases in which the federal government has a significant interest. The Office of the Solicitor General argues on behalf of the government in virtually every case in which the United States is a party, and also argues in most of the cases in which the government has filed an amicus brief. In the federal courts of appeal, the Office of the Solicitor General reviews cases decided against the United States and determines whether the government will seek review in the Supreme Court. The solicitor general's office also reviews cases decided against the United States in the federal district courts and approves every case in which the government files an appeal. Composition of the Office of the Solicitor General The solicitor general is assisted by four deputy solicitors general and seventeen assistants to the solicitor general. Three of the deputies are career attorneys in the Department of Justice. The remaining deputy is known as the "principal deputy," sometimes called the "political deputy" and, like the Solicitor General, typically leaves at the end of an administration. The solicitor general or one of the deputies typically argues the most important cases in the Supreme Court. Other cases may be argued by one of the assistants or another government attorney. The solicitors general tend to argue six to nine cases per Supreme Court term, while deputies argue four to five cases and assistants each argue two to three cases. Significance The solicitor general, who has offices in the Supreme Court Building as well as the Department of Justice Headquarters, has been called the "tenth justice" as a result of the close relationship between the justices and the solicitor general (and their respective staffs of clerks and deputies). As the most frequent advocate before the Court, the Office of the Solicitor General generally argues dozens of times each term. Furthermore, when the Office of the Solicitor General endorses a petition for certiorari, review is frequently granted, which is remarkable given that only 75 to 125 of the over 7,500 petitions submitted each term are granted review by the Court. Other than the justices themselves, the solicitor general is among the most influential and knowledgeable members of the legal community with regard to Supreme Court litigation. Six solicitors general have later served on the Supreme Court: William Howard Taft (who served as the 27th president of the United States before becoming Chief Justice of the United States), Stanley Forman Reed, Robert H. Jackson, Thurgood Marshall, and Elena Kagan. Some who have had other positions in the Office of the Solicitor General have also later been appointed to the Supreme Court. For example, Chief Justice John Roberts was the principal deputy solicitor general during the George H. W. Bush administration and Associate Justice Samuel Alito was an assistant to the solicitor general. The last former solicitor general to be successfully nominated to the court was Justice Elena Kagan. Only one former solicitor general has been nominated to the Supreme Court unsuccessfully, that being Robert Bork; however, no sitting solicitor general has ever been denied such an appointment. Eight other solicitors general have served on the United States Courts of Appeals. Within the Justice Department, the solicitor general exerts significant influence on all appeals brought by the department. The solicitor general is the only U.S. officer that is statutorily required to be "learned in law." Whenever the DOJ wins at the trial stage and the losing party appeals, the concerned division of the DOJ responds automatically and proceeds to defend the ruling in the appellate process. However, if the DOJ is the losing party at the trial stage, an appeal can only be brought with the permission of the solicitor general. For example, should the tort division lose a jury trial in federal district court, that ruling cannot be appealed by the Appellate Office without the approval of the solicitor general. Call for the views of the solicitor general When determining whether to grant certiorari in a case where the federal government is not a party, the Court will sometimes request that the solicitor general weigh in, a procedure referred to as a "call for the views of the solicitor general" (CVSG). In response to a CVSG, the solicitor general will file a brief opining on whether the petition should be granted and, usually, which party should prevail. Although the CVSG is technically an invitation, the solicitor general's office treats it as tantamount to a command. Philip Elman, who served as an attorney in the solicitor general's office and who was primary author of the federal government's brief in Brown v. Board of Education, wrote, "When the Supreme Court invites you, that's the equivalent of a royal command. An invitation from the Supreme Court just can't be rejected." The Court typically issues a CVSG where the justices believe that the petition is important, and may be considering granting it, but would like a legal opinion before making that decision. Examples include where there is a federal interest involved in the case; where there is a new issue for which there is no established precedent; or where an issue has evolved, perhaps becoming more complex or affecting other issues. Although there is usually no deadline by which the solicitor general is required to respond to a CVSG, briefs in response to the CVSG are generally filed at three times of the year: late May, allowing the petition to be considered before the Court breaks for summer recess; August, allowing the petition to go on the "summer list", to be considered at the end of recess; and December, allowing the case to be argued in the remainder of the current Supreme Court term. Traditions Several traditions have developed since the Office of Solicitor General was established in 1870. Most obviously to spectators at oral argument before the Court, the solicitor general and his or her deputies traditionally appear in formal morning coats, although Elena Kagan, the first woman to hold the office on other than an acting basis, elected to forgo the practice. During oral argument, the members of the Court often address the solicitor general as "General." Some legal commentators have disagreed with this usage, saying that "general" is a postpositive adjective (which modifies the noun "solicitor"), and is not a title itself. Another tradition is the practice of confession of error. If the government prevailed in the lower court but the solicitor general disagrees with the result, the solicitor general may confess error, after which the Supreme Court will vacate the lower court's ruling and send the case back for reconsideration. List of Solicitors General Some terms overlap because the incumbent remained in office after a successor was named. The office has been vacant at times while awaiting the nomination or confirmation of a successor. List of notable Principal Deputy Solicitors General Paul M. Bator – 1982 to 1983 Donald B. Ayer – June 1986 to December 1988 John Roberts – October 1989–January 1993 (Became Chief Justice) Paul Bender – 1993–1996 Seth Waxman – 1996–1997 (Became Solicitor General) Barbara Underwood – March 1997 to January 2001 (acting SG from January to June 2001) Paul D. Clement – 2001 to July 2004 (became acting SG) Gregory G. Garre – September 2005-June 19, 2008 (became acting SG) Neal Katyal – January 2009 to May 2010 (became acting SG) Leondra Kruger – acting principal deputy SG named in August 2010 Sri Srinivasan – August 2011 to May 2013 (became Chief Judge of D.C. Circuit) Ian Gershengorn – September 2013 to June 2016 (became Acting SG) Noel Francisco – January 20, 2017 to March 10, 2017 (became SG) Jeff Wall – March 10, 2017 to January 20, 2021 (became Acting SG) Elizabeth Prelogar – January 20, 2021 - October 28, 2021 (became SG) Notes References External links United States Solicitors General Supreme Court of the United States people United States Department of Justice officials

Essential fatty acid

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Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them. The term "essential fatty acid" refers to fatty acids required for biological processes but does not include the fats that only act as fuel. Essential fatty acids should not be confused with essential oils, which are "essential" in the sense of being a concentrated essence. Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid). Some other fatty acids are sometimes classified as "conditionally essential", meaning that they can become essential under some developmental or disease conditions; examples include docosahexaenoic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and gamma-linolenic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid). When the two EFAs were discovered in 1923, they were designated "vitamin F", but in 1929, research on rats showed that the two EFAs are better classified as fats rather than vitamins. Functions The biological effects of the ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are mediated by their mutual interactions, see Essential fatty acid interactions for detail. In the body, essential fatty acids serve multiple functions. In each of these, the balance between dietary ω-3 and ω-6 strongly affects function. They are modified to make the classic eicosanoids (affecting inflammation and many other cellular functions) the endocannabinoids (affecting mood, behavior and inflammation) the lipoxins which are a group of eicosanoid derivatives formed via the lipoxygenase pathway from ω-6 EFAs and resolvins from ω-3 (in the presence of acetylsalicylic acid, downregulating inflammation) the isofurans, neurofurans, isoprostanes, hepoxilins, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) and neuroprotectin D They form lipid rafts (affecting cellular signaling) They act on DNA (activating or inhibiting transcription factors such as NF-κB, which is linked to pro-inflammatory cytokine production) Nomenclature and terminology Fatty acids are straight chain hydrocarbons possessing a carboxyl group (–COOH) group at one end, and a methyl group (–CH3) at the other end. The carbon next to the carboxylate is known as α, the next carbon β, and so forth. Since biological fatty acids can be of different lengths, the last position is labelled as a "ω", the last letter in the Greek alphabet. The physiological properties of unsaturated fatty acids largely depend on the position of the first unsaturation relative to the end position (ω). For example, the term ω-3 signifies that the first unsaturated carbon-carbon bond from the terminal end (ω) of then chain is the third one. Typically, the number of carbons and the number of double bonds are also listed in short descriptions of unsaturated fatty acids. For instance, ω-3 18:4, or 18:4 ω-3, or 18:4 n−3 indicates stearidonic acid, an 18-carbon chain with 4 double bonds, and with a double bond between the third and fourth carbon atoms from the CH3 end. Double bonds are cis and separated by a single methylene (CH2) group unless otherwise noted. In free fatty acid form, the chemical structure of stearidonic acid is: Examples Polyunsaturated fatty acids with 16-carbon and 18-carbon chains are sometimes classified as short chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (SC-PUFA), as opposed to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), which have more than 18 carbon atoms. Both the essential fatty acids are SC-PUFA with an 18-carbon chain: ω-3 fatty acid: α-linolenic acid or ALA (18:3n-3) ω-6 fatty acid: linoleic acid or LA (18:2n-6) These two fatty acids cannot be synthesized by humans because humans lack the desaturase enzymes required for their production. They form the starting point for the creation of more desaturated fatty acids, most of which also have a longer carbon chain: ω-3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA (20:5n-3) docosahexaenoic acid or DHA (22:6n-3) ω-6 fatty acids: gamma-linolenic acid or GLA (18:3n-6) dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid or DGLA (20:3n-6) arachidonic acid or AA (20:4n-6) Except for GLA, which has a short 18-carbon chain, these fatty acids have more than 18 carbon atoms and are typically classified as LC-PUFA. ω-9 fatty acids are not essential in humans because they can be synthesized from carbohydrates or other fatty acids. Essentiality in human diet Mammals lack the ability to introduce double bonds in fatty acids beyond carbon 9 and 10, hence the omega-6 linoleic acid (18:2n-6; LA) and the omega-3 linolenic acid (18:3n-3; ALA) are essential for humans in the diet. However, humans can convert both LA and ALA to fatty acids with longer carbon chains and a larger number of double bonds, by alternative desaturation and chain elongation. In humans, arachidonic acid (20:4n-6; AA) can be synthesized from LA. In turn, AA can be converted to an even longer fatty acid, the docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6; DPA). Similarly, ALA can be converted to docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA), although the latter conversion is limited, resulting in lower blood levels of DHA than through direct ingestion. This is illustrated by studies in vegans and vegetarians. If there is relatively more LA than ALA in the diet it favors the formation of DPA from LA rather than DHA from ALA. This effect can be altered by changing the relative ratio of LA:ALA, but is more effective when total intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids is low. In preterm infants, the capacity to convert LA to AA and ALA to DHA is limited, and preformed AA and DHA may be required to meet the needs of the developing brain. Both AA and DHA are present in breastmilk and contribute along with the parent fatty acids LA and ALA to meeting the requirements of the newborn infant. Many infant formulas have AA and DHA added to them with an aim to make them more equivalent to human milk. Essential nutrients are defined as those that cannot be synthesized de novo in sufficient quantities for normal physiological function. This definition is met for LA and ALA but not the longer chain derivatives in adults. The longer chain derivatives particularly, however, have pharmacological properties that can modulate disease processes, but this should not be confused with dietary essentiality. Between 1930 and 1950, arachidonic acid and linolenic acid were termed 'essential' because each was more or less able to meet the growth requirements of rats given fat-free diets. In the 1950s Arild Hansen showed that in humans: infants fed skimmed milk developed the essential fatty acid deficiency. It was characterized by an increased food intake, poor growth, and a scaly dermatitis, and was cured by the administration of corn oil. Later work by Hansen randomized 426 children to four treatments: modified cow's milk formula, skimmed milk formula, skimmed milk formula with coconut oil, or cow's milk formula with corn oil. The infants who received the skimmed milk formula or the formula with coconut oil developed essential fatty acid deficiency signs and symptoms. This could be cured by administration of ethyl linoleate (the ethyl ester of linoleic acid) with about 1% of the energy intake. Collins et al. 1970 were the first to demonstrate linoleic acid deficiency in adults. They found that patients undergoing intravenous nutrition with glucose became isolated from their fat supplies and rapidly developed biochemical signs of essential fatty acid deficiency (an increase in 20:3n-9/20:4n-6 ratio in plasma) and skin symptoms. This could be treated by infusing lipids, and later studies showed that topical application of sunflower oil would also resolve the dermal symptoms. Linoleic acid has a specific role in maintaining the skin water-permeability barrier, probably as constituents of acylglycosylceramides. This role cannot be met by any ω-3 fatty acids or by arachidonic acid. The main physiological requirement for ω-6 fatty acids is attributed to arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is the major precursor of prostaglandins, leukotrienes that play a vital role in cell signaling, and an endogenous cannabinoid anandamide. Metabolites from the ω-3 pathway, mainly from eicosapentaenoic acid, are mostly inactive, and this explains why ω-3 fatty acids do not correct the reproductive failure in rats where arachidonic is needed to make active prostaglandins that cause uterine contraction. To some extent, any ω-3 or ω-6 can contribute to the growth-promoting effects of EFA deficiency, but only ω-6 fatty acids can restore reproductive performance and correct the dermatitis in rats. Particular fatty acids are still needed at critical life stages (e.g. lactation) and in some disease states. In nonscientific writing, common usage is that the term essential fatty acid comprises all the ω-3 or -6 fatty acids. Conjugated fatty acids like calendic acid are not considered essential. Authoritative sources include the whole families, but generally only make dietary recommendations for LA and ALA with the exception of DHA for infants under the age of 6 months. Recent reviews by WHO/FAO in 2009 and the European Food Safety Authority have reviewed the evidence and made recommendations for minimal intakes of LA and ALA and have also recommended intakes of longer chain ω-3 fatty acids based on the association of oily fish consumption with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. Some earlier review lumped all polyunsaturated fatty acids together without qualification whether they were short or long-chain PUFA or whether they were ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA. Conditional essentiality Traditionally speaking, the LC-PUFAs are not essential to healthy adults. Because the LC-PUFA are sometimes required, they may be considered conditionally essential fatty acids. Food sources <div> Some of the food sources of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, seaweed oil, flaxseed (linseed) and flaxseed oil, hemp seed, olive oil, soya oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, and walnuts. Essential fatty acids play a part in many metabolic processes, and there is evidence to suggest that low levels of essential fatty acids, or the wrong balance of types among the essential fatty acids, may be a factor in a number of illnesses, including osteoporosis. Fish is the main source of the longer omega-3 fats; eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), though they initially acquire these fats through the consumption of algae and seaweed. Some plant-based foods contain omega-3 in the form of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which appears to have a modest benefit for cardiovascular health. The human body can (and in case of a purely vegetarian diet often must unless certain algae or supplements derived from them are consumed) convert ALA to EPA and subsequently DHA. This elongation of ALA is inefficient. Conversion to DHA is higher in women than in men; this is thought to reflect the need to provide DHA to the fetus and infant during pregnancy and breast feeding. The IUPAC Lipid Handbook provides a very large and detailed listing of fat contents of animal and vegetable fats, including ω-3 and -6 oils. The National Institutes of Health's EFA Education group publishes Essential Fats in Food Oils. This lists 40 common oils, more tightly focused on EFAs and sorted by n-6:3 ratio. Vegetable Lipids as Components of Functional Food lists notable vegetable sources of EFAs as well as commentary and an overview of the biosynthetic pathways involved. Careful readers will note that these sources are not in excellent agreement. EFA content of vegetable sources varies with cultivation conditions. Animal sources vary widely, both with the animal's feed and that the EFA makeup varies markedly with fats from different body parts. Human health Essential fatty acids play an important role in the life and death of cardiac cells. Additionally, essential fatty acids are crucial for the development of several endocannabinoids with a multitude of functions in the body, such as Docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (DHA-EA/synaptamide). Many omega-3 and omega-6 derived essential fatty acids act similarly to endocannabinoids such as anandamide and 2-AG, possessing activity at the CB1 and CB2 receptors, among others. 29 Reference intake values Reference intake values for as published by the Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). In the United States, the Adequate Intake (AI) for omega-3 fatty acids is for ALA. It is based on the median intake, and for adults the values are 1.6 g/day for men and 1.1 g/day for women. EPA and DHA contribute about 10 percent of total omega-3 intake. The AI for omega-6 fatty acids is for linoleic acid and is also based on the median intake: 17 g/day for younger men, dropping to 14 g/day for men over 50 years old; for younger women 12 g/d, and 11 g/day for women over 50. Studies have shown that smaller intakes reverse the symptoms of deficiency, but there is inadequate information to set an Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for either. Essential fatty acid deficiency Essential fatty acid deficiency results in a dermatitis similar to that seen in zinc or biotin deficiency. See also Eicosanoid Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid Leukotriene Prostaglandin Thromboxane Specialized proresolving mediators Essential amino acid Essential fatty acid interactions Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acid synthase Krill oil Nonclassic eicosanoid Oily fish Omega-3 fatty acid Omega-6 fatty acid Polyunsaturated fat References

Soil pH

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Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a soil. Soil pH is a key characteristic that can be used to make informative analysis both qualitative and quantitatively regarding soil characteristics. pH is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions ( or, more precisely, ) in a solution. In soils, it is measured in a slurry of soil mixed with water (or a salt solution, such as  ), and normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Acid soils have a pH below 7 and alkaline soils have a pH above 7. Ultra-acidic soils (pH < 3.5) and very strongly alkaline soils (pH > 9) are rare. Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range. Classification of soil pH ranges The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows: Determining pH Methods of determining pH include: Observation of soil profile: Certain profile characteristics can be indicators of either acid, saline, or sodic conditions. Examples are: Poor incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer – this can indicate strongly acidic soils; The classic podzol horizon sequence, since podzols are strongly acidic: in these soils, a pale eluvial (E) horizon lies under the organic surface layer and overlies a dark B horizon; Presence of a caliche layer indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions; Columnar structure can be an indicator of sodic condition. Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants (those that prefer an acidic soil) include Erica, Rhododendron and nearly all other Ericaceae species, many birch (Betula), foxglove (Digitalis), gorse (Ulex spp.), and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Calcicole (lime loving) plants include ash trees (Fraxinus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera), Buddleja, dogwoods (Cornus spp.), lilac (Syringa) and Clematis species. Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed with indicator solution which changes colour according to the acidity. Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns red, if basic, blue. Certain other fruit and vegetable pigments also change color in response to changing pH. Blueberry juice turns more reddish if acid is added, and becomes indigo if titrated with sufficient base to yield a high pH. Red cabbage is similarly affected. Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a glass or solid-state electrode is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture (suspension) of soil and water; the pH is usually read on a digital display screen. Recently, spectrophotometric methods have been developed to measure soil pH involving addition of an indicator dye to the soil extract. These compared well to glass electrode measurements but offer substantial advantages such as lack of drift, liquid junction and suspension effects Precise, repeatable measures of soil pH are required for scientific research and monitoring. This generally entails laboratory analysis using a standard protocol; an example of such a protocol is that in the USDA Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. In this document the three-page protocol for soil pH measurement includes the following sections: Application; Summary of Method; Interferences; Safety; Equipment; Reagents; and Procedure. Factors affecting soil pH The pH of a natural soil depends on the mineral composition of the parent material of the soil, and the weathering reactions undergone by that parent material. In warm, humid environments, soil acidification occurs over time as the products of weathering are leached by water moving laterally or downwards through the soil. In dry climates, however, soil weathering and leaching are less intense and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline. Sources of acidity Many processes contribute to soil acidification. These include: Rainfall: Average Rainfall has a pH of 5.6 and is presented as slightly more acidic due to the atmospheric carbon dioxide () that is when combined with water forms carbonic acid () which is acidic. When this water flows through soil it results in the leaching of basic cations from the soil as bicarbonates; this increases the percentage of and relative to other cations. Root respiration and decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms releases which increases the carbonic acid () concentration and subsequent leaching. Plant growth: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (e.g. , , , ), and they often take up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release ions from the root. Some plants also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe). Fertilizer use: Ammonium () fertilizers react in the soil by the process of nitrification to form nitrate (), and in the process release ions. Acid rain: The burning of fossil fuels releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen into the atmosphere. These react with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid in rain. Oxidative weathering: Oxidation of some primary minerals, especially sulfides and those containing , generate acidity. This process is often accelerated by human activity: Mine spoil: Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near some mine spoils due to the oxidation of pyrite. Acid sulfate soils formed naturally in waterlogged coastal and estuarine environments can become highly acidic when drained or excavated. Sources of alkalinity Total soil alkalinity increases with: Weathering of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals containing , , and ; Addition of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals to soils; this may happen by deposition of material eroded elsewhere by wind or water, or by mixing of the soil with less weathered material (such as the addition of limestone to acid soils); Addition of water containing dissolved bicarbonates (as occurs when irrigating with high-bicarbonate waters). The accumulation of alkalinity in a soil (as carbonates and bicarbonates of Na, K, Ca and Mg) occurs when there is insufficient water flowing through the soils to leach soluble salts. This may be due to arid conditions, or poor internal soil drainage; in these situations most of the water that enters the soil is transpired (taken up by plants) or evaporates, rather than flowing through the soil. The soil pH usually increases when the total alkalinity increases, but the balance of the added cations also has a marked effect on the soil pH. For example, increasing the amount of sodium in an alkaline soil tends to induce dissolution of calcium carbonate, which increases the pH. Calcareous soils may vary in pH from 7.0 to 9.5, depending on the degree to which or dominate the soluble cations. Effect of soil pH on plant growth Acid soils Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of stresses including aluminium (Al), hydrogen (H), and/or manganese (Mn) toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminium is present in all soils to varying degrees, but dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants; Al3+ is most soluble at low pH; above pH 5.0, there is little Al in soluble form in most soils. Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as such, is not actively taken up by the plants, but enters plant roots passively through osmosis. Aluminium can exist in many different forms and is a responsible agent for limiting growth in various parts of the world. Aluminium tolerance studies have been conducted in different plant species to see viable thresholds and concentrations exposed along with function upon exposure. Aluminium inhibits root growth; lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching; root tips may turn brown. In the root, the initial effect of Al3+ is the inhibition of the expansion of the cells of the rhizodermis, leading to their rupture; thereafter it is known to interfere with many physiological processes including the uptake and transport of calcium and other essential nutrients, cell division, cell wall formation, and enzyme activity. Proton (H+ ion) stress can also limit plant growth. The proton pump, H+-ATPase, of the plasmalemma of root cells works to maintain the near-neutral pH of their cytoplasm. A high proton activity (pH within the range 3.0–4.0 for most plant species) in the external growth medium overcomes the capacity of the cell to maintain the cytoplasmic pH and growth shuts down. In soils with a high content of manganese-containing minerals, Mn toxicity can become a problem at pH 5.6 and lower. Manganese, like aluminium, becomes increasingly soluble as pH drops, and Mn toxicity symptoms can be seen at pH levels below 5.6. Manganese is an essential plant nutrient, so plants transport Mn into leaves. Classic symptoms of Mn toxicity are crinkling or cupping of leaves. Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH Soil pH affects the availability of some plant nutrients: As discussed above, aluminium toxicity has direct effects on plant growth; however, by limiting root growth, it also reduces the availability of plant nutrients. Because roots are damaged, nutrient uptake is reduced, and deficiencies of the macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium) are frequently encountered in very strongly acidic to ultra-acidic soils (pH<5.0). Molybdenum availability is increased at higher pH; this is because the molybdate ion is more strongly sorbed by clay particles at lower pH. Zinc, iron, copper and manganese show decreased availability at higher pH (increased sorption at higher pH). The effect of pH on phosphorus availability varies considerably, depending on soil conditions and the crop in question. The prevailing view in the 1940s and 1950s was that P availability was maximized near neutrality (soil pH 6.5–7.5), and decreased at higher and lower pH. Interactions of phosphorus with pH in the moderately to slightly acidic range (pH 5.5–6.5) are, however, far more complex than is suggested by this view. Laboratory tests, glasshouse trials and field trials have indicated that increases in pH within this range may increase, decrease, or have no effect on P availability to plants. Water availability in relation to soil pH Strongly alkaline soils are sodic and dispersive, with slow infiltration, low hydraulic conductivity and poor available water capacity. Plant growth is severely restricted because aeration is poor when the soil is wet; in dry conditions, plant-available water is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard and cloddy (high soil strength). Many strongly acidic soils, on the other hand, have strong aggregation, good internal drainage, and good water-holding characteristics. However, for many plant species, aluminium toxicity severely limits root growth, and moisture stress can occur even when the soil is relatively moist. Plant pH preferences In general terms, different plant species are adapted to soils of different pH ranges. For many species, the suitable soil pH range is fairly well known. Online databases of plant characteristics, such USDA PLANTS and Plants for a Future can be used to look up the suitable soil pH range of a wide range of plants. Documents like Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants can also be consulted. However, a plant may be intolerant of a particular pH in some soils as a result of a particular mechanism, and that mechanism may not apply in other soils. For example, a soil low in molybdenum may not be suitable for soybean plants at pH 5.5, but soils with sufficient molybdenum allow optimal growth at that pH. Similarly, some calcifuges (plants intolerant of high-pH soils) can tolerate calcareous soils if sufficient phosphorus is supplied. Another confounding factor is that different varieties of the same species often have different suitable soil pH ranges. Plant breeders can use this to breed varieties that can tolerate conditions that are otherwise considered unsuitable for that species – examples are projects to breed aluminium-tolerant and manganese-tolerant varieties of cereal crops for food production in strongly acidic soils. The table below gives suitable soil pH ranges for some widely cultivated plants as found in the USDA PLANTS Database. Some species (like Pinus radiata and Opuntia ficus-indica) tolerate only a narrow range in soil pH, whereas others (such as Vetiveria zizanioides) tolerate a very wide pH range. Changing soil pH Increasing pH of acidic soil Finely ground agricultural lime is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH (liming). The amount of limestone or chalk needed to change pH is determined by the mesh size of the lime (how finely it is ground) and the buffering capacity of the soil. A high mesh size (60 mesh = 0.25 mm; 100 mesh = 0.149 mm) indicates a finely ground lime that will react quickly with soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil depends on the clay content of the soil, the type of clay, and the amount of organic matter present, and may be related to the soil cation exchange capacity. Soils with high clay content will have a higher buffering capacity than soils with little clay, and soils with high organic matter will have a higher buffering capacity than those with low organic matter. Soils with higher buffering capacity require a greater amount of lime to achieve an equivalent change in pH. The buffering of soil pH is often directly related to the quantity of aluminium in soil solution and taking up exchange sites as part of the cation exchange capacity. This aluminium can be measured in a soil test in which it is extracted from the soil with a salt solution, and then is quantified with a laboratory analysis. Then, using the initial soil pH and the aluminium content, the amount of lime needed to raise the pH to a desired level can be calculated. Amendments other than agricultural lime that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood ash, industrial calcium oxide (burnt lime), magnesium oxide, basic slag (calcium silicate), and oyster shells. These products increase the pH of soils through various acid–base reactions. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H+ ions to form monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute. Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil The pH of an alkaline soil can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials. Elemental sulfur (90–99% S) has been used at application rates of – it slowly oxidizes in soil to form sulfuric acid. Acidifying fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and urea, can help to reduce the pH of a soil because ammonium oxidises to form nitric acid. Acidifying organic materials include peat or sphagnum peat moss. However, in high-pH soils with a high calcium carbonate content (more than 2%), it can be very costly and/or ineffective to attempt to reduce the pH with acids. In such cases, it is often more efficient to add phosphorus, iron, manganese, copper and/or zinc instead, because deficiencies of these nutrients are the most common reasons for poor plant growth in calcareous soils. See also Acid mine drainage Acid sulfate soil Cation-exchange capacity Fertilizer Liming (soil) Organic horticulture Redox gradient References External links "A Study of Lime Potential, R.C. Turner, Research Branch, Canadian Department of Agriculture, 1965" Horticulture Organic gardening Plant nutrition PH

List of Canadian provinces and territories by area

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As a country, Canada has ten provinces and three territories. These subdivisions vary widely in both land and water area. The largest subdivision by land area is the territory of Nunavut. The largest subdivision by water area is the province of Quebec. The smallest subdivision of both land and water area is the province of Prince Edward Island. Canada is the second-largest country in the world; it has the fourth-largest dry land area, and the largest freshwater area. Listings Total area The total area of a province or territory is the sum of its land area and the area of its internal water (freshwater only). Areas are rounded to the nearest square kilometre or square mile. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent. Land area Land areas consist of dry land, including areas of freshwater, and or salt water. Areas are rounded to the nearest whole unit. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent. Internal water area (fresh-water only) The internal water area data below, includes freshwater (i.e., lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and canals). It excludes internal salt water and territorial waters claimed by Canada in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans. Canada considers its internal water area to include 1,600,000 km2 of salt water in Hudson Bay and the ocean within and around Canada's Arctic Archipelago. Canada's territorial sea is 200,000 km2. Areas are given to the nearest whole unit. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent. See also Demographics of Canada List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area Population of Canada by province and territory References Further reading Canadian Provinces And Territories Area Subdivisions of Canada Canada, area

Coal Miner's Daughter (film)

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Coal Miner's Daughter is a 1980 American biographical musical film directed by Michael Apted from a screenplay written by Tom Rickman. It follows the story of country music singer Loretta Lynn from her early teen years in a poor family and getting married at 15 to her rise as one of the most influential country musicians. Based on Lynn's 1976 biography of the same name by George Vecsey, the film stars Sissy Spacek as Lynn. Tommy Lee Jones, Beverly D'Angelo and Levon Helm are featured in supporting roles. Ernest Tubb, Roy Acuff, and Minnie Pearl make cameo appearances as themselves. A film on Lynn's life was intended to be made since the release of the biography. Production for the film began on March 1979, and Lynn herself chose Spacek to portray her on screen after seeing a photograph of her, despite being unfamiliar with her films. The film's soundtrack featured all Lynn's hit singles which were all sung by Spacek as well as Patsy Cline's "Sweet Dreams" sung by D'Angelo. The soundtrack reached the top 40 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. Universal Pictures released Coal Miner's Daughter theatrically on March 7, 1980. The critical consensus on Rotten Tomatoes calls it "a solidly affecting story". The film grossed $67.18 million in North America against a budget of $15 million, becoming the seventh highest-grossing film of 1980. The film received seven nominations at the 53rd Academy Awards, including for Best Picture, with Spacek winning Best Actress. At the 38th Golden Globe Awards, it garnered four nominations and won two; Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actress (for Spacek). The film is considered "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected to be preserved in the United States National Film Registry in 2019. Plot In 1945, 13-year-old Loretta Webb is one of eight children of Ted Webb, a Van Lear coal miner raising a family with his wife in the midst of grinding poverty in Butcher Hollow, Kentucky (pronounced by locals as "Butcher Holler"). In 1948, at the age of 15, Loretta marries 22-year-old Oliver "Mooney" (aka Doo, short for Doolittle) Lynn, becoming a mother of four by the time she is 19. The family moves to northern Washington State, where Doo works in the forest industry and Loretta sings occasionally at local honky-tonks on weekends. After some time, Loretta makes an occasional appearance on local radio. By the time Loretta turns 25, Norm Burley, the owner of Zero Records, a small Canadian record label, hears Loretta sing during one of her early radio appearances. Burley gives the couple the money needed to travel to Los Angeles to cut a demo tape from which her first single, "I'm a Honky Tonk Girl," is made. After returning home from the sessions, Doo suggests he and Loretta go on a promotional tour to push the record. Doo shoots his own publicity photo for Loretta, and spends many late nights writing letters to show promoters and to radio disc jockeys all over the South. After Loretta receives an emergency phone call from her mother telling her that her father had died, she and Doo hit the road with records, photos, and their children. The two embark on an extensive promotional tour of radio stations across the South. En route, and unbeknownst to the couple, Loretta's first single, "I'm a Honky Tonk Girl," hits the charts based on radio and jukebox plays, and earns her a spot on the Grand Ole Opry. In the summer of 1961, after 17 straight weekly performances on the Opry, she is invited to sing at Ernest Tubb Record Shop's Midnite Jamboree after her performance that night. Country superstar Patsy Cline, one of Loretta's idols, who had recently been hospitalized from a near-fatal car wreck, inspires Loretta to dedicate Patsy's newest hit "I Fall to Pieces" to the singer herself as a musical get-well card. Cline listens to the broadcast that night from her hospital room and sends her husband Charlie Dick to Ernest Tubb Record Shop to fetch Loretta so the two can meet. A close friendship with Cline follows, which abruptly was ended by Cline's death in a plane crash on March 5, 1963. The next few years are a whirlwind. The stress of extensive touring, keeping up her image, overwork, and trying to keep her marriage and family together cause Loretta a nervous breakdown, which she suffers onstage at the beginning of a concert. After a year off at her ranch in Hurricane Mills, Tennessee, Loretta goes back on the road, returning to establish herself as the "First Lady of Country Music." The film closes with Loretta recounting the story of her life through her 1970 hit song "Coal Miner's Daughter" to a sold-out audience. Cast Sissy Spacek as Loretta Lynn Tommy Lee Jones as Doolittle Lynn Beverly D'Angelo as Patsy Cline Levon Helm as Ted Webb Phyllis Boyens as Clara Ramey Webb, Loretta's mother Bob Hannah as Charlie Dick William Sanderson as Lee Dollarhide Grant Turner as Grand Ole Opry announcer Ernest Tubb as himself Roy Acuff as himself Minnie Pearl as herself Bob Elkins as Bobby Day Production Lynn personally chose Spacek to portray her, making the decision based on a photograph of the actress despite being unfamiliar with her films, a story Spacek recounts in a DVD audio commentary for the collector's edition of the film. Initially, Spacek was reluctant to participate, and asked to do her own singing in the film in hopes of scaring the studio from pursuing her for the role. At the time that Lynn prematurely announced on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson that "Sissy Spacek is going to play me," the actress was torn between friends who advised her to do Lynn's film and those who advised her to choose instead a Nicolas Roeg project due to start filming at the same time. Talking it over with her mother-in-law that evening, Spacek was advised to pray for a sign, which she did. She and her husband subsequently went for a drive in his mother's car, where the radio was tuned to a classical music station that changed formats at sunset every evening. As the couple pulled out of the parking garage, the title line of the song "Coal Miner's Daughter" came from the radio. In her 2012 memoir "My Extraordinary Ordinary Life", Sissy Spacek states that she became fast friends with Loretta Lynn and worked to emulate her unique accent and speech patterns by spending an afternoon tape-recording the singer while she told stories of her life, some of which made it into the script. She then listened to the tapes and repeated the lines until she captured her own version of Lynn. Though Spacek had started out as a singer, the producers considered dubbing Loretta's vocals over her performance. Lynn encouraged them to allow Spacek to do all of her own singing in the film and helped the actress learn to sing and play guitar in her style. The film's soundtrack featured Spacek's singing all of Lynn's hits sung in the movie, including "Coal Miner's Daughter". The locations included Blackey, Eolia, Flatgap, Bottom Fork, Redfox in Knott and Letcher Counties in Kentucky and Pardee, a former coal camp on the Virginia side of Black Mountain. Interiors of Lynn's childhood home were shot in a warehouse in Norton, Virginia. The replica of Lynn's home in Butcher Hollow, built at Bottom Fork, Letcher County, Kentucky was burned by arsonists. It was on the front porch of that house that Levon Helm, drummer and singer of the rock group The Band, made his acting debut as Lynn's father. In an interview with Merv Griffin broadcast November 7, 1978, Loretta Lynn said that Harrison Ford originally was cast. Soundtrack Coal Miner's Daughter: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on March 7, 1980, under the MCA Nashville label. It included music by Beverly D'Angelo, Levon Helm, and Sissy Spacek except for the "End Credits Medley" and material by other artists which were not under contract to MCA. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on January 11, 1982 and has been released on vinyl, cassette tape, and CD. Levon Helm's "Blue Moon of Kentucky" was released as a single on 7" vinyl, both as a double-A-side and also with Allen Toussaint's "Working in the Coal Mine", a non-album track also sung by Helm, on the B-side. The soundtrack would win Country Music Association Award for Album of the Year in 1980, the first of only two soundtracks to do so. O Brother, Where Art Thou? would be the other in 2001. Charts and certifications Weekly charts Certifications Reception Box office In its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, Coal Miner's Daughter was number 1 at the box office, grossing $3.6 million in 796 theaters. The film grossed a total of $67.1 million in the United States and Canada, becoming the seventh highest-grossing film of 1980 in North America. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Coal Miner's Daughter holds an approval rating of 86% based on 22 reviews, with an average rating of 8.31/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Like a classic traditional country song, Coal Miner's Daughter draws on time-tested formula -- and undeniable talent -- to tell a solidly affecting story". On Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 87 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Variety called it "a thoughtful, endearing film charting the life of singer Loretta Lynn from the depths of poverty in rural Kentucky to her eventual rise to the title of 'queen of country music'." Roger Ebert from The Chicago Times stated that the film "has been made with great taste and style; it's more intelligent and observant than movie biographies of singing stars used to be." Awards and nominations The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists: 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: "Coal Miner's Daughter" – Nominated 2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – #70 Home media This film was released on LaserDisc on two separate releases. The first release was in May 1980, and the extended play version was released in July 1981. These releases were both made by MCA DiscoVision. The film was released in the VHS format in the 1980s by MCA Home Video and on March 1, 1992 by MCA/Universal Home Video. On September 13, 2005, Universal released a 25th Anniversary Edition on DVD in widescreen (1.85:1) format and featuring the music tracks remixed to 5.1 Dolby Digital stereo, leaving the dialogue and effects tracks as they were on the original mono soundtrack from 1980. That same DVD was included in a 4-pack DVD set that also included Smokey and the Bandit, The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, Fried Green Tomatoes. On January 7, 2014, Universal Pictures released the film on Blu-ray. Broadway adaptation On May 10, 2012, at the Grand Ole Opry, Lynn announced that Zooey Deschanel was to portray her in a Broadway musical adaptation. One episode of The Simpsons, titled "Colonel Homer", is based partly on this film. The episode also stars Beverly D'Angelo as cocktail waitress Lurleen Lumpkin. References External links 1980 films 1980 drama films 1980s musical drama films American films American biographical films American musical drama films English-language films Biographical films about musicians Biographical films about singers Country music films Films based on biographies Autobiographies adapted into films Films set in Kentucky Films shot in Kentucky Films shot in Virginia Musical films based on actual events Films set in mining communities Loretta Lynn Universal Pictures films Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance Films directed by Michael Apted Cultural depictions of American women Cultural depictions of country musicians Cultural depictions of Patsy Cline United States National Film Registry films

Eureka, California

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Eureka (Wiyot: Jaroujiji, Hupa: do'-wi-lotl-ding, Karuk: uuth) is the principal city and county seat of Humboldt County in the Redwood Empire region of California. The city is located on U.S. Route 101 on the shores of Humboldt Bay, north of San Francisco and south of the Oregon border. At the 2010 census, the population of the city was 27,191, and the population of Greater Eureka was 45,034. Eureka is the largest coastal city between San Francisco and Portland, Oregon, and the westernmost city of more than 25,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states. The proximity to the sea causes the city to have an extremely maritime climate with very small annual temperature differences and seasons mainly being defined by the rainy winters and dry summers, whereas nearby inland areas are much hotter in summer. It is the regional center for government, health care, trade, and the arts on the North Coast north of the San Francisco Bay Area. Greater Eureka, one of California's major commercial fishing ports, is the location of the largest deep-water port between San Francisco and Coos Bay, a stretch of about . The headquarters of both the Six Rivers National Forest and the North Coast Redwoods District of the California State Parks System are in Eureka. As entrepôt for hundreds of lumber mills that once existed in the area, the city played a leading role in the historic West Coast lumber trade. The entire city is a state historic landmark, which has hundreds of significant Victorian homes, including the nationally recognized Carson Mansion, and the city has retained its original 19th-century commercial core as a nationally recognized Old Town Historic District. Eureka is home to California's oldest zoo, the Sequoia Park Zoo. History Eureka's Pacific coastal location on Humboldt Bay, adjacent to abundant redwood forests, provided the reason for settlement of this 19th-century seaport town. Before the arrival of Euro-American settlers, including farmers, miners, fishermen, and loggers, the area was home to Native Americans. Native Americans The Wiyot people lived in Jaroujiji (Wiyot: "where you sit and rest"), now known as Eureka, for thousands of years before European arrival. Their traditional coastal homeland ranged from the lower Mad River through Humboldt Bay and south along the lower basin of the Eel River. The Wiyot are particularly known for their basketry and fishery management. An extensive collection of intricate basketry of the area's indigenous groups exists in the Clarke Historical Museum in Old Town Eureka. , Eureka High School has the largest Yurok language program in California. The Wiyot and Yurok are the westernmost peoples to speak Algic languages. Founding on Humboldt Bay For nearly 300 years after 1579, European exploration of the coast of what would become northern California repeatedly missed definitively locating Humboldt Bay because of a combination of geographic features and weather conditions which concealed the narrow bay entrance from view. Despite a well-documented 1806 sighting by Russian explorers, the bay was not definitively known by Europeans until an 1849 overland exploration provided a reliable accounting of the exact location of what is the second-largest bay in California. The timing of this discovery led to the May 13, 1850, founding of the settlement of Eureka on its shore by the Union and Mendocino Exploring (development) companies. Gold Rush era After the primary California Gold Rush in the Sierras, Humboldt Bay was settled with the intent of providing a convenient alternative to the long overland route from Sacramento to supply miners on the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers where gold had been discovered. Though the ideal location on Humboldt Bay adjacent to naturally deeper shipping channels ultimately guaranteed Eureka's development as the primary city on the bay, Arcata's proximity to developing supply lines to inland gold mines ensured supremacy over Eureka through 1856. "Eureka" received its name from a Greek word meaning "I have found it!" This exuberant statement of successful (or hopeful) gold rush miners is also the official motto of the State of California. Eureka is the only U.S. location to use the same seal as the state for its seal. Wiyot Massacre The first Europeans venturing into Humboldt Bay encountered the indigenous Wiyot. After 1850, Americans ultimately overwhelmed the Wiyot, whose maximum population before the Europeans numbered in the hundreds in the area of what would become the county's primary city. But in almost every case, settlers ultimately cut off access to ancestral sources of food in addition to the outright theft of land, despite the efforts of some U.S. government and military officials to assist the native peoples or at least maintain peace. Fort Humboldt was established by the U.S. Army on January 30, 1853, as a buffer between Native Americans, gold-seekers and settlers, commanded by Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Robert C. Buchanan of the U.S. 4th Infantry Regiment. The 1860 Wiyot Massacre took place on Indian Island in the spring of 1860, committed by a group of locals thought to be composed primarily of Eureka businessmen. (The male Wiyot tribal members had left the island during their annual New Year ritual and the vigilantes killed as many as 250 children, women, and elderly tribal members) Major Gabriel J. Rains, Commanding Officer of Fort Humboldt at the time, reported to his commanding officer that a local group of vigilantes had resolved to "kill every peaceable Indian – man, woman, and child." Lumber industry Eureka's first post office opened in 1853 just as the town began to carve its grid plan into the edge of a forest it would ultimately consume to feed the building of San Francisco and points beyond. Many of the first immigrants who arrived as prospectors were also lumbermen, and the vast potential for industry on the bay was soon realized, especially as many hopeful gold miners realized the difficulty and infrequency of striking it rich in the mines. By 1854, after only four years since the founding, seven of nine mills processing timber into marketable lumber on Humboldt Bay were within Eureka. A year later, 140 lumber schooners operated in and out of Humboldt Bay moving lumber from the mills to booming cities along the Pacific coast. By the time the charter for Eureka was granted in 1856, busy mills inside the city had a daily production capacity of 220,000 board feet. This level of production, which would grow significantly and continue for more than a century, secured Eureka as the "timber capital" of California. Eureka was at the apex of rapid growth of the lumber industry because of its location between huge coast redwood forests and its control of the primary port facilities. Loggers brought the enormous redwood trees down. Dozens of movable narrow gauge railroads brought trainloads of logs and finished lumber products to the main rail line, which led directly to Eureka's wharf and waiting schooners. By the 1880s, railroads eventually brought the production of hundreds of mills throughout the region to Eureka, primarily for shipment through its port. After the early 1900s, shipment of products occurred by trucks, trains, and ships from Eureka, Humboldt Bay, and other points in the region, but Eureka remained the busy center of all this activity for over 120 years. These factors and others made Eureka a significant city in early California state history. Commercial center A bustling commercial district with ornate Victorian-style buildings rose in proximity to the waterfront, reflecting the great prosperity experienced during this era. Hundreds of these Victorian homes remain today, of which many are totally restored and a few have always remained in their original elegance and splendor. The representation of these homes in Eureka, grouped with those in nearby Arcata and the Victorian village of Ferndale, are of considerable importance to the overall development of Victorian architecture built in the nation. The magnificent Carson Mansion on 2nd and M Streets, is perhaps the most spectacular Victorian in the nation. The home was built between 1884 and 1886 by renowned 19th-century architects Newsom and Newsom for lumber baron William M. Carson. This project was designed to keep mill workers and expert craftsman busy during a slow period in the industry. Old Town Eureka, the original downtown center of this busy city in the 19th century, has been restored and has become a lively arts center. The Old Town area has been declared an Historic District by the National Register of Historic Places. The district is made up of over 150 buildings, which in total represents much of Eureka's original 19th-century core commercial center. This nexus of culture behind the redwood curtain still contains much of its Victorian architecture, which, if not maintained for original use as commercial buildings or homes, have been transformed into scores of unique lodgings, restaurants, and small shops featuring a burgeoning cottage industry of hand-made creations, from glassware to wood-burning stoves, and a large variety of locally created art. Fishing, shipping, and boating Eureka's founding and livelihood was and remains linked to Humboldt Bay, the Pacific Ocean, and related industries, especially fishing. Salmon fisheries sprang up along the Eel River as early as 1851, and, within seven years, 2,000 barrels of cured fish and of smoked salmon were processed and shipped out of Humboldt Bay annually from processing plants on Eureka's wharf. In 1858 the first of many ships built in Eureka was launched, beginning an industry that spanned scores of years. The bay is also the site of the West Coast's largest oyster farming operations, which began its commercial status in the nineteenth century. Eureka is the home port to more than 100 fishing vessels (with an all-time high of over 400 in 1981) in two modern marinas which can berth approximately 400 boats within the city limits and at least 50 more in nearby Fields Landing, which is part of Greater Eureka. Area catches historically include, among other species, salmon, tuna, Dungeness crab, and shrimp, with historic annual total fishing landings totaling about in 1981. Chinese expulsion Rising emigration from China in the late 19th century sparked conflict between white settlers and immigrants, which ultimately led to the Chinese Exclusion Act. Economic downturns resulting in competition for jobs led to violent actions against Chinese immigrants, especially on the Pacific coast. In February 1885, the racial tension in Eureka intensified when Eureka City Councilman David Kendall was caught in the crossfire of two rival Chinese gangs and killed. This led to the convening of 600 Eureka men and resulted in the forcible permanent expulsion of all 480 Chinese residents of Eureka's Chinatown. Among those who guarded the city jail during the height of the sinophobic tension was James Gillett, who went on to become Governor of California. The anti-Chinese ordinance was repealed in 1959. Queen City of the Ultimate West Completion of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad in 1914 provided the local lumber industry with an alternative to ships for transport of its millions of board feet of lumber to reach markets in San Francisco and beyond. It also provided the first safe land route between San Francisco and Eureka for people to venture to the Redwood Empire. As a result, Eureka's population of 7,300 swelled to 15,000 within ten years. By 1922, the Redwood Highway was completed, providing for the first reliable, direct overland route for automobiles from San Francisco. By 1931, the Eureka Street Railway operated fifteen streetcars over of track. Eureka's transportation connection to the "outside" world had changed dramatically after more than half a century of stage rides or treacherous steamship passage through the Humboldt Bar and on the Pacific Ocean to San Francisco. The building of the Eureka Inn coincided with the opening of the new road to San Francisco. As a result of immense civic pride during this early-20th-century era of expansion, Eureka officially nicknamed itself "Queen City of the Ultimate West." The tourism industry, lodging to support it, and related marketing had been born. Post–World War II The timber economy of Eureka is part of the Pacific Northwest timber economy which rises and falls with boom-and-bust economic times. In Eureka, both the timber industry and commercial fishing declined after the Second World War. The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 downed trees and caused a surplus in the domestic timber market, which caused increased shipping to foreign markets. The log trade with Japan and other Pacific Rim nations increased. Despite many rumors to the contrary, little of this wood returned to U.S. markets. In 1989, the U.S. changed log export laws, permitting lower-cost timber from public lands to be exported as raw logs overseas to help balance the federal budget. After 1990, the global log market declined, and exports fell at the same time as Pacific Northwest log prices increased; leading buyers to seek less expensive logs from Canada and the southern United States. However, debate continues among four stakeholders: timber owners, domestic processors, consumers and communities, on the impact of log export on the local economy. During the span 1991 to 2001, timber harvest peaked in 1997. The local timber market was also affected by the Pacific Lumber Company hostile takeover and ultimate bankruptcy. Local fisheries expanded through the 1970s and early 1980s. During the 1970s, Eureka fishermen landed more than half of the fish and shellfish produced and consumed in California. In 2010 between 100 and 120 commercial fishing vessels listed Eureka as homeport. The highest landings of all species were 36.9 million pounds (16.7 million kg) in 1981 while the lowest were in 2001 with 9.4 million pounds (4.3 million kg). After 1990 regulatory, economic, and other events led to a contraction of the local commercial fleet. In 1991, the Woodley Island marina opened, providing docking facilities for much of Eureka's commercial and recreational fleet. Many species are considered to be overfished. Recreational fishing has increased over time. Fifty percent of recreational fishermen using local boats are tourists from outside the area. Commercial Pacific oyster aquaculture in Humboldt Bay produced an average of of oysters from 1956 to 1965 an average of per year. In 2004, only were harvested. Oysters and oyster seed continue to be exported from Humboldt Bay. The value of the oysters and spawn is more than $6 million per year. Consolidation of buyers and landing facilities resulted in local vulnerability to unexpected events, leading the city to obtain grant funding for and complete the Fishermen's Terminal on the waterfront which will provide fish handling, marketing, and public spaces. Significant earthquakes The area regularly experiences large earthquakes as it is situated on the southern end the Cascadia subduction zone and near the San Andreas Fault, which interface around the Mendocino Triple Junction. On January 9, 2010, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake occurred about off shore from Eureka. After two seconds, it became a violent "jumper", making objects fly; the mostly vertical shocks from the ground led to broken windows in shops, overturned shelving in homes and stores, and damage to architectural detail on a number of historic buildings. Local hospitals treated mostly minor related injuries, and electrical power was out over a large area. Numerous natural gas leaks occurred, but no fires resulted. This was the largest recent earthquake since the April 25–26, 1992 sequence. It was followed on February 4, 2010, by a magnitude 5.9 earthquake which struck about northwest of the community of Petrolia and nearly west of Eureka. The shaking was felt within a radius, as far north as southern Oregon and as far south as Sonoma County. The largest recorded in the area was the 7.2 event on November 8, 1980. The larger earthquakes can pose a tsunami threat to coastal areas. Geography Eureka is located at (40.790022, −124.162752). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and or 35.07% is water. Eureka is situated within California's Redwood Empire region which includes Pacific Ocean coast, Humboldt Bay, and several rivers in addition to Redwood National and State Parks and Humboldt Redwoods State Park. The location of Eureka on U.S. 101 is north of San Francisco and northwest of Sacramento. The city marina is on one of three islands at a narrow point on the bay and increases in elevation slightly as it spreads north, south, and especially to the east. The city gently encroaches at least two miles () eastward into primarily Redwood and Douglas-fir second growth forests. The city has a traditional grid that generally radiates toward the points of the compass. Most post-1970 houses were built in formerly clear cut forested areas. The transition between the official city limits and smaller unincorporated areas is mostly not discernible. Eastern areas including secluded developments on a golf course among or in close proximity to extensive second-growth forest have more recently developed. These new houses were built as a result of the Eureka Community Plan of 1995 in attempt to bring locals close to centers of recreation and encourage community interaction. The city then gives way to hills and mountains of the rugged coast range, which quickly exceed in elevation. Climate Eureka enjoys a mild, temperate cool-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb). Due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean, its temperatures are cooler than those of a typical Mediterranean climate. Eureka's average summer temperatures are much cooler than New York City, Naples and Istanbul which lie on the same latitude; and are similar to those of Sitka and the Alexander Archipelago in Alaska, Scotland and Northern Ireland in the North Atlantic, Ushuaia in Argentina, Invercargill in New Zealand, the Aysen Region in Chile, and much of Tierra del Fuego in southern South America. Winters are mild and rainy, and summers mild, cool, and dry. The average high in December, the coolest month, is , while the average high temperature in August, the warmest month, is , which is very cool and mild for an area at such a southerly latitude. The seasonal temperature variation is very small; the difference between the August average of and the December average of is only , about equal to the diurnal temperature variation. In addition, Eureka has a very short and milder range of temperatures compared to most of the contiguous US, with the all-time highest and lowest temperatures recorded in Eureka being only on October 26, 1993, September 2, 2017, and September 28, 2020, and on January 14, 1888, respectively. On average, the highest temperature seen throughout the entire year is only , one of the mildest in the contiguous US, while on average the lowest temperature seen in the year (most often occurring at night) is only a similarly moderate , yielding a very short and mild temperature range of about throughout the year. Additionally, Eureka remains the only city on the West Coast of the continental United States to have never recorded a temperature of . Temperatures drop to freezing or below only on a few nights per year, and daytime temperatures for these days are typically mild temperatures ranging between . NOAA’s weather station averages indicate only of rainfall in July, which is well within the Mediterranean range, only with cooler and milder air than a typical Mediterranean climate. The area experiences coastal fog throughout the year, especially during summer on the coast when temperatures in the city remain consistently around a mild . This phenomenon, together with cool breezes from the Pacific Ocean, keeps Eureka relatively cool and mild, while contrasting with inland areas even just a few miles outside of Eureka, which are prone to extreme temperatures that often exceed , causing frequent temperature differences between Eureka and inland areas during summer and early fall of . Despite the common coastal fog, Eureka enjoys on average about 55% possible sunshine per year, about on par with cities such as Calgary, Portland, New York City and Chicago. Annual precipitation averages . Measurable precipitation falls on an average of 127.5 days each year, concentrated heavily from October to April. On average, December is the wettest month, averaging over of precipitation, virtually all of it rain. The wettest "rain year" was from July 1889 to June 1890 with and the driest from July 1976 to June 1977 with . The greatest monthly precipitation was in December 2002. The greatest 24-hour precipitation was on December 27, 2002. However, historic 100-year dramatic weather events such as the Christmas Week flood of 1955 and, especially, the Christmas flood of 1964, which severely damaged the region, may not be reflected in records listed herein. Snowfall on the coast happens only on rare occasions, averaging as of the 1981–2010 normals, but only five years during that period received measurable snowfall. The most snowfall in one month was in January 1907. Demographics The population of the city was 27,191 at the 2010 census, up from 26,128 at the 2000 census, representing a 4.1% increase, and the population of Greater Eureka was 45,034 at the 2010 Census, up from 43,452 at the 2000 census, representing a 3.6% increase. According to a report by the City of Eureka, the Greater Eureka area minimally includes the unincorporated adjacent or nearby neighborhoods and Census Defined Populated Areas of Bayview, Cutten, Elk River, Freshwater, Humboldt Hill, Indianola, Myrtletown, Pine Hill, Ridgewood Heights, and Rosewood, all of which have Eureka addresses, postal zip codes and Eureka-specific telephone numbers. The Greater Eureka area makes up the largest urban settlement on the Pacific Coast between San Francisco and Portland. This area is similar to what the U.S. Census officially defines as the Eureka UC (urban cluster), which is a "densely settled core of census tracts and/or census blocks that meet minimum population density requirements, along with adjacent territory containing non-residential urban land uses as well as territory with low population density included to link outlying densely settled territory with the densely settled core" of up to 50,000 in population. The bayside communities of Manila, Samoa, and Fairhaven (all on the Samoa Peninsula), and King Salmon and Fields Landing (both located south of the city), and communities listed above, with the exception of Elk River and Freshwater, are shown to be part of the Eureka Urban Cluster. Eureka is the largest city of the Eureka-Arcata-Fortuna Micropolitan Area, a construct of the U.S. Census Bureau, which is synonymous with the County of Humboldt. 2000 Census data As of the census of 2000, there were 26,128 people. The population density was 2,764.5 people per square mile (1,067.5/km). There were 11,637 housing units at an average density of 1,231.3 per square mile (475.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 88.5% White, 1.2% Black or African American, 4.2% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 5.10% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 10.8% of the population. There were 10,957 households, out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.8% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.3% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, the population dispersal was 22.4% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $25,849, and the median income for a family was $33,438. Males had a median income of $28,706 versus $22,038 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,174. About 15.8% of families and 23.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.6% of those under the age of 18 and 11.1% of those 65 and older. 2010 Census data The 2010 United States Census reported that Eureka had a population of 27,191. The population density was 1,881.3 people per square mile (726.4/km). The racial makeup of Eureka was 21,565 (79.3%) White, 514 (1.9%) African American, 1,011 (3.7%) Native American, 1,153 (4.2%) Asian, 176 (0.6%) Pacific Islander, 1,181 (4.3%) from other races, and 1,591 (5.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 3,143 persons (11.6%). The census reported that 25,308 people (93.1% of the population) lived in households, 1,434 (5.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 449 (1.7%) were institutionalized. There were 11,150 households, out of which 2,891 (25.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 3,554 (31.9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,449 (13.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 710 (6.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,161 (10.4%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 146 (1.3%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,971 households (35.6%) were made up of individuals, and 1,183 (10.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27. There were 5,713 families (51.2% of all households); the average family size was 2.93. The population dispersal was 5,431 people (20.0%) under the age of 18, 3,102 people (11.4%) aged 18 to 24, 8,021 people (29.5%) aged 25 to 44, 7,422 people (27.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,215 people (11.8%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.7 males. There were 11,891 housing units at an average density of 822.7 per square mile (317.6/km), of which 11,150 were occupied, of which 4,829 (43.3%) were owner-occupied, and 6,321 (56.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.7%. 11,251 people (41.4% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 14,057 people (51.7%) lived in rental housing units. Economy The economic base of the city was founded on timber and fishing and supplying gold mining efforts inland. Gold mining diminished quickly in the early years, and activities of timber and fishing have also diminished, especially in the latter decades of the twentieth century. Today, the major industries are tourism, timber (in value), and healthcare and services (in number of jobs). Major employers today in Eureka include the following governmental entities: College of the Redwoods, The County of Humboldt, and the Humboldt County Office of Education. St. Joseph Hospital is the largest private employer in Eureka. Government Local government The City of Eureka has a mayor-council system of governance. Primary power lies with the five council members, divided into five wards. The mayor has the power to appoint, as well as ceremonial duties, though the job includes presiding over council meetings and meeting visiting dignitaries. Official city business is administered by the Office of the City Manager. The Eureka City Council regularly meets on the 1st and 3rd Tuesdays of the month at 5:30 pm for closed session, and 6:30 pm for open session. Open sessions are open to the public. State and federal government Eureka is in , and . Federally, Eureka is in . Infrastructure Transportation Land U.S. Route 101 is the major north and south highway, which connects Eureka to the rest of the North Coast region. The highway connects to Oregon, located approximately to the north, and San Francisco, over to the south. The highway follows city streets through the city, with flow and cross-traffic controlled by traffic signals. Highway 101 enters Eureka from the south as Broadway. As it reaches the downtown area, it splits into a one-way couplet composed of 4th Street and 5th Street. On the north side of the city, northbound and southbound rejoin at the northeast side before the highway becomes a restricted (safety corridor) expressway (to Arcata and points beyond) as double bridges cross the Eureka Slough (mouth of the Freshwater Creek). State Route 255 is an alternate route of U.S. 101 between Eureka and the nearby city of Arcata, running along the western shore of Humboldt Bay. It begins in the downtown area at U.S. 101 and proceeds north along R Street towards the Samoa Bridge and the community of Samoa. State Route 299 (formerly U.S. Route 299) connects to U.S. Route 101 at the northern end of Arcata. Route 299 begins at that point and extends easterly to serve as the major traffic artery to the east for Eureka. Air Eureka's full-service airport is the Arcata-Eureka Airport, located north in McKinleyville. This airport has one airline, United Airlines, and connects to San Francisco and Los Angeles. Murray Field and Eureka Municipal Airport are general aviation airports for private and charter air service. Both are located adjacent to Humboldt Bay. Kneeland Airport, at in elevation, is a general aviation airport that provides an option for pilots choosing to land when the prevalent marine layer is affecting airports nearer sea level. Water The Humboldt Bay Harbor Recreation & Conservation District manages the resources of Humboldt Bay and its environs, including the deep-water port. The port is located directly west of the city and is serviced across the bay in the community of Samoa. In addition to two deep-water channel docks for large ships, several modern small-craft marinas are available for private use, with a total capacity of more than 400 boats. Bus service Public bus transportation services within Eureka are provided by the Eureka Transit Service. The Redwood Transit System provides bus transportation through Eureka and connects to major towns and places outside the city, including educational institutions. Dial-A-Ride service is available through an application process. Amtrak provides Thruway Bus service to Eureka at its unstaffed bus stop. The bus service connects passengers from the northernmost coastal train station in Martinez, California, and continues to southern Oregon. Greyhound provides bus service to San Francisco from Eureka. Tickets may be purchased online or at the nearest full-service station in Arcata. Transit in Eureka is expected to be improved by the $30 million Eureka Regional Transit and Housing Center, or EaRTH Center, which was greenlighted by the Eureka City Council in mid-February 2022. The development will contain an intermodal transit center, including car share facilities and regional bus connections, in addition to 31 affordable apartments. It is slated for completion in the fall of 2024. Utilities Electricity and natural gas Eureka residents are served by Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Some reserves of natural gas are located south of the city. These and other fuels help power the Humboldt Bay Power Plant (which includes the defunct Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant). In 2010, the cogeneration plant increased its capacity from 130 MW to 163 MW. Water The City of Eureka is the largest of the local water districts supplied by the Humboldt Bay Municipal Water District. The entire region is one of the few places in California that has historically enjoyed a significant surplus of water. The reduction in major forest products manufacturing in recent decades has left the area with a 45 MGD surplus of industrial water. Healthcare Eureka is the regional center for healthcare. The city is served by St. Joseph Hospital, which is the largest medical acute care hospital north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California Coast. The hospital was first opened in 1920 and was operated by the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Orange until 2016. The facility is composed of two parts: a main campus contains the acute care facility and a nearby second site, the former General Hospital Campus, which contains a rehabilitation facility and a skilled nursing site. In November 2012, the hospital completed required earthquake safety standards upgrades. The new primary wing contains surgical suites, intensive care, 24-hour emergency care, as well as new and enlarged patient rooms for those requiring care beyond short stay or outpatient procedures, assisted living facilities, skilled nursing facilities, surgery centers, and radiology (including MRI) facilities. In June 2016, the California Attorney General's office approved merging the St. Joseph Health system and the Providence Health and Services which includes St. Joseph's in Eureka, making it part of the third-largest non-profit health system in the nation. The merger raises local and regional concerns about health care. Eureka is also the site of the only comprehensive private and county-operated mental health emergency and hospitalization facilities north of San Francisco within California. Most of the doctors for the many medical specialties available on the far North Coast are located in or near Eureka, which also has the only oncology program and dialysis clinic in the region. Education Institutions of higher learning include the College of the Redwoods and California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt in Arcata. College of the Redwoods manages a downtown satellite campus as well. Eureka City Schools, the largest school district in the region, administers the public schools of the city. Eureka High School receives all students from city grammar schools as well as all those from nearby unincorporated communities. Specific schools include: Alice Birney Elementary, Grant Elementary, Lafayette Elementary, Washington Elementary, Winship Middle School, Zane Middle School, Eureka High School, Humboldt Bay High School, Zoe Barnum High School, the Eureka Adult School, and Winzler Children's Center. The district offices are located in the remodeled Marshall School, which also contains the Marshall Family Resource Center, a site designed to offer programs in support of parents and families. Shopping The North Coast's primary shopping facility, the Bayshore Mall, is the largest north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California coast. The mall features over 70 stores, which is anchored by Kohl's and Walmart. TJ Maxx and Ulta opened in 2013. Other major shopping areas and centers include Henderson Center, the Eureka Mall, Burre Center, and Downtown and Old Town Eureka. Arts and culture Eureka is one of California's historic landmarks. The California State Historical marker, #477, designating Eureka, is located in Old Town, one of the nation's best-preserved original Victorian-era commercial districts. The city was voted as the No. 1 best small art town in John Villani's book The 100 Best Small Art Towns in America. Eureka hosts the region's largest monthly cultural and arts event, "Arts' Alive!" on the first Saturday of each month. More than 80 Eureka business and local galleries open their doors to the public. Often local cuisine and beverages accompany live performances by acclaimed regional bands and other types of performance art. The downtown Eureka area is also decorated with many murals. Theater offerings include year-round productions from several various theater groups, including the North Coast Repertory Theater, the Redwood Curtain Theatre, and the Eureka Theater. Various events occur throughout the year at the Redwood Acres Fairgrounds. Museums include the Clarke Historical Museum, the Humboldt Bay Maritime Museum, the Morris Graves Museum of Art, HSU First Street Gallery, Discovery Museum for Children, the Fort Humboldt State Historic Park and the Blue Ox Millworks and Historic Park. Annual cultural events Redwood Coast Music Festival – May Perilous Plunge – March Rhododendron Festival – April Kinetic sculpture race – May Redwood Acres Fair and Rodeo – June Humboldt Wood Fair – June Summer Concert Series on the Boardwalk – June – August Fourth of July Celebration – July Humboldt Bay Full of Blues – August 30 & 31, 2014 Chicken Wingfest – September Excalibur Medieval Tournament and Market Faire – September Pride Parade and Celebration – September Humboldt Bay Paddle Fest – September Craftsman's Days – November Christmas Truckers Parade – December Museums and galleries Museums include the Clarke Historical Museum, the Humboldt Bay Maritime Museum, the Morris Graves Museum of Art, HSU First Street Gallery, Kinetic Museum, Discovery Museum for Children, the Fort Humboldt State Historic Park and the Blue Ox Millworks and Historic Park. Architecture Because of northern isolation and unfavorable economic conditions in the latter part of the twentieth century, much of the post-war redevelopment and urban renewal that other cities experienced did not occur in Eureka. As a result, Eureka has hundreds of examples of 19th- and early-20th-century architecture and historic districts. The original Queen Anne-style Murphy home in San Francisco was completely destroyed by the fire resulting from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Mark Carter found the blueprints for the home in an antique store and rebuilt the structure, but in Eureka; it is now the Carter House Inn. Approximately 16% of the city's structures are cataloged as important historical structures, with many of those attaining the status of state and national significance in terms of a particular structure's importance in relationship to the body of surviving examples of the architectural style attributed to its construction and related detail. Thirteen distinct districts have been identified which meet the criteria for the National Register of Historic Places. Among them are the 2nd Street District (10 buildings), 15th Street district (13 buildings) and the O Street district (43 buildings). Hillsdale Street, a popular and well-preserved district, contains 17 buildings of historic interest. In all, some 1,500 buildings have been recognized as qualifying for the National Register. The Eureka Heritage Society, a local architectural preservation group founded in 1973, has been instrumental in protecting and preserving many of Eureka's fine Victorians. Parks and recreation Sequoia Park Zoo, situated on more than of mature second-growth Redwood forest, includes Eureka's largest public playground and a duck pond, in addition to gardens and examples of the area's many varieties of rhododendron bushes. The City of Eureka Recreation Department manages 13 playgrounds, including Cooper Gulch, which is , and many ball fields as well as tennis courts and others, including basketball and soccer. Other parks in or near Eureka include the Humboldt Botanical Garden and the Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and the Eureka Marsh, an accessible protected marsh between the Bayshore Mall and Humboldt Bay. There is a modern boardwalk along the city's waterfront. Halvorsen Park includes a walkway along the water. Media Though Eureka has been the base for two major daily newspapers at different times in its 150 years, only the Times-Standard, owned by the Colorado-based Media News Group, survives. Media News Group also owns a weekly classified advertiser, the Tri-City Weekly. The Eureka Reporter, founded in 2003, became a daily in 2006, began publishing five days per week at the end of 2007, and permanently closed in November 2008. The Times-Standard printed nearly 20,000 papers per day as of 2004; as of 2018, its distribution was 13,000 and it published online-only on Mondays. The LostCoast Outpost is another web based news source The North Coast Journal, a regional weekly, moved from Arcata to Eureka in 2009. Eureka is also home to several alternative weekly publications. Senior News is a 24-page monthly newspaper distributed along a stretch of the Northwest California coast, published by the Humboldt Senior Resource Center since 1981. The small staff is augmented by community volunteer writers and by senior volunteers who distribute 5,000 free newspapers to more than 100 locations from Crescent City to Garberville. Many of Humboldt County's commercial radio stations are based in Eureka: KINS-FM (106.3), KWSW (980 AM), and KEKA-FM (101.5), owned and operated by Eureka Broadcasting Co. Inc. KFMI, KRED, KJNY and KATA. Lost Coast Communications owns and operates several stations broadcasting to Eureka: KSLG-FM, KHUM, KLGE, and KWPT. Eureka also hosts KMUE, the local repeater for Redway-based community radio station KMUD. On August 26, 2006, the Blue Ox Millworks launched KKDS-LP, a low power FM station focused on youth and community issues. On November 3, 2008, a low-power part 15 AM radio station, Old Glory Radio 1650 AM, based in the Myrtletown neighborhood of Eureka, went on the air; it offers the area's only daily live local call-in program in the morning. KHSU, the region's local public radio station, is broadcast from Cal Poly Humboldt in Arcata. A traveler's information station owned by the State of California, KMKE-LP, operates at 98.1 MHz. Notable people See also Clarke Historical Museum HSU First Street Gallery Humboldt Arts Council Humboldt Bay Maritime Museum Humboldt Botanical Gardens Humboldt County Historical Society List of cities and towns in California Sequoia Park Zoo Notes References Further reading External links Eureka Art and Culture Commission Greater Eureka Chamber of Commerce Eureka Heritage Society 1850 establishments in California 1856 establishments in California California Historical Landmarks Cities in Humboldt County, California County seats in California History of Humboldt County, California Incorporated cities and towns in California Logging communities in the United States Populated coastal places in California Populated places established in 1850 Port cities in California

Lancaster, California

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Lancaster is a charter city in northern Los Angeles County, in the Antelope Valley of the western Mojave Desert in Southern California. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 156,633, and in 2020 the population was estimated at 173,516, making Lancaster the 153rd largest city in the United States and the 30th largest in California. Lancaster is part of a twin city complex with its southern neighbor Palmdale, and together they are the principal cities within the Antelope Valley region. Lancaster is located approximately north (via I-5 and SR 14) of downtown Los Angeles, and is near the Kern County line. It is separated from the Los Angeles Basin by the San Gabriel Mountains to the south, and from Bakersfield and the San Joaquin Valley by the Tehachapi Mountains to the north. The population of Lancaster has grown from 37,000 at the time of its incorporation in 1977 to over 157,000 as of 2019. History The area where Lancaster is now located, known as the Antelope Valley, was originally home to the Paiute Indians. The Antelope Valley's central geography initially served as the hub of a trade route for tribes trading between the California coast, the Central Valley, the Great Basin, and the pueblos of Arizona. After statehood, the Antelope Valley again served as a geographic shortcut but for the Stockton-Los Angeles Road and the Butterfield Overland Mail, which had two nearby stops in Mud Spring and Neenach in the 1850s. However, Lancaster's origins as a settlement start with the Southern Pacific Railroad, which replaced the stage coach routes. The railroad built a station house, locomotive watering facility, section gang housing, and railroad track in the location of the town's current center. In 1876 the Southern Pacific completed the line through the Antelope Valley, linking San Francisco and Los Angeles. The origin of Lancaster's name is unclear, attributed variously to the surname of a railroad station clerk, the moniker given by railroad officials, or the former Pennsylvania home (Lancaster, Pennsylvania) of unknown settlers. Train service brought passengers through the water-stop-turned-community, which, with the help of promotional literature, attracted new settlers. The person credited with formally developing the town is Moses Langley Wicks, who in 1884 bought property from the railroad for $2.50 per acre, mapped out a town with streets and lots, and by September was advertising 160-acre tracts of land for $6 an acre. The following year, the Lancaster News started publication, making it the first weekly newspaper in the Antelope Valley. By 1890, Lancaster was bustling and booming, and thanks to adequate rainfall, farmers planted and sold thousands of acres of wheat and barley. The town was devastated by the decade-long drought that began in 1894, killing businesses and driving cattle north, though fortunes improved somewhat in the late-1890s following the nearby discoveries of gold and borax. The Tropico Gold Mine in Rosamond was briefly the largest goldmine in Southern California before its 1956 closure. The Rio Tinto Borax Mine would later become the world's largest borax mine, producing nearly half of the world's supply of borates. The construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, starting in 1908, brought growth to the local economy by housing the aqueduct workers and introducing a steady stream of water. The 1912 completion of Antelope Valley High School allowed students from the growing region to study locally instead of moving to distant cities, hosting the state's first high school dormitory system. The community began a steady growth spurt in the 1930s, starting with construction of Muroc Air Force Base (renamed to Edwards AFB), site of frequent flight tests, including the "breaking" of the sound barrier by Chuck Yeager in a Bell X-1A in 1947. From the 1980s through the end of the program, Edwards AFB hosted a limited number of landings of the Space Shuttle. The development of Air Force Plant 42 in 1958, augmented in the 1960s by construction of Lockheed Aircraft's Plant 10, created tens of thousands of jobs. High-wage employment hit its peak in the 1970s during the Lockheed L-1011 commercial wide body jetliner project, for which all assembly and some engineering and parts production were performed. 250 L-1011 aircraft were assembled and flown from this plant and airfield. Lancaster was an unincorporated community in Los Angeles County until 1977, when it was incorporated as a city, with Arnold Rodio serving as its first mayor. Lancaster State Prison opened in 1993 and before that Los Angeles County hosted no prisons but accounted for forty percent of California's state-prison inmates. "Most of Lancaster's civic leaders and residents" opposed the building of the prison, and four inmates escaped from LAC in its first year of operation. Nevertheless, by 2000 a proposal to increase the proportion of maximum-security inmates received little criticism. In 2005, Hyundai Motor Co. announced the grand opening of a 4,300-acre, $60 million "Proving Ground," a state-of-the-art testing facility for cars and sports utility vehicles in nearby California City. Lancaster is now home to major defense contractors such as Boeing, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems, and government agencies, such as the NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center, which are all active in design, testing, and manufacturing of a variety of military and commercial equipment. Notable projects assembled and/or designed there include the Space Shuttle orbiters, B-1 Lancer bomber, B-2 Spirit bomber, F-117 Nighthawk fighter, F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, a wide body passenger jet aircraft. The region is also proximate to the Mojave Air & Space Port, which is famous as the base of operations for Virgin Galactic and Scaled Composites, the company that designed SpaceShipOne and won the X-Prize. In 2010, the city opened The BLVD, a one-mile revitalized stretch of Lancaster Boulevard between 10th Street West and Sierra Highway. City leaders set the goal of becoming the nation's first Net-Zero municipality, wherein the city would produce more clean energy than it consumes. Much of the city's infrastructure including City Hall, local schools, and the minor league baseball stadium are solar-powered. In March 2013, Lancaster became the first city in the USA to require solar panels on all new homes in an effort to make the community more carbon neutral. The rule took effect in January 2014. War Eagle Field / Mira Loma War Eagle Field is a former airfield located in the Mojave Desert, about west of central Lancaster. Polaris Flight Academy, which opened on the field's grounds on July 15, 1941, trained cadets for the Royal Air Force and the Royal Canadian Air Force. (The school also used two auxiliary fields, Liberty Field and Victory Field.) The airfield had two hard-surfaced bituminous runways, one of 3,100' aligned NE/SW (05/23) the other of 2,950' aligned E/W (09/27). After the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor, the flight school began training cadets for the United States Army Air Force on 28 July 1942, being operated by the Polaris Flight Academy as a contract basic flying school (phase 1). The primary trainer in use was the BT-13 Valiant. In 1944, the flight school changed its name to Mira Loma Flight Academy. The airfield inactivated on 1 October 1945 and was declared surplus in 1946. Responsibility for it was given to the War Assets Administration. The land was then bought by Los Angeles County. The airfield was converted to the Mira Loma Detention Center. In 2012, Los Angeles County closed the detention center. Los Angeles County is currently collaborating with the City of Lancaster, the faith-based community, and the non-profit community to convert the facility into a winter shelter. Many wartime buildings, including two still intact hangars, are still in use. On the roof of one of the hangars, the name War Eagle is still faintly perceptible. Flight operations continue at the airfield with a helicopter pad, used by the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (0.29%) is water. Lancaster's elevation is above sea level on a high, flat valley surrounded by pristine mountain ranges. Because the elevation is in the range of 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600–900 m) above sea level, the area, like the other parts of the Mojave Desert region, is alternatively referred to as the High Desert. Some cities and communities within the trading area of Lancaster include Palmdale, Rosamond, Lake Los Angeles, Quartz Hill, Ridgecrest, and Santa Clarita. Residents of these desert cities and unincorporated communities share Sierra Highway, Angeles Forest Highway, Angeles Crest Highway (State Route 2), and the Antelope Valley Freeway (State Route 14) for commutes to the San Fernando Valley and Los Angeles Basin. The unincorporated community of Del Sur is an enclave of the city of Lancaster. Climate Lancaster has a cold semi-arid steppe climate (Köppen climate classification BSk). The area within Lancaster is covered by shrublands (80%), forests (8%), grasslands (7%), lakes and rivers (2%), and croplands (2%). Lancaster and its immediate surroundings are part of USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8b. Winters are cool to mild, with daily normal minimum temperatures at or just below freezing from late November until late January, and the coolest month, December, having a normal mean temperature of . Summers are hot and nearly rainless, with July, the hottest month, having a normal mean temperature of . On average, annually there are 68 days with a minimum at or below freezing, and 30 days with a maximum at or above . With a normal annual rainfall of , clear days are the norm even in winter, when surrounding mountain ranges are blanketed with snow. Thunderstorms are infrequent but do occur in July through September. There is a mild frost throughout March, and temperatures begin to climb in April. Spring wildflowers are abundant, including Lupines, the California Poppy, Fiddlenecks, purple owl's clover, California Goldfields, Creamcups, and Coreopsis. Summer nights are cool and the Pacific tree frog or barn owl can be heard. Average annual snowfall is around two inches (5 cm). The record high temperature in Lancaster was on June 30, 2013. The record low temperature was on December 24, 1984. The wettest year was 1983 with and the driest year was 1953 with . The most precipitation in one month was in February 1980. The most precipitation in one twenty-four- hour period was on March 1, 1983. In December 1979, of snow fell in Lancaster. Demographics 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that Lancaster had a population of 156,633. The population density was 1,656.7 people per square mile (639.6/km). The racial makeup of Lancaster was 77,734 (49.6%) White (34.2% Non-Hispanic White), 32,083 (20.5%) African American, 1,519 (1.0%) Native American, 6,810 (4.3%) Asian (2.2% Filipino, 0.4% Chinese, 0.4% Indian, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.3% Korean, 0.2% Japanese), 362 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 29,728 (19.0%) from other races, and 8,397 (5.4%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 59,596 persons (38.0%). The Census reported that 148,374 people (94.7% of the population) lived in households, 1,484 (0.9%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 6,775 (4.3%) were institutionalized. There were 46,992 households, out of which 22,021 (46.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 22,108 (47.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 9,481 (20.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 3,389 (7.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 3,374 (7.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 376 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 9,239 households (19.7%) were made up of individuals, and 3,060 (6.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.16. There were 34,978 families (74.4% of all households); the average family size was 3.62. The population was spread out, with 47,160 people (30.1%) under the age of 18, 18,607 people (11.9%) aged 18 to 24, 42,575 people (27.2%) aged 25 to 44, 35,632 people (22.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 12,659 people (8.1%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.5 males. There were 51,835 housing units at an average density of 548.2 per square mile (211.7/km), of which 28,366 (60.4%) were owner-occupied, and 18,626 (39.6%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 3.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 9.4%. 90,064 people (57.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 58,310 people (37.2%) lived in rental housing units. According to the 2010 United States Census, Lancaster had a median household income of $50,193, with 21.5% of the population living below the federal poverty line. 2000 As of the census of 2000, there were 118,718 people, 38,224 households, and 27,674 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,263.0 inhabitants per square mile (487.6/km). There were 41,745 housing units at an average density of 444.1 per square mile (171.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 62.82% White, 16.01% African American, 1.02% Native American, 3.81% Asian, 0.23% Pacific Islander, 11.11% from other races, and 5.00% from two or more races. 24.13% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16.95% were Mexican, 0.6% were Puerto Rican and 0.22% were Cuban. There were 38,224 households, out of which 42.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.4% were married couples living together, 17.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.6% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.41. In the city, the population was spread out, with 32.3% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $41,127, and the median income for a family was $48,276 (based on Merrit Research). Males had a median income of $40,710 versus $27,619 for females (+/- $3,000 per year). Economy The Greater Antelope Valley Economic Alliance describes five areas as business and industrial parks in the city of Lancaster: Fox Field Industrial Corridor (adjacent to the General William J. Fox Airfield) along Avenue G, North Valley Industrial Center, Lancaster Business Park, Enterprise Business Park, Centerpoint Business Park, and the Southern Amargosa Industrial Area. The former Lancaster Redevelopment Agency is credited with attracting major business operations to the area such as SYGMA, Rite Aide, Micheals, Bank of America, and many more. In 2012 the state of California abolished all local redevelopment agencies. The city's economic development department is now responsible for recruiting large employers and is involved in attracting retail and dining to Lancaster Town Center, Front Row Center, and other retail centers throughout the city. Another focus of the Agency and the city was the revitalization of Downtown Lancaster. With historic buildings interspersed with modern amenities such as a library and performing arts center, downtown businesses formed the Lancaster Old Town Site (LOTS). LOTS has resulted in the renovation of business facades and attraction of new businesses, including boutiques and restaurants in the Old Town Area. In 2009, Lancaster had 17% unemployment. Given the strength of China's economy in the face of the global recession, Mayor R. Rex Parris identified recruitment of Chinese manufacturing firms as a high priority in 2009. In early 2010, Mayor Parris led a delegation to explore trade opportunities with China. An essential component of this trade mission was a stop in Shenzhen, China to meet with representatives of world -renowned battery, alternative energy, solar panel, and vehicle manufacturing firm BYD. Introduced to the City of Lancaster by Los Angeles County Supervisor Michael Antonovich and his wife, Christine, BYD was looking to break into the United States vehicle manufacturing market. Lancaster's partnership with BYD began with the "Home of the Future," in which KB Home utilized BYD's energy efficiency and storage technology to construct some of the first affordable near net-zero homes in the U.S. Through the success of this project, a working relationship was born, which BYD and Lancaster continued to cultivate as BYD Auto prepared to enter the U.S. market. Once the firm was ready to establish its manufacturing facility, Lancaster was its first stop. In May 2013, BYD Auto announced two manufacturing facilities to be located in Lancaster. These include a 120,000-square-foot BYD electric bus manufacturing facility, as well as a separate 44,000-square-foot energy storage system (large scale battery) manufacturing facility. By April 2019, BYD Lancaster had produced over 300 electric buses for US and Canada. Lancaster has the highest solar production per capita in California. unemployment is around 6%. Shopping centers Valley Central Way Lancaster Boulevard (The BLVD) Lancaster Commerce Center Shopping Center West Lancaster Plaza Shopping Center Arts and culture Lancaster Museum of Art and History The city has prioritized arts and culture as an economic driver, opening the Lancaster Museum of Art and History, or MOAH, in 2012 locating the new facility in its downtown district known as The BLVD. Originally founded as the Lancaster Museum/Art Gallery in 1986, the MOAH operates four sites within the city, serving the Antelope Valley, Los Angeles County, and parts of Kern and San Bernardino Counties. The museum contains over 10,000 art pieces about Southern California. The BLVD Cultural District In 2018, downtown Lancaster was designated The BLVD Cultural District, one of fourteen California Cultural Districts recognized as a place where culture happens within the state. Within the district, BLVD Cultural District Family Days and the biannual POW! WOW! Antelope Valley mural and arts festival has added nearly 50 murals by both local and internationally known artists to the district. The BLVD project was completed in 2010 and consists of Lancaster Blvd from 10th Street West to Sierra Highway. The multiple festivals have attracted huge crowds in the tens of thousands. The BLVD project was largely accepted as a major success. The Western Hotel (1876) is the oldest standing structure in the city of Lancaster, which was converted to a museum under the California Historic Site program in 1992, is also located within The BLVD Cultural District. The Lancaster Performing Arts Center, in addition to MOAH, is a cultural anchor within the cultural district, providing a varied array of fine arts from community theatre productions to classical music and various forms of dance. It also draws celebrity performers from across the country and around the world, including renowned singers, dancers and musicians of all genres as well as comedians and variety shows. The BLVD Cultural District is also home to the Lancaster Aerospace Walk of Honor. Established in 1990 by the Lancaster City Council, the Aerospace Walk of Honor celebrates test pilots who were associated with Edwards Air Force Base. Recognition is awarded for distinguished aviation careers marked by significant and obvious achievements beyond one specific accomplishment. The sidewalk monuments are dedicated to a distinguished group of internationally known experimental test pilots. Five honorees are inducted each year in a special ceremony held in September. The city has changed from a railroad water stop of the 19th century to a city with many residents and visitors. Lancaster was the headquarters of the "Flat Earth Society" from 1974 through 2001. The Musical Road Lancaster has the first musical road in the United States. The Civic Musical Road "plays" part of the William Tell Overture, also known as the theme to the 1950s television show The Lone Ranger. It was first put in by Honda for a television commercial. After noise and safety complaints, it was paved over two weeks later. After complaints in favor of the road, the musical road was reinstalled in a new location, at 30th Street West and Avenue G, near Fox Airport and Apollo County Park, completed October 17, 2008. While it plays the same song, it is now two miles (3 km) away from the nearest residence. Special events Each spring, the California Poppy Festival draws upward of 60,000 guests to Lancaster City Park to celebrate springtime. The California Poppy Reserve, west of Lancaster, boasts one of California's most abundant crops of the state flower, and the Poppy Festival has become a popular event not only for Lancaster residents, but also for visitors from around the world. The California Poppy Festival began as an Earth Day celebration and has grown into an event with over of activities and extensive wildflower information. "Celebrate Downtown Lancaster", a street fair and farmers' market, is held multiple times throughout the summer and features family-friendly activities, street musicians and a variety of specialty vendors. In October 2009, the city launched the first annual Streets of Lancaster Grand Prix, a professional go-kart racing event, in downtown Lancaster. In October 2010, the event was held along the newly revitalized BLVD and expanded to 3 days of festivities, boasting an attendance of 35,000. The event is accompanied by a street festival, live music, and a car show. In April of each year the "Antelope Valley Gem and Mineral Club" hosts its annual gem and mineral show. This show usually takes place the last weekend of April at the Lancaster High School grounds. This event usually draws many visitors and local residents as it is a unique opportunity to see rare rocks, gemstones, specimens and hand made goods such as cabochons, faceted stones and hand made jewelry. The Miss Lancaster pageant takes place every year in June. The winner represents her community at the Miss Antelope Valley Pageant in September and serves as an ambassador for the Lancaster Chamber of Commerce. Notable recipients include Hannah Fernquist (2010), the first Miss Lancaster to be crowned Miss Antelope Valley since 1999 and the redhead featured on the Miss Antelope Valley banner. BLVD Market is a farmers market held every Thursday year round on Lancaster BLVD between Fern and Ehrlich Avenues. Other Cultural Assets Today, the city has over of developed or planned parkland, including playground and picnic areas as well as tournament-level sports facilities at Big 8 Softball Complex and the Lancaster National Soccer Center. The Prime Desert Woodland Preserve, located in West Lancaster, is a facility dedicated to preserving the pristine beauty of the High Desert and educating residents about their environment through nature walks and educational programs at its unique Interpretive Center. Forrest Hull Park, located near the southern border of the city on its west side and across the street from Paraclete High School, is a popular dog park where local residents frequently gather to allow their dogs to play and exercise together. In 1996, the city built Lancaster Municipal Stadium (now The Hangar). It has been home to the Lancaster JetHawks, a California League Class A Advanced minor league baseball team, for the last twenty years. Sports Lancaster JetHawks The Lancaster JetHawks were a minor league baseball team of the California League located in Lancaster, California. The team was named for the city's association with the aerospace industry and played its home games at The Hangar. The Lancaster JetHawks were last the Class A - Advanced affiliate of the Colorado Rockies since 2016. In 2012, the JetHawks won their first California League Championship in franchise history. In 2020, MLB revoked the JetHawks' affiliation in a contraction of all Minor League Baseball. The Los Angeles Slam The Los Angeles Slam is a team of the American Basketball Association, formed in 2008. The team relocated to Lancaster in 2011. Parks and recreation Master plan of trails and bikeways The city's declared intent is to create a connected network of on-road and off-road trails and bikeway facilities to accommodate users of all ages and abilities including equestrians. This network is to provide linkages between residential areas, commercial centers, transportation hubs, employment centers, and recreational activities. The Master Plan of Trails and Bikeways has been a collaborative effort with a variety of community interests, from transportation, public health, law enforcement, people with disabilities, schools, public and community-based bicycling, walking, equestrian groups and general public. The Master Plan directly responds to citizen input from the General Planning process. The plan will guide the design and development of pedestrian, bicycle and trail facilities to try to encourage people to use healthier transportation modes in Lancaster. Government City government Lancaster is a charter city which utilizes a City Council/City Manager system of government. This system of government provides accountability and responsiveness to the electorate, while maintaining the stability necessary for implementation of a long-term vision. The Lancaster City Council consists of an elected Mayor and four elected Council Members. As the city's legislative and policy entity, the Mayor and Council Members are responsible to the residents of Lancaster for all municipal programs and services as well as for any legislative matters concerning the city. The Council approves and adopts ordinances, resolutions and contracts and enacts regulations and policies. It appoints the City Manager and City Attorney as well as members of commissions and citizen advisory committees that provide broad perspective in the decision-making process. Members of the council also serve as directors of the Lancaster Redevelopment Agency, the Financing Authority and the Housing Authority. City Council meetings are held the second and fourth Tuesday of each month, with special or adjourned meetings scheduled as needed. City Council meetings are open to the public and include opportunities for residents to voice concerns and suggestions. The office of City Manager is an appointed, long-term professional position. With oversight and direction from the City Council, the City Manager sets and implements policy. The City Manager leads the management team to achieve the goals and directives set forth in the city's General Plan and to develop and implement a long-term vision for city growth and achievement. A Deputy City Manager and Assistant City Manager are appointed by the City Manager to help manage, coordinate, control and direct Administrative Services, and to ensure achievement of operating department goals and objectives. The current mayor is Lancaster native and local lawyer R. Rex Parris. He was first elected in April 2008 and was re-elected in 2010, 2012, 2016 and 2020. The current City Manager is Jason Caudle, who has been with the City of Lancaster since 2008 and was appointed City Manager in December 2018. The current Vice Mayor is Marvin Crist, and other current Council Members are Raj Malhi, Ken Mann and Darrell Dorris. State and federal government In the California State Legislature, Lancaster is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Lancaster is split between , and . Education Public schools There are three elementary school districts in Lancaster: Eastside Union School District, Westside Union School District, and Lancaster School District. The city has taken an active role in education through its Lancaster CARES after-school program created in collaboration with the Lancaster School District. CARES provides learning and enrichment activities as well as mentors and positive adult role models to give children the encouragement and personal attention essential to building future leaders. The Antelope Valley Union High School District covers all high schools in Lancaster. SOAR (Students on the Academic Rise) is a specialized high school which is located on the Antelope Valley College campus, but is part of the Antelope Valley Union High School District. It is an Early College High School which integrates college courses into the high school curriculum. Successful students receive both a high school diploma and an Associate's college degree within five years. SOAR High School has an emphasis in mathematics, science, and engineering. In the 2011–2012 academic year, SOAR students received an API score of 945, which is ranked in the top 1% of all high schools in the nation. In March 2015, two students from Lancaster's SOAR High School demonstrated a blood alcohol content detection wristband at the fifth annual White House Science Fair. The Antelope Valley Union High School District currently houses 6 Career Academies, all of which include some STEM component: Green Enterprise at AV High School (Project Lead the Way pre-engineering and business); Law and Government at Highland High School (crime scene investigation); Digital Design and Engineering at Knight High School (PLTW pre-engineering, 3D simulations); Agriculture and Environmental Science at Littlerock High School; Health Careers Academy and Falcon Academy of Sustainable Technology (FAST) (PLTW pre-engineering, automotive, construction, 3D simulations) at Palmdale High. AVUHSD also has 3 middle school academies, which include Soar Prep, Knight Prep, and Palmdale Prep. In addition, STEM career pathways and courses are in place at other high schools, including: PLTW pre-engineering at Lancaster and Quartz Hill High School; Health Science with dental concentration at Antelope Valley High School; Automotive technology at Highland, Littlerock, Quartz Hill, and Desert Winds; Agriculture science at AV High School and Palmdale High; Computer multimedia design at every AVUHSD comprehensive site. Quartz Hill High School of the AVUHSD houses the district's International Baccalaureate (IB) program. The IB program combines advanced content knowledge with a focus on the development of critical thinking. Earning an IB diploma requires a multi-year commitment across disciplines. The U.S. News & World Report education site shows the district falls below the California Academic Performance Index Evaluation. 70% of students receive a free lunch, with 8% participating in Advanced Placement courses or credits. Private schools There are also several private schools in the city including Bethel Christian School (K-8), Desert Christian Schools, Grace Lutheran Christian School, Sacred Heart School (TK - 8th grades), Paraclete High School, Lancaster Baptist School, Desert Montessori Academy, Antelope Valley Adventist School, Country Christian School, and Desert Vineyard Christian School. Charter schools Charter schools include Academy for the Advancement of Children with Autism, Antelope Valley Learning Academy, Assurance Learning Academy, Desert Sands Charter High School, Gorman Learning Charter Network, iLEAD Innovation Studios High School, iLEAD Lancaster Charter School, Learn4Life Concept Charter School, Life Source International Charter School, and Options For Youth Charter School. Higher education Lancaster is home to Antelope Valley College, the University of Antelope Valley, as well as a satellite campus of California State University, Bakersfield. In 2005, Charter College was opened. The city has spearheaded the development of the Lancaster University Center to provide local students with a chance to receive a first-rate education in engineering and technology. The $3.5 million reconstruction of Challenger Hall, located at the old Antelope Valley Fairgrounds, gave the new campus 13 classrooms, two of which are high tech distance learning rooms and 2 of which are lab classrooms, as well as office space. Through partnerships with local aerospace companies, and California State University, Bakersfield. Previously California State University, Fresno offered two Bachelor of Science degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering in association with the Lancaster University Center. However, CSUF began phasing out these programs in the Antelope Valley in 2010, ceasing course offerings at the end of the 2011 spring term. Beginning in fall 2011, California State University, Long Beach will now be offering Bachelor of Science degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering at the LUC, ensuring students in the Antelope Valley will receive a first-rate education without leaving the area. Antelope Valley College Antelope Valley College is the oldest institution of higher learning in the Antelope Valley. It was founded in 1929 on the campus of Antelope Valley High School. In the mid-1950s, it moved to its current location. California State University, Bakersfield-Antelope Valley California State University, Bakersfield-Antelope Valley (CSUB-AV) is located on the north side of the Antelope Valley College campus. Many bachelor's and master's degrees are offered on this campus. West Coast Baptist College Lancaster is also home to West Coast Baptist College, an accredited independent Baptist Bible College offering graduate and undergraduate degrees in pastoral studies, evangelism, missions, church ministries, music, Christian education, youth ministry, and secretarial studies. West Coast opened in 1995. University of Antelope Valley Formerly known as Antelope Valley Medical College, University of Antelope Valley is a private, for-profit institution approved by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WSCUC). In June 2009, the institution received approval from the United States Department of Education to offer Associates, Bachelors, and master's degrees. Media Newspapers AV News Antelope Valley Press AV Political Observer Los Angeles Times Radio stations AM KAVL 610 Sports KTPI 1340 Adult Standards KOSS 1380 News/Talk KUTY 1470 Mexican Oldies FM KCRY 88.1 FM NPR (KCRW Santa Monica) KTLW 88.9 FM Religious/Christian KLXP 89.7 FM Religious/Christian (simulcast of Hollister KHRI 90.7) K211EY 90.1 FM Religious/Christian (simulcast of Victorville KHMS 88.5) K216FA 91.1 FM Religious/Christian (simulcast of Twin Falls KAWZ 89.9) KWTD 91.9 FM Religious/Christian (simulcast of Bishop KWTW 88.5) KQAV 93.5 FM Old School KFXM-LP 96.7 FM Oldies KTPI-FM 97.7 FM Country KKZQ 100.1 FM The Quake (Rock) KRAJ 100.9 FM The Heat Hip Hop KSRY 103.1 FM Modern Rock (simulcast of Los Angeles KYSR 98.7) KGBB 103.9 FM Adult Hits KEPD 104.9 FM Country KVVS 105.5 Kiis FM (simulcast of Los Angeles KIIS 102.7) KGMX 106.3 FM Adult Contemporary KMVE 106.9 FM Light Rock ((KLOS)) 95.5 FM Classic Rock Television stations Directory of locally based TV stations, otherwise they get all Los Angeles area on cable TV and sometimes, through the airwaves. KPAL 38 Home Shopping/ Christian programming. KILM 64 Independent, based in Victorville, away. KAVTV Time Warner Cable News on Channel 3 KCAL CBS News on Channel 9 Infrastructure Transportation Airport General William J. Fox Airfield (also known as Fox Field) is the local airport serving Lancaster. Fox Field previously had scheduled passenger air service primarily to Los Angeles (LAX) but no longer has airline flights. Health care The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Antelope Valley Health Center in Lancaster. Law enforcement Law enforcement in Lancaster is provided by contract with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department (LASD). The LASD operates the Lancaster Station in Lancaster. The city also makes use of technology in law enforcement, allowing citizens to file police reports with the Sheriff's Department through the city's website. These and other programs are reducing response times to law enforcement incidents. In August, 2012, the city also launched the use of a Cessna 172 aircraft equipped with a remote control camera for use in patrolling the city. Initially, aircraft surveillance was carried out in a single ten-hour shift daily, but its use has been expanded to nighttime hours, as well. Notable people Raymond Allen, television actor Kevin Appier, former MLB player Chris Avalos, professional boxer Pancho Barnes, aviator Lon Boyett, NFL player Dewayne Dedmon, NBA player John "Drumbo" French, musician, author Judy Garland, actress Donald Glover, actor, writer, comedian and musician; born on nearby Edwards AFB Noah Gray-Cabey, actor Buddy Hackett, actor Sandy Hackett, actor and son of Buddy Hackett Edmond Hamilton, science fiction writer Bob Hannah, motorcycle racer, AMA 125 & 250 National motocross Champion—Supercross Champion Jon Howard, musician Al Krueger, professional football player, attended high school in Lancaster and died in Lancaster Dwayne Murphy, Major League Baseball player and coach Vinc Pichel, professional UFC mixed martial artist James Richards, professional football player George Runner, politician who currently represents 1/4 of California on the California State Board of Equalization Sharon Runner, California state senator Dick Rutan, retired airforce pilot Burt Rutan, aerospace engineer Chaz Schilens, former NFL player Wesley Swift, most prominent of the early popularizers of the Christian Identity movement Bruce Van Dyke, former football guard Don Van Vliet, musician (as Captain Beefheart), painter Patrick Watson, musician Adam Wheeler, Olympic wrestler Joshua Kelley, NFL player In popular culture The Two Pines Church in Lancaster is a chapel used by Quentin Tarantino in many scenes of his film, Kill Bill. Lancaster was also used to film spots in Rob Zombie's film, The Devils Rejects. References External links Lancaster Chamber of Commerce Antelope Valley Community History in Words and Pictures: Los Angeles County Public Library 1977 establishments in California Antelope Valley Cities in Los Angeles County, California Cities in the Mojave Desert Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1977

Glenwood Springs, Colorado

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Glenwood Springs is a home rule municipality that is the county seat of Garfield County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 9,963 at the 2020 United States Census. Glenwood Springs is located at the confluence of the Roaring Fork River and the Colorado River, threading together the Roaring Fork Valley and a series of smaller towns up and down the Colorado River. Glenwood Springs is a historic destination for vacationers with diverse natural amenities, most particularly the hot springs. History For centuries the area that is now Glenwood Springs was populated by indigenous people before the colonization of the Americas. The oral history of the Kapuuta and Mouache bands recall that Glenwood Springs is located within the "traditional Nuuchiu tuvupu (The People's Land) of the Subuagan and Parianuche bands." Fred Conetah's History of the Northern Utes states that the Yampa or White River bands used the area, which is now in the Ute ancestral jurisdiction. The Utes were nomadic hunter-gatherers who seasonally used the natural hot springs in the area. The U.S. government surveyed the land in the mid-19th century, although they had no claim on the land. An 1868 treaty negotiated by the Tabeguache Ute Chief Ouray preserved the hunting grounds in the area of present day Glenwood Springs. For a short time in the 19th century, Glenwood Springs was known as "Defiance", a name sometimes still used by local teams or businesses. Defiance was established in 1883, as a camp of tents, saloons, and brothels with an increasing amount of cabins and lodging establishments. It was populated with gamblers, gunslingers, and prostitutes. Isaac Cooper was the founder of the town. His wife Sarah was having a hard time adjusting to the frontier life and, in an attempt to make her environment somewhat more comfortable, persuaded the founders to change the name to Glenwood Springs, Colorado, after her hometown of Glenwood, Iowa. Glenwood Springs, then a small encampment, was not the original county seat of Garfield County. Rather, a larger mining town that had been seeded with silver in order to attract miners on top of the Flat Tops mountains named Carbonate was the original county seat. Carbonate briefly had a post office, but the mail courier who won the contract to deliver mail to Carbonate found only one miner living there on his first delivery, which took 65km horizontally and 1.5km vertically. In the end, the courier paid the miner $100 in 1880s dollars to move out so that the post office could be closed and he would not have to make the journey again. Carbonate remained the county seat for only four months before Glenwood Springs was selected by voters as the new location. The location of Glenwood Springs, and its railroad stop, established a center of commerce in the area. The city has seen well-known visitors, including President Teddy Roosevelt, who spent a summer vacation living out of the historic Hotel Colorado. Doc Holliday, who was known for the O.K. Corral gunfight, spent the final months of his life in Glenwood Springs and is buried in the town's original Pioneer Cemetery above Bennett Avenue. Kid Curry is buried in the same location. The serial killer Ted Bundy was imprisoned in the Glenwood Springs jail until he escaped on the night of December 30, 1977, an escape which went undetected for 17 hours. Glenwood Springs was one of the first places in the United States to have electric lights. The original lighting was installed in 1897 inside of the Fairy Caves in Iron Mountain. Later, a dam was built in Glenwood Canyon, providing water for the Shoshone power plant. The plant began producing power on May 16, 1909, and retains the largest and oldest water rights to the Colorado River, the "Shoshone Call", which is valuable for the protection of Colorado River water rather than the minimal electricity produced. In 2015, the town was named the "Most Vibrant Small Town Arts Environment in the United States" by Southern Methodist University and the 5th Best Place to Live in America by Outside magazine. It was named the "Most Fun Town in America" by Rand McNally and USA Today in 2011. Geography Glenwood Springs is located in the narrow mountain valleys that host the confluence of the Colorado River and the Roaring Fork River. The surrounding terrain is steeply contoured on all sides, containing several caves. The geology of the area includes geothermal activity, such as the local hot springs, but it is also evidenced through other features such as the Dotsero maar. Occasional proposals to leverage the geothermal energy for other purposes arise. Glenwood Springs has experienced several mudslides throughout its history, a threat mitigated somewhat by public works. Glenwood Springs is considered a walkable town by PBS and Walking Magazine, including in the Walking Town Hall of Fame. Though the town's geography makes it a natural environment for pedestrians and cyclists; there are also trails running throughout and around the city that resulted from planning efforts that began in the 1980s in response to congestion and traffic. Due to civic planning during the early years of the city, Glenwood Springs owns some senior water rights to tributaries of the Colorado River. Glenwood Springs water supply is sufficient for its population, unlike some areas of the American West, conservation plans have been enacted anyway for largely environmental reasons. The town's drinking water is supplied primarily through senior rights to major watersheds in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area, and the tap water is generally of safe quality. Mineral deposits exist further up the Crystal River and in the Roaring Fork area, and petroleum resources are ample in western Garfield County, which brings tax revenue to Glenwood Springs. However, the town itself lies outside of the Colorado Mineral Belt, and there are no mineral or oil and gas sources near Glenwood Springs proper or its watersheds. While the paucity of minerals and oil was disastrous for early miners hoping to strike it rich, modern Glenwood Springs has none of the typical Colorado mountain town legacy of resource extraction, generally good air quality, water, and land. however, Valley inversions and heavy traffic to Aspen can lead to air quality problems during exceptionally cold spells of winter. At the 2020 United States Census, the city had a total area of including of water. Climate Glenwood Springs has a generally mild and semi-arid climate, much more consistently stable than that of the Front Range and most of Colorado, though still decidedly continental and prone to periods of extreme weather. Microclimates dominate Glenwood Springs, with areas close to the rivers often much more damp and cool than hillsides. Cultivation Local food production has seen a revival in recent years. While not as consistently fecund as the extensive agricultural and viticultural areas at lower altitude such as Palisade, most types of fruit and vegetable grow well in the light and soil if well watered. Stonefruit such as cherries, peaches, and plums, pomaceous fruit such as apples and pears, and grapes are suited to the climate and terrain. In 1904, apples and peaches from the nearby town of Silt won first place at the St. Louis World's Fair, and strawberries did so well in Glenwood Springs that it first hosted a festival in 1898, Strawberry Days, which is Colorado's oldest festival and the oldest continuously held civic celebration west of the Mississippi River. Nearby, Carbondale became known for its potatoes. Demographics Glenwood Springs is the principal city of the Glenwood Springs, CO Micropolitan Statistical Area. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,736 people, 3,216 households, and 1,926 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,611 people per square mile (622.3/km). There were 3,353 housing units at an average density of 698.5 per square mile (269.7/km). The racial makeup of the city was 90.42% White, 0.23% African American, 0.71% Native American, 0.80% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 5.82% from other races, and 1.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.30% of the population. 13.9% were of German, 13.3% English, 12.9% Irish, 7.6% American and 7.0% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. There were 3,216 households, out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.7% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.1% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.97. In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.1% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 33.3% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $43,934, and the median income for a family was $52,903. Males had a median income of $38,506 versus $29,272 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,449. About 3.5% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.0% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over. Despite being an expensive area in which to live, Glenwood Springs has the highest life expectancy in America for 40-year-olds making working wages. Economy Glenwood Springs' economy has centered on hospitality for vacationers since its foundation, unlike many of Colorado's mountain towns, which were generally settled for mining or railroad purposes. While early railroad access and inclusion on main lines and proximity to Aspen catalyzed the city's growth, Glenwood Springs continued to attract visitors, and thus has not experienced the bust or quiet years most mountain towns endured. Much of the tourism, particularly during the summer months, typically involves local outdoor sports or the amenities of the town. In the winter, the proximity of Glenwood Springs to multiple major ski resorts and its hot springs draw visitors. Autumn is scenic as the gambel oaks studding the hillsides change color, and spring brings a tide of violas and other flowers, particularly bulbs, from traditional daffodils to native sego lilies. Glenwood does not primarily serve as a bedroom community. In 2020 it received stimulus money. Due to severe geographic constraints, if further population growth is to be accommodated, it must come primarily from multifamily infill development. Bloomberg Business named Glenwood Springs the 7th wealthiest small town in America in 2015, due principally to the influence of Aspen. Glenwood Springs and Aspen share a micropolitan statistical area, and businesses often serve the entire Valley. Many small businesses start in the area due to the ambient wealth and a strong preference for local business, but they typically relocate to larger metropolitan areas after successful growth leads to needs for more affordable labor and physical resources. Internet access Comcast provides cable modem access over coax to the entire city along with television and mobile service, while CenturyLink offers DSL service to all residents. In 2020, Glenwood Springs was locally installing 140 miles of fiber-optic networking to serve the city as a participating member of Project THOR, an initiative by the Northwest Colorado Council of Governments to bring networking to towns throughout northwest Colorado. Education Glenwood Springs hosts two of the campuses and the administrative offices of the Colorado Mountain College system. The town is the headquarters of the Roaring Fork RE-1 school district. In all, the city has 5 public K-12 schools: Glenwood Springs High School, Yampah Mountain High School (an alternative school not part of RE-1), Glenwood Springs Middle School, Glenwood Springs Elementary School, and Sopris Elementary School. St. Stephen's Catholic School, which was founded in 1982, is K-8. Yampah High was a finalist for a $10M grant from XQ Super Schools, a philanthropic project run by Laurene Powell Jobs, the widow of Steve Jobs. Media Glenwood Springs' principal news source is the Post Independent, a local daily newspaper created by the merger of the Glenwood Post, with a history stretching back in various forms to 1889, and a newer competitor, the Glenwood Independent. It has received numerous awards over the years, including the 2016 American Society of News Editors' Osborne Award for Editorial Leadership. The newspaper and many of its reporters have been recognized by the Colorado Associated Press for a variety of distinctions. KMTS provides local country radio along the Colorado River, and KSNO-FM serves the Roaring Fork Valley. The town is also served by local television KREG-TV, alongside K42EV-D, a repeater of Grand Junction ABC affiliate KJCT-LP and K32NO-D, a repeater of Rocky Mountain PBS. Transportation Amtrak and other rail Amtrak's California Zephyr, operating three-days-a-week in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, serves Glenwood Springs, the second busiest station in Colorado, behind only Denver's Union Station. The first commercially successful dome cars were built for the Zephyr family, inspired by Glenwood Canyon. Due to the scenery, timetables designed for maximum sunlight in Glenwood Canyon, the proximity of downtown, and local tourism, Glenwood Springs receives more passenger traffic than some major cities on the Zephyr line, including Lincoln, Omaha, Grand Junction, and Salt Lake City. The Zephyr takes a scenic route through the mountains between Denver and Glenwood Springs. Much of the route follows the Colorado River and is away from roads and major development. Part of the route near Glenwood Springs was used for locations in the 1995 action movie Under Siege 2: Dark Territory. Starting in August 2021, the Canada-based luxury rail excursion company Rocky Mountaineer has provided direct passenger rail service between Moab, Utah and Denver, Colorado (with an overnight stop in Glenwood Springs, Colorado) on its Rockies to the Red Rocks route. The route has received widespread critical acclaim. The local transportation authority is Roaring Fork Transportation Authority (RFTA, pronounced "rafta"). RFTA retains ownership of the land previously used for rail traffic to Aspen, a source of occasional consternation in balancing development needs. Proposals to introduce light rail to the valley remain unrealized but were not found economically feasible. VelociRFTA service described below currently serves that role, but RFTA remains committed to realizing the light-rail vision. Bus RFTA provides bus transit in Glenwood Springs and throughout the Roaring Fork Valley. VelociRFTA(pronounced "Veloci-rafta", a pun on velociraptor) BRT service, the first rural BRT in the United States, began in September 2013, offering connections between south Glenwood Springs and Aspen roughly every 15 minutes with a 60-minute total travel time. Timetables vary by season, with different frequencies offered during spring, summer, autumn, and winter, to accommodate shifting seasonal demands. The city also operates an intracity bus service, Ride Glenwood. Ride Glenwood offers a main route from the west side of town along the 6&24 corridor, through downtown, to the south part of Glenwood along Hwy 82. Greyhound Lines stops in Glenwood Springs on trips between New York and Las Vegas twice per day. Bus service is provided twice daily by Bustang and runs from Glenwood Springs to both Grand Junction and Denver. Automobile Glenwood Springs lies along I-70 at exit 116 (main exit), about west of Denver and east of Grand Junction. I-70 is one of the main east-west routes through the Rocky Mountains. Colorado State Highway 82 leads southeast from Glenwood Springs up the Roaring Fork Valley to Carbondale and to Aspen. Airport Glenwood Springs Airport (KGWS), a municipal airport, was built in the early 1940s. The airport was named the 4th most challenging mountain airport by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA). The main reasons cited were the airport's mountainous location, the runway, and the unpredictable wind gusts, which caused a crash in 2007. In 2004 a Cessna crashed into an apartment near the airport due to engine problems. Visitors to Glenwood Springs more often depart and arrive from Aspen, Eagle, or Denver. Recreation Glenwood Springs is known for outdoor recreation, today joined by cultural facilities and the emergence of Glenwood Springs and the Roaring Fork Valley as a whole as a gastronomical destination for foodies. Activities include whitewater rafting, kayaking, caving, cycling, rock climbing, horseback riding, all-terrain vehicle (ATV) tours, off-road Hummer tours, Segway tours, tandem paragliding flights, fishing, and lodge stays in Glenwood Canyon. Hot Springs The primary draw of Glenwood Springs for over a hundred years has been the numerous hot springs in the area. There are several hot springs facilities in town that range from to with varying mineral content. The hot springs were used by local indigenous people long before the colonization of the Americas, most recently by the Utes. The Glenwood Springs area was valued by Native Americans because of the medicinal properties of the water. Before 1800, the area was considered to be of "sacred status" to the Ute people. Yampah Hot Springs vapor caves are historic underground geothermal steam baths. They are over 100 years old and were used by the Ute people as a source of rejuvenation and healing. There have been tensions between the local Ute people in relation to the use of the caves. Today, the vapor caves consist of three connecting rock chambers. Cave temperatures average . Iron Mountain Hot Springs features smaller mineral water soaking pools. The underlying geothermal resources and land have been developed and closed several times. Skiing Sunlight Ski Area operates a brick and mortar store for lift tickets, rentals, repairs, and equipment in downtown Glenwood. The ski resort itself lies south of town on County Road 117, also known as Four Mile Road. Sunlight Mountain Resort is well-known to families due to a variety of terrain that leads to a single main base. It offers cross-country skiing in a "Nordic area", sharing the scenery and dense aspen trees that mark other, better-known resorts in the area. There are multiple very steep open grove runs for experts who enjoy tree skiing and powder, including the Heathen with comes in at a 52 degree pitch, one of the steepest runs in Colorado. Rafting, kayaking, and fishing Two of the largest rivers in Colorado, the Colorado River and the Roaring Fork River, converge in Glenwood Springs. Both are used for recreation by locals, visitors and commercial outfitters. The waters of the Roaring Fork flowing through Glenwood Springs proper are "Gold Medal" fishing waters, formally so designated by Colorado Parks and Wildlife. There is a dedicated Glenwood Whitewater Park. Mountain biking While Carbondale, just upvalley, is already well known as a mountain biking destination, Glenwood Springs has its own plans to make the rugged terrain surrounding town available to riders. There are already many mountain bike trails in the Roaring Fork Valley, most requiring significant fitness and stamina for enjoyment due to the steep slopes and rocky outcroppings. Golf Glenwood Springs is home to a 9-hole golf course referred to by locals as "The Hill" and is within driving distance of mountain golf. Lakota Canyon in nearby New Castle received Golf Magazine's "Best of America's New Courses" list. Ironbridge golf course is located in the southern part of Glenwood Springs and River Valley Ranch golf course is located in nearby Carbondale. There is a mini golf complex with two separate 18 hole courses in West Glenwood. Bike trails Two scenic trails host Glenwood Springs as one of the endpoints. The Glenwood Canyon Recreational Trail winds through Glenwood Canyon. The Rio Grande Trail runs roughly along the former local Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, reaching all the way to Aspen in a rails-to-trails project featured by the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy as the Trail of the Month in April 2016. Glenwood Caverns Glenwood Caverns Adventure Park is a moderate-sized amusement park aimed at visitors of all ages. Principal attractions are the caverns and a number of imported thrill rides, including an alpine coaster, the Giant Canyon Swing, which spins riders out over the cliff-edge of Glenwood Canyon to reflect on the Colorado River some 1300 ft below, and the Cliffhanger, a roller coaster which is literally bolted to the mountain. Glenwood Vaudeville Revue The Glenwood Vaudeville Revue offers a dinner theater show performing comedy skits, dances, and songs. An old downtown movie theater was purchased and renovated into a dedicated performance venue. The revue has been in professional performance since 2009. Hanging Lake Hanging Lake is located in Glenwood Canyon about east of Glenwood Springs. The lake is reached via a trailhead located near I-70 in the bottom of the canyon. In the summer of 2010 the boardwalk at the lake was replaced. Due to environmental concerns, access to the trail to the lake is permissible only by a shuttle operating in partnership between the U.S. Forest Service and Glenwood Springs from downtown Glenwood Springs from the Community Center from May 1 to Oct. 31. In the winter of 2018, maintenance and improvement work was performed on the trail. Hanging Lake and its immediate surroundings were spared during the Grizzly Creek Fire that scorched much of Glenwood Canyon in 2020, along with the trail leading up to it. In the summer of 2021, significant rain events on the burn scar caused rockslides and debris flows throughout the Glenwood Canyon. The Hanging Lake Trail was severely damaged and has been closed indefinitely while the City of Glenwood Springs and the Forest Service contemplate trail repairs. Notable people Kid Curry — Wild West outlaw and gunman Doc Holliday — Wild West gunfighter, gambler, and dentist Jim Irwin — U.S. Air Force Colonel and NASA astronaut; the eighth man to walk on the moon Jack P. Juhan — U.S. Marine Corps Major general, who served in World War II and Korean War. Bobby Julich — bike racer and silver medalist at the 2004 Athens Olympics Scott McInnis — former U.S. congressman from Colorado Blake Neubert — artist Sarah Schleper — Alpine skier John David Vanderhoof — former Colorado governor See also Colorado Bibliography of Colorado Index of Colorado-related articles Outline of Colorado List of counties in Colorado List of municipalities in Colorado List of places in Colorado List of statistical areas in Colorado Edwards-Glenwood Springs, CO Combined Statistical Area Glenwood Springs, CO Micropolitan Statistical Area Glenwood Hot Springs References External links City of Glenwood Springs website Glenwood Springs Fire Department Glenwood Springs Police Department CDOT map of the City of Glenwood Springs Glenwood Tourism: Glenwood Springs Chamber Resort Association Visitglenwood.com, Glenwood Springs official travel website Cities in Garfield County, Colorado Roaring Fork Valley Hot springs of Colorado County seats in Colorado Spa towns in the United States Cities in Colorado Populated places established in 1883 1883 establishments in Colorado 1885 establishments in Colorado

Hank Azaria

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Henry Albert Azaria ( ; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor, comedian and producer. He is known for voicing many characters in the animated sitcom The Simpsons (1989–present), most notably Moe Szyslak, Chief Wiggum, Comic Book Guy, Snake Jailbird, and formerly Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, Lou, Carl Carlson, and Bumblebee Man, among others. He joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in its second season, with many of his performances on the show being based on famous actors and characters. For his work, he has won six Emmy Awards and a Screen Actors Guild Award. Azaria is also known for his live-action roles in feature films such as The Birdcage (1996), Godzilla (1998), Mystery Men (1999), America's Sweethearts (2001), Shattered Glass (2003), Along Came Polly (2004), Run Fatboy Run (2007), Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009), Night at the Museum: Kahmunrah Rises Again (2021), The Smurfs (2011), and The Smurfs 2 (2013). He starred as the title character in Brockmire (2017–2020) and had recurring roles on the television series Mad About You and Friends, as the title character in the drama series Huff (2004–2006), and appeared in the popular stage musical Spamalot, for which he received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. Originally known as a comedic actor, he has also taken on more dramatic roles, including in Tuesdays With Morrie (1999) and Uprising (2001). Early life Henry Albert Azaria was born in the Queens borough of New York City on April 25, 1964, the son of Ruth Altcheck and Albert Azaria. His grandparents on both sides were Sephardic Jews from Thessaloniki. His family spoke Ladino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as "a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written in Hebrew characters." Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise. Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist for Columbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish. During his childhood, Azaria would often "memorize and mimic" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. He attended Camp Towanda in Honesdale, Pennsylvania, and now visits annually as a judge for the camp's Olympics. Azaria attended The Kew-Forest School in Queens' Forest Hills neighborhood. He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming "obsessed with acting" at the expense of his academic studies. Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor. He studied drama at Tufts University from 1981 to 1985, where he met and befriended actor Oliver Platt and noted that Platt was a "better actor" than he was and inspired him. Together they starred in various college stage productions, including The Merchant of Venice, before Azaria went to train at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life. His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old. He also worked as a busboy. He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, although Harold Pinter's The Dumb Waiter was the only show they ever performed. Azaria decided that television was a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved to Los Angeles after being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York "got really furious with [Gold]" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria. He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986 ABC comedy-drama series Joe Bash. His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to the Screen Actors Guild. Azaria appeared in the TV film Nitti: The Enforcer, about the gangster Frank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilot Morning Maggie alongside Matthew Perry, with whom he became good friends. He played Joe in an episode of the sitcom Family Ties in 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode of Growing Pains. Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame. In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coach Roy London. Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian, and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons (1989–present) Azaria became famous for his voice work in the ongoing animated television series The Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failed Fox pilot Hollywood Dog, a show he described as "sort of Roger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real." The first voice he performed on The Simpsons was that of town bartender Moe Szyslak, replacing Christopher Collins who had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him from Hollywood Dog, casting director Bonita Pietila called Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe. At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a voice based on Al Pacino's performance in the film Dog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition for The Simpsons and, at the request of the show's executive producers Matt Groening and Sam Simon, made the voice more "gravelly". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode "Some Enchanted Evening", dubbing Collins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice of Chief Wiggum and then Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. He felt that, initially, "[the producers] didn't seem too pleased with what I had done...[Simon] was very exacting...[and] was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well." Nevertheless, by the show's second season he was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast. Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the "new guy". In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices of Comic Book Guy, Carl Carlson (until season 32, now voiced by Alex Désert), Cletus Spuckler, Professor Frink, Dr. Nick Riviera, Lou, Snake Jailbird, Kirk Van Houten, the Sea Captain, Superintendent Chalmers, Disco Stu, Duffman, the Wiseguy and numerous one-time characters. His co-star in The Simpsons, Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: "The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star." As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it on Peter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the film The Party. Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line "Hello, Mr. Homer", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed. Azaria, however, disputed this on LateNet with Ray Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical. Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody of David Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that of Edward G. Robinson. Officer Lou is based on Sylvester Stallone, and Dr. Nick is "a bad Ricky Ricardo impression." The "Wise Guy" voice is "basically Charles Bronson," while Carl is "a silly voice [Azaria] always did." Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name "F". Professor Frink is based on Jerry Lewis' performance in the original The Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actor Robert Newton's portrayal of many pirates. Azaria based his performance for the one-time character Frank Grimes, from the episode "Homer's Enemy", on actor William H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history of The Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-star Dan Castellaneta and guest star Anne Hathaway respectively. He was nominated again in 2012. Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles from The Simpsons for the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie. Azaria notes that he spends "an embarrassingly small amount of time working on The Simpsons." He works for "an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice." He concludes it is "the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned." Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other main The Simpsons voice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several script read-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode. The strike was resolved a month later, with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000 and $360,000 per episode. In 2008, production for the twentieth season was put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a "healthy bump" in salary. The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode. Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction to The Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary by Hari Kondabolu that examined Azaria and other white actors who had played South Asian roles as stereotypes. During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: "The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad." Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: "I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new." In response, Kondabolu tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: "Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it." In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated. Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons. In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, on Dax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (1991–present) Television series work With the continuing success of The Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action, roles. He was a main cast member on the show Herman's Head (1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongside The Simpsons co-star Yeardley Smith. He regularly recorded for The Simpsons and filmed Herman's Head during the same day. Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role of Joey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcom Friends. He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one of Phoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode "The One with the Monkey", before the character left for a research trip in Minsk. He reprised the role in the show's seventh season (2001), before making several appearances in the ninth (2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good. From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcom Mad About You as Nat Ostertag, the dog walker. Azaria was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his roles in both Mad About You (in 1998) and Friends (in 2003). Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcom If Not For You in 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcom Imagine That in 2002, replacing Emeril mid-season in the NBC lineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who "transformed" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, "provid[ing] a humorous outlet for his frustrations at home and work". Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings. Azaria later commented on the show: "I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing that The Larry Sanders Show was our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working." He starred as psychiatrist Craig "Huff" Huffstodt in the Showtime drama series Huff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes. Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season. After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper. Azaria enjoyed working on the show, but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it "was tough to marry our visions all the time, [because] we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go." Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly called Azaria "impressively subtle" in the role, while John Leonard of New York magazine said he was a "shrewd bit of casting." The show garnered seven Emmy nominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcom Free Agents, a remake of the British series of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive "who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn). Azaria also served as a producer on the show. He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the "sensibility" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous series Party Down and decided to accept the part. Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it, the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings. In 2014, Azaria had a recurring role in the second season of Showtime's Ray Donovan, playing FBI agent Ed Cochran. Film work Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video release Cool Blue (1990), as Buzz. His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year in Pretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson. His next major film role was as television producer Albert Freedman in the 1994 film Quiz Show, which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the film The Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his "big break", he was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role, and critically branded "the most hilarious performance in the film," by Alison Macor of The Austin Chronicle, while Empire wrote that he "[stole] the show." For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance. Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played by David Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, including Heat (1995), Grosse Pointe Blank (1997), Celebrity (1998) and worked opposite Gwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation of Great Expectations. He played photographer Victor "Animal" Palotti in Godzilla (1998). Godzilla was one of Azaria's first starring roles in a blockbuster film. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, "I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who did Birdcage, Quiz Show and Great Expectations are three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor". The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as "tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'." In 1999, he starred in the drama Mystery, Alaska as Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero film Mystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja. Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas in America's Sweethearts (2001), Claude in Along Came Polly (2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan in DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story (2004), the latter two with Ben Stiller. For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, in Along Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composer Marc Blitzstein in Tim Robbins' film Cradle Will Rock in 1999. Paul Clinton wrote that Azaria was "brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein." The same year he appeared as author and journalist Mitch Albom alongside Jack Lemmon in the television film Tuesdays with Morrie, winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for the role. Azaria described the latter as the "best work [he has] done." These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy, but tries to balance the two. Azaria commented: "all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'" His next dramatic part was in the television film Uprising in 2001. The film was based on the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and Azaria played Mordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting in Uprising and frequently asked the film's producer and director Jon Avnet why he was selected. "I know [Avnet] liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me and David Schwimmer in [Uprising], and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why." His parts in Tuesdays With Morrie and Uprising affected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy series Monty Python. Azaria found Uprising to be "very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging" material. In 2003, Azaria played journalist Michael Kelly, the former editor of The New Republic, in the drama film Shattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film "has become a weird kind of eulogy to him." Since Huffs conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit in David Schwimmer's directorial debut Run Fatboy Run (2007). During production he became good friends with co-star Simon Pegg, performing The Simpsons voices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when he was supposed to be filming. He worked with Stiller again on 2009's Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian in which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing a Boris Karloff accent. Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance. Perry Seibert of TV Guide wrote that "thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating if Oscar the Grouch and Darth Vader are evil enough to join his team." He appeared as Abraham in Year One (2009), Dr. Knight in 2010's Love & Other Drugs, and played Deep Throat director Gerard Damiano in Lovelace (2013). Azaria played Gargamel in the computer-animated/live-action adaptation of The Smurfs (2011). Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears, buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production. Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of his performance. The producers wanted an "old, failed, Shakespearean actor" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that of Paul Winchell's from the cartoon. Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and "just this straight villain"; he opted to make Gargamel "more sarcastic" than in the cartoon, but "discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs". He interpreted him as "very lonely", adding that "he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf". Azaria worked with the writers to "infuse" the script with some of his ideas about the character, "particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and [his cat] Azreal " which Azaria conceived. Reviewers from The San Francisco Chronicle and The Boston Globe commented on Azaria's "overacting" in the role of Gargamel. More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles of USA Today called Azaria the "human standout"; Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt he suffered the "greatest disservice" of the film's cast due to a poor script. Azaria noted in an interview with The A.V. Club that The Smurfs and Night at the Museum were films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that "I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch." Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequel The Smurfs 2. In 2016, Azaria starred in Norman: The Moderate Rise and Tragic Fall of a New York Fixer with Richard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition to The Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: "I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled by The Simpsons." He voiced Eddie Brock / Venom in Spider-Man: The Animated Series between 1994 and 1996. In the animated feature Anastasia (1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequel Bartok the Magnificent (1999). For his performance in Anastasia, Azaria won the Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production. He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the series Stressed Eric, Harold Zoid in the 2001 Futurama episode "That's Lobstertainment!", and Abbie Hoffman and Allen Ginsberg in Chicago 10 (2007). For the 2011 film Hop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance. For example, Sandie Chen of The Washington Post said "Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent since The Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs", while Emma Simmonds of Time Out called him an "unflappable presence, voicing two characters with style". Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven in Happy Feet Two. Azaria voices Shelfish Sheldon in Mack & Moxy. He also voices the lead character, Texan border agent Bud Buckwald, in Bordertown, which started in 2016. Once The Simpsons was "going steadily" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them "demoralizing", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of "Jell-O Man" for a Jell-O commercial, he was told to make the voice he offered "more likable and friendly so that children like him." After pointing out that "Jell-O Man" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again. However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for the Chevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short film Nobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at the US Comedy Arts Festival. In January 2007, he was confirmed to be directing Outsourced, a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico. In 2009, Azaria told Empire he was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood. Two years later he told the Los Angeles Times that this project was "half-complete" and was "forever looking for financing to finish it." It eventually began in 2014, airing on AOL as an online series titled Fatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's "touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad." He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run of David Mamet's play Sexual Perversity in Chicago, along with Matthew Perry and Minnie Driver, in London's West End. Azaria made his first appearance as Sir Lancelot, the French Taunter, and four other characters in Spamalot, the musical version of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway. The show met with critical acclaim, receiving fourteen Tony Award nominations in 2005, with Azaria being nominated for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical. Reuniting with The Birdcage director Mike Nichols, and being a huge Monty Python fan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as "so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is," and "the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life." He took a break from the show in June 2005, with Alan Tudyk filling in for him, to work on Huff, but returned in December 2005. In late 2007 he starred in Aaron Sorkin's The Farnsworth Invention, playing RCA head David Sarnoff. In 2016, he starred in the world premiere of Dry Powder opposite Claire Danes, John Krasinski, and Sanjit De Silva, directed by Thomas Kail, at the off-Broadway Public Theater in New York City. Azaria starred in and co-wrote the third episode of the Funny or Die web-series Gamechangers, entitled "A Legend in the Booth." He played Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, including Bob Murphy and Phil Rizzuto. He has since appeared as Brockmire on the NFL Network's The Rich Eisen Podcast to discuss the National Football League. In November 2012, Azaria sued actor Craig Bierko over the ownership of the Brockmire voice. The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judge Gary Allen Feess ruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, "tangible" character and thus subject to copyright. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as "the freakish mimic" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent. Azaria can "remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out." Azaria was glad to have found the "ultimate outlet" for this skill, in The Simpsons. He "didn't realize it [when he joined the show], but it became like a lab for a character actor. I had to do so many voices." In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: "For the first 10 years of The Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've done something similar on The Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line." For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a "funny voice", such as The Birdcage and Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that "being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in," although he finds it "much easier to be someone much closer to myself," as it requires "less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung." The Simpsons creator Matt Groening has stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode, while former writer Jay Kogen stated: "Just when I think I know [Azaria's] bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me." Throughout the run of The Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally. The Smurfs writer David N. Weiss says Azaria "has a beautiful treasure trove of talent," and "became what you wished you were writing." Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was "by far" her favorite actor, praising his "versatility" and "tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about," noting his roles in Shattered Glass, Mystery, Alaska and especially DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actress Julie Warner. His relationship with actress Helen Hunt began in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home in Southern California on July 17, 1999. The two had appeared together in Mad About You and the Simpsons episode "Dumbbell Indemnity". After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home, and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actress Katie Wright in 2007, and the two married later that year. They have a son named Hal (born 2009). The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on 80th Street in Manhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years. They previously lived in a four-bedroom house in Pacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from his Simpsons co-star Dan Castellaneta in 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home in Bel Air. Azaria previously owned the fifth-floor co-op loft on Mercer Street in Manhattan's Soho neighborhood, which he bought from photographer Cindy Sherman in 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria is the godfather of Oliver Platt's son, George. He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice on Celebrity Poker Showdown and competing at other events, finishing a few places short of the bubble in the main event of the 2010 World Series of Poker. Azaria is a supporter of the Democratic Party. He enjoys the music of Elvis Costello, and has stated that he would have been a therapist if he were not an actor. He considers The Godfather Trilogy to be what inspired him to become an actor, and counts Peter Sellers and Walt Frazier as his heroes. Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, "Determined to Succeed". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) from Tufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theme parks Theatre Awards and nominations References External links Hank Azaria at the Internet Off-Broadway Database 1964 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American comedians 21st-century American male actors American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni American impressionists (entertainers) American male comedians American male film actors American male musical theatre actors American male stage actors American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors American people of Greek descent American people of Greek-Jewish descent American people of Sephardic-Jewish descent American people of Spanish-Jewish descent American people of Spanish descent American Sephardic Jews Annie Award winners Audiobook narrators California Democrats Comedians from New York City Jewish American male actors Jewish American male comedians Hispanic and Latino American male actors Male actors from New York City New York (state) Democrats Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Forest Hills, Queens People from SoHo, Manhattan People of Greek descent Primetime Emmy Award winners Theatre World Award winners Tufts University alumni 21st-century American Jews

Ocean City, New Jersey

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Ocean City is a city in Cape May County, New Jersey, United States. It is the principal city of the Ocean City Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses all of Cape May County and is part of the Philadelphia-Wilmington-Camden, PA-NJ-DE-MD Combined Statistical Area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 11,701, reflecting a decline of 3,677 (-23.9%) from the 15,378 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn declined by 134 (-0.9%) from the 15,512 counted in the 1990 Census. In summer months, with an influx of tourists and second homeowners, there are estimated to be 115,000 to 130,000 within the city's borders. Ocean City originated as a borough by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on May 3, 1884, from portions of Upper Township, based on results from a referendum on April 30, 1884, and was reincorporated as a borough on March 31, 1890. Ocean City was incorporated as a city, its current government form, on March 25, 1897. The city is named for its location on the Atlantic Ocean. Known as a family-oriented seaside resort, Ocean City has not allowed the sale of alcoholic beverages within its limits since its founding in 1879, offering miles of guarded beaches, a boardwalk that stretches for , and a downtown shopping and dining district. The Travel Channel rated Ocean City as the Best Family Beach of 2005. It was ranked the third-best beach in New Jersey in the 2008 Top 10 Beaches Contest sponsored by the New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium. In the 2009 Top 10 Beaches Contest, Ocean City ranked first. History Before Ocean City was established, local Native Americans set up camps on the island for fishing in the summer months. In 1633, Dutch navigator David Pietersz. de Vries referred to "flat sand beaches with low hills between Cape May and Egg Harbor", possibly the earliest reference to the island that became Ocean City. In 1695, Thomas Budd surveyed the land on behalf of the West Jersey Society. Around 1700, John Peck used the island as a base of operation for storing freshly hunted whales, and subsequently, the land became known as Peck's Beach. The first record of a house on Peck's Beach was in 1752. During the 18th century, cattle grazers brought cows to the island, where plentiful trees, weeds, brush, and seagrass provided suitable conditions. Parker Miller was the first permanent resident of Peck's Beach in 1859. Originally purchased by the Somers family, the island was formerly named Peck's Beach, believed to have been given the name for a whaler named John Peck. In 1700, whaler John Peck began using the barrier island as a storage place for freshly caught whales. The island was also used as a cattle-grazing area, and mainlanders would boat over for a picnic or to hunt. On September 10, 1879, four Methodist ministers – Ezra B. Lake, James Lake, S. Wesley Lake, and William Burrell – chose the island as a suitable spot to establish a Christian retreat and camp meeting on the order of Ocean Grove. They met under a tall cedar tree, which stands today in the lobby of the Ocean City Tabernacle. Having chosen the name "Ocean City", the founders incorporated the Ocean City Association and laid out streets and lots for cottages, hotels, and businesses. The Ocean City Tabernacle was built between Wesley and Asbury Avenues and between 5th and 6th Streets. Camp meetings were held by the following summer and continue uninterrupted to this day. In 1881, the first school on the island opened. The first bridge to the island was built in 1883, and the West Jersey Railroad opened in 1884. Based on a referendum on April 30, 1884, the borough of Ocean City was formed from portions of Upper Township, following an act of the New Jersey Legislature on May 3, 1884. The ship Sindia joined other shipwrecks on the beach on December 15, 1901, on its way to New York City from Kobe, Japan, but has since sunk below the sand. A salvage attempt to retrieve treasures believed to have been on the ship was most recently launched in the 1970s, all of which have been unsuccessful. In 1920, the Chamber of Commerce adopted the slogan "America's Greatest Family Resort". A large fire in 1927 caused $1.5 million in damage and led the city to move the boardwalk closer to the ocean, which resulted in the greater potential for damage from saltwater. Alcohol prohibition As a result of its religious origins, the sale or public drinking of alcoholic beverages in Ocean City was prohibited. In 1881, the Ocean City Association passed a set of blue laws – laws designed to enforce religious standards. The town banned the manufacturing or sale of alcohol in 1909. Promoting water instead of drinking alcohol, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union donated a public fountain, dedicated on Memorial Day in 1915. Despite the prohibition of alcohol within the municipality, illegal saloons operated within Ocean City, and in 1929, prosecutors raided 27 speakeasies. In 1951, the town banned the consumption of alcohol on the beach and banned all public alcohol consumption in 1958. During the campaign for a 1986 referendum to repeal the blue laws, ads in the local paper suggested that the repeal could be next. In May 2012, 68.8% of voters rejected a ballot initiative for BYOB – bring your own bottle. As of 2016, Ocean City was one of 32 dry towns in New Jersey. Despite the prohibition in the city, 18.3% of adults in the Ocean City metropolitan statistical area (which includes all of Cape May County) drink alcohol heavily or binge drink, the highest percentage of any metro area in the state. USA Today listed Ocean City as the state's most drunken city on its 2017 list of "The drunkest city in every state". Additionally, a loophole in the law allows private dining clubs adjacent to restaurants to serve alcohol to members. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 11.56 square miles (29.93 km2), including 6.72 square miles (17.39 km2) of land and 4.84 square miles (12.53 km2) of water (41.87%). The island is about long. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Peck Beach. Ocean City is situated on a barrier island bordered by the Strathmere section of Upper Township to the south, the Marmora section of Upper Township to the west, and Somers Point and Egg Harbor Township across the Great Egg Harbor Bay to the north. The eastern side of Ocean City borders the Atlantic Ocean. Since 1951, the beach has been replenished more than 40 times, potentially the most of any beach in the country. This is due to erosion caused by storms, and in an extreme instance of erosion, a $5 million replenishment project in 1982 had largely disappeared within two and a half months. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city owned its own dredge, but ceased replenishment projects when it could not secure permits for dredging the lagoons. Since 1992, the United States Army Corps of Engineers has handled responsibility for beach nourishment projects, periodically adding , roughly every three years, using the shoal area about offshore the Great Egg Harbor Inlet. The project and funding was authorized in the Water Resources Development Act of 1986, and the most recent replenishment was completed in December 2017. After Hurricane Sandy in 2012, the Army Corps completed the city's largest beach replenishment since 1993, adding of sand to replenish the eroded beaches. Parks The city utilizes 39% of its land area – – for parks and recreation purposes. This includes about of protected dunes and wetlands. There are several parks within the confines of Ocean City, including ten playgrounds scattered across the island. There are also a volleyball court, a shuffleboard court, a hockey rink, four baseball fields, four soccer fields, eight basketball courts, and 24 tennis courts. Across from the Ocean City Airport is the Howard Stainton Wildlife Refuge, a area of wetlands established in 1997. There are no trails, but there is a viewing platform accessible from Bay Avenue. Adjacent to the airport is the Ocean City Municipal Golf Course, a 12–hole course run by the city and open to the public. At the southern end of the island is Corson's Inlet State Park, which was established in 1969 to preserve one of the last undeveloped tracts of land along the oceanfront. The park is accessible by Ocean Drive (Cape May County Route 619), which bisects the park. Demographics 2010 Census The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $55,202 (with a margin of error of +/- $6,710) and the median family income was $79,196 (+/- $11,239). Males had a median income of $48,475 (+/- $5,919) versus $41,154 (+/- $12,032) for females. The per capita income for the city was $40,864 (+/- $3,899). About 5.1% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over. 2000 Census As of the 2000 United States Census there were 15,378 people, 7,464 households, and 4,008 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,222.8 people per square mile (858.0/km2). There were 20,298 housing units at an average density of 2,934.0 per square mile (1,132.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 93.57% White, 4.31% African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 0.52% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.99% of the population. There were 7,464 households, out of which 16.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.3% were non-families. 40.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.02 and the average family size was 2.71. In the city, the population was spread out, with 16.4% under age 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 28.3% from 45 to 64, and 25.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.4 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 82.8 men. The median income for a household in the city was $44,158, and the median income for a family was $61,731. Males had a median income of $42,224 versus $31,282 for females. The per capita income for the city was $33,217. About 4.3% of families and 6.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.0% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over. Economy Beach The concept of beach tags at the Jersey Shore was introduced in the late 1920s, but Ocean City did not establish them until 1976. Beach tags are a major source of revenue for the city, with the $4.1 million in revenue generated in the 2016 season, the most of any municipality in the state. In the 2017 budget, the projected $4.1 million in fees for beach tag and $3 million for parking were two of the city's biggest revenue sources, accounting for almost 9% of the city's annual budget of almost $80 million. From early June through Labor Day, Ocean City requires individuals age 12 and up to purchase a beach tag to access its beaches. For the 2020 season (from June 1, 2020 through September 6, 2020), a one-day pass cost $5, a weekly pass was $10, and a seasonal pass for the full summer season will be $25. Additionally, there are free seasonal beach tags made available to military personnel. Beach tag revenue is used by the city to cover the costs of maintaining and cleaning the beaches. It is also used to provide lifeguards and patrol all down the coast. Boardwalk Adjacent to the beach is a long boardwalk that which runs north from 23rd Street to St. James Place. The boardwalk was first built in 1880 from the Second Street wharf to Fourth Street and West Avenue. In 1885, plans to extend the boardwalk along the entire beach were made as the city's first amusement house, a pavilion on the beach at 11th street called "The Excursion" opened. A second amusement park, the "I.G. Adams pavilion", at Ninth Street and the boardwalk, opened soon after but was destroyed by fire in 1893. Following a second catastrophic fire in 1927, the boardwalk and its businesses were rebuilt closer to the ocean on concrete pilings, with parking created for cars in the space where the buildings and boardwalk once stood. The Ocean City Music Pier partially opened one year later, with work completed in time for the 1929 season. In 2007 controversy emerged about the city's proposed use of ipê, a type of wood, to re-deck parts of the boardwalk. Environmental activists protested against the city's use of the wood, but the plan went ahead. In Fall 2013, the city began a $10 million project to rebuild the 85 year old boardwalk from 5th to 12th Streets. This replaced the concrete substructure from 1928 with wooden supports and pine decking, and included the removal of of sand. Originally intended to be a seven-year project, the work finished two years ahead of schedule in March 2018. Attractions In 1965, the Wonderland Amusement Park opened on the boardwalk at 6th Street, which is now known as Gillian's Wonderland Pier. Runaway Train, a steel twister, operated as the park's sole major roller coaster until its removal in 2018. Playland's Castaway Cove, is located on the boardwalk at 10th Street. Two major roller coasters operated there, which were the Python, a looping coaster, and the Flitzer, a wild mouse coaster. A new major shuttle coaster at Castaway Cove, Storm, was planned to be finished in summer 2013. The two older coasters (Python and Flitzer) were removed and for the 2016 summer season, a new ride called "GaleForce" was being built, which is a high thrill roller coaster with three linear synchronous motor launches reaching speeds of and a beyond vertical drop. "GaleForce" officially opened to the public on May 26, 2017. The new "Wild Waves" ride is a family-oriented coaster, with a height of , that wraps around the GaleForce coaster. The new "Whirlwind" ride is a figure eight kiddie coaster with spinning cars. There is also a water park located on the boardwalk called "OC Waterpark", open during the summer months. Today, there are bike and surrey rentals available along many boardwalk cross streets, but bikes and surreys can only be ridden on the boardwalk before noon during the summer. Attractions along the boardwalk include two family amusement parks with rides and games, an arcade, the Music Pier, a water park and various themed miniature golf courses. The Ocean City boardwalk has a wide variety of dining options, from sit-down restaurants to funnel cake. Mini golf is also an abundant activity on the Boardwalk in Ocean City, with numerous courses such as: Goofy Golf, Congo Falls, Tee-Time Golf, and Haunted Golf. Media Media publications in Ocean City include its two newspapers, The Ocean City Sentinel and The Gazette. Ocean City also has a seasonal publication, The Ocean City Sure Guide, and a lifestyle magazine known as Ocean City Magazine. The city also has a daily blog that has update on the city as a whole, called OCNJDaily Sports Ocean City Nor'easters of USL League Two play at Carey Stadium. Government Local government The City of Ocean City was incorporated on March 25, 1897. Since July 1, 1978, the city has operated within the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, under the mayor–council system of municipal government, which is used in 71 municipalities (of the 565) statewide. The governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the City Council. The mayor, the chief executive of the community, is chosen at-large for a four-year term at the municipal election in May and serves part-time for a yearly salary. The mayor neither presides over, nor has a vote on the council. The mayor has veto power over ordinances, but any veto can be overridden by a vote of two-thirds of the Council. The City Council is the legislative body and is comprised of seven members, of which four members represent individual wards and three are elected at-large. Each council person serves a staggered four-year term, with the three at-large seats and the mayoral seat up for election together, followed by the four ward seats which are voted upon two years later. , the mayor of Ocean City is Jay A. Gillian, whose term of office ends June 30, 2022. Members of the city council are Council President Peter Madden (2022; At Large), Council Vice President Anthony P. "Tony" Wilson (2020; Third Ward), Robert S. "Bobby" Barr (2020; Fourth Ward), Karen A. Bergman (2022; At Large), Michael DeVlieger (2020; First Ward), Keith Hartzell (2022; At Large), with a vacant seat representing the second ward.<ref name=CapeMayOfficials>[https://www.capemaycountyvotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2020-All-Elected-Officials-INTERNET-January.pdf 2020 County & Municipal Elected Officials Cape May County, NJ -- January 2020] , Cape May County, New Jersey, January 7, 2020. Accessed May 12, 2020.</ref>Cape May County Statement of Vote 2016 Ocean City Municipal Election , Cape May County, New Jersey, updated May 15, 2018. Accessed October 27, 2019. The Second Ward seat expiring in December 2020 has been vacant since December 2020, when Antwan McClellan resigned to take office in the New Jersey General Assembly. In September 2015, Councilman Michael Allegretto resigned from his seat expiring in December 2018 to take a position as the city's Director of Community Services. As the council could not reach agreement on a successor in the month following the resignation, the position remained vacant until a successor was chosen in the May 2016 municipal election to serve the balance of the term of office. In May 2016, Karen A. Bergman was elected to serve the balance of the vacant term. Federal, state and county representation Ocean City is located in the 2nd Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 1st state legislative district.2019 New Jersey Citizen's Guide to Government , New Jersey League of Women Voters. Accessed October 30, 2019. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 8,810 registered voters in Ocean City, of which 1,747 (19.8%) were registered as Democrats, 3,776 (42.9%) were registered as Republicans and 3,282 (37.3%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 5 voters registered to other parties. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 75.7% of the vote (3,436 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 22.9% (1,038 votes), and other candidates with 1.4% (62 votes), among the 4,638 ballots cast by the city's 8,926 registered voters (102 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 52.0%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 58.2% of the vote (2,894 ballots cast), ahead of both Democrat Jon Corzine with 34.3% (1,707 votes) and Independent Chris Daggett with 6.1% (306 votes), with 4,976 ballots cast among the city's 9,008 registered voters, yielding a 55.2% turnout. Education The Ocean City School District serves public school students in kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2017–18 school year, the district, comprised of three schools, had an enrollment of 2,147 students and 180.1 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.1:1. Schools in the district (with 2017-18 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Ocean City Primary School (K-3; 348 students), Ocean City Intermediate School (4-8; 527 students) and Ocean City High School (9-12; 1,256 students).New Jersey School Directory for Ocean City School District , New Jersey Department of Education. Accessed December 29, 2016. Students from Corbin City, Longport, Sea Isle City and Upper Township attend Ocean City High School for ninth through twelfth grades as part of sending/receiving relationships with their respective school districts.Rudloff, Mary. "Audit: Ocean City school district owes Upper Township $815,000 - Township, Corbin City overpaid tuition for sending students to OCHS", Ocean City Sentinel, February 16, 2011. Accessed December 6, 2011. "At the Jan. 26 Ocean City Board of Education meeting, school Business Administrator Tom Grossi said the Upper Township and Corbin City school districts would be receiving sizable credits in the coming school budget, $815,324 and $54,669, respectively. Those adjustments come from the cost of educating their high school students in Ocean City. Sea Isle City, which sends its fourth graders through high school students to Ocean City, did not fare as well. The already financially tapped out district owes Ocean City an additional $69,992 for the 2009-10 school year." Students are also eligible to attend Cape May County Technical High School in the Cape May Court House area, which serves students from the entire county in its comprehensive and vocational programs, which are offered without charge to students who are county residents.Technical High School Admissions , Cape May County Technical High School. Accessed October 27, 2019. "All students who are residents of Cape May County may apply to the Technical High School." Special needs students may be referred to Cape May County Special Services School District in the Cape May Court House area. St. Augustine Regional School, a coeducational Catholic school for students in kindergarten through eighth grade, was closed by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Camden in June 2008. Bishop McHugh Regional Catholic School in Dennis Township had students attending from Ocean City. Transportation , the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Cape May County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. Ocean City has bridge connections to the Marmora section of Upper Township by the 34th Street (Roosevelt Boulevard) Bridge, Egg Harbor Township by the Ocean City-Longport Bridge, Somers Point by the 9th Street Bridge (Route 52), and the Strathmere section of Upper Township by the Corson's Inlet Bridge. In 1883, the first drawbridge to the island opened at 34th Street, linking Ocean City with the rest of Cape May County. Financed by the Ocean City Association, the toll road was narrow, frequently under water, and built of shells, gravel, sand, and cedar poles; it was widened in 1909, replaced in 1914, and again replaced in 1964. The newer bridge at 34th street was refurbished in 2018. In 1914, a bridge connecting the island with Somers Point opened across the Great Egg Harbor Bay, which was replaced in 1932 and again in 2012. A road bridge connecting Ocean City and Strathmere opened in 1918, which was replaced in 1946 after being purchased by the county and made a part of Ocean Drive. The Ocean City Automobile Club built a bridge in the northern end of the island in 1928, connecting the island with Egg Harbor Township; the bridge was replaced in 2002. NJ Transit provides bus service from the Ocean City Transportation Center to Atlantic City on the 507 and 509 routes. The agency also provides seasonal service from the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan to Cape May via Ocean City and other coastal towns. The Great American Trolley Company operates trolley service in Ocean City during the summer months, with a route providing daily service on evenings from points between 59th Street and Battersea Road to the boardwalk. Adjacent to the marshes of the Great Egg Harbor Bay is Ocean City Airport, officially known as Clarke Field. The airport was built in 1935 on what was previously a landfill, funded by the Works Progress Administration. The airport is still open to the public, operating at an annual loss of $150,000 for the city as of 2016. Parking in the downtown and beach areas of Ocean City is regulated by on-street parking meters, metered parking lots, manned parking lots, and permit parking lots. Parking meters and fees for parking lots are in effect between early May and early October. In addition to public parking, there are also several private parking lots in Ocean City. In 2009, the Ocean City metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the sixth-highest in the United States for percentage of commuters who walked to work (8.4 percent). Former transportation lines In 1880, one year after Ocean City was established as a Christian resort, regular steamboat service from Somers Point began. In 1883, the Lake Brothers opened a streetcar line. In 1884, the West Jersey and Seashore Railroad extended its rail line from Sea Isle to the Ocean City Tenth Street Station. The line was replaced by buses in 1932. From 1906 to 1981, the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines operated rail service from Tuckahoe to Ocean City; service stopped when the Crook Horn bridge became damaged in 1981, and was eventually removed in 1992. After that time, rail tracks in Ocean City were removed from 9th to 34th streets. From 1907 to 1946, the Atlantic City and Shore Railroad operated a line from Atlantic City to Ocean City, until the bridge across the Great Egg Harbor Bay burned. Culture Julia Lawlor of The New York Times wrote in 2004 that its Christian heritage influenced the city's conservative laws; prior to 1986 shops were not allowed to conduct business on Sundays. In 2004 there were 15 churches. In 2011, the city played the backdrop to an episode of ‘’It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia’’ titled “The Gang Goes to the Jersey Shore”. The city was never name dropped and only serves to portray a generic shore town as the episode features many stereotypes about the Jersey Shore and its culture, most of which negative. At the time of airing the episode caused backlash with many members of the community, citing the episodes raunchy nature in contrast to the family-friendly image Ocean City normally presents. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification system, Ocean City, New Jersey has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot, moderately humid summers, cool winters and year-around precipitation. Cfa climates are characterized by all months having an average mean temperature > 32.0 °F (> 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ 71.6 °F (≥ 22.0 °C) and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. During the summer months in Ocean City, a cooling afternoon sea breeze is present on most days, but episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 95 °F (≥ 35 °C). During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < 0 °F (< -18 °C). The plant hardiness zone at Ocean City Beach is 7b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 6.0 °F (-14.4 °C). The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total is , and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. Former Hurricane Sandy struck north of the city on October 29, 2012, causing severe storm surge flooding and wind gusts. The Bayside Center recorded a high tide of during Sandy, surpassing the previous tidal record set in 1944. The storm caused major to severe damage to 29% of the houses in Ocean City, incurring a financial loss of $15.5 million to the tax base. Ecology According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Ocean City, New Jersey would have a dominant vegetation type of Northern Cordgrass (73) with a dominant vegetation form of Coastal Prairie (20). Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Ocean City include: Marla Adams (born 1938), television actress, best known for her roles on The Secret Storm and The Young and the Restless. David Akers (born 1974), NFL kicker, owns a house on the beach at the south end of the island.Strauss, Robert. "Big-name hunting season at the Shore; Celebrities roam even these simpler environs." , The Philadelphia Inquirer, May 15, 2009. Accessed September 13, 2015. "Eagles kicker David Akers has a house on the south end of the island and, at various times, former boxing champ Mike Tyson, Flyers captain and executive Bobby Clarke, and Eagles running back Brian Westbrook have been reported to own or rent in Ocean City." A. R. Ammons (1926–2001), author and poet, winner of the National Book Award. Keith Andes (1920-2005), film, radio, musical theatre, stage and television actor. Andy Boswell (1873-1936), Major League Baseball pitcher for the Washington Senators and New York Giants, who became an attorney and served in the New Jersey General Assembly. Benjamin Burnley (born 1978), musician, singer, songwriter and record producer, best known as the founder and frontman of the rock band Breaking Benjamin. Maurice Catarcio (1929–2005), former professional wrestler with the World Wrestling Federation and record holder in The Guinness Book of World Records. Pat Croce (born 1954), former owner of the Philadelphia 76ers, owns a summer home in the Gardens section of the city. Walter Diemer (1904–1998), inventor of bubble gum, owned a summer home at 21st Street and Wesley Avenue. Josiah E. DuBois Jr. (1913–1983), Treasury Department official who played a major role in exposing State Department obstruction of efforts to provide American visa to Jews trying to escape Nazi Europe, summered in the home his father built, the DuBois estate, on Battersea Road in the Gardens. Despite efforts to preserve the home, it was demolished in May 2011 to make for subdivision of the property. Stephen Dunn (1939–2021), poet. Frank J. Esposito (born 1941), historian who was named by independent candidate Christopher Daggett as his ticket's candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey in 2009. Preston Foster (born 1900), stage, film, radio, and television actor, whose career spanned four decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s. Stephanie Gaitley (born 1960), head women's basketball coach at Fordham University. Andrew Golota (born 1968), boxer. Anne Heche (born 1969), actress, star of films such as Volcano and Psycho; moved to Ocean City at age 12 Daniel J. Hilferty (born c. 1957), President and CEO of Independence Blue Cross. William J. Hughes (1932-2019), member of U.S. House of Representatives from 1975 to 1995, representing New Jersey's 2nd congressional district. Grace Kelly (1929–1982), Academy Award-winning actress, and Princess of Monaco, was a summer resident of Ocean City at a house located at the intersection of 26th street and Wesley Avenue. Kurt Loder (born 1945), former editor of Rolling Stone'' magazine and anchor for MTV News. Michael Lombardi (born 1959), pro football executive, former General Manager of the Cleveland Browns. Catherine McCabe, former Acting Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency who was chosen by governor Phil Murphy to serve as Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Antwan McClellan, politician who has represented the 1st Legislative District in the New Jersey General Assembly since 2020. Ed Rendell (born 1944), former Governor of Pennsylvania. George Savitsky (1924-2012), offensive tackle who played in the National Football League for the Philadelphia Eagles. Thomas J. Shusted (1926-2004), attorney and politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly on two separate occasions, representing Legislative District 3D from 1970 to 1972 and the 6th Legislative District from 1978 to 1991. James Stewart (1908–1997), actor, spent summers at his family's vacation home during his childhood. Gay Talese (born 1932), author, grew up in the "Italian" section of the city and vacations there with his wife. Walter Trout (born 1951), blues musician. Roland Wiggins (1932–2019), music theorist and educator. Historic places The Flanders Hotel Ocean City 34th Street Station (demolished) Ocean City City Hall Ocean City Life-Saving Station Ocean City Residential Historic District Ocean City Tenth Street Station Locale References External links Ocean City Chamber of Commerce Ocean City Tourism Commission 1884 establishments in New Jersey Barrier islands of New Jersey Cities in Cape May County, New Jersey Faulkner Act (mayor–council) Jersey Shore communities in Cape May County Populated places established in 1884 Seaside resorts in the United States

Floral Park, New York

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Floral Park is an incorporated village in Nassau County, New York, United States, on Long Island. The population as of the US Census of 2010 is 15,863. The Incorporated Village of Floral Park is at the western border of Nassau County, and is located mainly in the Town of Hempstead, while the section north of Jericho Turnpike is within the Town of North Hempstead. The area was formerly known as East Hinsdale. The neighborhood of Floral Park in the New York City borough of Queens is adjacent to the village. History The area that is now Floral Park once marked the western edge of the great Hempstead Plains, and by some reports was initially known as Plainfield. Farms and tiny villages dominated the area through the 1870s when the development of the Long Island Rail Road Hempstead Branch and Jericho Turnpike cut through the area. Hinsdale had more than two dozen flower farms after the Civil War. The present-day village of Floral Park was once called East Hinsdale. In 1874 John Lewis Childs arrived in the area to work for C.L. Allen as a seed seller. After building his own seed and bulb business and starting America's first seed catalog business, Childs bought a great deal of land in the area. To promote his own business and the local horticultural industry, Childs named the local streets after flowers and renamed the area Floral Park. The expansion of the Floral Park Post Office and nearby village businesses are attributed solely to the success of Childs' business. When the local Post Office took the name Floral Park, the Long Island Rail Road followed suit by changing the name of the East Hinsdale station to Floral Park in 1888. Formerly part of Queens, Floral Park became part of the new county of Nassau in 1899, and it was incorporated as a village in 1908. Childs served as its first president starting that year. In 1903 the village boasted more than of Childs' flower beds. The massive volume of his mail order business grew the local post office to such an extent that it drew comparisons with the post offices of Chicago, Baltimore, and Boston. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all land. Floral Park is located at . The western village boundary is the border of New York City. Demographics 2010 census As of the 2010 census, the population was 87% White, 81.6% Non-Hispanic White, 1.3% Black or African American, 0.1% Native American, 6.9% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 2.6% from other races, and 2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.8% of the population. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 15,967 people, 5,770 households, and 4,258 families residing in the village. The population density was 11,635.9 people per square mile (4,499.9/km2). There were 5,892 housing units at an average density of 4,293.8 per square mile (1,660.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 93.56% White, 0.46% African American, 0.06% Native American, 3.88% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.03% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.38% of the population. There were 5,770 households, out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.9% were married couples living together, 9.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.2% were non-families. 23.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.30. In the village, the population was spread out, with 24.5% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.4 males. The median income for a household in the village was $113,719, and the median income for a family was $137,243. Males had a median income of $56,527 versus $38,592 for females. The per capita income for the village was $51,183. None of families or the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over. The average and median sales prices of a home in the village as of 2011, were, respectively, $468,738 and $460,000. Education Two high schools are located in Floral Park: Floral Park Memorial High School and Sewanhaka High School, both of which are part of the Sewanhaka Central High School District (which also includes schools in nearby New Hyde Park, Franklin Square and Elmont.) There are three elementary schools in Floral Park. Two of them, John Lewis Childs School and Floral Park-Bellerose School, are part of the Floral Park-Bellerose School District (the latter school also serves the neighboring village of Bellerose and Bellerose Terrace). Our Lady of Victory Elementary School is operated by, the Roman Catholic, Our Lady of Victory parish. Adjacent Queens neighborhood The Queens neighborhood is adjacent to the Village of Floral Park, and uses the designation "North Floral Park" with a ZIP Code of 11004 and telephone area codes of 718, 347, and 917. North Floral Park also extends into the ZIP Code of 11001. The neighborhood is part of Queens Community Board 13. Floral Park is a middle-class neighborhood that consists mostly of Cape Cod–style houses. Most of the houses were built after World War II to accommodate returning soldiers. Veterans today make up 11 percent of all residents in Floral Park, versus six percent citywide. Union Turnpike is the border between the neighborhoods, with Glen Oaks to the north. The other boundaries of Floral Park are roughly Little Neck Parkway and 252nd Street to the west, Langdale Street to the east, and a diagonal boundary from Hillside at 271th Street to Jericho Turnpike at 257th Street to the south. The neighborhood is in close proximity to the Cross Island Parkway and the Grand Central Parkway. MTA New York City Transit buses serve Floral Park on the local routes and express route. MTA Bus Company operates the express buses, to Midtown Manhattan. The neighborhood is also served by Nassau Inter-County Express bus. The Floral Park station, located in Nassau County proper, is the closest service on the Long Island Rail Road Hempstead Branch which travels to Jamaica station and to Penn Station in Midtown Manhattan. Notable people Benedetto Aloi (1935-2011), consigliere of Colombo crime family, New York City mobster John Lewis Childs (1856-1921), founder Diana Diamond, newspaper editor William Diard, opera singer Steve Falteisek (born 1972), former Major League Baseball pitcher. Falteisek was drafted in the tenth round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft by the Montreal Expos Robert Mapplethorpe (1946-1989), photographer, born and raised on the Queens side. Pete Nice, hip-hop MC (born Peter J. Nash) Pete Richert (born 1939), former Major League Baseball pitcher Max Shachtman (1904-1972), associate of Leon Trotsky John Williams (born 1932), composer References External links Floral Park Fire Department website Floral Park - Bellerose Schools Floral Park Historical Society Sewanhaka High School District Long Island Rail Road Online Museum--Floral Park/East Hinsdale Floral Park Police Department Villages in New York (state) Villages in Nassau County, New York Neighborhoods in Queens, New York Queens, New York

Ronkonkoma, New York

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Ronkonkoma ( ) is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) on Long Island in the Town of Islip, New York, United States. Its population was 19,082 at the 2010 census. The Ronkonkoma post office has the ZIP Code 11779, and serves parts of several hamlets and CDPs adjacent to Ronkonkoma. Since 1988, Ronkonkoma has been the end of electrification along the Long Island Rail Road's Main Line. The track between Hicksville and Ronkonkoma is known as the Ronkonkoma Branch. In 2017, Governor Andrew Cuomo announced the groundbreaking of a new $650 million development to create a Ronkonkoma Hub near the LIRR Line, similar to the hub in the neighboring Brookhaven. Ronkonkoma was the terminus of the first road in the USA designed exclusively for automobiles, the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, constructed by a consortium of investors called the Long Island Motor Parkway, Inc. led by William Kissam Vanderbilt II. Ronkonkoma is also home to Long Island MacArthur Airport (sometimes referred to simply as Islip Airport), airport code ISP, which is owned and operated by the Town of Islip. The New York Air Route Traffic Control Center is located in Ronkonkoma. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which , or 4.07%, is covered by water. The community is adjacent to Lake Ronkonkoma. Neighborhoods Lake Hills is north of the Long Island Expressway and south of Long Island Motor Parkway, roughly bounded by Rosevale Avenue to the east and Terry Road to the west. Lakeland is south of the Long Island Expressway and north of Veterans Memorial Hwy, bounded on the west by Lakeland County Park and Connetquot River State Park and on the east by Ronkonkoma Ave and Lakeland Ave. Demographics of the CDP As of the census of 2020, 18,955 people were residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,436.1/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 72.5% White,13.6% Hispanic or Latino, 3.4% African American, 0.5% Native American, 6.9% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander and 2.8% reported two or more races. Of the 6,004 households, 59.2% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% were male householders and 24.3% were non family households. The average household size was 3.04, and the average family size was 3.52. In the CDP, the age distribution was 20.1% under 18, 10% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 or older. The median age was 37.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $106,434, and for a family was $116,667. Males had a median income of $50,594 versus $35,013 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $39,902. About 4.22% of the population were below the poverty line. Economy Vitamin maker The Bountiful Company is based in Ronkonkoma. Education Prior to 1960, the CDP belonged to the Ronkonkoma School District. After a vote, the district merged with the Oakdale-Bohemia School District in the neighboring communities of Oakdale and Bohemia, New York, to create the Connetquot School District. Three public elementary schools are in Ronkonkoma, with one middle school, and high-school students attend Connetquot High School in Bohemia. Notable people Stefanie DeLeo (born 1982), author, playwright Keith Detelj (born 1985), soccer player Joe Grimaldi (born 1986), ice hockey player Steve Hass (born 1975), musician/music producer Joe Jones (born 1965), basketball coach Moira Kelly (born 1968), actress Lennon Murphy (born 1982), singer-songwriter Joseph Raffaele, religious leader Scott Rudolph, entrepreneur Thorgy Thor (born 1984 as Shane Galligan), drag queen, violinist Alexis Weik, New York state senator Ronkonkoma in popular culture In The Oh, Hello Show John Mulaney's character George St. Geegland wrote a book called "Next Stop Ronkonkoma". The book is the story of 100 people on a train on Long Island. The book is written from 100 different perspectives, and more than 1000 pages long. In the season 7 episode of How I Met Your Mother entitled The Drunk Train, Barney says "I was all, do I look like I'm from Ronkonkoma?" Ronkonkoma is referenced in Law and Order Special Victims Unit, (Season 16xE11: "Agent Provocateur"), character states she lives in Ronkonkoma. Ronkonkoma is referenced in two songs by singer/songwriter Mike Doughty: "Busting Up a Starbucks" and "Like a Luminous Girl." Ronkonkoma was referenced by Artie Lange during the March 3, 2009, taping of the Late Show with David Letterman. The comic recounted a story of sitting in front of a fan at Yankees games who repeatedly cheered on Derek Jeter by shouting, "Do it for Ronkonkoma!" to with Lange replied "No one's doing anything for Ronkonkoma!" Two characters in the movie 200 Cigarettes are visiting New York City from Ronkonkoma. References Brookhaven, New York Islip (town), New York Hamlets in New York (state) Census-designated places in New York (state) Census-designated places in Suffolk County, New York Hamlets in Suffolk County, New York

Morehead City, North Carolina

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Morehead City is a port town in Carteret County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 8,661 at the 2010 census. Morehead City celebrated the 150th anniversary of its founding on May 5, 2007. It forms part of the Crystal Coast. History By the early 1850s, a group of investors had been formed and incorporated a land development project known as the "Shepard Point Land Company," which purchased of land on the eastern tip of the peninsula bordering the Newport River, known then as "Shepards Point," which is the present location of Morehead City. The Shepard Point Land Company's objective was to take advantage of the natural deep channel of Topsail Inlet, known today as the Beaufort Inlet, which splits Bogue Banks from Shackleford Banks and provides access to Morehead City, Beaufort, North Carolina, the Newport River and the Intracoastal Waterway. The Shepard Point Land Company was established to construct a deepwater port to allow another access point for North Carolina timber products to relieve pressure at the port located in Wilmington. To make the port accessible to the interior of North Carolina, the Atlantic and North Carolina Railroad line between Goldsboro and New Bern was completed on April 29, 1858. North Carolina Governor John Motley Morehead, for whom the city of Morehead City is named, was a principal member of the Shepard Point Land Company investment group. Fully operational rail service began in July 1858 connecting the town to points west, north, and south. The town of Morehead City was laid out using a grid plan, whereby city blocks were equally laid out with each block consisting of 16 equally divided lots. The city blocks stretched from 1st Street to 15th Street, incorporating a system of alleys forming an "H" shape that enabled businesses and residential homes to be served from the alleys behind them. Morehead City was officially incorporated by the North Carolina Senate in 1860, at which time the total number of households consisted of only 300 individual families. The town continued to prosper until the Civil War, when in 1862 it was occupied by Federal troops. The war disrupted commerce, and the economy of the port declined along with the town's population. It was not until the 1880s, with the construction of the Atlantic Hotel at the tip of the peninsula and its promotion by the railroad as the "Summer Capital by the Sea," that the area began to experience a resurgence. The popularity of this particular hotel, with its train depot entrance, grand ballroom, piers, sailing, and ferries to the beaches of Bogue Banks, helped to establish Morehead City as a summer destination. It was also during the 1880s and 1890s that fishermen who had lived on the island of Shackleford Banks moved on to the mainland (often transporting their houses by boat from the outer banks), settling in the areas between 10th and 15th streets and calling it the Promised Land. These fishermen became the nucleus of the fishing industry that has remained an important part of the town's economy. The Great Depression and World War II markedly altered the character of the town. The traditional downtown area had deteriorated and, as newer stores opened further west, the decay in the old center of town accelerated. Finally, in the 1980s, a renewal began when the town obtained a Community Development Block Grant to replace an aging infrastructure and improve the appearance of the waterfront area. Subsequent grants, private investment, and town monies have maintained the forward momentum, so that the town now has a new sea wall, underground utilities, brick paved walkways with planters along the waterfront, all in the downtown area, and tree-lined streets, renovated houses, new docks and new businesses. The Morehead City Historic District and Morehead City Municipal Building are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today's community Morehead City's economy is based predominantly on a variety of ecotourism activities, a growing retirement community, and the Port of Morehead City. The local economy is based further on the Port of Morehead City, light industry and manufacturing, land development, light commercial fishing, sport fishing, and other service-oriented businesses. The town is within easy access of New Bern, Havelock and Jacksonville, North Carolina. Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point is northwest of Morehead City in Havelock, and Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune is west of Morehead City near Jacksonville. Morehead City is one of two existing ports in North Carolina which primarily export phosphate. The Port of Morehead City features a dry-bulk facility with a 225,000-ton capacity warehouse and extended open storage facilities. SpaceX fairing recovery vessels Ms. Tree and Ms. Chief utilize the port during launch and fairing recovery operations as a safe harbor in the event of inclement weather at sea or if there is an extended launch delay. Carteret General Hospital in Morehead City is the second largest employer in Carteret County, behind the Carteret County Public Schools. Morehead City is home to an annual "Bald Is Beautiful" convention and is the home of the headquarters of the Bald-Headed Men of America organization. Higher education and marine research Carteret Community College serves the undergraduate community with two-year associate degree programs focused primarily on trades and service sector occupations. There are several world-class postgraduate programs and research organizations in the area, including the University of North Carolina's Institute of Marine Sciences, North Carolina State University's Center for Marine Sciences and Technology, and the Duke University Marine Lab in nearby Beaufort. Morehead City also is home to the Research and Compliance Brunch North Carolina Marine Fisheries Division, a governmental organization. Inshore and offshore recreational fishing Morehead City and the surrounding area is an excellent venue for fishermen of all varieties. There are many opportunities for recreational fishing when in Morehead City because of its pristine estuaries and close proximity to the Continental Shelf and Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream is a powerful, warm and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates at the tip of Florida and follows the coastline of the eastern United States to Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean, bringing large sport fish species such as the Atlantic blue marlin and other billfish close to the North Carolina coastline. Established in 1957, the Big Rock Blue Marlin Tournament draws large crowds of sporting enthusiasts of all types to Morehead City each year to witness some of the largest Atlantic blue marlin catches in North America. Scuba diving In addition to a thriving sport fishing industry, Morehead City and surrounding areas are a popular scuba diving destination. The waters off the coast of North Carolina are often referred to as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic", a legacy that attracts divers from all over the world. Morehead City sits comfortably between a number of famous wrecks, including the German submarine U-352, a wreck discovered in part by the late Morehead resident George Purifoy. Traditional sports Morehead City is home to the Morehead City Marlins of the Coastal Plain League, a collegiate summer baseball league. The Marlins play at O'Neal Field at Big Rock Stadium in Morehead City, and began playing in the 2010 season. Youth sports in Morehead City include Little League Baseball, soccer leagues, and basketball leagues. Geography Morehead City is located southwest of the center of Carteret County at (34.727700, -76.746748). It occupies a peninsula bordered to the south by Bogue Sound and to the north and east by the tidal Newport River. Across the river to the east is the town of Beaufort, while to the south across Bogue Sound is Atlantic Beach. According to the United States Census Bureau, Morehead City has a total area of , of which is land and , or 19.55%, is water. Climate Morehead City has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with long, hot summers and short, cool winters. Note Demographics 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 9,556 people, 4,428 households, and 2,276 families residing in the town. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 7,691 people, 3,597 households, and 1,985 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,507.6 people per square mile (582.3/km). There were 4,296 housing units at an average density of 842.1 per square mile (325.2/km). The racial makeup of the town was 81.71% White, 13.98% Black (U.S. Census), 0.66% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.13% from other races, and 1.72% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.34% of the population. There were 3,597 households, out of which 23.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 13.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.8% were non-families. 39.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.73. In the town the age distribution of the population shows 20.2% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 20.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $28,737, and the median income for a family was $39,290. Males had a median income of $26,852 versus $21,995 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,138. About 12.1% of families and 14.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.7% of those under age 18 and 12.3% of those age 65 or over. Transportation Highways NC 24 (often used to transport U.S. Marines to and from Camp Lejeune) US 70 Future Interstates Interstate 42 Train Amtrak provides a Thruway Bus to Wilson that connects with the daily Palmetto train to New York City and Savannah, Georgia, as well as the daily Carolinian train to New York City and Charlotte. Into the early 1950s, the Atlantic and East Carolina Railway ran a daily passenger train to Goldsboro' s Union Station. The connections at Goldsboro were timed to accommodate a local Southern Railway overnight train (#111/#112, in final years, #11/#112) to parts in central and western North Carolina, comparable to the North Carolina section of the Carolina Special. The North Carolina Department of Transportation as of 2007 was studying the resumption of intercity passenger train service from Raleigh through Goldsboro to Morehead City. Hospital Carteret Health Care Education Elementary schools Morehead City Primary School Morehead City Elementary School at Camp Glenn Middle schools Morehead Middle School High schools West Carteret High School Higher learning Carteret Community College UNC-Chapel Hill Institute of Marine Sciences NCSU Center for Marine Sciences and Technology Private schools St. Egbert's Catholic School Media Newspapers The Carteret County News-Times is the local newspaper, published three times a week, and is owned by Carteret Publishing Company. Television Morehead City is part of the Greenville–New Bern–Jacksonville designated market area, which was the 109th largest in 2007 (according to Nielsen Media Research). Broadcast Television Stations serving the market include: WITN-TV, the (7), Washington (NBC affiliate) WNCT-TV, the (9), Greenville (CBS affiliate) the CW on their digital subchannel WCTI-TV, the (12), New Bern (ABC affiliate, independent "ENC-TV" On Digital) WYDO-TV, the (14), Greenville (Fox affiliate) WUNM-TV, the (19), Jacksonville (PBS affiliate of the PBS North Carolina Network) WPXU-TV, the (35), Jacksonville (i network/My Network affiliate) Radio stations 88.3 FM: WXBE AFR (Christian) 89.3 FM: WTEB Public Radio East (NPR/Classical) 90.7 FM: WOTJ FBN (Sacred Christian) 91.5 FM: WBJD Public Radio East (NPR) 92.3 FM: WQSL 92.7 FM: WBNK 92.7 The Beacon (Contemporary Christian) 94.1 FM: WNBU (Oldies) 95.1 FM: WRNS-FM 95.1 WRNS (Country) 96.3 FM: WRHT (Talk Radio) 97.9 FM: WNBB The Bear (Classic Country) 98.7 FM: WRMR Modern Rock 98.7 (Modern Rock) 99.5 FM: WXNR (Top/40 CHR) 100.3 FM: WLGP GNN (Christian) 101.9 FM: WIKS 101.9 Kiss FM (Urban) 103.3 FM: WMGV V 103.3 Soft Rock (AC) 104.5 FM: WSTK 105.1 FM: WLGV K-LOVE 105.1 (Contemporary Christian) 106.5 FM: WSFL-FM 106.5 WSFL (Classic Rock) 107.1 FM: WTKF The Talk Station 107.1 (News/Talk) 107.9 FM: WNCT-FM 107.9 WNCT (Classic Hits) 1120 AM: WSME (Classic Country/Bluegrass) Notable people References External links Morehead City Attractions and Restaurants Carteret Health Care Cities in North Carolina Populated places established in 1855 Carteret County, North Carolina 1855 establishments in North Carolina Port cities and towns of the United States Atlantic coast

Myrtle Beach, South Carolina

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Myrtle Beach is a coastal city on the East Coast of the United States in Horry County, South Carolina. It is located in the center of a long and continuous stretch of beach known as "The Grand Strand" in northeastern South Carolina. Myrtle Beach is one of the major centers of tourism in South Carolina and the United States. The city's warm subtropical climate, miles of beaches, 86 golf courses, and 1,800 restaurants attract over 20 million visitors each year, making Myrtle Beach one of the most visited destinations in the country. The Myrtle Beach metropolitan area is the second-fastest-growing metropolitan area in the country, and more than 104,000 people moved to the Myrtle Beach-Conway-North Myrtle Beach area over eight years, representing in a 27.7% growth in population according to the U.S. Census Bureau. History Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Long Bay area was inhabited by the historic Waccamaw tribe. The Waccamaw used the river for travel and fished along the shore around Little River. Waties Island, the primary barrier island along Long Bay, has evidence of burial and shell mounds, remains of the visiting Waccamaw. The first European settlers along Long Bay arrived in the late 18th century, attempting to extend the plantation system outward toward the ocean. Records are sparse from this period, with most of the recorded history pieced together from English colonial land grant documents. These settlers gained mixed results, producing unremarkable quantities of indigo and tobacco, the two major commodity crops. The coast's soil was sandy and most of the crop yields were of inferior quality. Prior to the American Revolution, the area along the future Grand Strand was essentially uninhabited. Several families received land grants along the coast, including the Witherses: John, Richard, William, and Mary. This family received an area around present-day Wither's Swash, also known as Myrtle Swash or the Eight-Mile Swash. A separate grant was granted to James Minor, including a barrier island named Minor Island, now Waties Island, off the coast near Little River. Mary Withers's gravestone at Prince George Winyah Episcopal Church speaks to the remoteness of the former Strand: "She gave up the pleasures of Society and retired to Long Bay, where she resided a great part of her life devoted to the welfare of her children." As the American colonies gained independence, the area remained essentially unchanged, and the coast remained barren. George Washington scouted out the Southern states during his term, traveling down the King's Highway. He stayed a night at Windy Hill (part of present-day North Myrtle Beach) and was led across Wither's Swash to Georgetown by Jeremiah Vereen. The Withers family remained one of the few settlers around Myrtle Beach for the next half-century. In 1822, a strong hurricane swept the house of R. F. Withers into the ocean, drowning 18 people inside. The tragedy made the Withers family decide to abandon their plots along the coast. Left unattended, the area began to return to forest. The Burroughs and Collins Company of Conway, predecessor of modern-day Burroughs & Chapin, purchased much of the Withers family's land in 1881. The growing community was called "New Town" around the start of the 20th century. A post office named "Withers" was established to serve the site of the old Swash in 1888. On 28 February 1899, Burroughs and Collins received a charter to build the Conway & Seashore Railroad to transport timber from the coast to inland customers. The railroad began daily service on 1 May 1900, with two wood-burning locomotives. One of the engines was dubbed The Black Maria and came second-hand from a North Carolina logging operation. After the railroad was finished, employees of the lumber and railroad company would take train flatcars down to the beach area on their free weekends, becoming the first Grand Strand tourists. The railroad terminus was nicknamed "New Town", contrasting it with the "Old Town", or Conway. Around the start of the 20th century, Franklin Burroughs envisioned turning New Town into a tourist destination rivaling the Florida and northeastern beaches. Burroughs died in 1897, but his sons completed the railroad's expansion to the beach and opened the Seaside Inn in 1901. Around 1900, a contest was held to name the area, and Burroughs's wife suggested honoring the locally abundant shrub, the southern wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). The Withers post office changed its name to "Myrtle Beach" soon afterward. It incorporated as a town in 1938 and as a city in 1957. In 1937, Myrtle Beach Municipal Airport was built. It was taken over by the United States Army Air Corps in 1940 and converted into a military base. Commercial flights began in 1976 and shared the runway for over 15 years until the air base closed in 1993. Since then the airport has been named Myrtle Beach International Airport. In 2010 plans to build a new terminal were approved. In 1940, Kings Highway was finally paved, giving Myrtle Beach its first primary highway. The Myrtle Heights-Oak Park Historic District, Myrtle Beach Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Station, Ocean Forest Country Club, Pleasant Inn, and Rainbow Court are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Also listed were the Chesterfield Inn and the Myrtle Beach Pavilion, both now demolished. The Gay Dolphin Gift Cove on the Boardwalk was built in 1946 and sells seashells and Myrtle Beach souvenirs. It claims to be the "nation's largest gift shop". Geography Myrtle Beach has been separated from the continental United States since 1936 by the Intracoastal Waterway, forcing the city and area in general to develop within a small distance from the coast. In part due to this separation, the area directly northwest of Myrtle Beach, across the waterway, remained primarily rural for a while, whereas its northeastern and southwestern ends were bordered by other developed tourist towns, North Myrtle Beach and Surfside Beach. Since then, the inland portion of the Myrtle Beach area has developed dramatically. Myrtle Beach is by highway southeast of Florence, South Carolina, northeast of Charleston, South Carolina, and southwest of Wilmington, North Carolina. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which are land and , or 1.03%, are water. Neighborhoods Arcadian Shores Benton Park Booker T. Washington Carrie May Johnson Carver Chestnut Hill Dogwood Dunes Cove East Chester Fantasy Harbour Forest Acres Forest Dunes Futrell Park Grande Dunes Green Bay Park Harlem Highlands Hurl Rocks Konig Market Common Myrtlewood Myrtle Heights Northwood Ocean Forest Ocean View Old Pine Lakes Owens Pebble Beach Pine Lake Estates Pine Lakes Plantation Point Racepath Ramsey Acres Seagate Village Springmaid Beach The Dunes Washington Park Withers Preserve Withers Swash Yaupon Circle Climate According to the Köppen climate classification, Myrtle Beach has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa – typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The city enjoys abundant sunshine year-round with more than 2800 hours annually. The summer season is long, hot, and humid in Myrtle Beach. Average daytime highs are from and average night-time lows are near . The coastal location of Myrtle Beach mitigates daytime summer heat somewhat compared to inland areas of South Carolina: Thus, while nearby Florence averages 65 days annually with high temperatures of or higher – Myrtle Beach averages only 21. The Bermuda High pumps in humidity from the tropical Atlantic toward Myrtle Beach, giving summers a near-tropical feel in the city. The warm Atlantic Ocean reaches or higher in the summer months off Myrtle Beach, making for warm and sultry summer nights. Summer thunderstorms are common in the hot season in Myrtle Beach, and the summer months from June through September have the most precipitation. In summer, thunderstorms normally build during the heat of the day – followed by brief and intense downpours. On average, September is the wettest month, with August close behind, due to the combination of thunderstorms and tropical weather systems that peaks these months. Myrtle Beach has mostly mild winters of short duration: Average daytime highs range from and nighttime lows are in the from December through February. Winter temperatures vary more than summer temperatures in Myrtle Beach: Some winters can see several cold days with highs only in the upper 40s F (7–9 °C), while other winter days can see highs in the upper 60s and low 70s F (19–23 °C). Myrtle Beach averages 33 days annually with frost, though in some years less than 15 days will see frost. Snowfall is very rare in Myrtle Beach; however, at least a trace of snow falls a few times each decade. In February 2010, a rare of snow fell in Myrtle Beach. The spring (March, April and May) and fall (September, October and November) months are normally mild and sunny in Myrtle Beach, with high temperatures in the 60s and 70s. The beach season in Myrtle Beach normally runs from late April through late October. SST (Sea Surface Temperatures) are often in the lower 80's (26–28 °C) off South Carolina in summer and early fall. Summer thunderstorms are typically brief, but severe thunderstorms do occur on occasion. Tornadoes are rare, with the most significant event occurring in 2001 when multiple tornadoes touched down in the area. Tropical cyclones occasionally impact Myrtle Beach, though weaker tropical storms and weak tropical lows are more common. Like most areas prone to tropical cyclones, a direct hit by a major hurricane is infrequent in Myrtle Beach. The last hurricane to cause significant damage in Myrtle Beach was Hurricane Hugo in 1989. The worst hurricane in Myrtle Beach's history was Hurricane Hazel in 1954. Demographics Myrtle Beach is the largest principal city of the Myrtle Beach-Conway-Georgetown CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Myrtle Beach-Conway-North Myrtle Beach metropolitan area (Horry County) and the Georgetown micropolitan area (Georgetown County), which had a combined population of 329,449 at the 2010 census. 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, there were 35,682 people, 13,817 households, and 7,678 families residing in the city. 2010 census As of the 2010 census, the population of Myrtle Beach was 27,109. According to the 2000 census there were 22,759 permanent residents in Myrtle Beach, 10,413 households, 5,414 families, 1,356.5 people per square mile (523.7/km2), with 14,658 housing units at an average density of 873.5 per square mile (337.3/km2). Ethnicities The city's racial makeup was: 72.3% White 13.9% Black 0.7% Native American 1.5% Asian 0.3% Pacific Islander 8.7% from other races 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.7% of the population. Age Of the total Myrtle Beach population: 18.0% were 1–17 11.0% were between 18 and 24 33.6% were between 25 and 44 22.5% were between 45 and 64 15.0% were 65 or older Median age was 37 years 103 males per 100 females overall 101 males per 100 females age 18 and over Income Overall median income for a household in the city was $50,173 Median income for a family was $43,900 Males had a median income of $26,039 Females had a median income of $22,473 The per capita income for the city was $23,214. About 7.6% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.1% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over. Crime rate Crime rate levels in Myrtle Beach are high compared to the rest of South Carolina. The FBI reported 583 cases of violent crime in the year 2016, of which 5 were murder, 46 were rape and 139 were robbery. Aggravated assault 348, property crime 4395, burglary 469, larceny theft 3555, motor vehicle theft 371, and arson 10 were also reported. The average number of crimes per thousand population is 0.16 murders, 1.43 rapes, 4.31 robberies and 10.83 assaults. The FBI reported 483 violent crimes in 2000, of which 1 was murder and 39 were rapes. Economy Myrtle Beach's economy is dominated by the tourist industry; hotels, motels, resorts, restaurants, attractions, and retail developments exist in abundance to serve visitors. Tourism Hosting over 20 million visitors annually, the Grand Strand is home to an array of tourist attractions, and the area receives a large influx of visitors during all seasons. Nearly 100,000 visitors a year are estimated to come from overseas, with tourists from Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom. Myrtle Beach hosts a variety of special conventions, events, and musical concerts. The area's attractions include its beaches and courses, amusement parks, an aquarium, Legends in Concert, retail developments, shopping complexes and over 1,900 restaurants including seafood restaurants. The area also has dinner theaters, nightclubs, and many tourist shops. Myrtle Beach has approximately 425 hotels, with many on the beachfront, and approximately 157 accommodation units in total. The area is also home to over 80 golf courses and over 30 miniature golf courses. Live shows are offered year round at theaters including the Alabama Theatre, Carolina Opry, Asher Theater, Calvin Gilmore Theater, Legends in Concert, and Medieval Times Family Dinner Theater. Several shows offer special holiday themed shows. The Myrtle Beach Boardwalk opened in 2010 and has been recognized as the nation's #3 boardwalk by National Geographic and one of the best US boardwalks by Travel + Leisure magazine. The Myrtle Beach Skywheel opened at the boardwalk in May 2011, and is a observation wheel, similar to a ferris wheel, with glass gondolas that look over the Atlantic Ocean. This is the first wheel of its kind in the U.S. Myrtle Beach State Park, established in 1935, has just under a mile of Grand Strand beach and is a prime location for camping, swimming, hiking, biking, and fishing. Pier 14 by the Boardwalk. The Myrtle Beach Convention Center is a large facility that hosts a variety of meetings, conferences, exhibits, and special events every year. The expansive center, which opened in 2003, has a Sheraton hotel and resort. Annual Events Each March since 1951 during Ontario's spring break, Myrtle Beach has hosted Canadian-American Days, also known as Can-Am Days. Tens of thousands of tourists flock to the area for a week's worth of special events. Myrtle Beach is also home to Coastal Uncorked, a food and wine festival held in the late spring annually. The city hosts Sun Fun Festival early each June. Later in June, Myrtle Beach is a popular destination for recently graduated high school seniors for Senior Week. Carolina Country Music Fest (CCMF) is an outdoor country music festival that takes place in June of each year and was founded in 2015 by Charlotte based company Full House Productions. Due to concerns surrounding the coronavirus pandemic the festival wasn't held in 2020, but is scheduled to return in 2021 and take place on 10–13 June 2021. Priceline.com ranked Myrtle Beach among its top 20 destinations for its Fourth of July celebrations in 2010. Myrtle Beach International Airport serves the city and surrounding area. With regular flights to and from destinations such as Atlanta, Boston, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale, New York and Washington, the airport is well connected for both domestic and international tourists. It also serves as a seasonal gateway to and from the likes of Chicago, Dallas and Toronto. The city is between Wilmington, North Carolina and Charleston, South Carolina with U.S. Route 17 serving as the main transport link for those journeying between those cities. Thong bikini ban Thongs (or any swimwear revealing any portion of the buttocks) are not permitted in public in Myrtle Beach, including all beaches. Violators of the ban may be arrested, jailed, or fined. The city's "thong ordinance" has been in effect since the 1990s. Motorcycle rallies Myrtle Beach Bike Week, also called "Harley Bike Week", is a week-long motorcycle rally first held in 1940, the same year Kings Highway was paved. The event has attracted as many as 200,000 visitors to the city every May. Black Bike Week, founded in 1980, takes place the weekend around Memorial Day Weekend and is the largest African American motorcycle rally in the US and attracts as many as 400,000 visitors. The event was created in response to a history of discrimination against African-American visitors and riders to Myrtle Beach and the Grand Strand Area. The Myrtle Beach government created 15 new laws aimed at preventing all sanctioned motorcycle events within the city in response to controversy including accusations of racism by African-American riders during their event and complaints of lawlessness and poor behavior during all highly attended events. Several lawsuits by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) against Myrtle Beach businesses were settled with agreements that discrimination cease, compensation be given to some plaintiffs, and employees be given diversity training. The NAACP suit against the City of Myrtle Beach was settled in 2006 without the city paying damages, but with the agreement police would use the same traffic control rules during both the black and the white motorcycle rallies. The South Carolina Supreme Court in June 2010 unanimously overturned one of the 15 ordinances, which had required all motorcyclists to wear helmets, on the grounds that the state law, requiring helmets only for riders under age 21, cannot be preempted by a city ordinance. In addition, the Court ruled that the ordinance created undue confusion, and that the city itself had invalidated their own helmet law and some other ordinances in a subsequent amendment. The law had been challenged by a group of motorcyclists and a group of Myrtle Beach businesses called BOOST, Business Owners Organized to Support Tourism, who opposed the city's anti-motorcycle tourism policy. Shopping Myrtle Beach's many stores and malls make it one of the largest shopping areas in the Southeastern United States and the largest shopping destination in South Carolina. Coastal Grand Mall opened in 2004 and is one of the largest indoor malls in the state. The mall, which has indoor and outdoor shopping areas, has a gross leasable area of . The single-story facility has five anchor stores (including Sears, Belk, JCPenney, and Dillard's), a 14-screen movie theater, a food court, and roughly 170 stores in total. Myrtle Beach Mall is , and has three anchor stores, Bass Pro Shops, Belk and JCPenney. The single-story mall also has a 12-screen movie theater, a food court, and other specialty stores. It used to be known as Colonial Mall, and was built as Briarcliffe Mall. Tanger Outlets is a shopping outlet center. There are two locations, one near Briarcliffe Acres and one near Carolina Forest. Broadway at the Beach is a shopping complex set on along the U.S. 17 Bypass surrounding the Lake Broadway. It is the largest festival entertainment complex in South Carolina. Barefoot Landing is an outdoor shopping complex that consists of several divided sections on filled land over top of Louis Lake, next to the Intracoastal Waterway. It contains many stores and attractions such as House of Blues (opened in 1997) and the Alabama Theatre. Opened in 1988. The Market Common is a lifestyle district housing several upscale retail and apartments. It is on the site of the former Myrtle Beach Air Force Base. Sports Golf The area is home to numerous golf courses and mini-golf courses along the Grand Strand and further inland. Myrtle Beach has been called the "Golf Capital of the World" because of the roughly 100 golf courses there, the record 4.2 million rounds played, and many miniature golf courses. 3.2 million total rounds of golf were played in 2017, down a "few hundred rounds" from a decade earlier. The number of golf courses more than doubled to over 120 over a 20-year period before declining late in the first decade of the 21st century. Tiger Woods declared Myrtle Beach "the mecca of golf" when visiting in 1997. The majority of the area's golf courses are public. The Grand Strand is home of "Hootie and the Blowfish Day After the Masters Tournament". Extensive Chinese investment to the Myrtle Beach area golf market has resulted in a significant surge of Chinese tourists to the area and also resulted in 25+ golf courses being owned and/or operated by Chinese nationals. Some of the notable golf courses and/or resorts include Barefoot Resort & Golf and TPC of Myrtle Beach. Long-distance running events From 1998 to 2009 and again starting in 2011 (no Saturday races were held in 2010 due to snow), the area hosted the Bi-Lo Myrtle Beach Marathon presented by Chick-Fil-A, every February featuring (since 2004) the Friday night Royal Bank of Canada 5K and the Saturday Dasani Half Marathon and Bi-Lo Marathon (from 1998 until 2008, a relay was held but dropped because of the popularity of the other events). Marathon day draws the limit of 6,000 runners annually (2,500 full, 3,500 half) and results usually in an unusual dawn as the race starts before dawn (6:30 am) in order to finish by 2:30 pm. Athletic teams and facilities Myrtle Beach is home to the Myrtle Beach Pelicans, a Low-A East baseball team and a Chicago Cubs farm franchise. It was also home to the Myrtle Beach Mutiny, a pro soccer team playing in the Premier Development League until 2018. TicketReturn.com Field at Pelicans Ballpark is the home field of the Myrtle Beach Pelicans and is just off Highway 17 in Myrtle Beach. It opened in 1999 and seats 6,500 people. It is the finish point of the Bi-Lo Myrtle Beach Marathon. TicketReturn.com Field is also home of the annual "Baseball at the Beach" collegiate baseball tournament. Hosted by Coastal Carolina University each year, the tournament pits participating NCAA Division I baseball programs in the United States. NASCAR NASCAR-sanctioned Stock car racing was held at Myrtle Beach Speedway, a , semi-banked, asphalt-paved oval track lon US 501. Drivers in the Late Model classes will compete (against those of Greenville-Pickens Speedway) for the South Carolina Championship in the NASCAR Whelen All-American Series. South Carolina Champions' scores will be calculated against other state and provincial champions for a continental championship. It hosted the 2010 UOA Nationals where 8 collegiate ultimate teams from 5 conferences will be represented. Government The city of Myrtle Beach has a council-manager government. The Mayor sits as a Council member-at-large and presides over City council meetings. If the Mayor cannot preside over a City Council meeting, the Mayor Pro-Tem is the presiding officer of the meeting until such time as the Mayor returns to the seat. The City Manager is responsible for the administration and the day-to-day operation of all of the municipal services and city departments. The City Manager also maintains intergovernmental relationships with federal, state, county and other local governments. The city of Myrtle Beach reformed into a council-manager government system in 1974 under the administration of Mayor Bob Hirsch and city manager David Stradinger, who moved away from the city's former strong-mayor form of government. Mayors Brenda Bethune is the mayor of Myrtle Beach. She has served since 2018. Education Primary and secondary education Public schools Myrtle Beach is served by a single public school district. Horry County Schools educates around 40,000 students and is the third largest school district in South Carolina. Private schools and charter schools Below is a list of private schools and charter schools within or near the city of Myrtle Beach. St. Andrew's Catholic School St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Catholic High School Christian Academy of Myrtle Beach Carolina Bays Academy Chabad Academy Calvary Christian School Bridgewater Academy Cathedral Hall High School Christian Academy Life Christian Academy & Child Socastee Montessori School Palmetto Academy of Learning and Success Higher education The largest university in the Myrtle Beach area is Coastal Carolina University, a state-supported, liberal arts university eight miles northwest of Myrtle Beach in neighboring Conway, with a satellite campus in Myrtle Beach. The university is a national sea-grant institution and owns part of Waties Island, a 1,105-acre (4.47 km2) barrier island which serves as a natural laboratory. The Coastal Carolina Chanticleers compete in NCAA Division I as a member of the Sun Belt Conference. The football team competes in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision or FBS. The football team plays at Brooks Stadium, which is notable for its teal artificial turf. The Myrtle Beach metro area has the following college and post-secondary schools: Golf Academy of America Palmetto School of Career Development – Myrtle Beach Campus Horry-Georgetown Technical College - Myrtle Beach Campus (main campus in Conway) Miller-Motte Technical College Webster University – Myrtle Beach Campus Media Television The Grand Strand and Florence, South Carolina, share a common defined market by Nielsen Media Research in Horry, Marion, Dillon, Darlington, Marlboro, Scotland, Robeson, and Florence counties. Two major stations are licensed to Myrtle Beach: NBC affiliate WMBF-TV 32 and Fox affiliate WFXB 43. Myrtle Beach is also served by PBS member stations WHMC/WJPM-TV 23/33, licensed respectively to Conway and Florence, and three commercial stations licensed to Florence: CBS affiliate WBTW 13 (with MyNetworkTV on DT2), ABC affiliate WPDE-TV 15, and CW affiliate WWMB 21. Radio Newspapers The Sun News has traditionally been the largest daily paper published along the Grand Strand, with a readership base extending from Georgetown, South Carolina, to Sunset Beach, North Carolina. The paper has been in existence since the 1930s and was formerly published by Knight Ridder before that company was bought by The McClatchy Company. Like many newspapers, the paper has declined in recent years due to shifts in readership and financial pressures at its parent company. It stopped local printing operations and downsized its newsroom in May 2020. Myrtle Beach is also served by The Myrtle Beach Herald, a weekly newspaper that is part of the Waccamaw Publishers group. It is locally owned by Steve and Cheryl Robertson. The Herald also produces a newspaper targeted at tourists called Visit!. In 2020, Charleston-based The Post and Courier set up an official bureau in Myrtle Beach, after years of attempting to move into the market and purchasing The Georgetown Times, which it merged with the new operation. Infrastructure Healthcare Grand Strand Medical Center (GSMC) is a 369-bed acute care hospital and Level 1 Adult Trauma Center known for its programs in cardiology, heart surgery, and stroke treatment. It was opened on 21 April 1978 to succeed the former Ocean View Memorial Hospital (1958-1978), the first major hospital in Myrtle Beach. GSMC contains the only cardiac surgery and neurosurgery programs in the greater Myrtle Beach area and was a recipient of the Healthgrades 100 Best Hospitals for Cardiac Surgery in 2012 and 2013. As a teaching hospital, Grand Strand Medical Center is the home of ACGME accredited residency training programs (internal medicine, general surgery, emergency medicine, and family medicine), and hosts rotating medical students from the University of South Carolina and Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine (VCOM). Over 270 physicians and 1,400 staff serve at the facility. Transportation Air The Myrtle Beach International Airport (IATA: MYR/FAA LID: MYR), is a county-owned public-use airport three nautical miles (5.6 km) southwest of the central business district of Myrtle Beach, in Horry County, South Carolina, United States. (MYR) It was formerly known as Myrtle Beach Jetport (1974–1989) and is on site of the former Myrtle Beach Air Force Base. The General Aviation Terminal www.beachaviationservices.com (ICAO: KMYR/FAA LID:MYR), is a part of the Myrtle Beach International Airport however, the terminal is on the opposite side of the airfield from the commercial terminal side of the airport on Airdrome Street accessed by Phyllis Boulevard inside The Market Common. This new 11,500 square foot terminal was opened on 21 May 2010, built to modernize operations and accommodate the growing needs of the terminal. The new terminal replaces a building that was previously used as Base Operations when the Myrtle Beach Air Force Base was active. Executive Helicopters is within the Myrtle Beach International Airport as well. It is on the eastern side of the airport with access from Kings Highway. Executive Helicopters is a private helicopter facility that provides tour services in the Myrtle Beach and surrounding areas. They also provide the majority of maintenance for General Aviation. In addition; Myrtle Air Service a division of Kingman Aircraft Kingman, AZ operate a maintenance facility on site providing maintenance for mid-sized jets. Military operations are also ongoing supporting USMC, USN, USAF, US Army and Coast Guard. Rail The Waccamaw Coast Line Railroad is a short-line railroad division of the Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad, extending from a connection with the Carolina Southern Railroad, another division of that company, at Conway to Myrtle Beach. The line was opened in 1900 by the Conway Coast and Western Railroad, a predecessor of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. The Seaboard System Railroad sold the line to Horry County in November 1985, and it was operated by the Horry County Railway until October 1987, when the WCLR took over. The Carolina Southern Railroad acquired the WCLR in September 1995, and since then it has been a division of the Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad. Horry County owns the line but leased it to the Carolina Southern Railroad in 2000. Carolina Southern Railroad is a short line rail operator running on less than of rail at a maximum speed of . It transports mostly freight brought to it from national rail operators. The company makes one scheduled delivery per month into the City of Myrtle Beach. It is off of Main Street in Conway, South Carolina, and is one of the few remaining train depots in South Carolina. It has been painstakingly restored to its former glory and the Carolina Southern Railroad has become one of the frequent destinations for freight services as well as passenger cars and observational locomotives. The railroad was originally erected in late 1886 and the first train steamed into the Conway Depot in December 1887. The Carolina Southern Railroad stands as a permanent landmark in Southern History. Carolina Southern Railroad is a member of the Carolina Rails system with connections that run from Whiteville, North Carolina, to Mullins, South Carolina, and also from Chadbourn, North Carolina, to Conway. Carolina Southern railroad is also responsible for operation of the Waccamaw Coast Line Railroad, which is a railway that runs from Conway to Myrtle Beach. On August 30, 2011, Carolina Southern Railroad voluntary shut down because several bridges along the rail were overdue for maintenance. The shutdown caused Carolina Southern Railroad to lay off nearly all of its employees. On May 24, 2012, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) commenced a bridge inspection on the CSR and the Waccamaw Coastline Railroad (the Horry County portion of rail). Fifty-two of 187 bridges were inspected and seven had critical defects. On May 26, 2011, the CSR voluntarily ceased operation, so that they could bring in a certified bridge engineer to inspect the seven critical bridges and prepare a plan for their repairs. Based on the engineer's recommendations, CSR made the necessary repairs on the bridges and CSR resumed operations August 8, 2011. The FRA returned to inspect the bridges and made a recommendation that CSR cease operations until all bridge repairs were completed. There are efforts to bring the railroad back online. In 2015, railroad operator RJ Corman acquired the former CSR line and re-opened it freight service in early April 2016. Until 1955 the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad ran passenger rail service from the Myrtle Beach Station to Chadbourn, where a connection could be made to interstate ACL train service. Roads Farrow Parkway Ocean Boulevard Harrelson Boulevard Grissom Parkway Interstate 73 (future) Interstate 74 (future) Within the last decade, new roads have been created to ease congestion caused by the yearly influx of visitors. Most of these roads follow the Metro Loop Road Plan, organized in 1997 to improve the traffic flow of Myrtle Beach. Some of the roads included have either been funded through Road Improvement Development Effort (RIDE I) funding or through the City of Myrtle Beach. RIDE II plans include the third phase of S.C. Highway 31, a graded separation of Farrow Parkway and US 17 Bypass at the back gate of the former Air Force base, and many other projects. The county is debating where to allocate the $400 million generated through a proposed 1-cent sales tax. Other road projects in Horry County, including some in Aynor and Conway, will be included when voted upon. Plans exist for Myrtle Beach to be served by two interstates, Interstate 73 and Interstate 74. The Robert Edge Parkway will connect I-74 to downtown North Myrtle Beach. Mass transit Myrtle Beach is served by the Coast RTA and the Pee Dee Regional Transportation Authority. Notable people Sigmund Abeles – American figurative artist Steve Bailey – bassist Robert H. Brooks – founder of Naturally Fresh, Inc. and Hooters of America chains Dusty Button – ballet dancer Shane Carruth – filmmaker Brandon Frye – former NFL player, drafted by the Houston Texans Everett Golson – Active CFL quarterback and starting quarterback for Notre Dame team that played in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game Anthony James – Character actor in films and television Dustin Johnson – PGA Tour player (attended Coastal Carolina University) Ewa Laurance – professional billiards player Clint Newton – rugby league player for the Penrith Panthers Nancy O'Dell – Television Personality Hunter Renfrow – NFL wide receiver and return specialist for the Las Vegas Raiders Brian Rutenberg – American painter Ramon Sessions – NBA player for the Washington Wizards Kelly Wearstler – interior designer; judge on Bravo's Top Design Sister cities Burlington, Ontario, Canada Keighley, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom Pinamar, Argentina Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland Tiberias, Israel References External links Cities in South Carolina Myrtle Beach metropolitan area Seaside resorts in the United States Populated coastal places in South Carolina Cities in Horry County, South Carolina Beaches of South Carolina

Denison, Texas

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Denison is a city in Grayson County, Texas, United States. It is north of Dallas. The population was 22,682 at the 2010 census. Denison is part of the Texoma region and is one of two principal cities in the Sherman–Denison Metropolitan Statistical Area. Denison is known as the birthplace of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States. History Denison was founded in 1872 in conjunction with the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad (MKT) or "Katy" depot. It was named after the wealthy Katy vice president George Denison. Because the town was established close to where the MKT crossed the Red River (both important conduits of transportation in the industrial era), it came to be an important commercial center in the 19th century American West. In 1875, Doc Holliday had offices in Denison. During the phylloxera epidemic of the mid-19th century, which destroyed the vast majority of wine grapes in Europe, Denison horticulturalist T.V. Munson pioneered methods in creating phylloxera-resistant vines, and earned induction into the French Legion of Honor, as well as sister city status for Denison and Cognac, France. In 1901 the first electric "Interurban" railway in Texas, the Denison and Sherman Railway, was completed between Denison and Sherman. In 1915, the Kentucky-based evangelist Mordecai Ham held a revival meeting in Denison, which resulted in 1,100 professions of faith in Jesus Christ. Denison played host to 20th century notables such as the Marx Brothers and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born on October 14, 1890, in Denison. Geography Denison is located in northeastern Grayson County, with the city limits extending north to the Red River, which forms the Oklahoma state line. It is bordered to the south by the city of Sherman; the city centers are apart. According to the United States Census Bureau, Denison has a total area of , of which are land and , or 1.94%, are water. Denison Dam, which forms Lake Texoma on the Red River, is north of Denison. The city is in the center of the Texoma region, encompassing parts of Texas and Oklahoma. Climate Denison has a humid subtropical climate. Demographics At the census of 2000, there were 22,773 people, 9,185 households, and 6,135 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,008.1 people per square mile (389.2/km). There were 10,309 housing units at an average density of 456.3 per square mile (176.2/km). The racial makeup of the city was 84.02% White, 8.62% African American, 1.67% Native American, 0.46% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 2.19% from other races, and 2.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.23% of the population. There were 9,185 households, out of which 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.2% were non-families. 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.97. In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.6% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,474, and the median income for a family was $39,820. Males had a median income of $30,459 versus $21,451 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,685. About 11.9% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.8% of those under age 18 and 11.8% of those age 65 or over. Education Denison is served by the Denison Independent School District. At the start of the 2014 school year, a new Denison High School building was completed and ready for use. It is home to Grayson College, which preserves Denison's viticultural heritage with its T.V. Munson Viticulture & Enology Program. High school football Munson Stadium seats 5,262 people and is primarily used for football. It is the home field of Denison High School's football and soccer teams. The Denison High School football team won the 1984 Texas Class 4A State Championship by beating Tomball 27-13 completing a perfect 16–0 record. They also made three straight appearances in the 1995, 1996, and 1997 Class 4A Division II State Championship games, losing each time to La Marque. They are home to the longest high school football rivalry in Texas: the Battle of the Ax, against Sherman High School. Media Magazine Texoma Living! Magazine Newspaper The Herald Democrat Radio stations KMAD Mad Rock 102.5 KMKT Katy Country 93.1 KDOC HOT 107.3 FM Television stations KTEN – Channel 10 (NBC) KTEN – DT Channel 10.2 (The Texoma CW) KTEN – Channel 10.3 (ABC Texoma) KXII – Channel 12 (CBS) KXII – DT Channel 12.2 (My Texoma) KXII – DT Channel 12.3 (Fox Texoma) Transportation Denison is served by two U.S. Highways—U.S. 69 and U.S. 75 (Katy Memorial Expressway) and two State Highways—State Highway 91 and Spur 503 (Eisenhower Parkway). State Highway 91, known as Texoma Parkway, is one of the main commercial strips that connects Sherman and Denison. It also extends north to Lake Texoma. General aviation service is provided by North Texas Regional Airport. Denison is served by one 24-hour taxicab service provided locally by yellow cab. Denison is a member city of the regional public transportation system called TAPS, which offers on-demand service, fixed routes to Choctaw and Sherman, and services to Dallas/Fort Worth and Dallas Love Field airports. As of December 2015 TAPS had ceased most operations due to financial problems. Limited service is available for the handicapped. Travel destination . In 2013 Lake Texoma and the Hampton Inn and Suites Denison were featured on a travel show entitled The Official Best of Texas which aired on CBS and the Discovery Channel. Denison is home to the Grayson County Frontier Village. Frontier Village houses 11 of the oldest homes in Grayson County that were moved here for preservation. There are also 6 replicas on site. These buildings were used to form an 1800s village. Tours are available and there is a museum and genealogy research room for public use. Major employers Major employers in Denison include: Denison Independent School District Ruiz Foods Texoma Medical Center Cigna Caterpillar Wal-Mart Stores Spectrum Brands Anthem ACS Manufacturing Denison Industries City of Denison Grayson College Dialogue Direct Contact Centers National Government Services Champion Cooler Corporation SignWarehouse.com Medical services Denison is served by Texoma Medical Center. Notable people President Dwight D. Eisenhower was born in Denison in 1890, and to date is the city's most notable resident. His birthplace was purchased by the city in 1946 (six years before he was elected President) and is now maintained as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site. In addition, Eisenhower State Park on Lake Texoma is named in his honor. Other notable people who were either born in or have lived in Denison include: Bill Anoatubby, governor of the Chickasaw Nation Clora Bryant, jazz trumpeter Joie Chitwood (1912–1988), race car driver and businessman Booker Ervin, jazz musician who played tenor saxophone Michael Haynes, NFL Hall of Fame player Jim Hightower, former commissioner of Texas Department of Agriculture and a liberal commentator and author, born in Denison in 1943 John Hillerman, the actor who played Higgins on Tom Selleck's Magnum, P.I. John Henry "Doc" Holliday, gunfighter, gambler and western legend, maintained a dental practice in Denison Aaron Hunt and Reggie Hunt, brothers and professional football players in Canadian Football League Thomas Volney Munson, horticulturalist Clifford Noe, international conman and swindler Beatrice Pearson, actress SoMo, singer Chesley Burnett "Sully" Sullenberger, airline pilot Jordan Taylor, NFL wide receiver, Super Bowl 50 champion with the Denver Broncos. Zeb Terry, Major League Baseball infielder Viola Van Katwijk, composer and pianist Fred Washington, NFL defensive tackle for Chicago Bears, 1990 NFL Draft Round 2, Pick 7 Harold Wertz, 1927-1999, "Bouncy" of Our Gang Comedies (1932-33) See also Minor league baseball teams Denison Katydids, 1912 Denison Blue Sox, 1913 Denison Champions, 1914 Denison Railroaders, 1915–1917 Sherman–Denison Twins, 1947–1951 and 1953 References External links City of Denison official website Denison Chamber of Commerce Cities in Texas Cities in Grayson County, Texas Populated places established in 1872 1872 establishments in Texas

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

eng_Latn

The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) is a widely accepted convention in zoology that rules the formal scientific naming of organisms treated as animals. It is also informally known as the ICZN Code, for its publisher, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (which shares the acronym "ICZN"). The rules principally regulate: How names are correctly established in the frame of binominal nomenclature Which name must be used in case of name conflicts How scientific literature must cite names Zoological nomenclature is independent of other systems of nomenclature, for example botanical nomenclature. This implies that animals can have the same generic names as plants (e.g. there is a genus Abronia in both animals and plants). The rules and recommendations have one fundamental aim: to provide the maximum universality and continuity in the naming of all animals, except where taxonomic judgment dictates otherwise. The code is meant to guide only the nomenclature of animals, while leaving zoologists freedom in classifying new taxa. In other words, while species concepts (and thus the definition of species) are arbitrary to some degree, the rules for names are not. The code applies only to names. A new animal name published without adherence to the code may be deemed simply "unavailable" if it fails to meet certain criteria, or fall entirely out of the province of science (e.g., the "scientific name" for the Loch Ness Monster). The rules in the code determine what names are valid for any taxon in the family group, genus group, and species group. It has additional (but more limited) provisions on names in higher ranks. The code recognizes no case law. Any dispute is decided first by applying the code directly, and not by reference to precedent. The code is also retroactive or retrospective, which means that previous editions of the code, or previous other rules and conventions have no force any more today, and the nomenclatural acts published earlier must be evaluated only under the present edition of the code. In cases of disputes a case can be brought to the commission who has the right to publish a final decision. Principles In regulating the names of animals it holds by six central principles, which were first set out (as principles) in the third edition of the code (1985): Principle of binominal nomenclature This is the principle that the scientific name of a species, and not of a taxon at any other rank, is a combination of two names; the use of a trinomen for the name of a subspecies and of uninominal names for taxa above the species group is in accord with this principle. This means that in the system of nomenclature for animals, the name of a species is composed of a combination of a generic name and a specific name; together they make a "binomen". No other rank can have a name composed of two names. Examples: Species Giraffa camelopardalis Subspecies have a name composed of three names, a "trinomen": generic name, specific name, subspecific name: Subspecies Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi Taxa at a rank above species have a name composed of one name, a "uninominal name". Genus Giraffa, family Giraffidae In botanical nomenclature, the equivalent for "binominal nomenclature" is "binary nomenclature" (or sometimes "binomial nomenclature"). Principle of priority This is the principle that the correct formal scientific name for an animal taxon, the valid name, correct to use, is the oldest available name that applies to it. It is the most important principle—the fundamental guiding precept that preserves zoological nomenclature stability. It was first formulated in 1842 by a committee appointed by the British Association to consider the rules of zoological nomenclature. Hugh Edwin Strickland wrote the committee's report. Example: Nunneley 1837 established Limax maculatus (Gastropoda), Wiktor 2001 classified it as a junior synonym of Limax maximus Linnaeus, 1758 from S and W Europe. Limax maximus was established first, so if Wiktor's 2001 classification is accepted, Limax maximus takes precedence over Limax maculatus and must be used for the species. There are approximately 2-3 million cases of this kind for which this principle is applied in zoology. Principle of coordination The principle of coordination is that within the family group, genus group and species group, a name established for a taxon at any rank in the group is simultaneously established with the same author and date for taxa based on the same name-bearing type at other ranks in the corresponding group. In other words, publishing a new zoological name automatically and simultaneously establishes all corresponding names in the relevant other ranks with the same type. In the species-group, publishing a species name (the binomen) Giraffa camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758 also establishes the subspecies name (the trinomen) Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758. The same applies to the name of a subspecies; this establishes the corresponding species name. In the genus-group, similarly, publishing the name of a genus also establishes the corresponding name of a subgenus (or vice versa): genus Giraffa Linnaeus, 1758 and subgenus Giraffa (Giraffa) Linnaeus, 1758. In the family-group, publication of the name of a family, subfamily, superfamily (or any other such rank) also establishes the names in all the other ranks in the family group (family Giraffidae, superfamily Giraffoidea, subfamily Giraffinae). Author citations for such names (for example a subgenus) are the same as for the name actually published (for example a genus). It is immaterial if there is an actual taxon to which the automatically established name applies; if ever such a taxon is recognised, there is a name available for it. Principle of the first reviser This is the principle that in cases of conflicts between simultaneously published divergent acts, the first subsequent author can decide which has precedence. It supplements the principle of priority, which states that the first published name takes precedence. The principle of the first reviser deals with situations that cannot be resolved by priority. These items may be two or more different names for the same taxon, two or more names with the same spelling used for different taxa, two or more different spellings of a particular name, etc. In such cases, the first subsequent author who deals with the matter and chooses and publishes the decision in the required manner is the first reviser, and is to be followed. Example: Linnaeus 1758 established Strix scandiaca and Strix noctua (Aves), for which he gave different descriptions and referred to different types, but both taxa later turned out to refer to the same species, the snowy owl. The two names are subjective synonyms. Lönnberg 1931 acted as first reviser, cited both names and selected Strix scandiaca to have precedence. Principle of homonymy This is the principle that the name of each taxon must be unique. Consequently, a name that is a junior homonym of another name must not be used as a valid name. It means that any one animal name, in one particular spelling, may be used only once (within its group). This is usually the first-published name; any later name with the same spelling (a homonym) is barred from being used. The principles of priority and first reviser apply here. For family-group names the termination (which is rank-bound) is not taken into account. Genera are homonyms only if exactly the same — a one-letter difference is enough to distinguish them. Examples: Argus Bohadsch, 1761 (Gastropoda) (was made available for homonymy by ICZN in Opinion 429, Bohadsch 1761 was non-binominal - this had the effect that no other one of the various following names Argus can be used for a taxon) Argus Scopoli, 1763 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae) Argus Scopoli, 1777 (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) Argus Poli, 1791 (Bivalvia) Argus Temminck, 1807 (Aves) Argus Lamarck, 1817 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) Argus Walckenaer, 1836 (Araneae) Argus Gerhard, 1850 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Theclinae) Homonyms of Argus are not: Argua Walker, 1863 (Lepidoptera), Argusa Kelham, 1888 (Aves), Argusina Hebard, 1927 (Dermaptera), †Arcus Hong, 1983 (Diptera), Argas Latreille, 1795 (Araneae), Argulus Müller, 1785 (Crustacea). Not homonyms of each others: Isomya Cutler & Cutler, 1985 (Sipunculida), Isomyia Walker, 1859 (Diptera). Not homonyms of each others: Adelomya Mulsant & Verreaux, 1866 (Aves), Adelomyia Bonaparte, 1854 (Aves), †Adelomys Gervais, 1853 (Mammalia), †Adolomys Shevyreva, 1989 (Mammalia), Adulomya Kuroda, 1931 (Bivalvia). In species, there is a difference between primary and secondary homonyms. There can also be double homonyms (same genus and species). A slight difference in spelling is tolerated if Article 58 applies. Primary homonyms are those with the same genus and same species in their original combination. The difference between a primary junior homonym and a subsequent use of a name is undefined, but it is commonly accepted that if the name referred to another species or form, and if there is in addition no evidence the author knew that the name was previously used, it is considered as a junior homonym. Examples: Drury (1773) established Cerambyx maculatus (Coleoptera) for a species from Jamaica. Fueßlin (1775) established Cerambyx maculatus for a different species from Switzerland, and did not refer to Drury's name. Fueßlin's name is a junior primary homonym. Scopoli (1763) established Curculio fasciatus (Coleoptera) for a species from Slovenia. Strøm (1768) established Curculio fasciatus for another species from Norway. De Geer (1775) established Curculio fasciatus for a 3rd species from Sweden. Müller (1776) established Curculio fasciatus for a 4th species from Denmark. Fourcroy (1785) established Curculio fasciatus for a 5th species from France. Olivier (1790) established Curculio fasciatus for a 6th species from France. Marsham (1802) established Curculio fasciatus for a 7th species from Britain. All these names had descriptions that clarified that different species were meant, and that their authors did not know that the name had been established by a previous author. Secondary homonyms can be produced if taxa with the same specific name but different original genus are later classified in the same genus (Art. 57.3, 59). A secondary synonym is only a temporary state, it is only effective in this classification. If another classification is applied, the secondary homonymy may not be produced, and the involved name can be used again (Art. 59.1). A name does not become unavailable or unusable if it was once in the course of history placed in such a genus where it produced a secondary homonymy with another name. This is one of the rare cases where a zoological species does not have a stable specific name and a unique species-author-year combination, it can have two names at the same time. Example: Nunneley (1837) established Limax maculatus (Gastropoda), Wiktor (2001) classified it as a junior synonym of Limax (Limax) maximus Linnaeus, 1758 from S and W Europe. Kaleniczenko, 1851 established Krynickillus maculatus for a different species from Ukraine. Wiktor, 2001 classified both Limax maximus Linnaeus, 1758 and Krynickillus maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851 in the genus Limax. This meant that L. maculatus Nunneley, 1837 and K. maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851 were classified in the same genus, so both names were secondary homonyms in the genus Limax, and the younger name (from 1851) could not be used for the Ukrainian species. This made it necessary to look for the next younger available name that could be used for the Ukrainian species. This was Limax ecarinatus Boettger, 1881, a junior synonym of K. maculatus Kaleniczenko, 1851. For Wiktor (2001) and those authors who follow Wiktor's system the name of the Ukrainian species must be Limax ecarinatus Boettger, 1881. For the others who classify Limacus as a separate genus, the name of the Ukrainian species must be Limacus maculatus (Kaleniczenko, 1851). So the Ukrainian species can have two names, depending from its generic classification. Limax ecarinatus, Limacus maculatus, the same species. Article 59.3 states that in exceptional cases, junior secondary homonyms replaced before 1961 by substitute names can become invalid, "...unless the substitute name is not in use," an exception of the exception. However, the ICZN Code does not give an example for such a case. It seems that this passage in the ICZN Code is widely ignored. It also does not define what the expression "is not in use" should mean. Example: Glischrus caelata Studer, 1820 (Gastropoda) was once classified in the genus Helix, and became a junior secondary homonym of Helix caelata [Vallot], 1801. Locard (1880) established a replacement name Helix glypta, which has very rarely been used. The species is now known as Trochulus caelatus (Studer, 1820), and Art. 59.3 is commonly ignored. Double homonymy (genus and species) is no homonymy: if the genera are homonyms and belong to different animal groups, the same specific names can be used in both groups. Examples: The name Noctua Linnaeus, 1758 was established for a lepidopteran subgenus. In 1764 he established a genus Noctua Linné ,1764 for birds, ignoring that he had already used this name a few years ago in Lepidoptera. Noctua Linné, 1764 (Aves) is a junior homonym of Noctua Linnaeus, 1758 (Lepidoptera). Garsault (1764) used Noctua for a bird and established a name Noctua caprimulgus Garsault, 1764 (Aves). Fabricius (1775) established a name Noctua caprimulgus Fabricius, 1775 (Lepidoptera), thus creating a double homonym. Double homonymy is no homonymy, both names are available. The same happened with Noctua variegata Jung, 1792 (Lepidoptera) and Noctua variegata Quoy & Gaimard, 1830 (Aves). For disambiguating one genus-group name from its homonym, it is important to cite author and year. Citing the author alone is often not sufficient. Examples: Echidna Forster, 1777 (Actinopterygii), not Echidna Cuvier, 1797 (Mammalia) Ansa Walker, 1858 (Lepidoptera), not Ansa Walker, 1868 (Hemiptera) Helix balcanica Kobelt, 1876, not Helix balcanica Kobelt, 1903 (both Gastropoda) Conus catenatus Sowerby, 1850, not Conus catenatus Sowerby, 1875 (both Gastropoda) The name Ansa can only be used for a lepidopteran taxon. If that name cannot be used (for example because an older name established prior to 1858 takes precedence), this does not mean that the 1868 name can be used for a hemipteran genus. The only option to use the 1868 name for the hemipteran taxon is to get the 1858 name officially suppressed by the commission. In some cases, the same genus-group or species-group name was published in the same year by the same author. In these cases it is useful to cite the page where the name was established. Amydona Walker, 1855 (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) (p. 1110), not Amydona Walker, 1855 (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) (p. 1413) Betousa Walker, 1865 (Lepidoptera: Thyridae) (p. 1111), not Betousa Walker, 1865 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (p. 1208). Cicada variegata Fabricius, 1775 (p. 684), not Cicada variegata Fabricius, 1775 (p. 686) (both Auchenorrhyncha). Noctua marginata Fabricius, 1775 (p. 597), not Noctua marginata Fabricius, 1775 (p. 610) (both Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Clausilia (Albinaria) oertzeni Boettger, 1889 (p. 42), not Clausilia (Albinaria) schuchi var. oertzeni Boettger, 1889 (p. 52) (both Gastropoda: Clausiliidae). There are cases where two homonyms were established by the same author in the same year on the same page: Zonites verticillus var. graeca Kobelt, 1876 (Gastropoda) (p. 48), not Zonites albanicus var. graeca Kobelt, 1876 (p. 48). Animal, plant, and fungi nomenclature are entirely independent from each other. The most evident shortcoming of this situation (for their use in biodiversity informatics) is that the same generic name can be used simultaneously for animals and plants. For this kind of homonym the expression "hemihomonym" is sometimes used. Far more than 1000 such names are known. Examples: The generic name Dryas L. (1753) represents a genus of magnoliophytan plants (family Rosaceae), and at the same time Dryas Hübner, 1807 is also a lepidopteran insect genus (family Nymphalidae). The genus Tandonia was established in animals (Gastropoda: Tandonia), in plants (Euphorbiaceae) and in Fungi (Ascomycetes). Other examples for sometimes well known plant names with zoological equivalents are Aotus (Fabaceae and Mammalia), Arenaria (Caryophyllaeceae and Aves), Betula(Betulaceae and Hymenoptera), Chloris (Cactaceae and Aves), Dugesia (Asteraceae and Plathelminthes), Erica (Ericaceae and Araneae), Hystrix (Poaceae and Mammalia), Iris (Asparagales and Orthoptera), Liparis (Orchidaceae and Actinopterygii), Phalaenopsis (Asparagales and Aves), Pinus (Pinaceae and Mollusca), Prunella (Lamiaceae and Aves), Ricinus (Fabaceae and Acari), Taxus (Taxaceae and Mammalia), Typha (Typhaceae and Porifera), Ulva (Ulvophyceae and Lepidoptera), Viola (Violaceae and Lepidoptera). For names above the family level, the principle of homonymy does not apply. Examples: Pulmonata is usually used for a very prominent group in Gastropoda, but the name is also (rarely) used for a group in Arachnida. Reticulata is used as an order in Foraminifera, and as an undefined higher group in Ephemeroptera. Homonyms occur relatively rarely in families (only if generic names are identical or very similar and adding an ending "-idae" produces identical results). Discovering such a homonymy usually produces the same problems as if there were no rules: conflicts between entirely independent and unconnected groups of taxonomists working in different animal groups. Very often the Commission must be asked to take a decision. Examples: Bulimina (Foraminifera) and Buliminus (Gastropoda) give both Buliminidae, and both families were used since the 1880s. When the homonymy was discovered 110 years later in the 1990s, the younger (gastropod) taxon had to receive a new family name, and the commission needed was asked for a solution (Opinion 2018). Claria (Rotifera) and Clarias (Actinopterygii) give both Clariidae, but only the actinopterygian fish name was used since 1845. Shortly after Clariidae had been proposed in Rotifera in 1990, the homonymy was discovered and the commission had to decide that the Rotiferan family had to be amended to Clariaidae (Opinion 2032). Principle of typification This is the principle that each nominal taxon in the family group, genus group, or species group has—actually or potentially—a name-bearing type fixed that provides the objective standard of reference that determines what the name applies to. This means that any named taxon has a name-bearing type, which allows the objective application of that name. Any family-group name must have a type genus, any genus-group name must have a type species, and any species-group name can (not must) have one or more type specimens (holotype, lectotype, neotype, syntypes, or others), usually deposited in a museum collection. The type genus for a family-group name is simply the genus that provided the stem to which was added the ending "-idae" (for families). Example: The family name Spheniscidae has as its type genus the genus Spheniscus Brisson, 1760. The type species for a genus-group name is more complicated and follows exactly defined provisions in articles 67–69. Type species are very important, and no general zoological database has recorded the type species for all genera. Except in fishes and some minor groups, type species are rarely reliably recorded in online animal databases. In 60% of the cases the type species can be determined in the original publication. The type species is always the original name of the taxon (and not the currently used combination). Example: The correctly cited type species of Locusta Linnaeus, 1758 (Caelifera) is Gryllus migratorius Linnaeus, 1758, not Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758). Designation and fixation have different meanings. A designation is the proposal of the type species. It is not necessary to have spelled the name of the genus or species correctly with correct authors (articles 67.2.1, 67.6, 67.7), type species are always the correctly spelled name. If the designation is valid, the type species is fixed. A designation can also be invalid and ineffective—for example—if the genus had already a previously fixed type species, or if a type species was proposed that was not originally included, or contradicted the description or figure for a genus for which no species had originally been included. There are various possible modes of type species designation. This is their order of legal importance, with approximate proportions of occurrence and examples: Superior type fixation: Designation by ICZN under the plenary powers (3 %) Example: Galba Schrank, 1803 (Gastropoda) was established with one species included, Galba pusilla Schrank, 1803. This would be the type species by monotypy. In Opinion 1896 (published in 1998) this type fixation was set aside and Buccinum truncatulum Müller, 1774 was fixed as type species under the plenary power(s) (now Galba truncatula). Designation under Art. 70.3 (misidentified type species) (1 %) Examples: Bollingeria Forcart, 1940 (Gastropoda) was established with its type species Chondrus pupoides Krynicki, 1833 proposed by original designation. But Forcart 1940 misidentified the type species and meant Bulimus lamelliferus Rossmässler, 1858. It would be convenient to designate Bulimus lamelliferus as type species under Art. 70.3. Helisoma Swainson, 1840 (Gastropoda) was established with one species included, cited by Swainson as "H. bicarinata Sow. Gen. f. 4". This suggested that the type species was misidentified, and that Planorbis campanulatus Say, 1821 and not Planorbis bicarinatus Say, 1819 was meant. But since the incorrect type species Planorbis bicarinatus has been regarded as type, it would be convenient to fix this as type under Art. 70.3. Type fixation in the original work: Original designation (31 %) Examples: Montfort 1810 established the genus Theodoxus (Gastropoda) and designated Theodoxus lutetianus Montfort 1810 as type species (now Theodoxus fluviatilis). Vest 1867 established the subgenus Clausilia (Isabellaria) (Gastropoda) and designated Clausilia isabellina Pfeiffer, 1842 as type species (now Isabellaria isabellina). Riedel 1987 established the genus Turcozonites (Gastropoda) and designated Zonites wandae Riedel, 1982 as type species (now Turcozonites wandae). Monotypy (28 %) Examples: Anodonta Lamarck, 1799 (Bivalvia) was originally established with one included nominal species, Mytilus cygneus Linnaeus, 1758. This is the type species fixed by monotypy (now Anodonta cygnea). Microcondylaea Vest 1866 (Bivalvia) was originally established with two included nominal species, Unio bonellii Férussac, 1827 and with doubts Anodonta lata Rafinesque, 1820. Doubtfully included species do not count, type species is Unio bonellii fixed by monotypy (now Microcondylaea bonellii). Absolute tautonymy (2 %) Examples: Kobelt 1871 established the gastropod genus-group name Candidula and included 23 species. Among these was Glischrus candidula Studer 1820. Glischrus candidula is type species fixed by absolute tautonymy (now Candidula unifasciata). Draparnaud 1801 established the gastropod genus Succinea and included two species, Succinea amphibia Draparnaud 1801 and Succinea oblonga Draparnaud 1801. Among the synonyms of S. amphibia, Draparnaud listed a name Helix succinea Müller 1774. Synonyms do count here, so Helix succinea is type species by absolute tautonymy (now Succinea putris). Kobelt 1904 established the gastropod subgenus Iberus (Balearica) and included 10 species. Among these was Helix balearica Rossmässler 1838, which Kobelt cited as Iberus (Balearica) balearicus. The ending -us is irrelevant here, Helix balearica is type species by absolute tautonymy (currently Iberellus balearicus or Iberellus hispanicus). Euxinolauria Lindholm, 1924 (Gastropoda: Lauriidae) was established as a new replacement name for Caucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 (not Caucasica Boettger, 1877 (Gastropoda: Clausiliidae)). Caucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 contained originally four species, among which was Pupa caucasica Pfeiffer, 1857. This is the type species for Caucasica Caziot & Margier, 1909 fixed by absolute tautonymy, and also for Euxinolauria (now Euxinolauria caucasica). The following examples do not represent absolute tautonymy: Scomber scombrus Linnaeus, 1758 (Actinopterygii), Babyrousa babyrussa (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mammalia), Suricata suricatta (Schreber, 1776) (Mammalia), Merlangius merlangus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Actinopterygii), Isabellaria isabellina (Pfeiffer, 1842) (Gastropoda), Rupestrella rupestris (Philippi, 1836) (Gastropoda). Linnean tautonymy (0.3 %) Example: Linnaeus 1758 established Castor (Mammalia) and included two species, Castor fiber and Castor moschatus. Among the synonyms of Castor fiber was cited the one-word name Castor with references to six pre-Linnean works (Gesner 1598, Rondelet 1554, Jonston 1650, Dodart 1676, Ray 1693 and Aldrovandi 1649). Castor fiber Linnaeus 1758 is type species fixed by Linnean tautonymy (now Castor fiber). Subsequent methods of type fixation: Subsequent monotypy (2 %) Examples: Valvata Müller, 1773 (Gastropoda) was established with a short description and without species. Müller 1774 included one species Valvata cristata Müller 1774. Valvata cristata is type species by subsequent monotypy (now Valvata cristata). Omphiscola Rafinesque, 1819 (Gastropoda) was established without species included. Beck 1837 [1838] included one species Buccinum glabrum Müller, 1774. Buccinum glabrum is type species by subsequent monotypy (now Omphiscola glabra). Subsequent absolute tautonymy (only very few cases) Examples: Alosa Garsault, 1764 (Actinopterygii) was established without included species. As first author, Cuvier, 1829 included two species Clupea alosa and Clupea fincta. Type species is Clupea alosa Linnaeus 1758 by subsequent absolute tautonymy (now Alosa alosa). Rupicapra Garsault, 1764 (Mammalia) was established without included species. As first author, Blainville, 1816 included three species Capra rupicapra Linnaeus, 1758, Capra pudu, and Capra americana. Type species is Capra rupicapra by subsequent absolute tautonymy (now Rupicapra rupicapra). Subsequent Linnean tautonymy (only theoretical, there might be no case) Subsequent designation (32 %) Examples: Aplexa Fleming, 1820 (Gastropoda) was established with two species, Bulla hypnorum Linnaeus, 1758 and Bulla rivalis Turton, 1807. Herrmannsen 1846 fixed Bulla hypnorum as type by subsequent designation (now Aplexa hypnorum). Pseudanodonta Bourguignat 1877 (Bivalvia) was established with seven species, Anodonta complanata Rossmässler 1835, and six others. Westerlund 1902 validly designated Anodonta complanata as type species (nowPseudanodonta complanata). A species-group name can have a name-bearing type specimen, but this is not a requirement. In many cases species-group names have no type specimens, or they are lost. In those cases the application of the species-group name is usually based on common acceptance. If there is no common acceptance, there are provisions in the Code to fix a name-bearing type specimen that is binding for users of that name. Fixing such a name-bearing type should only be done if this is taxonomically necessary (articles 74.7.3, 75.2, 75.3). Examples: Aptenodytes patagonica Miller, 1778 is either based on a type specimen, perhaps deposited in the Natural History Museum London or somewhere else, or its type is lost. This is now irrelevant because the usage of the name (as Aptenodytes patagonicus) for the king penguin is unambiguously accepted. The name-bearing type for Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 is deposited in Uppsala (the bones of Carl von Linné). This is a lectotype designated by Stearn 1959, correctly but unnecessarily because the usage of the name was unambiguous at that time, and still is. Structure The code divides names in the following manner: Names above the family group Family-group names Genus-group names Species-group names The names above the family group are regulated only as to the requirements for publication; there is no restriction to the number of ranks and the use of names is not restricted by priority. The names in the family, genus, and species groups are fully regulated by the provisions in the code. There is no limitation to the number of ranks allowed in the family group. The genus group has only two ranks: genus and subgenus. The species group has only two ranks: species and subspecies. Gender agreement In the species group gender agreement applies. The name of a species, in two parts, a binomen, say, Loxodonta africana, and of a subspecies, in three parts, a trinomen, say Canis lupus albus, is in the form of a Latin phrase, and must be grammatically correct Latin. If the second part, the specific name (or the third part, the subspecific name) is adjectival in nature, its ending must agree in gender with the name of the genus. If it is a noun, or an arbitrary combination of letters, this does not apply. For instance, the generic name Equus is masculine; in the name "Equus africanus," the specific name africanus is an adjective and its ending follows the gender of the generic name. In Equus zebra the specific name zebra is a noun, it may not be "corrected" to "Equus zebrus". In Equus quagga burchellii the subspecific name burchellii is a noun in the genitive case ("of Burchell"). If a species is moved, therefore, the spelling of an ending may need to change. If Gryllus migratorius is moved to the genus Locusta, it becomes Locusta migratoria. Confusion over Latin grammar has led to many incorrectly formed names appearing in print. An automated search may fail to find all the variant spellings of a given name (e.g., the spellings atra and ater may refer to the same species). History Written nomenclatural rules in zoology were compiled in various countries since the late 1830s, such as Merton's Rules and Strickland's codes going back to 1843. At the first and second International Zoological Congresses (Paris 1889, Moscow 1892) zoologists saw the need to establish commonly accepted international rules for all disciplines and countries to replace conventions and unwritten rules that varied across disciplines, countries, and languages. Compiling "International Rules on Zoological Nomenclature" was first proposed in 1895 in Leiden (3rd International Congress for Zoology) and officially published in three languages in 1905 (French, English, German; only French was official). From then on, amendments and modifications were subsequently passed by various zoological congresses (Boston 1907, Graz 1910, Monaco 1913, Budapest 1927, Padua 1930, Paris 1948, Copenhagen 1953, and London 1958). These were only published in English, and can only be found in the reports of these congresses or other official publications. The 1905 rules became increasingly outdated. They soon sold out, and it became increasingly difficult to obtain to a complete set of the Rules with all amendments. In Copenhagen 1953 the French and English texts of the rules were declared of equivalent official force, and a declaration was approved to prepare a new compilation of the rules. In 1958, an Editorial Committee in London elaborated a completely new version of the nomenclatural rules, which were finally published as the first edition of the ICZN Code on 9 November 1961. The second edition of the code (only weakly modified) came in 1963. The last zoological congress to deal with nomenclatural problems took place in Monte Carlo 1972, since by then the official zoological organs no longer derived power from zoological congresses. The third edition of the code came out in 1985. The present edition is the 4th edition, effective since 2000. These code editions were elaborated on by editorial committees appointed by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. The ICZN Commission takes its power from a general biological congress (IUBS, International Union of Biological Sciences). The editorial committee for the fourth edition was composed of seven persons. Such new editions of the ICZN Code are not democratically approved by those taxonomists who are forced to follow the code's provisions, neither do taxonomists have the right to vote for the members of the commission or the editorial committee. As the commission may alter the code (by declarations and amendments) without issuing a new edition of the book, the current edition does not necessarily contain the actual provision that applies in a particular case. The Code consists of the original text of the fourth edition and Declaration 44. The code is published in an English and a French version; both versions are official and equivalent in force, meaning, and authority. This means that if something in the English code is unclear or its interpretation ambiguous, the French version is decisive, and if there is something unclear in the French code, the English version is decisive. Commission The rules in the code apply to all users of zoological names. However, its provisions can be interpreted, waived, or modified in their application to a particular case when strict adherence would cause confusion. Such exceptions are not made by an individual scientist, no matter how well-respected within the field, but only by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, acting on behalf of all zoologists. The commission takes such action in response to proposals submitted to it. Carl Linnaeus named the domestic cat Felis catus in 1758; Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber named the wildcat Felis silvestris in 1775. For taxonomists who consider these two kinds of cat a single species the principle of priority means that the species ought to be named F. catus, but in practice almost all biologists have used F. silvestris. In 2003, the commission issued a ruling (Opinion 2027) that "conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are pre-dated, by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms", confirming F. silvestris for the wild cat. Taxonomists who consider the domesticated cat the same species as the wild cat should use F. silvestris; taxonomists who consider the domesticated cat a subspecies of the wild cat should use F. silvestris catus; taxonomists who consider the domesticated cat a separate species should use F. catus. The latest amendments enacted by the commission concern electronic publishing, which is now permitted for works published under an ISBN or ISSN after 2011 in a way that ensures registration with ZooBank as well as archival of multiple copies. Local usage and name changes The ICZN is used by the scientific community worldwide. Changes are governed by guidelines in the code. Local changes, such as the changes proposed by the Turkish government, are not recognised by ICZN. Citation The current (fourth edition) code is cited in scientific papers as ICZN (1999) and in reference lists as:- ICZN 1999. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth Edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. 306 pp. Versions Strickland, H.E. [et al.] 1843. Report of a committee appointed "to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a Uniform and Permanent Basis." ["The Strickland Code".] In: Report of 12th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, June 1842, p. 105-121. BHL. [Also published in the Philosophical Magazine and the Annals of Natural History.] Strickland, H.E. 1878. Rules for Zoological Nomenclature. John Murray, London. Internet Archive. Blanchard, R., Maehrenthal, F. von & Stiles, C. W. 1905. Règles internationales de la nomenclature zoologique adoptées par les Congrès Internationaux de Zoologie. International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. Internationale Regeln der Zoologischen Nomenklatur. Rudeval, Paris. Google Books. ICZN. 1961. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: adopted by the XV International Congress of Zoology. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. BHL. ICZN. 1964. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Second edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. BHL. ICZN. 1985. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Third edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. BHL. ICZN. 1999. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. BHL. The Code Online (ICZN). See also Author citation (zoology) Nomen dubium Nomen nudum Nomen oblitum List of authors of names published under the ICZN International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants Notes References External links ICZN website Current text of the code Code-1, Stoll et al. 1961 Code-2, Stoll et al. 1964 Code-3, Ride et al. 1985 Code-4, Ride et al. 2000 ZooBank: The World Register of Animal Names Proposed amendment of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature to expand and refine methods of publication Nomenclature codes

Amusement park

eng_Latn

An amusement park is a park that features various attractions, such as rides and games, as well as other events for entertainment purposes. A theme park is a type of amusement park that bases its structures and attractions around a central theme, often featuring multiple areas with different themes. Unlike temporary and mobile funfairs and carnivals, amusement parks are stationary and built for long-lasting operation. They are more elaborate than city parks and playgrounds, usually providing attractions that cater to a variety of age groups. While amusement parks often contain themed areas, theme parks place a heavier focus with more intricately-designed themes that revolve around a particular subject or group of subjects. Amusement parks evolved from European fairs, pleasure gardens, and large picnic areas, which were created for people's recreation. World's fairs and other types of international expositions also influenced the emergence of the amusement park industry. Lake Compounce opened in 1846 and is considered the oldest, continuously-operating amusement park in North America. The first theme parks emerged in the mid-twentieth century with the opening of Santa Claus Land in 1946, Santa's Workshop in 1949, and Disneyland in 1955. History Origins The amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions: traveling or periodic fairs, pleasure gardens, and exhibitions such as world fairs. The oldest influence was the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England from 1133. By the 18th and 19th centuries, they had evolved into places of entertainment for the masses, where the public could view freak shows, acrobatics, conjuring and juggling, take part in competitions and walk through menageries. A wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel (built by Thomas Bradshaw, at the Aylsham Fair), and its derivatives, notably from Frederick Savage of King's Lynn, Norfolk whose fairground machinery was exported all over the world; his "galloping horses" innovation is seen in carousels today. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the working classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment. The second influence was the pleasure garden. An example of this is the world's oldest amusement park, Bakken ("The Hill"), which opened in mainland Europe in 1583. It is located north of Copenhagen in Klampenborg, Denmark. Another early garden was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had an admission fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew enormous crowds, with its paths often noted for romantic assignations; tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts and fireworks providing amusement. Although the gardens were originally designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing, and animal acrobatics displays. Prater in Vienna, Austria, began as a royal hunting ground which was opened in 1766 for public enjoyment. There followed coffee-houses and cafés, which led to the beginnings of the Wurstelprater as an amusement park. The concept of a fixed park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the world's fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, England. The purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors. American cities and businesses also saw the world's fair as a way of demonstrating economic and industrial success. The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an early precursor to the modern amusement park. The fair was an enclosed site, that merged entertainment, engineering and education to entertain the masses. It set out to bedazzle the visitors, and successfully did so with a blaze of lights from the "White City." To make sure that the fair was a financial success, the planners included a dedicated amusement concessions area called the Midway Plaisance. Rides from this fair captured the imagination of the visitors and of amusement parks around the world, such as the first steel Ferris wheel, which was found in many other amusement areas, such as the Prater by 1896. Also, the experience of the enclosed ideal city with wonder, rides, culture and progress (electricity), was based on the creation of an illusory place. The "midway" introduced at the Columbian Exposition would become a standard part of most amusement parks, fairs, carnivals, and circuses. The midway contained not only the rides, but other concessions and entertainments such as shooting galleries, penny arcades, games of chance, and shows. Trolley parks and pleasure resorts Many modern amusement parks evolved from earlier pleasure resorts that had become popular with the public for day-trips or weekend holidays, for example, seaside areas such as Blackpool, United Kingdom and Coney Island, United States. In the United States, some amusement parks grew from picnic groves established along rivers and lakes that provided bathing and water sports, such as Lake Compounce in Connecticut, first established as a picturesque picnic park in 1846, and Riverside Park in Massachusetts, founded in the 1870s along the Connecticut River. The trick was getting the public to the seaside or resort location. For Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York, on the Atlantic Ocean, a horse-drawn streetcar line brought pleasure seekers to the beach beginning in 1829. In 1875, a million passengers rode the Coney Island Railroad, and in 1876 two million visited Coney Island. Hotels and amusements were built to accommodate both the upper classes and the working class at the beach. The first carousel was installed in the 1870s, the first roller coaster, the "Switchback Railway", in 1884. In England, Blackpool was a popular beachside location beginning in the 1700s. It rose to prominence as a seaside resort with the completion in 1846 of a branch line to Blackpool from Poulton on the main Preston and Wyre Joint Railway line. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s. In 1879, large parts of the promenade at Blackpool were wired. The lighting and its accompanying pageants reinforced Blackpool's status as the North of England's most prominent holiday resort, and its specifically working class character. It was the forerunner of the present-day Blackpool Illuminations. By the 1890s, the town had a population of 35,000, and could accommodate 250,000 holidaymakers. The number of annual visitors, many staying for a week, was estimated at three million. In the final decade of the 19th century, electric trolley lines were developed in many large American cities. Companies that established the trolley lines also developed trolley parks as destinations of these lines. Trolley parks such as Atlanta's Ponce de Leon Park, or Reading's Carsonia Park were initially popular natural leisure spots before local streetcar companies purchased the sites, expanding them from picnic groves to include regular entertainments, mechanical amusements, dance halls, sports fields, boat rides, restaurants and other resort facilities. Some of these parks were developed in resort locations, such as bathing resorts at the seaside in New Jersey and New York. A premiere example in New Jersey was Atlantic City, a famous vacation resort. Entrepreneurs erected amusement parks on piers that extended from the boardwalk out over the ocean. The first of several was the Ocean Pier in 1891, followed later by the Steel Pier in 1898, both of which boasted rides and attractions typical of that time, such as Midway-style games and electric trolley rides. The boardwalk also had the first Roundabout installed in 1892 by William Somers, a wooden predecessor to the Ferris Wheel. Somers installed two others in Asbury Park, New Jersey and Coney Island, New York. Another early park was the Eldorado Amusement Park that opened in 1891 on the banks of the Hudson River, overlooking New York City. It consisted of 25 acres. Modern amusement parks The first permanent enclosed entertainment area, regulated by a single company, was founded in Coney Island in 1895: Sea Lion Park at Coney Island in Brooklyn. This park was one of the first to charge admission to get into the park in addition to sell tickets for rides within the park. In 1897, Sea Lion Park was joined by Steeplechase Park, the first of three major amusement parks that would open in the Coney Island area. George Tilyou designed the park to provide thrills and entertainment. The combination of the nearby population center of New York City and the ease of access to the area made Coney Island the embodiment of the American amusement park. Coney Island also featured Luna Park (1903) and Dreamland (1904). Coney Island was a huge success and by the year 1910 attendance on days could reach a million people. Fueled by the efforts of Frederick Ingersoll who borrowed the name, other "Luna Parks" were quickly erected worldwide and opened to rave reviews. The first amusement park in England was opened in 1896 - the Blackpool Pleasure Beach by W. G. Bean. In 1904, Sir Hiram Maxim's Captive Flying Machine was introduced; he had designed an early aircraft powered by steam engines that had been unsuccessful and instead opened up a pleasure ride of flying carriages that revolved around a central pylon. Other rides included the 'Grotto' (a fantasy ride), 'River Caves' (a scenic railway), water chutes and a tobogganing tower. Fire was a constant threat in those days, as much of the construction within the amusement parks of the era was wooden. In 1911, Dreamland was the first Coney Island amusement park to completely burn down; in 1944, Luna Park also burned to the ground. Most of Ingersoll's Luna Parks were similarly destroyed, usually by arson, before his death in 1927. The Golden Age During the Gilded Age, many Americans began working fewer hours and had more disposable income. With new-found money and time to spend on leisure activities, Americans sought new venues for entertainment. Amusement parks, set up outside major cities and in rural areas, emerged to meet this new economic opportunity. These parks served as source of fantasy and escape from real life. By the early 1900s, hundreds of amusement parks were operating in the United States and Canada. Trolley parks stood outside many cities. Parks like Atlanta's Ponce de Leon and Idora Park, near Youngstown, OH, took passengers to traditionally popular picnic grounds, which by the late 1890s also often included rides like the Giant Swing, Carousel, and Shoot-the-Chutes. These amusement parks were often based on nationally known parks or world's fairs: they had names like Coney Island, White City, Luna Park, or Dreamland. The American Gilded Age was, in fact, amusement parks' Golden Age that reigned until the late 1920s. The Golden Age of amusement parks also included the advent of the kiddie park. Founded in 1925, the original Kiddie Park is located in San Antonio, Texas and is still in operation today. The kiddie parks became popular all over America after World War II. This era saw the development of the new innovations in roller coasters that included extreme drops and speeds to thrill the riders. By the end of the First World War, people seemed to want an even more exciting entertainment, a need met by roller coasters. Although the development of the automobile provided people with more options for satisfying their entertainment needs, the amusement parks after the war continued to be successful, while urban amusement parks saw declining attendance. The 1920s is more properly known as the Golden Age of roller coasters, being the decade of frenetic building for these rides. In England, Dreamland Margate opened in 1880 with Frederick Savage's carousel the first amusement ride installed. In 1920 the Scenic Railway rollercoaster opened to the public with great success, carrying half a million passengers in its first year. The park also installed other rides common to the time including a smaller roller coaster, the Joy Wheel, Miniature Railway, The Whip and the River Caves. A ballroom was constructed on the site of the Skating Rink in 1920 and in 1923 a Variety Cinema was built on the site. Between 1920 and 1935 over £500,000 was invested in the site, constantly adding new rides and facilities and culminating in the construction of the Dreamland Cinema complex in 1934 which stands to this day. Meanwhile, the Blackpool Pleasure Beach was also being developed. Frequent large-scale investments were responsible for the construction of many new rides, including the Virginia Reel, Whip, Noah's Ark, Big Dipper and Dodgems. In the 1920s the "Casino Building" was built, which remains to this day. In 1923, land was reclaimed from the sea front. It was at this period that the park moved to its 44-acre (180,000 m2) current location above what became Watson Road, which was built under the Pleasure Beach in 1932. During this time Joseph Emberton, an architect famous for his work in the amusement trade was brought in to redesign the architectural style of the Pleasure Beach rides, working on the "Grand National" roller coaster, "Noah's Ark" and the Casino building to name a few. Depression and post-World War II decline The Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II during the 1940s saw the decline of the amusement park industry. War caused the affluent urban population to move to the suburbs, television became a source of entertainment, and families went to amusement parks less often. By the 1950s, factors such as urban decay, crime, and even desegregation in the ghettos led to changing patterns in how people chose to spend their free time. Many of the older, traditional amusement parks closed or burned to the ground. Many would be taken out by the wrecking ball to make way for suburban housing and development. In 1964, Steeplechase Park, once the king of all amusement parks, closed down for good. The traditional amusement parks which survived, for example, Kennywood, in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania, and Cedar Point, in Sandusky, Ohio, did so in spite of the odds. Today, there are over 475 amusement parks in the United States, ranging from mega-parks and those that are operated by Disney, Six Flags and Universal. Amusement and theme parks today The amusement park industry's offerings range from immersive theme parks such as the Walt Disney World Resort and Universal Orlando Resort to thrilling coaster parks such as the Six Flags parks and Cedar Fair parks. Countless smaller ventures exist across the United States and around the world. Simpler theme parks directly aimed at smaller children have also emerged, such as Legoland. Examples of amusement parks in shopping malls exist in West Edmonton Mall, Pier 39 and Mall of America. Family fun parks starting as miniature golf courses have begun to grow to include batting cages, go-karts, bumper cars, bumper boats and water slides. Some of these parks have grown to include even roller coasters, and traditional amusement parks now also have these competition areas in addition to their thrill rides. In 2015, theme parks in the United States had a revenue of and theme parks in China had a revenue of , with China expected to overtake the United States by 2020. Other types of amusement park Educational theme parks Some parks use rides and attractions for educational purposes. Disney was the first to successfully open a large-scale theme park built around education. Named EPCOT Center (now simply Epcot), it opened in 1982 as the second park in the Walt Disney World Resort. There are also Holy Land USA and the Holy Land Experience, which are theme parks built to inspire Christian piety. Dinosaur World entertains families with dinosaurs in natural settings, while the SeaWorld and Busch Gardens parks also offer educational experiences, with each of the parks housing several thousand animals, fish and other sea life in dozens of attractions and exhibits focusing on animal education. Created in 1977, the Puy du Fou is a much celebrated theme park in Vendée, France. It is centered around European, French and local history. It received several international prizes. Family-owned theme parks Some theme parks did evolve from more traditional amusement park enterprises, such as Knott's Berry Farm. In the 1920s, Walter Knott and his family sold berries from a roadside stand, which grew to include a restaurant serving fried chicken dinners. Within a few years, lines outside the restaurant were often several hours long. To entertain the waiting crowds, Walter Knott built a Ghost Town in 1940, using buildings relocated from real old west towns such as the Calico, California ghost town and Prescott, Arizona. In 1968, the Knott family fenced the farm, charged admission for the first time, and Knott's Berry Farm officially became a theme park. Because of its long history, Knott's Berry Farm currently claims to be "America's First Theme Park." Knott's Berry Farm is now owned by Cedar Fair Entertainment Company. Lake Compounce in Bristol, Connecticut may be the true oldest continuously operating amusement park in the United States, open since 1846. Santa Claus Town, which opened in Santa Claus, Indiana in 1935 and included Santa's Candy Castle and other Santa Claus-themed attractions, is considered the first themed attraction in the United States: a precursor to the modern day theme park. Santa Claus Land (renamed Holiday World in 1984) opened in 1946 in Santa Claus, Indiana and many people will argue that it was the first true Theme Park despite Knott's history. In the 1950s the Herschend family took over operation of the tourist attraction, Marvel Cave near Branson, Missouri. Over the next decade they modernized the cave, which led to large numbers of people waiting to take the tour. The Herschend family opened a recreation of the old mining town that once existed atop Marvel Cave. The small village eventually became the theme park, Silver Dollar City. The park is still owned and operated by the Herschends and the family has several other parks including Dollywood, Kentucky Kingdom and Wild Adventures. Regional parks The first regional amusement park, as well as the first Six Flags park, Six Flags Over Texas was officially opened in 1961 in Arlington, Texas. The first Six Flags amusement park was the vision of Angus Wynne, Jr. and helped create the modern, competitive amusement park industry. In the late 1950s, Wynne visited Disneyland and was inspired to create an affordable, closer, and larger amusement park that would be filled with fantasy. He followed in the steps of Disney and had subdivisions within the park that reflected different lands. The subdivisions included the Old South and other sections that referenced Wynne's background. By 1968, the second Six Flags park, Six Flags Over Georgia, opened, and in 1971, Six Flags Over Mid-America (now Six Flags St. Louis) opened near St. Louis, Missouri. Also in 1971 was the opening of the Walt Disney World resort complex in Florida, with the Magic Kingdom (1971), Epcot (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (1989) and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998). Admission prices and admission policies Amusement parks collect much of their revenue from admission fees paid by guests attending the park. Other revenue sources include parking fees, food and beverage sales and souvenirs. Practically all amusement parks operate using one of two admission principles: Pay-as-you-go In amusement parks using the pay-as-you-go scheme, a guest enters the park at little or no charge. The guest must then purchase rides individually, either at the attraction's entrance or by purchasing ride tickets (or a similar exchange method, like a token). The cost of the attraction is often based on its complexity or popularity. For example, a guest might pay one ticket to ride a carousel but four tickets to ride a roller coaster. The park may allow guests to purchase a pass providing unlimited admissions to all attractions within the park for a specified duration of time. A wristband or pass is then shown at the attraction entrance to gain admission. Disneyland opened in 1955 using the pay-as-you-go format. Initially, guests paid the ride admission fees at the attractions. Within a short time, the problems of handling such large amounts of coins led to the development of a ticket system that, while now out of use, is still part of the amusement-park lexicon. In this new format, guests purchased ticket books that contained a number of tickets, labeled "A," "B" and "C." Rides and attractions using an "A-ticket" were generally simple, with "B-tickets" and "C-tickets" used for the larger, more popular rides. Later, the "D-ticket" was added, then finally the "E-ticket", which was used on the biggest and most elaborate rides, like Space Mountain. Smaller tickets could be traded up for use on larger rides, so that for example two or three A-tickets would equal a single B-ticket. Disneyland, as well as the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, abandoned this practice in 1982. Pay-one-price An amusement park using the pay-one-price scheme will charge guests a single admission fee. The guest is then entitled to use most of the attractions (usually including flagship roller coasters) in the park as often as they wish during their visit. A daily admission pass (daypass) is the most basic fare on sale, also sold are season tickets which offer holders admission for the entire operating year (plus special privileges for the newest attractions), and express passes which gives holders priority in bypassing lineup queues for popular attractions. Pay-one-price format parks also have attractions that are not included in the admission charge; these are called "up-charge attractions" and can include Skycoasters or go-kart tracks, or games of skill where prizes are won. When Angus Wynne, founder of Six Flags Over Texas, first visited Disneyland upon its opening in 1955, he noted that park's pay-as-you-go format as a reason to make his park pay-one-price. He thought that a family would be more likely to visit his park if they knew, up front, how much it would cost to attend. Rides and attractions Mechanized thrill rides are a defining feature of amusement park attractions. Early rides include the carousel, which originally developed from cavalry training methods first used in the Middle Ages. By the 19th century, carousels were common in parks around the world. Another such ride which shaped the future of the amusement park was the roller coaster. The origins of roller coasters can be traced back to 17th-century Russia, where gravity-driven attractions, which at first only consisted of individual sleds or carts riding freely down chutes on top of specially constructed snow slopes with piles of sand at the bottom for braking, were used as winter leisure activities. These crude and temporarily built curiosities, known as Russian Mountains, were the beginning of the search for even more thrilling amusement park rides. The Columbian Exposition of 1893 was a particularly fertile testing ground for amusement rides and included some that the public had never seen before, such as the world's first Ferris wheel, one of the most recognized products of the fair. In the present day, many rides of various types are set around a specific theme. Parks contains a mixture of attractions which can be divided into several categories. Flat rides Flat rides are usually considered to be those that move their passengers in a plane generally parallel to the ground. There is a core set of flat rides which most amusement parks have, including the Enterprise, Tilt-A-Whirl, Gravitron, chairswing, swinging inverter ship, twister, and top spin. However, there is constant innovation, with new variations on ways to spin and throw passengers around appearing in an effort to keep attracting customers. Manufactures such as Huss and Zamperla specialise in creating flat rides among other amusement attractions. Roller coasters Amusement parks often feature multiple roller coasters of primarily timber or steel construction. Fundamentally, a roller coaster ride is one in which a specialized railroad system with steep drops and sharp curves, passengers sit and are restrained in cars, usually with two or more cars joined to form a train. Some roller coasters feature one or more inversions (such as vertical loops) which turn the riders upside down. Over the years there have been many roller coaster manufacturers with a variety of types of roller coasters. Manufacturers today include: Bolliger & Mabillard Gerstlauer Great Coasters International Intamin Mack Rides Premier Rides Rocky Mountain Construction Vekoma Zamperla Railways Amusement park railways have had a long and varied history in American amusement parks as well as overseas. Some of the earliest park trains were not really trains; they were trolleys, which brought park patrons to the parks on regular rail lines from the cities to the end of the rail lines where the parks were located. As such, some older parks, such as Kennywood in Pennsylvania, were referred to as trolley parks. The earliest park trains that only operated on lines within the park's boundaries, such as the one on the ridable miniature Zephyr Railroad in Dorney Park, were mostly custom-built. A few parks trains (such as the Disneyland Railroad, Walt Disney World Railroad, and Dollywood Express) operate using locomotives that had working careers on common carrier railways. Amusement park railways tend to be narrow gauge, meaning the space between their rails is smaller than that of railroads. Some specific narrow gauges that are common on amusement park railroads are gauge, gauge, gauge, and gauge. Past and present manufacturers include: Allan Herschell Company Brookville Equipment Corporation Cagney Brothers Chance Rides Crown Metal Products Custom Fabricators Custom Locomotives Doppelmayr Garaventa Group Hurlbut Amusement Co. Katiland Trains Miniature Train Co. (MTC) National Amusement Devices Co. (NAD) Ottaway Sandley Severn Lamb Tampa Metal Products Train Rides Unlimited Western Train Co. Water rides Amusement parks with water resources generally feature a few water rides, such as the log flume, bumper boats, rapids and rowing boats. Such rides are usually gentler and shorter than roller coasters and many are suitable for all ages. Water rides are especially popular on hot days. Dark rides Overlapping with both train rides and water rides, dark rides are enclosed attractions in which patrons travel in guided vehicles along a predetermined path, through an array of illuminated scenes which may include lighting effects, animation, music and recorded dialogue, and other special effects. Ferris wheels Ferris wheels are the most common type of amusement ride at state fairs and county fairs in the US. Transport rides Transport rides are used to take large numbers of guests from one area to another, as an alternative to walking, especially for parks that are large or separated into distant areas. Transport rides include chairlifts, monorails, aerial trams, and escalators. Ocean Park Hong Kong is well known for its cable car connecting the Lowland and Headland areas of the park, and for having the world's second longest outdoor escalator in the Headland. Both transportation links provide scenic views of the park's hilly surroundings and, while originally intended for practicality rather than thrills or enjoyment, have become significant park attractions in their own right. Food There are food stands at amusement parks which serve a variety of food and beverages. They offer snack items like cotton candy, ice cream, fried dough, funnel cake, candy, or caramel apples and french fries. Meal items may include pizza, hamburgers, hot dogs, and chicken. Beverages may include soda, coffee, tea, and lemonade. Junk food items like deep fried candy bars, the deep-fried Twinkie, Dippin' Dots ice cream, the blooming onion, and "deep-fried butter on-a-stick" are some of the delicacies that can be found at food stands. Local and regional specialties, along with ethnic foods, are often available such as Empanadas and Tacos. See also Family entertainment center Miniature park Beverly Park References External links Interactive map of the world's theme parks Children's entertainment

Tacoma, Washington

eng_Latn

Tacoma ( ) is the county seat of Pierce County, Washington, United States. A port city, it is situated along Washington's Puget Sound, southwest of Seattle, northeast of the state capital, Olympia, and northwest of Mount Rainier National Park. The population was 219,346, according to the 2020 census. Tacoma is the second-largest city in the Puget Sound area and the third-largest in the state. Tacoma also serves as the center of business activity for the South Sound region, which has a population of about 1 million. Tacoma adopted its name after the nearby Mount Rainier, originally and locally called Takhoma or Tahoma. It is locally known as the "City of Destiny" because the area was chosen to be the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad in the late 19th century. The decision of the railroad was influenced by Tacoma's neighboring deep-water harbor, Commencement Bay. By connecting the bay with the railroad, Tacoma's motto became "When rails meet sails". Commencement Bay serves the Port of Tacoma, a center of international trade on the Pacific Coast and Washington's largest port. The city gained notoriety in 1940 for the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which earned the nickname "Galloping Gertie". Like most industrial cities, Tacoma suffered a prolonged decline in the mid-20th century as a result of suburbanization and divestment. Since the 1990s, downtown Tacoma has experienced a period of revitalization. Developments in the downtown include the University of Washington Tacoma; Line T (formerly Tacoma Link), the first modern electric light rail service in the state; the state's highest density of art and history museums; and a restored urban waterfront, the Thea Foss Waterway. History Early history The area was inhabited for thousands of years by American Indians, most recently the Puyallup people, who lived in settlements on the delta. In 1852, a Swede named Nicolas Delin built a water-powered sawmill on a creek near the head of Commencement Bay, but the small settlement that grew around it was abandoned during the Indian War of 1855–56. In 1864, pioneer and postmaster Job Carr, a Civil War veteran and land speculator, built a cabin (which also served as Tacoma's first post office; a replica was built in 2000 near the original site in "Old Town"). Carr hoped to profit from the selection of Commencement Bay as the terminus of the Transcontinental Railroad, and sold most of his claim to developer Morton M. McCarver (1807–1875), who named his project Tacoma City, derived from the indigenous name for the mountain. Tacoma was incorporated on November 12, 1875, following its selection in 1873 as the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad due to lobbying by McCarver, future mayor John Wilson Sprague, and others. However, the railroad built its depot in New Tacoma, two miles (3 km) south of the Carr–McCarver development. The two communities grew together and joined, merging on January 7, 1884. The transcontinental link was effected in 1887, and the population grew from 1,098 in 1880 to 36,006 in 1890. Rudyard Kipling visited Tacoma in 1889 and said it was "literally staggering under a boom of the boomiest". George Francis Train was a resident for a few years in the late 19th century. In 1890, he staged a global circumnavigation starting and ending in Tacoma to promote the city. A plaque in downtown Tacoma marks the start and finish line. In November 1885, white citizens led by then-mayor Jacob Weisbach expelled several hundred Chinese residents peacefully living in the city. As described by the account prepared by the Chinese Reconciliation Project Foundation, on the morning of November 3, "several hundred men, led by the mayor and other city officials, evicted the Chinese from their homes, corralled them at 7th Street and Pacific Avenue, marched them to the railway station at Lakeview and forced them aboard the morning train to Portland, Oregon. The next day two Chinese settlements were burned to the ground." The discovery of gold in the Klondike in 1898 led to Tacoma's prominence in the region being eclipsed by the development of Seattle. A major tragedy marred the end of the 19th century, when a streetcar accident resulted in significant loss of life on July 4, 1900. Early 20th century From May to August 1907, the city was the site of a smelter workers' strike organized by Local 545 of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), with the goal of a fifty-cent per day pay raise. The strike was strongly opposed by the local business community, and the smelter owners threatened to blacklist organizers and union officials. The IWW opposed this move by trying to persuade inbound workers to avoid Tacoma during the strike. By August, the strike had ended without meeting its demands. Tacoma was briefly (1915–1922) a major destination for big-time automobile racing, with one of the nation's top-rated racing venues just outside the city limits, at the site of today's Clover Park Technical College. In 1924, Tacoma's first movie studio, H. C. Weaver Studio, was sited at present-day Titlow Beach. At the time, it was the third-largest freestanding film production space in America, with the two larger facilities being located in Hollywood. The studio's importance has undergone a revival with the discovery of one of its most famous lost films, Eyes of the Totem. The Great Depression The 1929 crash of the stock market, resulting in the Great Depression, was only the first event in a series of misfortunes to hit Tacoma in the winter of 1929–30. In one of the coldest winters on record, Tacoma experienced mass power outages and eventually the shutdown of major power supply dams, leaving the city without sufficient power and heat. During the 30-day power shortage in the winter of 1929 and 1930, the engines of the aircraft carrier provided Tacoma with electricity. A power grid failure paired with a newly rewritten city constitution – put into place to keep political power away from a single entity such as the railroad – created a standstill in the ability to further the local economy. Local businesses were affected as the sudden stop of loans limited progression of expansion and renewal funds for maintenance, leading to foreclosures. Families across the city experienced the fallout of economic depression as breadwinners sought to provide for their families. Shanty-town politics began to develop as the destitute needed some form of leadership to keep the peace. Tacoma's Hooverville At the intersection of Dock Street EXD and East D Street in the train yard, a shanty town became the solution to the growing scar of the depression. Tacoma's Hooverville grew in 1924 as the homeless community settled on the waterfront. The population boomed in November 1930 through early 1931 as families from the neighboring McKinley and Hilltop areas were evicted. Collecting scraps of metal and wood from local lumber stores and recycling centers, families began building shanties (shacks) for shelter. Alcoholism and suicide became a common event in the Hooverville that eventually led to its nickname of "Hollywood on the Tide Flats", because of the Hollywood-style crimes and events taking place in the camp. In 1956, the last occupant of "Hollywood" was evicted and the police used fire to level the grounds and make room for industrial growth. In 1935, Tacoma received national attention when George Weyerhaeuser, the nine-year-old son of prominent lumber industry executive J.P. Weyerhaeuser, was kidnapped while walking home from school. FBI agents from Portland handled the case, in which a ransom of $200,000 secured the release of the victim. Four persons were apprehended and convicted; the last to be released was paroled from McNeil Island in 1963. George Weyerhaeuser went on to become chairman of the board of the Weyerhaeuser Company. Post-WWII In 1951, an investigation by a state legislative committee revealed widespread corruption in Tacoma's government, which had been organized commission-style since 1910. Voters approved a mayor and city-manager system in 1952. Tacoma was featured prominently in the garage rock sound of the mid-1960s with bands including The Wailers and The Sonics. The surf rock band The Ventures were also from Tacoma. Downtown Tacoma experienced a long decline through the mid-20th century. Harold Moss, later the city's mayor, characterized late-1970s Tacoma as looking "bombed out" like "downtown Beirut" (a reference to the Lebanese Civil War that occurred at that time); "Streets were abandoned, storefronts were abandoned and City Hall was the headstone and Union Station the footstone" on the grave of downtown. The first local referendums in the U.S. on computerized voting occurred in Tacoma in 1982 and 1987. On both occasions, voters rejected the computer voting systems that local officials sought to purchase. The campaigns, organized by Eleanora Ballasiotes, a conservative Republican, focused on the vulnerabilities of computers to fraud. In 1998, Tacoma installed a high-speed fiber optic network throughout the community. The municipally owned power company, Tacoma Power, wired the city. Downtown revival Beginning in the early 1990s, city residents and planners took steps to revitalize Tacoma, particularly its downtown. Among the projects were the federal courthouse in the former Union Station (1991); Save Our Station community group; Merritt+Pardini Architect (1991); Reed & Stem Architects (1911); the adaptation of a group of century-old brick warehouses into a branch campus of the University of Washington; the numerous privately financed renovation projects near the campus; the Washington State History Museum (1996), echoing the architecture of Union Station; the Museum of Glass (2002); the Tacoma Art Museum (2003); and the region's first light-rail line (2003). The glass and steel Greater Tacoma Convention and Trade Center opened in November 2004. America's Car Museum was completed in late 2011 near the Tacoma Dome. The Pantages Theater (first opened in 1918) anchors downtown Tacoma's Theatre District. Tacoma Arts Live manages the Pantages, the Rialto Theater, and the Theatre on the Square. Tacoma Little Theatre (opened in 1918) bridges the Theater District and the Hilltop neighborhood. Other attractions include the Grand Cinema and the Landmark Temple Theatre. Geography Tacoma is at (47.241371, −122.459389). Its official elevation is , varying between sea level and about 500 feet. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water. Tacoma straddles the neighboring Commencement Bay with several smaller cities surrounding it. Large areas of Tacoma have views of Mount Rainier. In the event of a major eruption of Mount Rainier, the low-lying areas of Tacoma near the Port of Tacoma are at risk from a lahar flowing down the Puyallup River. The city is several miles north of Joint Base Lewis–McChord, formerly known separately as Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base. Neighborhoods Central Tacoma Hilltop (shared with Downtown) Delong Park The Wedge McCarver (shared with New Tacoma/Downtown) Bryant College Heights New Tacoma Downtown Tacoma St. Helens Neighborhood Theater District Central Business District Warehouse/Brewery District Thea Foss Waterway The McCarver Neighborhood (shared with Central Tacoma/Hilltop) Stadium District (shared with North Tacoma) Dome District Nalley Valley Port of Tacoma East Tacoma McKinley Hill Salishan Hillsdale Swan Creek Strawberry Hill North Tacoma College Park North Slope Old Tacoma Proctor District Prospect Hill Ruston (separately incorporated) Ruston Way Sixth Ave District Tacoma, Washington Skyline Stadium District (shared with Downtown) Westgate (shared with West Tacoma) Yakima Hill Northeast Tacoma Browns Point (unincorporated) Crescent Heights South End Fern Hill Lincoln International District Wapato Stewart Heights Larchmont South Tacoma Edison South Park Manitou Oakland/Madrona Tacoma Mall West Tacoma Highlands Narrows Titlow Salmon Beach Westgate (shared with North Tacoma) Climate According to the Köppen climate classification, Tacoma has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb), because three months of the year have an average precipitation of less than . The warmest months are July and August; the coldest month is December. Demographics the median income for a household in the city was $37,879, and the median income for a family was $45,567. Males had a median income of $35,820, versus $27,697 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,130. About 11.4% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.6% of those under the age of 18 and 10.9% of those 65 and older. 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 198,397 people, 78,541 households, and 45,716 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 81,102 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 64.9% White (60.5% Non-Hispanic White), 12.2% African American, 8.2% Asian (2.1% Vietnamese, 1.6% Cambodian, 1.3% Korean, 1.3% Filipino, 0.4% Chinese, 0.4% Japanese, 0.2% Indian, 0.2% Laotian, 0.1% Thai), 1.8% Native American, 1.2% Pacific Islander (0.7% Samoan, 0.2% Guamanian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian), and 8.1% were from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 11.3% of the population (8.1% Mexican, 1.1% Puerto Rican). There were 78,541 households, of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no spouse present, 5.6% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 41.8% were other families. 32.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.10. The median age in the city was 35.1 years. 23% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.6% were from 25 to 44; 25.3% were from 45 to 64; and 11.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.4% male and 50.6% female. 2019 United States Census Bureau American Community Survey estimates Crime According to Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 2018, there were 950 violent crimes and 5,641 property crimes per 100,000 residents. Of these, the violent crimes consisted of 84 forcible rapes, 7 murders, 257 robberies and 602 aggravated assaults, while 963 burglaries, 3,674 larceny-thefts, 1,004 motor vehicle thefts and 46 instances of arson defined the property offenses. Tacoma's Hilltop neighborhood struggled with crime in the 1980s and early 1990s. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a marked reduction in crime, while neighborhoods have enacted community policing and other policies. Bill Baarsma (mayor, 2002–2010) was a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, a bi-partisan group with the goal of "making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets". Government The government of the city of Tacoma operates under a council-manager system. The city council consists of an elected mayor (Victoria Woodards) and eight elected council members: five from individual city council districts and three others from the city at-large. All serve four-year terms and are elected in odd-numbered years. The council adopts and amends city laws, approves a two-year budget, establishes city policy, appoints citizens to boards and commissions, and performs other actions. The council also meets in "standing committees", which examine the council's work in more defined areas, such as "Environment & Public Works", "Neighborhoods & Housing", and "Public Safety, Human Services & Education". The council meets as a whole most Tuesdays at 5:00 p.m. in the council chambers at 747 Market St. Meetings are open to the public and provide for public input. Victoria Woodards began her term as mayor of the City of Tacoma on January 2, 2018. She is Tacoma's third African-American mayor and third female mayor, and the second African-American female mayor. She succeeded Marilyn Strickland, who was elected in 2009, becoming Tacoma's first African-American female mayor. Normal day-to-day operations of the city government are administered by Tacoma's city manager, who is appointed by the city council. Elizabeth Pauli was appointed Interim City Manager on February 6, 2017. She replaced former manager T. C. Broadnax, who was appointed to the office in January 2012 and left in 2017 to become the city manager of Dallas, Texas. At the federal level, Tacoma is part of three congressional districts. The western portion of the city is part of the 6th District, represented by Derek Kilmer. The eastern portion is in the 10th District, represented by Marilyn Strickland. Northeastern Tacoma is in the 9th District, represented by Adam Smith. All three are Democrats. Economy Tacoma is the home of several international companies, including staffing company True Blue Inc. (formerly Labor Ready), lumber company Simpson, and the food companies Roman Meal and Brown and Haley. Frank C. Mars founded Mars, Incorporated, in 1911 in Tacoma. Beginning in the 1930s, the city became known for the "Tacoma Aroma", a distinctive, acrid odor produced by pulp and paper manufacturing on the industrial tide flats. In the late 1990s, Simpson Tacoma Kraft reduced total sulfur emissions by 90%. This largely eliminated the problem; where once the odor was ever-present, it is now only noticeable occasionally downtown, primarily when the wind is coming from the east. The mill produces pulpwood and linerboard products; previously owned by St. Regis the mill was sold to RockTenn in 2014. The mill's name changed yet again in 2016 to WestRock. U.S. Oil and Refining operates an oil refinery on the tide flats in the Port of Tacoma. Built in Tacoma in 1952, it refines 39,000 barrels of petroleum per day. The Tacoma Mall is the largest shopping center in Tacoma. It is owned by Simon Property Group. Anchor tenants include JC Penney, Macy's, and Nordstrom. An economic setback for the city occurred in September 2009 when Russell Investments, which has been in downtown Tacoma since its inception in 1936, announced it was moving its headquarters to Seattle along with several hundred white-collar jobs. A large regional office for State Farm occupied the building until 2018 when the building was purchased by the 909 Destiny Fund LLC. The building is reopening as a multi-tenant Class A property. The anchor tenant is TOTE Alaska, which announced in 2019 that it would be relocating its Federal Way headquarters to the 909 A Street building's top two floors. Hospitals in Tacoma are operated by MultiCare Health System and Franciscan Health System. Hospitals include MultiCare Tacoma General Hospital, Mary Bridge Children's Hospital, MultiCare Allenmore Hospital and St. Joseph Medical Center. The Tacoma–Pierce County Health Department manages public health initiatives across the city and county. Top employers According to the City of Tacoma the major employers in the area include the military, healthcare, finance and insurance, aerospace, trade and logistics, government and education. Including: Parks and recreation Parks and recreation services in and around Tacoma are governed by Metro Parks Tacoma, a municipal corporation established as a separate entity from the city government in 1907. Metro Parks maintains over fifty parks and open spaces in Tacoma. Point Defiance Park, one of the largest urban parks in the country (at 700 acres), is in Tacoma. Scenic Five-Mile Drive allows access to many of the park's attractions, such as Owen Beach, Fort Nisqually, and the Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium (PDZA). There are many historic structures within the park, including the Pagoda, which was originally built as a streetcar waiting room. It was restored in 1988 and now serves as a rental facility for weddings and private parties. The Pagoda was nearly destroyed by fire on August 15, 2011. Repair work began immediately after the fire and continued until January 2013, at which time the Pagoda was reopened for public use. Ruston Way is a waterfront area along Commencement Bay north of downtown Tacoma that hosts several public parks connected by a multi-use trail and interspersed with restaurants and other businesses. Public parks along Ruston Way include Jack Hyde Park, Old Town Dock, Hamilton Park, Dickman Mill Park, Les Davis Pier, Marine Park, and Cummings Park. The trail is used by walkers, runners, cyclists, and other recreationalists. There are several beaches along Ruston Way with public access, some of which are also popular for scuba diving. Another large park in Tacoma is Wapato Park, which has a lake and walking trails that circle the lake. Wapato is in Tacoma's south end, at Sheridan and 72nd St. Titlow Beach, at the end of 6th Avenue, is also a scuba diving area. Wright Park, near downtown, is a large, English-style park designed in the late 19th century by Edward Otto Schwagerl and Ebenezer Rhys Roberts. It contains Wright Park Arboretum and the W. W. Seymour Botanical Conservatory. This historic park is also the home of local festivals such as Ethnic Fest, Out in the Park (Tacoma's Pride festival), and the Tacoma Hempfest (Tacoma's annual gathering advocating decriminalization of marijuana). Jefferson Park in North Tacoma is the location of a new sprayground, an area designed to be a safe and unique play area where water is sprayed from structures or ground sprays and then drained away before it can accumulate. Frost Park in downtown Tacoma is often utilized for sidewalk chalk contests. In response to the Tacoma area's growing dog population and stricter leash laws in many areas, dog parks have begun to be established. Rogers Off-Leash Dog Park is a metro public park established in 1949. Architecture Tacoma includes several landmarks and was home to prolific architects, including Everett Phipps Babcock, Frederick Heath, Ambrose J. Russell, and Silas E. Nelsen. Two suspension bridges span a narrow section of the Puget Sound called the Tacoma Narrows. The Tacoma Narrows Bridges link Tacoma to Gig Harbor and the Kitsap Peninsula. The failure of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which was the third-longest suspension bridge in the world, is a famous case study in architecture textbooks. Historic landmarks Tacoma has many properties that are listed on the City of Tacoma Register of Historic Places, the Washington State Heritage Register, and the National Register of Historic Places. The city of Tacoma has an active municipal historic preservation program, which includes 165 individual city landmarks and over 1,000 historic properties included within five locally regulated historic overlay zones. Engine House No. 9 is a fire station built in 1907. The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The building houses a pub and microbrewery. Stadium High School and the Stadium Bowl, part of the Tacoma School District, provided a setting for the movie 10 Things I Hate About You. Fireboat No. 1 rests on a permanent dry berth at a public beach near Tacoma's Old Town neighborhood. It was built in 1929 for the Port of Tacoma by the Coastline Shipbuilding Company, and served for 54 years in waterfront fire protection, harbor security patrols, search and rescue missions, and water pollution control. It is one of only five fireboats designated as a National Historic Landmark. Visitors are able to walk around her exterior, but her interior is closed to the public. William Ross Rust House is a home in Colonial/Classic Revival style, built in 1905 by Ambrose J. Russell (architect) and Charles Miller (contractor). Murray Morgan Bridge is a 1911 steel lift bridge across the Thea Foss Waterway; in 2007, it was closed to automobile traffic due to its deteriorating condition but was reopened to all traffic in February 2013 following a substantial rehabilitation. Other notable buildings include the National Realty Building, Lincoln High School, Rhodes House, Pythian Temple, Perkins Building, Tacoma Dome, and Rhodesleigh. The Luzon Building and Nihon Go Gakko school house have been demolished, and the MV Kalakala was scrapped in early 2015. University of Puget Sound, Cushman Dam No. 1, Cushman Dam No. 2, Rialto Theater, and Union Station are also noteworthy. Education Tacoma's main public school district is Tacoma Public Schools. The district contains 36 elementary schools, eleven middle schools, and 10 high schools, including three non-traditional high schools (SAMi, SOTA, and iDEA) and two alternative high schools (Oakland and Willie Stewart Academy). Tacoma is also home to three charter public schools: SOAR Academy (elementary), Green Dot Destiny (middle) and Summit Olympus (high) school. Henry Foss High School operates an International Baccalaureate program. Sheridan Elementary School operated three foreign-language immersion programs (Spanish, French, and Japanese). Mount Tahoma High School opened a new building in South Tacoma in the fall of 2004. Stadium High School and Wilson High School were remodeled/refurbished and reopened in September 2006. Tacoma School of the Arts, opened in 2001 in downtown Tacoma, is an arts-focused high school that serves as a national model for educational innovation. SOTA is a public school, part of the Tacoma Public Schools, and is one of the nation's first schools to implement standards-based instruction, influencing the design of many schools in the nation. SOTA is in multiple venues around Downtown Tacoma and uses Community Museums and Universities for instructional space. In 2009, SOTA's staff expanded to a second, STEM-based high school located in Point Defiance Park, the Science and Math Institute (SAMI). In 2017, the school district opened a third non-traditional high school in the same vein as SAMI and SOTA, called iDEA (Industrial Design, Engineering, and Art) in south Tacoma. SAMI and SOTA are the only schools in Tacoma to offer University of Washington in the Classroom college credit options from the University of Washington. Lincoln High School reopened in the fall of 2007 after a $75 million renovation and expansion. The area also has numerous private schools, including Evergreen Lutheran High School, the Annie Wright School, Bellarmine Preparatory School, Life Christian Academy, Charles Wright Academy, and Parkland Lutheran School. Tacoma's institutions of higher learning include the University of Puget Sound, Tacoma Community College, City University of Seattle-Tacoma, Bates Technical College, Corban University School of Ministry/Tacoma Campus, as well as satellite campuses of The Evergreen State College and the University of Washington. Pacific Lutheran University is in Parkland, just south of the city; nearby Lakewood is the home of Clover Park Technical College and Pierce College. Cultural attractions The Museum of Glass has a structure standing near the Thea Foss Waterway; the steel cone of the hot shop (glassblowing studio) is one of the most recognizable structures in the city. It is connected to the rest of the Museum District by the Bridge of Glass, which features works by Tacoma native glass artist Dale Chihuly. America's Car Museum opened in June 2012 and displays 300 vehicles in various exhibits on vintage to modern automobiles. The museum pays respects to Harold LeMay's collection, one of the world's largest, with a permanent display entitled "Lucky's Garage". The rest of Harold LeMay's collection can be viewed at the Marymount Event Center, home of the LeMay Family Collection Foundation. Tacoma Art Museum was founded in 1935 and reopened in 2003 in a new building on Pacific Avenue in Tacoma – forming the "museum district" with the Museum of Glass and Washington State History Museum. It is considered a model for mid-sized regional museums. Tacoma Arts Live is home to three theaters, two of which are on the National Register of Historic Places. They are home to the Tacoma Opera, Tacoma Symphony Orchestra, Northwest Sinfionetta, Tacoma City Ballet, Tacoma Concert Band, Tacoma Philharmonic, Tacoma Youth Symphony, Theatre Northwest, and Puget Sound Revels (one of ten Revels organizations nationwide). The Tacoma Film Festival takes place annually at the Grand Cinema. Tacoma is home to the first modern legal American marijuana farmers' market. The downtown Tacoma farmers' market runs every Thursday, from May through September, in the Theatre District. There are also seasonal farmers' markets in the Proctor District (along Sixth Avenue), and in South Tacoma. Tacoma hosts part of the annual four-part Daffodil Parade, which takes place every April in Tacoma, Puyallup, Sumner, and Orting. Shakespeare in the Parking Lot celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2014. Its motto is "taking the fear out of Shakespeare". It offers both educational opportunities and inspired theater in and around Tacoma. Fort Nisqually is a prominent local attraction featuring historical reenactments. The Tacoma Police Department is the site of a public memorial for officers, dominated by the sculptures Memories in Blue and For All They Gave, by James Kelsey. Mass media The city's major daily newspaper is The News Tribune, a subsidiary of McClatchy Newspapers since 1986. Its circulation is about 85,000 (100,000 on Sundays), making it the state's third-largest newspaper. A daily newspaper has been in circulation in Tacoma since 1883. Between 1907 and 1918, four dailies were published: The Tacoma Ledger, The News, The Tacoma Tribune, and The Tacoma Times. 3 AM stations and 6 FM stations are licensed in Tacoma, some of which also serve nearby Seattle. Tacoma's television market is shared with Seattle. Four network owned-and-operated stations are licensed to the city: KCPQ 13 (Fox), KSTW 11 (CW), KTBW-TV 20 (TBN), and KWDK 42 (Daystar). Bates Technical College owns the city's PBS member station, KBTC-TV 28, which serves as the market's secondary PBS station. KBTC is housed at the former studios of KSTW, who sold the property when it moved to Renton in 2001. Local papers include the Tacoma Weekly, the legal paper Tacoma Daily Index, the South Sound alternative newsweekly Weekly Volcano and the military publication the Fort Lewis Ranger. University of Washington Tacoma's weekly student-run newspaper The Ledger is also circulated around downtown Tacoma. Tacoma is also the setting for the American comedy television series Tacoma FD on truTV. Created by members of the Broken Lizard comedy group, the series premiered on March 28, 2019. Sports The city has struggled to keep a minor league hockey franchise. The Tacoma Rockets of the Western Hockey League moved to Kelowna, British Columbia. The Tacoma Sabercats of the former West Coast Hockey League closed their doors for financial reasons. The Tacoma Dome still hosts traveling sports and other events, such as pro-wrestling, figure-skating tours, and the Harlem Globetrotters. At one point, the Tacoma Dome was home to a professional indoor soccer team, the Tacoma Stars. For the 1994–95 season, the Seattle SuperSonics played in the Tacoma Dome while the Seattle Center Coliseum was renovated (and renamed KeyArena). The Tacoma Dome also hosted the 1988 and 1989 Women's NCAA Final Four. Tacoma is home to the all-female flat track roller derby league Dockyard Derby Dames, which fields an away team. Many golf clubs and courses are located in Tacoma including Lake Spanaway Golf Course. Cheney Stadium is home to the Tacoma Rainiers minor league baseball team, the Tacoma Defiance second-division soccer team, and Reign FC of the National Women's Soccer League. Transportation Tacoma's system of transportation is based primarily on the automobile. The majority of the city has a system of gridded streets oriented in relation to A Street (one block east of Pacific Avenue) and 6th Avenue or Division Avenue, both beginning in downtown Tacoma. Within the city, and with a few exceptions, east-to-west streets are numbered and north-to-south streets are given a name or a letter. Some east-to-west streets are also given names, such as S. Center St. and N. Westgate Blvd. Streets are generally labeled "North", "South", "East", or "North East" according to their relationship with 6th Avenue or Division Avenue (west of 'Division Ave', '6th Avenue' is the lowest-numbered street, making it the dividing street between "North" and "South"), 'A Street' (which is the dividing line between "East" and "South"), or 1st Street NE (which is the dividing line between "East" and "North East"). This can lead to confusion, as most named streets intersect streets of the same number in both north and south Tacoma. For example, the intersection of South 11th Street and South Union Avenue is just ten blocks south of North 11th Street and North Union Avenue. To the east of the Thea Foss waterway and 'A Street', streets are similarly divided into "East" and "Northeast", with 1st Street NE being in-line with the Pierce–King county line. "North East" covers a small wedge of Tacoma and unincorporated Pierce County (around Browns Point and Dash Point) lying on the hill across the tideflats from downtown. Tacoma does have some major roads which do not seem to follow any naming rules. These roads include Schuster Pkwy, Pacific Ave, Puyallup Ave, Tacoma Mall Blvd, Marine View Dr (SR 509), and Northshore Pkwy. Tacoma also has some major roads which appear to change names in different areas (most notable are Tyler St/Stevens St, Oakes St/Pine St/Cedar St/Alder St, and S. 72nd St/S. 74th St). These major arterials actually shift over to align with other roads, which causes them to have the name changed. This numeric system extends to the furthest reaches of unincorporated Pierce County (with roads outside of the city carrying "East", "West", "North West", and "South West", except on the Key Peninsula, which retains the north–south streets but chooses the Pierce–Kitsap county line as the zero point for east–west streets. Key Peninsula's roads also carry a "KP N" or "KP S" ("Key Peninsula North" or "Key Peninsula South") designation at the end of the street name. In portions of the city dating back to the Tacoma Streetcar Period (1888–1938), denser mixed-use business districts exist alongside single family homes. Twelve such districts have active, city-recognized business associations and hold "small town"-style parades and other festivals. The Proctor District, Tacoma, Old Town, Dome, 6th Avenue, Stadium, Lincoln Business District, and South Tacoma Business Districts are some of the more prominent of these and coordinate their efforts to redevelop urban villages through the Cross District Association of Tacoma. In newer portions of the city to the west and south, residential culs-de-sac, four-lane collector roads and indoor shopping centers are more commonplace. Roads and highways Seven highways end in or pass through Tacoma: I-5, I-705, SR 7, SR 16, SR 163, SR 167, and SR 509. The dominant intercity transportation link between Tacoma and other parts of the Puget Sound is Interstate 5, which links Tacoma with Seattle to the north and Portland, Oregon, to the south. State Route 16 runs along a concrete viaduct through Tacoma's Nalley Valley, connecting Interstate 5 with Central and West Tacoma, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, and the Kitsap Peninsula. Seattle–Tacoma International Airport lies north, in the city of SeaTac. Public transportation Public transportation in Tacoma includes buses, commuter rail, light rail, and ferries. Public bus service is provided by Pierce Transit, which serves Tacoma and Pierce County. Pierce Transit operates 43 bus routes (five of which through Sound Transit), using a fleet of buses powered by compressed natural gas, diesel, and electric batteries. Bus service operates at 30–60 minute frequencies daily, while three heavily ridden "trunk" routes are mostly served every 20 minutes on weekdays and every half-hour to an hour on weekends as of October 2, 2011. The bus route serving the Pacific Avenue corridor is planned to be upgraded into a bus rapid transit line by 2022, at a cost of $150 million. Sound Transit, the regional transit authority, provides weekday Sounder Commuter Rail service and daily express bus service to and from Seattle. Sound Transit has also established Tacoma Link light rail, a free electric streetcar line linking Tacoma Dome Station with the University of Washington, Tacoma, Tacoma's Museum District, and the Theater District. Expansion of the city's rail transit system is in planning stages by the city of Tacoma and Sound Transit. The line will be extended north along Commerce St/Stadium Way and then west along Division Ave. It will then turn south along Martin Luther King Jr. Way and end near South 19th Street. The Washington State Ferries system, which has a dock at Point Defiance, provides ferry access to Tahlequah at the southern tip of Vashon Island. Greyhound intercity bus service is accessible via Tacoma Dome Station. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Tacoma from Tacoma Dome Station. The Cascades trains, operating as far north as Vancouver, British Columbia and as far south as Eugene, Oregon, serve Tacoma several times daily in both directions. The long-distance Coast Starlight operates daily between Seattle and Los Angeles via the San Francisco Bay Area. Public utilities Tacoma's relationship with public utilities extends back to 1893. At that time the city was undergoing a boom in population, causing it to exceed the available amount of fresh water supplied by Charles B. Wright's Tacoma Light & Water Company. In response to both this demand and a growing desire to have local public control over the utility system, the city council put up a public vote to acquire and expand the private utility. The measure passed on July 1, 1893, with 3,195 in favor of acquiring the utility system and 1,956 voting against. Since then, Tacoma Public Utilities (TPU) has grown from a small water and light utility to be the largest department in the city's government, employing about 1,200 people. Tacoma Power, a division of TPU, provides residents of Tacoma and several bordering municipalities with electrical power generated by eight hydroelectric dams on the Skokomish River and elsewhere. Environmentalists, fishermen, and the Skokomish Indian Tribe have criticized TPU's operation of Cushman Dam on the North Fork of the Skokomish River; the tribe's $6 billion claim was denied by the U.S. Supreme court in January 2006. The capacity of Tacoma's hydroelectric system as of 2004 was 713,000 kilowatts, or about 50% of the demand made up by TPU's customers (the rest is purchased from other utilities). According to TPU, hydroelectricity provides about 87% of Tacoma's power; coal 3%; natural gas 1%; nuclear 9%; and biomass and wind at less than 1%. Tacoma Power also operates the Click! Network, a municipally owned cable television and internet service. The residential cost per kilowatt hour of electricity is just over 6 cents. Tacoma Water provides customers in its service area with water from the Green River Watershed. As of 2004, Tacoma Water provided water services to 93,903 customers. The average annual cost for residential supply was $257.84. Tacoma Rail, initially a municipally owned street railway line running to the tideflats, was converted to a common-carrier rail switching utility. Tacoma Rail is self-supporting and employs over 90 people. In addition to municipal garbage collection, Tacoma offers commingled recycling services for paper, cardboard, plastics, and metals. Notable people Pat Austin, drag racer Zach Banner, NFL player Calvin S. Barlow, Tacoma pioneer Avery Bradley, NBA player Richard Brautigan, novelist, poet, and short story writer Jeff Brotman, attorney Angela Warnick Buchdahl (born 1972), rabbi Dyan Cannon, actress Jerry Cantrell, guitarist Neko Case, musician Dale Chihuly, glass sculptor Bing Crosby, singer and actor Elinor Donahue, actress Joseph Edward Duncan, serial killer and child molester Clinton P. Ferry, Tacoma pioneer and founder, known as the Duke of Tacoma Malachi Flynn, basketball player for the Toronto Raptors David Friesen, musician Abdul Gaddy, basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Cam Gigandet, actor Frank Herbert, author Jo Koy, comedian Gary Larson, cartoonist KC Montero, actor Pamela Reed, actress Isaiah "Swerve" Scott, WWE NXT wrestler Lucy Stedman Lamson, businesswoman, educator Michael Swango, serial killer Miesha Tate, MMA Champion Isaiah Thomas, NBA player Aaron Titlow, lawyer, politician, and real estate developer; the original owner of Titlow Beach Desmond Trufant, NFL player Blair Underwood, actor Jessica Wallenfels, actress, choreographer, and movement/theatre director Sister cities Tacoma's sister cities are: Kitakyushu, Japan (1959) Gunsan, South Korea (1978) Ålesund, Norway (1986) Vladivostok, Russia (1992) Fuzhou, China (1994) Davao City, Philippines (1994) George, South Africa (1997) Cienfuegos, Cuba (2000) Taichung, Taiwan (2000) El Jadida, Morocco (2007) Biot, France (2012) Boca del Río, Mexico (2016) Brovary, Ukraine (2017) See also Aroma of Tacoma Tacoma Public Library Urban Grace Church References External links Official city website Tacoma Regional Convention and Visitor Bureau Alvin H. Waite Photography Collection Prolific Photographer of Tacoma; University of Washington Library Cities in the Seattle metropolitan area Cities in Washington (state) Cities in Pierce County, Washington County seats in Washington (state) Port settlements in Washington (state) Populated places established in 1864 Populated places on Puget Sound Ukrainian communities in the United States 1864 establishments in Washington Territory

Walla Walla, Washington

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Walla Walla is the largest city and county seat of Walla Walla County, Washington, United States. It had a population of 31,731 at the 2010 census, estimated to have increased to 32,900 as of 2019. The population of the city and its two suburbs, the town of College Place and unincorporated Walla Walla East, is about 45,000. Walla Walla is in the southeastern region of Washington, approximately four hours away from Portland, Oregon, and four and a half hours from Seattle. It is located only north of the Oregon border. History Native history and early settlement Near the mouth of the Walla Walla River, where they had stopped to camp, the Lewis and Clark expedition first encountered the Walla Walla people in 1806 and referred to them as "honest and friendly". In addition to the Walla Walla people, the valley was also inhabited by the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Nez Perce indigenous peoples. In 1818, the North West Company established Fort Nez Percés to trade with the Walla Walla people land other local Native American groups. At the time, the term "Nez Percé", French for pierced nose, was used more broadly than today, and included the Walla Walla in its scope in English usage. Fort Nez Perce was renamed to Fort Walla Walla when it was acquired in 1821 by Hudson's Bay Company. It was located west of the present city. The fur trading outpost became a major stopping point for migrants moving west to Oregon Country. It was abandoned in 1855 and is now underwater behind the McNary Dam. After hearing stories of the "Great Father", William Clark, who was serving as the Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and the "White Man's Book of Life", four delegates of the Nez Perce people set out on a 2,000 mile expedition to St. Louis, Missouri in 1831. In 1833, a letter from William Walker, a Wyandot leader who served as an interpreter, appeared in the New York Christian Advocate, claiming that the natives spoke of Clark's visit to Oregon country and his accounting of Christianity. Two of the four delegates died in St. Louis and were buried in Calvary Cemetery. The two remaining delegates, H’co-a-h’co-a-h’cotes-min (No Horns on His Head) and Hee-oh'ks-te-kin (Rabbit's Skin Leggings) encountered George Catlin, a painter who studied native culture, aboard the steamboat Yellowstone in 1832 traveling to Fort Benton in Sioux country. Catlin painted the pair and heard the tale of their journey in search of the veracity of claims that the white man's religion with a savior was better than their own. The paintings now belong to the Smithsonian Institution. In 1835, news of the Nez Perce's search of Clark and Christianity prompted the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to hire Marcus Whitman, a doctor, on a Presbyterian mission in Oregon country for the Walla Walla tribe. On September 1, 1836, Whitman, and his wife, arrived at Fort Walla Walla. Narcissa Whitman was the first white woman to cross the Continental Divide and settle in the area. The Whitmans established the Whitman Mission, in an area inhabited by the Cayuse called Waiilatpu, which means "the place of the rye grass" in the Cayuse language, on October 16, 1836. The mission to convert the natives was unsuccessful, in part because Catholic ceremonies resonated more with the Cayuse. Waiilatpu became an important stop along the Oregon Trail. In 1936, the site was designated as a historic site, Whitman National Monument, and January 1, 1963, as a National Historic Site. On July 24, 1846, Pope Pius IX established the Diocese of Walla Walla and appointed Augustin-Magloire Blanchet to become the first Bishop of Walla Walla. In 1847, following a measles epidemic that disproportionately killed indigenous people from a lack of immunity, the Whitmans, along with 12 others, were killed by the Cayuse. The natives believed that Marcus Whitman was poisoning the natives via sorcery due to his medical and spiritual practice. The Whitman Massacre led to the Cayuse War, and Bishop Blanchet fled to St. Paul, Oregon. In 1850, the Diocese of Nesqually was established in Vancouver and in 1853 the Diocese of Walla Walla was suppressed and absorbed into the Diocese of Nesqually. Today, the Diocese of Walla Walla is a titular see currently held by Witold Mroziewski, an auxiliary bishop of Brooklyn, New York. After Washington became a United States territory in 1853, and the county had been organized in 1854 by the Washington Territorial Assembly, a treaty council was held at Waiilatpu in May and June of 1855, called the Walla Walla Treaty Council. Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens and Joel Palmer, the Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs, met with tribal leaders of the Walla Walla, Cayuse, Nez Perce, Yakima, and Umatilla indigenous peoples who cited Tamanwit, or natural law, as an argument against native reservations. The Tawatoy is recorded in the minutes having said, "[T]his land is afraid. I wonder if this ground has anything to say. I wonder if the ground is listening to what is said. I wonder if the ground would come to life ... though I hear what this earth says. The earth says, God has placed me here. The earth says that God tells me to take care of the Indians on this earth." In 1856, following conflicts between the settlers and the natives, Stevens and Palmer convinced the tribal leaders to agree to surrender 6.4 million acres of land, securing a fraction of their land with a 510,000-acre reservation in northwestern Oregon and $150,000. The amount of land within the boundaries after being surveyed resulted in the natives receiving a reservation only 245,000 acres acres in size, and was later shrunk again to less than 200,000 acres. Founding Amidst the growing conflicts, in fall 1856, the United States Army established a presence in what would later become the heart of downtown Walla Walla with two separate temporary military forts to deal with the increasing conflicts with the natives. The second of the two forts served as quarters for Lieutenant Colonel Edward Steptoe and his soldiers, and a community built up around it called "Steptoeville" while a permanent fort was built adjoining the growing settlement. The namesake was later bestowed on another city, Steptoe, Washington, to honor Steptoe after his loss in the Battle of Pine Creek. The fort was later restored with many of the original buildings preserved, contained in present-day Fort Walla Walla, as well as a museum about the early settlers' lives. While the treaty remained unratified, frontiersmen encroached on the promised reservation, adding to the prevailing indigenous distrust of the white pioneers and persisting conflict in the region. The Walla Walla and Umatilla people refused to move to the Umatilla Indian Reservation. Immigration into the area was stagnant until 1859, due to an order issued by General John Ellis Wool, who was sympathetic to the natives and refused to become "an exterminator" of indigenous people, to ban settlement east of the Cascade Range due to the ongoing conflicts with the natives. Colonel George Wright, who had retaliated against the natives for the murder of the Whitmans and Steptoe's loss, referred to the Cascades as "a most valuable separation of the races". In 1858, the Department of the Pacific was split into two divisions, north and south, with the Department of Oregon covering Washington and Oregon territories commanded by General William S. Harney. General Harney lifted the ban on October 31, 1858, throwing the area open to settlement, after he determined it would be easier to control the natives than to keep the white frontiersmen from moving east. The revocation of the settlement ban triggered thousands of pioneers to swarm to the area. As the home to a burgeoning farming and mining community, Walla Walla grew rapidly. In 1859, Reverend Toussaint Mesplie built and established the city's first church, St. Patrick's Church, and on March 15, Walla Walla county held its first county commission after the first election in the church. The church relocated in 1863, 1865, and 1881, the last building, a Gothic brick building serves as the city's parrish in Historic downtown Walla Walla. Also in 1859, Cushing Eells visited the site of the Whitman Mission and sought to establish a monument in memorial of Marcus and Narcissa Whitman in the form of a high school, and on December 20, the first educational charter was granted to Whitman Seminary which opened on October 15, 1866. In 1882, the institution's name was changed to Whitman College, the legislature issued a new educational charter as a four-year private college. On April 18, 1859 the United States Senate ratified the 1855 Walla Walla treaty, and on November 17, 1859, the commission voted to name the settlement Walla Walla. Following the ratification, Captain George Henry Abbott was ordered to carry out the forced displacement of the remaining Walla Walla and Umatilla people to the reservation, under the threat of hanging. Gold rush, growth, and incorporation Starting in the spring of 1859 and completed in 1862, the first wagon road to cross the Rocky Mountains into the Pacific Northwest, the 611-mile Mullan Road, was constructed by 200 laborers under the direction of Lieutenant John Mullan connecting Fort Walla Walla to Fort Benton in Montana. The road connected the head of the navigation on the Columbia River, where it adjoins the Walla Walla River, with the head of the navigation on the Missouri-Mississippi. Mullan was promoted to Captain after its completion. The nearest part of the road followed the modern approximate path from Spokane to Walla Walla via Interstate 90, U.S. Route 195, and U.S. Route 12. Walla Walla was subsequently tied to more mining opportunities via the road, and became the outfitting point for the Oro Fino, Idaho mines, where gold was discovered on February 20, 1860 by Captain Elias D. Pierce. As more gold was discovered along Mullan road, the population swelled in a gold rush, resulting in an unsuccessful proposal to Congress to split Walla Walla from Washington into its own territory. The population exploded over the following decade to 300% its size, making it the largest city in the territory, slating it to be the capital until cities surpassed it again, after it was bypassed by the transcontinental rail lines, in the 1880s. Following this period of rapid growth, agriculture became the city's primary industry. Walla Walla grew to become the agricultural center for wheat, onions, apples, peas, and wine grapes, and was referred to as "the cradle of Pacific Northwest history". In 1858, Dorsey Syng Baker, a doctor and one of the city's first council members, started a mercantile business in Oregon in which he shared a significant portion of his profits with his cash customers. By 1859, he was doing most of his business in Walla Walla with the miners who trusted him to be "fair" and "honest", and moved it to the city in 1861. In 1862, he partnered with John Franklin Boyer, a pioneer banker from San Francisco, and by 1869, so many miners trusted the pair to hold their gold that they founded the first bank in Washington state, Baker Boyer Bank, which was still active as February 2022. On November 29, 1861, the city's first newspapers, and one of the first between Missouri and the Cascades, the Washington Statesman (Statesman), was produced by brothers William Smith and R. B. Smith, who had purchased a used printing press from The Oregon Statesman, and Major Raymond R. Rees and Nemiah Northrop, who had purchased an old press from The Oregonian. Walla Walla was incorporated on January 11, 1862. The first election was held on April 1, 1862, and Judge Elias Bean Whitman, Marcus Whitman's cousin, was elected as the city's first mayor. Following the election the Statesman alleged the election was improper, and that several ballots were cast by people who did not reside in Walla Walla's boundaries, declaring "there are not to exceed three hundred bona fide voters within the city limits, and yet nearly five hundred votes were polled at the election". Whitman received 416 votes out of 422 total. The election was certified, and during the first year, the number of buildings in the city doubled. 20th century In 1936, Walla Walla and surrounding areas were struck by the magnitude 6.1 State Line earthquake. Residents reported hearing a moderate rumbling immediately before the shock. There was significant damage in the area, and aftershocks were felt for several months following. In 2001 Walla Walla was a Great American Main Street Award winner for the transformation and preservation of its once dilapidated main street. In July 2011, USA Today selected Walla Walla as the friendliest small city in the United States. Walla Walla was also named Friendliest Small Town in America the same year as part of Rand McNally's annual Best of the Road contest. In 2012 and 2013 Walla Walla was a runner-up in the best food category for the Best of the Road. Downtown Walla Walla was awarded a Great Places in America Great Neighborhood designation in 2012 by the American Planning Association. Etymology Tourists to Walla Walla are often told that it is a "town so nice they named it twice". Some locals and Walla Walla natives often refer to the city in text form with "W2". Walla Walla is Nez Perce for "Place of Many Waters", because the original settlement was at the junction of the Snake and Columbia rivers. Walla Walla is humorously mentioned in Pogo, The Three Stooges and Looney Tunes. Geography and climate Walla Walla is located in the Walla Walla Valley, with the rolling Palouse hills and the Blue Mountains to the east of town. Various creeks meander through town before combining to become the Walla Walla River, which drains into the Columbia River about west of town. The city lies in the rain shadow of the Cascade Mountains, so annual precipitation is fairly low. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Walla Walla has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate according to the Köppen climate classification system (Köppen Csa). It is one of the northernmost locations in North America to qualify as having such a climate. In contrast to most other locations having this climate type in North America, Walla Walla can experience fairly cold winter conditions, though they are still relatively mild for its latitude and inland location. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 31,731 people, 11,537 households, and 6,834 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 12,514 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.6% White, 2.7% African American, 1.3% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 9.1% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.0% of the population. There were 11,537 households, of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.6% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.8% were other forms of households. 33.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.10. The median age in the city was 34.4 years. 22% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.2% were from 25 to 44; 23.1% were from 45 to 64; and 14% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.9% male and 48.1% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 29,686 people, 10,596 households, and 6,527 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,744.9 people per square mile (1,059.3/km2). There were 11,400 housing units at an average density of 1,054.1 per square mile (406.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 83.79% White, 2.58% African American, 1.05% Native American, 1.24% Asian, 0.23% Pacific Islander, 8.26% from other races, and 2.85% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17.42% of the population. There were 10,596 households, of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were other forms of households. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 14.2% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.1 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,855, and the median income for a family was $40,856. Men had a median income of $31,753 versus $23,889 for women. The per capita income for the city was $15,792. About 13.1% of families and 18.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.8% of those under the age of 18 and 10.5% of those aged 65 and older. Economy and infrastructure Agriculture Though wheat is still a big crop, vineyards and wineries have become economically important over the last three decades. In summer 2020, there were over 120 wineries in the greater Walla Walla area. Following the wine boom, the town has developed several fine dining establishments and luxury hotels. The Marcus Whitman Hotel, originally opened in 1928, was renovated with original fixtures and furnitures. It is the tallest building in the city, at 13 stories. The Walla Walla Sweet Onion is another crop with a rich tradition. Over a century ago on the Island of Corsica, off the west coast of Italy, a French soldier named Peter Pieri found an Italian sweet onion seed and brought it to the Walla Walla Valley. Impressed by the new onion's winter hardiness, Pieri, and the Italian immigrant farmers who comprised much of Walla Walla's gardening industry, harvested the seed. The sweet onion developed over several generations through the process of selecting onions from each year's crop, targeting sweetness, size and round shape. The Walla Walla Sweet Onion is designated under federal law as a protected agricultural crop. In 2007 the Walla Walla Sweet Onion became Washington's official state vegetable. There is also a Walla Walla Sweet Onion Festival, held annually in July. Walla Walla Sweet Onions have low sulfur content (about half that of an ordinary yellow onion) and are 90 percent water. Walla Walla currently has two farmers markets, both held from May until October. The first is located on the corner of 4th and Main, and is coordinated by the Downtown Walla Walla Foundation. The other is at the Walla Walla County Fairgrounds on S. Ninth Ave, run by the WW Valley Farmer's Market. Wine industry Walla Walla has experienced an expansion in its wine industry in recent decades, culminating in the area being named "Best Wine Region (2020)" in USA Today's Reader Choice Awards. Several local wineries have received top scores from wine publications such as Wine Spectator, The Wine Advocate and Wine and Spirits. Leonetti Cellar, Woodward Canyon, L'Ecole 41, Waterbrook Winery and Seven Hills Winery were the pioneers starting in the 1970s and 1980s. Although most of the early recognition went to the wines made from Merlot and Cabernet, Syrah is fast becoming a star varietal in this appellation. Overall, there are more than 120 wineries in the Walla Walla area, which collectively generate over $100 million for the valley annually. Walla Walla Community College offers an associate degree (AAAS) in winemaking and grape growing through its Center for Enology and Viticulture, which operates its own commercial winery, College Cellars. One challenge to growing grapes in Walla Walla Valley is the risk of a killing freeze during the winter. On average these happen once every six or seven years; the penultimate occurrence (in 2004) destroyed about 75% of the wine grape crop in the valley. In November 2010 the valley was again hit with a killing frost, leading to a 28% decline in Cabernet Sauvignon production, a 20% decline in red grape production, and an overall decline in production of 11% (red and white varietals). Corrections industry The second-largest prison in Washington, after nearby Coyote Ridge Corrections Center in Connell, is the Washington State Penitentiary (WSP) located in Walla Walla, at 1313 North 13th. Originally opened in 1886, it now houses about 2,000 offenders. In addition, there are about 1000 staff members. In 2005, the financial benefit to the local economy was estimated to be about $55 million through salaries, medical services, utilities, and local purchases. The penitentiary is undergoing an extensive expansion project that will increase the prison capacity to 2,500 violent offenders and double the staff size. Until October 11, 2018, Washington was a death penalty state, and occasional executions took place at the state penitentiary; the last execution took place on September 10, 2010. Washington was also one of the last two states to allow hanging as a choice when sentenced to death (the other being New Hampshire); there has not been a hanging since May 1994 (the default method of execution was changed to lethal injection in 1996). Washington was the last state with an active gallows. Healthcare Walla Walla is served by two health care institutions: St. Mary Medical Center (part of the Catholic Providence Health System) and the Jonathan M. Wainwright Veteran's Affairs Medical Center on the grounds of the old Fort Walla Walla and WWII training facility. Transportation Transportation to Walla Walla includes service by air through Walla Walla Regional Airport, several railroads, and highway access primarily from U.S. Route 12. The Washington State Department of Transportation is engaged in a long-term process of widening this road into a four-lane divided highway between Pasco and Walla Walla, with major portions scheduled to be complete in 2022. The highway also acts as the main gateway to Interstates 82 and 84, which run to the west and south, respectively. State Route 125 runs through the city, north to State Route 124 in Prescott and south to Milton-Freewater, Oregon, becoming Oregon Highway 11 at the state line. There are four major bus services in the area connecting the region's cities. Walla Walla and nearby College Place are served by Valley Transit, a typical multi-route city bus service. The city of Milton-Freewater, OR has a single-line bus service with several stops in town with two stops in College Place and five in Walla Walla. Travel Washington's Grape Line is a intercity service between Walla Walla and Pasco that runs three times a day. Finally, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation operates a Kayak bus to Pendleton, with four trips each weekday and two trips each Saturday via its Walla Walla Whistler route. Sports Walla Walla is home of the Walla Walla Sweets, a summer collegiate baseball team that plays in the West Coast League. The league comprises college players and prospects working towards a professional baseball career. Teams are located in British Columbia, Oregon and Washington. Sweets home games have been played at Borleske Stadium in Walla Walla, since their first season in 2010. In only their second season the Sweets played in the WCL Championship game, ultimately losing to the Corvallis Knights. In 2013, the Sweets won their first North Division title with the second best win-loss record in the WCL. The Sweets lost their North Division playoff series to the Wenatchee Applesox that year. Walla Walla Drag Strip is an 1/8 mile dragstrip west of the Walla Walla Regional Airport. The dragstrip is located on an old runway of the airport. There also is a women's flat track roller derby league called the Walla Walla Sweets Rollergirls, their practices and games are played at the Walla Walla YMCA. Walla Walla is the location of Tour of Walla Walla, a four-stage road cycling race held annually in April. The races are held in Walla Walla and in the Palouse hills of nearby Waitsburg. The stages include two road races, a time trial, and a criterium race. The annual Walla Walla Marathon takes place in October and includes a full marathon, half-marathon, and 10k race. The full marathon is a Boston Marathon Qualifier. The race route winds through the streets of the city of Walla Walla and the country roads outside of town, often running past several of the region's many estate vineyards. Fine and performing arts The Walla Walla Valley boasts a number of fine and performing arts organizations and venues. The Walla Walla Valley Bands were formed in 1989 and currently boasts a Concert Band of more than 70 and two Jazz Ensembles. The group rehearses weekly on Tuesday nights at the Walla Walla Valley Adventist Academy in nearby College Place. The Walla Walla Symphony began in 1907 and performs six to eight concerts from October - May. Its primary performance venue is Cordiner Hall on the campus of Whitman College. Other performance venues include the Gesa Power House Theatre and Walla Walla University Church. The Walla Walla Chamber Music Festival is held twice a year and features guest musical ensembles playing classical chamber music in various small venues throughout town. The summer festival includes performances for almost the whole month of June. The winter festival is a small-scale version of the summer program, it is held in mid-January. Shakespeare Walla Walla is a non-profit organization that hosts a summer Shakespeare festival in Walla Walla. They often bring Shakespeare troupes from Seattle and elsewhere to perform about four plays per year. In the past this was done at the Fort Walla Walla Amphitheater, but more recently at the GESA Powerhouse Theatre. The GESA Powerhouse Theatre opened in 2011 in Walla Walla; it was originally the Walla Walla gas plant, hence its name. Its dimensions closely resemble the Blackfriars Theatre once used by William Shakespeare. The venue is used by Shakespeare Walla Walla as well as host to various concerts and other performing arts events throughout the year. The Little Theatre of Walla Walla began in 1944 and moved into its current building on Sumach St. in 1948 where it has performed various plays to this day. The Walla Walla Choral Society began in 1980 and performs a season of three or four concerts per year in various locations around the Walla Walla Valley. Fort Walla Walla Amphitheater is a disused open-air stage with bench seating on the grounds of the Fort Walla Walla Park, next to Fort Walla Walla Museum. It formerly hosted Shakespeare Walla Walla productions and the Walla Walla Community College Summer Musical. In addition, the area's three colleges—Whitman College, Walla Walla University and Walla Walla Community College as well as its largest public high school—Walla Walla High School—stage theater and music performances. Education Walla Walla is primarily served by Walla Walla Public Schools, which includes seven elementary schools (one is in Dixie, six of them are K-5 with one of these being PreK-5), two middle schools, one traditional high school (colloquially Wa-Hi), and two alternative high schools (Lincoln and Opportunity). There is also Homelink, an alternative K-8 education program which is a hybrid of homeschooling and public school programs. There are several private Christian schools in the area. These include: The Walla Walla Catholic Schools (Assumption K-8 School and DeSales High School) Liberty Christian School, non-denominational Rogers Adventist School and Walla Walla Valley Academy, in nearby College Place, both of Seventh-day Adventist affiliation Saint Basil Academy of Classical Studies (K-8) In addition to these, there are three colleges in the area: Walla Walla Community College, co-winner of the 2013 Aspen Prize for Community College Excellence Whitman College, an independent liberal arts college Walla Walla University, in nearby College Place, Washington, affiliated with the Seventh-day Adventist denomination Sister cities In 1972, Walla Walla established a sister city relationship with Sasayama (now named Tamba-Sasayama), Japan. The two cities have since named roads after their counterpart sister city. Walla Walla has also hosted exchange students from Tamba-Sasayama since 1994 for a two-week home-stay experience. Yearlong high school student exchanges between the cities have occurred several times in the past. Cultural/art exchanges involving music, dance, and various art mediums have also occurred. The Walla Walla Sister City Committee has been the recipient of the Washington State Sister City Association Peace Prize in 2011 and 2014 for their involvement in promoting peace, cultural understanding and friendship. Notable people Burl Barer, broadcaster and author Drew Bledsoe, NFL quarterback Hunter Hillenmeyer, former Chicago Bears player Richard Arthur Bogle, businessman and rancher Walter Brattain, Nobel Prize winner and co-inventor of the transistor Evelyn Evelyn, baroque pop duo created by Amanda Palmer and Jason Webley Robert Brode, physicist Wallace R. Brode, scientist Robert Clodius, educator and university administrator Alex Deccio, Politician. Former member of Washington House of Representatives and Washington State Senate. Eddie Feigner, softball player Bert Hadley, actor and makeup artist Alan W. Jones. US Army major general Charly Martin, NFL player Edward P. Morgan, television and newspaper journalist Walt Minnick, U.S. Congressman Mikha'il Na'ima, writer and philosopher David R. Nygren, physicist, inventor of the Time Projection Chamber Eric O'Flaherty, MLB player Charles Potts, poet and publisher Cher Scarlett, software engineer and labor activist Hope Summers, actress Connor Trinneer, actor Jonathan Wainwright, U.S. general Ferris Webster, film editor Adam West, television and film actor; the city celebrates an "Adam West Day" each year on September 19. Hamza Yusuf, Islamic scholar See also List of reduplicated place names Blue Mountain Mall 1936 State Line earthquake Notes References Further reading Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection Elma MacGibbon's reminiscences of her travels in the United States starting in 1898, which were mainly in Oregon and Washington. Includes chapter "Walla Walla and southeastern Washington." Bennett, Robert A. Walla Walla: Portrait of a Western Town, 1804–1899. Walla Walla: Frontier Press Books, c. 1980. Gilbert, Frank T. Historic Sketches: Walla Walla, Columbia and Garfield Counties, Washington Territory. Portland, Oregon: A.G. Walling Printing External links City of Walla Walla Walla Walla Valley Chamber of Commerce Walla Walla Tourism Cities in Washington (state) Washington (state) wine County seats in Washington (state) Populated places established in 1856 1856 establishments in the United States

Timpani

eng_Latn

Timpani (; ) or kettledrums (also informally called timps) are musical instruments in the percussion family. A type of drum categorised as a hemispherical drum, they consist of a membrane called a head stretched over a large bowl traditionally made of copper. Thus timpani are an example of kettle drums, also known as vessel drums and semispherical drums, whose body is similar to a section of a sphere whose cut conforms the head. Most modern timpani are pedal timpani and can be tuned quickly and accurately to specific pitches by skilled players through the use of a movable foot-pedal. They are played by striking the head with a specialized drum stick called a timpani stick or timpani mallet. Timpani evolved from military drums to become a staple of the classical orchestra by the last third of the 18th century. Today, they are used in many types of ensembles, including concert bands, marching bands, orchestras, and even in some rock bands. Timpani is an Italian plural, the singular of which is . However, in English the term timpano is only widely in use by practitioners: several are more typically referred to collectively as kettledrums, timpani, temple drums, or timps. They are also often incorrectly termed timpanis. A musician who plays timpani is a timpanist. Etymology and alternative spellings First attested in English in the late 19th century, the Italian word derives from the Latin (pl. ), which is the latinisation of the Greek word (, pl. ), 'a hand drum', which in turn derives from the verb (), meaning 'to strike, to hit'. Alternative spellings with y in place of either or both i'''s—tympani, tympany, or timpany—are occasionally encountered in older English texts. Although the word timpani has been widely adopted in the English language, some English speakers choose to use the word kettledrums. The German word for timpani is ; the Swedish word is in plural (from the word ), the French and Spanish is , not to be confused with the latin percussion instrument, which would actually supersede the timpani in the traditional Cuban ensemble known as Charanga. The tympanum is mentioned, along with a faux name origin, in the Etymologiae of St. Isidore of Seville: The tympanum is a skin or hide stretched over one end of a wooden frame. It is half of a symphonia (i.e. another type of drum) and it looks like a sieve. The tympanum is so named because it is a half, whence also the half-pearl is called a tympanum. Like the symphonia, it is struck with a drumstick. The reference comparing the tympanum to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny the Elder. Construction Basic timpani The basic timpano consists of a drum head stretched across the opening of a bowl typically made of copper or, in less expensive models, fiberglass or aluminum. In the Sachs–Hornbostel classification, this makes timpani membranophones. The head is affixed to a hoop (also called a flesh hoop), which in turn is held onto the bowl by a counter hoop. The counter hoop is usually held in place with a number of tuning screws called tension rods placed regularly around the circumference. The head's tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Most timpani have six to eight tension rods. The shape and material of the bowl's surface help to determine the drum's timbre. For example, hemispheric bowls produce brighter tones while parabolic bowls produce darker tones. Modern timpani are generally made with copper due to its efficient regulation of internal and external temperatures relative to aluminum and fiberglass. Timpani come in a variety of sizes from about in diameter down to piccoli timpani of or less. A 33-inch drum can produce C2 (the C below the bass clef), and specialty piccoli timpani can play up into the treble clef. In Darius Milhaud's 1923 ballet score La création du monde, the timpanist must play F4 (at the bottom of the treble clef). Each drum typically has a range of a perfect fifth, or seven semitones. Machine timpani Changing the pitch of a timpani by turning each tension rod individually is a laborious process. In the late 19th century, mechanical systems to change the tension of the entire head at once were developed. Any timpani equipped with such a system may be considered machine timpani, although this term commonly refers to drums that use a handle connected to a spider-type tuning mechanism. Pedal timpani By far the most common type of timpani used today are pedal timpani, which allows the tension of the head to be adjusted using a pedal mechanism. Typically, the pedal is connected to the tension screws via an assembly of either cast metal or metal rods called the spider. There are three types of pedal mechanisms in common use today: The ratchet clutch system uses a ratchet and pawl to hold the pedal in place. The timpanist must first disengage the clutch before using the pedal to tune the drum. When the desired pitch is achieved, the timpanist must then reengage the clutch. Because the ratchet engages in only a fixed set of positions, the timpanist must fine-tune the drum by means of a fine-tuning handle. In the balanced action system, a spring or hydraulic cylinder is used to balance the tension on the head so the pedal will stay in position and the head will stay at pitch. The pedal on a balanced action drum is sometimes called a floating pedal since there is no clutch holding it in place. The friction clutch or post and clutch system uses a clutch that moves along a post. Disengaging the clutch frees it from the post, allowing the pedal to move without restraint. Professional-level timpani use either the ratchet or friction system and have copper bowls. These drums can have one of two styles of pedals. The Dresden pedal is attached at the side nearest the timpanist and is operated by ankle motion. A Berlin-style pedal is attached by means of a long arm to the opposite side of the timpani, and the timpanist must use their entire leg to adjust the pitch. In addition to a pedal, high-end instruments have a hand-operated fine-tuner, which allows the timpanist to make minute pitch adjustments. The pedal is on either the left or right side of the drum depending on the direction of the setup. Most school bands and orchestras below a university level use less expensive, more durable timpani with copper, fiberglass, or aluminum bowls. The mechanical parts of these instruments are almost completely contained within the frame and bowl. They may use any of the pedal mechanisms, though the balanced action system is by far the most common, followed by the friction clutch system. Many professionals also use these drums for outdoor performances due to their durability and lighter weight. The pedal is in the center of the drum itself. Chain timpani On chain timpani, the tension rods are connected by a roller chain much like the one found on a bicycle, though some manufacturers have used other materials, including steel cable. In these systems, all the tension screws can then be tightened or loosened by one handle. Though far less common than pedal timpani, chain and cable drums still have practical uses. Occasionally, a timpanist is forced to place a drum behind other items, so he cannot reach it with his foot. Professionals may also use exceptionally large or small chain and cable drums for special low or high notes. Other tuning mechanisms A rare tuning mechanism allows the pitch to be changed by rotating the drum itself. A similar system is used on rototoms. Jenco, a company better known for mallet percussion, made timpani tuned in this fashion. In the early 20th century, Hans Schnellar, the timpanist of the Vienna Philharmonic, developed a tuning mechanism in which the bowl is moved via a handle that connects to the base and the head remains stationary. These instruments are referred to as Viennese timpani (Wiener Pauken) or Schnellar timpani. Adams Musical Instruments developed a pedal-operated version of this tuning mechanism in the early 21st century. Heads Like most drumheads, timpani heads can be made from two materials: animal skin (typically calfskin or goatskin) or plastic (typically PET film). Plastic heads are durable, weather-resistant, and relatively inexpensive. Thus, they are more commonly used than skin heads. However, many professional timpanists prefer skin heads because they produce a "warmer" timbre. Timpani heads are determined based on the size of the head, not the bowl. For example, a drum may require a head. This size difference has been standardized by most timpani manufacturers since 1978. Sticks and mallets Timpani are typically struck with a special type of drum stick called a timpani stick or timpani mallet. Timpani sticks are used in pairs. They have two components: a shaft and a head. The shaft is typically made from hardwood or bamboo but may also be made from aluminum or carbon fiber. The head can be constructed from a number of different materials, though felt wrapped around a wooden core is the most common. Other core materials include compressed felt, cork, and leather. Unwrapped sticks with heads of wood, felt, flannel, and leather are also common. Wooden sticks are used as a special effect—specifically requested by composers as early as the Romantic era—and in authentic performances of Baroque music. Wooden timpani sticks are also occasionally used to play the suspended cymbal. Although not usually stated in the score (excepting the occasional request to use wooden sticks), timpanists will change sticks to suit the nature of the music. However, the choice during a performance is subjective and depends on the timpanist's preference and occasionally the wishes of the conductor. Thus, most timpanists own a great number of sticks. The weight of the stick, size and latent surface area of the head, materials used for the shaft, core, and wrap, and method used to wrap the head all contribute to the timbre the stick produces. In the early 20th century and before, sticks were often made with whalebone shafts, wooden cores, and sponge wraps. Composers of that era often specified sponge-headed sticks. Modern timpanists execute such passages with felt sticks. Popular grips The two most common grips in playing the timpani are the German and French grips. In the German grip, the palm of the hand is approximately parallel with the drum head and the thumb should be on the side of the stick. In the French grip, the palm of the hand is approximately perpendicular with drum head and the thumb is on top of the stick. In both of these styles, the fulcrum is the contact between the thumb and middle finger. The index finger is used as a guide and to help lift the stick off of the drum. The American grip is a hybrid of these two grips. Another known grip is known as the Amsterdam Grip, made famous by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, which is similar to the Hinger grip, except the stick is cradled on the lower knuckle of the index finger. In the modern ensemble Standard set A standard set of timpani (sometimes called a console) consists of four drums: roughly , , , and in diameter. The range of this set is roughly D2 to A3. A great majority of the orchestral repertoire can be played using these four drums. However, contemporary composers have written for extended ranges. Igor Stravinsky specifically writes for a piccolo timpano in The Rite of Spring, tuned to B3. A piccolo drum is typically in diameter and can reach pitches up to C4. Beyond this extended set of five instruments, any added drums are nonstandard. (Luigi Nono's Al gran sole carico d'amore requires as many as eleven drums, with actual melodies played on them in octaves by two players.) Many professional orchestras and timpanists own more than just one set of timpani, allowing them to execute music that cannot be more accurately performed using a standard set of four or five drums. Many schools and youth orchestra ensembles unable to afford purchase of this equipment regularly rely on a set of two or three timpani, sometimes referred to as "the orchestral three". It consists of , , and drums. Its range extends down only to F2. The drums are set up in an arc around the performer. Traditionally, North American, British, and French timpanists set their drums up with the lowest drum on the left and the highest on the right (commonly called the American system), while German, Austrian, and Greek players set them up in the reverse order, as to resemble a drum set or upright bass. (the German system). This distinction is not strict, as many North American players use the German setup and vice versa. Players Throughout their education, timpanists are trained as percussionists, and they learn to play all instruments of the percussion family along with timpani. However, when appointed to a principal timpani chair in a professional ensemble, a timpanist is not normally required to play any other instruments. In his book Anatomy of the Orchestra, Norman Del Mar writes that the timpanist is "king of his own province", and that "a good timpanist really does set the standard of the whole orchestra." A qualified member of the percussion section sometimes doubles as associate timpanist, performing in repertoire requiring multiple timpanists and filling in for the principal timpanist when required. Among the professionals who have been highly regarded for their virtuosity and impact on the development of the timpani in the 20th century are Saul Goodman, Hans Schnellar, Fred Hinger, and Cloyd Duff. Concertos A few solo concertos have been written for timpani, and are for timpani and orchestral accompaniment. The 18th-century composer Johann Fischer wrote a symphony for eight timpani and orchestra, which requires the solo timpanist to play eight drums simultaneously. Rough contemporaries Georg Druschetzky and Johann Melchior Molter also wrote pieces for timpani and orchestra. Throughout the 19th century and much of the 20th, there were few new timpani concertos. In 1983, William Kraft, principal timpanist of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, composed his Concerto for Timpani and Orchestra, which won second prize in the Kennedy Center Friedheim Awards. There have been other timpani concertos, notably, Philip Glass, considered one of the most influential composers of the late 20th century, wrote a double concerto at the behest of soloist Jonathan Haas titled Concerto Fantasy for Two Timpanists and Orchestra, which features its soloists playing nine drums a piece. Performance techniques Striking For general playing, a timpanist will beat the head approximately in from the edge. Beating at this spot produces the round, resonant sound commonly associated with timpani. A timpani roll (most commonly signaled in a score by ) is executed by striking the timpani at varying velocities; the speed of the strokes are determined by the pitch of the drum, with higher pitched timpani requiring a quicker roll than timpani tuned to a lower pitch. While performing the timpani roll, mallets are usually held a few inches apart to create more sustain. Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 requires a continuous roll on a drum for over two and a half minutes. In general, timpanists do not use multiple bounce rolls like those played on the snare drum, as the soft nature of timpani sticks causes the rebound of the stick to be reduced, causing multiple bounce rolls to sound muffled. The tone quality can be altered without switching sticks or adjusting the tuning. For example, by playing closer to the edge, the sound becomes thinner. A more staccato sound can be produced by changing the velocity of the stroke or playing closer to the center. Tuning Prior to playing, the timpanist must clear the heads by equalizing the tension at each tuning screw. This is done so every spot is tuned to exactly the same pitch. When the head is clear, the timpani will produce an in-tune sound. If the head is not clear, the pitch will rise or fall after the initial impact of a stroke, and the drum will produce different pitches at different dynamic levels. Timpanists are required to have a well-developed sense of relative pitch and must develop techniques to tune in an undetectable manner and accurately in the middle of a performance. Tuning is often tested with a light tap from a finger, which produces a near-silent note. Some timpani are equipped with tuning gauges, which provide a visual indication of the pitch. They are physically connected either to the counterhoop, in which case the gauge indicates how far the counterhoop is pushed down, or the pedal, in which case the gauge indicates the position of the pedal. These gauges are accurate when used correctly. However, when the instrument is disturbed in some fashion (transported, for example), the overall pitch can change, thus the markers on the gauges may not remain reliable unless they have been adjusted immediately preceding the performance. The pitch can also be changed by room temperature and humidity. This effect also occurs due to changes in weather, especially if an outdoor performance is to take place. Gauges are especially useful when performing music that involves fast tuning changes that do not allow the timpanist to listen to the new pitch before playing it. Even when gauges are available, good timpanists will check their intonation by ear before playing. Occasionally, timpanists use the pedals to retune while playing. Portamento effects can be achieved by changing the pitch while it can still be heard. This is commonly called a glissando, though this use of the term is not strictly correct. The most effective glissandos are those from low to high notes and those performed during rolls. One of the first composers to call for a timpani glissando was Carl Nielsen, who used two sets of timpani playing glissandos at the same time in his Symphony No. 4 ("The Inextinguishable"). Pedaling refers to changing the pitch with the pedal; it is an alternate term for tuning. In general, timpanists reserve this term for passages where they must change the pitch in the midst of playing. Early 20th-century composers such as Nielsen, Béla Bartók, Samuel Barber, and Richard Strauss took advantage of the freedom that pedal timpani afforded, often giving the timpani the bass line. Muffling Since timpani have a long sustain, muffling or damping is an inherent part of playing. Often, timpanists will muffle notes so they only sound for the length indicated by the composer. However, early timpani did not resonate nearly as long as modern timpani, so composers often wrote a note when the timpanist was to hit the drum without concern for sustain. Today, timpanists must use their ear and the score to determine the length the note should sound. The typical method of muffling is to place the pads of the fingers against the head while holding onto the timpani stick with the thumb and index finger. Timpanists are required to develop techniques to stop all vibration without making any sound from the contact of their fingers. Muffling is often referred to as muting, which can also refer to playing with mutes on them (see below). Extended techniques It is typical for only one timpani to be struck at a time, but occasionally composers will ask for two notes. This is called a double stop, a term borrowed from the string instrument vocabulary. Ludwig van Beethoven uses this effect in the slow third movement of his Ninth Symphony, as do Johannes Brahms in the second movement of his German Requiem and Aaron Copland in El Salón México. Some modern composers occasionally require more than two notes. In this case, a timpanist can hold two sticks in one hand much like a marimbist, or more than one timpanist can be employed. In his Overture to Benvenuto Cellini, for example, Hector Berlioz realizes fully voiced chords from the timpani by requiring three timpanists and assigning one drum to each. He goes as far as ten timpanists playing three- and four-part chords on sixteen drums in his Requiem, although with the introduction of pedal tuning, this number can be reduced. Modern composers will often specify the beating spot to alter the sound of the drum. When the timpani are struck directly in the center, they have a sound that is almost completely devoid of tone and resonance. George Gershwin uses this effect in An American in Paris. Struck close to the edge, timpani produce a very thin, hollow sound. This effect is used by composers such as Bartók, Bernstein, and Kodály. A variation of this is to strike the head while two fingers of one hand lightly press and release spots near the center. The head will then vibrate at a harmonic much like the similar effect on a string instrument. Resonance can cause timpani not in use to vibrate, causing a quieter sound to be produced. Timpanists must normally avoid this effect, called sympathetic resonance, but composers have exploited it in solo pieces such as Elliott Carter's Eight Pieces for Four Timpani. Resonance is reduced by damping or muting the drums, and in some cases composers will specify that timpani be played con sordino (with mute) or coperti (covered), both of which indicate that mutes—typically small pieces of felt or leather—should be placed on the head. Composers will sometimes specify that the timpani should be struck with implements other than timpani sticks. It is common in timpani etudes and solos for timpanists to play with their hands or fingers. Philip Glass's "Concerto Fantasy" utilizes this technique during a timpani cadenza. Also, Michael Daugherty's "Raise The Roof" calls for this technique to be used for a certain passage. Leonard Bernstein calls for maracas on timpani in the "Jeremiah" Symphony and Symphonic Dances from West Side Story. Edward Elgar attempts to use the timpani to imitate the engine of an ocean liner in his "Enigma" Variations by requesting the timpanist play a soft roll with snare drum sticks. However, snare drum sticks tend to produce too loud a sound, and since this work's premiere, the passage has been performed by striking with coins. Benjamin Britten asks for the timpanist to use drumsticks in his War Requiem to evoke the sound of a field drum. Robert W. Smith's Songs of Sailor and Sea calls for a "whale sound" on the timpani. This is achieved by moistening the thumb and rubbing it from the edge to the center of the head. Among other techniques used primarily in solo work, such as John Beck's Sonata for Timpani, is striking the bowls. Timpanists tend to be reluctant to strike the bowls at loud levels or with hard sticks since copper can be dented easily due to its soft nature. On some occasions a composer may ask for a metal object, commonly an upside-down cymbal, to be placed upon the head and then struck or rolled while executing a glissando on the drum. Joseph Schwantner uses this technique in From A Dark Millennium. Carl Orff asks for cymbals resting on the head while the drum is struck in his later works. Additionally, Michael Daugherty, in his concerto "Raise The Roof," utilizes this technique. In his piece From me flows what you call Time, Tōru Takemitsu calls for Japanese temple bowls to be placed on timpani. History Pre-orchestral history The first recorded use of early Tympanum was in "ancient times when it is known that they were used in religious ceremonies by Hebrews." The Moon of Pejeng, also known as the Pejeng Moon, in Bali, the largest single-cast bronze kettle drum in the world, is more than two thousand years old. The Moon of Pejeng is "the largest known relic from Southeast Asia's Bronze Age period." The drum is in the Pura Penataran Sasih temple." In 1188, Cambro-Norman chronicler Gerald of Wales wrote, "Ireland uses and delights in two instruments only, the harp namely, and the tympanum." Arabian nakers, the direct ancestors of most timpani, were brought to 13th-century Continental Europe by Crusaders and Saracens. These drums, which were small (with a diameter of about ) and mounted to the player's belt, were used primarily for military ceremonies. This form of timpani remained in use until the 16th century. In 1457, a Hungarian legation sent by King Ladislaus V carried larger timpani mounted on horseback to the court of King Charles VII in France. This variety of timpani had been used in the Middle East since the 12th century. These drums evolved together with trumpets to be the primary instruments of the cavalry. This practice continues to this day in sections of the British Army, and timpani continued to be paired with trumpets when they entered the classical orchestra. The medieval European timpani were typically put together by hand in the southern region of France. Some drums were tightened together by horses tugging from each side of the drum by the bolts. Over the next two centuries, a number of technical improvements were made to the timpani. Originally, the head was nailed directly to the shell of the drum. In the 15th century, heads began to be attached and tensioned by a counterhoop tied directly to the shell. In the early 16th century, the bindings were replaced by screws. This allowed timpani to become tunable instruments of definite pitch. The Industrial Revolution enabled the introduction of new construction techniques and materials, in particular machine and pedal tuning mechanisms. Plastic heads were introduced in the mid-20th century, led by Remo. Role in orchestra "No written kettledrum music survives from the 16th century, because the technique and repertory were learned by oral tradition and were kept secret. An early example of trumpet and kettledrum music occurs at the beginning of Monteverdi’s opera Orfeo (1607)." Later in the Baroque era, Johann Sebastian Bach wrote a secular cantata titled Tönet, ihr Pauken! Erschallet, Trompeten!, which translates roughly to "Sound off, ye timpani! Sound, trumpets!" Naturally, the timpani are placed at the forefront: the piece starts with an unusual timpani solo and the chorus and timpani trade the melody back and forth. Bach reworked this movement in Part I of the Christmas Oratorio. Mozart and Haydn wrote many works for the timpani and even started putting it in their symphonies. Ludwig van Beethoven revolutionized timpani music in the early 19th century. He not only wrote for drums tuned to intervals other than a fourth or fifth, but he gave a prominence to the instrument as an independent voice beyond programmatic use. For example, his Violin Concerto (1806) opens with four solo timpani strokes, and the scherzo of his Ninth Symphony (1824) sets the timpani (tuned an octave apart) against the orchestra in a sort of call and response. The next major innovator was Hector Berlioz. He was the first composer to indicate the exact sticks that should be used—"felt-covered", "wooden", etc. In several of his works, including Symphonie fantastique (1830), and his Requiem (1837), he demanded the use of several timpanists at once. Until the late 19th century, timpani were hand-tuned; that is, there was a sequence of screws with T-shaped handles, called taps, which altered the tension in the head when turned by players. Thus, tuning was a relatively slow operation, and composers had to allow a reasonable amount of time for players to change notes if they were called to tune in the middle of a work. The first 'machine' timpani, with a single tuning handle, was developed in 1812. The first pedal timpani originated in Dresden in the 1870s and are called Dresden timpani for this reason. However, since vellum was used for the heads of the drums, automated solutions were difficult to implement since the tension would vary unpredictably across the drum. This could be compensated for by hand-tuning, but not easily by a pedal drum. Mechanisms continued to improve in the early 20th century. Despite these problems, composers eagerly exploited the opportunities the new mechanism had to offer. By 1915, Carl Nielsen was demanding glissandos on timpani in his Fourth Symphony—impossible on the old hand-tuned drums. However, it took Béla Bartók to more fully realize the flexibility the new mechanism had to offer. Many of his timpani parts require such a range of notes that it would be unthinkable to attempt them without pedal drums. In the 17th and 18th centuries, timpani were almost always tuned with the dominant note of the piece on the low drum and the tonic on the high drum—a perfect fourth apart. Until the early 19th century the dominant (the note of the large drum) was written as G and the tonic (the note of the small drum) was written as C no matter what the actual key of the work was, and whether it was major or minor, with the actual pitches indicated at the top of the score (for example, Timpani in D–A for a work in D major or D minor). This notation style however was not universal: Bach, Mozart, and Schubert (in his early works) used it, but their respective contemporaries Handel, Haydn, and Beethoven wrote for the timpani at concert pitch. In the 2010s, even though they are written at concert pitch, timpani parts continue to be most often but not always written with no key signature, no matter what key the work is in: accidentals are written in the staff, both in the timpanist's part and the conductor's score. By 1977 in Vienna, Alexander Rahbari, an outstanding Iranian-Austrian composer and conductor commenced the concert with one of his own compositions entitled, Persian Mysticism Around G which, that starts with a short introduction for timpani (five timpani B-C-D-E-G). After a few bars of a stormy passage, e uses an effective glissando effect produced by switching the timpani pedals in the opening, where the timpanist moves from B up to C and then rolling down to G (You can see the glissando notation and also listen to the whole timpani introduction on the right). Rahbari also makes use of a series of acciaccatura during the introduction. Outside the orchestra Later, timpani were adopted into other classical music ensembles such as concert bands. In the 1970s, marching bands and drum and bugle corps, which evolved both from traditional marching bands and concert bands, began to include marching timpani. Unlike concert timpani, marching versions had fiberglass shells to make them light enough to carry. Each player carried a single drum, which was tuned by a hand crank. Often, during intricate passages, the timpani players would put their drums on the ground by means of extendable legs, and perform more like conventional timpani, yet with a single player per drum. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, marching arts-based organizations' allowance for timpani and other percussion instruments to be permanently grounded became mainstream. This was the beginning of the end for marching timpani: eventually, standard concert timpani found their way onto the football field as part of the front ensemble, and marching timpani fell out of common usage. Timpani are still used by the Mounted Bands of the Household Division of the British Army and of the Mounted Band of the Garde Républicaine in the French Army. As rock and roll bands started seeking to diversify their sound, timpani found their way into the studio. In 1959 Leiber and Stoller made the innovative use of timpani in their production of the Drifters' recording, "There Goes My Baby." Starting in the 1960s, drummers for high-profile rock acts like The Beatles, Cream, Led Zeppelin, The Beach Boys, and Queen incorporated timpani into their music. This led to the use of timpani in progressive rock. Emerson, Lake & Palmer recorded a number of rock covers of classical pieces that utilize timpani. Rush drummer Neil Peart added a tympani to his expanding arsenal of percussion for the Hemispheres (1978) and Permanent Waves (1980) albums and tours, and would later sample tympani in his drum solo, "The Rhythm Method" in 1988. More recently, the rock band Muse has incorporated timpani into some of their classically based songs, most notably in Exogenesis: Symphony, Part I (Overture). Jazz musicians also experimented with timpani. Sun Ra used it occasionally in his Arkestra (played, for example, by percussionist Jim Herndon on the songs "Reflection in Blue" and "El Viktor," both recorded in 1957). In 1964, Elvin Jones incorporated timpani into his drum kit on John Coltrane's four-part composition A Love Supreme. Butch Trucks, drummer with the Allman Brothers Band made use of the timpani. In his choral piece A Stopwatch and an Ordnance Map, Samuel Barber employs three pedal timpani upon which are played glissandos. Jonathan Haas is one of the few timpanists who markets himself as a soloist. Haas, who began his career as a solo timpanist in 1980, is notable for performing music from many genres including jazz, rock, and classical. He released an album with a rather unconventional jazz band called Johnny H. and the Prisoners of Swing. Philip Glass with his Concerto Fantasy, commissioned by Haas, put two soloists in front of the orchestra, an atypical placement for the instruments. Haas also commissioned Susman's Floating Falling for timpani and cello. Works Solo "Eight Pieces for Four Timpani" by Elliott Carter "Marches for Timpani" - A. Philidor Small format "Concertante per i bambini del mondo" (for Timpani and Piano) by Luigi Morleo "Floating Falling for Timpani and Cello" by William Susman "Kurenti for Double bass and Timpani" (1994) by Marko Ruždjak "Sonatina for Timpani" by Alexander Tcherepnin Orchestral "Concerto for Six Timpani" by Georg Druschetzky "Concerto Fantasy for two Timpanists and Orchestra" by Philip Glass "Concerto for Timpani and Orchestra Op.34" by Werner Thärichen "Konzertstück for timpani and orchestra" by Mauricio Kagel "Concerto for Timpani and Orchestra" by William Kraft "Concerto for Timpani Op. 37" by Ney Rosauro "Suite for Timpani" (1982) by Graham Whettam Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta by Béla Bartók The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra by Benjamin Britten Symphony No. 1 by Johannes Brahms Symphony for 2 Horns, 2 Violins, Viola, and Timpani by Christoph Graupner Concerto for Wind Band, Timpani, and Orchestra by Gordon Jacob Symphony No. 99 by Johann Melchior Molter Con brio for Orchestra (and Timpani Soloist) by Jörg Widmann Planet Damnation (2012) by John Psathas Animism (1995) by Steve Ridley Suite from Naïs, Overture by Jean-Philippe Rameau See also Electronic tuner List of timpani manufacturers Missing fundamental Vibrations of a drum head Davul References Further reading Adler, Samuel. The Study of Orchestration. W. W. Norton & Company, 3rd edition, 2002. Del Mar, Norman. Anatomy of the Orchestra. University of California Press, 1984. Ferrell, Robert G. "Percussion in Medieval and Renaissance Dance Music: Theory and Performance". 1997. Retrieved February 22, 2006. Montagu, Jeremy. Timpani & Percussion. Yale University Press, 2002. Peters, Mitchell. Fundamental Method for Timpani. Alfred Publishing Co., 1993. Solomon, Samuel Z. How to Write for Percussion. Published by the author, 2002. Thomas, Dwight. Timpani: Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved February 4, 2005. Zoutendijk, Marc. Letters to Flamurai. February 8, 2005. "Credits: Beatles for Sale". Allmusic. Retrieved February 18, 2005. "Credits: A Love Supreme". Allmusic. Retrieved February 18, 2005. "Credits: Tubular Bells". Allmusic. Retrieved February 18, 2005. "William Kraft Biography". Composer John Beal. Retrieved May 21, 2006. "Timpanist – Musician or Technician?". Cloyd E. Duff, Principal Timpani – retired – Cleveland Orchestra. "Timpani" External links The Well-Tempered Timpani—Timpani harmonics information Website of Guido Rückel, solo-timpanist of Munich Philharmonic; many timpani pictures Directly struck membranophones Drums Battle drums Orchestral percussion Pitched percussion Marching percussion Italian words and phrases Bass (sound) Continuous pitch instruments Musical instruments played with soft mallets Orchestral instruments Classical music instruments Baroque instruments

Nicéphore Niépce

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Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (; 7 March 1765 – 5 July 1833), commonly known or referred to simply as Nicéphore Niépce, was a French inventor, usually credited as the inventor of photography and a pioneer in that field. Niépce developed heliography, a technique he used to create the world's oldest surviving product of a photographic process: a print made from a photoengraved printing plate in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he used a primitive camera to produce the oldest surviving photograph of a real-world scene. Among Niépce's other inventions was the Pyréolophore, the world's first internal combustion engine, which he conceived, created, and developed with his older brother Claude Niépce. Biography Early life Niépce was born in Chalon-sur-Saône, Saône-et-Loire, where his father was a wealthy lawyer. His older brother Claude (1763–1828) was also his collaborator in research and invention, but died half-mad and destitute in England, having squandered the family wealth in pursuit of non-opportunities for the Pyréolophore. Niépce also had a sister and a younger brother, Bernard. Nicéphore was baptized Joseph but adopted the name Nicéphore, in honour of Saint Nicephorus the ninth-century Patriarch of Constantinople, while studying at the Oratorian college in Angers. At the college he learned science and the experimental method, rapidly achieving success and graduating to work as a professor of the college. Military career Niépce served as a staff officer in the French army under Napoleon, spending a number of years in Italy and on the island of Sardinia, but ill health forced him to resign, whereupon he married Agnes Romero and became the Administrator of the district of Nice in post-revolutionary France. In 1795, Niépce resigned as administrator of Nice to pursue scientific research with his brother Claude. One source reports his resignation to have been forced due to his unpopularity. Scientific research In 1801 the brothers returned to the family's estates in Chalon to continue their scientific research, and where they were united with their mother, their sister and their younger brother Bernard. Here they managed the family estate as independently wealthy gentlemen-farmers, raising beets and producing sugar. Claude Niépce In 1827 Niépce journeyed to England to visit his seriously ill elder brother Claude Niépce, who was now living in Kew, near London. Claude had descended into delirium and squandered much of the family fortune chasing inappropriate business opportunities for the Pyréolophore. Death Nicéphore Niépce died of a stroke on 5 July 1833, financially ruined such that his grave in the cemetery of Saint-Loup de Varennes was financed by the municipality. The cemetery is near the family house where he had experimented and had made the world's first photographic image. Descendants His son Isidore (1805–68) formed a partnership with Daguerre after his father's death and was granted a government pension in 1839 in return for disclosing the technical details of Nicéphore's heliogravure process. A cousin, Claude Félix Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor (1805–1870), was a chemist and was the first to use albumen in photography. He also produced photographic engravings on steel. During 1857–1861, he discovered that uranium salts emit a form of radiation that is invisible to the human eye. Achievements Photography The date of Niépce's first photographic experiments is uncertain. He was led to them by his interest in the new art of lithography, for which he realized he lacked the necessary skill and artistic ability, and by his acquaintance with the camera obscura, a drawing aid which was popular among affluent dilettantes in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The camera obscura's beautiful but fleeting little "light paintings" inspired a number of people, including Thomas Wedgwood and Henry Fox Talbot, to seek some way of capturing them more easily and effectively than could be done by tracing over them with a pencil. Letters to his sister-in-law around 1816 indicate that Niépce had managed to capture small camera images on paper coated with silver chloride, making him apparently the first to have any success at all in such an attempt, but the results were negatives, dark where they should be light and vice versa, and he could find no way to stop them from darkening all over when brought into the light for viewing. Niépce turned his attention to other substances that were affected by light, eventually concentrating on Bitumen of Judea, a naturally occurring asphalt that had been used for various purposes since ancient times. In Niépce's time, it was used by artists as an acid-resistant coating on copper plates for making etchings. The artist scratched a drawing through the coating, then bathed the plate in acid to etch the exposed areas, then removed the coating with a solvent and used the plate to print ink copies of the drawing onto paper. What interested Niépce was the fact that the bitumen coating became less soluble after it had been left exposed to light. Niépce dissolved bitumen in lavender oil, a solvent often used in varnishes, and thinly coated it onto a lithographic stone or a sheet of metal or glass. After the coating had dried, a test subject, typically an engraving printed on paper, was laid over the surface in close contact and the two were put out in direct sunlight. After sufficient exposure, the solvent could be used to rinse away only the unhardened bitumen that had been shielded from light by lines or dark areas in the test subject. The parts of the surface thus laid bare could then be etched with acid, or the remaining bitumen could serve as the water-repellent material in lithographic printing. Niépce called his process heliography, which literally means "sun drawing". In 1822, he used it to create what is believed to have been the world's first permanent photographic image, a contact-exposed copy of an engraving of Pope Pius VII, but it was later destroyed when Niépce attempted to make prints from it. The earliest surviving photographic artifacts by Niépce, made in 1825, are copies of a 17th-century engraving of a man with a horse and of what may be an etching or engraving of a woman with a spinning wheel. They are simply sheets of plain paper printed with ink in a printing press, like ordinary etchings, engravings, or lithographs, but the plates used to print them were created photographically by Niépce's process rather than by laborious and inexact hand-engraving or drawing on lithographic stones. They are, in essence, the oldest photocopies. One example of the print of the man with a horse and two examples of the print of the woman with the spinning wheel are known to have survived. The former is in the collection of the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris and the latter two are in a private collection in the United States. Niépce's correspondence with his brother Claude has preserved the fact that his first real success in using bitumen to create a permanent photograph of the image in a camera obscura came in 1824. That photograph, made on the surface of a lithographic stone, was later effaced. In 1826 or 1827 he again photographed the same scene, the view from a window in his house, on a sheet of bitumen-coated pewter. The result has survived and is now the oldest known camera photograph still in existence. The historic image had seemingly been lost early in the 20th century, but photography historian Helmut Gernsheim succeeded in tracking it down in 1952. The exposure time required to make it is usually said to have been eight or nine hours, but that is a mid-20th century assumption based largely on the fact that the sun lights the buildings on opposite sides, as if from an arc across the sky, indicating an essentially day-long exposure. A later researcher who used Niépce's notes and historically correct materials to recreate his processes found that in fact several days of exposure in the camera were needed to adequately capture such an image on a bitumen-coated plate. In 1829, Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre, who was also seeking a means of creating permanent photographic images with a camera. Together, they developed the physautotype, an improved process that used lavender oil distillate as the photosensitive substance. The partnership lasted until Niépce's death in 1833, after which Daguerre continued to experiment, eventually working out a process that only superficially resembled Niépce's. He named it the "daguerréotype", after himself. In 1839 he managed to get the government of France to purchase his invention on behalf of the people of France. The French government agreed to award Daguerre a yearly stipend of 6,000 francs for the rest of his life, and to give the estate of Niépce 4,000 francs yearly. This arrangement rankled Niépce's son, who claimed Daguerre was reaping all the benefits of his father's work. In some ways, he was right—for many years, Niépce received little credit for his contribution. Later historians have reclaimed Niépce from relative obscurity, and it is now generally recognized that his "heliography" was the first successful example of what we now call "photography": the creation of a reasonably light-fast and permanent image by the action of light on a light-sensitive surface and subsequent processing. Although initially ignored amid the excitement caused by the introduction of the daguerreotype, and far too insensitive to be practical for making photographs with a camera, the utility of Niépce's original process for its primary purpose was eventually realized. From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, a thin coating of bitumen was widely used as a slow but very effective and economical photoresist for making printing plates. Pyréolophore The Pyréolophore, probably the world's first internal combustion engine that was actually built, was invented and patented by the Niépce brothers in 1807. This engine ran on controlled dust explosions of lycopodium powder and was installed on a boat that ran on the river Saône. Ten years later, the brothers were the first in the world to make an engine work with a fuel injection system. Marly machine In 1807 the imperial government opened a competition for a hydraulic machine to replace the original Marly machine (located in Marly-le-Roi) that delivered water to the Palace of Versailles from the Seine river. The machine was built in Bougival in 1684, from where it pumped water a distance of one kilometer and raised it 150 meters. The Niépce brothers conceived a new hydrostatic principle for the machine and improved it once more in 1809. The machine had undergone changes in many of its parts, including more precise pistons, creating far less resistance. They tested it many times, and the result was that with a stream drop of 4 feet 4 inches, it lifted water 11 feet. But in December 1809 they got a message that they had waited too long and the Emperor had taken on himself the decision to ask the engineer (1742–1818) to build a steam engine to operate the pumps at Marly. Vélocipède In 1818 Niépce became interested in the ancestor of the bicycle, a Laufmaschine invented by Karl von Drais in 1817. He built himself a model and called it the vélocipède (fast foot) and caused quite a sensation on the local country roads. Niépce improved his machine with an adjustable saddle and it is now exhibited at the Niépce Museum. In a letter to his brother Nicéphore contemplated motorizing his machine. Legacy and commemoration The lunar crater Niépce is named after him. Niépce's photograph View from the Window at Le Gras is on display in the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The image was rediscovered in 1952 by historians Alison and Helmut Gernsheim. The Niépce Prize has been awarded annually since 1955 to a professional photographer who has lived and worked in France for over 3 years. It was introduced in honour of Niépce by Albert Plécy of the l'Association Gens d'Images. See also Timeline of photography technology Timeline of transportation technology History of the internal combustion engine François Isaac de Rivaz Janine Niépce, photographer List of works by Eugène Guillaume References Sources Marignier, J. L., Niépce: l'invention de la photographie (1999) Bajac, Q., The Invention of Photography, trans. R. Taylor (2002) External links Website about Niépce Website about Niépce University of Texas exhibition site on "The First Photograph" The history men: Helmut Gernsheim and Nicéphore Niépce on Photo Histories Home page of the 'Niépce prize' at the association Gens d'Images 1765 births 1833 deaths People from Chalon-sur-Saône Pioneers of photography 19th-century French inventors 19th-century French photographers People associated with the internal combustion engine

Alamo Mission in San Antonio

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The Alamo Mission (), commonly called the Alamo and originally known as the Misión San Antonio de Valero, is an historic Spanish mission and fortress compound founded in the 18th century by Roman Catholic missionaries in what is now San Antonio, Texas, United States. It was the site of the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, where American folk heroes James Bowie and Davy Crockett died. Today it is a museum in the Alamo Plaza Historic District and a part of the San Antonio Missions World Heritage Site. The historic district was one of the early Spanish missions in Texas, built for the education of local American Indians after their conversion to Christianity. The mission was secularized in 1793 and then abandoned. Ten years later, it became a fortress housing the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras military unit, who likely gave the mission the name Alamo. During the Texas Revolution, Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered the fort to the Texian Army in December 1835, following the Siege of Béxar. A relatively small number of Texian soldiers then occupied the compound for several months. The defenders were wiped out at the Battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. As the Mexican Army retreated from Texas several months later, they tore down many of the Alamo walls and burned some of the buildings. For the next five years, the Alamo was periodically used to garrison soldiers, both Texian and Mexican, but was ultimately abandoned. In 1849, several years after Texas was annexed to the United States, the U.S. Army began renting the facility for use as a quartermaster's depot, before again abandoning the mission in 1876 after nearby Fort Sam Houston was established. The Alamo chapel was sold to the state of Texas, which conducted occasional tours but made no effort to restore it. The remaining buildings were sold to a mercantile company that operated them as a wholesale grocery store. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) formed in 1891 and began trying to preserve the Alamo. Adina Emilia De Zavala and Clara Driscoll successfully convinced the state legislature in 1905 to purchase the remaining buildings and to name the DRT as the permanent custodian of the site. Over the next century, periodic attempts were made to transfer control of the Alamo from the DRT. In early 2015, Texas Land Commissioner George P. Bush officially moved control of the Alamo to the Texas General Land Office. The Alamo and the four missions in the San Antonio Missions National Historical Park were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 5, 2015. History Mission In 1716, the Spanish government established several Roman Catholic missions in East Texas. The isolation of the missions—the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista, Coahuila was over away—made it difficult to keep them adequately provisioned. To assist the missionaries, the new governor of Spanish Texas, Martín de Alarcón, wished to establish a waystation between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas. In April 1718, Alarcón led an expedition to found a new community in Texas. The group erected a temporary mud, brush, and straw structure near the headwaters of the San Antonio River. This building would serve as a new mission, San Antonio de Valero, named after Saint Anthony of Padua and the viceroy of New Spain, the Marquess of Valero. Alarcón, acting in his capacity as "General of the Provinces of the Kingdom of the New Philippines," formally entrusted the mission on May 1 to Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares in a foundation document, still preserved. The mission was located near a community of Coahuiltecans and was initially populated by three to five Indian converts from Mission San Francisco Solano near San Juan Bautista. One mile (two km) north of the mission, Alarcón built a fort, the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar. Close by, he founded the first civilian community in Texas, San Antonio de Béxar, which later developed into the present-day city of San Antonio, Texas. Within a year, the mission moved to the western bank of the river, where it was less likely to flood. Over the next several years, a chain of missions was established nearby. In 1724, after remnants of a Gulf Coast hurricane destroyed the existing structures at Misión San Antonio de Valero, the mission was moved to its current location. At the time, the new location was just across the San Antonio River from the town of San Antonio de Béxar and just north of a group of huts known as La Villita. Over the next several decades, the mission complex expanded to cover . The first permanent building was likely the two-story, L-shaped stone residence for the priests. The building served as parts of the west and south edges of an inner courtyard. A series of adobe barracks buildings were constructed to house the mission Indians and a textile workshop was erected. By 1744, over 300 Indian converts resided at San Antonio de Valero. The mission was largely self-sufficient, relying on its 2,000 head of cattle and 1,300 sheep for food and clothing. Each year, the mission's farmland produced up to 2,000 bushels of corn and 100 bushels of beans; cotton was also grown. The first stones were laid for a more permanent church building in 1744, however, the church, its tower, and the sacristy collapsed in the late 1750s. Reconstruction began in 1758, with the new chapel located at the south end of the inner courtyard. Constructed of thick limestone blocks, it was intended to be three stories high and topped by a dome, with bell towers on either side. Its shape was a traditional cross, with a long nave and short transepts. Although the first two levels were completed, the bell towers and third story were never begun. While four stone arches were erected to support the planned dome, the dome itself was never built. As the church was never completed, it is unlikely that it was ever used for religious services. The chapel was intended to be highly decorated. Niches were carved on either side of the door to hold statues. The lower-level niches displayed Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, while the second-level niches contained statues of Saint Clare and Saint Margaret of Cortona. Carvings were also completed around the chapel's door. Up to 30 adobe or mud buildings were constructed to serve as workrooms, storerooms, and homes for the Indian residents. As the nearby presidio was perpetually understaffed, the mission was built to withstand attacks by Apache and Comanche raiders. In 1745, 100 mission Indians successfully drove off a band of 300 Apaches which had surrounded the presidio. Their actions saved the presidio, the mission, and likely the town from destruction. Walls were erected around the Indian homes in 1758, likely in response to a massacre at the Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá. The convent and church were not fully enclosed within the high walls. The walls were built thick and enclosed an area long (north-south) and wide (east-west). For additional protection, a turret housing three cannon was added near the main gate in 1762. By 1793, an additional one-pounder cannon had been placed on a rampart near the convent. The population of Indians fluctuated from a high of 328 in 1756 to a low of 44 in 1777. The new commandant general of the interior provinces, Teodoro de Croix, thought the missions were a liability and began taking actions to decrease their influence. In 1778, he ruled that all unbranded cattle belonged to the government. Raiding Apache tribes had stolen most of the mission's horses, making it difficult to round up and brand the cattle. As a result, when the ruling took effect, the mission lost a great deal of its wealth and was unable to support a larger population of converts. By 1793, only 12 Indians remained. By this point, few of the hunting and gathering tribes in Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, Misión San Antonio de Valero was secularized. Shortly after, the mission was abandoned. Most locals were uninterested in the buildings. Visitors were often more impressed. In 1828, French naturalist Jean Louis Berlandier visited the area. He mentioned the Alamo complex: "An enormous battlement and some barracks are found there, as well as the ruins of a church which could pass for one of the loveliest monuments of the area, even if its architecture is overloaded with ornamentation like all the ecclesiastical buildings of the Spanish colonies." Military In the 19th century, the mission complex became known as "the Alamo". The name may have been derived from a grove of nearby cottonwood trees, known in Spanish as álamo. Alternatively, in 1803, the abandoned compound was occupied by the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras, from Álamo de Parras in Coahuila. Locals often called them simply the "Alamo Company". During the Mexican War of Independence, parts of the mission frequently served as a political prison. Between 1806 and 1812 it served as San Antonio's first hospital. Spanish records indicate that some renovations were made for this purpose, but no details were provided. The buildings were transferred from Spanish to Mexican control in 1821 after Mexico gained its independence. Soldiers continued to garrison the complex until December 1835, when General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered to Texian forces following a two-month siege of San Antonio de Béxar during the Texas Revolution. In the few months that Cos supervised the troops garrisoned in San Antonio, he had ordered many improvements to the Alamo. Cos' men likely demolished the four stone arches that were to support a future chapel dome. The debris from these was used to build a ramp to the apse of the chapel building. There, the Mexican soldiers placed three cannon, which could fire over the walls of the roofless building. To close a gap between the church and the barracks (formerly the convent building) and the south wall, the soldiers built a palisade. When Cos retreated, he left behind 19 cannons, including a 16-pounder. Battle of the Alamo With Cos' departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas, and many Texians believed the war was over. Colonel James C. Neill assumed command of the 100 soldiers who remained. Neill requested that an additional 200 men be sent to fortify the Alamo, and expressed fear that his garrison could be starved out of the Alamo after a four-day siege. However, the Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance. Determined to make the best of the situation, Neill and engineer Green B. Jameson began working to fortify the Alamo. Jameson installed the cannons that Cos had left along the walls. Heeding Neill's warnings, General Sam Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to take 35–50 men to Béxar to help Neill move all of the artillery and destroy the fortress. There were not enough oxen to move the artillery to a safer place, and most of the men believed the complex was of strategic importance to protecting the settlements to the east. On January 26, the Texian soldiers passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. On February 11, Neill went on furlough to pursue additional reinforcements and supplies for the garrison. William Travis and James Bowie agreed to share command of the Alamo. On February 23, the Mexican Army, under the command of President-General Antonio López de Santa Anna, arrived in San Antonio de Béxar intent on recapturing the city. For the next thirteen days, the Mexican Army laid siege to the Alamo, during which work continued on its interior. After Mexican soldiers tried to block the irrigation ditch leading into the fort, Jameson supervised the digging of a well at the south end of the plaza. Although the men hit the water, they weakened an earth and timber parapet near the barracks, collapsing it and leaving no way to fire safely over that wall. The siege ended in a fierce battle on March 6. As the Mexican Army overran the walls, most of the Texians fell back to the long barracks (convent) and the chapel. During the siege, Texians had carved holes in many of the walls of these rooms so that they would be able to fire. Each room had only one door which led into the courtyard and which had been "buttressed by semicircular parapets of dirt secured with cowhides". Some of the rooms even had trenches dug into the floor to provide some cover for the defenders. Mexican soldiers used the abandoned Texian cannon to blow off the doors of the rooms, allowing Mexican soldiers to enter and defeat the Texians. The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two cannon in the chapel. The entrance to the church had been barricaded with sandbags, which the Texians were able to fire over. A shot from the cannon destroyed the barricades, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death. Texian Robert Evans was master of ordnance and had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder. If he had succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church. Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned. All, or almost all, of the Texian defenders were killed in the battle, although some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape. Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600  Mexicans were killed or wounded. This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which historian Terry Todish stated was "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards". Further military use Following the battle of the Alamo, one thousand Mexican soldiers, under General Juan Andrade, remained at the mission. For the next two months, they repaired and fortified the complex, however, no records remain of what improvements they made to the structure. After the Mexican army's defeat at the Battle of San Jacinto and the capture of Santa Anna, the Mexican army agreed to leave Texas, effectively ending the Texas Revolution. As Andrade and his garrison joined the retreat on May 24, they spiked the cannons, tore down many of the Alamo walls, and set fires throughout the complex. Only a few buildings survived their efforts; the chapel was left in ruins, most of the Long Barracks was still standing, and the building that had contained the south wall gate and several rooms were mostly intact. The Texians briefly used the Alamo as a fortress in December 1836 and again in January 1839. The Mexican army regained control in March 1841 and September 1842 as they briefly took San Antonio de Bexar. According to historians Roberts and Olson, "both groups carved names in the Alamo's walls, dug musket rounds out of the holds, and knocked off stone carvings". Pieces of the debris were sold to tourists, and in 1840 the San Antonio town council passed a resolution allowing local citizens to take stone from the Alamo at a cost of $5 per wagonload. By the late 1840s, even the four statues located on the front wall of the chapel had been removed. On January 13, 1841, the Republic of Texas legislature passed an act returning the sanctuary of the Alamo to the Roman Catholic Church. By 1845, when Texas was annexed to the United States, a colony of bats occupied the abandoned complex and weeds and grass covered many of the walls. As the Mexican–American War loomed in 1846, 2000 United States Army soldiers were sent to San Antonio under Brigadier General John Wool. By the end of the year, they had appropriated part of the Alamo complex for the Quartermaster's Department. Within eighteen months, the convent building had been restored to serve as offices and storerooms. The chapel remained vacant, however, as the army, the Roman Catholic Church, and the city of San Antonio bickered over its ownership. An 1855 decision by the Texas Supreme Court reaffirmed that the Catholic Church was the rightful owner of the chapel. While litigation was ongoing, the army rented the chapel from the Catholic Church for $150 per month. Under the army's oversight, the Alamo was greatly repaired. Soldiers cleared the grounds and rebuilt the old convent and the mission walls, primarily from the original stone which was strewn along the ground. During the renovations, a new wooden roof was added to the chapel and the campanulate, or bell-shaped facade, was added to the front wall of the chapel. At the time, reports suggested that the soldiers found several skeletons while clearing the rubble from the chapel floor. The new chapel roof was destroyed in a fire in 1861. The army also cut additional windows into the chapel, adding two on the upper level of the facade as well as additional windows on the other three sides of the building. The complex eventually contained a supply depot, offices, storage facilities, a blacksmith shop, and stables. During the American Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy, and the Alamo complex was taken over by the Confederate Army. In February 1861, the Texan Militia, under direction from the Texas Secession Convention and led by Ben McCullough and Sam Maverick, confronted General Twiggs, commander of all US Forces in Texas and headquartered at the Alamo. Twiggs elected to surrender and all supplies were turned over to the Texans. Following the Confederacy's defeat, the United States Army again maintained control over the Alamo. Shortly after the war ended, however, the Catholic Church requested that the army vacate the premises so that the Alamo could become a place of worship for local German Catholics. The army refused, and the church made no further attempts at retaking the complex. Mercantile The army abandoned the Alamo in 1876 when Fort Sam Houston was established in San Antonio. About that time, the Church sold the convent to Honore Grenet, who added a new two-story wood building to the complex. Grenet used the convent and the new building for a wholesale grocery business. After Grenet's death in 1882, his business was purchased by the mercantile firm, Hugo & Schmeltzer, which continued to operate the store. San Antonio's first rail service began in 1877, and the city's tourism industry began to grow. The city heavily advertised the Alamo, using photographs and drawings that showed only the chapel, not the surrounding city. Many of the visitors were disappointed with their visit; in 1877 tourist Harrier P. Spofford wrote that the chapel was "a reproach to all San Antonio. Its wall is overthrown and removed, its dormitories are piled with military stores, its battle-scarred front has been revamped and repainted and market carts roll to and fro on the spot where flames ascended ... over the funeral pyre of heroes". Ownership transfer In 1883, the Catholic Church sold the chapel to the State of Texas for $20,000. The state hired Tom Rife to manage the building. He gave tours but did not make any efforts to restore the chapel, to the annoyance of many. In the past decades, soldiers and members of the local Masonic lodge, which had used the building for meetings, had inscribed various graffiti on the walls and statues. In May 1887 a devout Catholic who was incensed that Masonic emblems had been inscribed on a statue of Saint Teresa was arrested after breaking into the building and smashing statues with a sledgehammer. The 50th anniversary of the fall of the Alamo received little attention. In an editorial after the fact, the San Antonio Express called for the formation of a new society that would help recognize important historical events. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) organized in 1892 with one of their main goals being to preserve the Alamo. Among its early members was Adina Emilia De Zavala, granddaughter of the Republic of Texas Vice-president Lorenzo de Zavala. Shortly before the turn of the 20th century, Adina de Zavala convinced Gustav Schmeltzer, owner of the convent, to give the DRT first option in purchasing the building if it was ever sold. In 1903, when Schmeltzer wanted to sell the building to a developer, he offered the building first to the DRT for $75,000, which they did not have. During De Zavala's attempts to raise the money, she met Clara Driscoll, an heiress who was very interested in Texas history, especially the Alamo. Shortly thereafter, Driscoll joined the DRT and was appointed chair of the San Antonio chapter's fund-raising committee. The DRT negotiated a 30-day option on the property, wherein the group would pay $500 up front, with $4,500 due at the conclusion of the 30 days, with an additional $20,000 due on February 10, 1904, and the remainder paid in five annual installments of $10,000. Driscoll paid the initial $500 deposit out of her personal funds, and when fundraising efforts fell far short (only raising slightly over $1,000 of the needed $4,500), Driscoll paid the balance of the $4,500 from her own pocket. At the urging of both Driscoll and de Zavala, the Texas Legislature approved $5,000 for the committee to use as part of the next payment. The appropriation was vetoed by Governor S. W. T. Lanham, who said it was "not a justifiable expenditure of the taxpayers' money". DRT members set up a collection booth outside the Alamo and held several fundraising activities, collecting $5,662.23. Driscoll agreed to make up the difference, as well as agreeing to pay the final $50,000. After hearing of her generosity, various newspapers in Texas dubbed her the "Savior of the Alamo". Many groups began to petition the legislature to reimburse Driscoll. In January 1905, de Zavala drafted a bill that was sponsored by representative Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. (father of future US President Lyndon Baines Johnson), to reimburse Driscoll and name the DRT custodian of the Alamo. The bill passed, and Driscoll received all of her money back. Driscoll and de Zavala argued over how best to preserve the building. De Zavala wished to restore the exterior of the buildings to a state similar to its 1836 appearance, focusing on the convent (then called the long barracks), while Driscoll wanted to tear down the long barracks and create a monument similar to those she had seen in Europe: "a city center opened by a large plaza and anchored by an ancient chapel". Unable to reach an agreement, Driscoll and several other women formed a competing chapter of the DRT named the Alamo Mission chapter. The two chapters argued over which had oversight of the Alamo. Unable to resolve the dispute, in February 1908 the executive committee of the DRT leased out the building. Angry with that decision, de Zavala announced that a syndicate wanted to buy the chapel and tear it down. She then barricaded herself in the Hugo and Schmeltzer building for three days. In response to de Zavala's actions, on February 12, Governor Thomas Mitchell Campbell ordered that the superintendent of public buildings and grounds take control of the property. Eventually, a judge named Driscoll's chapter the official custodians of the Alamo. The DRT later expelled de Zavala and her followers. Restoration Driscoll offered to donate the money required to tear down the convent, build a stone wall around the Alamo complex, and convert the interior into a park. The legislature postponed a decision until after the 1910 elections after which Texas had a new governor, Oscar Branch Colquitt. Both de Zavala and Driscoll spoke, and Colquitt toured the property; three months later, Colquitt removed the DRT as official custodians of the Alamo, citing that they had done nothing to restore the property since gaining control. He also announced an intent to rebuild the convent. Shortly thereafter, the legislature paid to demolish the building that had been added by Hugo and Schmeltzer and authorized $5,000 to restore the rest of the complex. The restorations were begun, but not finished, as the appropriations fell short of the costs. Driscoll, upset over Colquitt's decisions, used her influence as a major donor to the Democratic Party to undermine him. At the time, Colquitt was considered running for U.S. Senate. She told the New York Herald Tribune that "the Daughters desire to have a Spanish garden on the site of the old mission, but the governor will not consider it. Therefore, we are going to fight him from the stump. ... We are also going to make speeches in the districts of State Senators who voted against and killed the amendment" to return control of the mission to the DRT. Subsequently, while Colquitt was out of state on a business trip, Lieutenant Governor William Harding Mayes allowed the removal of the upper-story walls of the long barracks from the convent, leaving only the one-story walls of the west and south portions of the building. This conflict became known as the Second Battle of the Alamo. Upon their deaths in 1945 and 1955, Driscoll and de Zavala, respectively, had their bodies laid in state in the Alamo Chapel. In 1931, Driscoll persuaded the state legislature to purchase two tracts of land between the chapel and Crockett street. In 1935, she convinced the city of San Antonio not to place a fire station in a building near the Alamo; the DRT later purchased that building and made it the DRT Library. During the Great Depression, money from the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration was used to construct a wall around the Alamo and a museum, and to raze several non-historic buildings on the Alamo property. The Alamo was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1961. It was an inaugural listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 and is a contributing property to the Alamo Plaza Historic District, which was designated in 1977. As San Antonio prepared to host the Hemisfair in 1968, the long barracks were roofed and turned into a museum. Few structural changes have taken place since then. According to Herbert Malloy Mason's Spanish Missions of Texas, the Alamo is one of "the finest examples of Spanish ecclesiastical building on the North American continent". The mission, along with others located in San Antonio, is at risk from environmental factors, however. The limestone used to construct the buildings was taken from the banks of the San Antonio River. It expands when confronted with moisture and then contracts when temperatures drop, shedding small pieces of limestone with each cycle. Measures have been taken to partially combat the problem. Ownership dispute In 1988, a theater near the Alamo unveiled a new movie, Alamo ... the Price of Freedom. The 40-minute-long film would be screened several times each day. The movie attracted many protests from Mexican-American activists, who decried the anti-Mexican comments and complained that it ignored Tejano contributions to the battle. The movie was re-edited in response to the complaints, but the controversy grew to the point that many activists began pressuring the legislature to move control of the Alamo to the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). In response to pressure from Hispanic groups, state representative Orlando Garcia of San Antonio began legislative hearings into DRT finances. The DRT agreed to make their financial records more open, and the hearings were canceled. Shortly after that, San Antonio representative Jerry Beauchamp proposed that the Alamo be transferred from the DRT to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Many minority legislators agreed with him. However, the San Antonio mayor, Henry Cisneros, advocated that control remain with the DRT, and the legislature shelved the bill. Several years later, Carlos Guerra, a reporter for the San Antonio Express-News, began writing columns attacking the DRT for its handling of the Alamo. Guerra claimed that the DRT had kept the temperature too low within the chapel, a situation which caused the formation of water vapor, which when mixed with automobile exhaust fumes damaged the limestone walls. These allegations prompted the legislature in 1993 to once more attempt to transfer control of the Alamo to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. At the same time, State Senator Gregory Luna filed a competing bill to transfer oversight of the Alamo to the Texas Historical Commission. By the following year, some advocacy groups in San Antonio had begun pressing for the mission to be turned into a larger historical park. They wished to restore the chapel to its 18th-century appearance and focus public interpretation of the site on its mission days rather than the activities of the Texas Revolution. The DRT was outraged. The head of the group's Alamo Committee, Ana Hartman, claimed that the dispute was gender-based. According to her, "There's something macho about it. Some of the men who are attacking us just resent what has been a successful female venture since 1905." The dispute was mostly resolved in 1994, when then-Governor George W. Bush vowed to veto any legislation that would displace the DRT as caretakers of the Alamo. Later that year, the DRT erected a marker on the mission grounds recognizing that they had once served as Indian burial grounds. In 2010, the office of the Texas Attorney General received a complaint that the DRT had been mismanaging not only the site, but the funds allocated for its management, and an investigation was begun. After two years, the Attorney General's office concluded that the DRT had indeed mismanaged the Alamo, citing numerous instances of misconduct on the DRT's part, including failing to properly maintain the Alamo in good order and repair, mismanagement of state funds, and breach of fiduciary duty. During the course of the investigation, a state law was passed in 2011 and signed by governor Rick Perry to transfer custodianship of the Alamo from the DRT to the Texas General Land Office (GLO). The transfer was officially enacted in 2015. While the DRT initially objected to the Attorney General's report, and even went so far as to file a lawsuit to prevent the transfer, the organization eventually vowed to work with the Texas GLO to preserve the Alamo for generations to come. Modern use As of 2002, the Alamo welcomed over four million visitors each year, making it one of the most popular historic sites in the United States. Visitors may tour the chapel, as well as the Long Barracks, which contains a small museum with paintings, weapons, and other artifacts from the era of the Texas Revolution. Additional artifacts are displayed in another complex building, alongside a large diorama that recreates the compound as it existed in 1836. A large mural, known as the Wall of History, portrays the history of the Alamo complex from its mission days to modern times. The site has an annual operating budget of $6 million, primarily funded through sales in the gift store. Under the 2011 law, which placed the Alamo under the care of the General Land Office, Commissioner George P. Bush announced on March 12, 2015, that his office would take charge of the daily operations of the Alamo from the Daughters of the Republic of Texas. In October 2015, the state announced that it would purchase three historic buildings on Alamo Plaza. B. J. "Red" McCombs, a San Antonio businessman and a member of the Alamo Endowment Board, which raises funds for the preservation and management of the shrine, said that he envisions an expansion program consistent with the reality of the Alamo story to enhance the overall experience of future visitors to the historic site. Expansion The General Land Office and the Alamo Endowment non-profit association have entered into a cooperative agreement to formulate a master plan for both the Alamo Complex and the Alamo Historic District. Future visitors can expect a full historical interpretation of the Alamo from its inception to the battle of 1836 and beyond. Along with four other Spanish colonial missions in San Antonio, the Alamo was designated in 2015 as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the first such site in Texas and one of twenty-three in the United States. Renewed resistance to the General Land Office's master plan for the site, which envisions a quadrupling of the site to include a 100,000-square-foot museum, came from the recent consideration to move the Alamo Cenotaph to a different location. Other concerns expressed include the proposed $450 million cost of the project and any efforts to allow alterations or modifications to the story of the Alamo. Gallery See also Alamo Village, in Brackettville, Texas Espada Acequia, an aqueduct List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas List of the oldest buildings in Texas List of World Heritage Sites in the United States Main and Military Plazas Historic District National Register of Historic Places listings in Bexar County, Texas Spanish Governor's Palace Notes References Bibliography External links Daughters of the Republic of Texas: Welcome to the Alamo Alamo Handbook of Texas Online National Historic Landmarks Program: Alamo Spanish missions in Texas San Antonio Missions National Historical Park Buildings and structures in San Antonio Museums in San Antonio History museums in Texas History of San Antonio Mexican–American War forts Texas Revolution Churches completed in 1744 National Register of Historic Places in San Antonio Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Texas National Historic Landmarks in Texas Texas State Antiquities Landmarks Works Progress Administration in Texas 1724 establishments in Texas San Antonio Missions (World Heritage Site) Spanish Colonial architecture in Texas Historic district contributing properties in Maine

Yesterday (Beatles song)

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"Yesterday" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, written by Paul McCartney and credited to Lennon–McCartney. It was first released on the album Help! in August 1965, except in the United States, where it was issued as a single in September. The song reached number one on the US charts. It subsequently appeared on the UK EP Yesterday in March 1966 and made its US album debut on Yesterday and Today, in June 1966. McCartney's vocal and acoustic guitar, together with a string quartet, essentially made for the first solo performance of the band. It remains popular today and, with more than 2,200 cover versions, is one of the most covered songs in the history of recorded music. "Yesterday" was voted the best song of the 20th century in a 1999 BBC Radio 2 poll of music experts and listeners and was also voted the No. 1 pop song of all time by MTV and Rolling Stone magazine the following year. In 1997, the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) asserts that it was performed over seven million times in the 20th century. "Yesterday" is a melancholy ballad about the break-up of a relationship. The singer nostalgically laments for yesterday when he and his love were together, before she left because of something he said. McCartney is the only member of the Beatles to appear on the track. The final recording was so different from other works by the Beatles that the band members vetoed the release of the song as a single in the United Kingdom, although other artists were quick to record versions of it for single release. The Beatles recording was issued as a single there in 1976 and peaked at number 8. Origin According to biographers of McCartney and the Beatles, McCartney composed the entire melody in a dream one night in his room at the Wimpole Street home of his then girlfriend Jane Asher and her family. Upon waking, he hurried to a piano and played the tune to avoid forgetting it. McCartney's initial concern was that he had subconsciously plagiarised someone else's work. As he put it, "For about a month I went round to people in the music business and asked them whether they had ever heard it before. Eventually it became like handing something in to the police. I thought if no one claimed it after a few weeks then I could have it." Upon being convinced that he had not copied the melody, McCartney began writing lyrics to suit it. As Lennon and McCartney were known to do at the time, a substitute working lyric, titled "Scrambled Eggs" (the working opening verse was "Scrambled eggs/Oh my baby how I love your legs/Not as much as I love scrambled eggs"), was used for the song until something more suitable was written. During the shooting of Help!, a piano was placed on one of the stages where filming was being conducted and McCartney took advantage of this opportunity to tinker with the song. Richard Lester, the director, was eventually greatly annoyed by this and lost his temper, telling McCartney to finish writing the song or he would have the piano removed. The patience of the other Beatles was also tested by McCartney's work in progress; George Harrison summed this up when he said: "Blimey, he's always talking about that song. You'd think he was Beethoven or somebody!" McCartney originally claimed he had written "Yesterday" during the Beatles' tour of France in 1964; however, the song was not released until the summer of 1965. During the intervening time, the Beatles released two albums, A Hard Day's Night and Beatles for Sale, each of which could have included "Yesterday". Although McCartney has never elaborated on his claims, a delay may have been due to a disagreement between McCartney and George Martin regarding the song's arrangement, or the opinion of the other Beatles who felt it did not suit their image. Lennon later indicated that the song had been around for a while before: McCartney said the breakthrough with the lyrics came during a trip to Portugal in May 1965: On 27 May 1965, McCartney and Asher flew to Lisbon for a holiday in Albufeira, Algarve, and he borrowed an acoustic guitar from Bruce Welch, in whose house they were staying, and completed the work on "Yesterday". The song was offered as a demo to Chris Farlowe before the Beatles recorded it, but he turned it down as he considered it "too soft". In a March 1967 interview with Brian Matthew, McCartney said that Lennon came up with the word that would replace "scrambled eggs": Yesterday. Resemblance to other songs In 2001, Ian Hammond speculated that McCartney subconsciously based "Yesterday" on Ray Charles' version of Hoagy Carmichael's "Georgia on My Mind". Hammond concluded his article by saying that, despite the similarities, "Yesterday" is a "completely original and individual [work]". In July 2003, British musicologists stumbled upon superficial similarities between the lyric and rhyming schemes of "Yesterday" and Nat King Cole's and Frankie Laine's "Answer Me, My Love"; originally a German song by Gerhard Winkler and Fred Rauch called Mütterlein, it was a number 1 hit for Laine on the UK charts in 1953 as "Answer Me, O Lord", leading to speculation that McCartney had been influenced by the song. McCartney's publicists denied any resemblance between "Answer Me, My Love" and "Yesterday". "Yesterday" begins with the lines: "Yesterday, all my troubles seemed so far away. Now it looks as though they're here to stay." In its second stanza, "Answer Me, My Love" has the lines: "You were mine yesterday. I believed that love was here to stay. Won't you tell me where I've gone astray". Composition and structure Ostensibly simple, featuring only McCartney playing an Epiphone Texan steel-string acoustic guitar backed by a string quartet in one of the Beatles' first uses of session musicians, "Yesterday" has two contrasting sections, differing in melody and rhythm, producing a sense of variety and fitting contrast. The main melody is seven bars in length, extremely rare in popular song, while the bridge, or "middle eight", is the more standard form of eight bars; often two four-bar phrases combined. The first section ("Yesterday, all my troubles seemed so far away ...") opens with an F chord (the 3rd of the chord is omitted), then moving to Em7 before proceeding to A7 and then to D-minor. In this sense, the opening chord is a decoy; as musicologist Alan Pollack points out, the home key (F-major) has little time to establish itself before "heading towards the relative D-minor". He points out that this diversion is a compositional device commonly used by Lennon and McCartney, which he describes as "deferred gratification". The second section ("Why she had to go I don't know ...") is, according to Pollack, less musically surprising on paper than it sounds. Starting with Em7, the harmonic progression quickly moves through the A-major, D-minor, and (closer to F-major) B, before resolving back to F-major, and at the end of this, McCartney holds F while the strings descend to resolve to the home key to introduce the restatement of the first section, before a brief hummed closing phrase. Pollack described the scoring as "truly inspired", citing it as an example of "[Lennon & McCartney's] flair for creating stylistic hybrids"; in particular, he praises the "ironic tension drawn between the schmaltzy content of what is played by the quartet and the restrained, spare nature of the medium in which it is played". The tonic key of the song is F major (although, since McCartney tuned his guitar down a whole step, he was playing the chords as if it were in G), where the song begins before veering off into the key of D minor. It is this frequent use of the minor, and the ii-V7 chord progression (Em and A7 chords in this case) leading into it, that gives the song its melancholy aura. The A7 chord is an example of a secondary dominant, specifically a V/vi chord. The G7 chord in the bridge is another secondary dominant, in this case a V/V chord, but rather than resolve it to the expected chord, as with the A7 to Dm in the verse, McCartney instead follows it with the IV chord, a B. This motion creates a descending chromatic line of C–B–B–A to accompany the title lyric. The string arrangement reinforces the song's air of sadness, in the groaning cello line that connects the two-halves of the bridge, notably the "blue" seventh in the second bridge pass (the E played after the vocal line "I don't know / she wouldn't say") and in the descending run by the viola that segues the bridge back into the verses, mimicked by McCartney's vocal on the second pass of the bridge. This viola line, the "blue" cello phrase, the high A sustained by the violin over the final verse and the minimal use of vibrato are elements of the string arrangement attributable to McCartney rather than George Martin. When the song was performed on The Ed Sullivan Show, it was done in the above-mentioned key of F, with McCartney as the only Beatle to perform, and the studio orchestra providing the string accompaniment. However, all of the Beatles played in a G-major version when the song was included in tours in 1965 and 1966. When McCartney appeared on The Howard Stern Show, he stated that he owns the original lyrics to "Yesterday" written on the back of an envelope. McCartney later performed the original "Scrambled Eggs" version of the song, plus additional new lyrics, with Jimmy Fallon and the Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. When asked whether some of the lyrics from "Yesterday" are a reference to his early loss of his mother, Mary McCartney, he stated that "I didn't mean it to be, but ... it could be". Recording The track was recorded at Abbey Road Studios on 14 June 1965, immediately following the taping of "I'm Down", and four days before McCartney's 23rd birthday. There are conflicting accounts of how the song was recorded. Some sources state that McCartney and the other Beatles tried a variety of instruments, including drums and an organ, and that George Martin later persuaded them to allow McCartney to play his Epiphone Texan steel-string acoustic guitar, later overdubbing a string quartet for backup. Regardless, none of the other band members were included in the final recording. McCartney performed two takes of "Yesterday" on 14 June 1965. Take 2 was deemed better and used as the master take. On 17 June, an additional vocal track by McCartney and a string quartet were overdubbed on take 2 and that version was released. Take 1, without the string overdub, was later released on the Anthology 2 compilation. On take 1, McCartney can be heard giving chord changes to Harrison before starting, but while Harrison does not appear to actually play, he was most certainly present because his voice is captured on the session tapes. Take 2 had two lines transposed from the first take: "There's a shadow hanging over me"/"I'm not half the man I used to be", though it seems clear that their order in take 2 was the correct one, because McCartney can be heard, in take 1, suppressing a laugh at his mistake. In 2006, just before the album Love was released, George Martin elaborated on the recording set-up of the song: The leakage of sound from one track to another caused concern when the surround version of the song was mixed for Love, but it was decided to include the track nevertheless. As Martin explained in the liner notes of Love: We agonised over the inclusion of "Yesterday" in the show. It is such a famous song, the icon of an era, but had it been heard too much? The story of the addition of the original string quartet is well known, however, few people know how limited the recording was technically, and so the case for not including it was strong, but how could we ignore such a marvellous work? We introduced it with some of Paul's guitar work from "Blackbird", and hearing it now, I know it was right to include it. Its simplicity is so direct; it tugs at the heartstrings. Release Concerning the debate on how the song should be released, Martin later said: "['Yesterday'] wasn't really a Beatles record and I discussed this with Brian Epstein: 'You know this is Paul's song ... shall we call it Paul McCartney?' He said 'No, whatever we do we are not splitting up the Beatles.'" Since "Yesterday" was unlike the Beatles' previous work and did not fit in with their image, the Beatles refused to permit the release of a single in the United Kingdom. This did not prevent Matt Monro from recording the first of many cover versions of "Yesterday". His version made it into the top ten in the UK charts soon after its release in the autumn of 1965. The Beatles' influence over their US record label, Capitol, was not as strong as it was over EMI's Parlophone label in Britain. A single was released in the US, pairing "Yesterday" with "Act Naturally", a track which featured vocals by Starr. The single was released on 13 September 1965 and topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for four weeks, beginning on 9 October. The song spent a total of 11 weeks on the chart, selling a million copies within five weeks. The single was also number one for three weeks on the US Cash Box pop singles chart the same year. "Yesterday" was the fifth of six number one The Beatles' singles in a row on the American charts, a record at the time. The other singles were "I Feel Fine", "Eight Days a Week", "Ticket to Ride", "Help!" and "We Can Work It Out". On 4 March 1966, the song was issued as the title track of the British EP Yesterday. On 26 March, the EP went to number one, a position it held for two months. Later that year, "Yesterday" was included as the title track of the North American album Yesterday and Today. "Yesterday" was released on the album A Collection of Beatles Oldies, a compilation album released in the United Kingdom in December 1966, featuring hit singles and other songs issued by the group between 1963 and 1966. On 8 March 1976, "Yesterday" was released by Parlophone as a single in the UK, featuring "I Should Have Known Better" on the B-side. The single peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart. The release came about due to the expiration of the Beatles' contract with EMI, which allowed the company to repackage the Beatles' recordings as they wished. EMI reissued all 22 of the Beatles' UK singles, plus "Yesterday", on the same day, leading to six of them placing on the UK chart. In 2006, a version of the song was included on the album Love. The version begins with the acoustic guitar intro from the song "Blackbird" transposed down a whole step to F major from its original key G to transition smoothly into "Yesterday". Reception and legacy "Yesterday" is one of the most recorded songs in the history of popular music. Its entry in Guinness World Records states that, by January 1986, 1,600 cover versions had been made. After Muzak switched in the 1990s to programs based on commercial recordings, its inventory grew to include about 500 "Yesterday" covers. In his 1972 article on the development of rock music, Joel Vance of Stereo Review magazine credited the song with originating the vogue for classical and baroque rock, anticipating the Rolling Stones' recording of "As Tears Go By" and works by artists such as the Moody Blues and the Classics IV. "Yesterday" won the Ivor Novello Award for "Outstanding Song of 1965", and came second in the "Most Performed Work of the Year" category, behind the Lennon–McCartney composition "Michelle". More recently, Rolling Stone ranked "Yesterday" at number 13 on its 2004 list "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" and fourth on its 2010 list of "The Beatles' 100 Greatest Songs". In 1999, Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) placed "Yesterday" third on its list of songs of the 20th century most performed on American radio and television, with approximately seven million performances. "Yesterday" was surpassed only by the Association's "Never My Love" and the Righteous Brothers' "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'". "Yesterday" was voted Best Song of the 20th century in a 1999 BBC Radio 2 poll. The song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1997. Although it was nominated for Song of the Year at the 1966 Grammy Awards, it lost out to Tony Bennett's "The Shadow of Your Smile". "Yesterday" was nominated for six Grammys in total that year, and "Help!" was also nominated in four categories. After the band had failed to win any of the ten awards, Alan Livingston, the head of Capitol Records, officially protested about the results, saying that "Yesterday" being passed over for the Song of the Year "makes a mockery of the whole event". Chuck Berry said that "Yesterday" was the song that he wished that he had written. "Yesterday" has also been criticised for being mundane and mawkish. Bob Dylan had a marked dislike for the song, stating that "If you go into the Library of Congress, you can find a lot better than that. There are millions of songs like 'Michelle' and 'Yesterday' written in Tin Pan Alley." Accompanied by Harrison, Dylan recorded his own version of "Yesterday" four years later, but it was never released. Shortly before his death in 1980, Lennon commented that "Although the lyrics don't resolve into any sense, they're good lines. They certainly work ... but if you read the whole song, it doesn't say anything" and added the song was "beautiful – and I never wished I'd written it". Lennon made reference to "Yesterday" in his song "How Do You Sleep?" on his 1971 album Imagine. The song appears to attack McCartney with the line "The only thing you done was yesterday, but since you've gone you're just another day", a reference to McCartney's recent hit "Another Day". In 2001, McCartney said that he had asked Yoko Ono to agree to change the writing credit for "Yesterday" from "Lennon/McCartney" to "McCartney/Lennon". He said that Ono refused, which was one of the reasons for their poor relationship at the time. At the 2006 Grammy Awards, McCartney performed "Yesterday" live as a mash-up with Linkin Park and Jay Z's "Numb/Encore". In 2012, the BBC reported that "Yesterday" remained the fourth most successful song of all-time in terms of royalties paid, having amassed a total of £19.5 million in payments. Personnel According to Mark Lewisohn and Ian MacDonald: Paul McCartney – vocal, acoustic guitar Tony Gilbert – violin Sidney Sax – violin Kenneth Essex – viola Peter Halling/Francisco Gabarró – cello George Martin – producer, string arrangement Norman Smith – engineer Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Notes References Sources External links Songs about nostalgia Songs about heartache 1965 songs 1965 singles 1976 singles The Beatles songs Capitol Records singles Parlophone singles Songs written by Lennon–McCartney Song recordings produced by George Martin Songs published by Northern Songs Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Cashbox number-one singles Number-one singles in Norway Baroque pop songs Torch songs Pop ballads 1960s ballads Songs composed in F major Chamber pop songs

List of world's fairs

eng_Latn

This is a list of international and colonial world's fairs, as well as a list of national exhibitions, a comprehensive chronological list of world's fairs (with notable permanent buildings built). 1790s 1791 – Prague, Bohemia, Habsburg Monarchy – first industrial exhibition on the occasion of the coronation of Leopold II as king of Bohemia, took place in Clementinum, considerable sophistication of manufacturing methods. 1798 – Paris, France – L'Exposition publique des produits de l'industrie française, Paris, 1798. This was the first public industrial exposition in France although earlier in 1798 the Marquis d'Avèze had held a private exposition of handicrafts and manufactured goods at the Maison d'Orsay in the Rue de Varenne and it was this that suggested the idea of a public exposition to François de Neufchâteau, Minister of the Interior for the French Republic. 1800s 1801 – Paris, France – Second Exposition (1801). After the success of the exposition of 1798 a series of expositions for French manufacturing followed (1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1844 and 1849) until the first properly international (or universal) exposition in France in 1855. 1802 – Paris, France – Third Exposition (1802) 1806 – Paris, France – Fourth Exposition (1806) 1810s 1819 – Paris, France – Fifth Exposition (1819) 1820s 1823 – Paris, France – Sixth Exposition (1823) 1827 – Paris, France – Seventh Exposition (1827) 1829 – New York City, United States – American Institute Fair 1829 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Prima Triennale Pubblica Esposizione dell’anno 1829. In Turin, a second 'triennale' followed in 1832 before other national agricultural, industrial, commercial, and applied arts expositions there in 1838, 1844, 1850 and 1858. 1830s 1832 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Seconda Triennale Pubblica Esposizione dell’anno 1832. 1834 – Paris, France – French Industrial Exposition of 1834 1838 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Pubblica esposizione dell'anno 1838. 1839 – Paris, France – Ninth Exposition (1839) 1840s 1844 – Paris, France – French Industrial (Tenth) Exposition of 1844 1844 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Quarta Esposizione d'Industria et di Belle Arti. 1846 – Genoa, Piedmont-Sardinia – Esposizione dei Prodotti e delle Manufatture nazionali 1849 – Birmingham, United Kingdom – Exhibition of Industrial Arts and Manufacturers 1849 – London, United Kingdom – First Exhibition of British Manufacturers (1849) 1849 – Paris, France – Eleventh Exposition (1849) 1850s 1850 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Quinta Esposizione di Industria e di Belle Arti 1851 – London, United Kingdom – The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations – The Crystal Palace (typically listed as the "first world's fair") 1852 – Cork, United Kingdom – Irish Industrial Exhibition 1853 – Naples, Two Sicilies – Solenne Pubblica Esposizione di Arti e Manifatture 1853–1854 – New York City, United States – Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations 1853 – Dublin, United Kingdom – Great Industrial Exhibition (1853) 1854 – Genoa, Piedmont-Sardinia – Esposizione Industriale 1854 – Munich, Bavaria – General German Industrial Exhibition (Allgemeine deutsche Industrie-Ausstellung) 1854 – Melbourne, Victoria – Melbourne Exhibition (in conjunction with Exposition Universelle (1855)) 1855 – Paris, France – Exposition Universelle (1855) 1856 – Brussels, Belgium – International Exhibition 1857 – Manchester, United Kingdom – Art Treasures Exhibition at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Stretford 1857 – Lausanne, Switzerland – Lausanne Exhibition 1858 – Dijon, France – Dijon Exposition 1858 – Philadelphia, United States – Philadelphia Technological Exhibition 1858 – Turin, Piedmont-Sardinia – Sesta Esposizione Nazionale di Prodotti d'Industria 1860s 1861 – Brisbane, Queensland - First Queensland Exhibition 1861 – Melbourne, Victoria - Second Victorian Exhibition 1861 – Metz, France – Exposition Universelle (1861) 1861 – Amsterdam, Netherlands – Fisheries Exposition 1862 – Geelong, Victoria - Exhibition of Art, Science and Industry 1862 – London, United Kingdom – 1862 International Exhibition 1863 – Constantinople (Istanbul), Ottoman Empire (Turkey) – Ottoman General Exposition 1864 – Bayonne, France – Franco-Spanish Exposition 1865 – Cologne, Prussia – International Agricultural Exhibition 1865 – Bergen, Norway – International Fisheries Exhibition 1865 – Batavia (Jakarta), Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) – Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition 1865 – Dunedin, New Zealand – New Zealand Exhibition 1865 – Dublin, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures 1865 – Freetown, Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate – Sierra Leone Exhibition 1865 – Porto, Portugal – Exposição Internacional do Porto 1866 – Ballarat, Victoria - National Industrial Exhibition 1866 – Melbourne, Victoria - Intercolonial Exhibition of Australasia 1866 – Boulogne-sur-Mer, France – International Fisheries Exposition 1866 – Arcachon, France – International Exposition of Fish and Water Products 1866 – Stockholm, Sweden – Scandinavian Industrial Exhibition 1867 – Paris, France – Exposition Universelle (1867) 1867 – The Hague, Netherlands – International Maritime Exhibition 1867 – Aarhaus, Denmark – International Maritime Exhibition 1867 – Vienna, Austria – International Maritime Exhibition 1867 – Gothenburg, Sweden – International Maritime Exhibition 1868 – Le Havre, France – International Maritime Exposition 1869 – Amsterdam, Netherlands – International Exhibition of Domestic Economy 1870s 1870 – Sydney, New South Wales – Intercolonial Exhibition (1870) 1871 – Córdoba, Argentina – Exposición Nacional 1871 – London, United Kingdom – First Annual International Exhibition (1871) 1871 – Naples, Italy – International Maritime Exposition 1872 – Hamilton, Bermuda – Industrial and Loan Exhibition 1872 – Copenhagen, Denmark – Second Scandinavian Exhibition of Arts and Industry 1872 – London, United Kingdom – Second Annual International Exhibition (1872) 1872 – Christchurch, New Zealand – New Zealand Interprovincial Exhibition 1872 – Lima, Peru – Lima International Exhibition 1872 – Lyon, France – Exposition Universelle et Internationale (1872) 1872 – Kyoto, Japan – Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1872) 1873 – London, United Kingdom – Third Annual International Exhibition (1873) 1873 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Weltausstellung 1873 Wien 1873 – Sydney, New South Wales – Metropolitan Intercolonial Exhibition (1873) 1874 – London, United Kingdom – Fourth Annual International Exhibition (1874) 1874 – Dublin, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1874) 1874 – Rome, Italy – Esposizione internazionale (1874) (never held) 1874 – Jamestown, St. Helena – St. Helena Industrial Exhibition 1874 – Marseille, France – Exhibition of Modern Inventions and Discoveries 1874 – Philadelphia, United States – Franklin Institute Exhibition 1875 – Melbourne, Victoria – Victorian Intercolonial Exhibition 1875 – Nizhni Novgorod, Russia – Nizhni Novgorod Fair (1875) 1875 – Sydney, New South Wales – Intercolonial Exhibition (1875) 1875 – Santiago, Chile – Chilean International Exhibition 1876 – Brussels, Belgium – International Exposition of Hygiene and Life-saving Apparatus 1876 – Helsinki, Finland – Finnish General Exhibition 1876 – Adelaide, South Australia – Adelaide Industrial Exhibition 1876 – Philadelphia, United States – Centennial Exposition 1876 – Brisbane, Queensland – Intercolonial Exhibition (1876) 1876 – London, United Kingdom – London Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus 1877 – Cape Town, Cape Colony – South African International Exhibition 1877 – Tokyo, Japan – First National Industrial Exhibition (1877) (Ueno Park) 1877 – Sydney, New South Wales – Sydney Metropolitan and Intercolonial Exhibition 1877 – Adelaide, South Australia – Adelaide Industrial Exhibition 1878 – Paris, France – Exposition Universelle (1878) 1878 – Ballarat, Victoria – Australian Juvenile Industrial Exhibition (1878) 1878 – London, United Kingdom – International Fisheries Exhibition 1879 – Bendigo, Victoria - Juvenile Industrial Exhibition 1879 – Geelong, Victoria - Geelong Juvenile and Industrial Exhibition 1879 – Sydney, New South Wales - Intercolonial Juvenile Industrial Exhibition 1879 – Sydney, New South Wales – Sydney International Exhibition 1879 – Melbourne, Victoria – Intercolonial Juvenile Industrial Exhibition (1879) 1879 – Kilburn, United Kingdom – International Agricultural Exhibition 1880s 1880 – Berlin, Germany – International Fisheries Exhibition 1880 – Christchurch, New Zealand – Christchurch Industrial Exhibition 1880 – Adelaide, South Australia – Industrial and Juvenile Exhibition 1880 – Glasgow, United Kingdom – Glasgow Electrical Exhibition 1880-1881 – Melbourne, Victoria – Melbourne International Exhibition (1880) 1881 – Adelaide, South Australia, Australia – Adelaide Exhibition. 1881 – Matanzas, Spanish Cuba – Exhibition of Matanzas 1881 – Milwaukee, Wisconsin – Milwaukee Industrial Exposition 1881 – Paris, France – International Exposition of Electricity, Paris 1881 – Dunedin, New Zealand – Dunedin Industrial Exhibition 1881 – Atlanta, United States – International Cotton Exposition 1881 – Budapest, Austria-Hungary – Országos Nőipari Kiállitás 1881 – London, United Kingdom – International Medical and Sanitary Exhibition 1881 – Tokyo, Japan – Second National Industrial Exhibition 1881-1882 – Perth, Western Australia, Australia – Perth International Exhibition 1882 – Lille, France – International Exposition of Industrial Art 1882 – Munich, Germany – International Electrical Exposition 1882 – Christchurch, New Zealand – New Zealand International Exhibition 1882 – London, United Kingdom – Crystal Palace Electric Exhibition 1882 – Edinburgh, United Kingdom – International Fisheries Exhibition 1882 – Bordeaux, France – Exposition internationale des vins 1882 – Buenos Aires, Argentina – South American Continental Exhibition (Exposición Continental Sud-Americana) 1883 – London, United Kingdom – International Electric Exhibition 1883 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – International Electrical Exposition 1883 – Cork, United Kingdom – Cork Industrial Exhibition 1883 – Amsterdam, Netherlands – International Colonial and Export Exhibition 1883 – Calcutta, India – Calcutta International Exhibition 1883 – Marseilles, France – International Maritime Exposition 1883 – Christchurch, New Zealand – All Colonial Exhibition 1883 – Madrid, Spain – Exposition of Mining and Metallurgy 1883 – South Kensington, United Kingdom – International Fisheries Exhibition 1883 – Parramatta, New South Wales – Intercolonial Juvenile Industrial Exhibition 1883 – Hobart, Tasmania – Tasmanian Juvenile and Industrial Exhibition 1883 – Launceston, Tasmania – Art and Industrial Exhibition 1883 – Louisville, United States – Southern Exposition 1883 – New York City, United States – World's Fair (1883) (never held) 1883 – Caracas, Venezuela – National Exposition of Venezuela 1883-1884 – Boston, United States – The American Exhibition of the Products, Arts and Manufactures of Foreign Nations 1884 – Nice, France – International Exposition of Nice 1884 – Amsterdam, Netherlands – International Agricultural Exhibition 1884 – London, United Kingdom – London International Universal Exhibition 1884 – South Kensington, United Kingdom – International Health and Education Exhibition 1884 – Cape Town, Cape Colony - South African Industrial Exhibition 1884 – Durban, South Africa – Natal Agricultural, Horticultural, Industrial and Art Exhibition 1884 – New Orleans, United States – World Cotton Centennial 1884 – Melbourne, Victoria – Victorian International Exhibition 1884 of Wine, Fruit, Grain & other products of the soil of Australasia with machinery, plant and tools employed 1884 – Edinburgh, United Kingdom – First International Forestry Exhibition 1884 – Turin, Italy – Esposizione Generale Italiana 1884 – Adelaide, South Australia - Grand Industrial Exhibition 1885 – Melbourne, Victoria – Victorians' Jubilee Exhibition (1885) (Jubilee of Victoria Exhibition) 1885 – Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony (now South Africa) – South African Exhibition 1885 – Antwerp, Belgium – Exposition Universelle d'Anvers (1885) 1885 – Nuremberg, Germany – International Exposition of Metals and Metallurgy 1885 – Budapest, Austria-Hungary – Hungarian National Exhibition 1885 – Wellington, New Zealand – New Zealand Industrial Exhibition 1885 – Zaragoza, Spain – Aragonese Exposition 1885 – London, United Kingdom – International Inventions Exhibition 1886 – London, United Kingdom – Colonial and Indian Exhibition (1886) 1886 – Edinburgh, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Industry, Science and Art 1886 – Liverpool, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce and Industry (1886) 1886 – Bendigo, Victoria - Juvenile and Industrial Exhibition 1886 – Launceston, Tasmania - Launceston Industrial Exhibition 1886 – Perth, Western Australia - West Australian Exhibition 1887 – Le Havre, France – International Maritime Exposition 1887 – Atlanta, Piedmont Exposition 1887 – Geelong, Victoria – Geelong Jubilee Juvenile and Industrial Exhibition (1887) 1887 – Manchester, United Kingdom – Royal Jubilee Exhibition 1887 – London, United Kingdom – American Exhibition 1887 – Newcastle, United Kingdom – Royal Mining Engineering Jubilee Exhibition 1887 – Rome, Italy – Esposizione mondiale (1887) 1887-1888 – Adelaide, South Australia – Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition (1887) 1888 – Glasgow, United Kingdom – International Exhibition (1888) 1888 – Brussels, Belgium – Grand Concours International des Sciences et de l'Industrie (1888) 1888 – Barcelona, Spain – Exposición Universal de Barcelona (1888) 1888 - Cincinnati, Ohio - Cincinnati Centennial Exposition (1888) 1888 – Lisbon, Portugal – Exposição Industrial Portugueza (1888) 1888 – Copenhagen, Denmark – The Nordic Exhibition of 1888 (Nordiske Industri-Landbrugs og Kunstudstilling) 1888-1889 – Melbourne, Australia – Melbourne Centennial Exhibition 1888-1889 – Melbourne, Victoria – Victorian Juvenile Industrial Exhibition (1888) 1889 – Paris, France – Exposition Universelle (1889) – Eiffel Tower 1889 – Dunedin, New Zealand – New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition (1889) 1889 – Buffalo, United States – International Industrial Fair (1889) 1890s 1890 – Buenos Aires, Argentina - Agricultural Exhibition 1890 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Agricultural and Forestry Exposition 1890 – Bremen, Germany – Nord-West-Deutsche Gewerbe und Industrie-Ausstellung 1890 – London, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Mining and Metallurgy 1890 – Edinburgh, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Science, Art & Industry 1890 – Ballarat, Victoria - Australian Juvenile Industrial Exhibition 1891 – Moscow, Russia – Exposition française 1891 – Frankfurt, Germany – International Electro-Technical Exhibition – 1891 1891 – Kingston, Jamaica – International Exhibition (1891) 1891 – Prague, Austria-Hungary – General Land Centennial Exhibition (1891) at the Prague Exhibition Grounds 1891 – Adelaide, South Australia - Industrial Exhibition of South Australian Industries, Products and Manufactures 1891 – Port-of-Spain, Trinidad - Trinidad and Tobago Exhibition 1891–1892 – Launceston, Tasmania – Tasmanian International Exhibition (1891) 1892 – Grenoble, France – International Alpine Exposition of Grenoble 1892 – Genoa, Italy – Esposizione Italo-Americana (1892) 1892 – Washington, DC, United States – Exposition of the Three Americas (1892) (never held) 1892 – London, United Kingdom – Crystal Palace Electrical Exhibition 1892 – Kimberley, Cape Colony – South African and International Exhibition 1892–1893 – Madrid, Spain – Historical American Exposition 1893 – Chicago, United States – World's Columbian Exposition – Palace of Fine Arts and the World's Congress Auxiliary Building 1893 – New York City, United States – World's Fair Prize Winners' Exposition (1893) 1894 – San Francisco, United States – California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894 1894 – Antwerp, Belgium – Exposition Internationale d'Anvers (1894) 1894 – Santiago, Chile - International Mining and Metallurgical Exposition 1894 – Lyons, France – Exposition internationale et coloniale 1894 – Manchester, United Kingdom – British and Colonial Exhibition 1894 – Oporto, Portugal – Exposição Insular e Colonial Portugueza (1894) 1894 – Fremantle, Western Australia - Fremantle Industrial Exhibition 1895 – Adelaide, South Australia - Exhibition of Art and Industry 1895 – Hobart, Tasmania – Tasmanian International Exhibition (1895) 1895 – Ballarat, Victoria – Australian Industrial Exhibition (1895) 1895 – Bordeaux, France – 1895 – Kyoto, Japan - National Japanese Exhibition 1895 – Christchurch, New Zealand - Art and Industrial Exhibition 1895 – Atlanta, United States – Cotton States and International Exposition (1895) (Atlanta Exposition) 1895 - Montevideo, Uruguay - National Agricultural Exhibition 1896 – Rouen, France – National and Colonial Exposition 1896 – Kiel, Germany – International Shipping and Fishery Exposition 1896 – Budapest, Austria-Hungary – Hungarian Millenary Exhibition 1896 - Wellington, New Zealand - Wellington Industrial Exhibition 1896 – Nizhny Novgorod, Russia – Pan Russian Exhibition 1896 – Malmö, Sweden – Nordic Industrial and Handicraft Exhibition 1896 – Berlin, Germany – Gewerbe-Ausstellung (1896) 1896 – Mexico City, Mexico – International Exposition (1896) (never held) 1896 – Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom – Cardiff Fine Arts, Industrial, and Maritime Exhibition 1897 – Brussels, Belgium – Exposition Internationale de Bruxelles (1897) 1897 – Arcachon, France – Arcachon International Exposition 1897 – Guatemala City, Guatemala – Exposición Centroamericana 1897 – London, United Kingdom – Imperial Victorian Exhibition 1897 – Brisbane, Queensland – Queensland International Exhibition 1897 – Chicago, United States – Irish Fair (1897) 1897 – Nashville, United States – Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition 1897 – Stockholm, Sweden – General Art and Industrial Exposition of Stockholm 1897 – Kiev, Ukraine – Agricultural Exhibition 1898 – Buenos Aires, Argentina – National Exhibition 1898 – Jerusalem, Ottoman Empire – Universal Scientific and Philanthropic Exposition (1898) 1898 – Auckland, New Zealand – Auckland Industrial and Mining Exhibition 1898 – Dunedin, New Zealand – Otago Jubilee Industrial Exhibition (1898) 1898 – Omaha, United States – Trans-Mississippi Exposition 1898 – Bergen, Norway – International Fisheries Exposition (1898) 1898 – Munich, Germany – Kraft – und Arbeitsmaschinen-Ausstellung (1898) 1898 – San Francisco, United States – California's Golden Jubilee (1898) 1898 – Turin, Italy – Esposizione Generale Italiana 1898 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Jubiläums-Ausstellung 1898 – Launceston, Tasmania - Tasmanian Juvenile Industrial Exhibition 1898 – Grahamstown, South Africa – Industrial and Arts Exhibition 1899 – Coolgardie, Western Australia – Western Australian International Mining and Industrial Exhibition 1899 – Como, Italy – Como Electrical Exhibition 1899 – Omaha, Nebraska, United States – Greater America Exposition 1899 – Philadelphia, United States – National Export Exposition 1899 – London, United Kingdom – Greater Britain Exhibition 1900s 1900 – Paris, France – Exposition Universelle (1900) – Le Grand Palais 1900 – Adelaide, South Australia – Century Exhibition of Arts and Industries (1900) 1900 – Christchurch, New Zealand - Canterbury Jubilee Industrial Exhibition 1901 – Bendigo, Australia - Victorian Gold Jubilee Exhibition 1901 – Buffalo, United States – Pan-American Exposition 1901 – Glasgow, United Kingdom – Glasgow International Exhibition (1901) 1901 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Bosnische Weihnachts-Ausstellung (1901) 1901 – Charleston, United States – South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition 1902 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – International Fishery Exposition 1902 – Turin, Italy – Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna 1902 – Hanoi, French Indochina – Hanoi exhibition (Indo China Exposition Française et Internationale) 1902 – Lille, France – International Exposition of Lille 1902 – Cork, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland – Cork International Exhibition 1902 – Wolverhampton, United Kingdom – Wolverhampton Art and Industrial Exhibition 1902 – St. Petersburg, Russia – International Fisheries Exhibition 1902 – New York City, United States – United States, Colonial and International Exposition (1902) (never held) 1902 – Toledo, Ohio, United States – Ohio Centennial and Northwest Territory Exposition (1902) – (never held) 1903 – Melbourne, Australia - Australian Federal International Exhibition 1903 – Osaka, Japan – Fifth National Industrial Exhibition 1904 – St. Louis, United States – Louisiana Purchase Exposition (also called Louisiana Purchase International Exposition and Olympic Games ): 1904 Summer Olympics 1904 – Cape Town, South Africa – Cape Town Industrial Exhibition 1905 – Portland, United States – Lewis & Clark Centennial Exposition 1905 – Liège, Belgium – Exposition universelle et internationale de Liège (1905) 1905 – London, United Kingdom – Naval, Shipping and Fisheries Exhibition 1905 – New York City, United States – Irish Industrial Exposition (1905) 1906 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Hygiene Exhibition 1906 – Milan, Italy – Esposizione Internazionale del Sempione 1906 – London, United Kingdom – Imperial Austrian Exhibition 1906 – Marseille, France – Exposition coloniale (1906) 1906 – Bucharest, Romania – Romanian General Exposition 1906 – Tourcoing, France – International Exposition of Textile Industries 1906–1907 – Christchurch, New Zealand – International Exhibition (1906) 1907 – Bordeaux, France – 1907 – Tokyo, Japan – Tokyo Industrial Exhibition 1907 – Bergen, Norway – Nordic Marine Motor Exhibition 1907 – Dublin, United Kingdom – Irish International Exhibition 1907 – Hampton Roads, United States – Jamestown Exposition 1907 – Chicago, United States – World's Pure Food Exposition (1907) 1907 – Mannheim, Germany – Internationale Kunst-Ausstellung (1907) 1908 – Marseille, France – Exposition of Electricity 1908 – Trondheim, Norway – Scandinavian Fisheries Exhibition 1908 – Zaragoza, Spain – Hispano-French Exposition of 1908 1908 – London, United Kingdom – Franco-British Exhibition (1908) 1908 – Edinburgh, United Kingdom – Scottish National Exhibition 1908 – New York City, United States – International Mining Exposition (1908) 1908 – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – Exhibition of the centenary of the opening of the Ports of Brazil 1908 – Marseille, France – Exposition International de l'Electricite 1909 – London, United Kingdom – Imperial International Exhibition 1909 – Nancy, France – Exposition Internationale de l'Est de la France 1909 – Seattle, United States – Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition 1909 – New York City, United States – Hudson-Fulton Celebration 1909 – San Francisco, United States – Portolá Festival (1909) 1909 – Quito, Ecuador – National Ecuadorian Exposition 1910s 1910 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – International Hunting Exposition 1910 – Santiago, Chile - International Agricultural and Industrial Exposition 1910 – Bogotá, Colombia – Exposición del Centenario de la independencia (1910) 1910 – Nanking, China – Nanyang Industrial Exposition 1910 – Brussels, Belgium – Brussels International 1910 1910 – Buenos Aires, Argentina – Exposición Internacional del Centenario 1910 – Nagoya, Japan - Nagoya Industrial Exhibition 1910 – London, United Kingdom – Japan–British Exhibition 1910 – San Francisco, United States – Admission Day Festival (1910) September 8, 9, 10 1910 – Vienna, Austria-Hungary – Internationale Jagd-Ausstellung (1910) 1911 – Charleroi, Belgium – Charleroi Exposition 1911 – Havana, Cuba – Cuban National Exposition 1911 – Roubaix, France – International Exposition of Northern France 1911 – Dresden, Germany – International Hygiene Exhibition 1911 – London, United Kingdom – Coronation Exhibition (1911) 1911 – London, United Kingdom – Festival of Empire 1911 – Rome, Italy – Esposizione internazionale d'arte (1911) 1911 – Wellington, New Zealand - Coronation Industrial Exhibition 1911 – Turin, Italy – Turin International 1911 – Omsk, Russia – Western Siberian Exhibition 1911 – Glasgow, United Kingdom – Scottish Exhibition of National History, Art and Industry 1911 – New York City, United States – International Mercantile Exposition (1911) 1912 – Manila, Philippines – Philippine Exposition (1912) 1912 – London, United Kingdom – Latin-British Exhibition 1912,1917 – Tokyo, Japan – Grand Exhibition of Japan (planned for 1912, postponed to 1917 and then never held) 1913 – Melbourne, Australia - Great All-Australian Exhibition 1913 – Leipzig, Germany – International Building Trades Exposition 1913 – Auckland, New Zealand – Auckland Exhibition 1913 – Ghent, Belgium – Exposition universelle et internationale (1913) 1913 – Amsterdam, Netherlands – Tentoonstelling De Vrouw 1813–1913 1913 – Kiev, Ukraine – All Russian Exhibition 1913 – Knoxville, United States – National Conservation Exposition 1914 – London – Anglo-American Exhibition 1914 – Malmö, Sweden – Baltic Exhibition 1914 – Boulogne-sur-Mer, France – International Exposition of Sea Fishery Industries (1914) 1914 – Lyon, France – Exposition internationale urbaine de Lyon 1914 – Tokyo, Japan – Tokyo Taisho Exposition 1914 – Cologne, Germany – Werkbund Exhibition (1914) 1914 – Bristol, United Kingdom – International Exhibition (1914) 1914 – Nottingham, United Kingdom – Universal Exhibition (1914) (work begun on site 1913 but never held) 1914 – Semarang, Dutch East Indies – Colonial Exhibition of Semarang (Colonial Exposition) 1914 – Kristiania, Norway – 1914 Jubilee Exhibition (Norges Jubilæumsutstilling) 1914 – Baltimore, United States – National Star-Spangled Banner Centennial Celebration 1914 – Genoa, Italy – International exhibition of marine and maritime hygiene 1915 – Casablanca, Morocco – Casablanca Fair of 1915 1915 – San Francisco, United States – Panama–Pacific International Exposition Palace of Fine Arts 1915 – Panama City, Panama – Exposición Nacional de Panama (1915) 1915 – Richmond, United States – Negro Historical and Industrial Exposition (1915) 1915 – Chicago, United States – Lincoln Jubilee and Exposition (1915) 1915-1916 – San Diego, United States – Panama–California Exposition 1916 – Wellington, New Zealand - British Commercial and Industrial Exhibition 1918 – New York City, United States – Bronx International Exposition of Science, Arts and Industries 1918 – Los Angeles, United States – California Liberty Fair (1918) 1920s 1920 – Adelaide, Australia - All-Australian Peace Exhibition 1920 – Shanghai, Republic of China – American-Chinese Exposition 1921 – Riga, Latvia – International Exhibition of Agriculture and Industry 1921 – Wellington, New Zealand - Exhibition of New Zealand Industries 1921 – London, United Kingdom – International Exhibition of Rubber and Other Tropical Products (1921) 1922 – Marseille, France – Exposition nationale coloniale (1922) 1922 – Tokyo, Japan – Peace Exhibition (1922) 1922 – Christchurch, New Zealand - Exhibition of New Zealand Industries 1922-1923 – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – Exposição do Centenario do Brasil (1922) 1923 – Auckland, New Zealand - Dominion Industrial Exhibition 1923 – Los Angeles, United States – American Historical Review and Motion Picture Exposition (1923) 1923 – Calcutta, India – Calcutta Exhibition (1923) preparatory to British Empire Exhibition 1923 – Moscow, Soviet Union – All-Russian Agricultural and Domestic Industries Exhibition 1923 – Gothenburg, Sweden – Gothenburg Exhibition (1923) (Jubileumsutställningens i Göteborg) (Liseberg) 1923-1924 – Hokitika, New Zealand – British and Intercolonial Exhibition 1924 – Wembley, London, United Kingdom – British Empire Exhibition 1924 – New York City, United States – French Exposition (1924) 1924-1925 Buenos Aires, Argentina - Industrial Exposition 1925 – Adelaide, Australia - All-Australian Exhibition 1925 – Lyon, France – Foire (1925) 1925 – Wellington, New Zealand - Dominion Industrial Exhibition 1925 – San Francisco, United States – California's Diamond Jubilee (1925) 1925 – Paris, France – Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes 1925-1926 – Dunedin, New Zealand – New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition 1926 – Philadelphia, United States – Sesquicentennial Exposition 1926 – Berlin, Germany – Internationale Polizeiausstellung (1926) 1927 – Lyon, France – Foire internationale (1925) 1927 – Stuttgart, Germany – Werkbund Exhibition 1928 – Cologne, Germany – International Press Exhibition 1928 – Long Beach, United States – Pacific Southwest Exposition (1928) 1929 – Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom – North East Coast Exhibition 1929 – Hangzhou, Republic of China – Westlake Exposition 1929-1930 – Seville, Spain – Ibero-American Exposition 1929-1930 – Barcelona, Spain, – 1929 Barcelona International Exposition 1930s 1930 - Adelaide, Australia - All-Australian Exhibition 1930 – Antwerp, Belgium – Exposition internationale coloniale, maritime et d'art flamand 1930 – Liège, Belgium – Exposition internationale de la grande industrie, sciences et applications, art wallon ancien 1930 – Oran, Algeria – Oran Exposition 1930 – Dresden, Germany – International Hygiene Exposition 1930 – Stockholm, Sweden – Stockholm International Exhibition (1930) (Utställningen av konstindustri, konsthandverk och hemslöjd) 1930 – Trondheim, Norway – Trøndelag Exhibition 1931 – Paris, France – Paris Colonial Exposition 1931 – Berlin, Germany – International Building Exposition 1932 – Tel Aviv, British Mandate of Palestine – Levant Fair 1933 – Tokyo, Japan – Women's and Children International Exhibition 1933-1934 – Buenos Aires, Argentina - Industrial Exposition 1933–1934 – Chicago, United States – Century of Progress International Exposition 1934 – Melbourne, Australia - Centenary All Australian Exhibition 1934 – Porto, Portugal – Portuguese colonial exhibition 1934 – Tel Aviv, British Mandate of Palestine – Levant Fair 1935 – Yokohama, Japan - Grand Yokohama Exposition 1935 – Moscow, USSR – All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (VSKhV) 1935 – Brussels, Belgium – Exposition universelle et internationale (1935) 1935 – Porto Alegre, Brazil – Farroupilha Revolution centennial fair 1935 – Taipai. Taiwan under Japanese rule – The Taiwan Exposition: In Commemoration of the First Forty Years of Colonial Rule 1935-1936 – San Diego, United States – California Pacific International Exposition 1936 – Adelaide, Australia - Adelaide Centennial Exhibition 1936 – Stockholm ILIS 1936 1936 – Tel Aviv, British Mandate of Palestine – Levant Fair 1936 – Cleveland, United States – Great Lakes Exposition 1936 – Dallas, United States – Texas Centennial Exposition 1936–1937 – Johannesburg, Union of South Africa – Empire Exhibition, South Africa 1937 – Cleveland, United States – Great Lakes Exposition 1937 – Dallas, United States – Greater Texas & Pan-American Exposition 1937 – Berlin, Germany – International Hunting Exposition 1937 – Düsseldorf, Germany – Reichsausstellung Schaffendes Volk 1937 – Miami, United States – Pan American Fair (1937) 1937 – Paris, France – Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937) 1937 – Nagoya, Japan – Nagoya Pan-Pacific Peace Exposition 1938 – Berlin, Germany – International Handiworks Exposition 1938 – Glasgow, United Kingdom – Empire Exhibition, Scotland 1938 1938 – Helsinki, Finland Second International Aeronautic Exhibition 1939 – Wellington, New Zealand – New Zealand Centennial Exhibition 1939 – Liège, Belgium – Exposition internationale de l'eau (1939) 1939 – Zürich, Switzerland – Schweizerische Landesausstellung 1939 – Moscow, Soviet Union – All-Union Agricultural Exhibition 1939–1940 – New York City, United States – 1939 New York World's Fair (exhibits included The World of Tomorrow, Futurama, Trylon and Perisphere) 1939–1940 – San Francisco, United States – Golden Gate International Exposition 1940s 1940 – Lisbon, Portugal – Portuguese World Exhibition 1940 – Chicago, United States – American Negro Exposition 1940 – Los Angeles, United States – Pacific Mercado (1940) (never held) 1940 – Naples, Italy – Mostra Triennale delle Terre Italiane d’Oltremare (Triennial Exhibition of Overseas Italian Territories) 1940 – Tokyo, Japan – Grand International Exposition of Japan (1940) (never held) 1942 – Los Angeles, United States – Cabrillo Fair (1942) (never held) 1942 – Rome, Italy – Esposizione universale (1942) (E42) (never held) 1943 – Stockholm, Sweden – Norwegian Exhibition 1947 – Paris, France – International Exhibition on Urbanism and Housing 1948 – Brussels, Belgium – Foire coloniale (1948) 1949 – Stockholm, Sweden – Universal Sport Exhibition 1949 – Lyon, France – International Exhibition on Urbanism and Housing 1949–1950 – Port-au-Prince, Haiti – Exposition internationale du bicentenaire de Port-au-Prince 1950s 1951 – Lille, France – The International Textile Exhibition 1951 – London, United Kingdom – Festival of Britain – Skylon 1952 – Colombo, Sri Lanka – Colombo Exhibition 1953 – St Louis, United States – intended to commemorate the Louisiana Purchase's sesquicentennial, but never held 1953 - Manila, Philippines - the Philippine International Fair of 1953, 1 February - 30 April 1953, to show off the recovery of the Philippines and as the first democracy in the Far East 1953 – Jerusalem, Israel – International Exhibition and Fair Jerusalem Israel Conquest of the desert 1953 – Rome, Italy – Agricultural Exposition of Rome EA 53 Rome 1954 – Naples, Italy – Oltremare Exhibition – Campi Flegrei 1954 – Bogota, Colombia – First International Industry and Commerce Fair of Bogota 1954–1955 – São Paulo, Brazil – Fourth Centenary Exhibition 1955 – Turin, Italy – International Expo of Sport Turin 1955 1955 – Helsingborg, Sweden Helsingborg Exhibition 1955 1955 – Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo), Dominican Republic – Feria de la Paz y Confraternidad del Mundo Libre 1956 – Beit Dagan, Israel – Exhibition of citriculture 1957 – Berlin, Germany International Building Exposition 1958 – Brussels, Belgium – Expo '58 (Exposition Universelle et Internationale de Bruxelles) – Atomium 1959 – New Delhi, India – World Agricultural Fair 1959 – Moscow, USSR – VDNKh 1960s 1960 – cancelled (planned site: Caracas, Venezuela) 1961 – Turin, Italy – Exposition International du Travail Expo 61 1962 – Seattle, United States – Century 21 Exposition – Space Needle 1964 – Lausanne, Switzerland – Expo 64 - Schweizerische Landesausstellung 1964–1965 – New York City, United States – 1964/1965 New York World's Fair (note: not sanctioned by the Bureau International des Expositions) – Unisphere 1965 – Munich, West Germany – International Exhibition of Transport and Communication 1967 – Montreal, Quebec, Canada – Expo 67, (Universal and International Exhibition of 1967) 1968 – San Antonio, United States – HemisFair '68 – Tower of the Americas 1970s 1970 – Osaka, Japan – Expo '70 (Japan World Exposition) 1971 – Budapest, Hungary – Expo 71 (Exhibition World of Hunting) 1974 – Spokane, United States – Expo '74 (International Exposition on the Environment) – Riverfront Park 1975 – Okinawa, Japan – Expo '75 (International Ocean Exposition) 1980s 1981 – Plovdiv – Expo 81 1982 – Knoxville, Tennessee, United States – 1982 World's Fair (International Energy Exposition) – Sunsphere 1984 – New Orleans, United States – 1984 Louisiana World Exposition [a.k.a., 1984 World's Fair] (Theme: "Fresh Water As A Source of Life") 1985 – Plovdiv – Expo 85 1985 – Tsukuba, Japan – Expo 85 1986 – Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada – Expo 86 (1986 World Exposition) to date, the last World's Fair to be held in North America 1988 – Brisbane, Australia – Expo '88 (World Expo '88) – Skyneedle 1990s 1991 – Plovdiv, Bulgaria – Second World Exhibition of inventions of the young 1992 – three expositions (1 was cancelled) celebrating 500 years since Christopher Columbus reached the Americas Seville, Spain – Seville Expo '92 Universal Exposition, port where Columbus started his voyage Genoa, Italy – Genoa Expo '92 Specialized Exposition, city where Columbus was born Chicago, U.S. (Cancelled) – meant to generically represent the Americas-side of Columbus' voyage 1993 – Daejeon (Taejon), South Korea – Expo '93 1995 – Vienna, Austria which was proposed to be a joint exhibition with Budapest. This was never held 1996 – cancelled (planned site: Budapest, Hungary) 1998 – Lisbon, Portugal – Expo '98 1999 – Kunming, People's Republic of China – World Horticultural Exposition 2000s 2000 – Hanover, Germany – Expo 2000 2000 – Greenwich, London, United Kingdom – Millennium Dome 2002 – cancelled (planned site: Metro Manila, Philippines) 2002 – cancelled (planned site: Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia) 2002 – Biel, Murten, Neuchâtel and Yverdon-les-Bains in Switzerland – Expo.02 2004 – cancelled (planned site: Seine-Saint-Denis, France) 2004 – Barcelona, Spain – Universal Forum of World Cultures 2005 – Aichi, Japan – Expo 2005 2008 – Zaragoza, Spain – Expo 2008 2010s 2010 – Shanghai, China – Expo 2010 2012 – Yeosu, South Korea – Expo 2012 2015 – Milan, Italy – Expo 2015 2017 – Astana, Kazakhstan – Expo 2017 2019 – Beijing, China – Expo 2019 2020s 2021-2022 – Dubai, United Arab Emirates — Expo 2020 2023 – Buenos Aires, Argentina — Expo 2023 2025 – Osaka — Expo 2025 Future bids and candidate cities Expo 2027 or Expo 2028 Three cities have submitted bids to the BIE for a three-month specialized exposition take place in either 2027 or 2028. 2027 - The United States has submitted Mineappolis as the site for the specialized Expo 2027. It is a repeat of their 2023 bid with a theme of “ Healthy People, Healthy Planet.” 2028 - Spain has submitted the Mediterranean coastal city of Malaga. 2028 - Thailand submitted Phuket. Expo 2030 Three cities have submitted bids for the six-month world expo to be held in 2030. 2030 – Russia has submitted Moscow for the Expo 2030 event to be held between 27 April and 27 October 2030. 2030 - Italy has submitted Rome. 2030 - South Korea has submitted Busan. The exposition would run from May 1 to October 31 with a theme of “Transforming Our World, Navigating Toward a Better Future.” See also List of tourist attractions worldwide List of world expositions References External links ExpoMuseum – The World's Fair Museum ExpoBids – Proposed and Active Bids for Future World's Fairs Official website of the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) Osaka, Kansai JAPAN EXPO 2025 and World's fairs World's fairs World's Exhibitions

Arms of Canada

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The Arms of Canada (), also known as the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada () or formally as the Arms of Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada (), is, since 1921, the official coat of arms of the Canadian monarch and thus also of Canada. It is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version. The maple leaves in the shield, blazoned "proper" (ie in natural colour), were originally drawn vert (green) but were redrawn gules (red) in 1957 and a circlet of the Order of Canada was added to the arms for limited use in 1987. The shield design forms the monarch's royal standard and is also found on the Canadian Red Ensign. The Flag of the Governor General of Canada, which formerly used the shield over the Union Flag, now uses the crest of the arms on a blue field. The arms are printed on the covers of Canadian passports, in order to legally signify and symbolize that the bearer is travelling under the aid of the Crown of Canada. History Prior to Confederation in 1867, the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom served in Canada as the symbol of royal authority. Arms had not been granted to any of the colonies in British North America, apart from 17th-century grants to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The year after Confederation, arms were granted by Royal Warrant on 26 May 1868 to Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia (that Nova Scotia had been granted arms was forgotten, and it took until 1929 for the historic arms granted in the 17th century to be reinstated) and New Brunswick. In the Royal Warrant of 1868, Queen Victoria authorized the four arms of the first provinces to be quartered for use on the Great Seal of Canada and while this was not done for the first Great Seal, it is through this reference it became the de facto arms for Canada until 1921. That is why it was in this form Canada was represented on the first Red Ensign carried by Canadian troops at Vimy Ridge in 1917. A shield of arms first quartered and then, over time, as more provinces and territories joined Canada, marshalled with the arms of the new members of Confederation emerged through popular and even Canadian governmental usage. This eventually resulted in a shield with nine quarterings, an arrangement that had never been approved by the monarch. Nine quarterings on a shield was considered too complex for a national symbol and by 1915 a push had begun to design a new coat of arms for Canada. A committee was formed in 1919 to pursue the issue, eventually agreeing that the elements of the new arms would reference the Royal Arms of England, Ireland, Scotland, and France, with maple leaves representing Canada, though there was at the time no consensus on how the leaves were to be used. The decision was settled by 1920, and the committee conferred with the College of Arms in London, only to face resistance to the use of the Royal Arms from the Garter King of Arms. After some manoeuvring, including the personal intervention of Winston Churchill, the new arms of Canada were eventually formally requested by an Order in Council on 30 April 1921 and adopted on 21 November of the same year by proclamation of King George V as the Arms or Ensigns Armorial of the Dominion of Canada. The new layout closely reflected the arms of the United Kingdom with the addition of maple leaves in the base and the reference to the French royal arms in the fourth quarter. The proclamation also established white and red as the national colours of Canada. In 1931, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster, Canada and other Dominions became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom. This had the effect of elevating the Canadian coat of arms, which had been granted as deputed arms for particular uses in a colony, to the status of the royal arms of the King in right of the country, for general purposes throughout the country. They thus replaced the British coat of arms, which had previously been arms of general purpose throughout the British Empire, in court rooms and on government buildings to represent the ruling monarch. This change can be seen in the Great Seal of Canada of King George VI, where the royal arms of Canada replaced the British arms, and is even more evident in the Great Seal of Canada for Queen Elizabeth II, where the title has been redefined as Queen of Canada. These are the coat of arms of the Queen of Canada. By 1957, the arms were redrawn by Alan Beddoe so as to have red leaves and to change the royal crown from one of a Tudor design to one more resembling St. Edward's Crown, as preferred by Queen Elizabeth II. To mark the 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution, which finally ended the last vestiges of British authority over Canada, a McGill University student named Bruce Hicks proposed to Secretary of State Gerald Regan that the motto of the Order of Canada be placed around the shield in order to bring these royal arms into line with other royal arms, many of which have been displayed in Canada during French, Scottish, and English colonisation, where those countries' highest national order of honour appears around the shield of the arms (the British arms displayed the Order of the Garter, the Scottish royal arms the Order of the Thistle, and the royalist arms of the French Regime the Order of the Holy Spirit and Order of Saint Michael). While unsuccessful in this first attempt, Hicks continued his campaign and was joined by a number of other amateur and professional heraldists. As a journalist in the parliamentary press gallery in Ottawa in the late 1980s and early 90s, Hicks strategically recast the change as something worth doing to commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the Order of Canada in 1992, an idea that was endorsed by the Advisory Committee on the Order of Canada. It took until 1994 for the Queen to approve the new design for general use, though the Canadian Heraldic Authority began to allow for its limited use beginning in 1987, where the arms were used to represent the Queen personally on letters patent granting new arms for distinguished Canadians. These letters patent carried the shield from the royal arms along with the annulus behind the shield bearing the motto of the Order of Canada—Desiderantes meliorem patriam. As soon as royal approval was forthcoming, the full achievement was redesigned for use by the federal government within the Federal Identity Program. The present design of the arms of Canada was drawn by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, Fraser Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority. In June 2008, Member of Parliament Pat Martin introduced a motion into the House of Commons of Canada calling on the government to amend the coat of arms to incorporate symbols representing Canada's First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Armorial evolution Use The arms of Canada are the arms of the sovereign and signify national sovereignty and ownership. They are used as a mark of authority by various government agencies and representatives, including the prime minister and Cabinet, and most courts, including the Supreme Court, as well as the Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police. It is also present on all pre-polymer denominations of Canadian banknotes (in fact, the way the arms were printed on each bill is a security feature), as well as the 50¢ coin, and on the cover of Canadian passports. Since 1962, a banner of the arms, defaced with a variant of the Queen's cypher, has formed the sovereign's standard for Canada, for use by the Queen in her capacity as monarch of Canada. Since, six additional standards for use by other members of the Canadian Royal Family have been created. In the Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the most senior non-commissioned ranks wear the 1957 version of the coat of arms as a badge of rank, representing the fact that they have received the Queen's warrant (as opposed to the Queen's commission for officers). The revised 1957 and 1994 Arms of Canada are both protected official government symbols used to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program. Permanent resident cards issued from 2015 feature a holographic representation of the 1957 version of the coat of arms. The full achievement of the coat of arms has been used by the Canadian government on occasion on a plain red flag, such as in 1967 for the country's centennial celebrations. It is also used on a flag in its full achievement in military ceremonies, such as Canadian Armed Forces Tattoo performances. The personal flag of the Governor General has, since 1981, featured the crest of the royal arms of Canada on a blue background. In response to a new campaign by Bruce Hicks for the Canadian Parliament to have a distinct heraldic symbols along the lines of the portcullis (variations of which are used by the Commons and Lords in the British Parliament), a proposal that was supported by Speakers of the House of Commons John Fraser and Gilbert Parent, a Commons committee was eventually struck following a motion by MP Derek Lee, before which Hicks and Robert Watt, the first Chief Herald of Canada, were called as the only two expert witnesses, though Senator Serge Joyal joined the committee ex-officio on behalf of the Senate. Commons' Speaker Peter Milliken then asked the Canadian Heraldic Authority to authorize such a symbol and, on 15 February 2008, the Governor General authorized the House of Commons to begin using a badge of the shield of the royal arms superimposed on the ceremonial mace assigned to the House of Commons as a symbol of the royal authority under which it operates. Following the Commons example, the Senate then requested and obtained on 15 April 2008 a similar badge for itself with the shield of the royal arms surmounted on the mace assigned to the Senate. Blazon The heraldic blazon of Canada's coat of arms, as declared in the 1921 proclamation, is: Tierced in fesse the first and second divisions containing the quarterly coat following, namely, 1st, gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or, 2nd, Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory gules, 3rd, azure a harp Or stringed argent, 4th, azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or, and the third division argent three maple leaves conjoined on one stem proper. And upon a royal helmet mantled argent doubled gules the crest, that is to say, on a wreath of the colours argent and gules a lion passant guardant Or imperially crowned proper and holding in the dexter paw a maple leaf gules. And for supporters on the dexter a lion rampant Or holding a lance argent, point Or, flying therefrom to the dexter the Union Flag, and on the sinister a unicorn argent armed crined and unguled Or, gorged with a coronet composed of crosses-patée and fleurs-de-lis a chain affixed thereto reflexed of the last, and holding a like lance flying therefrom to the sinister a banner azure charged with three fleurs-de-lis Or; the whole ensigned with the Imperial Crown proper and below the shield upon a wreath composed of roses, thistles, shamrocks and lillies a scroll azure inscribed with the motto A mari usque ad mare. The circlet of the Order of Canada was added around the shield for limited use in 1987, and for general use in 1994. Symbolism Legal As the Royal Arms are personal to the sovereign they cannot be used without consent. The coat of arms "as designed in 1921 and revised in 1957...(and) in 1994" are "protected under the Trade-marks Act and the Copyright Act and cannot be used or reproduced without authorization". Further, "Marks and designs similar to the official symbols are pursued as a copyright or trade-mark infringement". The Trade-marks Act further states that "No person shall adopt in connection with a business, as a trade-mark or otherwise, any mark consisting of, or so nearly resembling as to be likely to be mistaken for... the arms, crest or flag adopted and used at any time by Canada". In addition, under Crown copyright, "permission is always required when the work is being revised, adapted, or translated regardless if the purpose of the reproduction is for personal or public non-commercial distribution". See also References External links Registration of the Arms and Supporters of Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada Arms & Badges - Royal Arms of Canada, A Brief History Canada Monarchy in Canada Canadian heraldry Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada

There ain't no such thing as a free lunch

eng_Latn

"There ain't no such thing as a free lunch" (alternatively, "There is no such thing as a free lunch" or other variants) is a popular adage communicating the idea that it is impossible to get something for nothing. The acronyms TANSTAAFL, TINSTAAFL, and TNSTAAFL are also used. The phrase was in use by the 1930s, but its first appearance is unknown. The "free lunch" in the saying refers to the formerly common practice in American bars of offering a "free lunch" in order to entice drinking customers. The phrase and the acronym are central to Robert Heinlein's 1966 science-fiction novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, which helped popularize it. The free-market economist Milton Friedman also increased its exposure and use<ref name="safire">Safire, William On Language; Words Left Out in the Cold" New York Times, 2-14-1993 </ref> by paraphrasing it as the title of a 1975 book, and it is used in economics literature to describe opportunity cost. Campbell McConnell writes that the idea is "at the core of economics". History and usage "Free lunch" The "free lunch" refers to the once-common tradition of saloons in the United States providing a "free" lunch to patrons who had purchased at least one drink. Many foods on offer were high in salt (e.g., ham, cheese, and salted crackers), so those who ate them ended up buying a lot of beer. Rudyard Kipling, writing in 1891, noted how he ...came upon a bar-room full of bad Salon pictures, in which men with hats on the backs of their heads were wolfing food from a counter. It was the institution of the "free lunch" I had struck. You paid for a drink and got as much as you wanted to eat. For something less than a rupee a day a man can feed himself sumptuously in San Francisco, even though he be a bankrupt. Remember this if ever you are stranded in these parts. TANSTAAFL, on the other hand, indicates an acknowledgement that in reality a person or a society cannot get "something for nothing". Even if something appears to be free, there is always a cost to the person or to society as a whole, although that may be a hidden cost or an externality. For example, as Heinlein has one of his characters point out, a bar offering a free lunch will likely charge more for its drinks. Early uses The earliest known occurrence of the full phrase (except for the "a"), in the form "There ain't no such thing as free lunch", appears as the punchline of a joke related in an article in the El Paso Herald-Post of June 27, 1938 (and other Scripps-Howard newspapers about the same time), entitled "Economics in Eight Words". In 1945, "There ain't no such thing as a free lunch" appeared in the Columbia Law Review, and "there is no free lunch" appeared in a 1942 article in the Oelwein Daily Register (in a quote attributed to economist Harley L. Lutz) and in a 1947 column by economist Merryle S. Rukeyser. In 1949, the phrase appeared in an article by Walter Morrow in the San Francisco News (published on 1 June) and in Pierre Dos Utt's monograph TANSTAAFL: A Plan for a New Economic World Order, which describes an oligarchic political system based on his conclusions from "no free lunch" principles. The 1938 and 1949 sources use the phrase in relating a fable about a king (Nebuchadnezzar in Dos Utt's retelling) seeking advice from his economic advisors. Morrow's retelling, which claims to derive from an earlier editorial reported to be non-existent, but closely follows the story as related in the earlier article in the El Paso Herald-Post, differs from Dos Utt's in that the ruler asks for ever-simplified advice following their original "eighty-seven volumes of six hundred pages" as opposed to a simple failure to agree on "any major remedy". The last surviving economist advises that "There ain't no such thing as free lunch." In 1950, a New York Times columnist ascribed the phrase to economist (and army general) Leonard P. Ayres of the Cleveland Trust Company: "It seems that shortly before the General's death [in 1946]... a group of reporters approached the general with the request that perhaps he might give them one of several immutable economic truisms that he had gathered from his long years of economic study... 'It is an immutable economic fact,' said the general, 'that there is no such thing as a free lunch.'" The September 8, 1961, issue of LIFE magazine has an editorial on page 4, "'TANSTAFL,' It's the Truth," that closes with an anecdotal farmer explaining this slight variant of TANSTAAFL. Popularization In 1966, author Robert A. Heinlein published his novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, in which TANSTAAFL was a central, libertarian theme, mentioned by name and explained. This increased its use in the mainstream. Edwin G. Dolan used the phrase as the title of his 1971 book TANSTAAFL (There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch) – A Libertarian Perspective on Environmental Policy. Meanings Science In the sciences, TANSTAAFL means that the universe as a whole is ultimately a closed system. There is no source of matter, energy, or light that draws resources from something else which will not eventually be exhausted. Therefore, the TANSTAAFL argument may also be applied to natural physical processes in a closed system (either the universe as a whole, or any system that does not receive energy or matter from outside). (See Second law of thermodynamics.) The bio-ecologist Barry Commoner used this concept as the last of his famous "Four Laws of Ecology". According to American theoretical physicist and cosmologist Alan Guth "the universe is the ultimate free lunch", given that in the early stage of its expansion the total amount of energy available to make particles was very large. Economics In economics, TANSTAAFL demonstrates opportunity cost. Greg Mankiw described the concept as follows: "To get one thing that we like, we usually have to give up another thing that we like. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another." The idea that there is no free lunch at the societal level applies only when all resources are being used completely and appropriately – i.e., when economic efficiency prevails. If not, a 'free lunch' can be had through a more efficient utilization of resources. Or, as Fred Brooks put it, "You can only get something for nothing if you have previously gotten nothing for something." If one individual or group gets something at no cost, somebody else ends up paying for it. If there appears to be no direct cost to any single individual, there is a social cost. Similarly, someone can benefit for "free" from an externality or from a public good, but someone has to pay the cost of producing these benefits. (See Free rider problem and Tragedy of the commons.) Finance In mathematical finance, the term is also used as an informal synonym for the principle of no-arbitrage. This principle states that a combination of securities that has the same cash-flows as another security must have the same net price in equilibrium. Statistics In statistics, the term has been used to describe the tradeoffs of statistical learners (e.g., in machine learning) which are unavoidable according to the "No free lunch" theorem. That is, any model that claims to offer superior flexibility in analyzing data patterns usually does so at the cost of introducing extra assumptions, or by sacrificing generalizability in important situations. Technology TANSTAAFL is sometimes used as a response to claims of the virtues of free software. Supporters of free software often counter that the use of the term "free" in this context is primarily a reference to a lack of constraint ("libre") rather than a lack of cost ("gratis"). Richard Stallman has described it as "'free' as in 'free speech,' not as in 'free beer'". The prefix "TANSTAA-" (or "TINSTAA-") is used in numerous other contexts as well to denote some immutable property of the system being discussed. For example, "TANSTAANFS" is used by electrical engineering professors to stand for "There Ain't No Such Thing As A Noise-Free System". Sports Baseball Prospectus coined the abbreviation "TINSTAAPP", for "There Is No Such Thing As A Pitching Prospect", as many young pitchers hurt their arms before they can be effective at a major league level. Social policy Hungarian prime minister Ferenc Gyurcsány used this adage to justify his social reforms in the mid-2000s. As a post-socialist country, Hungary struggled with the illusion of the state as a caring and giving, independent entity, rather than being the embodiment of the community. The saying "there is no free lunch" represented that even if the state provides welfare or something else for the people in need, it is in fact bought or provided by other people of the same community through taxes. Therefore, the state cannot provide everything for everyone, and increased provisions given by the state can only be financed by economic growth or increased taxes or public debt. Exceptions Some exceptions from the "no free lunch" tenet have been put forward, such as the Sun and carbon dioxide. It was argued in particular that metabolism evolved to take advantage of the free lunch provided by the Sun, which also triggers production of vital oxygen in plants. However, these too fall short in that the viewpoint is an open system, Earth, with "free" inputs from the Sun. When viewed from the larger system context, the Sun/Earth or Solar System, there is no net energy exchange, and still "no free lunch". See also Demonstrated preference Have one's cake and eat it too He who does not work, neither shall he eat Milton Friedman No free lunch in search and optimization No Free Lunch (organization) No-arbitrage bounds Parable of the broken window Revealed preferences Robert Heinlein Scarcity Tax choice The Free Lunch Is Over (computing) The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress Trade-off Zero-sum game Notes References Tucker, Bob, (Wilson Tucker) The Neo-Fan's Guide to Science Fiction Fandom'' (3rd–8th Editions), 8th edition: 1996, Kansas City Science Fiction & Fantasy Society, KaCSFFS Press, No ISSN or ISBN listed. Adages Economics catchphrases English phrases Free meals Milton Friedman Robert A. Heinlein Metaphors referring to food and drink Lunch Aphorisms 1933 introductions Quotations from literature 1930s neologisms fr:Gratuité (économie)#TANSTAAFL

Legion of Doom

eng_Latn

The Legion of Doom is a group of supervillains who originated in Challenge of the Super Friends, an animated series from Hanna-Barbera based on DC Comics' Justice League. The Legion of Doom has since been incorporated into the main DC Universe, appearing in comics, as well as further animated and live-action adaptations, and also video games. History In each episode of Challenge of the Super Friends that they appeared, the Legion of Doom would enact a plot against the Super Friends and a plot to take over the world only to be met with defeat by the end of the story. In some episodes, they would escape capture through a last-minute escape plan often contrived by Luthor. Other times, the Legion of Doom (or portions of it) would end up apprehended. The episode "History of Doom" showed that Lex Luthor assembled 12 supervillains in order to form the most powerful and sinister group the world had ever seen. Development When the Challenge of the Super Friends season was originally conceived, it was named Battle of the Superheroes and featured the introduction of Captain Marvel to the Super Friends. The group that challenged the heroes was to be called the "League of Evil", led by Captain Marvel's nemesis Doctor Sivana. However, Filmation was producing Shazam! and The New Adventures of Batman which prevented the use of characters such as Mister Atom, King Kull, Beautia Sivana, Joker, Penguin, Mr. Freeze, and Catwoman. Early conceptual art drawn by Alex Toth also included Heat Wave, Poison Ivy, and Abra Kadabra. The Hall of Doom The Legion of Doom's headquarters was the Hall of Doom that was located in Slaughter Swamp (just outside Gotham City). The facility, which has a close resemblance to Darth Vader's helmet, could be lowered or raised above the swamp water's surface. It could fly or enter space using rockets. The Hall of Doom's mobility could be controlled through remote control helping the Legion to escape on several occasions. Its defenses included laser weapons and the ability to time travel. In "Doomsday" after Sinestro, Black Manta and Cheetah are abandoned by the rest of the Legion after they take control of a mental device, they use it to create another Hall of Doom, which attacks the original one and enables the Legion to be captured. In "History of Doom", the Hall is shown being constructed in a barn just after the Legion formed. Black Manta proposed that they have it in the ocean, Captain Cold proposes to have underneath the polar ice caps, and Gorilla Grodd proposes that they have it in the jungle. As a compromise, Lex Luthor decides to have it within the waters of Slaughter Swamp as it is then flown to that location. Members There were thirteen members of the Legion of Doom: Despite the opening sequence for Challenge of the Super Friends claiming that the Legion's members had "banded together from remote galaxies", eleven out of the thirteen are native to Earth; only Brainiac (from Colu), and Sinestro (from Korugar) are extraterrestrials. The episode "Super Friends: Rest In Peace" makes a reference to a former unseen member of the Legion of Doom, the only time such a reference has been made. This was Doctor Natas, the inventor of the Noxium crystal that had the power to destroy all of the Super Friends like mimicking Kryptonite for Superman and mimicking a yellow energy for Green Lantern. The Super Friends knew of this crystal and tricked the Legion of Doom into thinking that it had killed all of them using android doubles of the Super Friends while the real ones hid in their space station. They anticipated that the Legion of Doom would throw away the crystal when they no longer needed it. The crystal was retrieved by Apache Chief in a hazmat suit and launched into deep space. It was not explained what happened to Doctor Natas. Prior to the first televised appearance of the Legion of Doom, a group called the Super Foes appeared in the first issue of the Super Friends comic book (Nov 1976). Its membership featured Toyman, Penguin, Poison Ivy, Cheetah, Human Flying Fish, and their protégés Toyboy, Chick, Honeysuckle, Kitten and Sardine, respectively, in keeping with the theme of trainees ala Wendy, Marvin and Wonder Dog. Other Legion episodes While Challenge of the Super Friends was the series spotlighting the Legion of Doom, they appear in a few Super Friends shorts. The Krypton Syndrome: After Superman saves Krypton in the past, he returns to an alternate present. Robin mentions that the Super Friends were defeated by the Legion of Doom. Two Gleeks are Deadlier Than One: Though only Giganta and Gorilla Grodd appear, the Legion of Doom is mentioned where the Super Friends investigate rumors that the Legion of Doom are getting back together. Like in "Super Friends: Rest in Peace", the Super Friends used androids to trick Giganta and Gorilla Grodd into thinking they were destroyed. The Revenge of Doom (Super Friends short): All 13 members of the Legion of Doom appear after getting back together, but only Lex Luthor, Sinestro and Solomon Grundy have dialogue. In this appearance, they salvaged the Hall of Doom disguised as construction workers with the cover-up that they were going to turn it into a museum. Batman and Robin came upon the "construction workers" and demanded to see their permit which they did having been obtained by the Department of Parks. When there was a mentioning that the Ion Engines were removed by the Super Friends which would've made it the first flying museum, the Dynamic Duo gets suspicious about the construction workers learning about the top secret operation as the lead construction worker claims that the info of that might've been leaked to the news. With the plot exposed, Lex Luthor and the Legion of Doom shed their disguises and capture Batman and Robin. After refurbishing the Legion of Doom and equipping it with new weapons, they have developed a crystallizing ray to immobilize Superman and Wonder Woman. Batman and Robin eventually escape, reverse the effects of the crystallizing ray on Superman and Wonder Woman, and apprehend the Legion of Doom. Members of the team have solo appearances in later episodes. Lex Luthor appears in: Lex Luthor Strikes Back (The World's Greatest Super Friends) – Using a special camera that would enable him to assume the disguise of everyone, Lex Luthor escapes from prison. No Honor Among Thieves Super Friends (Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show) – Lex Luthor collaborates with Darkseid in order to steal the powers of the Super Friends. The Case of the Shrinking Super Friends' (Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show) – Lex Luthor uses a shrink ray to shrink the Wonder Twins, Gleek, Robin, Ronnie Raymond, and Professor Martin Stein. The Mask of Mystery (Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show) – Lex Luthor steals data that the incompetent superhero wannabe Captain Mystery had tapped from the Hall of Justice's computers in order to trap the Super Friends. The Seeds of Doom (The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians) – Lex Luthor attacks the city in a giant mechanical spider before he is defeated by the Super Powers Team and Cyborg. Brainiac appears in: Superclones (Super Friends short) - Brainiac clones Aquaman and El Dorado creating supervillain counterparts of them as part of a plot to discredit the Super Friends. The Wrath of Brainiac (Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show) – Brainiac collaborates with Darkseid to create android versions of Superman and Wonder Woman. Starting here, Brainiac takes up a more robotic form from this appearance to Brainchild matching his current comic counterpart at the time. The Village of Lost Souls (Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show) – Brainiac brainwashes a village of people to serve him and help him rebuild his ship. Brainchild (The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians) – Brainiac kidnaps Cyborg for an evil "mind-blowing" plan. Bizarro appears in: Revenge of Bizarro (Super Friends short) – Bizarro makes the Super Friends his slaves. He also uses Red Krytonite on Superman causing him to sprout many arms and legs. Bazarowurld (Super Friends short) – Bizarro tricks Superman and Black Vulcan into going to Bazarowurld where Black Vulcan is placed in a maze of mirrors and Superman is placed in a Red Kryptonite Mine where he becomes a skinny figure. Video Victims (Super Friends short) – Bizarro zaps some of the Super-Friends into a Pac-Man-like video game with him controlling the Pac-Man-like creature. The Bizarro Super Powers Team (The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians) - Mister Mxyzptlk brings Bizarro #1 to Earth where he uses an invention that makes Bizarro versions of Wonder Woman, Firestorm, and Cyborg. He later accidentally creates a Bizarro version of Mister Mxyzptlk called Mister Kltpzyxm. Riddler appears in: "Around the World in 80 Riddles" (Super Friends short) – Riddler infiltrates the Batcave and sprays Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Robin with Stupid Spray that would decrease their intelligence and had to solve each riddle that would lead to the location of the antidote. Scarecrow makes an appearance in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians episode "The Fear" which also introducing his real name of Jonathan Crane. Appearances in comics Members of the Legion of Doom made some appearances in the Super Friends spin-off comic title based on the TV series. A version of the Legion of Doom appeared in Extreme Justice #17–18 (June–July 1996), led by Brainwave Jr., during a time when he had become a villain. The other members were Killer Frost, Houngan, Major Force, the Madmen, and a robot duplicate of Gorilla Grodd. The 2006 DC comic miniseries Justice features a version of the Legion of Doom. Series plotter/artist Alex Ross is a passionate Super Friends fan. In addition to Lex Luthor, Bizarro, Black Manta, Brainiac, Captain Cold, Cheetah, Giganta, Gorilla Grodd, Riddler, Scarecrow, Sinestro, Solomon Grundy, and Toyman, this version of the Legion of Doom also counts Black Adam, Metallo, Clayface, Parasite, and Poison Ivy as members. Joker and Doctor Sivana also make appearances. Sivana employs microscopic robots that resemble Mister Mind. The Hall of Doom serves as the headquarters for the Injustice League in Justice League of America: Injustice League Unlimited (though, this Hall is located in the Florida swamplands). The headquarters of the Justice League in the future of the Sorcerer Kings arc in Superman/Batman is the Hall of Doom. An alternate version of the team appeared in the mini-series Flashpoint: Legion of Doom, part of the company-wide Flashpoint event. This iteration of the team consisted of supervillains interred in Doom Prison, which is based on the Legion headquarters from Super Friends. The membership consisted of Heat Wave, Plastic Man, Sportsmaster, Killer Wasp and Cluemaster. A new Legion of Doom led by Superboy-Prime appeared in a Teen Titans storyline that ran from issues #98–100. The roster consisted of Sun Girl, Headcase, Persuader (Elise Kimble), Indigo, Zookeeper, three Superboy clones, and an imposter Inertia. The Legion of Doom (minus Toyman, Riddler, Giganta, Captain Cold, and Black Manta) shrunk the Super Friends while appearing as Rainbow Ghosts in "A Super Friend in Need" in the pages of Scooby-Doo! Team-Up. In the mini-series Super Powers, Lex Luthor introduces a Legion of Doom featuring Bizarro, Black Manta, Brainiac, Captain Cold, Cheetah, Gorilla Grodd, Pryme, Riddler, Scarecrow, Sinestro, and Starro. Rather than meet in the Hall of Doom, they have a Kryptonite fortress based upon the Fortress of Solitude and set upon the ocean. In the miniseries Kingdom Come, the gulag built to imprison the younger heroes bears a strong resemblance to the Hall of Doom. The first arc of Scott Snyder and Jim Cheung's Justice League relaunch for DC Rebirth features the Legion of Doom as the main antagonists. The group consists of Lex Luthor, Sinestro, Cheetah, Gorilla Grodd, Brainiac, and Turtle. Former members include Black Manta and Joker, both excommunicated due to their own ulterior motives. Following the advice of The Batman Who Laughs, the Legion had destroyed the Source Wall and uncover the most powerful galactic being of the Sixth Dimension named Perpetua who is the mother of Monitor, Anti-Monitor, and World Forger. They soon take action during the "Year of the Villain" event. To prepare for all-out war with the Justice League, Luthor also recruits various villains to his cause including Bizarro of Earth 29, Black Adam, Black Manta, Black Mask, Captain Cold, Catwoman, Circe and her Injustice League Dark (consisting of Floronic Man, Solomon Grundy, Klarion the Witch Boy, and Papa Midnite), Deathstroke, Harley Quinn, Heat Wave, Lobo, Mr. Freeze, Ocean Master, Oracle III, Ra's al Ghul, Red Hood, Riddler, Talon, and the Terribles of Earth 29 (consisting of Mister Terrible, Change-O-Shape-O, Figment Girl, and Disposable Man). As part of the Wonder Comics imprint, Wonder Twins featured a version of the Legion of Doom. Lead by Lex Luthor, the group removed the Scrambler from their ranks after he was incarcerated. After his escape, Scrambler was placed in the Legion's farm league known as the League of Annoyance. Praying Mantis lead the League of Annoyance which included Aunt Phetamine, Cell Phone Sylvia, Count Drunkula/Baron Nightblood, Malingerer, and Filo Math. While the roster of the Legion was not revealed, the group hosted a villains mixer at the second-best werstern hotel which included Cheetah, Chronos, Electrocutioner, Giganta, Human Flame, Joker's Daughter, Killer Moth, Kite-Man, Metallo, Mr. Freeze, Parasite, Professor Ivo, Professor Pyg, Prometheus, Queen Bee, Rainbow Raider, Red Flag, Scarecrow, Scavenger, Sonar, Trickster, and Toyman. A future version of the Legion of Doom is introduced in "Future State" lead by T.O. Morrow that included Amaz-X, Cobalt Blue, Despera, The Flood, Professor Ivo, Lex Luthor, Screech Owl, and UltraViolet Lantern. In The Flash #770-771, Wally West traveled to the Super Friends universe where he inhabited the body of the Reverse-Flash as he was being inducted into the Legion of Doom. In other media Live-action Legends of the Superheroes The Legion of Doom appeared in the NBC televised special, Legends of the Superheroes, led by Mordru and consisting of Doctor Sivana, Riddler, Giganta, Sinestro, Weather Wizard, and Solomon Grundy. Smallville The Legion of Doom is alluded to in Smallville season ten and assembled by Toyman. Despite still being in jail, he created Marionette Ventures, an organization composed of supervillains like Metallo, Roulette, the Dark Archer, Black Manta, Captain Cold, and Solomon Grundy that worked to control Smallville's waterfront properties. The Toyman used a brainwashed Courtney Whitmore to do his organization's bidding, and later brainwashed Lois Lane remotely in an attempt to kill Clark Kent. Legends of Tomorrow The Legion of Doom serves as the main antagonists of the second season of the Arrowverse series Legends of Tomorrow. This incarnation is led by Eobard Thawne / Reverse-Flash (Matt Letscher) and consists of Damien Darhk (Neal McDonough), Malcolm Merlyn (John Barrowman), and a time-displaced Leonard Snart / Captain Cold (Wentworth Miller). For brief periods of time, the Legion is assisted by a brainwashed Rip Hunter (Arthur Darvill) and a reluctant Mick Rory / Heat Wave (Dominic Purcell). They are termed "The Legion of Doom" by Legends member Nate Heywood, after a cartoon he enjoyed as a kid. Thawne and Darhk found the group after the former cheats death as a result of Flashpoint and recruits the latter from 1987 with the goal of changing their destined deaths in conflict with Barry Allen and Oliver Queen, respectively, by obtaining the Spear of Destiny. Amidst encounters with the Legends and the Black Flash, the latter of whom was sent by the Speed Force to pursue Thawne as a result of him cheating death, the Legion recruit Merlyn from 2016, promising him to help avert his family's deaths, and Snart from before he joined the Legends, promising to help him avert his future death. After Snart convinces Rory to betray the Legends, the Legion obtains the Spear and rewrite reality so that they live improved lives without opposition while the Legends are reduced to various demeaning positions. However, Rory comes to regret his decision and reunites the Legends, restoring their memories of the original timeline and helping them retrieve the Spear, with help from the Legion after they discover Thawne intended to destroy it. In the ensuing battle, Thawne succeeds, apparently stabilizing the altered reality, but the Legends travel back in time and join forces with their past selves to combat the Legion. In the end, Sara Lance obtains the Spear and uses its power against itself, restoring reality and summoning the Black Flash, who kills Thawne, while the rest of the Legion are taken back to their original places in the timeline. Animation The Aquaman & Friends Action Hour The Legion of Doom appears in the Cartoon Network Latin America spoof series The Aquaman & Friends Action Hour as bankrupt enemies of Aquaman. Justice League Unlimited While never directly referred to as such in the 2000s animated series Justice League Unlimited, with only the DVD box set for the third season explicitly doing so, the Legion of Doom served as inspiration for the show's incarnation of the Secret Society. The group is initially led by Gorilla Grodd, and consists of the following: Solicitations for future episodes indicated that the team had a secret backer, but have turned out to be incorrect. Series producer Bruce Timm had also said he wanted to include Riddler and Scarecrow as villains in the group as a nod to the original Legion, but was prevented from doing this by the "Bat-Embargo", which limited the use of Batman-related characters at the time. The group operates out of a swamp-based headquarters and functions as a co-operative, a loose organization of super-villains that primarily work on their own, but assist each other when a member is challenged by the Justice League in exchange for Grodd receiving 25% of the requesting member's take of the crime commissioned at that time. After discovering Grodd planned on turning humanity into apes however, Luthor ousted him and assumed leadership. In the two-part series finale "Alive!" and "Destroyer", Luthor led the Society in converting their headquarters into a spaceship so he can resurrect Brainiac, but Grodd attempted a coup, leading to a battle between supervillains loyal to the latter and those loyal to Luthor. In the end, Luthor shunted Grodd out of the air lock while Killer Frost froze Grodd's remaining allies. With Atomic Skull, Bizarro, Cheetah, Evil Star, Giganta, Heat Wave, Toyman, Volcana, Star Sapphire, and Sinestro left, Luthor forces Tala use her powers to resurrect Brainiac, apparently killing her, though she resurrected Darkseid instead, who thanks Luthor by destroying the Society's ship. Despite this, Star Sapphire and Sinestro protected Luthor and their allies before helping them steal Lightray's Mother Box so they can return to Earth and join forces with the Justice League to defeat Darkseid. After Luthor acquires the Anti-Life Equation and vanishes with Darkseid, the Justice League gives the surviving Society members a head start. Of this final appearance for the group, series writer Matt Wayne stated that he consciously tried to round up the original 13 Legion of Doom members in Luthor's team, citing this English Wikipedia page as one source. Batman: The Brave and the Bold The Legion of Doom appear in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold animated series, consisting of Lex Luthor, the Joker, Cheetah, Weather Wizard, Felix Faust, Chronos, Clock King, and Amazo. In the teaser for the episode "Triumvirate of Terror", the Legion of Doom play a game of baseball against the Justice League International. Luthor, Joker, and Cheetah later adjourn to the Legion's headquarters. Young Justice In the Young Justice episode "Revelation", the team battles the Light's Injustice League in the Louisiana bayou. The group's headquarters and location is a homage to the Hall of Doom. Robot Chicken DC Comics Special The Legion of Doom appeared prominently in the ongoing story arc of the Robot Chicken DC Comics Special. Along with the original 13 members of the group, they are joined by the Joker, Penguin, and mailroom worker Glen. In the final act, the Legion is joined by Aquaman, who did so after the Justice League pushed him too far, as well as Bane, Catwoman, Two-Face, Icicle, Mirror Master, Harley Quinn, Deathstroke, Mr. Freeze, Mister Banjo, Chillblaine, Darkseid, and original Robot Chicken character Humping Robot. In the second Robot Chicken DC Comics Special, titled "Villains in Paradise", the Legion of Doom's core membership includes Luthor, Bizarro, Poison Ivy, Black Manta, Joker, Penguin, Brainiac, Captain Cold, Scarecrow, Gorilla Grodd, Sinestro, Catwoman, Riddler, Toyman, and Two-Face while Weather Wizard, Black Adam, Darkseid, Harley Quinn, Mr. Freeze, Professor Zoom, Starro, Killer Croc, and Clayface make cameo appearances. Teen Titans Go! In the Teen Titans Go! episode "Snuggle Time", the Teen Titans decide to become supervillains and become the "Legion of Doooom", with Starfire becomes Starfire the Terrible, Cyborg becomes The Cyborg, Raven becomes the Demon of Azarath, Robin becomes Dick Gravestone, and Beast Boy becomes Beast Monster. After hiring an army of henchmen, constructing their own Hall of Doom, and eliminating Earth's heroes, the Legion of Doooom draw in and defeat the H.I.V.E. Five to finalize their plans for conquering Earth. Harley Quinn The Harley Quinn animated web series follows the titular character's adventures after she breaks up with the Joker, with her initial goal being to join the Legion of Doom. This iteration of the group is described as a supportive community of elite supervillains dedicated to making the world a horrible place and having been behind some of the most evil plots in the 21st century. The Legion is led by Lex Luthor and consists of the Joker, Scarecrow, Cheetah, Bane, Gorilla Grodd, Black Manta, Sinestro, Black Adam, the Reverse-Flash, Toyman, Solomon Grundy, Metallo, Captain Cold, Parasite, Riddler, Penguin, Two-Face, Man-Bat, Calendar Man, Killer Croc, Killer Frost, Felix Faust, and Livewire. Doctor Psycho was originally a member as well, but was ousted from the group for calling Wonder Woman and Giganta the "C word" on live television, which led to him siding with Harley Quinn's crew. In the episode "L.O.D.R.S.V.P.", Harley and her crew are offered a position in the Legion of Doom after stealing jewels from Atlantis, with Psycho being reinstated as well while Harley had to wait to be voted in, competing against KGBeast for the spot. However, Lex revealed to Poison Ivy that he had no intention of allowing Harley to join unless she joined as well. Despite this, when Aquaman attacked the Hall of Doom to retrieve the jewels Harley stole, she proved herself and defeated him on her own, which led to her being voted into the Legion. In the episode "Devil's Snare", the Hall of Doom was destroyed by a giant tower operated by the Joker in his plot to take over Gotham City. Following the Joker's defeat at Harley's hands in the season one finale "The Final Joke", Gotham was left in ruins, leaving Legion members the Penguin, Riddler, Two-Face, and Bane, as well as Mr. Freeze, to join forces and form the Injustice League in order to rule Gotham in the Legion's absence. Most of the other members of the Legion were revealed to have also survived the Hall of Doom's destruction as Luthor appears in the episode "Bachelorette" while numerous other members appear in the season two finale "The Runaway Bridesmaid", attending Poison Ivy and Kite Man's wedding prior to Commissioner Gordon leading a raid on it. Film Justice League: Doom The Legion of Doom appear as the central antagonists in the animated film Justice League: Doom, led by Vandal Savage and consisting of the Cheetah, Star Sapphire, Metallo, Bane, Mirror Master, and Ma'alefa'ak. They intended to use a solar flare to end half of humanity, but were foiled by the Justice League. JLA Adventures: Trapped In Time The Legion of Doom appear in the animated film JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time, consisting of Lex Luthor, Toyman, Cheetah, Captain Cold, Black Manta, Solomon Grundy, Bizarro, and Gorilla Grodd. The Legion of Doom travel back in time to eliminate Superman, with the help of Time Trapper. Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Attack of the Legion of Doom The Legion of Doom appear in the animated film Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Attack of the Legion of Doom, consisting of Lex Luthor, Cheetah, Captain Cold, Sinestro, Black Manta, and Gorilla Grodd. The Joker, Penguin, Man-Bat, Giganta, and Deathstroke also appear as potential recruits who are all rejected for various reasons. This incarnation of the group was formed by Luthor on Darkseid's orders. The Legion attacks Area 52 to obtain a capsule containing J'onn J'onzz and escape following a fight with the Justice League. The villains free J'onzz and persuade him to help them discredit the Justice League before seeing them banished from Earth. However, J'onzz poses as Black Manta and saves Cyborg and assists him in saving the Justice League. With Darkseid's help, the Legion fight the Justice League once more before defeating them. Afterwards, the Justice League are cleared of all charges and the Legion of Doom are arrested by the police. LEGO DC Super Hero Girls: Super-Villain High The female version of the Legion of Doom appears in Lego DC Super Hero Girls: Super-Villain High, consisting of Lena Luthor and Lashina while Harley Quinn, Catwoman, Poison Ivy, Frost and Cheetah joined temporarily. Justice League vs. Teen Titans The Legion of Doom appears in the animated direct-to-DVD film Justice League vs. Teen Titans, consisting of Lex Luthor, Toyman, Cheetah, Weather Wizard, and Solomon Grundy. Teen Titans GO! & DC Super Hero Girls: Mayhem in the Multiverse The Legion of Doom appears in the upcoming crossover film, consisting of Lex Luthor, Cythonna, The Riddler, Solomon Grundy, Toyman, Giganta, Catwoman, Poison Ivy, Livewire, Star Sapphire and Cheetah while Harley Quinn joins minorly. Video games The Hall of Doom appears in DC Universe Online as a hub for players in the villain campaign. The Legion of Doom appear as playable characters in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, consisting of Lex Luthor, the Joker, Cheetah, Firefly, Killer Croc, and Solomon Grundy and the Hall of Doom appearing as a hub location. While Black Manta, Giganta, Toyman, Riddler, Bizarro, Captain Cold, Gorilla Grodd, Brainiac, and Sinestro also appear as playable characters, they are not explicitly stated to be part of the Legion. The Legion of Doom appears in Lego DC Super-Villains as playable characters, with the Hall of Doom appears as a part of the hub world. This incarnation of the Legion includes the following members: Miscellaneous The Legion of Doom is named and pictured in the opening sequence for the direct-to-video original animation DC Super Friends: The Joker's Playhouse (2010). In 2007 at Six Flags New England, a live show written by Brandon T. Snider featured the Legion of Doom. This incarnation of the group involved Lex Luthor, Joker, Riddler, Cheetah, Captain Cold, and Sinestro. Cultural references In the mid to late 1990s, the Philadelphia Flyers forward line of John LeClair, Eric Lindros, and Mikael Renberg was nicknamed the Legion of Doom. Professional wrestling manager Paul Ellering named his wrestling stable The Legion of Doom after the supervillain group, eventually using the name to refer to his chief – and later sole – protégés, the tag team of The Road Warriors. When the Road Warriors arrived in the World Wrestling Federation in 1990, they changed their team name to The Legion of Doom. Two Cartoon Network bumpers featured the Legion of Doom. One had The Powerpuff Girls saving Aquaman and Wonder Woman from the Legion's clutches. The other featured the membership annoying Luthor with petty demands. In the season six episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, "Normal Again", Jonathan asks Andrew, "Did you even read Legion of Doom?". An episode of The Drew Carey Show featured Drew and his friends getting in trouble being a "gang". Drew gets sent to a counseling session for gangbangers and enters the room to see a group of imposing bikers and gang members sitting around a large table. He quips "the reason I've called you all here is to destroy Superman" as Lex Luthor would do when leading a Legion meeting. In the Family Guy episode "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One", Lois, when trying to get money from the town to purify Lake Quahog during her time as the Mayor of Quahog, convinced the people in a press conference that the money would help to stop terrorists. One of these claims is that Adolf Hitler is conspiring with the Legion of Doom to assassinate Jesus while using Lake Quahog to conceal their base. The scene then jumps to the Hall of Doom where Lex Luthor shouts "How did she discover our plan?!". Solomon Grundy quotes "Me Solomon Grundy kind of dropped the ball on that one". Almost all of the original Legion is portrayed except for the Riddler. In "Something, Something, Something Dark Side" (which is a parody version of Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back), there is a reference to "The Legion of Doom" when the Hall of Doom begins to rise out of the swamp on Dagobah shortly after Luke Skywalker (portrayed by Family Guy character Chris Griffin) has landed. An announcer bearing resemblance to the narrative voice on Super Friends begins by saying "Meanwhile, at the Legion of Doom..." only to be cut off by Chris (playing Luke Skywalker) who says "Not now!". The narration then quickly says "OK" as the apparent Hall of Doom sinks back beneath the water in the swamp. In the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Peanut Puberty", the headquarters for the Legion of Doom was used for a club called the "Legion of Dance". The first episode of Season 3 of Duck Dodgers titled "Till Doom Do Us Part" featured the Legion of Duck Doom, led by Agent Roboto and was composed of various villains from the earlier seasons made up of Crusher, Fudd, a Catapoid, Count Muerte, New Cadet, Nasty Canasta, Commandante Hilgalgo, Baby-Faced Moonbeam, Long John Silver the 23rd, K'chutha Sa'am, and Taz. A new villain that is part of the Legion of Duck Doom named Black Eel (a parody of Black Manta) makes his first appearance in this episode. In the Aqua Teen Hunger Force episode "The Last One", the Mooninites tried to organize a league of every single villain that was from Season 1 to 3. Among its members are the Mooninites, Rabbot, Mothmonsterman, Happy Time Harry, Cybernetic Ghost of Christmas Past from the Future, Travis of the Cosmos, Randy the Astonishing, the Brownie Monsters, Romulox, MC Pee Pants's worm, the Trees, Frat Aliens, Oog, Dumbassahedratron, Ol'Drippy, and Major Shake. However, almost all of them got foolishly killed or asked to leave leaving only a small force led by the Mooninites. Afterwards, the Rabbot called the team "Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday". In the Krypto the Superdog episode "Mechanikalamity", the Intergalactic Villains Club that Mechanicat is a part of is a spoof of the Legion of Doom and has a base that is similar to the Hall of Doom. Due to Mechanicat's repeated failure to defeat Krypto, he has been unable to get elected as leader with the recent election having the members voting for Glorg to be the leader of the Intergalactic Villains Club. The music video for the song "P.I.M.P." by rappers 50 Cent, Snoop Dogg, Lloyd Banks and Young Buck features 50 Cent seeking the join the "P.I.M.P. Legion of Doom" who are led by Snoop Dogg. The P.I.M.P Legion of Doom gathers around a round table and discuss criminal affairs amongst themselves. Despite not having a Cadillac or a perm, 50 Cent becomes a members by pleasing its members upon showing them his "magic stick". In Johnny Test, the Evil Johnny Stopping Force Five have a secret base in a swamp that closely resembles the Legion of Doom's secret headquarters. The song "Trap or Die" by rap artists Young Jeezy and Bun B contains the lyric "I've got my own Super Friends in a Legion of Doom", referencing the DC characters. In the early to mid 2010s, the Seattle Seahawks defense was nicknamed the Legion of Boom. Major players consisted of Richard Sherman, Kam Chancellor and Earl Thomas. This was a play on the villain group's name. In the New Orleans region of CLUBWAKA (World Adult Kickball Association), there is a team named Legion of Doom. Their colors are orange & black and they use a logo that incorporates the Hall of Doom in the imagery. Each member of the team chooses a villain from the DC roster, and one game a season they dress as their villainous alter egos while challenging their opponents to dress in costumes as DC heroes. They are currently in their 12th season and have had over 50 different villains represented. President Donald Trump's ordered military strike of a group of Iranian terrorists outside of Baghdad International Airport resulted in numerous media outlets reporting Trump had taken out "the legion of doom". References Animated series villains Comic book terrorist organizations DC Comics supervillain teams Super Friends characters

Act of Parliament

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Acts of parliament, sometimes referred to as primary legislation, are texts of law passed by the legislative body of a jurisdiction (often a parliament or council). In most countries with a parliamentary system of government, acts of parliament begin as a bill, which the legislature votes on. Depending on the structure of government, this text may then be subject to assent or approval from the executive branch. Bills A draft act of parliament is known as a bill. In other words, a bill is a proposed law that needs to be discussed in the parliament before it can become a law. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a "white paper", setting out the issues and the way in which the proposed new law is intended to deal with them. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing; this is known as a private member's bill. In territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by constitutional convention or by law, to be introduced into a specific chamber. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canada's House of Commons, Lok Sabha of India and Ireland's Dáil as a matter of law. Conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law. In theory, this allows the bill's provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber. Broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the approved bill receives assent; in most territories this is merely a formality and is often a function exercised by the head of state. In some countries, such as in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government (when it is known as a "draft"), or by the parliament (a "proposition", i.e., a private member's bill). Procedure Australia In Australia, the bill passes through the following stages: First reading: This stage is a mere formality, it involves the reading of the title of the proposed bill and distribution of the bill to members of parliament Second reading: As in the UK, the stage involves a debate on the general principles of the bill and is followed by a vote. Again, the second reading of a government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a government bill on this reading signifies a major loss. If the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail: This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail. Third reading: A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage. Passage: The bill is then sent to the other House (to the Senate, if it originated in the House of Representatives; to the House of Representatives, if it is a Senate bill), which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage. The State of Queensland's Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. It may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can "request" the House to make amendments. A bill may pass backward and forward several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other. If each House insists on disagreeing with the other, the Bill is lost. Disagreement between the Houses: Often, when a bill cannot be passed in the same form by both Houses, it is "laid aside", i.e. abandoned. There is also a special constitutional procedure allowing the passage of the bill without the separate agreement of both houses. If the House twice passes the same bill, and the Senate twice fails to pass that bill (either through rejection or through the passage of unacceptable amendments), then the Governor-General may dissolve both Houses of Parliament simultaneously and call an election for the entire Parliament. This is called a double dissolution. After the election, if the House again passes the bill, but the deadlock between the Houses persists, then the Governor-General may convene a joint sitting of both Houses, where a final decision will be taken on the bill. Although the House and the Senate sit as a single body, bills passed at a joint sitting are treated as if they had been passed by each chamber separately. The procedure only applies if the bill originated in the House of Representatives. Six double dissolutions have occurred, though a joint sitting was only held once, in 1974. The bill is sent to the viceroy (the Governor-General for the Commonwealth; the Governor for a State; the Administrator for a Territory) for the royal assent. Certain bills must be reserved by the viceroy for the Queen's personal assent. Acts in the Australian Capital Territory do not require this step. Canada In Canada, the bill passes through the following stages: First reading: This stage is a mere formality. Second reading: As in the UK, the stage involves a debate on the general principles of the bill and is followed by a vote. Again, the second reading of a government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss. If the bill is read a second time, then it progresses to the committee stage. Committee stage: This usually takes place in a standing committee of the Commons or Senate. Standing committee: The standing committee is a permanent one; each committee deals with bills in specific subject areas. Canada's standing committees are similar to the UK's select committees. Special committee: A committee established for a particular purpose, be it the examination of a bill or a particular issue. Legislative committee: Similar to a special committee in that it is established for the consideration of a particular bill. The chairmanship is determined by the Speaker, rather than elected by the members of the committee. Not used in the Senate. Committee of the Whole: The whole house sits as a committee in the House of Commons or Senate. Most often used to consider appropriation bills, but can be used to consider any bill. The committee considers each clause of the bill, and may make amendments to it. Significant amendments may be made at the committee stage. In some cases, whole groups of clauses are inserted or removed. However, if the Government holds a majority, almost all the amendments which are agreed to in committee will have been tabled by the Government to correct deficiencies in the bill or to enact changes to policy made since the bill was introduced (or, in some cases, to import material which was not ready when the bill was presented). Report stage: this takes place on the floor of the appropriate chamber, and allows the House or Senate to approve amendments made in committee, or to propose new ones. Third reading: A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Passage: The bill is then sent to the other House (to the Senate, if it originated in the House of Commons; to the Commons, if it is a Senate bill), where it will face a virtually identical process. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are sent back to the original House for a further stage. Consideration of Senate/Commons amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. It may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu or reject them. If each House insists on disagreeing with the other, the Bill is lost. Disagreement between the Houses: There is no specific procedure under which the Senate's disagreement can be overruled by the Commons. The Senate's rejection is absolute. The debate on each stage is actually debate on a specific motion. For the first reading, there is no debate. For the second reading, the motion is "That this bill be now read a second time and be referred to [name of committee]" and for third reading "That this bill be now read a third time and pass." In the Committee stage, each clause is called and motions for amendments to these clauses, or that the clause stand part of the bill are made. In the Report stage, the debate is on the motions for specific amendments. Once a bill has passed both Houses in an identical form, it receives final, formal examination by the Governor General, who gives it the royal assent. Although the Governor General can refuse to assent a bill or reserve the bill for the queen at this stage, this power has never been exercised. Bills being reviewed by Parliament are assigned numbers: 2 to 200 for government bills, 201 to 1000 for private member's bills, and 1001 up for private bills. They are preceded by C- if they originate in the House of Commons, or S- if they originate in the Senate. For example, Bill C-250 was a private member's bill introduced in the House. Bills C-1 and S-1 are pro forma bills, and are introduced at the beginning of each session in order to assert the right of each Chamber to manage its own affairs. They are introduced and read a first time, and then are dropped from the Order Paper. Croatia Constitutional Act in Croatian legal system is legislation passed and amended under the same conditions under which the Constitution of Croatia is passed or amended. Constitutional Act is hierarchically under the Constitution and must comply with it, but is above other laws and decisions which must be in accordance with Constitutional Act. There are altogether three Constitutional Acts in Croatia. The first Constitutional Act was the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia which on the recommendation of the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia was international community's precondition for the recognition of Croatian independence from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Its new version was an initial precondition for the beginning of the European Union accession process of Croatia. The other two are the Constitutional Act on Implementation of the Constitution of Croatia and Constitutional Act on the Constitutional Court of Croatia. India In the Parliament of India, every bill passes through following stages before it becomes an Act of Parliament of India: First reading - introduction stage: Any member, or member-in-charge of the bill seeks the leave of the house to introduce a bill. If the bill is an important one, the minister may make a brief speech, stating its main features. Second reading - discussion stage: This stage consists of detailed consideration of the bill and proposed amendments. Third reading - voting stage: This stage is confined only to arguments either in support of the bill or for its rejection as a whole, without referring to its details. After the bill is passed, it is sent to the other house. Bill in the other house (Rajya Sabha): After a bill, other than a money bill, is transmitted to the other house, it goes through all the stages in that house as that in the first house. But if the bill passed by one house is amended by the other house, it goes back to the originating house. President's approval: When a bill is passed by both the houses, it is sent to the President for his approval. The President can assent or withhold his assent to a bill or he can return a bill, other than a money bill. If the President gives his assent, the bill is published in The Gazette of India and becomes an Act from the date of his assent. If he withholds his assent, the bill is dropped, which is known as pocket veto. The pocket veto is not written in the constitution and has only been exercised once by President Zail Singh: in 1986, over the postal act where the government wanted to open postal letters without warrant. If the president returns it for reconsideration, the Parliament must do so, but if it is passed again and returned to him, he must give his assent to it. Ireland In the Irish Parliament, the Oireachtas, bills pass through the following stages: Bills may be initiated in either the Dáil or the Seanad, and must pass both houses. First stage - Private members must seek the permission of the house to introduce a bill. Government bills do not require approval and are therefore introduced at the second stage. Second stage – this involves a discussion of the general principle of the bill. It is introduced by the sponsoring minister (or in the case of a private member's bill, by the member) and is followed by contributions from the floor of the house. Finally, the debate is brought to a conclusion by voting on the proposal "that the bill now be read a second time". Third stage, commonly referred to as the Committee Stage. This involves section by section scrutiny of the bill and any amendments which have been tabled. In the Dáil this usually takes place in a committee room and will involve examination by one of the select committees. In the Seanad, this stage takes place in the chamber. The Seanad may only make recommendations rather than amendments, in the case of a money bill. Fourth stage, commonly referred to as the Report Stage. At this point, a version of the bill incorporating any changes made at the Committee Stage is printed for consideration. In both houses, this stage is taken on the floor of the chamber. Amendments may be considered at this stage but must arise from matters discussed or changes made at the Committee Stage. Fifth stage: in practice this is a formality, taken with the fourth stage and referred to as the 'Report and Final Stage'. Passage in the other house: the same stages are repeated in the other house and the bill is then deemed to have been passed, except that any bill initiated in the Dáil and amended by the Seanad must return to the Dáil for final consideration. Signature: once the bill has passed both houses it is sent to the President for signature. The signed copy is then enrolled in the Office of the Supreme Court. New Zealand In New Zealand, the bill passes through the following stages: First reading: MPs debate and vote on the bill. If a bill is approved, it passes on to the committee stage. Select committee stage: The bill is considered by a Select Committee, which scrutinises the bill in detail and hears public submissions on the matter. The Committee may recommend amendments to the bill. Second reading: The general principles of the bill are debated, and a vote is held. If the bill is approved, it is put before a Committee of the House. Committee of the House: The bill is debated and voted on, clause by clause, by the whole House sitting as a committee. Third reading: Summarising arguments are made, and a final vote is taken. If the bill is approved, it is passed to the Governor-General for royal assent. New Zealand has no upper house, and so no approval is necessary. Pakistan United Kingdom United Kingdom Parliament A draft piece of legislation is called a bill, when this is passed by Parliament it becomes an Act and part of statute law. There are two types of bill and Act, public and private. Public Acts apply to the whole of the UK or a number of its constituent countries — England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Private Acts are local and personal in their effect, giving special powers to bodies such as local authorities or making exceptions to the law in particular geographic areas. In the United Kingdom Parliament, each bill passes through the following stages: Pre-legislative scrutiny: Not undertaken for all bills; usually a joint committee of both houses will review a bill and vote on amendments that the government can either accept or reject. The report from this stage can be influential in later stages as rejected recommendations from the committee are revived to be voted on. First reading: This is a formality; no vote occurs. The Bill is presented and ordered to be printed and, in the case of private members' bills, a date is set for second reading. Second reading: A debate on the general principles of the bill is followed by a vote. Committee stage: This usually takes place in a public bill committee in the Commons and on the Floor of the House in the Lords. The committee considers each clause of the bill, and may make amendments to it. Consideration (or report) stage: this takes place on the floor of the House, and is a further opportunity to amend the bill. Unlike committee stage, the House need not consider every clause of the bill, only those to which amendments have been tabled. Third reading: a debate on the final text of the bill, as amended in the House of Lords. Further amendments may be tabled at this stage. Passage: The bill is then sent to the other House (to the Lords, if it originated in the Commons; to the Commons, if it is a Lords bill), which may amend it. Consideration of Lords/Commons amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. Royal assent: the bill is passed with any amendments and becomes an act of parliament. Senedd (Welsh Parliament) Northern Ireland Assembly Scottish Parliament In the Scottish Parliament, bills pass through the following stages: Introduction: The bill is introduced to the parliament together with its accompanying documents — explanatory notes, a policy memorandum setting out the policy underlying the bill and a financial memorandum setting out the costs and savings associated with it. Statements from the presiding officer and the member in charge of the bill are also lodged, indicating whether the bill is within the legislative competence of the parliament. Stage one: The bill is considered by one or more of the subject committees of the parliament, which normally take evidence from the bill's promoter and other interested parties before reporting to the parliament on the principles of the bill. Other committees, notably the Finance and Subordinate Legislation Committees, may also feed in at this stage. The report from the committee is followed by a debate in the full parliament. Stage two: The bill returns to the subject committee where it is subject to line-by-line scrutiny and amendment. This is similar to the committee stage in the UK Parliament. Stage three: The bill as amended by the committee returns to the full parliament. There is a further opportunity for amendment, followed by a debate on the whole bill, at the end of which the parliament decides whether to pass the bill. Royal assent: After the bill has been passed, the presiding officer submits it to the monarch for royal assent. However, he cannot do so until a 4-week period has elapsed during which the law officers of the Scottish government or the UK government can refer the bill to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom for a ruling on whether it is within the powers of the parliament. There are special procedures for emergency bills, member's bills (similar to private member's bills in the UK Parliament), committee bills, and private bills. Singapore In Singapore, the bill passes through these certain stages before becoming into an Act of Parliament. First reading: The bill is introduced to the government, usually by the members of parliament. The unicameral parliament will then discuss the bill, followed by a vote. Voting must be at least 1/2 aye for non-controversial bills and 2/3 aye for controversial ones. If the bill passes the vote it will proceed to the second reading. Second reading: In this stage, the bill is further discussed and put to a second vote. If more than half of the votes are aye the bill proceeds to the select committee. Select committee: The select committee consists of people not only from the parliaments, but also the people who could be affected by the bill is passed into law. This is to ensure equality and that the bill is fair for all. If the bill is in favour, it will proceed to the third reading. Third reading: After the select committee has discussed and are in favour of the bill, they will put it to a vote. At this juncture, if the votes are more than 1/2 aye, it will be sent to the President of Singapore, currently Halimah Yacob. This is known as President Assent. President Assent: The president must give permission in order for the bill to be passed. If (s)he approves it, it will become a statute passed down by the members of parliament which is called an Act of Parliament. Titles and citation of acts Acts passed by the Parliament of England did not originally have titles, and could only be formally cited by reference to the parliamentary session in which they were passed, with each individual act being identified by year and chapter number. Descriptive titles began to be added to the enrolled acts by the official clerks, as a reference aid; over time, titles came to be included within the text of each bill. Since the mid-nineteenth century, it has also become common practice for acts to have a short title, as a convenient alternative to the sometimes lengthy main titles. The Short Titles Act 1892, and its replacement the Short Titles Act 1896, gave short titles to many acts which previously lacked them. The numerical citation of acts has also changed over time. The original method was based on the regnal year (or years) in which the relevant parliamentary session met. This has been replaced in most territories by simple reference to the calendar year, with the first act passed being chapter 1, and so on. In the United Kingdom, legislation is referenced by year and chapter number. Each act is numbered consecutively based on the date they received royal assent. for example the 43rd act passed in 1980 would be 1980 Chapter 43. The full reference includes the (short) title and would be The Magistrate's Court Act 1980 C. 43. Until the 1980s, acts of the Australian state of Victoria were numbered in a continuous sequence from 1857; thus the Age of Majority Act 1977 was No. 9075 of 1977. See also Act of Congress Legislative act Halsbury's Statutes List of legislation in the United Kingdom Table of contents References Citations Sources General www.publications.parliament.uk External links Acts of Parliament and statutory instruments are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the National Archives (legislation.gov.uk). Parliamentary Stages of a Government Bill (pdf) from the House of Commons Information Office. Acts of the Commonwealth Parliament of Australia: ComLaw.gov.au Westminster system Statutory law

Leg shaving

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Leg shaving is the practice of removing leg hair by shaving the hair off using a razor or electric shaver. In addition, some people remove leg hair using waxing, sugaring, depilatories, epilators or other depilation devices, or lasers, but shaving remains the least expensive and one of the least painful methods. It is a very common practice among women in the western world, and is also done by some men, especially bodybuilders, cyclists, swimmers, and some runners. Women In Western countries, the majority of women engage in leg shaving, doing so largely for aesthetic reasons. This practice has developed especially since the early 20th century, around the time of the First World War, as hemlines on women's dresses have become shorter and women's swimsuits have become more revealing, displaying all of a woman's legs. Some women may only shave the hair below the knee – depending on the length of dress styles in fashion – while others shave the entire leg. The frequency of shaving also varies, with some women shaving their legs every day, and others shaving only at the start of summer, in anticipation of the wearing of a swimsuit. Special razors, different in shape from those used by men for face-shaving, are often used by women. Men Among Western men, the shaving of legs is common in sporting situations and in fact has been taking place for longer than women shaving their legs. Male leg hair removal in modern times was initially related to sports, though it is now more frequently done for aesthetics. For sports such as cycling and swimming, men started shaving their legs around the turn of the 20th century. Most male swimmers, bicycle racers, and some male non-racers shave their legs regularly. The practice is most useful in long distance swimming, where the effects of drag can cause a significant time difference in races over 400 meters. Regarding cycling, wind tunnel tests performed by Specialized, indicate over a 40 km TT one can save 50-82 seconds by shaving legs. Other reasons cyclists shave include: faster healing and easier cleaning of road rash, less pain during leg massage. Seneca suggested that in ancient Rome it was considered an ostentatious bit of effeminacy, contrary to underarm hair removal: "One is, I believe, as faulty as the other: the one class are unreasonably elaborate, the other are unreasonably negligent; the former depilate the leg, the latter not even the armpit" (letter 114). Summers cites Ovid, A. A. i. 506 "Don't rub your legs smooth with the tight-scraping pumice stone." Many athletes also shave their legs or bodies to facilitate therapeutic massage that is frequently a part of their training or post-race recovery programs. They may also shave their legs if they tape protective gear to them to prevent the tape from pulling painfully on the hair when removed. Shaving of the legs is also frequently practiced by male models and bodybuilders, since it accentuates muscle definition. See also Hair removal Hirsutism Underarm hair Waxing References Notes Hair removal Shaving

Danica McKellar

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Danica Mae McKellar (born January 3, 1975) is an American actress, mathematics writer, and education advocate. She played Winnie Cooper in the television series The Wonder Years from 1988 to 1993, and since 2010 has voiced Miss Martian in the animated superhero series Young Justice. In 2015, McKellar was cast in the Netflix original series Project Mc2. She appears in several television films for Hallmark Channel. She is the current voice of Judy Jetson from The Jetsons since 2017 following Janet Waldo's death in 2016. In addition to her acting work, McKellar later wrote six non-fiction books, all dealing with mathematics: Math Doesn't Suck, Kiss My Math, Hot X: Algebra Exposed, Girls Get Curves: Geometry Takes Shape, which encourage middle-school and high-school girls to have confidence and succeed in mathematics, Goodnight, Numbers, and Do Not Open This Math Book. Early life and education McKellar was born in La Jolla, California. She moved with her family to Los Angeles when she was eight. Her mother Mahaila McKellar (née Tello) was a homemaker; her father Christopher McKellar is a real estate developer; her younger sister Crystal (b. 1976) is a lawyer. She is of paternal Scottish, French, German, Spanish, and Dutch descent and her mother is of Portuguese origin via the Azores and Madeira islands. McKellar studied at the University of California, Los Angeles where she earned a Bachelor of Science degree summa cum laude in Mathematics in 1998. As an undergraduate, she coauthored a scientific paper with Professor Lincoln Chayes and fellow student Brandy Winn titled "Percolation and Gibbs states multiplicity for ferromagnetic Ashkin–Teller models on ." Their results are termed the "Chayes–McKellar–Winn theorem". Later, when Chayes was asked to comment about the mathematical abilities of his student coauthors, he was quoted in The New York Times, "I thought that the two were really, really first-rate." For her past collaborative work on research papers, McKellar is currently assigned the Erdős number four, and her Erdős–Bacon number is six. Acting career The Wonder Years and early acting career At age seven, McKellar enrolled in weekend acting classes for children at the Lee Strasberg Institute in Los Angeles. In her teens, she landed a prominent role in The Wonder Years, an American television comedy-drama that ran for six seasons on ABC, from 1988 to 1993. She played Gwendolyn "Winnie" Cooper, the main love interest of Kevin Arnold (played by Fred Savage) on the show. Her first kiss was with Fred Savage in an episode of The Wonder Years.She later said, "My first kiss was a pretty nerve-wracking experience! But we never kissed off screen, and pretty quickly our feelings turned into brother/sister, and stayed that way." Later acting career McKellar has said that she found it "difficult" to move from being a child actress to an adult actress. Since leaving The Wonder Years, McKellar has had several guest roles in television series (including one with former co-star Fred Savage on Working), and has written and directed two short films. She appeared in two Lifetime TV movies in the Moment of Truth series, playing Kristin Guthrie in 1994's Cradle of Conspiracy and Annie Mills Carman in 1996's Justice for Annie. She briefly returned to regular television with a recurring role in the 2002–03 season of The West Wing, portraying Elsie Snuffin, the half-sister and assistant of Deputy White House Communications Director Will Bailey. McKellar was featured in the video for Debbie Gibson's eighth single from the Electric Youth album, "No More Rhyme", which was released in 1989. She plays the cello in the beginning of the video. McKellar appeared in lingerie in the July 2005 edition of Stuff magazine after readers voted her the 1990s star they would most like to see in lingerie. McKellar explained that she agreed to the shoot in part to obtain "grittier roles". In 2006, McKellar starred in a Lifetime movie and web-based series titled Inspector Mom about a mother who solves mysteries. On the August 1, 2007, edition of the Don and Mike Show, a WJFK-FM radio program out of Washington, D.C., McKellar announced that the producers of How I Met Your Mother were planning to bring her back for a recurring role (she guest-starred on the show in late 2005 in "The Pineapple Incident" and again in early 2007 in "Third Wheel"). She also made an appearance on the show The Big Bang Theory, in the episode "The Psychic Vortex". In 2008, she starred in Heatstroke, a Sci-Fi Channel original movie about searching for alien life on Earth and in 2009 she was one of the stars commenting on the occurrences of the new millennium in VH1's I Love the New Millennium and was the math correspondent for Brink, a program by the Science Channel about technology. In 2013, she played Ellen Plainview in Lifetime's reimagining of the 1956 Alfred Hitchcock film The Wrong Man. McKellar has also worked as a voice actress, having provided the voice of Jubilee in the video game X-Men Legends (2004), and Invisible Woman in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance (2006) and Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2 (2009). She provided the voice of Miss Martian in the TV series Young Justice. In 2012, she starred in the Lifetime movie Love at the Christmas Table with Dustin Milligan. In January 2013, she starred in the Syfy movie Tasmanian Devils with Apolo Ohno. On August 20, 2013, Canadian singer Avril Lavigne released the music video for her single "Rock N Roll" from her self-titled fifth album, which features McKellar as "Winnie Cooper". On March 4, 2014, she was announced to be competing on season 18 of Dancing with the Stars. She paired with Valentin Chmerkovskiy. McKellar and Chmerkovskiy were eliminated on Week 8, finishing in 6th place. She had a guest appearance in the Impractical Jokers season four episode six titled "The Blunder Years". She made another guest appearance in the season seven episode ten titled "Speech Impediment". In 2015, she starred in the Netflix original series Project Mc2 as The Quail. She has starred in several Hallmark Channel movies, including Crown for Christmas, My Christmas Dream, Campfire Kiss, Love and Sunshine, Christmas at Dollywood, and You, Me & the Christmas Trees as well as the Hallmark Movies & Mysteries series The Matchmaker Mysteries. McKellar is a judge on Fox’s Domino Masters premiering March 9, 2022. Books McKellar has authored several mathematics-related books primarily targeting adolescent readers interested in succeeding at the study of mathematics: Her first book, Math Doesn't Suck: How to Survive Middle School Math without Losing Your Mind or Breaking a Nail, was a New York Times bestseller, and was favorably reviewed by Tara C. Smith, the founder of Iowa Citizens for Science and a professor of epidemiology at the University of Iowa. The book also received a review from Anthony Jones, writing for the School Librarian journal, who described the book as "a trouble-shooting guide to help girls overcome their biggest maths challenges," noting what he described as "real-world examples of great mathematics in action." In an interview with Smith, McKellar said that she wrote the book "to show girls that math is accessible and relevant, and even a little glamorous" and to counteract "damaging social messages telling young girls that math and science aren't for them". McKellar's second book, Kiss My Math: Showing Pre-Algebra Who's Boss, was released on August 5, 2008. The book's target audience is girls in the 7th through 9th grades. Her third book, Hot X: Algebra Exposed! covers algebra topics, while the previous two titles were intended as "algebra-readiness books." Hot X was published on August 3, 2010. Her fourth book, Girls Get Curves – Geometry Takes Shape, focuses on the subject of geometry, and attempts to make the subject more accessible. Three of McKellar's books were listed in The New York Times children's bestseller list. She received Mathical Honors for Goodnight, Numbers. Published papers Awards and honors McKellar was named Person of the Week on World News with Charles Gibson for the week ending August 10, 2007. The news segment highlighted her book Math Doesn't Suck and her efforts to help girls develop an interest in mathematics, especially during the middle school years. In January 2014, she received the Joint Policy Board for Mathematics (JPBM) Communications Award. The citation credited her books, blog, and public appearances for encouraging "countless middle and high school students, especially girls, to be more interested in mathematics." Personal life McKellar married composer Michael "Mike" Verta on March 22, 2009, in La Jolla, California; the couple had dated since 2001. They had their first child, a son named Draco, in 2010. McKellar filed for divorce from Verta in June 2012. McKellar has homeschooled Draco his entire life, and many of her math books themes are inspired by at-home instruction. On July 16, 2014, she became engaged to her boyfriend Scott Sveslosky, a partner in the Los Angeles legal firm Sheppard, Mullin, Richter & Hampton. On November 15, 2014, they married in Kauai, Hawaii. Cultural references McKellar's notoriety for Hallmark mystery movies was spoofed in the 2019 film Knives Out, complete with the parody title Deadly By Surprise. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video Games Further reading References External links Danica McKellar's blog Website for McKellar Math Website of Math Doesn't Suck Website for Kiss My Math Interview with McKellar about her theorem at NPR February 2006 Proof and Prejudice: Women in Mathematics Conference, at which McKellar was a speaker Science Friday for September 21, 2007 with McKellar among the guests Public School Insights Interview with McKellar about girls and math 1975 births 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American mathematicians 21st-century American screenwriters 21st-century American women writers 21st-century women mathematicians Actresses from Los Angeles Actresses from San Diego American child actresses American film actresses American people of Dutch descent American people of French descent American people of German descent American people of Portuguese descent American people of Scottish descent American people of Spanish descent American television actresses American television writers American video game actresses American voice actresses American women film directors American women mathematicians American women television writers Film directors from Los Angeles Harvard-Westlake School alumni Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni Living people Mathematics writers People from La Jolla, San Diego Screenwriters from California University of California, Los Angeles alumni

Transport layer

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In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide end-to-end communication services for applications. It provides services such as connection-oriented communication, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. The details of implementation and semantics of the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite, which is the foundation of the Internet, and the OSI model of general networking are different. The protocols in use today in this layer for the Internet all originated in the development of TCP/IP. In the OSI model the transport layer is often referred to as Layer 4, or L4, while numbered layers are not used in TCP/IP. The best-known transport protocol of the Internet protocol suite is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It is used for connection-oriented transmissions, whereas the connectionless User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for simpler messaging transmissions. TCP is the more complex protocol, due to its stateful design incorporating reliable transmission and data stream services. Together, TCP and UDP comprise essentially all traffic on the Internet and are the only protocols implemented in every major operating system. Additional transport layer protocols that have been defined and implemented include the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) and the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). Services Transport layer services are conveyed to an application via a programming interface to the transport layer protocols. The services may include the following features: Connection-oriented communication: It is normally easier for an application to interpret a connection as a data stream rather than having to deal with the underlying connection-less models, such as the datagram model of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and of the Internet Protocol (IP). Same order delivery: The network layer doesn't generally guarantee that packets of data will arrive in the same order that they were sent, but often this is a desirable feature. This is usually done through the use of segment numbering, with the receiver passing them to the application in order. This can cause head-of-line blocking. Reliability: Packets may be lost during transport due to network congestion and errors. By means of an error detection code, such as a checksum, the transport protocol may check that the data is not corrupted, and verify correct receipt by sending an ACK or NACK message to the sender. Automatic repeat request schemes may be used to retransmit lost or corrupted data. Flow control: The rate of data transmission between two nodes must sometimes be managed to prevent a fast sender from transmitting more data than can be supported by the receiving data buffer, causing a buffer overrun. This can also be used to improve efficiency by reducing buffer underrun. Congestion avoidance: Congestion control can control traffic entry into a telecommunications network, so as to avoid congestive collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps, such as reducing the rate of sending packets. For example, automatic repeat requests may keep the network in a congested state; this situation can be avoided by adding congestion avoidance to the flow control, including slow-start. This keeps the bandwidth consumption at a low level in the beginning of the transmission, or after packet retransmission. Multiplexing: Ports can provide multiple endpoints on a single node. For example, the name on a postal address is a kind of multiplexing and distinguishes between different recipients of the same location. Computer applications will each listen for information on their own ports, which enables the use of more than one network service at the same time. It is part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model, but of the session layer in the OSI model. Analysis The transport layer is responsible for delivering data to the appropriate application process on the host computers. This involves statistical multiplexing of data from different application processes, i.e. forming data segments, and adding source and destination port numbers in the header of each transport layer data segment. Together with the source and destination IP address, the port numbers constitute a network socket, i.e. an identification address of the process-to-process communication. In the OSI model, this function is supported by the session layer. Some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, support virtual circuits, i.e. provide connection-oriented communication over an underlying packet-oriented datagram network. A byte-stream is delivered while hiding the packet mode communication for the application processes. This involves connection establishment, dividing of the data stream into packets called segments, segment numbering and reordering of out-of-order data. Finally, some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, provide end-to-end reliable communication, i.e. error recovery by means of error detecting code and automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol. The ARQ protocol also provides flow control, which may be combined with congestion avoidance. UDP is a very simple protocol and does not provide virtual circuits, nor reliable communication, delegating these functions to the application program. UDP packets are called datagrams, rather than segments. TCP is used for many protocols, including HTTP web browsing and email transfer. UDP may be used for multicasting and broadcasting, since retransmissions are not possible to a large amount of hosts. UDP typically gives higher throughput and shorter latency and is therefore often used for real-time multimedia communication where packet loss occasionally can be accepted, for example IP-TV and IP-telephony, and for online computer games. Many non-IP-based networks, such as X.25, Frame Relay and ATM, implement the connection-oriented communication at the network or data link layer rather than the transport layer. In X.25, in telephone network modems and in wireless communication systems, reliable node-to-node communication is implemented at lower protocol layers. The OSI connection-mode transport layer protocol specification defines five classes of transport protocols: TP0, providing the least error recovery, to TP4, which is designed for less reliable networks. Protocols This list shows some protocols that are commonly placed in the transport layers of the Internet protocol suite, the OSI protocol suite, NetWare's IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, and Fibre Channel. ATP, AppleTalk Transaction Protocol CUDP, Cyclic UDP DCCP, Datagram Congestion Control Protocol FCP, Fibre Channel Protocol IL, IL Protocol MPTCP, Multipath TCP NORM, NACK-Oriented Reliable Multicast RDP, Reliable Data Protocol RUDP, Reliable User Datagram Protocol SCTP, Stream Control Transmission Protocol SPX, Sequenced Packet Exchange SST, Structured Stream Transport TCP, Transmission Control Protocol UDP, User Datagram Protocol UDP-Lite µTP, Micro Transport Protocol Comparison of transport layer protocols Comparison of OSI transport protocols ISO/IEC 8073/ITU-T Recommendation X.224, "Information Technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service", defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols designated class 0 (TP0) to class 4 (TP4). Class 0 contains no error recovery and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. All OSI connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of the classes are shown in the following table: There is also a connectionless transport protocol, specified by ISO/IEC 8602/ITU-T Recommendation X.234. References OSI model

List of tectonic plate interactions

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Tectonic plate interactions are classified into three basic types: Divergent boundaries are areas where plates move away from each other, forming either mid-ocean ridges or rift valleys. These are also known as constructive boundaries. Convergent boundaries are areas where plates move toward each other and collide. These are also known as compressional or destructive boundaries. Subduction zones occur where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate and is pushed underneath it. Subduction zones are marked by oceanic trenches. The descending end of the oceanic plate melts and creates pressure in the mantle, causing volcanoes to form. Obduction occurs when the continental plate is pushed under the oceanic plate, but this is unusual as the relative densities of the tectonic plates favours subduction of the oceanic plate. This causes the oceanic plate to buckle and usually results in a new mid-ocean ridge forming and turning the obduction into subduction. Orogenic belts occur where two continental plates collide and push upwards to form large mountain ranges. These are also known as collision boundaries. Transform boundaries occur when two plates grind past each other with only limited convergent or divergent activity. Divergent boundaries The East African Rift (Great Rift Valley) in eastern Africa The Mid-Atlantic Ridge system separates the North American Plate and South American Plate in the west from the Eurasian Plate and African Plate in the east The Gakkel Ridge is a slow spreading ridge located in the Arctic Ocean The East Pacific Rise, extending from the South Pacific to the Gulf of California The Baikal Rift Zone in eastern Russia The Red Sea Rift The Aden Ridge along the southern shore of the Arabian Peninsula The Carlsberg Ridge in the eastern Indian Ocean The Gorda Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Explorer Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Juan de Fuca Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Chile Rise off the southeast Pacific Convergent boundaries (subduction zones) The oceanic Nazca Plate subducts beneath the continental South American Plate at the Peru–Chile Trench. Just north of the Nazca Plate, the oceanic Cocos Plate subducts under the Caribbean Plate and forms the Middle America Trench. The Cascadia subduction zone is where the oceanic Juan de Fuca, Gorda and Explorer Plates subduct under the continental North American plate. The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the North American Plate (composed of both continental and oceanic sections) forming the Aleutian Trench. The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate at the Japan Trench. The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate at the Ryukyu Trench. The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the oceanic Philippine Sea Plate forming the Mariana Trench. The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt forming the Philippine Trench and the East Luzon Trench. The Eurasian Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Manila Trench. The Sunda Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Negros Trench and the Cotobato Trench. The oceanic Indo-Australian Plate is subducted beneath the continental Sunda Plate along the Sunda Trench. The oceanic Pacific Plate is subducting under the Indo-Australian Plate north and east of New Zealand, but the direction of subduction reverses south of the Alpine Fault where the Indo-Australian Plate starts subducting under the Pacific Plate. The South American Plate is subducting under the South Sandwich Plate, forming the South Sandwich Trench. Orogenic belts The most dramatic orogenic belt on the planet is the one between the Indo-Australian Plate and African Plate on one side (to the South) and the Eurasian Plate on the other side (to the North). This belt runs from New Zealand in the East-SouthEast, through Indonesia, along the Himalayas, through the Middle East up to the Mediterranean in the West-Northwest. It is also called the "Tethyan" Zone, as it constitutes the zone along which the ancient Tethys Ocean was deformed and disappeared. The following mountain belts can be distinguished: The European Alps The Carpathians The Pyrenees The Apennines The Dinarides The North African mountain belts such as the Atlas Mountains The Karst Plateau of the Balkan Peninsula The Caucasus The Zagros The Himalayas The Indonesian Archipelago The Southern Alps of New Zealand The Andes orogenic belt is the latest of a series of orogenies along the western margin of the South American Plate. Transform boundaries The San Andreas Fault in California is an active transform boundary. The Pacific Plate (carrying the city of Los Angeles) is moving northwards with respect to the North American Plate. The Queen Charlotte Fault on the Pacific Northwest coast of North America The Motagua Fault, which crosses through Guatemala, is a transform boundary between the southern edge of the North American Plate and the northern edge of the Caribbean Plate. New Zealand's Alpine Fault is another active transform boundary. The Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault which runs through the Jordan River Valley in the Middle East. The Owen Fracture Zone along the southeastern boundary of the Arabian Plate. See also References

Big Stick ideology

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Big stick ideology, big stick diplomacy, or big stick policy refers to President Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy: "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis." As practiced by Roosevelt, big stick diplomacy had five components. First it was essential to possess serious military capability that would force the adversary to pay close attention. At the time that meant a world-class navy. Roosevelt never had a large army at his disposal. The other qualities were to act justly toward other nations, never to bluff, to strike only when prepared to strike hard, and the willingness to allow the adversary to save face in defeat. The idea is negotiating peacefully but also having strength in case things go wrong. Simultaneously threatening with the "big stick", or the military, ties in heavily with the idea of Realpolitik, which implies a pursuit of political power that resembles Machiavellian ideals. It is comparable to gunboat diplomacy, as used in international politics by the powers. Background Roosevelt (then Governor of New York) to Henry L. Sprague, dated January 26, 1900. Roosevelt wrote, in a bout of happiness after forcing New York's Republican committee to pull support away from a corrupt financial adviser: Roosevelt would go on to be elected Vice President later that year, and subsequently used the aphorism publicly in an address to the Minnesota State Fair, entitled "National Duties", on September 2, 1901: Four days later, President William McKinley was shot by an assassin; upon McKinley’s death eight days after being shot, Roosevelt took his place as president. Usage Although used before his presidency, Roosevelt used military muscle several times throughout his two terms with a more subtle touch to complement his diplomatic policies and enforcing the Monroe Doctrine throughout multiple interventions in Latin America. This included the Great White Fleet, 16 battleships which peacefully circumnavigated the globe as an illustration of United States' rising yet neutral prestige under Roosevelt's direction. Latin America Venezuelan Affair (1902) and the Roosevelt Corollary In the early 20th century, Venezuela was receiving messages from Britain and Germany about "acts of violence against the liberty of British subjects and the massive capture of British vessels" who were from the U.K. and the lack of Venezuelan initiative to pay off long-standing debts. After the Royal Navy and Imperial German Navy took naval action with a blockade on Venezuela (1902–1903), Roosevelt denounced the blockade. The blockade began the basis of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe doctrine. Though he had mentioned the basis of his idea beforehand in private letters, he officially announced the corollary in 1904, stating that he only wanted the "other republics on this continent" to be "happy and prosperous". For that goal to be met, the corollary required that they "maintain order within their borders and behave with a just obligation toward outsiders". Most historians, such as one of Roosevelt's many biographers Howard K. Beale have summarized that the corollary was influenced by Roosevelt's personal beliefs as well as his connections to foreign bondholders. The U.S. public was very "tense" during the two-month blockade, and Roosevelt requested that Britain and Germany pull out their forces from the area. During the requests for the blockade's end, Roosevelt stationed naval forces in Cuba, to ensure "the respect of Monroe doctrine" and the compliance of the parties in question. The doctrine was never ratified by the senate or brought up for a vote to the American public. Roosevelt's declaration was the first of many presidential decrees in the twentieth century that were never ratified. Canal diplomacy The U.S. used the "big stick" during "Canal Diplomacy", the diplomatic actions of the U.S. during the pursuit of a canal across Central America. Both Nicaragua and Panama featured canal related incidents of Big Stick Diplomacy. Proposed construction of the Nicaragua Canal In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal. Nicaragua would receive $1.5 million in ratification, $100,000 annually, and the U.S. would "provide sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity". Nicaragua then returned the contract draft with a change; they wished to receive, instead of an annual $100,000, $6 million in ratification. The U.S. accepted the deal, but after Congress approved the contract a problem of court jurisdiction came up. The U.S. did not have legal jurisdiction in the land of the future canal. This problem was on the verge of correction until Pro-Panama representatives posed problems for Nicaragua; the current leader (General José Santos Zelaya) did not cause problems, from the outlook of U.S. interests. Construction of the Panama Canal ''' In 1899, the Isthmian Canal Commission was set up to determine which site would be best for the canal (Nicaragua or Panama) and then to oversee construction of the canal. After Nicaragua was ruled out, Panama was the obvious choice. A few problems had arisen, however. With the U.S.' solidified interests in Panama (then a small portion of Colombia), both Colombia and the French company that was to provide the construction materials raised their prices. The U.S., refusing to pay the higher-than-expected fees, "engineered a revolution" in Colombia. On November 3, 1903, Panama (with the support of the United States Navy) revolted against Colombia. Panama became a new republic, receiving $10 million from the U.S. alone. Panama also gained an annual payment of $250,000, and guarantees of independence. The U.S. gained the rights to the canal strip "in perpetuity". Roosevelt later said that he "took the Canal, and let Congress debate". After Colombia lost Panama, they tried to appeal to the U.S. by the reconsidering of treaties and even naming Panama City the capital of Colombia. Cuba The U.S., after the Spanish–American War, had many expansionists who wanted to annex Cuba. Many people felt that a foreign power (outside of the U.S.) would control a portion of Cuba, thus the U.S. could not continue with its interests in Cuba. Although many advocated annexation, this was prevented by the Teller Amendment, which states "hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people." When summarized, this could mean that the U.S. would not interfere with Cuba and its peoples. The expansionists argued though, that the Teller Amendment was created "ignorant of actual conditions" and that this released the U.S. from its obligation. Following the debate surrounding the Teller Amendment, the Platt Amendment took effect. The Platt Amendment (the name is a misnomer; the Platt Amendment is actually a rider to the Army Appropriation Act of 1901) was accepted by Cuba in late 1901, after "strong pressure" from Washington. The Platt Amendment, summarized by Thomas A. Bailey in "Diplomatic History of the American People": Cuba was not to make decisions impairing her independence or to permit a foreign power [e.g., Germany] to secure lodgment in control over the island. Cuba pledged herself not to incur an indebtedness beyond her means [It might result in foreign intervention]. The United States was at liberty to intervene for the purpose of preserving order and maintaining Cuban independence. Cuba would agree to an American-sponsored sanitation program [Aimed largely at yellow fever]. Cuba would agree to sell or lease to the United States sites for naval or coaling stations [Guantánamo became the principal base]. With the Platt Amendment in place, Roosevelt pulled the troops out of Cuba. A year later Roosevelt wrote: See also Pax Americana Peace through strength History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913 Notes References External links A site about Big Stick Ideology Information about the political aspects of the Big Stick Hegemony American political catchphrases Banana Wars Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt Foreign policy doctrines of the United States Metaphors referring to objects Military diplomacy

Bruce Forsyth

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Sir Bruce Joseph Forsyth-Johnson (22 February 1928 – 18 August 2017) was a British entertainer and presenter whose career spanned more than 70 years. Forsyth came to national attention from the late 1950s through the ITV series Sunday Night at the London Palladium. He went on to host several game shows, including The Generation Game, Play Your Cards Right, The Price Is Right and You Bet!. He co-presented Strictly Come Dancing from 2004 to 2013. In 2012, Guinness World Records recognised Forsyth as having the longest television career for a male entertainer. Early life Forsyth was born on Victoria Road in Edmonton, Middlesex on 22 February 1928, the son of Florence Ada (née Pocknell) and John Thomas Forsyth-Johnson. His family owned a car repair garage and, as members of the Salvation Army, his parents played brass instruments; his mother was a singer. His great-grandfather Joseph Forsyth Johnson (1840–1906) was a landscape architect who worked in multiple countries, and great-great-great-great-grandfather William Forsyth (1737–1804) was a founder of the Royal Horticultural Society and the namesake of the plant genus Forsythia. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Forsyth was evacuated to Clacton-on-Sea. Shortly after he arrived, Forsyth's parents allowed him to return to London as a result of his feeling homesick. In 1943, Forsyth's older brother John, who served as a pilot in the Royal Air Force, was killed during a training exercise at RAF Turnberry. Forsyth attended the Latymer School. After watching Fred Astaire in films at the age of eight, he trained in dance in Tottenham and then Brixton. Career Boy Bruce, the Mighty Atom Forsyth started his live public performances aged 14, with a song, dance and accordion act called "Boy Bruce, the Mighty Atom". His first appearance was at the Theatre Royal in Bilston, with The Great Marzo at the top of the bill. He had made his television debut in 1939 as a child, singing and dancing on BBC talent show Come and Be Televised, broadcast from Radiolympia, and introduced by Jasmine Bligh. Post-war work After the war, with the goal of joining Moss Empires theatres, he spent years on stage with little success and travelled the UK working seven days a week, doing summer seasons, pantomimes and circuses, where he became renowned for his strong-man act. His act was interrupted by his National Service when he was conscripted into the Royal Air Force. In 1958, an appearance with the comedian Dickie Henderson led to his being offered the job of compère of Val Parnell's weekly TV variety show, Sunday Night at the London Palladium. He hosted the show for two years, followed by a year's break, then returned for another year. His schedule of stage performances, which continued throughout the 1960s, forced him to give up the job of host. Forsyth appeared in the London production of Little Me, along with Avril Angers in 1964. In the musical film Star! (1968), a biopic of stage actress Gertrude Lawrence, he played alongside lead performer Julie Andrews as Lawrence's father. In January 1968 Pye Records issued as a single "I'm Backing Britain", supporting the campaign of the same name, written by Tony Hatch and Jackie Trent, and sung by Forsyth. The chorus included "The feeling is growing, so let's keep it going, the good times are blowing our way". All involved in making the single took cuts in their fees or royalties so that the single sold for 5s. instead of the going rate of 7s. 4½d. Forsyth happily endorsed the campaign, saying "The country has always done its best when it is up against the wall. If everyone realises what we are up against we can get out of trouble easily." The song did not make the charts, selling only 7,319 copies. On 7 October 1968, he was top of the bill on the opening night of the Golden Garter nightclub, Wythenshawe. Two years later, he played Swinburne in the Disney fantasy film Bedknobs and Broomsticks. In 1976, he appeared on The Muppet Show, where he took on the duo Statler and Waldorf. Game show host During his spell of hosting Sunday Night at the London Palladium as part of the show he hosted the 15-minute game show Beat the Clock. Forsyth's next success was The Generation Game (BBC1, 1971–1977, 1990–1994), which proved popular and attracted huge Saturday evening audiences. It was on this show that Forsyth introduced his "The Thinker" pose, emulating Rodin's sculpture, appearing in silhouette each week after the opening titles. This pose is reminiscent of the circus strong-man attitude. He also wrote and sang the theme for the show "Life is the Name of the Game." Millions of viewers became familiar with the rasp of Forsyth's north London accented voice and his "distinctively pointy" chin that he emphasised in poses such as the "human question mark", with chin over raised knee. He was replaced on The Generation Game by Larry Grayson. In 1977 he announced that he was leaving television to take the star role in a new musical, The Travelling Music Show, based on the songs of Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse. The show did reasonably well in provincial theatre, but received poor reviews when it moved to London and it closed after four months in July 1978. London Weekend Television persuaded him to return to the screen later that year to present Bruce Forsyth's Big Night, a two-hour Saturday-night show on ITV encompassing a variety of different entertainment formats (later reduced to 90 minutes). However, the show was not a success and lasted for just one series. Forsyth remained with ITV, hosting the game show Play Your Cards Right, which was the UK version of the US original Card Sharks, from 1980 to 1987, 1994 to 1999, and a brief period from 2002 to 2003, before the show was cancelled mid-run due to low ratings. In 1986, he went to the United States to host a game show on ABC, Bruce Forsyth's Hot Streak, which ran for 65 episodes from January to April that year. Forsyth starred in the Thames Television sitcom Slinger's Day in 1986 and 1987, a sequel to Tripper's Day which had starred Leonard Rossiter, whom Forsyth replaced in the new show. He was the original host of You Bet! (1988 to 1990). Forsyth fronted the third version of The Price Is Right (1995 to 2001). His unsuccessful gameshows include Takeover Bid (1990 to 1991), Hollywood Or Bust (1984), and Didn't They Do Well! (2004). During the 1970s Forsyth featured in the Stork margarine adverts on television, and then during the 1980s and 1990s he appeared in an advertising campaign for the furniture retailer Courts, in which he dressed as a judge. Forsyth celebrated his 70th birthday in 1998 and appeared in a week-long run of his one-man show at the London Palladium. In 2000, Forsyth hosted a revived series called Tonight at the London Palladium. Career revival In 2003, and again in 2010, Forsyth was a guest presenter on the news and satire quiz show Have I Got News for You. Forsyth had called Paul Merton, one of the team captains on the show, to suggest himself as a guest presenter. He co-presented Strictly Come Dancing from 2004 to 2013, formally stepping down from hosting the regular live show in April 2014. This decision was made to reduce his workload and for the preparation of pre-recorded specials. On 7 April 2010, Forsyth became one of the first three celebrities to be subjected to the British version of the American institution of a comedy roast, on Channel 4's A Comedy Roast. Forsyth was the subject of the BBC genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are?, broadcast on 19 July 2010. On 20 March 2010, Forsyth appeared on the autobiography-interview programme Piers Morgan's Life Stories, which was broadcast on ITV. In 2011, Forsyth released a collection of songs on CD called These Are My Favourites. He chose the songs for their personal and musical importance, including a duet with his granddaughter, Sophie Purdie. These Are My Favourites also includes a recording of "Paper Moon" with Nat King Cole. Tributes and honours Forsyth's showbiz awards include Variety Club Show Business Personality of the Year in 1975; TV Times Male TV Personality of the Year, in 1975, 1976, 1977 and 1978; and BBC TV Personality of the Year in 1991. On 7 June 1959 Forsyth was inducted into the elite entertainers' fraternity, the Grand Order of Water Rats, Water Rat number 566. In 1987, a fan club was created – the Great Bruce Forsyth Social Club. They would later go on to assist Forsyth in singing his opening number, "It's Never Too Late", at his Audience With show. He repaid this favour by adding the society to his busy schedule in June 1997 and appeared at their 10th annual general meeting in Plymouth. Forsyth was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1998 Birthday Honours, and Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2006 New Year Honours. On 27 February 2005, the BBC screened A BAFTA Tribute to Bruce Forsyth to mark the entertainer's 60 years in show business. He had a bronze bust of himself unveiled at the London Palladium in May 2005. The sculpture was created by his son-in-law and is on display in the theatre's Cinderella Bar. In 2008, Forsyth received the BAFTA Fellowship. In 2009, he was awarded the Theatre Performer's Award at the annual Carl Alan Awards. Hosted by the International Dance Teachers' Association, the awards are voted for by the leading dance organisations in the United Kingdom and recognise those who have made an exceptional contribution to the world of dance and theatre. Forsyth received a Royal Television Society Lifetime Achievement Award on 17 March 2009. On 26 January 2011 he received the National Television Awards special recognition award. Forsyth was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2011 Birthday Honours for services to entertainment and charity. This followed a years-long public campaign to award him a knighthood. His investiture, by the Queen, took place on 12 October 2011 and he became Sir Bruce Forsyth CBE. In July 2012, Forsyth was given the honour of carrying the Olympic flame through London, as it finally reached the city on the penultimate day of the London 2012 Torch Relay. Forsyth earned a place in the 2013 Guinness Book of World Records as the male TV entertainer having had the longest career, calling it a "wonderful surprise". He also appeared at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival on the Avalon stage, becoming the oldest performer to ever play at the festival. In 2018 the NTA's honoured the memory of Sir Bruce by naming an NTA award after him. Personal life Forsyth was married to Penny Calvert from 1953 until their divorce in 1973, with whom he had three daughters named Debbie, Julie, and Laura. Julie is a songwriter, who composed the UK’s entry in the 1988 Eurovision Song Contest. In 1973, he married Anthea Redfern, the hostess on The Generation Game. They had two daughters named Charlotte and Louisa, before divorcing in 1979. Asked to judge the 1980 Miss World competition, Forsyth met Puerto Rican beauty queen Wilnelia Merced, who was a fellow judge. They were married from 1983 until his death in 2017. They had one son together named Jonathan Joseph (who is better known as "JJ"). By his six children, Forsyth had nine grandchildren and three great-grandchildren. Forsyth was a supporter and ambassador for the children's charity Caudwell Children, regularly appearing at many of their fundraising events. In August 2014, Forsyth was one of 200 public figures who signed a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue. Forsyth lived on the Wentworth Estate in Surrey. Until 2000, he also occupied a flat in Nell Gwynn House, Sloane Avenue, Chelsea. Illness and death Towards the end of his life, Forsyth suffered from ill health, which reduced his appearances in public. On 8 October 2015, he was admitted to hospital for cuts and minor concussion after tripping over a rug at his home and hitting his head. A month later, he made his last full TV appearance on Strictly Children in Need Special, with filming for this taking place prior to him undergoing surgery for an abdominal aortic aneurysm on 12 November. As a result of his surgery, Forsyth was unable to host that year's Strictly Come Dancing Christmas Special as planned, but a spokesman representing him later stated he would play a part in the production, recording a special video message for it. After 2015, Forsyth made no further public appearances, as his health began to decline, with his wife commenting that he struggled to move easily following his surgery. On 26 February 2017, he was again admitted to hospital with a severe chest infection and spent five days in intensive care, before returning home on 3 March 2017. On 18 August 2017, Forsyth died of bronchial pneumonia at his Wentworth Estate home in Virginia Water, aged 89. Several celebrities paid tribute to Forsyth following his death, including his former Strictly Come Dancing co-host Tess Daly; his friends Michael Parkinson, Jimmy Tarbuck, and Des O'Connor, the BBC director general Tony Hall and the then Prime Minister, Theresa May. BBC One aired Sir Bruce Forsyth – Mr Entertainment, in place of the scheduled The One Show, in tribute. Forsyth was cremated on 5 September 2017 in a private ceremony attended only by close family and friends. A few days later, on 9 September 2017, when that year's series of Strictly Come Dancing began, it paid tribute to Forsyth with a special ballroom dance routine from their professional dancers. On 14 December 2017, the BBC announced that it would produce a tribute show to Forsyth at the London Palladium on 21 February 2018. Hosted by Tess Daly, Sir Bruce: A Celebration was broadcast on BBC One on 11 March 2018. On 18 August 2018, exactly a year after he died, Forsyth's ashes were laid to rest beneath the stage in a private ceremony at the London Palladium. Filmography Film and television Stage Discography Albums Singles 1959, "Excerpts from The Desert Song (No.2)", with June Bronhill, Edmund Hockridge, Inia Te Wiata, The Williams Singers, Michael Collins and His Orchestra (7" EP), His Master's Voice: 7EG 8676 1960, "I'm a Good Boy", Parlophone 1960, "I'm in Charge" (7"), Parlophone: 45-R 4535 1962, "The Oh-Be-Joyfuls (7"), Piccadilly: 7N.35086 1964, "Real Live Girl" (7"), Pye: 7N.15744 1964, "Saturday Sunshine" (7"), Piccadilly: 7N.35169 1964, "The Mysterious People" (7"), Piccadilly: 1189 1965, "Real Live Girl" (7"), Blue Cat: BC 105 1968, "I'm Backing Britain" / "There's Not Enough Love in the World", Pye 1973, "Didn't He Do Well?" (7"), Philips: 6006 285 1978, "Love Medley", with Valerie Walsh (7), CBS: S CBS 6469 In popular culture Neopets, a virtual pet website, had a collectible character which was originally a direct representation of Forsyth himself. The pet was later renamed to just "Bruce" and his appearance changed to that of a penguin to better fit with the other pets on the platform. Despite the change, the pet retained Forsyth's iconic bow tie. Footnotes References External links Bruce Forsyth at the British Film Institute 1928 births 2017 deaths Actors awarded knighthoods BAFTA fellows Deaths from pneumonia in England Deaths from bronchopneumonia English entertainers English people of Scottish descent English television presenters English male television actors English male film actors Knights Bachelor Commanders of the Order of the British Empire English game show hosts People from Edmonton, London Strictly Come Dancing English television personalities People educated at The Latymer School People from Virginia Water 20th-century English comedians 21st-century English comedians

Ladder

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A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of rungs or steps. There are two types: rigid ladders that are self-supporting or that may be leaned against a vertical surface such as a wall, and rollable ladders, such as those made of rope or aluminium, that may be hung from the top. The vertical members of a rigid ladder are called stringers or rails (US) or stiles (UK). Rigid ladders are usually portable, but some types are permanently fixed to a structure, building, or equipment. They are commonly made of metal, wood, or fiberglass, but they have been known to be made of tough plastic. Historical usages Ladders are ancient tools and technology. A ladder is featured in a Mesolithic rock painting that is at least 10,000 years old, depicted in the Spider Caves in Valencia, Spain. The painting depicts two humans using a ladder to reach a wild honeybee nest to harvest honey. The ladder is depicted as long and flexible, possibly made out of some sort of grass. Variations Rigid ladders Rigid ladders are available in many forms, such as: Accommodation ladder, portable steps down the side of a ship for boarding. Assault ladder, used in siege warfare to assist in climbing walls and crossing moats. Attic ladder, pulled down from the ceiling to allow access to an attic or loft. , a ladder laid horizontally to act as a passage between two points separated by a drop. Boarding ladder, a ladder use to climb onto a vehicle. May be rigid or flexible, also boarding step(s), and swim ladder Cat ladder (US chicken ladder), a lightweight ladder frame used on steep roofs to prevent workers from sliding. Christmas tree ladder, a type of boarding ladder for divers which has a single central rail and is open at the sides to allow the diver to climb the ladder while wearing swimfins. , a fixed ladder with a lower sliding part. A system of counterweights is used to let the lower sliding part descend gently when released. Extension ladder or "telescopic ladder", a fixed ladder divided into two or more lengths for more convenient storage; the lengths can be slid together for storage or slid apart to expand the length of the ladder; a pulley system may be fitted so that the ladder can be easily extended by an operator on the ground then locked in place using the dogs and pawls. 65 ft (20 m), 50 ft (15 m) and some 35 ft (10 m) extension ladders for fire service use "bangor poles", "tormentor poles" or "stay poles" to help raise, pivot, steady, extend, place, retract and lower them due to the heavy weight. Fixed ladder, two side members joined by several rungs; affixed to structure with no moving parts. , a ladder in the step ladder style with one or more (usually no more than three) one-way hinges. Ideal for use on uneven ground (e.g. stairs), as a trestle or when fully extended a Fixed ladder. Some variations feature a central one-way hinge with extensible locking legs. Hook ladder or pompier ladder, a rigid ladder with a hook at the top to grip a windowsill; used by firefighters. Mobile Safety Steps are self-supporting structures that have wheels or castors making them easy to move. They sometimes have a small upper platform and a hand rail to assist in moving up and down the steps. Orchard ladder, a three legged step ladder with the third leg made so that it can be inserted between tree branches for fruit picking. , a step ladder with a large platform area and a top handrail for the user to hold while working on the platform. , a ladder that looks like a drainpipe but can be deployed instantly when required. Roof ladder, a rigid ladder with a large hook at the top to grip the ridge of a pitched roof. , also known as a builder's ladder, has sections that come apart and are interchangeable so that any number of sections can be connected. Step ladder, a self-supporting portable ladder hinged in the middle to form an inverted V, with stays to keep the two halves at a fixed angle. Step ladders have flat steps and a hinged back. Swim ladder, a ladder used by swimmers to get out of the water, often on boats. , commonly used to refer to a hybrid between a step ladder and an extension ladder with 360-degree hinges; has three parts and can be taken apart to form two step ladders; e.g. Little Giant. , an "A-Frame"-style ladder with a telescoping center section. Turntable ladder, an extension ladder fitted to rotating platform on top of a fire truck. Vertically rising ladder, designed to climb high points and facilitate suspending at said high points. X-deck ladder, a US patented ladder design that is a combination ladder and scaffold. Rigid ladders were originally made of wood, but in the 20th century aluminium became more common because of its lighter weight. Ladders with fiberglass stiles are used for working on or near overhead electrical wires, because fiberglass is an electrical insulator. Henry Quackenbush patented the extension ladder in 1867. Flexible ladders Rope ladders or Jacob's ladders are used where storage space is extremely limited, weight must be kept to a minimum, or in instances where the object to be climbed is too curved to use a rigid ladder. They may have rigid or flexible rungs. Climbing a rope ladder requires more skill than climbing a rigid ladder, because the ladder tends to swing like a pendulum. Jacob's ladders used on a ship are used mostly for emergencies or for temporary access to the side of a ship. Steel and aluminium wire ladders are sometimes used in vertical caving, having developed from rope ladders with wooden rungs. Flexible ladders are also sometimes used as swim ladders on boats. Uses Dissipative ladders are portable ladders built to ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) standard. Electrostatic Discharge is a natural occurrence in which electricity is passed through the body, or other conductors, and discharges onto some object. For example, the shock sometimes felt when a doorknob is touched is an ESD. This natural occurrence is a very important topic in the field of electronics assembly due to the costly damage ESDs can cause to sensitive electronic equipment. Dissipative ladders are ladders with controlled electrical resistance: the resistance slows the transfer of charge from one point to another, offering increased protection during ESD events: ≥105 and < 1012 Ω / square. Boarding and pool ladders, also swim ladders and dive ladders. A ladder may be used on the side or stern of a boat, to climb into it from the water, and in a swimming pool, to climb out and sometimes in. Swimming pool ladders are usually made from plastic, wood or metal steps with a textured upper surface for grip and metal rails at the sides to support the steps and as handrails for the user, and are usually fixed in place. Boarding ladders for boats may be fixed, but are usually portable, and often fold away when not in use to avoid drag when under way. Boarding ladders may also be used for other types of vehicle, or boarding steps which are supported directly by the vehicle structure. Assault ladders Safety The most common injury made by ladder climbers is bruising from falling off a ladder, but bone fractures are common and head injuries are also likely, depending on the nature of the accident. Ladders can cause injury if they slip on the ground and fall. To avoid this, they tend to have plastic feet or base pads which increase friction with the group. However, if the plastic is badly worn, the aluminium may contact the ground increasing the chance of an accident. Ladder stabilizers are also available to increase the ladder's grip on the ground. One of the first ladder stabilizers or ladder feet was offered in 1936 and today they are standard equipment on most large ladders. A ladder standoff, or stay, is a device fitted to the top of a ladder to hold it away from the wall. This enables the ladder to clear overhanging obstacles, such as the eaves of a roof, and increases the safe working height for a given length of ladder because of the increased separation distance of the two contact points at the top of the ladder. It has become increasingly common to provide anchor points on buildings to which the top rung of an extension ladder can be attached, especially for activities like window cleaning, especially if a fellow worker is not available for "footing" the ladder. Footing occurs when another worker stands on the lowest rung and so provides much greater stability to the ladder when being used. However footing a ladder should be seen as a last resort for a safe placement. The anchor point is usually a ring cemented into a slot in the brick wall to which the rungs of a ladder can be attached using rope for example, or a carabiner. If a leaning ladder is placed at the wrong angle, the risk of a fall is greatly increased. The safest angle for a ladder is 75.5°; if it is too shallow, the bottom of the ladder is at risk of sliding, and if it is too steep, the ladder may fall backwards. This angle is achieved by following the 4 to 1 rule for a ladder placed on a vertical wall: for every four feet of vertical height, the ladder foot should move one foot from the wall. Both scenarios can cause significant injury, and are especially important in industries like construction, which require heavy use of ladders. Ladder classes The European Union and the United Kingdom established a ladder certification system – ladder classes – for any ladders manufactured or sold in Europe. The certification classes apply solely to ladders that are portable such as stepladders and extension ladders and are broken down into three types of certification. Each ladder certification is colour-coded to indicate the amount of weight the ladder is designed to hold, the certification class and its use. The color of the safety label specifies the class and use. Class 1 ladder – for heavy-duty industrial uses, maximum load of 175 kg. Colour-coded blue to identify. Class EN131 ladders – for commercial uses, maximum load of 150 kg. No specific colour code.. Class III ladders – for light, domestic uses, maximum load of 125 kg. Colour-coded red to identify. Society and culture A common superstition in English-speaking countries is that walking under a ladder is seen as bad luck. Some sources claim that this stems from the image of a ladder being propped up against a wall looking similar to a gallows, while others attribute it to ancient Egyptian traditions involving pyramids and triangles representing the trinity of the gods, and passing through the triangular shape made by a ladder against a wall was seen as desecration. Ladders have also been linked to the crucifixion of Christ, with author and scientist Charles Panati noting that many believe a ladder rested against the crucifix that Christ hung from, making it a symbol of wickedness, betrayal and death. In comedic children's media, the image of a character walking under a ladder being the cause or result of bad luck has become a common trope. In practical terms, the caution against walking under a ladder, especially one that is being used, would have arisen from the risk of the person walking underneath knocking into it and/or being hit by objects falling from the work happening above. Image gallery See also Scala naturae References External links Ladder Safety including Ladder Types (Type I, Type II, Type III) OSHA Ladder guidelines including OSHA approved rung spacing requirements, etc. CDC – NIOSH Update – New NIOSH Smart Phone App Addresses Ladder Safety American Ladder Institute information page

Jaguar Cars

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Jaguar (, ) is the luxury vehicle brand of Jaguar Land Rover, a British multinational car manufacturer with its headquarters in Whitley, Coventry, England. Jaguar Cars was the company that was responsible for the production of Jaguar cars until its operations were fully merged with those of Land Rover to form Jaguar Land Rover on 1 January 2013. Jaguar's business was founded as the Swallow Sidecar Company in 1922, originally making motorcycle sidecars before developing bodies for passenger cars. Under the ownership of S. S. Cars Limited, the business extended to complete cars made in association with Standard Motor Co, many bearing Jaguar as a model name. The company's name was changed from S. S. Cars to Jaguar Cars in 1945. A merger with the British Motor Corporation followed in 1966, the resulting enlarged company now being renamed as British Motor Holdings (BMH), which in 1968 merged with Leyland Motor Corporation and became British Leyland, itself to be nationalised in 1975. Jaguar was spun off from British Leyland and was listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, becoming a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index until it was acquired by Ford in 1990. Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for the British Prime Minister, the most recent delivery being an XJ in May 2010. The company also holds royal warrants from Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles. Ford owned Jaguar Cars, also buying Land Rover in 2000, until 2008 when it sold both to Tata Motors. Tata created Jaguar Land Rover as a subsidiary holding company. At operating company level, in 2013 Jaguar Cars was merged with Land Rover to form Jaguar Land Rover Limited as the single design, manufacture, sales company and brand owner for both Jaguar and Land Rover vehicles. Since the Ford ownership era, Jaguar and Land Rover have used joint design facilities in engineering centres at Whitley in Coventry and Gaydon in Warwickshire and Jaguar cars have been assembled in plants at Castle Bromwich and Solihull. On 15 February 2021 Jaguar Land Rover announced that all cars made under the Jaguar brand will be fully electric by 2025. History Founding The Swallow Sidecar Company was founded in 1922 by two motorcycle enthusiasts, William Lyons and William Walmsley. In 1934 Walmsley elected to sell-out and in order to buy the Swallow business (but not the company which was liquidated) Lyons formed S.S. Cars Limited, finding new capital by issuing shares to the public. Jaguar first appeared in September 1935 as a model name on an SS 2½-litre sports saloon. A matching open two seater sports model with a 3½-litre engine was named SS Jaguar 100. On 23 March 1945 the S. S. Cars shareholders in general meeting agreed to change the company's name to Jaguar Cars Limited. Said chairman William Lyons "Unlike S. S. the name Jaguar is distinctive and cannot be connected or confused with any similar foreign name." Though five years of pent-up demand ensured plenty of buyers production was hampered by shortage of materials, particularly steel, issued to manufacturers until the 1950s by a central planning authority under strict government control. Jaguar sold Motor Panels, a pressed steel body manufacturing company bought in the late 1930s, to steel and components manufacturer Rubery Owen, and Jaguar bought from John Black's Standard Motor Company the plant where Standard built Jaguar's six-cylinder engines. From this time Jaguar was entirely dependent for their bodies on external suppliers, in particular then independent Pressed Steel and in 1966 that carried them into BMC, BMH and British Leyland. Jaguar made its name by producing a series of successful eye-catching sports cars, the Jaguar XK120 (1948–54), Jaguar XK140 (1954–57), Jaguar XK150 (1957–61), and Jaguar E-Type (1961–75), all embodying Lyons' mantra of "value for money". The sports cars were successful in international motorsport, a path followed in the 1950s to prove the engineering integrity of the company's products. Jaguar's sales slogan for years was "Grace, Space, Pace", a mantra epitomised by the record sales achieved by the MK VII, IX, Mks I and II saloons and later the XJ6. During the time this slogan was used, but the exact text varied. The core of Bill Lyons' success following WWII was the twin-cam straight six engine, conceived pre-war and realised while engineers at the Coventry plant were dividing their time between fire-watching and designing the new power plant. It had a hemispherical cross-flow cylinder head with valves inclined from the vertical; originally at 30 degrees (inlet) and 45 degrees (exhaust) and later standardised to 45 degrees for both inlet and exhaust. As fuel octane ratings were relatively low from 1948 onwards, three piston configuration were offered: domed (high octane), flat (medium octane), and dished (low octane). The main designer, William "Bill" Heynes, assisted by Walter "Wally" Hassan, was determined to develop the Twin OHC unit. Bill Lyons agreed over misgivings from Hassan. It was risky to take what had previously been considered a racing or low-volume and cantankerous engine needing constant fettling and apply it to reasonable volume production saloon cars. The subsequent engine (in various versions) was the mainstay powerplant of Jaguar, used in the XK 120, Mk VII Saloon, Mk I and II Saloons and XK 140 and 150. It was also employed in the E Type, itself a development from the race winning and Le Mans conquering C and D Type Sports Racing cars refined as the short-lived XKSS, a road-legal D-Type. Few engine types have demonstrated such ubiquity and longevity: Jaguar used the Twin OHC XK Engine, as it came to be known, in the Jaguar XJ6 saloon from 1969 through 1992, and employed in a J60 variant as the power plant in such diverse vehicles as the British Army's Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) family of vehicles, as well as the Fox armoured reconnaissance vehicle, the Ferret Scout Car, and the Stonefield four-wheel-drive all-terrain lorry. Properly maintained, the standard production XK Engine would achieve 200,000 miles of useful life. Two of the proudest moments in Jaguar's long history in motor sport involved winning the Le Mans 24 hours race, firstly in 1951 and again in 1953. Victory at the 1955 Le Mans was overshadowed by it being the occasion of the worst motorsport accident in history. Later in the hands of the Scottish racing team Ecurie Ecosse two more wins were added in 1956 and 1957. In spite of such a performance orientation, it was always Lyons' intention to build the business by producing world-class sporting saloons in larger numbers than the sports car market could support. Jaguar secured financial stability and a reputation for excellence with a series of elegantly styled luxury saloons that included the 3-litre and 3½ litre cars, the Mark VII, VIII, and IX, the compact Mark I and 2, and the XJ6 and XJ12. All were deemed very good values, with comfortable rides, good handling, high performance, and great style. Combined with the trend-setting XK 120, XK 140, and XK 150 series of sports car, and nonpareil E-Type, Jaguar's elan as a prestige motorcar manufacturer had few rivals. The company's post-War achievements are remarkable, considering both the shortages that drove Britain (the Ministry of Supply still allocated raw materials) and the state of metallurgical development of the era. Daimler In 1950, Jaguar agreed to lease from the Ministry of Supply the Daimler Shadow 2 factory in Browns Lane, Allesley, Coventry, which at the time was being used by The Daimler Company Limited and moved to the new site from Foleshill over the next 12 months. Jaguar purchased Daimler – not to be confused with Daimler-Benz or Daimler AG—in 1960 from BSA. From the late 1960s, Jaguar used the Daimler marque as a brand name for their most luxurious saloons. Ownership An end to independence Pressed Steel Company Limited made all Jaguar's (monocoque) bodies leaving provision and installation of the mechanicals to Jaguar. In mid-1965 British Motor Corporation (BMC), the Austin-Morris combine, bought Pressed Steel. Lyons became concerned about the future of Jaguar, partly because of the threat to ongoing supplies of bodies, and partly because of his age and lack of an heir. He therefore accepted BMC's offer to merge with Jaguar to form British Motor (Holdings) Limited. At a press conference on 11 July 1965 at the Great Eastern Hotel in London, Lyons and BMC chairman George Harriman announced, "Jaguar Group of companies is to merge with The British Motor Corporation Ltd., as the first step towards the setting up of a joint holding company to be called British Motor (Holdings) Limited". In due course BMC changed its name to British Motor Holdings at the end of 1966. BMH was pushed by the Government to merge with Leyland Motor Corporation Limited, manufacturer of Leyland bus and truck, Standard-Triumph and, since 1967, Rover vehicles. The result was British Leyland Motor Corporation, a new holding company which appeared in 1968, but the combination was not a success. A combination of poor decision making by the board along with the financial difficulties of, especially, the Austin-Morris division (previously BMC) led to the Ryder Report and to effective nationalisation in 1975. Temporary return to independence Over the next few years it became clear that because of the low regard for many of the group's products insufficient capital could be provided to develop and begin manufacture of new models, including Jaguars, particularly if Jaguar were to remain a part of the group. In July 1984, Jaguar was floated off as a separate company on the stock market – one of the Thatcher government's many privatisations– to create its own track record. Installed as chairman in 1980, Sir John Egan is credited for Jaguar's unprecedented prosperity immediately after privatisation. In early 1986 Egan reported he had tackled the main problems that were holding Jaguar back from selling more cars: quality control, lagging delivery schedules, poor productivity. He laid off about one third of the company's roughly 10,000 employees to cut costs. Commentators later pointed out he exploited an elderly model range (on which all development costs had been written off) and raised prices. He also intensified the effort to improve Jaguar's quality. In the US the price increases were masked by a favourable exchange rate. Ford Motor Company era Ford made offers to Jaguar's US and UK shareholders to buy their shares in November 1989; Jaguar's listing on the London Stock Exchange was removed on 28 February 1990. In 1999 it became part of Ford's new Premier Automotive Group along with Aston Martin, Volvo Cars and, from 2000, Land Rover. Under Ford's ownership, Jaguar never made a profit. Under Ford's ownership Jaguar expanded its range of products with the launch of the S-Type in 1999 and X-type in 2001. After PAG acquired Land Rover in May 2000 purchase by Ford, the brand became closely associated with Jaguar. In many countries they shared a common sales and distribution network (including shared dealerships), and some models shared components, although the only shared production facility was Halewood Body & Assembly – which manufactured the technically related X-Type and the Freelander 2. Operationally the two companies were effectively integrated under a common management structure within Ford's PAG. On 11 June 2007, Ford announced that it planned to sell Jaguar, along with Land Rover and retained the services of Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley and HSBC to advise it on the deal. The sale was initially expected to be announced by September 2007, but was delayed until March 2008. Private equity firms such as Alchemy Partners of the UK, TPG Capital, Ripplewood Holdings (which hired former Ford Europe executive Sir Nick Scheele to head its bid), Cerberus Capital Management and One Equity Partners (owned by JP Morgan Chase and managed by former Ford executive Jacques Nasser) of the US, Tata Motors of India and a consortium comprising Mahindra and Mahindra (an automobile manufacturer from India) and Apollo Management all initially expressed interest in purchasing the marques from the Ford Motor Company. Before the sale was announced, Anthony Bamford, chairman of British excavator manufacturer JCB had expressed interest in purchasing the company in August 2006, but backed out upon learning that the sale would also involve Land Rover, which he did not wish to buy. On Christmas Eve of 2007, Mahindra and Mahindra backed out of the race for both brands, citing complexities in the deal. Tata Motors era On 1 January 2008, Ford formally declared that Tata was the preferred bidder. Tata Motors also received endorsements from the Transport And General Worker's Union (TGWU)-Amicus combine as well as from Ford. According to the rules of the auction process, this announcement would not automatically disqualify any other potential suitor. However, Ford (as well as representatives of Unite) would now be able to enter into detailed discussions with Tata concerning issues ranging from labour concerns (job security and pensions), technology (IT systems and engine production) and intellectual property, as well as the final sale price. Ford would also open its books for a more comprehensive due diligence by Tata. On 18 March 2008, Reuters reported that American bankers Citigroup and JP Morgan would finance the deal with a US$3 billion loan. On 26 March 2008, Ford announced that it had agreed to sell its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors of India, and that they expected to complete the sale by the end of the second quarter of 2008. Included in the deal were the rights to three other British brands, Jaguar's own Daimler, as well as two dormant brands Lanchester and Rover. On 2 June 2008, the sale to Tata was completed at a cost of £1.7 billion. On 18 January 2008, Tata Motors, a part of the Tata Group, established Jaguar Land Rover Limited as a British-registered and wholly owned subsidiary. The company was to be used as a holding company for the acquisition of the two businesses from Ford – Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover. That acquisition was completed on 2 June 2008. On 1 January 2013, the group, which had been operating as two separate companies (Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover), although on an integrated basis, underwent a fundamental restructuring. The parent company was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC, Jaguar Cars Limited was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Limited and the assets (excluding certain Chinese interests) of Land Rover were transferred to it. The consequence was that Jaguar Land Rover Limited became responsible in the UK for the design, manufacture and marketing of both Jaguar and Land Rover products. Plants From 1922 the Swallow Sidecar company (SSC) was located in Blackpool. The company moved to Holbrook Lane, Coventry in 1928 when demand for the Austin Swallow became too great for the factory's capacity. The company started using the Jaguar name whilst based in Holbrooks Lane. In 1951, having outgrown the original Coventry site they moved to Browns Lane, which had been a wartime "shadow factory" run by The Daimler Company. The Browns Lane plant ceased trim and final operations in 2005, the X350 XJ having already moved to Castle Bromwich two years prior, with the XK and S-Type following. The Browns Lane plant, which continued producing veneer trim for a while and housed the Jaguar Daimler Heritage centre until it moved to the British Motor Museum site, has now been demolished and is being redeveloped. Jaguar acquired the Whitley engineering centre from Peugeot in 1986; which had originally been part of Chrysler Europe which the French firm had owned since the late 1970s. The decision to offload the site to Jaguar came as Peugeot discontinued the Talbot brand for passenger cars. In 2016, Jaguar also moved into part of the old Peugeot/Chrysler/Rootes site in Ryton-on-Dunsmore which closed a decade earlier – this now is the home of Jaguar Land Rover's classic restoration operation. Jaguar's Radford plant, originally a Daimler bus plant but later a Jaguar engine and axle plant, was closed by Ford in 1997 when it moved all Jaguar engine production to its Bridgend facility. In 2000, Ford turned its Halewood plant over to Jaguar following the discontinuation of its long running Escort that year for Jaguar's new X-Type model. It was later joined by the second-generation Land Rover Freelander 2, from 2007. Jaguars ceased being produced at Halewood in 2009 following the discontinuation of the X-Type; Halewood now becoming a Land Rover-only plant. Since Jaguar Land Rover was formed following the merger of Jaguar Cars with Land Rover, facilities have been shared across several JLR sites, most of which are used for work on both the Jaguar and Land Rover brands. Current cars E-Pace The Jaguar E-Pace is a compact SUV, officially revealed on 13 July 2017. F-Pace The F-Pace is a compact luxury crossover SUV – the first SUV from Jaguar. It was unveiled at the International Motor Show Germany in Frankfurt in September 2015. F-Type The F-Type convertible was launched at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, following its display at the Goodwood Festival of Speed in June 2012, and is billed as a successor to the legendary E-Type. In fact, the Series III E-Type already had a successor, in the form of the XJS, which was in turn replaced by the XK8 and XKR. The F-Type nevertheless returns to the 2-seat plan that was lost with the introduction of the Series III E-Type, which was available only in a 2+2-seat configuration. It was developed following the positive reaction to Jaguar's C-X16 concept car at the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show. Sales will begin in 2013 with three engine choices; two variants of the AJ126 V6 petrol engine and the AJ133 V8 petrol engine. I-Pace The Jaguar I-Pace is an electric SUV, officially revealed on 1 March 2018. It's Jaguar's first electric car. XE The XE is the first compact executive Jaguar since the 2009 model year X-Type and is the first of several Jaguar models to be built using Jaguar's new modular aluminium architecture, moving the company away from the Ford derived platforms that were used in the past for the X-Type and XF. The use of Jaguar's own platform allows the XE to feature either rear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive configurations, and it is the first car in its segment with an aluminium monocoque structure. Originally announced at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show with sales scheduled for 2015. XF The Jaguar XF is a mid-size executive car introduced in 2008 to replace the S-Type. In January 2008, the XF was awarded the What Car? 'Car of the Year' and 'Executive Car of the Year' awards. The XF was also awarded Car of the Year 2008 from What Diesel? magazine. Engines available in the XF are 2.2-litre I4 and 3.0-litre V6 diesel engines, or 3.0 litre V6 and 5.0-litre V8 petrol engines. The 5.0 Litre engine is available in supercharged form in the XFR. From 2011, the 2.2-litre diesel engine from the Land Rover Freelander was added to the range as part of a facelift. R models Jaguar began producing R models in 1995 with the introduction of the first XJR, and the first XKR was introduced in 1997. Jaguar R, R-S and SVR models are designated to compete with the likes of Mercedes-AMG, BMW M and Audi S and RS. Historic car models The renamed Jaguar company started production with the pre-war 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5-litre models, which used engines designed by the Standard Motor Company. The 1.5-litre four-cylinder engine was still supplied by Standard but the two larger six-cylinder ones were made in house. These cars have become known unofficially as Mark IVs. The first post-war model was the September 1948 Mark V available with either 2.5- or 3.5-litre engines. It had a slightly more streamlined appearance than pre-war models, but more important was the change to torsion bar independent front suspension and hydraulic brakes. In the spring of 1948 Lyons had returned from USA reporting Jaguar's individuality and perceived quality attracted the admiration of American buyers accustomed to the virtual uniformity of their home-grown vehicles. The first big breakthrough was the launch in October 1948 of their new record-breaking engine design in their XK120 sportscar to replace the prewar SS Jaguar 100. It was powered by a new twin overhead camshaft (DOHC) 3.5-litre hemi-head six-cylinder engine designed by William Heynes, Walter Hassan and Claude Baily. The XK100 4-cylinder 2-Litre version had broken records in Belgium travelling at 177 mph. This XK engine had been designed at night during the war when they would be on fire watch in the factory. After several attempts a final design was achieved. That is until owner William Lyons said "make it quieter". The sportscar bearing its prefix X had originally been intended as a short production model of about 200 vehicles. A test bed for the new engine until its intended home, the new Mark VII saloon, was ready. The second big breakthrough was the large Mark VII saloon in 1950, a car especially conceived for the American market, Jaguar was overwhelmed with orders. The Mark VII and its successors gathered rave reviews from magazines such as Road & Track and The Motor. In 1956 a Mark VII won the prestigious Monte Carlo Rally. The XK120's exceptional reception was followed in 1954 by an improved XK140 then in May 1957 a fully revised XK150. In 1955, the Two-point-four or 2.4-litre saloon (named by enthusiasts 2.4 Mark 1) was the first monocoque (unitary) car from Jaguar. Its 2.4-litre short-stroke version of the XK engine provided performance. In 1957, the 3.4-litre version with disk brakes, wire wheels and other options was introduced, with a top speed of . In October 1959, an extensively revised version of the car with wider windows and 2.4, 3.4, and 3.8-litre engine options became the Mark 2. The 3.8 Mark 2 was popular with British police forces for its small size and performance. The Mark VIII of 1956 and Mark IX of 1958 were essentially updates of the Mark VII, but the oversize Mark X of 1961 was a completely new design of large saloon with all round independent suspension and unitary construction. Jaguar launched the E-Type in 1961. The independent rear suspension from the Mark X was incorporated in the 1963 S-Type, a Mark 2 lengthened to contain the complex rear suspension, and in 1967 the Mark 2 name was dropped when the small saloons became the 240/340 range. The 420 of 1966, also sold as the Daimler Sovereign, put a new front onto the S-type, although both cars continued in parallel until the S-Type was dropped in 1968. The slow-selling Mark X became the 420G in 1966 and was dropped at the end of the decade. Jaguar was saved by its new equally capacious but very much trimmer new XJ6. Of the more recent saloons, the most significant is the XJ (1968–1992). From 1968 on, the Series I XJ saw minor changes, first in 1973 (to Series II), 1979 (Series III), a complete redesign for 1986/1987 in XJ40, further modifications in 1995 (X300), in 1997 with V8-power (X308), and a major advance in 2003 with an industry-first aluminium monocoque-chassis (X350). The most luxurious XJ models carried either the Vanden Plas (US) or Daimler (rest of world) nameplates. In 1972, the 12-cylinder engine was introduced in the XJ, while simultaneously being offered in the E Type. 1992 saw the introduction of the mid-engined, twin-turbo XJ220, powered by a V6 engine. The XJ220 was confirmed the fastest production car in the world at the time after Martin Brundle recorded a speed of on the Nardo track in Italy. Over the years many Jaguar models have sported the famous chrome plated Leaping Jaguar, traditionally forming part of the radiator cap. Known as "The Leaper" this iconic mascot has been the subject of controversy in recent times when banned for safety reasons from cars supplied to Europe whilst it continued to be fitted on cars destined for the United States, Middle East and Far East. It has now been dropped from all the latest Jaguar models, although some customers add it to their car as a customization. The Jaguar S-Type, first appeared in 1999 and stopped production in 2008. It has now been replaced by the Jaguar XF. Early S-Types suffered from reliability problems but those were mostly resolved by the 2004 model year. The Jaguar X-Type was a compact executive car launched in 2001, while the company was under Ford ownership, sharing its platform with the Ford Mondeo. X-Type production ended in 2009. The Jaguar XK was a luxury grand tourer introduced in 2006, where it replaced the XK8. The XK introduced an aluminium monocoque bodyshell, and was available both as a two-door coupé and two-door cabriolet/convertible. Production ceased in 2014. The Jaguar XJ was a full-size luxury saloon. The model was in production since 1968, with production ceasing in 2019, with the first generation being the last Jaguar car to have creative input by the company's founder, Sir William Lyons, although this is disputed as some Jaguar historians claim that the second generation XJ – the XJ40 series – was the last car which Lyons had influenced. The XJ40 originally launched in 1986 and went through two major revamps in 1994 (X300) and 1997 (X308) for a total production run of 17 years. In early 2003, the third generation XJ – the X350 – arrived in showrooms and while the car's exterior and interior styling were traditional in appearance, the car was completely re-engineered. Its styling attracted much criticism from many motoring journalists who claimed that the car looked old-fashioned and barely more modern than its predecessor, many even citing that the 'Lyons line' had been lost in the translation from XJ40 into X350 XJ, even though beneath the shell lay a highly advanced aluminium construction that put the XJ very near the top of its class. Jaguar responded to the criticism with the introduction of the fourth generation XJ, launched in 2009. Its exterior styling is a departure from previous XJs, with a more youthful, contemporary stance, following the design shift that came into effect previously with the company's XF and XK models. The 5-litre V8 engine in the XJ Supersport can accelerate the car from in 4.7 seconds, and has a UK emission rating of 289 g/km. To cater to the limousine market, all XJ models are offered with a longer wheelbase (LWB) as an option, which increases the rear legroom. List Large executive 1935–1955 2½ Litre saloon 1937–1948 3½ Litre saloon 1948–1951 Mark V 1951–1957 Mark VII (& VIIM) 1957–1959 Mark VIII 1959–1961 Mark IX 1961–1966 Mark X 1966–1970 420G 1968–1987 XJ6 Series 1, 2 & 3 1972–1992 XJ12 1986–1994 XJ6 (XJ40) 1993–1994 XJ12 (XJ81) 1995–1997 XJ6 & XJ12 (X300 & X301) 1998–2003 XJ8 (X308) 2004–2007 XJ (X350) 2008–2009 XJ (X358) Compact executive 1935–1949 1½ Litre saloon 1955–1959 Mark 1 1959–1967 Mark 2 1963–1968 S-type 1966–1968 420 1966–1968 240 & 340 1999–2008 S-type 2001–2009 X-type 2007–2015 XF (X250)Sports 1948–1954 XK120 1954–1957 XK140 1957–1961 XK150 1961–1974 E-Type 1975–1996 XJ-S 1992–1994 XJ220 1997–2006 XK8/XKR (X100) 2006–2014 XK (X150) Racing and competition 1950s C-Type 1950s D-Type 1960s E-Type Lightweight 1985–1992 XJR-5 through XJR-17 2009 XFR Bonneville Salt Flats speed record 2010 Jaguar RSR XKR GT2 Concept cars E1A – The 1950s E-Type concept vehicle E2 A – The second E-Type concept vehicle, which raced at LeMans and in the USA Pirana (1967) – Designed by Bertone XJ13 (1966) – Built to race at LeMans, never run XK 180 (1998) – Roadster concept based on the XK8 F-Type (2000) – Roadster, similar to the XK8 but smaller R-Coupé (2001) – Large four-seater coupé Fuore XF 10 (2003) R-D6 (2003) – Compact four-seat coupé XK-RR – A high-performance version of last generation XK coupé XK-RS – Another performance-spec version of last generation XK convertible Concept Eight (2004) – Super-luxury version of the long-wheelbase model of the XJ C-XF (2007) – Precursor to the production model XF saloon C-X75 (2010) – Hybrid-electric sports car, originally intended for production but cancelled in 2012 C-X16 (2011) – Precursor to the production model F-Type C-X17 (2013) – First ever Jaguar SUV concept Project 7 – a 542 bhp V8-powered speedster based on the F-Type and inspired by the D-Type (2013) Engines Jaguar has designed in-house six generations of engines: Historic: XK6— Inline-6 V12— 60° V12 AJ6/AJ16— 22° Inline-6 AJ-V6— 60° V6 (Ford designed, Jaguar modified) Current: AJ-V8— 90° V8 AJ126— 90° V6 AJD-V6— 60° V6 (Ford designed) Ingenium – Inline-4 Motorsport Jaguar has had major success in sports car racing, particularly in the Le Mans 24 Hours. Victories came in and with the C-Type, then in , and with the D-Type. The manager of the racing team during this period, Lofty England, later became CEO of Jaguar in the early 1970s. Although the prototype XJ13 was built in the mid-1960s it was never raced, and the famous race was then left for many years. In 1982, a successful relationship with Tom Walkinshaw's TWR team commenced with the XJ-S competing in the European Touring Car Championship, which it won in 1984. In 1985, the TWR XJ-S won the Bathurst 1000 race. In the mid-1980s TWR started designing and preparing Jaguar V12-engined Group C cars for World Sports Prototype Championship races. The team started winning regularly from 1987, and won Le Mans in 1988 and 1990 with the XJR series sports cars. The Jaguar XJR-14 was the last of the XJRs to win, taking the 1991 World Sportscar Championship. In the 1999, Ford decided that Jaguar would be the corporation's Formula One entry. Ford bought out the Milton Keynes-based Stewart Grand Prix team and rebranded it as Jaguar Racing for the 2000 season. The Jaguar F1 program was not a success however, achieving only two podium finishes in five seasons of competition between and . At the end of 2004, with costs mounting and Ford's profits dwindling, the F1 team was seen as an unneeded expense and was sold to Red Bull energy drinks owner Dietrich Mateschitz, and it became Red Bull Racing. On 15 December 2015, it was announced that Jaguar would return to motorsport for the third season of Formula E. On 15 June 2018, Jaguar Vector Racing broke the world speed record for an electric battery powered boat. The Jaguar Vector V20E recorded an average speed of 88.61 mph across the two legs of the 1 km course on Coniston Water, England. Notable sports racers: Jaguar C-Type (1951–1953) Jaguar D-Type (1954–1957) Jaguar Lightweight E-Type Jaguar XJ13 Jaguar XJR Sportscars Jaguar XJR-9 (1988) XJ220 (1988) XJR-15 (1990) Jaguar and the arts For some time now Jaguar has been active in the international arts scene. In particular, the company has collaborated with the artist Stefan Szczesny, implementing major art projects. In 2011, Jaguar presented the exhibition series "Shadows", which involved the installation of Szczesny's shadow sculptures in Sankt-Moritz, on Sylt and in Saint-Tropez. In 2012, a large number of sculptures, ceramics and paintings were shown in Frankfurt (and mainly in Frankfurt's Palmengarten). As part of the collaboration with Szczesny, Jaguar has released the "Jaguar Art Collection". See also List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom References External links Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust website Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1935 British brands Car brands Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers

PricewaterhouseCoopers

eng_Latn

PricewaterhouseCoopers is a multinational professional services network of firms, operating as partnerships under the PwC brand. PwC ranks as the second-largest professional services network in the world and is considered one of the Big Four accounting firms, along with Deloitte, EY and KPMG. PwC firms operate in 157 countries, 742 locations, with 284,000 people. As of 2019, 26% of the workforce was based in the Americas, 26% in Asia, 32% in Western Europe and 5% in Middle East and Africa. The company's global revenues were $42.4 billion in FY 2019, of which $17.4 billion was generated by its Assurance practice, $10.7 billion by its Tax and Legal practice and $14.4 billion by its Advisory practice. The firm in its present form was created in 1998 by a merger between two accounting firms: Coopers & Lybrand, and Price Waterhouse. Both firms had histories dating back to the 19th century. The trading name was shortened to PwC (stylized pwc) in September 2010 as part of a rebranding effort. PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited, based in London, England, is a co-ordinating entity for the global network of firms. It manages the global brand, and develops policies and initiatives, to create a common and coordinated approach in areas such as risk, quality, and strategy. It does not provide services to clients. , PwC is the fourth-largest privately owned company in the United States. History The firm was created in September 1998 when Coopers & Lybrand merged with Price Waterhouse. Coopers & Lybrand In 1854, William Cooper founded an accountancy practice in London, England. It became Cooper Brothers seven years later when his three brothers joined. In 1898, Robert H. Montgomery, William M. Lybrand, Adam A. Ross Jr. and his brother T. Edward Ross formed Lybrand, Ross Brothers and Montgomery in the United States. In 1957, Cooper Brothers, along with Lybrand, Ross Bros & Montgomery and a Canadian firm (McDonald, Currie and Co.), agreed to adopt the name Coopers & Lybrand in international practice. In 1973, the three member firms in the UK, US and Canada changed their names to Coopers & Lybrand. Then in 1980, Coopers & Lybrand expanded its expertise in insolvency substantially by acquiring Cork Gully, a leading firm in that field in the UK. In 1990, in certain countries, including the UK, Coopers & Lybrand merged with Deloitte, Haskins & Sells to become Coopers & Lybrand Deloitte; in 1992 they reverted to Coopers & Lybrand. Price Waterhouse In 1849, Samuel Lowell Price, an accountant, founded an accountancy practice in London, England. In 1865, Price went into partnership with William Hopkins Holyland and Edwin Waterhouse. Holyland left shortly afterwards to work alone in accountancy and the firm was known from 1874 as Price, Waterhouse & Co. The original partnership agreement, signed by Price, Holyland, and Waterhouse could be found in Southwark Towers. By the late 19th century, Price Waterhouse had gained recognition as an accounting firm. As a result of growing trade between the United Kingdom and the United States, Price Waterhouse opened an office in New York in 1890, and the American firm expanded. The original British firm opened an office in Liverpool in 1904 and then elsewhere in the United Kingdom and worldwide, each time establishing a separate partnership in each country: the worldwide practice of Price Waterhouse was, therefore, a federation of collaborating firms that had grown organically rather than being the result of an international merger. In a further effort to take advantage of economies of scale, PW and Arthur Andersen discussed a merger in 1989 but the negotiations failed, mainly because of conflicts of interest such as Andersen's strong commercial links with IBM and PW's audit of IBM, as well as the radically different cultures of the two firms. It was said by those involved with the failed merger that at the end of the discussion, the partners at the table realized they had different views of business, and the potential merger was scrapped. 1998 to present In 1998, Price Waterhouse merged with Coopers & Lybrand to form PricewaterhouseCoopers (written with a lowercase "w" and a camelcase "C"). After the merger, the firm had a large professional consulting branch, as did other major accountancy firms, generating much of its fees. The major cause for growth in the 1990s was the implementation of complex integrated enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems for multi-national companies. PwC came under increasing pressure to avoid conflicts of interest by not providing some consulting services, particularly financial systems design and implementation, to its audit clients. Since it audited a large proportion of the world's largest companies, this was beginning to limit its consulting market. These conflicts increased as additional services including outsourcing of IT and back-office operations were developed. For these reasons, in 2000, Ernst & Young was the first of the Big Four to sell its consulting services, to Capgemini. The fallout from the Enron, Worldcom and other financial auditing scandals led to the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (2002), severely limiting interaction between management consulting and auditing (assurance) services. PwC Consulting began to conduct business under its own name rather than as the MCS division of PricewaterhouseCoopers. PwC, therefore, planned to capitalize on MCS's rapid growth through its sale to Hewlett Packard (for a reported $17 billion) but negotiations broke down in 2000. In 2000, PwC acquired Canada's largest SAP consulting partner, Omnilogic Systems. In March 2002, Arthur Andersen, LLP affiliates in Hong Kong and China completed talks to join PricewaterhouseCoopers, China. PwC announced in May 2002 that its consulting activities would be spun off as an independent entity and hired an outside CEO to run the global firm. An outside consultancy, Wolff Olins, was hired to create a brand image for the new entity, called "Monday". The firm's CEO, Greg Brenneman described the unusual name as "a real word, concise, recognizable, global and the right fit for a company that works hard to deliver results." These plans were soon revised, however. In October 2002, PwC sold the entire consultancy business to IBM for approximately $3.5 billion in cash and stock. PwC's consultancy business was absorbed into IBM Global Business Services, increasing the size and capabilities of IBM's growing consulting practice. PwC began rebuilding its consulting practice with acquisitions such as Paragon Consulting Group and the commercial services business of BearingPoint in 2009. The firm continued this process by acquiring Diamond Management & Technology Consultants in November 2010 and PRTM in August 2011. In 2012, the firm acquired Logan Tod & Co, a digital analytics and optimisation consultancy, and Ant's Eye View, a social media strategy development and consulting firm to build upon PwC's growing Management Consulting customer impact and customer engagement capabilities. On 30 October 2013, the firm announced that it would acquire Booz & Company, including the company's name and its 300 partners, after a December vote by Booz & Company partners authorized the deal. On 3 April 2014, Booz & Company combined with PwC to form Strategy&. On 4 November 2013, the firm acquired BGT Partners, a 17-year-old digital consultancy. In October 2016, PwC and InvestCloud, LLC, the world's largest Digital App Platform announced that they entered into a non-exclusive joint business relationship, designed to accelerate adoption and implementation of the InvestCloud Digital App Platform. PwC will be a preferred implementation and strategic partner of InvestCloud focused on enterprise delivery and innovative development of new financial app capabilities. In November 2016, PwC acquired technology/consulting firm NSI DMCC, Salesforce's largest implementation partner in the Middle East. In January 2017, PwC announced a five-year agreement with GE to provide managed tax services to GE on a global basis, transferring more than 600 of GE's in-house global tax team to PwC. In addition, PwC would acquire GE's tax technologies and provide managed services not only to GE but also to other PwC clients as well. In November 2017, PwC accepted bitcoin as payment for advisory services, the first time the company, or any of the Big Four accounting firms, accepted virtual currency as payment. Veritas Capital acquired PwC's US public sector business in 2018, and branded the new company as Guidehouse. In February 2020, PwC announced a new collaboration with technology firm ThoughtRiver to launch AI-driven LawTech products aimed at standardizing PwC's service of UK law clients. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) has utilized the services of PwC to tally the votes for the Academy Awards since 1935. In addition, the company oversees AMPAS elections, prepares its financial documents, and is responsible for the group's tax filings. Operations PwC refers to the PwC network and/or one or more of its member firms, each of which is a separate legal entity due to local legislative requirements. Much like other professional services firms, each member firm is financially and legally independent. PwC is co-ordinated by a private company limited by guarantee under English law, called PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. In addition, PwC is registered as a multidisciplinary entity which also provides legal services. PwC's operations are global, with Europe accounting for 36% of the total, and the Americas 44%, as of 2016. PwC's largest growth in FY18 was in Asia where revenues were up 15%, followed by 12% revenue growth from the Middle East and Africa. Service lines PwC is organized into the following three service lines (the 2017 revenue shares are listed in parentheses): Assurance (41%) – Assurance services are those typically associated with financial audits Advisory (33%) – Advisory services offered by PwC include two actuarial consultancy departments; Actuarial and Insurance Management Solutions (AIMS) and a sub branch of "Human Resource Services" (HRS). Actuarial covers mainly 5 areas: pensions, life insurance, non-life insurance, health, and investments. AIMS deals with life and non-life insurance and investments, while HRS deals mainly with pensions and group health. PwC has also expanded into the digital media and advertising space. Tax (25%) – International tax planning and compliance with local tax laws, customs, human resource consulting, legal services and transfer pricing Data analysis Due to its size, PwC is able to contribute data analysis to a wide range of areas. Calculation of the drone market size: PwC published a 2016 report stating that the world drone market would reach close to $127 billion by 2020, with Poland at the forefront of legislation for the commercial use of unmanned aerial vehicles. PwC coined the term E7 to describe the seven emerging economies which the company is predicting will take over today's G7 nations by the year 2050. Those seven emerging nations are China, Russia, India, Mexico, Indonesia, Turkey and Brazil. PwC assesses a country's risk premium, an important factor in analyzing the valuation of an entity. The company analyzes pay parity, the comparative salaries for men versus women. In early 2017 PwC found in its Women in Work Index study that it could take the UK 24 years, until 2041, to close its gender pay gap. PwC publishes the Low Carbon Economy Index, which tracks the extent to which the G20 countries are reducing carbon emissions. The Economy of the Sea is a long-term analysis project of PwC Portugal. It is part of the HELM project, launched in 2006 to create an integrated approach to successful and sustainable maritime practices. It analyses best practices around the world and compiles data from industries that rely or work on the sea and the nations that use it. PwC developed the Total Impact Measurement and Management (TIMM) framework, designed to assist companies in carrying out impact studies which will help them put a value on all of a company's activities, products or services. Offices PwC has partners in approximately 800 offices across 157 countries with 200,000 employees. Notable offices: Seaport office tower in Boston; and Magwa Crescent Waterfall City tower in Midrand, South Africa. The following list of revenue according to region is from the PwC Global Annual Review: 2018. Logo The following are the several logos the company has used through the years. The current PwC logo was introduced in September 2010, when the company changed its trading name from PricewaterhouseCoopers to PwC. It was designed by Wolff Olins. Corporate affairs and culture The company employs large numbers of young workers, with 80% of their workforce millennials as of 2017. According to PwC, the company uses education to bridge the culture gap between generations. The firm also implements a three-step “Connect-Embed-Improve" plan to promote employee engagement. The company requires senior-level staff to continue to train and learn; PwC also created a social collaboration platform called Spark to enable employees to access course materials and assignments, complete prerequisites and access reinforcement materials. In 2016, Tim Ryan, PwC's chairman, helped launch the CEO Action for Diversity and Inclusion coalition, the largest CEO-driven business commitment to advance diversity and inclusion in the workplace. Employees at PwC generally have flexibility in choosing their own working hours provided that senior management deems the arrangement acceptable. In 2002 PwC published the accounting profession's first global “Code of Conduct”. Strategy& and PwC publish Strategy+Business, a print and online business magazine focusing on management issues and corporate strategy. In June 2021, PwC together with Edelman, the company's agency partner, launched a program, The Trust Leadership Institute. PwC developed a ColourBrave Charity Committee, made up of employees from across the organisation, as part of its commitment to continue to build an inclusive culture and address racial disparity. The Committee chose 25 Black-led organisations and civil society organisations to join the PwC Foundation and PwC Social Entrepreneurs Club's existing list of beneficiaries. Partnerships In 2014, Google announced its partnership with PwC to drive cloud adoption among businesses. Partnering with Google is part of PwC's decision to begin to move its own business to the cloud. PwC is one of three million business customers using paid services through Google Workspace, previously known as G Suite and Apps for Work. PwC partners with the United Nations to help keep the international organization's monitoring systems up to date. PwC is also one of the founding partners with the UN Women HeForShe IMPACT 10x10x10 Initiative, launched in 2015 to advance gender equality. The initiative created an online course which aims to increase awareness of unconscious gender bias in corporate life. In May 2016, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, PwC was, along with Microsoft, one of the principal sponsors of the inaugural ID2020 Summit. The summit brought together over 400 people to discuss how to provide digital identity to all, a defined Sustainable Development Goal including to 1.5bn people living without any form of recognized identification. Experts in blockchain and other cryptographic technology joined with representatives of technical standards bodies to identify how technology and other private sector expertise could achieve the goal. In 2016, PwC joined with Microsoft in India to bring the services of both companies to the business community in India. In 2016, the company, in partnership with Coursera, launched an on-line five-course educational platform called “Data Analysis and Presentation Skills.” In January 2017, Oracle and PwC announced their international collaboration to offer accounting software which complied with International Financial Reporting Standard 9 (IFRS 9). Staff As of 30 June 2021, PwC had 295,371 employees around the world. The largest percentage of workers are employed in Western Europe, Asia and the Americas. The following shows the number of employees in each region of the world as of FY 2021. The following shows the number of employees by practice areas. The following shows the number of employees by level. Alumni Notable firm alumni include: Ed Bastian – CEO of Delta Air Lines Mike Dooley – author, speaker and entrepreneur Tony Harrington – former CEO of MinterEllison Phil Knight – Founder of Nike, Inc. Tanoh Kpassagnon – American football defensive end for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League Richard J. Kramer – Chairman, President and CEO of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company Ian Powell – Chairman of Capita, an outsourcing company Brian Roche – New Zealand business executive Dhivya Suryadevara – CFO of General Motors Brad Tilden – CEO and Chairman of Alaska Airlines Wendell Weeks – President of Corning Inc. Recognition In 2010, Gartner recognized PwC with a Top Rating for Financial Consulting. In 2012, CartaCapital magazine ranked PwC Brazil No. 1 in the Audit segment in its list of Brazil's Most Admired Companies. PwC's Public Sector practice was awarded the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award in 2014. The company was recognized by the European Diversity Awards as the ‘Most Inclusive Employer of the Year’ in 2015. PwC received the full five stars on the Business in the Community (BITC) Corporate Responsibility Index for several years, and achieved it again in 2016 with a score of 99%. They were one of only four professional services companies to do so. Advertising Age named PwC Digital Services Experience Center one of the four best places to work in advertising and media in 2016. International Accounting Bulletin awarded PwC the “Audit Innovation of the Year” award for 2016. PwC Singapore won the Best Practice Award in 2016 from the Institute of Singapore Chartered Accountants. In 2016, Brand Finance named PwC as the strongest business to business brand, and one of the world's 10 most powerful brands in their annual index. PwC ranked No. 3 in DiversityInc's Top 12 Companies for Global Diversity in 2016. PwC India won the 2016 Association of Management Consulting Firms' Global Spotlight Award in the Growth Strategies category. PwC was voted by a poll of recently employed graduates as number one on The Times list of Top 100 Graduate Employers for 2016, for the 13th consecutive year. The Australian Financial Review Client Choice Awards recognized PwC with the Market Leader Australia award for 2016 and 2017. Brand Finance ranked PwC among the world's 500 most valuable brands in 2017. As of 2020, PwC is ranked #5 on Forbes''' America's Largest Private Companies list, #68 on their World's Most Valuable Brands, and #85 on their Best Employers for Diversity; it is also on their list of America's Top Recommended Tax and Accounting Firms. As of 2020, PwC US has been on Fortune's 100 Best Companies to Work For in the US for 16 years. Controversies Gender employment discrimination In 1989, the United States Supreme Court held that Price Waterhouse must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the decision regarding Ann Hopkins's employment would have been the same if sex discrimination had not occurred. The accounting firm failed to prove that the same decision to postpone Hopkins's promotion to the partnership would have still been made in the absence of sex discrimination, and therefore, the employment decision constituted sex discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The significance of the Supreme Court's ruling was twofold. First, it established that gender stereotyping is actionable as sex discrimination. Second, it established the mixed-motive framework as an evidentiary framework for proving discrimination under a disparate treatment theory even when lawful reasons for the adverse employment action are also present. Hopkins's candidacy for partnership had been put on indefinite hold. She eventually resigned and sued the company for occupational sexism, arguing that her lack of promotion came after pressure to walk, talk, dress, and act more "femininely." In 1990, a Federal district judge in Washington ordered the firm to make Hopkins a partner. It was the first time in which a court awarded partnership in a professional company as a remedy for sexual or race-based discrimination. Following the suit, the firm received media attention due to its discriminatory labor practices towards males as well. Although incidents of such labor marginalization take place rarely, there were several cases of unfair work treatment. Tax issues In 2014, it came to light that PwC had received $55m from Caterpillar Inc. to develop a tax avoidance scheme, according to an investigation of the US Senate, and had helped Caterpillar Inc. drastically reduce its taxes for more than a decade. Profits valued at $8bn were shifted from the US to Switzerland, which allegedly made it possible to save more than $2.4bn in US taxes over a decade. In Switzerland profits were taxed at 4%. A PricewaterhouseCoopers managing director who was involved in designing the tax savings plan had written at the time to a PwC partner: “We'll all be retired when this . . . comes up on audit.” In 1990, the US Internal Revenue Service seized most of the assets of Willie Nelson, claiming he owed $32 million in back taxes, including penalties and interest. He sued Price Waterhouse, contending that they put him into tax shelters that were later disallowed by the IRS. The lawsuit was settled in 1994 for an undisclosed amount. American International Group Inc. In 2005, BusinessWeek reported that PwC was American International Group Inc.'s auditor through AIG's years of "questionable dealings" and accounting improprieties. AIG on 30 March 2005 said that deals with a Barbados-based insurance company, for instance, may have been incorrectly accounted for over the past 14 years, because an AIG-affiliated company may have been secretly covering that insurer's losses. BusinessWeek said that PwC also appeared to have "dropped the ball" on the deals between AIG and Berkshire Hathaway Inc.'s General Re Corp. General Re transferred $500 million in anticipated claims and premiums to AIG. BusinessWeek asked: "Did the auditor do its job by verifying that AIG was assuming risk on claims beyond the $500 million, thus allowing AIG to account for the deal as insurance? That's Accounting 101 in any reinsurance transaction." PwC was also criticised by several witnesses during the 2010 Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission investigation into AIG's collapse in the financial crisis of 2007–2008, after the insurer was unable to fulfil its collateral obligations to Goldman Sachs. The insurer was expected to cover the difference in value between the credit default swap contracts it had sold to Goldman Sachs, however, the head of the unit at AIG disagreed with the valuation that Goldman presented. According to a memo published by Business Insider, witnesses wondered how PwC was signing off on the accounts for both AIG and Goldman Sachs when they were using different valuation methods for the swaps contracts (and therefore booked different values for them in their accounts). ChuoAoyama suspension was the Japanese affiliate of assurance service of PwC from April 2000 to 2006. In May 2006, the Financial Services Agency of Japan suspended ChuoAoyama from provision of some statutory auditing services for two months following the collapse of cosmetics company Kanebo, of which three of the partners were found assisting with accounting fraud for hiding deficits of about $1.9 billion over the course of five years. The accountants got suspended prison terms up to 18 months from the Tokyo District Court after the judge deemed them to have played a "passive role" in the crime. The suspension was the first-ever imposed on a major accounting firm in the country. Many of the firm's largest clients were forced to find replacement auditors before the suspension began that July. Shortly after the suspension of ChuoAoyama, PwC acted quickly to stem any possible client attrition as a result of the scandal. It set up the PricewaterhouseCoopers Aarata, and some of ChuoAoyama's accountants and most of ChuoAoyama's clients moved to the new firm. ChuoAoyama resumed operations on 1 September 2006 under the Misuzu name. However, by this point the two firms combined had 30% fewer clients than did ChuoAoyama prior to its suspension. Misuzu was dissolved in July 2007. Tyco settlement In July 2007, PwC agreed to pay US$229 million to settle a class-action lawsuit brought by shareholders of Tyco International Ltd. over a multibillion-dollar accounting fraud. The chief executive and chief financial officer of Tyco were found guilty of looting $600 million from the company. Indian companies scandals In 2007, India's accounting standards agency ICAI found partners of PwC guilty of professional negligence in under-providing for nonperforming assets of the now-defunct Global Trust Bank. This led to the RBI banning PwC from auditing any financial company for over a year. PwC was also associated with the accounting scandal at the India-based DSQ Software, which collapsed in 2003. In January 2009, PwC was criticised, along with the promoters of Satyam, an Indian IT firm listed on the NASDAQ, in a $1.5 billion fraud. PwC wrote a letter to the board of directors of Satyam that its audit may be rendered "inaccurate and unreliable" due to the disclosures made by Satyam's (ex) Chairman and subsequently withdrew its audit opinions. PwC's US arm "was the reviewer for the U.S. filings for Satyam". Consequently, lawsuits were filed in the US with PwC as a defendant. Two partners of PricewaterhouseCoopers, Srinivas Talluri and Subramani Gopalakrishnan, were charged by India's Central Bureau of Investigation in connection with the Satyam scandal. After the scandal broke out, Subramani Gopalakrishnan retired from the firm after reaching mandatory retirement age, while Talluri remained on suspension from the firm. Following the Satyam scandal, the Mumbai-based Small Investor Grievances Association (SIGA) requested the Indian stock market regulator SEBI to ban PwC permanently and seize its assets in India alleging more scandals like "Ketan Parekh stock manipulations." In 2015, PwC India said they were disappointed with court judgement of the case saying, “As we have said many times, there has never been any evidence presented that either of our former partners S Gopalakrishnan or Srinivas Talluri were involved in or were aware of the management-led fraud at Satyam. We understand that Gopal and Talluri are considering filing an appeal against this verdict." In 2018, PwC was banned by India's securities regulator from providing auditing services to public-listed companies for 2 years, and PwC was fined $2 million in addition to the suspension. In September 2019, this ban was overruled by the securities appellate tribunal stating that there was no evidence of collusion of PwC in the scam. The tribunal also stated that SEBI had no jurisdiction over audit firms and only ICAI could issue such an order. Association with the hiring of a person accused in gold smuggling case PwC, which provides consulting service to the Kerala government's Department of Information Technology<ref>{{Cite web|title=Not blacklisted, PwCPL clarifies after Kerala leaders remarks (Ld)|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/not-blacklisted-pwcpl-clarifies-after-kerala-leaders-remarks-ld/1881877|access-date=18 July 2020|website=outlookindia}}</ref> and its Space Park project, has been criticised for appointing Ms. Swapana Suresh, who is accused in a case of smuggling gold in a diplomatic bag. Following an investigation, the Kerala government decided to terminate the consultancy services of PwC for the proposed Space Park project in Thiruvananthapuram. PwC sub-contracted the resource from a vendor, Vision Technologies, but the government considers that the primary liability is on PwC for recruiting Ms. Swapna Suresh. Even before these events, the opening of the PwC office in Kerala secretariat had attracted serious criticism from the opposition party. Following this, PwC issued clarification on their hiring of Ms. Swapna Suresh by stating that she was hired based on a background verification report from past employers as well as a criminal record verification at the time. Yukos prosecutions Yukos was a Russian oil and gas company that was the target of politically motivated prosecutions by Russian authorities. The company's assets were sold for alleged unpaid taxes and it was declared bankrupt. PwC's audits were the foundation for the firm's defense in a series of continuing trials against former chief executive, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, and the former majority shareholder, Platon Lebedev. The Russian authorities then went after PwC. In March 2007 police raided PwC's Moscow offices, confiscating documents related to Yukos and charging and convicting PwC of failing to pay 243 million rubles, or $9.4 million, in taxes. PwC withdrew its Yukos audits and less than two weeks later authorities cleared PwC of any wrongdoing in regard to its audit. In 2010, Joe Nocera in the New York Times wrote, "In 2007, with the prospect of parole on the horizon, the same prosecutors—with what appears to be the complicity of PricewaterhouseCoopers, Yukos's longtime accounting firm—indicted the two men (Mikhail B. Khodorkovsky and Platon Lebedev), again, bringing a new round of Kafkaesque charges." In 2010, it was revealed that the Russian government placed pressure on PwC to withdraw audits. A cable from the U.S. embassy in Moscow stated that the trial was politically motivated and that a deposition in a U.S. court by PricewaterhouseCoopers may show that PwC was pressured by the Russian government to withdraw its prior Yukos audits. An embassy source noted that "If the audits were properly withdrawn, this will be a 'black mark' for the defense; if not, it could help the defense, but would greatly tarnish PWC’s international reputation." Transneft Russia case Upon the completion of the construction of the ESPO (East Siberia-Pacific Ocean) pipeline by Transneftin December 2010, an official report of the Audit Chamber of the Russian Federation suggested that $4 billion was stolen by Transneft insiders. One Federation Council Speaker, Sergei Mironov, called for an investigation. Alexei Navalny, a minority Transneft shareholder and lawyer, accused the company of wrongdoing in his personal blog, and criticized PwC, Transneft's auditor, of ignoring his warnings. PwC denied wrongdoing, stating that, “We believe there are absolutely no grounds for such allegations, and we stand behind our work for OAO AK Transneft.” Northern Rock In 2007, PwC was criticised by the Treasury Select Committee of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for helping Northern Rock, a client of the firm, to sell its mortgage assets while also acting as its auditor. In 2011, a House of Lords inquiry criticized PwC for not drawing attention to the risks in the business model followed by Northern Rock, which was rescued by the UK government during the financial crisis. JP Morgan Securities audit In 2012, the Accountancy and Actuarial Discipline Board (AADB) of the UK fined PwC a record £1.4m for wrongly reporting to the Financial Services Authority that JP Morgan Securities had complied with client money rules which protects client funds. The accountants neglected to check whether JP Morgan had the correct systems in place and failed to gather sufficient evidence to form opinions on the issue, and as a result, failed to report that JP Morgan failed to hold client money separate from JP Morgan's money. The £1.4m fine was at the time the greatest penalty administered to a professional accountancy firm in the UK. Water privatisation in Delhi PwC was found to be unethically favored by the World Bank in a bid to privatize the water distribution system of Delhi, India, an effort that was alleged as corrupt by investigators. When bidding took place, PwC repeatedly failed in each round, and the World Bank in each case pressured PwC to be pushed to the next round and eventually win the bid. The effort at privatization fell through when an investigation was conducted by Arvind Kejriwal and the non-governmental organization (NGO) Parivartan in 2005. After submitting a Right to Information (RTI) request, Parivartan received 9000 pages of correspondence and consultation with the World Bank, where it was revealed that the privatization of Delhi's water supply would provide salaries of $25,000 a month to four administrators of each of the 21 water zones, which amounted to over $25 million per year, increasing the budget by over 60% and water taxes 9 times. The Delhi Jal Board (DJB), which administers the water system of Delhi, was first approached by Parivartan in November 2004, following a report by the newspaper The Asian Age, where the scheme was revealed to the public for the first time. The DJB denied the existence of the project, but after an appeal, the RTI request was granted. The documents revealed that the project began in 1998, in complete secrecy within the DJB administration. The DJB approached the World Bank for a loan to improve the water system, which it approved, and the effort began with a $2.5 million consultation loan. The Delhi government could have easily provided the money, and the interest rate of 12% that was to be loaned by the World Bank could have been raised on capital markets for 6%. Following the consultation, 35 multinational companies bid, of which six were to be shortlisted. When PwC was in 10th place, the World Bank said that at least one company should be from a developing country, and since PwC made the bid from its Kolkata office, it was dubbed an "Indian" company, and its rank was raised to 6th. When PwC failed in the second round, the World Bank pressured the DJB to start over with a fresh round of bidding. Only one company succeeded in the new round that was not PwC, and the World Bank had the lowest marks from an evaluator thrown out. The contract was awarded to PwC in 2001. Following the investigation by Parivartan, a campaign was waged by Kejriwal, Aruna Roy, and other activists across Delhi and the DJB withdrew the loan application to the World Bank. Cattles In 2013, Cattles plc brought a legal action against PwC in the UK in respect of 2006 and 2007 audits, claiming that PwC had failed to carry out adequate investigations. Cattles, a UK consumer finance company, later discovered control weaknesses which caused its loan book to be materially overstated in its balance sheet; having been listed as a FTSE250 company, it subsequently lost its listing. PwC disputed this legal claim. The claim was settled out of court on undisclosed terms. The Financial Reporting Council (FRC) issued a fine of £2.3m on PwC and ordered the firm to pay £750,000 costs following their investigation of the 2007 audits of Cattles and its principal trading subsidiary. PwC admitted their “conduct fell significantly short of the standards reasonably to be expected of a member firm” in respect of the 2007 financial statements. The FRC said that PwC had insufficient audit evidence as to the adequacy of loan loss provisions. Quinn Insurance In 2015, PwC Ireland was sued by the joint administrators of Quinn Insurance Limited (QIL) for €1bn. Having been audited by PwC for the years 2005 to 2008, QIL went into administration in 2010. The administrators alleged that PwC should have identified a material understatement of QIL's provisions for claims. Connaught plc Connaught plc, a UK former FTSE 250 Index outsourcing company operating in property maintenance for the social housing and public sector, was put into administration in 2010 after reporting material losses. In 2017, the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) severely reprimanded PwC and its audit partner following an investigation of their conduct in respect of the 2009 audit of Connaught. PwC was fined a record £5 million plus costs. Tesco In 2014, Tesco, a UK retailer, announced that it had overstated profits by £263m by misreporting discounts with suppliers. The Financial Reporting Council started an investigation into accounting practices at Tesco and into the conduct of PwC in carrying out its audits in 2012, 2013 and 2014. Two members of Tesco's Audit Committee, responsible for monitoring Tesco's relationship with its auditors, had themselves previously worked for PwC, including its chairman, Ken Hanna; he later stood down. In 2015 PwC were replaced as auditors of Tesco, ending a 32-year engagement, following a tender process to which they did not participate. In June 2017 the Financial Reporting Council said there was no "realistic prospect" that a tribunal of the UK's accountancy watchdog would rule against the auditor PwC concerning its involvement in Tesco's 2014 case. Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ In 2014, The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ was investigated by New York banking regulators over its role in routing payments for Iranian customers through its New York branch in violation of U.S. sanctions. It was found that PwC had altered an investigation report on the issue; PwC itself was fined $25 million in relation to the matter. Luxembourg Leaks The firm helped multinational companies obtain 548 legal tax rulings in Luxembourg between 2002 and 2010. The rulings provided written assurance that the multinational companies' tax-saving plans would be seen favorably by the Luxembourg authorities. The companies saved billions of dollars in taxes with these arrangements. Some firms paid less than one percent tax on the profits they shifted to Luxembourg. Employees or former employees of PwC provided documentation of the rulings to journalists. In 2013 and 2014, PwC UK's head of tax was called before the UK's public accounts committee and was questioned about lying regarding the marketing of these tax avoidance schemes. He told the committee the financing, investments, and tax structure is legal and well known to the British government. “If you want to change the Lux tax regime, the politicians could change the Lux tax regime.” The disclosures attracted international attention and comment about tax avoidance schemes in Luxembourg and other tax havens. The revelations later led to a series of EU-wide measures aimed at regulating tax avoidance schemes and tax probes into several EU companies. In 2016 PwC initiated charges against the two whistleblowers that revealed the LuxLeaks tax controversy, and they were convicted and sentenced with suspended prison sentences and fined. In March 2017 a Luxembourg appeals court upheld the convictions of the two whistleblowers, but with reduced sentences. Petrobras Brazil In 2015, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation of Microsoft founder Bill Gates sued oil company Petrobras and accounting firm PwC's Brazil arm over investment losses due to corruption at the Brazilian oil company. The filings also alleged that PwC's Brazil affiliate, PricewaterhouseCoopers Auditores Independentes, played a significant role by attesting to Petrobras financial statements and ignoring warnings. Australia In 2016, Luke Sayers, then CEO of PwC Australia, had the firm prepare a report projecting the excessive cost of a plebiscite on gay marriage. Mark Allaby, a senior executive at PwC, left the board of the extreme religious lobbying organisation Australian Christian Lobby, a group campaigning against same-sex marriage, following public outrage and pressure from PwC Australia. In 2007, shopping center giant Centro understated its liabilities by more than $3 billion and almost collapsed when it was unable to refinance its debt during the global financial crisis. PwC was Centro's auditor and admitted negligence. In 2012 Centro and PwC paid a $200 million settlement to resolve the shareholder class action, the largest ever in Australia. BHS In 2016, PwC in the UK was investigated by the Financial Reporting Council over its conduct in relation to the audit of BHS for the year to 30 August 2014. PwC completed their audit of financial statements in which BHS was described as a going concern days before its sale for £1 to a consortium with no retail experience. BHS collapsed the following year with a substantial deficit in its pension fund. MF Global malpractice lawsuit In 2016, a United States federal judge rejected PwC's bid to dismiss a $3 billion lawsuit accusing the accounting firm of professional malpractice for helping cause the October 2011 bankruptcy of MF Global, a brokerage once run by former New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine. BT Italy BT Group (British Telecom), a client of PwC, reported in 2017 that profits in its Italian subsidiary had been over-stated by £530 million. BT reportedly sought the immediate replacement of PwC as auditors following a breakdown of trust, but had existing commercial relationships with the other Big 4 firms which would have prevented their early appointment. BT subsequently stated that its audit would be put out to tender to identify a replacement for PwC, In June 2017 the Financial Reporting Council began an investigation of PwC's audits of BT covering the years 2015 through 2017. Best Picture announcement error At the 89th Academy Awards in 2017 La La Land was incorrectly announced as the winner of Best Picture after PwC partner Brian Cullinan gave presenters Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway the wrong envelope. PwC was responsible for tabulating the results, preparing the envelopes, and handing them to presenters. It was called "as bad a mess-up as you could imagine." The firm took "full responsibility" for handing the presenters the wrong envelope and apologized for the error, acknowledging that Cullinan and PwC partner Martha Ruiz did not follow protocols for correcting the error quickly. In March 2017, the board of governors for the Academy voted to retain the services of accounting firm PricewaterhouseCoopers, despite the mix-up, saying “new protocols have been established including greater oversight from PwC's U.S. chairman Tim Ryan.” Lezo Case In 2017, PwC Spain was investigated by the Spanish National Court as part of the Lezo Case for participating in and profiting from the embezzlement of public funds to illegally finance the People's Party (PP) political party in the Community of Madrid. PrivatBank PwC Ukraine had its audit license removed by the National Bank of Ukraine in July 2017 for its alleged "verification of misrepresented financial information" leading to a $5.5 billion balance-sheet hole in PrivatBank. The government of Ukraine had had to rescue PrivatBank by nationalisation in 2016 to protect its 20 million customers. Colonial Bank audit In 2017, the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Alabama held PwC liable for professional negligence in its audit of Colonial Bank, which failed in 2009 after filing materially false financial information with the SEC. In 2018 a federal judge later ordered PwC to pay the FDIC $625 million, the largest-ever judgement against a U.S. audit firm. The FDIC reached a $335 million settlement with PwC in March 2019. Age discrimination lawsuit In 2018, PwC was accused of disproportionately hiring younger workers and fostering "an age-conscious workplace in which youth is highly valued." Plaintiffs estimated that younger applicants are over 500% more likely to be hired than candidates over age 40. In March 2019, a collective action related to the case was certified by a federal judge in San Francisco. Luke Sayers' AVP investment review In 2018, PwC Australia CEO Luke Sayers was connected to perceived conflict of interest issues on a related to a personal investment in Australian Visa Processing (AVP), a company part-owned by PwC that was submitting a tender to redesign and run Australia's visa processing system that is potentially worth billions of dollars, which would result in a significant financial advantage for its investors. This investment led to a “storm inside the firm”, interjection by PwC Global and a review by PwC Australia of its personal investment policy for partners. The option to invest had not been offered to all partners or even the entire firm. A review was announced around the way partners make personal investments. Improper audit services in US During 2019, PwC's US affiliate agreed to pay more than $7.9 million to the US regulator, SEC, to settle allegations that it improperly performed IT and other non-audit services for several audit clients. Angola corruption In 2020, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) leaked over 700,000 internal documents revealing that PwC had facilitated multiple dealings in which Isabel dos Santos, the daughter of the former president of Angola, made a fortune while in charge of the state oil company, Sonangol. Dos Santos established a network of over 400 companies to facilitate tax evasion and the steering of millions of dollars of Angolan state contracts to companies under her control. Her husband, Congolese businessman and art collector Sindika Dokolo, made millions from a suspiciously one-sided partnership with the state diamond company, Sodiam, to buy a stake in Swiss luxury jeweler De Grisogono. After ICIJ's revelations, PwC indicated it would terminate its relationship with Dos Santos. Watchstone In August 2020, a £63 million-worth suit was filed by Watchstone (formerly known as Quindell) against PwC. PwC is sued for conspiring against a former client; according to the suit, the company released information about the client to a competitor in the course of a takeover approach. MBC Group During November 2017, PwC was engaged in due diligence and valuation of the media company, MBC Group, owned by Saudi businessman, Waleed bin Ibrahim Al Ibrahim, who was allegedly held against his wishes at the Ritz-Carlton in Riyadh as part of an attempt to coerce him into selling it to the Saudi Crown Prince. JD Classics In July 2021, PwC was sued by administrators Alvarez and Marsal on behalf of JD Classics, a UK-based car dealership, for negligence related to audits in 2016 and 2017. A failure to identify fraud at the company led to losses of £41m. PwC responded with a statement that "this claim [lacks] merit and [we] will be vigorously defending it." Lobbying revolving door In 2021, an investigation by the New York Times found that PwC staff sought employment at the Treasury Department where they pursued policies that helped PwC clients. After completing their time at the Treasury Department, the staff were promoted to partner at PwC. Evergrande In October 2021, the accounting regulator in Hong Kong announced an investigation into PwC’s audit of Evergrande, a Chinese property company. PwC had signed off the 2020 accounts of Evergrande without reference to its uncertainties as a going concern. The company itself reported concerns as to its ability to continue operating in its half-year accounts for 2021. South African Airways The Zondo Commission report on state capture in South Africa uncovered several instances of alleged corruption, fraud and mismanagement at South African Airways (SAA). The report found that PwC effectively enabled capture of SAA by failing to adequately audit its financial and accounting processes between 2012 and 2016. See also Accounting networks and associations Big Four accounting firms: KPMG, EY, Deloitte Crowe Global, BDO Global, Grant Thornton List of companies based in London Price Waterhouse v Kwan Tax advisor FTSE 100 Index References Further reading True and Fair: A History of Price Waterhouse, Jones, E., 1995, Hamish Hamilton, An Early History of Coopers & Lybrand, 1984, Garland Publishing Inc., Accounting for Success: A History of Price Waterhouse in America 1890–1990 (1992) External links Management consulting firms of the United Kingdom International management consulting firms Financial services companies established in 1849 Consulting firms established in 1849

Lunar Laser Ranging experiment

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Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) is the practice of measuring the distance between the surfaces of the Earth and the Moon using laser ranging. The distance can be calculated from the round-trip time of laser light pulses travelling at the speed of light, which are reflected back to Earth by the Moon's surface or by one of five retroreflectors installed on the Moon during the Apollo program (11, 14, and 15) and Lunokhod 1 and 2 missions. Although it is possible to reflect light or radio waves directly from the Moon's surface (a process known as EME), a much more precise range measurement can be made using retroreflectors, since because of their small size, the temporal spread in the reflected signal is much smaller. A review of Lunar Laser Ranging is available. Laser ranging measurements can also be made with retroreflectors installed on Moon-orbiting satellites such as the LRO. History The first successful lunar ranging tests were carried out in 1962 when Louis Smullin and Giorgio Fiocco from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology succeeded in observing laser pulses reflected from the Moon's surface using a laser with a 50J 0.5 millisecond pulse length. Similar measurements were obtained later the same year by a Soviet team at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory using a Q-switched ruby laser. Shortly thereafter, Princeton University graduate student James Faller proposed placing optical reflectors on the Moon to improve the accuracy of the measurements. This was achieved following the installation of a retroreflector array on July 21, 1969 by the crew of Apollo 11. Two more retroreflector arrays were left by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions. Successful lunar laser range measurements to the retroreflectors were first reported on Aug. 1, 1969 by the 3.1 m telescope at Lick Observatory. Observations from Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Lunar Ranging Observatory in Arizona, the Pic du Midi Observatory in France, the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory, and McDonald Observatory in Texas soon followed. The uncrewed Soviet Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 rovers carried smaller arrays. Reflected signals were initially received from Lunokhod 1 by the Soviet Union up to 1974, but not by western observatories that did not have precise information about location. In 2010 NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter located the Lunokhod 1 rover on images and in April 2010 a team from University of California ranged the array. Lunokhod 2 array continues to return signals to Earth. The Lunokhod arrays suffer from decreased performance in direct sunlight—a factor considered in reflector placement during the Apollo missions. The Apollo 15 array is three times the size of the arrays left by the two earlier Apollo missions. Its size made it the target of three-quarters of the sample measurements taken in the first 25 years of the experiment. Improvements in technology since then have resulted in greater use of the smaller arrays, by sites such as the Côte d'Azur Observatory in Nice, France; and the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) at the Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico. In the 2010s several new retroreflectors were planned. The MoonLIGHT reflector, which was to be placed by the private MX-1E lander, was designed to increase measurement accuracy up to 100 times over existing systems. MX-1E was set to launch in July 2020, however, as of February 2020, the launch of the MX-1E has been canceled. Principle The distance to the Moon is calculated using the equation: . Since the speed of light is a defined constant, conversion between distance and time of flight can be made without ambiguity. To compute the lunar distance precisely, many factors must be considered in addition to the round-trip time of about 2.5 seconds. These factors include the location of the Moon in the sky, the relative motion of Earth and the Moon, Earth's rotation, lunar libration, polar motion, weather, speed of light in various parts of air, propagation delay through Earth's atmosphere, the location of the observing station and its motion due to crustal motion and tides, and relativistic effects. The distance continually changes for a number of reasons, but averages between the center of the Earth and the center of the Moon. The orbits of the Moon and planets are integrated numerically along with the orientation of the Moon called physical Libration. At the Moon's surface, the beam is about wide and scientists liken the task of aiming the beam to using a rifle to hit a moving dime away. The reflected light is too weak to see with the human eye. Out of  photons aimed at the reflector, only one is received back on Earth, even under good conditions. They can be identified as originating from the laser because the laser is highly monochromatic. As of 2009, the distance to the Moon can be measured with millimeter precision. In a relative sense, this is one of the most precise distance measurements ever made, and is equivalent in accuracy to determining the distance between Los Angeles and New York to within the width of a human hair. List of retroreflectors List of observatories The table below presents a list of active and inactive Lunar Laser Ranging stations on Earth. Data analysis The Lunar Laser Ranging data is collected in order to extract numerical values for a number of parameters. Analyzing the range data involves dynamics, terrestrial geophysics, and lunar geophysics. The modeling problem involves two aspects: an accurate computation of the lunar orbit and lunar orientation, and an accurate model for the time of flight from an observing station to a retroreflector and back to the station. Modern Lunar Laser Ranging data can be fit with a 1 cm weighted rms residual. The center of Earth to center of Moon distance is computed by a computer program that numerically integrates the lunar and planetary orbits accounting for the gravitational attraction of the Sun, planets, and a selection of asteroids. The same program integrates the 3-axis orientation of the Moon called physical Libration. The range model includes The position of the ranging station accounting for motion due to plate tectonics, Earth rotation, precession, nutation, and polar motion. Tides in the solid Earth and seasonal motion of the solid Earth with respect to its center of mass. Relativistic transformation of time and space coordinates from a frame moving with the station to a frame fixed with respect to the solar system center of mass. Lorentz contraction of the Earth is part of this transformation. Delay in the Earth’s atmosphere. Relativistic delay due to the gravity fields of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. The position of the retroreflector accounting for orientation of the Moon and solid-body tides. Lorentz contraction of the Moon. Thermal expansion and contraction of the retroreflector mounts. For the terrestrial model, the IERS Conventions (2010) is a source of detailed information. Results Lunar laser ranging measurement data is available from the Paris Observatory Lunar Analysis Center, the International Laser Ranging Service archives, and the active stations. Some of the findings of this long-term experiment are: Properties of the Moon The distance to the Moon can be measured with millimeter precision. The Moon is spiraling away from Earth at a rate of . This rate has been described as anomalously high. The fluid core of the Moon was detected from the effects of core/mantle boundary dissipation. The Moon has free physical librations that require one or more stimulating mechanisms. Tidal dissipation in the Moon depends on tidal frequency. The Moon probably has a liquid core of about 20% of the Moon's radius. The radius of the lunar core-mantle boundary is determined as . The polar flattening of the lunar core-mantle boundary is determined as . The free core nutation of the Moon is determined as . Accurate locations for retroreflectors serve as reference points visible to orbiting spacecraft. Gravitational physics Einstein's theory of gravity (the general theory of relativity) predicts the Moon's orbit to within the accuracy of the laser ranging measurements. Gauge freedom plays a major role in a correct physical interpretation of the relativistic effects in the Earth-Moon system observed with LLR technique. The likelihood of any Nordtvedt effect (a hypothetical differential acceleration of the Moon and Earth towards the Sun caused by their different degrees of compactness) has been ruled out to high precision, strongly supporting the strong equivalence principle. The universal force of gravity is very stable. The experiments have constrained the change in Newton's gravitational constant G to a factor of per year. Gallery See also Carroll Alley (first principal investigator of the Apollo Lunar Laser Ranging team) Lidar Lunar distance (astronomy) Satellite laser ranging Space geodesy Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings List of artificial objects on the Moon References External links "Theory and Model for the New Generation of the Lunar Laser Ranging Data" by Sergei Kopeikin Apollo 15 Experiments - Laser Ranging Retroreflector by the Lunar and Planetary Institute "History of Laser Ranging and MLRS" by the University of Texas at Austin, Center for Space Research "Lunar Retroreflectors" by Tom Murphy Station de Télémétrie Laser-Lune in Grasse, France Lunar Laser Ranging from International Laser Ranging Service "UW researcher plans project to pin down moon's distance from Earth" by Vince Stricherz, UW Today, 14 January 2002 "What Neil & Buzz Left on the Moon" by Science@NASA, 20 July 2004 "Apollo 11 Experiment Still Returning Results" by Robin Lloyd, CNN, 21 July 1999 "Shooting Lasers at the Moon: Hal Walker and the Lunar Retroreflector" by Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, YouTube, 20 Aug 2019 Lunar science Apollo program hardware Tests of general relativity

Fizeau–Foucault apparatus

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The Fizeau–Foucault apparatus is either of two types of instrument historically used to measure the speed of light. The conflation of the two instrument types arises in part because Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault had originally been friends and collaborators. They worked together on such projects as using the Daguerreotype process to take images of the Sun between 1843 and 1845 and characterizing absorption bands in the infrared spectrum of sunlight in 1847. In 1834, Charles Wheatstone developed a method of using a rapidly rotating mirror to study transient phenomena, and applied this method to measure the velocity of electricity in a wire and the duration of an electric spark. He communicated to François Arago the idea that his method could be adapted to a study of the speed of light. Arago expanded upon Wheatstone's concept in an 1838 publication, emphasizing the possibility that a test of the relative speed of light in air versus water could be used to distinguish between the particle and wave theories of light. In 1845, Arago suggested to Fizeau and Foucault that they attempt to measure the speed of light. Sometime in 1849, however, it appears that the two had a falling out, and they parted ways pursuing separate means of performing this experiment. In 1848−49, Fizeau used, not a rotating mirror, but a toothed wheel apparatus to perform an absolute measurement of the speed of light in air. In 1850, Fizeau and Foucault both used rotating mirror devices to perform relative measures of the speed of light in air versus water. Foucault used a scaled-up version of the rotating mirror apparatus to perform an absolute measurement of the speed of light in 1862. Subsequent experiments performed by Marie Alfred Cornu in 1872–76 and by Albert A. Michelson in 1877–1931 used improved versions of the toothed wheel and rotating mirror experiments to make steadily more accurate estimates of the speed of light. Fizeau's determination of the speed of light In 1848–49, Hippolyte Fizeau determined the speed of light between an intense light source and a mirror about 8 km distant. The light source was interrupted by a rotating cogwheel with 720 notches that could be rotated at a variable speed of up to hundreds of times a second. (Figure 1) Fizeau adjusted the rotation speed of the cogwheel until light passing through one notch of the cogwheel would be completely eclipsed by the adjacent tooth. Spinning the cogwheel at 3, 5 and 7 times this basic rotation rate also resulted in eclipsing of the reflected light by the cogwheel teeth next in line. Given the rotational speed of the wheel and the distance between the wheel and the mirror, Fizeau was able to calculate a value of 315000 km/s for the speed of light. It was difficult for Fizeau to visually estimate the intensity minimum of the light being blocked by the adjacent teeth, and his value for light's speed was about 5% too high. Fizeau's paper appeared in Comptes Rendus: Hebdomadaires de scéances de l’Academie de Sciences (Paris, Vol. 29 [July–December 1849], pp. 90–92). The early-to-mid 1800s were a period of intense debate on the particle-versus-wave nature of light. Although the observation of the Arago spot in 1819 may seem to have settled the matter definitively in favor of Fresnel's wave theory of light, various concerns continued to appear to be addressed more satisfactorily by Newton's corpuscular theory. Arago had suggested in 1838 that a differential comparison of the speed of light in air versus water would serve to prove or disprove the wave nature of light. In 1850, racing against Foucault to establish this point, Fizeau engaged L.F.C. Breguet to build a rotary-mirror apparatus in which he split a beam of light into two beams, passing one through water while the other traveled through air. Beaten by Foucault by a mere seven weeks, he confirmed that the speed of light was greater as it traveled through air, validating the wave theory of light. Foucault's determination of the speed of light In 1850 and in 1862, Léon Foucault made improved determinations of the speed of light substituting a rotating mirror for Fizeau's toothed wheel. (Figure 2) The apparatus involves light from slit S reflecting off a rotating mirror R, forming an image of the slit on the distant stationary mirror M, which is then reflected back to reform an image of the original slit. If mirror R is stationary, then the slit image will reform at S regardless of the mirror's tilt. The situation is different, however, if R is in rapid rotation. As the rotating mirror R will have moved slightly in the time it takes for the light to bounce from R to M and back, the light will be deflected away from the original source by a small angle. As seen in Figure 3, the displaced image of the source (slit) is at an angle 2θ from the source direction. Guided by similar motivations as his former partner, Foucault in 1850 was more interested in settling the particle-versus-wave debate than in determining an accurate absolute value for the speed of light. Foucault measured the differential speed of light through air versus water by inserting a tube filled with water between the rotating mirror and the distant mirror. His experimental results, announced shortly before Fizeau announced his results on the same topic, were viewed as "driving the last nail in the coffin" of Newton's corpuscle theory of light when it showed that light travels more slowly through water than through air. Newton had explained refraction as a pull of the medium upon the light, implying an increased speed of light in the medium. The corpuscular theory of light went into abeyance, completely overshadowed by wave theory. This state of affairs lasted until 1905, when Einstein presented heuristic arguments that under various circumstances, such as when considering the photoelectric effect, light exhibits behaviors indicative of a particle nature. In contrast to his 1850 measurement, Foucault's 1862 measurement was aimed at obtaining an accurate absolute value for the speed of light, since his concern was to deduce an improved value for the astronomical unit. At the time, Foucault was working at the Paris Observatory under Urbain le Verrier. It was le Verrier's belief, based on extensive celestial mechanics calculations, that the consensus value for the speed of light was perhaps 4% too high. Technical limitations prevented Foucault from separating mirrors R and M by more than about 20 meters. Despite this limited path length, Foucault was able to measure the displacement of the slit image (less than 1 mm) with considerable accuracy. In addition, unlike the case with Fizeau's experiment (which required gauging the rotation rate of an adjustable-speed toothed wheel), he could spin the mirror at a constant, chronometrically determined speed. Foucault's measurement confirmed le Verrier's estimate. His 1862 figure for the speed of light (298000 km/s) was within 0.6% of the modern value. Cornu's refinement of the Fizeau experiment At the behest of the Paris Observatory under le Verrier, Marie Alfred Cornu repeated Fizeau's 1848 toothed wheel measurement in a series of experiments in 1872–76. The goal was to obtain a value for the speed of light accurate to one part in a thousand. Cornu's equipment allowed him to monitor high orders of extinction, up to the 21st order. Instead of estimating the intensity minimum of the light being blocked by the adjacent teeth, a relatively inaccurate procedure, Cornu made pairs of observations on either side of the intensity minima, averaging the values obtained with the wheel spun clockwise and counterclockwise. An electric circuit recorded the wheel rotations on a chronograph chart which enabled precise rate comparisons against the observatory clock, and a telegraph key arrangement allowed Cornu to mark on this same chart the precise moments when he judged that an extinction had been entered or exited. His final experiment was run over a path nearly three times as long as that used by Fizeau, and yielded a figure of 300400 km/s that is within 0.2% of the modern value. Michelson's refinement of the Foucault experiment It was seen in Figure 2 that Foucault placed the rotating mirror R as close as possible to lens L so as to maximize the distance between R and the slit S. As R rotates, an enlarged image of slit S sweeps across the face of the distant mirror M. The greater the distance RM, the more quickly that the image sweeps across mirror M and the less light is reflected back. Foucault could not increase the RM distance in his folded optical arrangement beyond about 20 meters without the image of the slit becoming too dim to accurately measure. Between 1877 and 1931, Albert A. Michelson made multiple measurements of the speed of light. His 1877–79 measurements were performed under the auspices of Simon Newcomb, who was also working on measuring the speed of light. Michelson's setup incorporated several refinements on Foucault's original arrangement. As seen in Figure 5, Michelson placed the rotating mirror R near the principal focus of lens L (i.e. the focal point given incident parallel rays of light). If the rotating mirror R were exactly at the principal focus, the moving image of the slit would remain upon the distant plane mirror M (equal in diameter to lens L) as long as the axis of the pencil of light remained on the lens, this being true regardless of the RM distance. Michelson was thus able to increase the RM distance to nearly 2000 feet. To achieve a reasonable value for the RS distance, Michelson used an extremely long focal length lens (150 feet) and compromised on the design by placing R about 15 feet closer to L than the principal focus. This allowed an RS distance of between 28.5 to 33.3 feet. He used carefully calibrated tuning forks to monitor the rotation rate of the air-turbine-powered mirror R, and he would typically measure displacements of the slit image on the order of 115 mm. His 1879 figure for the speed of light, 299944±51 km/s, was within about 0.05% of the modern value. His 1926 repeat of the experiment incorporated still further refinements such as the use of polygonal prism-shaped rotating mirrors (enabling a brighter image) having from eight through sixteen facets and a 22 mile baseline surveyed to fractional parts-per-million accuracy. His figure of 299,796±4 km/s was only about 4 km/s higher than the current accepted value. Michelson's final 1931 attempt to measure the speed of light in vacuum was interrupted by his death. Although his experiment was completed posthumously by F. G. Pease and F. Pearson, various factors militated against a measurement of highest accuracy, including an earthquake which disturbed the baseline measurement. Footnotes References External links Relative speed of light measurements "Sur un système d'expériences à l'aide duquel la théorie de l'émission et celle des ondes seront soumises à des épreuves décisives." by F. Arago (1838) Sur les vitesses relatives de la lumière dans l'air et dans l'eau / par Léon Foucault (1853) "Sur l'Experience relative a la vitesse comparative de la lumiere dans l'air et dans l'eau." by H. Fizeau and L. Breguet (1850) Absolute speed of light measurements Sur une experience relative a la vitesse de propagation de la lumière by H. Fizeau (1849) Mesure de la vitesse de la lumière ; Étude optique des surfaces / mémoires de Léon Foucault (1913) Détermination de la vitesse de la lumière: d'après des expériences exécutées en 1874 entre l'Observatoire et Montlhéry, by M. A. Cornu (1876) Classroom demonstrations Speed of Light (The Foucault Method) A modern Fizeau experiment for education and outreach purposes Measuring the Speed of Light (video, Foucault method) BYU Physics & Astronomy Optical metrology Physics experiments

Bevo

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Bevo was a non-alcoholic malt beverage, or near beer, brewed in the United States by the Anheuser-Busch company beginning in the early 20th century. Bevo enjoyed its greatest success during the time of Prohibition, when beer, wine and distilled liquors were made illegal for thirteen years. The Anheuser-Busch company started brewing Bevo when alcoholic beverages were prohibited in 1916 by the United States armed forces. Production rose greatly with national prohibition in 1919, and Bevo was by far the most popular of the many "cereal beverages" or "near beers" of the time. At the peak of its popularity in the early 1920s, more than five million cases of Bevo were sold annually. Labels on the bottles billed it as "Bevo the Beverage". The name "Bevo" was coined from the word "beverage" and the Slavic language word for beer, pivo, and was pronounced "Bee-vo". Some Bevo advertising featured the character "Renard the Fox" (based on the protagonist of a medieval French folk tale), and promotional mugs with this character were manufactured. In 1930, Anheuser-Busch built a series of boat-bodied cars in its St. Louis shops called the "Bevo Boats" which were used for promotion. Seven are believed to have been built on Pierce-Arrow 8-cylinder chassis while one surviving example was based upon 1930 Cadillac 353 V8. A contemporary advertisement read "Cooling and invigorating, Bevo the Beverage. Order by the case from your grocer, druggist, or dealer." The paper label on the back of the bottle read "The All-Year-Round Soft Drink. Appetizing - Healthful - Nutritious - Refreshing. Milk or water may contain bacteria. BEVO never does." Bevo became part of the popular culture of the time, and is mentioned in various popular songs and vaudeville skits of the era. This led to secondary slang uses of the word; for example, in American military slang a young and inexperienced officer was called a "Bevo". The University of Texas named its mascot "Bevo", a name which has stuck to this day. Irving Berlin included a paean to the drink, "You Can't Stay Up on Bevo", in his 1917 army revue, Yip Yip Yaphank. In addition, in his song "The Near Future", which includes the ubiquitous lyric "How Dry I Am", Bevo is featured prominently. As the Prohibition Era was starting, "On the Streets of Cairo" by Jesse G. M. Gluck & Geo. P. Hulten assured people that in Cairo, "you won't have to drink pale Bevo, Booze there has a kick." In 1919, Tim Moore, a vaudeville comedian who had just arrived in Detroit to fulfill a theatrical booking, wrote this line tp a Chicago newspaper editor, "Dry Detroit, Mich.; Dear Pal Tony: Just a few lines to let you know we arrived safely in the home of Ford's Tin Lizzies, "Bevo" and other temperate beers." In the late 1920s, smuggled bootleg beer and liquor as well as "homebrew", cut into Bevo's marketshare. With sales flattening to 100,000 cases by 1929, Anheuser-Busch stopped production. The Bevo building, with the Renard character prominently displayed at the corners, still operates as a bottling facility at their main brewery in St. Louis, Missouri. The landmark Bevo Mill, constructed by August Anheuser Busch, Sr. in 1917, was closed in 2009, but reopened in October 2009 under new owners. Bevo is mentioned in Ernest Hemingway's short story "The Killers" (1927), John O'Hara's short story "The Bucket of Blood" (1962), and Sinclair Lewis's novel Babbitt (1922). Decades later, Bevo was mentioned in the song "Ya Got Trouble" in the musical The Music Man as a reference to an objectionable aspect of the culture of young people during the time in which the musical was set (although The Music Man was set in 1912, four years prior to Bevo's introduction). In 2009 the beverage was mentioned briefly in the 1927 set webcomic Lackadaisy by Tracy Butler. See also Malzbier, a nutritional German drink with 1% or less of alcohol Non-alcoholic beer References Anheuser-Busch beer brands Prohibition in the United States Cuisine of St. Louis Products introduced in 1916

Fort Hood

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Fort Hood is a United States Army post located near Killeen, Texas. Named after Confederate General John Bell Hood, it is located halfway between Austin and Waco, about from each, within the U.S. state of Texas. The post is the headquarters of III Corps and First Army Division West and is home to the 1st Cavalry Division and 3rd Cavalry Regiment, among others. It is one of the U.S. Army installations named for Confederate soldiers to be renamed by the Commission on the Naming of Items of the Department of Defense that Commemorate the Confederate States of America or Any Person Who Served Voluntarily with the Confederate States of America. Its origin was the need for wide-open space to test and train with World War II tank destroyers. The War Department announced the location in January 1942, and the initial completion was set for that August. As originally constructed, Fort Hood had an area of , with billeting for 6,007 officers and 82,610 enlisted personnel. The main cantonment of Fort Hood had a total population of 53,416 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. Fort Hood is the most populous U.S. military installation in the world. The main business area is in Bell County, with the training countryside area of the post in Coryell County. In April 2014, the Fort Hood website lists 45,414 assigned soldiers and 8,900 civilian employees with Fort Hood covering . History Foundation During World War II, tank destroyers were developed to counter German mobile armored units. These were mobile anti-tank guns on armored halftracks or specially developed tanks. Wide-open space was needed for the tank destroyer testing and training, which Texas had in abundance. Andrew Davis (A.D.) Bruce was assigned to organize a new Tank Destroyer Tactical and Firing Center, and he chose Killeen, Texas for the new camp. The War Department announced the selection on 15 January 1942. An initial acquisition of was made, and it was estimated that the camp would cost $22.8 million for the land, facilities, and development of utilities. The date of completion was set for 15 August 1942. About 300 families had to move from their homes to make room for the camp area and the communities of Clear Creek, Elijah, and Antelope were demolished to facilitate construction of the base. The old Sugar Loaf community, historically called the "Cradle of Killeen," provided the city with many of its first citizens in 1882. All that remains of the community is the mountain from which it took its name, located in the Fort Hood area. To lessen the burden of moving, the Army agreed to allow land to be used for grazing for a nominal grazing fee. This grazing arrangement still continues today. In mid-August, the camp was occupied and the official opening took place on 18 September 1942. Camp Hood was named in February for the Confederate General John Bell Hood, who commanded Hood's Texas Brigade during the American Civil War, part of a series of new training camps named for distinguished military leaders together with Camps Carson, Campbell and Atterbury. The original facilities provided housing and training sites for nearly 38,000 troops. In January 1943, an additional in Bell County and in Coryell County near Gatesville, Texas were purchased. The site near Gatesville was known as the sub-camp and later as North Camp Hood. During the war years, North Camp Hood housed nearly 40,000 troops and 4,000 prisoners of war, and was the site for the southern branch of the United States Disciplinary Barracks. At the end of 1942, there were about 45,000 troops living and training at Camp Hood and in late June 1943 it peaked at almost 95,000 troops, which was maintained until early 1944. In 1944, the number of tank destroyer battalions in training at Camp Hood declined rapidly. Field artillery battalions and the Infantry Replacement Training Center replaced them in March 1944. By September, the Infantry Center was the largest activity on post with 31,545 troops. The total camp population on the last day of 1944 was 50,228. During the last year of World War II Camp Hood's mission shifted and its population drastically decreased. As the war came to an end, troop training slowed and equipment reclamation and demobilization were prioritized. A separation center was established in September 1945, and as the year ended, post strength had fallen to 1,807 prisoners and about 11,000 troops. The Infantry Replacement Training Center was officially shut down on 7 January 1946. Cold War The 2nd and 20th Armored Divisions were sent to Camp Hood after returning from Europe in January 1946, but the 20th was soon inactivated, leaving less than 5,000 at the post. The 2nd Armored would remain at the post until its inactivation at the end of the Cold War. Camp Hood was retained postwar as an armored training center and on 15 April 1950 was officially renamed Fort Hood as a result of its permanent status. In mid-1954, III Corps moved from California to Fort Hood. The Corps supervised the training of combat units at Fort Hood and other Fourth Army stations from 1954 to 1959 when III Corps was inactivated. Probably the most famous trainee to come through Fort Hood was Elvis Presley, arriving on 28 March 1958. Other than receiving record amounts of mail (3–4 bags per day), he was treated like all other trainees. On 19 September, Presley shipped out for Germany. During this period, the 4th Armored Division was reactivated and deployed to Germany as part of the "Gyroscope" concept of unit movement. In September 1961, Fort Hood again became the home for the III Corps, and in February 1962, III Corps was assigned as part of the U.S. Army Strategic Army Corps (STRAC). At the same time, the basing of the 1st Armored Division there made it a two-division post. On 15 June 1963 Killeen Base was turned over to the Army. Vietnam War During the late 1960s, Fort Hood trained and deployed a number of units and individuals for duty in Vietnam. As the United States ended its role in the conflict, thousands of returning soldiers completed their active duty with one of the divisions. During this time, the post was modernized. On 13 September 1965, Darnall Hospital opened. In 1970, construction began on Palmer Theater and Venable Village was dedicated. Modern barracks were springing up around post. The wood buildings of Fort Hood were replaced with brick structures. In April 1968, more than 40 African American GIs, who objected to being sent to occupy riot-damaged Black neighborhoods in Chicago following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., were court martialed and jailed by the US Army. Many of the soldiers were decorated and wounded veterans who had completed tours of duty in Vietnam. In October 1969, Killeen Base was designated as West Fort Hood and the airfield's name was designated as Robert Gray Army Airfield. The base was named after a Killeen native who was a pilot of a B-25 bomber on the famous Doolittle Raid in Tokyo in 1942. He was killed later in World War II flying combat missions. With the redesignation came a change in mission at West Fort Hood. Nuclear weapons were removed; they had been secretly kept there since 1947. In 1971, the colors of the 1st Cavalry Division came to Fort Hood from Vietnam, resulting in the reflagging of the 1st Armored Division, the colors of which were sent to Germany to reflag the 4th Armored Division. From 23 December 1972, to 19 January 1973, elements of the 13th Support Brigade deployed to the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake to assist in disaster relief serving at Camp Christine, Managua, Nicaragua. Proving grounds Since the early 1970s, Fort Hood has played a major role in the training, testing, and introduction of new equipment, tactics, and organizations. The U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command's Test and Experimentation Command (now the U.S. Army Operational Test Command), located at West Fort Hood has been a primary player. Fort Hood fielded the M1 Abrams tank, M2/3 Bradley Infantry/Cavalry Fighting Vehicle, the Multiple Launch rocket System (MLRS), and the AH-64 Apache helicopter. In January 1975, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganized, as the Army's newest armored division. Since fielding the M-1 Abrams in 1980, force modernization has continued as a major focus. The 1st Cavalry became the first division to field the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter, M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, the Humvee, the Multiple Launch Rocket System and Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE) tactical communications. 1990–2000 Army deployments In August 1990, Fort Hood was alerted for deployments to Southwest Asia as part of the joint forces participating in Operation Desert Shield. The deployment to Saudi Arabia began in September, extending into mid-October. On 21 May 1991, with the reactivation of its 3rd Brigade ("Greywolf") the 1st Cavalry Division became the largest division in the Army upon its return to the United States. In October 1992, the Engineer Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division was reactivated. Through the Engineer Restructuring Initiative, the nucleus of the brigade was formed around the 8th Engineer Battalion. The 20th Engineer Battalion was brought from Fort Campbell, KY, to join the brigade, and the 91st Engineer Battalion was activated to complete the brigade. In November 1992, the unit designations for the battalions remaining from the former "Tiger" Brigade of the 2nd Armored Division were returned prior to the activation of the division at Fort Hood on 2 December 1992. This action was done to realign the historical designations of units to their parent divisions. On 29 November 1992, the 3rd Battalion, 41st Infantry was designated as the 1st Battalion, 9th Cavalry; 1st Battalion, 67th Armor to 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, and 1st Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery to 2nd Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery. On 16 December 1992, 1st Cavalry Division units designated to accomplish realignments for historical purposes and included the 1st Battalion, 32nd Armor reflagged as 2nd Battalion, 12th Cavalry; 3rd Battalion, 32nd Armor to 1st Battalion, 12th Cavalry; and Battery A, 333rd Field Artillery to Battery B, 26th Field Artillery. During the post war periods called Operation Desert Calm and Operation Provide Comfort, Fort Hood units continued to serve in the Persian Gulf area. From December 1992 to May 1993, Fort Hood soldiers deployed to Somalia for Operation Restore Hope to command and control the Joint Task Force Support Command. In the fall of 1994, Fort Hood units participated in the largest deployment since Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm executed split base operations in the Caribbean Basin, Central America and Southwest Asia, in support of Operations Vigilant Warrior and Sea Signal V, as well as other contingency operations. 13th Corps Support Command Commander Brig. Gen. Billy K. Solomon deployed along with a portion of the headquarters in December 1992 to Mogadishu to serve as the nucleus of Joint Task Force Support Command. Their major units included the 593rd Support Group (Fort Lewis), 36th Engineer Group (Fort Benning), 7th Transportation Group (Fort Eustis), and 62d Medical Group (Fort Lewis). The command headquarters returned to Fort Hood in May 1993. As a result of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) reductions, the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), then located at Fort Polk Louisiana, was reflagged as the 2nd Armored Division in late 1992. By mid-1993, the division at Fort Hood had completed changes of unit names to those associated with the 5th Division, and began participation in the early stages of the Army's Experimental Force, Force XXI. In 1995, the 2nd Armored Division was reflagged as the U.S. 4th Infantry Division. Twenty-five years after making its home in Colorado, the 4th Infantry Division was again restationed to meet the Army's requirements but this move would be quite different from others. It became a split-based organization with six brigades and three separate battalions stationed at Fort Hood and the 3rd Brigade Combat Team remaining at Fort Carson. By December 1995, the 4th Infantry Division (Mechanized) assumed responsibility as the Army's Experimental Force (Force XXI), and on 15 December 1995, its colors were unfurled for the first time over central Texas and Fort Hood. Since the 1990s, Fort Hood units have supported Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In October 1998, The 1st Cavalry Division was the first United States division to assume authority of the Multinational Division (North) area of operation in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The mission was to conduct operations to enforce the military provisions set forth by the Dayton Peace Accords. In 1998, the Ironhorse Division was designated to be the Army's first Multi-Component unit. The main objective being to enhance Total Force integration, optimize the unique capabilities of each component, and improve the overall readiness of the Army. The program was developed to leverage the strengths of the Army's three components (active, reserve and National Guard). As such, 515 positions within the division have been designated as reserve component. These positions include individuals, a unit from the Wyoming National Guard and dual-mission units from the Texas Army National Guard. In addition to peacekeeping efforts, Fort Hood units routinely participate in national and international disaster relief efforts. Hours after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, III Corps units were ready to move out to provide assistance. Fort Hood units also aided Managua, Nicaragua, after an earthquake ravaged the city. During the 1990s, Fort Hood continued an extensive building program to modernize the post. This modernization continues today, with emphasis on quality of life, force projection and training. The Robertson Blood Center, Soldier Development Center, and a new commissary at Warrior Way have been completed. Many other improvements were made to improve the Power Projection Mission of the post such as improvements to the railhead and the runway at Gray Army Airfield. Training ranges have been upgraded. 2000–2009 Army deployments At the beginning of the 21st century, the Army's modernization was in full swing. Some of these new advances in technology and war fighting included the fielding of the M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank, the M2A2 Operation Desert Storm (ODS) Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle, the M109A6 Paladin howitzer, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, the AH-64D Apache Longbow Helicopter, and the M6 Bradley Linebacker. Fort Hood was the first installation selected to privatize post housing under the residential communities initiative. Under this initiative, new housing units, remodeled housing and community improvements will be added to the post. In 2001, the War on Terror became a prime focus. Fort Hood transitioned from an open to a closed post with the help of military police from reserve units. The 1st Cavalry sent additional troops to Kuwait to protect against possible aggressive actions from Iraq. The 4003rd Garrison Support Reserve unit fills vacancies left by deploying units at Fort Hood. Fort Hood has a key role as a training base for mobilizing Reserve and National Guard units to support the Homeland Defense effort. Many Fort Hood units have deployed to Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom, and to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom. In December 2003, the 4th Infantry Division captured Saddam Hussein. In the spring of 2004, the 1st Cavalry Division followed the 4th Infantry Division deploying to Iraq. Task Force ODIN was created at Ft. Hood. In September 2005, 13th COSCOM and key enablers were called to support Joint Task Force Katrina/Rita hurricane relief and went on to serve as the senior joint logistical support command for JTF Katrina. 13th COSCOM eventually provided one hundred million rations, collected human remains with dignity, executed emergency engineering operations, transported, distributed and stored over one billion dollars in humanitarian relief from both non-governmental and federal sources from across the nation. In 2009, Fort Carson, Colorado's First Army Division West re-stationed to Fort Hood in order to consolidate its mission to conduct reserve component mobilization training and validation for deployment, switching places with 4th Infantry Division, which relocated to Fort Carson. 2007 navigation exercise incident On 12 June 2007, the body of Lawrence George Sprader, Jr was found at about 8:30 p.m. in a brushy area located within the Central Texas Army post's training ground. He had gone missing for days while conducting an exercise for testing basic map-reading and navigation skills. A massive search had been conducted, with over 3,000 parties scouring the countryside. According to autopsy records, he had died from hyperthermia and dehydration. According to an Army investigatory report, there were "a multitude of procedural violations, judgment errors and alleged acts of misconduct by Army trainers that not only contributed to Sprader's death but put some 300 other soldiers in danger that day, including about two dozen who required medical attention." 2009 shooting On 5 November 2009 a gunman, who regarded himself as a mujahid waging "jihad" against the United States, opened fire in the Soldier Readiness Center of Fort Hood and killed 13 people while wounding 32 others. Nidal Malik Hasan, a U.S. Army Major and psychiatrist, was the gunman. He was shot and then arrested by Department of the Army police officers Sergeant Mark Todd and Sergeant Kimberly Munley. Eyewitnesses to the actual events said: "...Major Hasan wheeled on Sergeant Munley as she rounded the corner of a building and shot her, putting her on the ground. Then Major Hasan turned his back on her and started putting another magazine into his semiautomatic pistol. It was at that moment that Senior Sgt. Mark Todd, a veteran police officer, rounded another corner of the building, found Major Hasan fumbling with his weapon and shot him." In 2013, Hasan was convicted of thirteen counts of premeditated murder and thirty-two counts of attempted premeditated murder for the thirty soldiers and two civilian police officers injured in the shooting. On 23 August 2013, Hasan was found guilty on all charges and was sentenced to death. 2011 attack plot Pfc. Naser Jason Abdo, an AWOL private, was arrested near Fort Hood, and in a statement by the police chief of Killeen, Texas, the man told investigators that he wanted to attack fellow soldiers at the military post. At his trial in August 2012, Abdo stated, through a cloth mask, "I will continue until the day the dead are called to account for their deeds." Abdo was sentenced to life in prison for the plot. 2014 shooting On 2 April 2014, a shooting spree occurred at several locations on the base, leaving three people dead and fourteen others wounded. The gunman then died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound. He was later identified as 34-year-old Ivan Lopez, an Iraq War veteran. 2014–present A sexual assault prevention officer on the base, Sergeant 1st Class Gregory McQueen, was dishonorably discharged in March 2015, having been convicted of organizing a prostitution ring. Currently, Fort Hood has nearly 65,000 soldiers and family members and serves as a home for the following units: Headquarters III Corps; First Army Division West; the 1st Cavalry Division; 13th Sustainment Command (formerly 13th Corps Support Command); 89th Military Police Brigade; 504th Battlefield Surveillance Brigade; 85th Civil Affairs Brigade; 1st Medical Brigade; and the 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade. Fort Hood also includes Carl R. Darnall Army Medical Center and the Medical And Dental Activities as tenant units. , Killeen, Texas, started a land-use study to "identify and mitigate compatibility and encroachment issues that may impact training, operations". In 2020, a debate around renaming US military bases named after Confederate generals emerged during protests sparked from the murder of George Floyd. Fort Hood is one such base at the center of the controversy. 39 soldiers died or went missing in 2020. The killing of Vanessa Guillén at Fort Hood in April 2020 brought national attention to the base and the broader culture of sexual harassment in the military. Hundreds of people protested at the gates of Fort Hood in June demanding justice for Guillén. In August, a San Antonio man was arrested and charged with making terroristic threats after threatening to commit a mass shooting at Fort Hood in retaliation for Guillén's killing. 14 commanders were subsequently fired or suspended with Army Secretary Ryan McCarthy citing "leadership failures". An investigation by Fort Hood Independent Review Committee (FHIRC), a panel McCarthy established, found that there was a "permissive environment for sexual assault and sexual harassment at Fort Hood." Army regulation AR-600-20 (24 July 2020) now requires the filing of commander's critical information reports (CCIRs) 8 days after a SHARP (sexual harassment/assault response & prevention) complaint by a victim. Fort Hood CID investigators assigned to their cases are hampered by a checklist mentality from their beginnings as junior investigators straight out of initial training from Fort Leonard Wood, according to the FHIRC report. The majority of CID investigators are then detailed to protective services for senior Pentagon officials, thereby moving straight to middle management CID positions without the requisite experience in criminal investigation. After Carlton L Chee was the 28th death of 2020 in September, Congress launched an investigation of Fort Hood citing the deaths and other felonies that occurred on the fort between 2014-2019. Commanders at the FORSCOM, III Corps, and Fort Hood levels now have specific actions to complete upon a Sexual assault review board complaint. CID is being restructured: a civilian director reporting directly to the secretary of the Army will oversee criminal probes. The Provost Marshal and the Military Police will no longer undertake criminal investigations. A new branch like those in the Air Force and Navy for Special Agents will be instituted. FORSCOM now requires the selection of investigating officers from outside an installation's brigade-sized element, which is processing a complaint. On 7 October 2021 Jennifer Sewell was first reported missing; Sewell has since been found. More than 100 night vision goggles (NVGs) from an arms room were stolen during March til May 2021; several dozen were offered for sale on the Internet, from a reseller in Corpus Christi, Texas as of 9 July 2021; some devices had already been sold and shipped. CID and Homeland security believe the NVGs were stolen from shipping containers at Fort Hood. Anti-war activity Fort Hood has served as a hub for anti-war activity during both the Vietnam War (e.g. the "Fort Hood Three" incident) and the War on Terror. From 1968 to 1973, the Oleo Strut was a G.I. coffeehouse located near post in Killeen, Texas. The coffee house was featured in the documentary Sir! No Sir!. In 2009, the tradition of the Oleo Strut continued when the Under the Hood Café opened. The location serves as an outreach center for antiwar activists to reach out to area soldiers, and provide them with support. Under the Hood Café announced on 10 November 2014 that it would close by the end of the year. Recently several soldiers supported by Under the Hood have taken public acts of resistance, including Amnesty International prisoner of conscience Travis Bishop. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 33,711 people, 5,819 households, and 5,679 families residing in the Fort Hood CDP. The population density was 2,255.7 people per square mile (870.6/km2). There were 5,941 housing units at an average density of 397.5 per square mile (153.4/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 50.7% White, 31.6% African American, 1.2% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, 8.7% from other races, and 4.8% from two or more races. 16.7% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race. There were 5,818 households, out of which 87.6% had children under the age of eighteen living with them, 87.1% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.4% were non-families. Two percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 0.0% had someone living alone who is sixty-five years of age or older. The average household size was 3.92 and the average family size was 3.95. The age distribution was 33.3% under the age of eighteen, 32.3% from eighteen to twenty-four, 33.1% from twenty-five to forty-four, 1.2% from forty-five to sixty-four, and 0.1% who were sixty-five years of age or older. The median age was twenty-one years. For every one hundred females there were 163.4 males. For every one hundred females over the age of eighteen there were 209.4 males. All of these statistics are typical for military bases. The median income for a household on the base was $32,552, and the median income for a family was $32,296. Males had a median income of $18,884 versus $17,101 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $11,078. 9.5% of the population and 8.3% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 11.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 25.8% of those sixty-five and older were living below the poverty line. Military base Fort Hood is the home of III Corps, 1st Cavalry Division, 13th Sustainment Command, First Army Division West, 3rd Cavalry Regiment, 1st Medical Brigade and many other Forces Command and other units. The 4th Infantry Division completed its move from Fort Hood to Fort Carson, Colorado, exchanging positions with several units. The 4th Infantry Division Museum closed at Fort Hood for the last time on 29 May 2009 to complete its move to Colorado although most of the outdoor pieces remained at Fort Hood as part of the new 3CR Museum. Before the breakup of the Soviet Union, Fort Hood was billed as the largest military base in the free world (Fort Benning is larger in personnel, Fort Bliss in land area). During peacetime, Fort Hood is a gated post, with the 1st Cavalry Division Museum, the Belton Lake Outdoor Recreation Area (BLORA), and a number of other facilities that are open to the public. Access to the cantonments became restricted starting in July 2001. However, passes are available to visit the two museums on post, and the lake area remains open to the public without restriction since it is outside the cantonments. Various events, including the annual Independence Day celebration, which has one of the largest fireworks displays in the country, are open to the public. Shortly after the 2000 census, responsibility for post housing was turned over to privatized partnership with Actus Lend Lease. Under the terms of the contract, most of the housing has been remodeled or rebuilt, and hundreds of new units have been built or are in the process of being built, operating as Fort Hood Family Housing. The nine schools on Fort Hood are part of the Killeen Independent School District. Fort Hood consists of three sections: the main cantonment, West Fort Hood, and North Fort Hood. The main cantonment is bounded by Killeen on the east and Copperas Cove on the west. The Fort Hood main cantonment area, otherwise referred to as Main post, holds its own airfield, Hood Army Airfield. North Fort Hood is bounded by Gatesville to the northwest. West Fort Hood, bounded by Killeen and Copperas Cove, includes Fort Hood's second airfield, Robert Gray Army Airfield, which has been expanded for civilian use (Killeen–Fort Hood Regional Airport (GRK)) and additional training areas. To the east and southeast, the reservation is bounded by Harker Heights, Nolanville, Belton, and Morgan's Point Resort. Notable residents Mark Adickes – football player, surgeon, commentator Donald Buckram – football player Robert Griffin III – football player Ciara - R&B singer Bobby Luna – football player Josh Lovelady – football player Tamera Mowry – actress Tia Mowry – actress Donald Prell – futurologist and author Elvis Presley – singer, actor Geoff Ramsey – film producer, actor Lucas Till – actor Anna Todd – author Yoon Mi-rae – American-born South Korean singer Vanessa Guillen See also List of World War II prisoner-of-war camps in the United States References Citations Bibliography Cragg, Dan, Sgt. Maj. (USA Ret.), The guide to military installations, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, 1983 External links Hood official site Census-designated places in Bell County, Texas Census-designated places in Coryell County, Texas Census-designated places in Texas Hood Hood John Bell Hood Killeen–Temple–Fort Hood metropolitan area 1942 establishments in Texas Military installations established in 1942

B.B. King

eng_Latn

Riley B. King (September 16, 1925 – May 14, 2015), known professionally as B.B. King, was an American blues singer-songwriter, guitarist, and record producer. He introduced a sophisticated style of soloing based on fluid string bending, shimmering vibrato and staccato picking that influenced many later blues electric guitar players. AllMusic recognized King as "the single most important electric guitarist of the last half of the 20th century". King was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987, and is one of the most influential blues musicians of all time, earning the nickname "The King of the Blues", and is considered one of the "Three Kings of the Blues Guitar" (along with Albert King and Freddie King, none of whom are related). King performed tirelessly throughout his musical career, appearing on average at more than 200 concerts per year into his 70s. In 1956 alone, he appeared at 342 shows. King was born on a cotton plantation in Itta Bena, Mississippi, and later worked at a cotton gin in Indianola, Mississippi. He was attracted to music and the guitar in church, and began his career in juke joints and local radio. He later lived in Memphis, Tennessee and Chicago, and as his fame grew, toured the world extensively. King died at the age of 89 in Las Vegas, Nevada, on May 14, 2015. Early life Riley B. King was born on September 16, 1925, on the Berclair cotton plantation near the town of Itta Bena, Mississippi, the son of sharecroppers Albert and Nora Ella King. He considered the nearby city of Indianola, Mississippi to be his home. When King was four years old, his mother left his father for another man, so he was raised by his maternal grandmother, Elnora Farr, in Kilmichael, Mississippi. While young, King sang in the gospel choir at Elkhorn Baptist Church in Kilmichael. King was attracted to the Pentecostal Church of God in Christ because of its music. The local minister performed with a Sears Roebuck Silvertone guitar during services, and taught King his first three chords. King's first guitar was bought for him by Mr. Flake Cartledge, his employer in Kilmichael, for 15 dollars. Cartledge withheld money from King's salary for the next two months until the debt was repaid. Another source indicates he was given his first guitar by Bukka White, his mother's first cousin (King's grandmother and White's mother were sisters). In November 1941, "King Biscuit Time" first aired, broadcasting on KFFA in Helena, Arkansas. It was a radio show featuring the Mississippi Delta blues. King listened to it while on break at a plantation. A self-taught guitarist, he then wanted to become a radio musician. In 1943, King left Kilmichael to work as a tractor driver and play guitar with the Famous St. John's Gospel Singers of Inverness, Mississippi, performing at area churches and on WGRM in Greenwood, Mississippi. In 1946, King followed Bukka White to Memphis, Tennessee. White took him in for the next ten months. However, King returned to Mississippi shortly afterward, where he decided to prepare himself better for the next visit, and returned to West Memphis, Arkansas, two years later in 1948. He performed on Sonny Boy Williamson's radio program on KWEM in West Memphis, where he began to develop an audience. King's appearances led to steady engagements at the Sixteenth Avenue Grill in West Memphis, and later to a ten-minute spot on the Memphis radio station WDIA. The radio spot became so popular that it was expanded and became the Sepia Swing Club. He worked at WDIA as a singer and disc jockey, where he was given the nickname "Beale Street Blues Boy", later shortened to "Blues Boy", and finally to B.B. It was there that he first met T-Bone Walker. King said, "Once I'd heard him for the first time, I knew I'd have to have [an electric guitar] myself. 'Had' to have one, short of stealing!" Career 1949–2005 In the late 1940s and early 1950s, King was a part of the blues scene on Beale Street. "Beale Street was where it all started for me," King said. He performed with Bobby Bland, Johnny Ace and Earl Forest in a group known as the Beale Streeters. According to King and Joe Bihari, Ike Turner introduced King to the Bihari brothers while he was a talent scout at Modern Records. In 1949, King began recording songs under contract with Los Angeles-based RPM Records, a subsidiary of Modern. Many of King's early recordings were produced by Sam Phillips, who later founded Sun Records. Before his RPM contract, King had debuted on Bullet Records by issuing the single, "Miss Martha King" (1949), which did not chart well. "My very first recordings [in 1949] were[sic] for a company out of Nashville called Bullet, the Bullet Record Transcription company," King recalled. "I had horns that very first session. I had Phineas Newborn on piano; his father played drums, and his brother, Calvin, played guitar with me. I had Tuff Green on bass, Ben Branch on tenor sax, his brother, Thomas, on trumpet, and a lady trombone player. The Newborn family were the house band at the famous Plantation Inn in West Memphis." King assembled his own band; the B.B. King Review, under the leadership of Millard Lee. The band initially consisted of Calvin Owens and Kenneth Sands (trumpet), Lawrence Burdin (alto saxophone), George Coleman (tenor saxophone), Floyd Newman (baritone saxophone), Millard Lee (piano), George Joyner (bass) and Earl Forest and Ted Curry (drums). Onzie Horne was a trained musician enlisted as an arranger to assist King with his compositions. By his own admission, King could not play chords well and always relied on improvisation. King's recording contract was followed by tours across the United States, with performances in major theatres in cities such as Washington, D.C., Chicago, Los Angeles, Detroit, and St. Louis, as well as numerous gigs in small clubs and juke joints of the southern United States. During one show in Twist, Arkansas, a brawl broke out between two men and caused a fire. He evacuated along with the rest of the crowd but went back to retrieve his guitar. He said he later found out that the two men were fighting over a woman named Lucille. He named the guitar Lucille, as a reminder not to fight over women or run into any more burning buildings. Following his first Billboard Rhythm and Blues charted number one, "3 O'Clock Blues" (February 1952), B.B. King became one of the most important names in R&B music in the 1950s, amassing an impressive list of hits including "You Know I Love You", "Woke Up This Morning", "Please Love Me", "When My Heart Beats like a Hammer", "Whole Lotta Love", "You Upset Me Baby", "Every Day I Have the Blues", "Sneakin' Around", "Ten Long Years", "Bad Luck", "Sweet Little Angel", "On My Word of Honor", and "Please Accept My Love". This led to a significant increase in his weekly earnings, from about $85 to $2,500, with appearances at major venues such as the Howard Theater in Washington and the Apollo in New York, as well as touring the "Chitlin' Circuit". 1956 became a record-breaking year, with 342 concerts booked and three recording sessions. That same year he founded his own record label, Blues Boys Kingdom, with headquarters at Beale Street in Memphis. There, among other projects, he was a producer for artists such as Millard Lee and Levi Seabury. In 1962, King signed to ABC-Paramount Records, which was later absorbed into MCA Records (which itself was later absorbed into Geffen Records). In November 1964, King recorded the Live at the Regal album at the Regal Theater. King later said that Regal Live "is considered by some the best recording I've ever had . . . that particular day in Chicago everything came together". From the late 1960s, new manager Sid Seidenberg pushed King into a different type of venue as blues-rock performers like Eric Clapton (once a member of The Yardbirds, as well as Cream), and Paul Butterfield were popularizing an appreciation of blues music among white audiences. King gained further visibility among rock audiences as an opening act on the Rolling Stones' 1969 American Tour. He won a 1970 Grammy Award for his version of the song "The Thrill Is Gone;" which was a hit on both the Pop and R&B charts. It also gained the number 183 spot in Rolling Stone magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. King was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987, and the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in 2014. In 2004, he was awarded the international Polar Music Prize, given to artists "in recognition of exceptional achievements in the creation and advancement of music." From the 1980s to his death in 2015, he maintained a highly visible and active career, appearing on numerous television shows and sometimes performing 300 nights a year. In 1988, King reached a new generation of fans with the single "When Love Comes to Town," a collaborative effort between King and the Irish band U2 on their Rattle and Hum album. In December 1997, he performed in the Vatican's fifth annual Christmas concert and presented his trademark guitar "Lucille" to Pope John Paul II. In 1998, he appeared in The Blues Brothers 2000, playing the part of the lead singer of the Louisiana Gator Boys, along with Eric Clapton, Dr. John, Koko Taylor and Bo Diddley. In 2000, he and Clapton teamed up again to record Riding With the King, which won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Blues Album. Discussing where he took the Blues, from "dirt floor, smoke in the air" joints to grand concert halls, King said the Blues belonged everywhere beautiful music belonged. He successfully worked both sides of the commercial divide, with sophisticated recordings and "raw, raucous" live performance. 2006–2014: Farewell tour and later activities In 2006, King went on a "farewell" world tour, although he remained active afterward. The tour was partly supported by Northern Irish guitarist, Gary Moore, with whom King had previously toured and recorded. It started in the United Kingdom, and continued with performances at the Montreux Jazz Festival and in Zürich at the Blues at Sunset. During his show in Montreux at the Stravinski Hall, he jammed with Joe Sample, Randy Crawford, David Sanborn, Gladys Knight, Leela James, Andre Beeka, Earl Thomas, Stanley Clarke, John McLaughlin, Barbara Hendricks and George Duke. In June 2006, King was present at a memorial of his first radio broadcast at the Three Deuces Building in Greenwood, Mississippi, where an official marker of the Mississippi Blues Trail was erected. The same month, a groundbreaking was held for a new museum, dedicated to King, in Indianola, Mississippi. The B.B. King Museum and Delta Interpretive Center opened on September 13, 2008. In late October 2006, King recorded a concert album and video entitled B.B. King: Live at his B.B. King Blues Clubs in Nashville and Memphis. The video of the four-night production featured his regular B.B. King Blues Band and captured his show as he performed it nightly around the world. Released in 2008, they documented his first live performances in over a decade. In 2007, King played at Eric Clapton's second Crossroads Guitar Festival and contributed the songs "Goin' Home", to Goin' Home: A Tribute to Fats Domino (with Ivan Neville's DumpstaPhunk) and "One Shoe Blues" to Sandra Boynton's children's album Blue Moo, accompanied by a pair of sock puppets in a music video for the song. In the summer of 2008, King played at the Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival in Manchester, Tennessee, where he was given a key to the city. Also in 2008, he was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame. King performed at the Mawazine festival in Rabat, Morocco, on May 27, 2010. In June 2010, King performed at the Crossroads Guitar Festival with Robert Cray, Jimmie Vaughan, and Eric Clapton. He also contributed to Cyndi Lauper's album Memphis Blues, which was released on June 22, 2010. In 2011, King played at the Glastonbury Music Festival, and in the Royal Albert Hall in London, where he recorded a concert video. Rolling Stone ranked King at No. 6 on its 2011 list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time. On February 21, 2012, King was among the performers of "In Performance at the White House: Red, White and Blues," during which President Barack Obama sang part of "Sweet Home Chicago". King recorded for the debut album of rapper and producer Big K.R.I.T., who also hails from Mississippi. On July 5, 2012, King performed a concert at the Byblos International Festival in Lebanon. On May 26, 2013, King appeared at the New Orleans Jazz Festival. On October 3, 2014, after completing his live performance at the House of Blues in Chicago, a doctor diagnosed King with dehydration and exhaustion, and the eight remaining shows of his ongoing tour had to be cancelled. King did not reschedule the shows, and the House of Blues show would prove to be the last before his death in 2015. Equipment B.B. King used equipment characteristic of the different periods he played in. He played guitars made by various manufacturers early in his career. He played a Fender Esquire on most of his recordings with RPM Records. However, he was best known for playing variants of the Gibson ES-355. In the September edition 1995 of Vintage Guitar magazine, early photos show him playing a Gibson ES-5 through a Fender tweed amp. In reference to the photo, B.B. King stated, "Yes; the old Fender amplifiers were the best that were ever made, in my opinion. They had a good sound and they were durable; guys would throw them in the truck and they’d hold up. They had tubes, and they’d get real hot, but they just had a sound that is hard to put into words. The Fender Twin was great, but I have an old Lab Series amp that isn’t being made anymore. I fell in love with it, because its sound is right between the old Fender amps that we used to have and the Fender Twin. It’s what I’m using tonight." He later moved on from the larger Gibson hollow-bodied instruments which were prone to feedback when played at high volumes to various semi-hollow models beginning first with the ES-335 and then a deluxe version called the ES-355 which employed a stereo option. In 1980, Gibson Guitar Corporation launched the B.B. King Lucille model, a ES-355 with stereo options, a varitone selector and fine tuners (neither of which were actually utilized by B.B.) and, at King's direct request, no f-holes to further reduce feedback. In 2005, Gibson made a special run of 80 Gibson Lucilles, referred to as the "80th Birthday Lucille", the first prototype of which was given as a birthday gift to King, and which he used thereafter. King used a Lab Series L5 2×12" combo amplifier and used this amplifier for a long time. It was made by Norlin Industries for Gibson in the 1970s and 1980s. Other popular L5 users are Allan Holdsworth and Ty Tabor of King's X. The L5 has an onboard compressor, parametric equalization, and four inputs. King also used a Fender Twin Reverb. He used his signature model strings "Gibson SEG-BBS B.B. King Signature Electric Guitar Strings" with gauges: 10–13–17p–32w–45w–54w and D'Andrea 351 MD SHL CX (medium 0.71mm, tortoiseshell, celluloid) picks. B.B. King's Blues Club In 1991, Beale Street developer John Elkington recruited B.B. King to Memphis to open the original B.B. King's Blues Club, and in 1994, a second club was launched at Universal Citywalk in Los Angeles. A third club in New York City's Times Square opened in June 2000 but closed on April 29, 2018. Management is currently in the process of finding a new location in New York City. Two more clubs opened, at Foxwoods Casino in Connecticut in January 2002, and in Nashville in 2003. Another club opened in Orlando in 2007. A club in West Palm Beach opened in the fall of 2009 and an additional one, based in the Mirage Hotel, Las Vegas, opened in the winter of 2009. Another opened in the New Orleans French Quarter in 2016. Television and other appearances King made guest appearances in numerous popular television shows, including The Cosby Show, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The Young and the Restless, General Hospital, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Sesame Street, Married... with Children, Sanford and Son, and Touched by an Angel. In 2000, the children's show Between the Lions featured a singing character named "B.B. the King of Beasts", modeled on the real King. B.B. King: The Life of Riley, a feature documentary about King narrated by Morgan Freeman and directed by Jon Brewer, was released on October 15, 2012. King's performance at the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival appears in the 2021 music documentary, Summer of Soul. Commercials King, who was diabetic, appeared in several television commercials for OneTouch Ultra, a blood glucose monitoring device, in the 2000s and early 2010s. He appeared in 1995 in a McDonald's commercial with Australian guitarist Nathan Cavaleri, and then in a commercial for the Toyota Camry with his guitar Lucille. Personal life King was married twice, to Martha Lee Denton, November 1946 to 1952, and to Sue Carol Hall, 1958 to 1966. The failure of both marriages has been attributed to the heavy demands made by King's 250 performances a year. It is reported that he fathered 15 children with several different women. After his death, three more have come forward, claiming King as their father as well. Though neither of his marriages produced children, and biographer Charles Sawyer wrote that doctors found his sperm count too low to conceive children, King never disputed paternity of any of the 15 who claimed it, and by all accounts was generous in bankrolling college tuitions and establishing trust funds. In May 2016, the 11 surviving children initiated legal proceedings against King's appointed trustee over his estimated $30 million to $40 million estate. Several of them also went public with the allegation that King's business manager, LaVerne Toney, and his personal assistant, Myron Johnson, had fatally poisoned him. Autopsy results showed no evidence of poisoning. A defamation suit filed by Johnson against the accusing family members (including his own sister, Karen Williams) is pending. Other children have filed lawsuits targeting King's music estate, which remains in dispute. King was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes in 1990. He lived with diabetes for over 20 years, and was a high-profile spokesman in the fight against the disease. King was an FAA certified private pilot and learned to fly in 1963 at what was then Chicago Hammond Airport in Lansing, Illinois. He frequently flew to gigs but in 1995 his insurance company and manager asked him to fly only with another certified pilot. As a result, he stopped flying around the age of 70. King's favorite singer was Frank Sinatra. In his autobiography, he spoke about how he was a "Sinatra nut" and how he went to bed every night listening to Sinatra's classic album In the Wee Small Hours. During the 1960s Sinatra had arranged for King to play at the main clubs in Las Vegas. He credited Sinatra for opening doors to black entertainers who were not given the chance to play in "white-dominated" venues. Philanthropy and notable campaigns In September 1970, King recorded Live in Cook County Jail, during a time in which issues of race and class in the prison system were prominent in politics. King also co-founded the Foundation for the Advancement of Inmate Rehabilitation and Recreation, tying in his support for prisoners and interest in prison reform. In addition to prison reform, King also wanted to utilize prison performances as a way to preserve music and songs in a similar way that Alan Lomax did. In 2002, King signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a nonprofit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underprivileged public schools throughout the United States. He sat on the organization's Honorary Board of Directors. In the 2000s to early 2010s, King was also involved in a diabetes awareness campaign with American Idol contestant, Crystal Bowersox, with One Touch Ultra, starring in commercials promoting diabetes health management. Death and funeral The last eight shows of his 2014 tour were cancelled because of health problems caused by complications from high blood pressure and diabetes. King died in his sleep on May 14, 2015, at the age of 89, from vascular dementia caused by a series of small strokes as a consequence of his type 2 diabetes. Two of his daughters alleged that King was deliberately poisoned by two associates trying to induce diabetic shock, however an autopsy showed no evidence of poisoning. On May 27, 2015, King's body was flown to Memphis. A funeral procession went down Beale Street, with a brass band marching in front of the hearse, playing "When the Saints Go Marching In." Thousands lined the streets to pay their last respects. His body was then driven down Route 61 to his hometown of Indianola, Mississippi. He was laid in repose at the B.B. King Museum and Delta Interpretive Center, in Indianola, for people to view his open casket. The funeral took place at the Bell Grove Missionary Baptist Church in Indianola, on May 30. He was buried at the B.B. King Museum. Discography Studio albums Singin' the Blues (1957) The Blues (1958) B.B. King Wails (1959) King of the Blues (1960) Sings Spirituals (1960) The Great B.B. King (1960) My Kind of Blues (1961) Blues For Me (1961) Blues in My Heart (1962) Easy Listening Blues (1962) B.B. King (1963) Mr. Blues (1963) Confessin' the Blues (1966) Blues on Top of Blues (1968) Lucille (1968) Live & Well (1969) Completely Well (1969) Indianola Mississippi Seeds (1970) B.B. King in London (1971) L.A. Midnight (1972) Guess Who (1972) To Know You Is to Love You (1973) Lucille Talks Back (1975) King Size (1977) Midnight Believer (1978) Take It Home (1979) There Must Be a Better World Somewhere (1981) Love Me Tender (1982) Blues 'N' Jazz (1983) Six Silver Strings (1985) King of the Blues: 1989 (1988) There Is Always One More Time (1991) Blues Summit (1993) Lucille & Friends (1995) Deuces Wild (1997) Blues on the Bayou (1998) Let the Good Times Roll (1999) Makin' Love Is Good for You (2000) Riding with the King (2000, with Eric Clapton) A Christmas Celebration of Hope (2001) Reflections (2003) B.B. King & Friends: 80 (2005) One Kind Favor (2008) Accolades Awards and nominations Years reflect the year in which the Grammy was awarded, for music released in the previous year. Other awards Other honors 1973: Honorary Doctorate of Humanities from Tougaloo College 1977: Honorary Doctor of Music by Yale University 1980: Inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame 1985: Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music 1987: Inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame 1987: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award 1990: The National Medal of Arts 1991: The National Heritage Fellowship from the NEA 1995: The Kennedy Center Honors; given to recognize "the lifelong accomplishments and extraordinary talents of our nation's most prestigious artists" 1998: Grammy Hall of Fame Award for "The Thrill is Gone"; the award is given to recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance" 2000: The Library of Congress awarded him the Living Legend Medal for his lifetime of contributions to America's diverse cultural heritage 2004: The Royal Swedish Academy of Music awarded him the Polar Music Prize for his "significant contributions to the blues" 2004: The Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement 2006: The Presidential Medal of Freedom awarded by President George W. Bush on December 15 2007: An honorary doctorate in music by Brown University (May 27) 2008: The keys to the city of Portland, Maine (May 14) 2008: A Mississippi Blues Trail marker was added for King, commemorating his birthplace 2009: Time named King No. 3 on its list of the 10 best electric guitarists 2018: King was awarded the MMP Music Award and inducted into the MMP Hall of Fame by the Mississippi Music Project. 2019: A Google Doodle celebrated what would have been King's 94th birthday. Each year during the first week in June, a King Homecoming Festival is held in Indianola, Mississippi See also African Americans in Mississippi B.B. King's Bluesville Honorific nicknames in popular music List of nicknames of blues musicians References External links B.B. King interview on Guitar.com "Blues Legend B.B. King" episode from In Black America series, distributed by the American Archive of Public Broadcasting 1925 births 2015 deaths 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century African-American male singers 21st-century African-American male singers African-American Christians African-American guitarists African-American rock musicians African-American male singer-songwriters American blues guitarists American blues singer-songwriters American gospel musicians American male guitarists American Protestants American rhythm and blues musicians American rock singers American soul singers American street performers Blues musicians from Mississippi Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Crown Records artists Custom Records artists Deaths from dementia Deaths from diabetes Neurological disease deaths in Nevada Electric blues musicians Federal Records artists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Geffen Records artists Gospel blues musicians Grammy Award winners Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Guitarists from Mississippi Guitarists from Tennessee Jammy Award winners Kennedy Center honorees Kent Records artists Lead guitarists MCA Records artists Memphis blues musicians Mississippi Blues Trail Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee National Heritage Fellowship winners People from Indianola, Mississippi People from Kilmichael, Mississippi People from Leflore County, Mississippi Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients RPM Records (United States) artists Singer-songwriters from Mississippi Soul-blues musicians Sun Records artists United States National Medal of Arts recipients Virgin Records artists Singer-songwriters from Tennessee

A Most Unusual Camera

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"A Most Unusual Camera" is episode 46 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. It originally aired on December 16, 1960 on CBS. Opening narration Plot Two thieves, husband and wife Chester and Paula Diedrich, have just robbed an antique shop and returned to the hotel suite they are using as a hideout. He dismisses most of the items they have stolen as junk, but finds a strange old box camera among them. When he takes a picture of Paula, it generates a self-developing photo of her wearing a fur coat. After she finds one inside a stolen chest and puts it on, the pair realize that the camera's pictures show the immediate future of its subjects. Its next picture accurately predicts the arrival of Paula's brother Woodward, who had just escaped from prison. A televised horse race gives Chester the idea to take a picture of the blank winners' board at the local track before each of the day's races are run, then place bets based on the pictures' results. After winning thousands of dollars, they celebrate in their suite, where a waiter named Pierre takes notice of their camera and translates its French inscription "dix à la propriétaire" as "ten to an owner". Once Chester ushers Pierre out, he determines that the trio have taken a total of eight pictures. As they struggle over the camera, arguing about how to use the final two, they accidentally take a picture that shows a terrified Paula. Chester and Woodward continue their fight, but fall out an open window to their deaths. Paula reacts as in the picture, but calms down once she realizes that she can now keep all the money for herself. She snaps the tenth and final picture of the two bodies and prepares to leave, only to be interrupted by Pierre. Having learned of her status as a wanted criminal, he robs her and threatens to turn her in to the police if she calls them for help. Glancing at the picture, he remarks that it shows more than two bodies in the courtyard below. Paula rushes to the window to check, but trips on an electrical cord and falls out of it to her demise. Pierre counts the corpses in the picture, but notices that there are four instead of three. Shocked, he drops the camera and falls out the window as well. Closing narration See also List of The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series) episodes The Goosebumps children's novels, Say Cheese and Die and Say Cheese and Die–Again The Goosebumps HorrorLand novella Say Cheese–and Die Screaming "Killer Camera", a short story from Anthony Horowitz's Horowitz Horror "Treehouse of Horror XV's" "The Ned Zone" The film Time Lapse References DeVoe, Bill. (2008). Trivia from The Twilight Zone. Albany, GA: Bear Manor Media. Grams, Martin. (2008). The Twilight Zone: Unlocking the Door to a Television Classic. Churchville, MD: OTR Publishing. External links 1960 American television episodes The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series season 2) episodes Television episodes written by Rod Serling

University of Central Florida

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The University of Central Florida (UCF) is a public research university with its main campus located in unincorporated Orange County, Florida, northeast of the city of Orlando and south of Oviedo. UCF also has nine smaller regional campuses throughout central Florida. It is part of the State University System of Florida. With 70,406 students as of the Fall 2021 semester, it currently has the second-largest student body of any public university in the United States. UCF was founded in 1963 and opened in 1968 as Florida Technological University, with the mission of providing personnel to support the growing U.S. space program at the Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station on Florida's Space Coast. As the school's academic scope expanded beyond engineering and technology, Florida Tech was renamed the University of Central Florida in 1978. UCF's space roots continue, as it leads the NASA Florida Space Grant Consortium. Initial enrollment was 1,948 students; enrollment in 2022 exceeds 70,000 students from 157 countries, all 50 states and Washington, D.C. Most students attend classes held on the university's main campus, east of downtown Orlando and west of Cape Canaveral. The university offers more than 230 degrees through 13 colleges at 10 regional campuses in Central Florida, including the Health Sciences Campus at Lake Nona Medical City, the Rosen College of Hospitality Management in south Orlando and the UCF Center for Emerging Media in downtown Orlando. Since its founding, UCF has awarded more than 346,000 degrees, including over 60,000 graduate and professional degrees. Its official colors are black and gold, and the university logo is Pegasus, which "symbolizes the university's vision of limitless possibilities." The university's intercollegiate sports teams, known as the "UCF Knights" and represented by mascot Knightro, compete in NCAA Division I and the American Athletic Conference. History Founding Following President John F. Kennedy's September 1962 speech, in which he described his goal of accomplishing a crewed space flight to the moon by the end of the decade, the space program grew in importance and scope in Central Florida because of its proximity to Cape Canaveral. Prominent residents and local leaders began lobbying the Florida State Legislature to increase access to higher education on the Space Coast. With the help of former state senate president William A. Shands and Senator Beth Johnson, on June 10, 1963, the legislature passed and Governor Farris Bryant signed into law Senate Bill No. 125, which authorized the Florida Board of Regents to create a new state university in East Central Florida. The university was founded as a non-segregated and coeducational university, with the mission of educating students for space-age careers in engineering and other technological professions. On January 24, 1964, the Board of Regents purchased of remote forest and pasture land along Alafaya Trail (SR 434) in northeast Orlando for $500,000 as the site of the new university. Local residents donated another , and raised more than $1 million in funds to secure the land acquisition. In December 1965, the Board of Regents appointed Charles Millican the first president of the new university. With the consultation of a citizen advisory group, Millican chose the name Florida Technological University, as well as co-designed the school's distinctive Pegasus seal. Millican is also responsible for the university's slogan, "Reach for the Stars", for the two key principles of the school, "accent on excellence" and "accent on the individual", and for the campus's unique pedestrian-oriented concentric-circle layout, which was based on plans by Walt Disney and has become a model for other universities. Millican and then-Governor Claude Kirk presided over FTU's groundbreaking in March 1967. On October 7, 1968, the inaugural classes were held in the school's first academic building. 1,948 students were enrolled in 55 degree programs within five colleges, led by 90 instructors and aided by 150 staff members, during the university's first year. FTU graduated its first class of 423 seniors on June 14, 1970, with astronaut and Orlando native John Young giving the commencement address. Millican selected the university's official colors, and had a role in selecting its first mascot, the Citronaut, a mix of an orange and an astronaut. The Citronaut proved unpopular, so in 1969 the student newspaper, The Central Florida Future, encouraged mascot suggestions from students and faculty. The search for a replacement proved unsuccessful until 1970, when Judy Hines, a night nurse, proposed Vincent the Vulture. He served as the university's unofficial mascot for more than a year. In late 1971, students voted and selected the Knight of Pegasus as the school's official athletic mascot. The nickname later evolved to the Golden Knights and eventually to the Knights. After retiring as president in 1978, Millican identified his proudest moment leading the school as when President Richard Nixon delivered the university's spring 1973 commencement address. Expansion Entering office in 1978, the university's second president, Trevor Colbourn, recognized the diversification and growth of UCF's academic programs away from its strictly technological and scientific beginnings. As the university developed strong business, education, and liberal arts programs, Colbourn recognized the university's name no longer recognized its mission. From its establishment the university was known as Florida Technological University, nicknamed Florida Tech, until December 1978 when Governor Reubin Askew signed legislation changing the school's name to the University of Central Florida. Colbourn established the university's honors program, and started the university's first satellite branch campus. In addition, he was responsible for constructing the Central Florida Research Park adjacent to the UCF campus, founded in 1978. The park serves as a major focus of simulation for space and defense-related research. It was part of Colbourn's plan to make UCF a world-class partnership university. Among the university's first partners were Lockheed Martin and the United States Navy, and Colbourn led the push to found both the Institute for Simulation and Training and the Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers in 1986. During his tenure, enrollment increased from 11,000 in 1978 to over 18,000 in 1989. Colbourn also supported the university's athletic programs. He was responsible for establishing the school's football program in 1979, which began an era of growth for the university. In April 1979, UCF awarded its 15,000th degree. Hitt presidency In March 1992, John C. Hitt became UCF's fourth president, ushering in an era of unprecedented growth and prominence for the university. Once known mainly as a small commuter and technology school, in recent years UCF has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standing while also evolving into a more traditional research university. When Hitt took office, UCF's enrollment was 20,302. As of 2014, 60,821 students attend classes on 12 campuses spread across Central Florida. The university consists of 13 colleges and employs more than 10,150 faculty and staff. Under Hitt's direction, UCF raised admissions standards, increased research funding, built new facilities, and established notable partnerships with major research institutions. Hitt's efforts resulted in not only an increase in the university's academic profile, but also an on-campus football stadium, new arena, more on-campus housing, and the development of the UCF College of Medicine at Lake Nona. Until 1999, the Knights were represented by a jouster from the Medieval Times dinner show in nearby Kissimmee, Florida. That same year, Knightro was introduced at the staple homecoming event, Spirit Splash. The past decade has seen enrollment increase by over 40%, the acceptance rate for first time in college students falling from over 60% to near 40% in 2008, and the doubling of expected annual expenses. Since 2000, UCF has awarded over 100,000 degrees. It is the largest university in the nation in terms of undergraduate enrollment, the largest university in Florida, and in 2003 was the fastest-growing university in the United States. During its Spring 2010 graduation ceremonies, UCF awarded its 200,000th degree, less than five years after awarding its 150,000th. Colbourn Hall scandal In August 2018, the state university system's Board of Governors and the Florida Legislature opened an investigation into the university for misuse of state funds. On September 13, 2018, UCF admitted to misappropriating money intended for educational and operating expenses to build the new $38 million Trevor Colbourn Hall, leading to the resignation of CFO Bill Merck. In January 2019, UCF severed ties with President Emeritus John Hitt after the investigation proved that UCF had misspent or planned to misspend over $85 million between 2013 and 2018. Newly appointed president Dale Whittaker, who was a provost at UCF during Hitt's tenure, resigned in February 2019 after just seven months in office over allegations that he also knew about the misappropriation of funds. Board of Trustees Chairman Marcos Marchena also resigned that month. In August 2019, the final report into additional UCF construction projects revealed the balance of misdirected funds between July 2010 and August 2018 was $99.6 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The report found that key people in the university leadership of aware of the misdirection of the funds. UCF was fined by the state for 120% the cost of the misused funds. During its brief history, UCF has hosted numerous notable speakers. Among these are U.S. presidents Richard Nixon, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama, then senator and vice president Joe Biden, senators Bill Nelson, Marco Rubio, Mel Martinez, and John Edwards, Florida governors Jeb Bush and Charlie Crist, and First Lady Michelle Obama. Campuses Main campus The University of Central Florida main campus is located along Alafaya Trail on the east side of Orlando, Florida. The campus is designed to be pedestrian-oriented, with a series of concentric circles. The outermost circle is Gemini Blvd, which is also the main road for vehicular traffic on campus. Inside of Gemini, there is Apollo Circle, Mercury Circle, and finally Pegasus Circle as the innermost circle. Pegasus Circle contains the student union, with the John C. Hitt Library located directly to the south of it. All academic buildings are located inside of Gemini, with the circle divided up into pie-shaped sections for each college. As there are very few roads inside of Gemini, many buildings' loading docks are accessible only by sidewalks and thus receive most deliveries at night. The University of Central Florida campus is one of only two in the nation with a concentric circle design, the other being the University of California, Irvine. Newsweek ranked UCF as having the 20th most beautiful university campus in the country in 2011. Student housing is provided along the perimeter of the campus. Outside of Gemini, the campus is divided up into different themed sections. The northwest side of campus includes Greek communities, the north side contains Knights Plaza, an uptown style athletic village, the east side contains the Arboretum of the University of Central Florida, and the south side contains student recreation and wellness facilities. Located directly south of the main campus is Central Florida Research Park, which is the seventh largest research park in the nation and the largest in Florida, housing over 116 corporations. The park provides more than 10,000 jobs to over 500 students and thousands of alumni. Main Campus is one of the safest branches nationally in comparison of all branches in the US. The percent of crimes in Main Campus decreased from 0.12% (in 2010) to 0.07% (in 2014) crimes per year. The most common crimes detected on Main Campus were burglary, motor vehicle theft, and aggravated assault. Regional campuses In addition to its Orlando campus, the University of Central Florida has several other campuses to service the Central Florida region. In Orlando, there is one other campus, located at Valencia West, as well as partnerships with local colleges, including College of Central Florida, Daytona State College, Eastern Florida State College, Lake-Sumter State College, Seminole State College of Florida and Valencia College. In addition, the Rosen College of Hospitality Management is located away from the main campus, in close proximity to the heart of Orlando's tourism and convention industries. Outside Orlando, there are campuses in Cocoa, Clermont, Daytona Beach, Kissimmee, Leesburg, Ocala, Palm Bay, and Sanford. In addition to having standard classes at these campuses, the institution offers a number of fully online degree programs through UCF Online. UCF, in partnership with local colleges, participates in a program called DirectConnect. Through this program all students and alumni of College of Central Florida, Daytona State College, Eastern Florida State College, Lake-Sumter State College, Seminole State College of Florida, and Valencia College are assured admission to the university, though not necessarily to academic programs in the UCF colleges. Health Sciences Campus at Lake Nona The 50-acre (0.20 km2) UCF Health Sciences Campus at Lake Nona includes the UCF College of Medicine and the Burnett Biomedical Sciences Building. The Burnham Institute for Medical Research, a Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nemours Children's Hospital, M.D. Anderson Cancer Research Institute, turning the area into a medical city. The campus will also serve as the future home of the UCF College of Nursing and the newly approved UCF College of Dental Medicine. The College of Medicine welcomed its charter class in August 2009. Upon completion of construction, the campus could accommodate as many as 5,000 upper division, professional, and graduate students and faculty members in the health-related programs, and include up to two million square feet of research and instruction space. Downtown Campus In 2019, a 15-acre campus was opened in downtown Orlando in collaboration with Valencia College. It includes the Dr. Phillips Academic Commons, the Union West, and the UCF Communication and Media Building. Sustainability Due to long-term environmental programs and commitments, UCF was named an exemplary green institution in the 2010 Princeton Review's Guide to 286 Green Colleges, and the university has had its initiatives showcased by the U.S. Department of Energy. UCF has pledged to become climate-neutral under the American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment by 2050 at the latest, and to increase its recycling rate to 75% by 2020, and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 42% by 2030. Committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, all new construction must be designed and certified by the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). The UCF College of Medicine on the Health Sciences Campus is the only LEED Silver medical school in Florida. Administration As a part of the State University System of Florida, UCF falls under the purview of the Florida Board of Governors. The University of Central Florida is headed by the Board of Trustees, which governs the university, consisting of thirteen members that are appointed to staggered five-year terms by the Florida Board of Governors. The Student Government president and the faculty chair also serve on the board during the duration of their one-year term of office. The president of the University of Central Florida is the principal executive officer of the university. The office was formed upon creation of the university in 1963. The president is appointed by the board of trustees with the consent of the Florida Board of Governors and leads the university through its daily business. Today, the president's office is located in Millican Hall on the university's main campus, and the president has the privilege of living in the Burnett House, also located on UCF's main campus. The fourth president of UCF, John C. Hitt, served from 1992 to 2018 and was succeeded by incumbent university president Dale Whittaker. After Whittaker's resignation in 2019, Thad Seymour, Jr. was appointed from his previous position as UCF's vice president for partnerships and chief innovation officer to serve as the university's interim president until a replacement could be chosen by the board of trustees. Due to cutbacks in federal, state and local budgets, UCF has had over $140 million in funds cut from its operating budget since 2008. This included a $53 million cut to UCF's 2012–13 fiscal year budget by the Florida legislature. So far UCF has been able to endure the budget cuts by implementing a hiring freeze, putting an end to some faculty perks, such as free seminars, cutting executive pay, and through wise management of funds. To help counter the budget decreases, the university received $18 million in funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. UCF's operating budget for the 2014–15 fiscal year is $1.5 billion, a 13.9% increase from the previous year. UCF's financial endowment, administered by the University of Central Florida Foundation, Inc., was valued at $162 million in 2020. Academics The University of Central Florida is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools according to the U.S. Department of Education. UCF's academic calendar is based on the semester system, with the typical fall semester running from the end of August until the beginning of December, and the typical spring semester running from the beginning of January through the beginning of May. In addition, UCF offers four different summer semesters, A, B, C, and D, ranging from six weeks to twelve weeks. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching classifies UCF as a "large four-year, primarily nonresidential" university with a "comprehensive doctoral" graduate instructional program and "highest research activity." Student profile UCF's student body consists of 61,456 undergraduates and 10,002 graduate and professional students and 490 M.D. students from all 67 Florida counties, all 50 states and 157 countries. Study abroad programs allow UCF students to study and conduct research in 42 programs in 21 countries. The ten largest undergraduate disciplines at UCF are respectively: business management and administration, health professions and related, psychology, education, engineering, biology, multi/interdisciplinary studies, communications, visual and performing arts, and social sciences. In the new millennium, enrollment has increased by over sixty percent at UCF, from 33,453 in 2000, to 64,318 in 2016. Of the more than 60,000 students, 11 percent are graduate and professional students, while women make up 55% of the student body. Nearly 20 percent of UCF faculty are minorities. According to the May 2009 edition of Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education magazine, UCF is one of the best 100 colleges in the United States for Hispanic students seeking bachelor's degrees. 22% of UCF students are above the age of 25. Due to budget decreases and increased demands on the university, the UCF Board of Trustees, with the approval of the Board of Governors and the Florida Legislature, approved a 15% increase in tuition for the 2012–13 academic year. For the 2020–21 academic year, undergraduate tuition costs were $212.28 per credit hour for in-state students, and $748.89 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Graduate tuition costs were $369.65 per credit hour for in-state students, and $1,194.05 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Tuition for the medical school is $25,490 for both in-state and out-of-state students. Estimated annual cost for undergraduate students is $22,2849 for Florida residents, and $38,949 for non-Florida residents. Expected costs for graduate students are $22,072 for in-state students, and $38,878 for out-of-state students. About 8% of tuition fees are allocated to support the university's athletic programs. Rankings For 2015, U.S. News & World Report ranked UCF as the third-best "up-and-coming" national university. In addition, U.S. News & World Report ranked The University of Central Florida as the 10th most innovative school, 91st among public universities, and 168th overall on the list of Tier I National Universities. Kiplinger rated UCF 42nd among the "Best Values in Public Colleges" in the United States in 2014. The university was also rated as one of "50 Best Value Public Universities" by USA Today and The Princeton Review. UCF is listed among "The Best 376 Colleges: 2012 Edition," and was ranked as a "Best Southeastern College" by The Princeton Review. Many of the University of Central Florida's graduate programs have received top-100 rankings from U.S. News & World Report. In 2013, U.S. News & World Report ranked UCF's engineering, education, speech language pathology, public administration, criminology, healthcare, nursing, physics, physical therapy, space science, social work, speech-language pathology, and computer science programs all within the top 100 in their respective fields. Five UCF programs as among the nation's "Best Graduate Schools." U.S. News & World Report ranked the university's atomic, molecular, and optical physics program 13th nationally, the nonprofit management public affairs program 25th, and the counselor education program now breaking the top 10 at 9th in the nation. In 2012, the UCF College of Engineering and Computer Science was ranked 70th nationally, while the College of Education and Human Performance was ranked 64th, and the Physics program was ranked 102nd in 2010. The Princeton Review ranked the Florida Interactive Entertainment Academy (FIEA) 2nd in graduate video game design in 2012. The 2014 Academic Ranking of World Universities list assessed The University of Central Florida as among the top-300 world universities and the top-109 in the United States, based on overall research output and faculty awards. UCF's engineering and business schools were rated as among the top-150, and the university's social sciences, computer science, and mathematics programs were ranked among the top-200 globally. UCF offers both Army and Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) programs which are rated among the top 15 percent nationally. In 2010, Bloomberg BusinessWeek ranked the UCF College of Business Administration as the number one public business school for return on investment in the nation, and as a Top Undergraduate Business Program. The university has also been recognized by Bill Gates as a leading institution. The University of Central Florida ranks eighth among national universities "least likely to leave graduates in debt," and was also ranked as one of the most economically diverse universities in 2009, 2010, and 2011 by U.S. News & World Report. In 2011, Forbes listed UCF as the 42nd most-affordable university in the nation. The university is also considered a top school in awarding degrees to minority students, ranking 12th nationally for total undergraduate degrees awarded to Hispanic students and 18th for undergraduate degrees awarded to African-American students. Admissions UCF's admission rate for first-time-in-college freshmen has declined from 61% of prospective students admitted in the Fall of 2005, to 42% for Fall 2020. Due to the decrease in the rate of admission, UCF is rated as a "selective" university by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 34% of accepted applicants were in the top ten percent of their graduating class, while 72% of accepted applicants were in the top quarter of their high school class rankings. Freshmen enrolled in Fall 2020 posted average SAT scores of 1320, ACT scores of 28.7 and average high school weighted GPAs of 4.18. UCF is in the top 20 percent of universities in the nation for SAT average and the top 25 percent for GPA average. 71% of undergraduates receive financial aid. 90% of students receive scholarships through the Florida Bright Futures program. Forty percent of incoming freshman received Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, or an equivalent college credit upon entrance, while 30% of the freshman class received merit based scholarships. The retention rate of the 2010 freshman class was 87%. More freshmen and transfer students applied to UCF during 2015 than any other public university in Florida, and UCF also awarded more bachelor's degrees than any other Florida public university that year. UCF is ranked 2nd in Florida, and 34th in the United States, by the number of National Merit Scholars enrolled. 335 National Merit Scholars enrolled at UCF for the Fall 2020 term. Colleges Overview The university currently houses thirteen colleges that offer 101 baccalaureate programs, 88 master's programs, 31 doctoral programs, three specialist programs, and one professional program (Medicine). In addition, 75% of the faculty have doctorate degrees, and 46% currently have tenure at the university. The thirteen colleges house 41 separate degree-granting departments and schools. By enrollment, the three largest undergraduate units are the College of Sciences, the College of Business Administration, and the College of Health and Public Affairs. At the graduate level, the College of Graduate Studies serves as the central administrative unit of graduate education at the university. Graduate students are also students of one of the other twelve colleges at the university. The university is currently seeking the approval of a College of Dental Medicine, which would be housed at the Health Sciences Campus in Lake Nona. The Burnett Honors College The University Honors Program, administered by the Burnett Honors College is designed for 500 accomplished incoming undergraduates annually. Undergraduates enrolled in the Honors College participate in smaller classes with faculty, including individual research programs or assigned research in the area of a sponsoring faculty member. Another program offered by the college is Honors in the Major, which allows juniors and seniors to conduct original research within their major and write an undergraduate honors thesis. The latest Honors College incoming class had an average SAT score of 1373 and a 4.16 grade-point average. Honors students have the option to reside in a specifically designed living-learning community, composed entirely of honors students, in Tower III at Knights Plaza. College of Medicine The UCF College of Medicine was established in 2006 by the Florida Legislature and the Florida Board of Governors to increase opportunities for medical education in Florida. The College of Medicine welcomed its charter class of 41 students on August 3, 2009, and eventually will produce about 120 medical graduates a year. With more than 4,300 applications for 41 available positions, UCF broke the state university record for most applications, and for 2009 it was the most selective medical school in the country. For the class of 2014, there were 3,761 applicants and only 60 were accepted. This initial class had the highest average MCAT score, 32.2, and GPA, 3.8, of any incoming class of medical students in the state. The inaugural class had a median age of 28, with 25% of the class composed of out-of-state students. The charter class completed their first year of courses on the UCF main campus, while the Lake Nona Medical City was completed. Every member of the inaugural class received a full scholarship, including tuition and basic living expenses, for their entire four years at the university, valued at over $160,000. The university aims for the college to become a research-intensive medical school, with the aid of the Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, The UCF Lake Lona Cancer Center, a Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nemours Children's Hospital, Tavistock Group, and a M.D. Anderson Cancer Research Institute, all located on the College of Medicine's Lake Nona campus. Rosen College of Hospitality Management Located near the Orange County Convention Center on Universal Boulevard in Downtown Orlando, the college's campus is designed to imitate a resort-style feel, with various areas of the college named for major donors to the college (e.g. Disney Dining Room, Universal Orlando Library, Darden Auditorium, and the state-of-the-art Anheuser Busch Beer & Wine Lab). The campus includes the Three Pillars Cafe, a student-operated cafe that serves various cuisines and food items. Regular Shuttle service is offered Monday through Thursday to and from the UCF Main Campus. The college features an on-site Campus Life Office and Career Services Office that coordinate on-campus activities and career development events in conjunction with the UCF Student Government Association. In 2005, the university opened two on-campus housing buildings, able to house 400 residents. The college offers a variety of student organizations including associations such as Eta Sigma Delta (International Hospitality Management Honor Society), National Society of Minorities in Hospitality, the Professional Convention Management Association, and the National Association of Catering Executives, and the Global Association of Christian Hospitality Professionals. Rosen is currently ranked as the #5 Hospitality Management school in the nation (and the youngest of the top five programs so rated). Limited access programs Among the colleges, a number of undergraduate academic programs are termed "limited access programs." Limited access programs are programs where student demand exceeds available resources thus making admission to such program competitive. Examples of limited access programs include academic programs taught under the Nicholson School of Communication and the music, theatre, dance, and medical laboratory sciences schools or departments. Students must apply to join these programs separately from admission to the university. Criteria for admission varies but is generally very selective and includes factors such as indicators of ability, performance, creativity, and talent. Arts programs require competitive auditions and have some of the smallest numbers of undergraduate majors in the university. Libraries The stated goal of the University of Central Florida libraries is to "support the research, teaching, learning and service commitments of students and faculty through widely-available access to collections of library resources, and to services to assist resource use." UCF Libraries collections include over 2.2 million print volumes, 3.2 million microforms, 330,000 government documents, 10,000 full text electronic journal subscriptions, 660,000 e-books, 40,000 media titles, a base of 43,000 serial subscriptions, in addition to special collections and university archives materials. Notable collections within the library include the Bryant West Indies collection, the Van Sickle Leftist Pamphlet collection, the Book Arts Collection, collections of materials on tourism and hospitality, and materials on the history of Central Florida. UCF Libraries is a partner within the State University System of Florida Libraries. Most of the print and media collection is housed in the John C. Hitt Library, which is located on UCF's main campus and is open to students, faculty and the public seven days a week. The library is five stories tall, and was the first academic building on campus. Leonardo Nierman's sculpture Flame of Hope is displayed outside the entrance to the building, and Nierman's stained glass Genesis window is exhibited on the third floor of the library building. In 2012, the main campus library was dedicated to honor John C. Hitt, UCF's fourth president, who at the time was celebrating his twentieth anniversary as university president. In addition to the John C. Hitt Library, Rosen College library, Downtown Library, Curriculum Materials Center, and the Harriet F. Ginsburg Health Sciences Library, UCF operates libraries at nine of its regional campuses throughout Central Florida. The student newspaper, the Central Florida Future, at one time was housed on the upper floor of the library before moving to the Central Florida Research Park. In 1984, a complete renovation of the original library was undertaken, as well as an addition that more than doubled the size of the building. University president Trevor Colbourn dedicated the newly remodeled and expanded library in February 1985. A $64.4 million expansion of the Hitt Library, which would add of space, as well as an Automated Retrieval System was recently approved by the university's Board of Trustees but may be delayed due to budget cuts. Research The University of Central Florida fosters research among its thirteen academic colleges and schools, partnerships with corporations such as Lockheed Martin, Boeing, and Siemens, and through partnerships with local community colleges. UCF also houses a satellite campus at the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. UCF is also a member of the Florida High Tech Corridor Council. The university has made noted research contributions to optics, modeling and simulation, digital media, engineering and computer science, business administration, education, and hospitality management. UCF is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". According to the National Science Foundation, UCF spent $215.3 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 107th in the nation. In 2009, UCF directly influenced 26,000 jobs and $1.96 billion in economic activity. When UCF's economic impact is combined with that of the Central Florida Research Park, the university and park influenced 46,000 jobs and $3.84 billion in economic activity in 2009. The new College of Medicine, which opened in August 2009, will create more than 30,000 local jobs and have an economic impact of $7.6 billion in its first few years. Metropolitan Orlando sustains the world's largest recognized cluster of modeling, simulation and training companies. Located directly south of the main campus is the Central Florida Research Park, which is one of the largest research parks in the nation, providing more than 10,000 jobs. Research Park is the 7th largest research park in the nation, with 2,700 Department of Defense personnel and direct support contractors. Collectively, those defense organizations manage $5.2 billion in contracts every year. Many of the employees in Research Park work with UCF researchers and students on projects in the sciences, engineering, photonics and optics, modeling and simulation, and health-related fields. The university also conducts research through numerous institutions and centers, including the Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers, Florida Solar Energy Center, Institute for Simulation and Training and Institute for Economic Competitiveness. Student life UCF has over 400 registered student organizations, intramural sports, and an active Student Government Association. The university encourages student activism through organizations such as the Office of Student Involvement, the Multicultural Student Center, the Campus Activities Board, Volunteer UCF and Learning and Interacting with New Knights (LINK), an organization that fosters freshman involvement. In 2011, UCF was ranked as the 9th best party school in the country by Playboy. In 2006, High Times magazine ranked UCF among the top five counterculture colleges in the nation. Traditions Spirit Splash is a homecoming tradition at UCF, and is traditionally the only time during the year that students are allowed into the Reflecting Pond. It has been named the best college tradition in Florida by Florida Leader magazine, and among "The 20 Best College Traditions" by Business Insider. Spirit Splash occurs the Friday before the Homecoming game, and serves as a pep rally where students descend into the pond to demonstrate school spirit. Spirit Splash began in 1995 when then-Student Body President Miguel Torregrossa was pushed into the Reflecting Pond by one of his cabinet members and fellow students followed suit. Along with the thousands of students who attend, there are members of the community, local dignitaries, alumni, children and even dogs who come to join in on the festivities. Knightro, the Marching Knights, cheerleaders, student athletes, and dancers all participate in the pep rally, usually followed by a concert. Spirit Splash was made possible in part by weight testing performed on the Reflecting Pond in preparation for President Richard Nixon's visit to the university to speak at its 1973 commencement. It was determined that the best way to protect the president would be to hold commencement in the pond itself, after being drained, so that Secret Service agents could be stationed on the roofs of the adjacent buildings. One of the newest traditions on the UCF campus pertains to the Pegasus seal in the center of the main floor of the Student Union. From their first day on campus for orientation, new students are told to never walk on the Pegasus. As the tradition is told, those who step on the seal will never graduate from UCF. Usually the seal is roped off with heavy black velvet ropes, but when the ropes are not in place, students can be seen carefully avoiding the seal. In 2005, Florida Leader magazine named this new tradition the best college superstition in Florida. Recreation Many different recreational organizations and facilities are available on the UCF campus. Lake Claire is an on-campus lake with canoes, kayaks, and pedal boats available for rent (free to UCF students), and a small beachfront. In addition, UCF's Challenge Course is one of only five in the country to contain a high elements course. UCF's main campus also boasts two Recreation and Wellness Centers. The main center is located on the south side of campus, adjacent to the Academic Village. The second gym is located in Knights Plaza on the north side of campus. The Centers are open to all students, and paid memberships are available for non-students. The Wellness Centers offer programs to boost students' understanding of their health, provides discounted blood and STD testing, staffs certified personal trainers, and teaches methods to maintain good health. The main UCF Recreation and Wellness Center, which opened in 2002, is a building that comprises five programs: Intramural Sports, Sport Clubs, Outdoor Adventure, Fitness, and Aquatics. The main recreation center includes a custom climbing wall with more than 20 different routes, as well as, tennis courts, sand volleyball courts, a disc golf course, numerous intramural sports fields, a leisure pool, and an outdoor lap pool. The Recreation and Wellness Center at Knights Plaza, which opened in 2013, is a facility. It houses a cardio workout area, a circuit area, and a mind and body studio designed for group exercise. Student government The University of Central Florida's Student Government Association (SGA) is an advocacy group for the students who attend the university, representing the university's nearly 60,000 undergraduate, graduate, and professional students. It is the largest Student Government within the state of Florida and one of the largest in the United States. It also often places in the top ten SGAs nationally for the services and outreach it provides for the students it serves. The SGA operates within a multimillion-dollar budget. It funds and operates three campus facilities—the main Recreation and Wellness Center, the Recreation and Wellness Center at Knights Plaza, and the Student Union—while also providing upwards of $1.5 million in funding to nearly 600 registered student organizations. The SGA was officially established in 1976 and consists of an executive, judicial, and legislative branch. The executive branch is headed by the student body president and student body vice president. Within the executive branch are between 30 and 40 appointed and paid cabinet members that oversee everything from reviewing university policies to tracking state legislation. The student body president, by mandate of Florida law, serves on the university's board of trustees for a period of one year. The student body president and student body vice president are elected in annual elections held in the spring and both receive a paid salary that ranges from $18,000 to $21,000 per year. The legislative branch is composed of 59 senators elected each fall, and senators serve a one-year term in which they represent students in their respective colleges. Student senators annually elect a Speaker of the Senate, who receives an annual salary between $17,000 and $20,000 per year, and a Senate President Pro Tempore. Under state law, the Student Senate allocates the university's activity and service fee budget, which was $17.4 million in fiscal year 2014. The judicial branch consists of a paid Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices who preside over student conduct hearings and parking appeals. Media KnightNews.com is the only digital student newspaper serving the UCF community, and it operates without oversight from the university administration. KnightNews.com won the College Press Freedom Award in 2016 for its work fighting for open government. A print newspaper, the Central Florida Future, was shutdown in August 2016. The Future, which also ran without university oversight, was one of the largest student-run newspapers in the United States. It focused on campus and local news coverage, but also featured national and international stories. The university itself publishes two magazines, Centric and Pegasus. Centric is the official student magazine of the university, and Pegasus is the official university magazine. The university has operated WUCF-FM, a NPR station, since 1978. The station broadcasts Jazz that reaches Orange, Seminole, Osceola, Brevard, Lake and Volusia counties in central Florida. They broadcast an Internet program that is heard worldwide. In 2011, the university purchased WUCF-TV, which is Central Florida's only Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) television station. As the region's sole PBS affiliate, the station broadcasts to an estimated population of 4.6 million people in its aerial viewing area. One limited access program at UCF is the Jazz Studies program, which launched a professional recording label for the university, Flying Horse Records. The program's faculty group, The Jazz Professors, and their student group, The Flying Horse Big Band, have both issued professional recordings since 2011 for the university label and all of which have charted in the top 50. The faculty group album "Do That Again" charted in the top 10. Residential life The university currently houses 11,000 beds on-campus in eight different housing communities. Residence hall style suites are available in the Libra, Apollo, Hercules, Nike, and Neptune communities. All of the residence hall suites have bathrooms shared between 2 or 3 rooms as opposed to communal bathrooms. Apartment-style housing is available in the Academic Village (Nike and Hercules) communities, the Towers at Knights Plaza, the Lake Claire Courtyard Apartments Community, and NorthView. UCF also has 400 beds at the Rosen College Apartments Community, located on the Rosen College of Hospitality Management campus. The majority of all on campus housing is occupied by freshman, though The Towers at Knights Plaza house mainly upper-classmen, student athletes, and honors students. Residents of the Towers Communities and Rosen College Apartments sign annual contracts to rent their apartments for a full academic year (fall, spring, and summer), whereas residents of all other standard housing communities on the main campus sign academic contracts to rent their rooms only for one or two semesters at a time. Housing on the main campus typically fills to capacity well before the start of the Fall semester, and cannot accommodate everyone who applies. In addition, about 3,750 beds are available at the university-affiliated housing communities of Knights Circle and The Pointe at Central, which are off-campus apartment communities owned by The University of Central Florida Foundation, Inc. and managed by Asset Campus Housing. These communities contain many UCF services such as Resident Assistants, UCF Police service, reduced rent and offer shuttle service to and from campus on class days. The university also administers NorthView, which is owned and operated by UCF and located directly north of the main campus in Oviedo. NorthView houses 600 students, and includes a Hillel Jewish Student Center, a Catholic Student Center, and a common space for other faith based organizations to use. Greek housing is also available on the main campus in the Greek Park community, which consists of close to 500 beds. There are ten sororities and three fraternities housed on campus, with eleven fraternities offering housing off campus. Greek life The Office of Fraternity and Sorority Life at The University of Central Florida is separated into five divisions: UCF Greek Council, Interfraternity Council, National Pan-Hellenic Council, Panhellenic Council, and the Diversified Greek Council. The Order of Omega has a chapter at the university. The Interfraternity Council (IFC) comprises 18 fraternities, and the Panhellenic Council is made up of 12 sororities. In addition there are also many multicultural and honor Greek organizations. The Diversified Greek Council consists of 9 cultural organizations, four fraternities and five sororities. The National Pan-Hellenic Council comprises nine historically black organizations, five fraternities and four sororities. There are now also three recognized fraternal organizations for Christian students. Greek life at the University of Central Florida involves more than 3,000 students in over 45 chapters. Approximately 11% of current undergraduate males and 9% of undergraduate females are members of either a sorority or fraternity. The average GPA of Greek Life is higher than the overall university average. UCF's Greek Life won the inaugural Mid-American Conference Grade Point Average Award, which is given to the university with the highest Greek GPA above their campus' non-Greek GPA. In 2003, Florida Leader Magazine named UCF the university with the best Greek academics program in the state. Mr. & Miss UCF Since 1984 the Mr. & Miss University of Central Florida Scholarship Program has been providing scholarships and opportunities to UCF students. The program is open to all service-fee paying students at UCF who have at least a 2.5 UCF GPA. Auditions are held each year in September shortly after the fall semester begins and new titleholders are chosen in February. Mr. & Miss UCF make appearances all over Orlando and the Central Florida area, promoting their individual platforms as well as spreading school spirit and pride. Athletics The University of Central Florida features a large variety of intercollegiate athletics teams, known as the "UCF Knights", which compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and the American Athletic Conference (The American). UCF fields 15 varsity teams, 6 men, and 9 women. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, football, golf, soccer, and tennis. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, rowing, soccer, softball, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. The Knights varsity teams have won numerous conference titles, and two national titles. UCF, as members of Conference USA (C-USA) between 2005 and 2013, were conference champions in football in 2007 and 2010, and women's basketball in 2009 and 2010. The women's volleyball team won the AIAW Small College Division national championship in 1978, and the men's basketball team reached the Division II Elite Eight the same year. The Knights only other national championship was in 2017, when they were named national champions in football by the Colley Matrix. While they did not play in that season's College Football Playoff, they finished the 2017 season unbeaten. The Colley Matrix was the only NCAA recognized selectors to name UCF the national champions. The UCF cheerleading team, which is a club sport, has also captured national titles. They have won three at the College Cheerleading and Dance Team Nationals, in 2003, 2007 and 2020. As the reigning national champions, the cheerleading team was followed by WE tv's cheerleading show, Cheerleader U in 2008. The UCF varsity athletic program began during the 1969–70 academic year. Then known as the "Florida Technological University Knights of Pegasus", the university was a charter member of the Sunshine State Conference in 1975. Since the 1970s, the UCF athletic programs have become a major competitor in college athletics. Their development culminated in the mid-2000s, when the Knights joined C-USA in 2005 and debuted a new athletic village in 2007. Advertised as "Bringing the Knights home", the newly developed athletic village on the north end of campus known as Knights Plaza, consisted of a new 10,000-seat indoor sports venue now known as Addition Financial Arena, a new 44,000-seat football stadium known as Bounce House, a new softball complex, and the only Division I indoor football practice facility in the state. The debut of the athletic village made UCF the first university to ever open a new stadium and arena during the same year. The athletic complex surrounding Knights Plaza also includes Jay Bergman Field, the UCF Soccer and Track Stadium and numerous practice facilities. To coincide with the opening of the athletic village, the university also debuted new athletic logos and an update to mascot Knightro. The Knights football program began in 1979. UCF competed in the playoffs three times before ascending to the FBS level in 1996. The Knights have won two conference championships and four division titles. In UCF's first year in C-USA, the team experienced the fourth-best turnaround in NCAA history by winning the conference's eastern division and earning its first bowl berth in the 4th Annual Hawai'i Bowl. Celebrating their inaugural year in their new on-campus stadium, the 2007 UCF Football team won the C-USA Championship for the first time in the school's history and the eastern division for the second time in three seasons, securing a berth to the school's second bowl game, the 49th Annual AutoZone Liberty Bowl. During the 2010 season, for the first time in school history, the Knights garnered national rankings, finishing the season with a top–20 ranking. The Knights won the 2010 C-USA Championship game, securing a berth to the AutoZone Liberty Bowl in which the team earned their first-ever bowl victory, a 10–6 win over Georgia. In 2013, the Knights joined the American Athletic Conference (AAC) as a full member, won the conference's inaugural football championship, and upset the sixth-ranked Big 12 Conference champion Baylor Bears in the 2014 Fiesta Bowl. In 2017, the Knights finished with the only undefeated season in the FBS after a third AAC Championship win and a victory over the eighth-ranked Auburn Tigers in the 2018 Peach Bowl. The UCF men's basketball team started in 1969 under head coach Torchy Clark. The Knights have advanced to the NCAA tournament ten times, including a trip to the Final Four in 1978. The program has won seven conference regular-season championships and five conference tournament titles. The 2008–09 UCF men's team featured senior Jermaine Taylor, who was one of the nation's top scorers averaging over 20 points per game. Following a 10–0 start to the 2010–11 season, and being one of nine unbeaten teams, the Knights led by coach Donnie Jones and guard Marcus Jordan were nationally ranked for the first time in program history. In the 2016-17 season, newly hired head coach Johnny Dawkins took the Knights to a semi-final berth in the NIT for the first time in school history. UCF was a layup away from advancing to the Sweet Sixteen and beating Duke, the consensus number-one seed, in the 2019 NCAA tournament, as Coach Dawkins, with his son on the team, faced off against his own previous coach, Mike Krzyzewski. Notable alumni Graduates include a prime minister, a Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, a United States assistant secretary of state, a Deputy assistant secretary at the Department of the Treasury, a Director of the National Reconnaissance Office, and a Director of the Secret Service; in addition many members of the Florida Cabinet, Florida House of Representatives and Florida Senate, two National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts, along with various NASA leadership positions. Many officers in the armed forces have came through the Army and Air Force ROTC programs, Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard Officer Candidate School, Air Force Officer Training School, Naval Aviation Officer Candidate School and Marine Corps Platoon Leaders Class. UCF graduates have held leadership positions in the United States Congress, United States Department of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers, and the Environmental Protection Agency. Alumni have also achieved success as executives for many Fortune 500 companies, including Google, Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Busch Entertainment Corporation, Harris Corporation, Darden Restaurants, Ericsson, the Orlando Magic and Texas Rangers, Sun Sports and Fox Sports Florida, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, and Yahoo!. UCF graduates have also made notable contributions in the entertainment industry, including Cheryl Hines, widely known for her role as Cheryl David on the HBO television series Curb Your Enthusiasm; Daniel Tosh, host of Tosh.0 on Comedy Central; and Chris Fuller, the independent filmmaker behind Loren Cass. In addition, The Blair Witch Project, which is considered one of the most successful independent films produced, was filmed and directed by UCF alumni Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez. As a major competitor in college athletics, UCF has had notable student athletes, coaches, and staff members including NFL players Blake Bortles, A. J. Bouye, Daunte Culpepper, Shaquill Griffin, Shaquem Griffin, Brandon Marshall, Latavius Murray, Matt Prater, Asante Samuel and Kevin Smith; NBA players Jermaine Taylor, and Tacko Fall; wrestler Parker Boudreaux; woman's soccer player and Olympic gold medalist, FIFA Female Player of the Century Michelle Akers. As of 2019, more than 70 UCF alumni compete in professional sports like basketball, football, baseball, golf, and soccer. Several UCF alumni work as professional journalists, for both local and national outlets. Christal Hayes covers the US Congress for USA Today. Derek Lowe covers South Florida for WPTV NewsChannel5. Ryan Bass is the main anchor at WTSP in Tampa. The three journalists worked at the student media outlet KnightNews.com while they were UCF students. Notable faculty The faculty at UCF includes many notable and prestigious members, including two former United States ambassadors, a former member United States congressman, and a former vice president of Walt Disney Creative Entertainment, to name a few. Other faculty include winners of the Pulitzer Prize and Janet Heidinger Kafka Prize, the developer of the Flesch–Kincaid readability tests, and the authors of the Mathematical Circles and Political Analysis series. As a result of the work of professors and the Florida Space Institute, UCF will become the first Florida university to lead a NASA mission. See also Greater Orlando Notes References External links Official website UCF Knights website 1963 establishments in Florida American Athletic Conference schools Educational institutions established in 1963 Universities and colleges in Orange County, Florida University of Central Flolrida Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools

Geography of Ireland

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:Ireland is an island in Northwestern Europe in the north Atlantic Ocean. The island lies on the European continental shelf, part of the Eurasian Plate. The island's main geographical features include low central plains surrounded by coastal mountains. The highest peak is Carrauntoohil (), which is above sea level. The western coastline is rugged, with many islands, peninsulas, headlands and bays. The island is bisected by the River Shannon, which at with a estuary is the longest river in Ireland and flows south from County Cavan in Ulster to meet the Atlantic just south of Limerick. There are a number of sizeable lakes along Ireland's rivers, of which Lough Neagh is the largest. Politically, the island consists of the Republic of Ireland, with jurisdiction over about five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom, with jurisdiction over the remaining sixth. Located west of the island of Great Britain, it is located at approximately . It has a total area of . It is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and from mainland Europe by the Celtic Sea. Ireland forms the second largest landmass in the North-West European Archipelago, together with nearby islands including Great Britain and the Isle of Man, known in the United Kingdom as the British Isles. Geological development The geology of Ireland is diverse. Different regions contain rocks belonging to different geological periods, dating back almost 2 billion years. The oldest known Irish rock is about 1.7 billion years old and is found on Inishtrahull Island off the north coast of Inishowen and on the mainland at Annagh Head on the Mullet Peninsula. The newer formations are the drumlins and glacial valleys as a result of the last ice age, and the sinkholes and cave formations in the limestone regions of Clare. Ireland's geological history covers everything from volcanism and tropical seas to the last glacial period. Ireland was formed in two distinct parts and slowly joined together, uniting about 440 million years ago. As a result of tectonics and the effect of ice, the sea level has risen and fallen. In every area of the country the rocks which formed can be seen as a result. Finally, the impact of the glaciers shaped the landscape seen today. The variation between the two areas, along with the differences between volcanic areas and shallow seas, led to a range of soils. There are extensive bogs and free-draining brown earths. The mountains are granite, sandstone, limestone with karst areas, and basalt formations. Most of Ireland was probably above sea level during the last 60 million years. As such its landscapes have been shaped by erosion and weathering on land. Protracted erosion does also means most of the Paleogene and Neogene sediments have been eroded away or, as known in a few cases, buried by Quaternary deposits. Before the Quaternary glaciations affected Ireland the landscape had developed thick weathered regolith on the uplands and karst in the lowlands. There has been some controversy regarding the origin of the planation surfaces found in Ireland. While some have argued for an origin in marine planation others regard these surfaces as peneplains formed by weathering and fluvial erosion. Not only is their origin disputed but also their actual extent and the relative role of sea-level change and tectonics in their shaping. Most river systems in Ireland formed in the Cenozoic before the Quaternary glaciations. Rivers follow for most of their course structural features of the geology of Ireland. Marine erosion since the Miocene may have made Ireland's western coast retreat more than 100 km. Pre-Quaternary relief was more dramatic than today's glacier-smoothened landscapes. Physical geography Mountain ranges Ireland consists of a mostly flat low-lying area in the Midlands, ringed by mountain ranges such as (beginning in County Kerry and working counter-clockwise) the MacGillycuddy's Reeks, Comeragh Mountains, Blackstairs Mountains, Wicklow Mountains, the Mournes, Glens of Antrim, Sperrin Mountains, Bluestack Mountains, Derryveagh Mountains, Ox Mountains, Nephinbeg Mountains and the Twelve Bens/Maumturks group. Some mountain ranges are further inland in the south of Ireland, such as the Galtee Mountains (the highest inland range), Silvermine and Slieve Bloom Mountains. The highest peak Carrauntoohil, at 1,038.6 m (3,407 ft) high, is in the MacGillycuddy's Reeks, a range of glacier-carved sandstone mountains. Only three peaks on the island are over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and another 457 exceed 500 m (1,640 ft). Ireland is sometimes known as the "Emerald Isle" because of its green landscape. Forests Ireland, like the neighbouring Great Britain, was once covered in forest. Clearing of forests began in the Neolithic Age and accelerated following the Tudor Conquest, resulting in forest cover of only 1% by the start of the twentieth century. As of 2017, total tree cover in the Republic of Ireland stood at 11% of land area. The figure for native forest stood at 2% in 2018; the third lowest in Europe behind Iceland and Malta. Rivers and lakes The River Shannon, at in length, is the longest river in Ireland and Britain. With a drainage area of , the Shannon River Basin covers one-fifth of the island. The Shannon crosses 11 counties and divides the west of Ireland from the south and east. The river develops into three large lakes along its course, Lough Allen, Lough Ree, and Lough Derg. The River Shannon enters the Atlantic Ocean at Limerick city along the Shannon Estuary. Other major rivers include the River Liffey, River Lee, River Blackwater, River Nore, River Suir, River Barrow, River Bann, River Foyle, River Erne, and River Boyne. Lough Neagh, in Ulster, is the largest lake in Ireland and Britain with an area of . The largest lake in the Republic of Ireland is Lough Corrib . Other large lakes include Lough Erne, Lough Mask and Lough Conn. Inlets In County Donegal, Lough Swilly separates the western side of the Inishowen peninsula. Lough Foyle on the other side, is one of Ireland's larger inlets, situated between County Donegal and County Londonderry. Clockwise round the coast is Belfast Lough, between County Antrim and County Down. Also in County Down is Strangford Lough, actually an inlet partially separating the Ards peninsula from the mainland. Further south, Carlingford Lough is situated between Down and County Louth. Dublin Bay is the next sizeable inlet. The east coast of Ireland has no major inlets until Wexford Harbour at the mouth of the River Slaney. On the south coast, Waterford Harbour is situated at the mouth of the River Suir (into which the other two of the Three Sisters (River Nore and River Barrow) flow). The next major inlet is Cork Harbour, at the mouth of the River Lee, in which Great Island is situated. Dunmanus Bay, Kenmare estuary and Dingle Bay are all inlets between the peninsulas of County Kerry. North of these is the Shannon Estuary. Between north County Clare and County Galway is Galway Bay. Clew Bay is located on the coast of County Mayo, south of Achill Island, while Broadhaven Bay, Blacksod Bay and Sruth Fada Conn bays are situated in northwest Connacht, in North Mayo. Killala Bay is on the northeast coast of Mayo. Donegal Bay is a major inlet between County Donegal and County Sligo. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 565km² of tidal flats in Ireland, making it the 43rd ranked country in terms of tidal flat area. Headlands Malin Head is the most northerly point in Ireland, while Mizen Head is one of the most southern points, hence the term "from Malin to Mizen" (or the reverse) is used for anything applying to the island of Ireland as a whole. Carnsore Point is another extreme point of Ireland, being the southeasternmost point of Ireland. Hook Head and the Old Head of Kinsale are two of many headlands along the south coast. Loop Head is the headland at which County Clare comes to a point on the west coast of Ireland, with the Atlantic on the north, and the Shannon estuary to the south. Hag's Head is another headland further up Clare's north/western coastline, with the Cliffs of Moher along the coastline north of the point. Erris Head is the northwesternmost point of Connacht. Islands and peninsulas Apart from Ireland itself, Achill Island to its northwest is now considered the largest island in the group. The island is inhabited, and is connected to the mainland by a bridge. Some of the next largest islands are the Aran Islands, off the coast of southern Connacht, host to an Irish-speaking community, or Gaeltacht. Valentia Island off the Iveragh peninsula is also one of Ireland's larger islands, and is relatively settled, as well as being connected by a bridge at its southeastern end. Omey Island, off the coast of Connemara is a tidal island. Some of the best-known peninsulas in Ireland are in County Kerry; the Dingle peninsula, the Iveragh peninsula and the Beara peninsula. The Ards peninsula is one of the larger peninsulas outside Kerry. The Inishowen peninsula in County Donegal includes Ireland's most northerly point, Malin Head and several important towns including Buncrana on Lough Swilly, Carndonagh and Moville on Lough Foyle. Ireland's most northerly land feature is Inishtrahull island, off Malin Head. Rockall Island may deserve this honour but its status is disputed, being claimed by the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Denmark (for the Faroe Islands) and Iceland. The most southerly point is the Fastnet Rock. The Hebrides off Scotland and Anglesey off Wales were grouped with Ireland ("Hibernia") by the Greco-Roman geographer Ptolemy, but this is no longer common. Climate The climate of Ireland is mild, humid and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. Ireland's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate, or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system, a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. The country receives generally warm summers and mild winters. It is considerably warmer than other areas at the same latitude on the other side of the Atlantic, such as in Newfoundland, because it lies downwind of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also warmer than maritime climates near the same latitude, such as the Pacific Northwest as a result of heat released by the Atlantic overturning circulation that includes the North Atlantic Current and Gulf Stream. For comparison, Dublin is 9 °C warmer than St. John's in Newfoundland in winter and 4 °C warmer than Seattle in the Pacific Northwest in winter. The influence of the North Atlantic Current also ensures the coastline of Ireland remains ice-free throughout the winter. The climate in Ireland does not experience extreme weather, with tornadoes and similar weather features being rare. However, Ireland is prone to eastward moving cyclones which come in from the North Atlantic. The prevailing wind comes from the southwest, breaking on the high mountains of the west coast. Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life, with Valentia Island, off the west coast of County Kerry, getting over twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east ( vs. ). January and February are the coldest months of the year, and mean daily air temperatures fall between during these months. July and August are the warmest, with mean daily temperatures of , whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from near the coast, to inland. The sunniest months are May and June, with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day. Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European Continent, they do occur. Atlantic depressions, occurring mainly in the months of December, January and February, can occasionally bring winds of up to to Western coastal counties; while the summer months, and particularly around late July/early August, thunderstorms can develop. The tables below show mean 30-year climate averages for Ireland's two largest cities, taken from the weather stations at Dublin Airport and Belfast International Airport respectively. The state metrological service for the Republic of Ireland is Met Éireann, while the Met Office monitors climate data for Northern Ireland. Political and human geography Ireland is divided into four provinces, Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster, and 32 counties. Six of the nine Ulster counties form Northern Ireland and the other 26 form the state, Ireland. The map shows the county boundaries for all 32 counties. From an administrative viewpoint, 21 of the counties in the Republic are units of local government. The other six have more than one local council area, resulting in a total of 31 county-level authorities. County Tipperary had two ridings, North Tipperary and South Tipperary, originally established in 1838, renamed in 2001 and amalgamated in 2014. The cities of Dublin, Cork and Galway have city councils and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names. The cities of Limerick and Waterford were merged with their respective county councils in 2014 to form new city and county councils. The remaining part of County Dublin is divided into Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin. Electoral areas in Ireland (the state) are called constituencies in accordance with Irish law, mostly follow county boundaries. Maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re-organisation of constituency boundaries by a Constituency Commission. In Northern Ireland, a major re-organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two county boroughs (Belfast and Derry) by 26 single-tier districts, which, apart from Fermanagh cross the traditional county boundaries. The six counties and two county-boroughs remain in use for purposes such as Lieutenancy. In November 2005, proposals were announced which would see the number of local authorities reduced to seven. The island's total population of nearly 7 million people is concentrated in the east and south, particularly in Dublin, Belfast, Cork and their surrounding areas. Natural resources Bogs Ireland has 12,000 km2 (about 4,600 sq miles) of bogland, consisting of two distinct types: blanket bogs and raised bogs. Blanket bogs are the more widespread of the two types. They are essentially a product of human activity aided by the moist Irish climate. Blanket bogs formed on sites where Neolithic farmers cleared trees for farming. As the land so cleared fell into disuse, the soil began to leach and become more acidic, producing a suitable environment for the growth of heather and rushes. The debris from these plants accumulated and a layer of peat formed. One of the largest expanses of Atlantic blanket bog in Ireland is to be found in County Mayo. Raised bogs are most common in the Shannon basin. They formed when depressions left behind after the ice age filled with water to form lakes. Debris from reeds in these lakes formed a layer of at the bottom of the water. This eventually choked the lakes and raised above the surface, forming raised bogs. Since the 17th century, peat has been cut for fuel for domestic heating and cooking, and it is called turf when so used. The process accelerated as commercial exploitation of bogs grew. In the 1940s, machines for cutting turf were introduced and larger-scale harvesting became possible. In the Republic, this became the responsibility of a semi-state company called Bord na Móna. In addition to domestic uses, commercially extracted turf is used in a number of industries, producing peat briquettes for domestic fuel and milled peat for electricity generation. More recently peat is being combined with biomass for dual-firing electricity generation. In recent years, the destruction of bogs has raised environmental concerns. The issue is particularly acute for raised bogs which were more widely mined as they yield a higher-grade fuel than blanket bogs. Plans are now in place in both the Republic and Northern Ireland to conserve most of the remaining raised bogs on the island. Oil, natural gas, renewables and minerals Offshore exploration for natural gas began in 1970. The first major discovery was the Kinsale Head gas field in 1971. Next were the smaller Ballycotton gas field in 1989, and the Corrib gas field in 1996. Gas from these fields is pumped ashore and used for both domestic and industrial purposes. The Helvick oil field, estimated to contain over of oil, was discovered in 2000, and Barryroe, estimated to contain 1.6 billion barrels (250,000,000 m3) of oil, was discovered in 2012, although neither have been exploited. Ireland is the largest European producer of zinc, with one zinc-lead mine currently in operation at Tara, which is Europe's largest and deepest active mine. Other mineral deposits with actual or potential commercial value include gold, silver, gypsum, talc, calcite, dolomite, roofing slate, limestone aggregate, building stone, sand and gravel. In May 2007 the Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources (now replaced by the Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources) reported that there may be volumes over of petroleum and of natural gas in Irish waters – worth trillions of Euro, if true. The minimum confirmed amount of oil in the Irish Atlantic waters is , worth over €450 billion. There are also areas of petroleum and natural gas on shore, for example the Lough Allen basin, with of gas and of oil, valued at €74.4 billion. Already some fields are being exploited, such as the Spanish Point field, with of gas and of oil, valued at €19.6 billion. The Corrib Basin is also quite large, worth anything up to €87 billion, while the Dunquin gas field, initially estimated to have of natural gas and of petroleum but 2012 revised estimates suggest only of natural gas and barrels of oil condensate. In March 2012 the first commercial oil well was drilled 70 km off the Cork coast by Providence Resources. The Barryroe oil well is yielding 3500 barrels per day; at current oil prices of $120 a barrel Barryroe oil well is worth in excess of €2.14bn annually. See also Extreme points of Ireland Gravity Anomalies of Britain and Ireland Coastal landforms of Ireland Geographical centre of Ireland Notes References Bibliography Print Mitchell, Frank and Ryan, Michael. Reading the Irish landscape (1998). Whittow, J. B. Geography and Scenery in Ireland (Penguin Books 1974) Holland, Charles, H and Sanders, Ian S. The Geology of Ireland 2nd ed. (2009). Place-names, Diarmuid O Murchadha and Kevin Murray, in The Heritage of Ireland, ed. N. Buttimer et al., The Collins Press, Cork, 2000, pp. 146–155. A paper landscape:the Ordnance Survey in nineteenth-century Ireland, J.H. Andrews, London, 1975 Monasticon Hibernicum, M. Archdall, 1786 Etymological aetiology in Irish tradition, R. Baumgarten, Eiru 41, pp. 115–122, 1990 The Origin and History of Irish names of Places, Patrick Weston Joyce, three volumes, Dublin, 1869, 1875, 1913. Irish Place Names, D. Flanagan and L. Flanagan, Dublin, 1994 Census of Ireland:general alphabetical index to the townlands and towns, parishes and paronies of Ireland, Dublin, 1861 The Placenames of Westmeath, Paul Walsh, 1957 The Placenames of Decies, P. Power, Cork, 1952 The place-names of county Wicklow, Liam Price, seven volumes, Dublin, 1945–67 Online Abbot, Patrick. Ireland's Peat Bogs. Retrieved on 23 January 2008. Ireland – The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 23 January 2008. OnlineWeather.com – climate details for Ireland. Retrieved 2011-01-12 External links OSI FAQ – lists of the longest, highest and other statistics A discussion on RTÉ Radio 1's science show Quantum Leap about the quality of GPS mapping in Ireland is available here (archived link). The discussion starts 8mins 17sec into the show. It was aired on 18 Jan 2007 (archived link). Requires RealPlayer.

Nottingham Forest F.C.

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Nottingham Forest Football Club is an association football club based in West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, England. The football club was founded in 1865, and has been, since 2019, the third oldest professional football club in the English Football League (EFL). Forest has played home matches at the City Ground since 1898, and competes in the EFL Championship, the second tier of the English football league system. Forest has won one League title, two FA Cups, four League Cups, one FA Charity Shield, two European Cups, and one UEFA Super Cup. The club has competed in the top two tiers of English football since its admission to the Football League, with the exception of five seasons in the third tier. Its most successful period was under the management of Brian Clough and Peter Taylor in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which included back-to-back wins in the European Cup in 1979 and 1980. In Clough's last decade at the club, the Forest team won the 1989 and 1990 League Cups and were losing finalists in the 1991 FA Cup Final, before relegation from the Premier League in 1993. Upon an immediate return Forest finished third in the Premier League in 1995, before the club suffered relegation again in 1997 and, after a brief return, once more in 1999. Forest has not since then returned to the Premier League. The club's fiercest rivalry is with Derby County, with which it contests the East Midlands derby and competes for the Brian Clough Trophy. Forest also contests the Nottingham derby with city rivals Notts County; however, as County has generally played in lower leagues than its neighbours, fixtures between the two clubs have been rare in recent history. History 19th century In 1865 a group of shinty players met at the Clinton Arms on Nottingham's Shakespeare Street. J. S. Scrimshaw's proposal to play association football instead was agreed and Nottingham Forest Football Club was formed. It was agreed at the same meeting that the club would purchase twelve tasselled caps coloured 'Garibaldi Red' (named after the leader of the Italian 'Redshirts' fighters). Thus the club's official colours were established. In 2019, when Notts County were relegated from the English Football League, both Nottingham Forest and Stoke City claimed to be the oldest remaining club in the league. Football historian Mark Metcalf stated that Stoke were formed in 1868, rather than the 1863 date on the club's badge, and therefore Forest was the oldest club. The EFL also stated that Nottingham Forest was the oldest. Forest's first ever official game was played against Notts County taking place on 22 March 1866. On 23 April 1870, when the team played their first game in league play, the steward of the club was John Lymberry and William Henry Revis scored the first goal. On that day, Revis also won the prize for kicking a football furthest with a kick of 161 feet 8 inches. In their early years Forest were a multi-sports club. As well as their roots in bandy and shinty, Forest's baseball club were British champions in 1899. Forest's charitable approach helped clubs like Liverpool, Arsenal and Brighton & Hove Albion to form. In 1886, Forest donated a set of football kits to help Arsenal establish themselves – the North London team still wear red. Forest also donated shirts to Everton and helped secure a site to play on for Brighton. In 1878–79 season Forest entered the FA Cup for the first time. Forest beat Notts County 3–1 in the first round at Beeston Cricket Ground before eventually losing 2–1 to Old Etonians in the semi-final. Forest's application was rejected to join the Football League at its formation in 1888. Forest instead joined the Football Alliance in 1889. They won the competition in 1892 before then entering the Football League. That season they reached and lost in an FA Cup semi-final for the fourth time to date. This time it was to West Bromwich Albion after a replay. Forest's first FA Cup semi-final win was at the fifth attempt, the 1897–98 FA Cup 2–0 replay win against Southampton. The first game was drawn 1–1. Derby County beat Forest 5–0 five days before the final. Six of the cup final side were rested in that league game. In that 1898 FA Cup Final at Crystal Palace before 62,000 fans, Willie Wragg passed a 19th minute free kick to Arthur Capes. Capes shot through the defensive wall to score. Derby equalised with a free kick headed home by Steve Bloomer off the underside of the cross bar after 31 minutes. In the 42nd minute Jack Fryer was unable to hold a Charlie Richards shot giving Capes a tap in for his second goal. Wragg's injury meant Forest had to change their line up with Capes dropping back to midfield. In the 86th minute John Boag headed away a corner by Forest. John McPherson moved in to collect shooting low into the goal to win 3–1. First half of 20th century Forest lost FA Cup semi-finals in 1900 and 1902. They finished fourth in the 1900–01 Football League followed with fifth place the season after. The club then started to slide down the table. Forest were relegated for the first time in 1905–06. Grenville Morris had his first of five seasons as the club's highest scorer en route to becoming the all-time club highest goalscorer with 213 goals. Promotion as champions was immediate in 1906–07. The club was relegated a second time to the Second Division in 1911, and had to seek re-election in 1914 after finishing bottom of that tier; as the First World War approached it was in serious financial trouble. The outbreak of the War, along with the benevolence of the committee members, prevented the club going under. In 1919, the Football League First Division was to be expanded from twenty clubs to twenty-two in time for the 1919–20 Football League: Forest was one of eight clubs to campaign for entry, but received only three votes. Arsenal and Chelsea gained the two additional top tier slots. In a turnaround from the first six seasons struggling back in the Second Division, Forest were promoted as champions in 1921–22. They survived each of the first two seasons back in the top flight by one position. In the third season after promotion they were relegated as the division's bottom club in 1924–25. They remained in the second tier until relegation in 1949 to the Football League Third Division. Re-emergence then decline (1950–74) They were quickly promoted back two years later as champions having scored a record 110 goals in the 1950–51 season. They regained First Division status in 1957. Johnny Quigley's solitary 1958–59 FA Cup semi-final goal beat Aston Villa. Billy Walker's Forest beat Luton Town 2–1 in the 1959 FA Cup Final. Like in 1898 Forest had lost heavily to their opponents only weeks earlier in the league. Stewart Imlach crossed for a 10th-minute opener by Roy Dwight (the cousin of Reg Dwight better known as Elton John). Tommy Wilson had Forest 2–0 up after 14 minutes. The game had an unusually large number of stoppages due to injury, particularly to Forest players. This was put down to the lush nature of the Wembley turf. The most notable of these stoppages was Dwight breaking his leg in a 33rd minute tackle with Brendan McNally. Forest had been on top until that point. Luton though gradually took control of the match with Dave Pacey scoring midway through the second half. Forest were reduced to nine fit men with ten minutes remaining when Bill Whare crippled with cramp became little more than a spectator. Despite late Allan Brown and Billy Bingham chances Chick Thomson conceded no further goals for Forest to beat the Wembley 1950s 'hoodoo' (where one team was hampered by losing a player through injury). Club record appearance holder Bobby McKinlay played in the final winning team captained by Jack Burkitt. By this time Forest had replaced Notts County as the biggest club in Nottingham. Johnny Carey assembled a team including Joe Baker and Ian Storey-Moore that for a long spell went largely unchanged in challenging for the 1966–67 Football League title. They beat title rivals Manchester United 4–1 at the City Ground on 1 October. The 3–0 win against Aston Villa on 15 April had Forest second in the table a point behind United. Injuries eventually took effect meaning Forest had to settle for being League runners-up and losing in the FA Cup semi-final to Dave Mackay's Tottenham Hotspur. The 1966/67 season's success seemed an opportunity to build upon with crowds of 40,000 virtually guaranteed at the time. Instead a mixture at the club of poor football management, the unique committee structure and proud amateurism meant decline after the 66/67 peak. Forest were relegated from the top flight in 1972. Matt Gillies' October 1972 managerial departure was followed by short managerial reigns by Dave Mackay and Allan Brown. A 2–0 Boxing Day home defeat by Notts County prompted the committee (Forest had no board of directors then) to sack Brown. Brian Clough and Peter Taylor (1975–82) Brian Clough became manager of Nottingham Forest on 6 January 1975 twelve weeks after the end of his 44-day tenure as manager of Leeds United. Clough brought Jimmy Gordon to be his club trainer as Gordon had been for him at Derby County and Leeds. Scottish centre-forward Neil Martin scored the only goal in Clough's first game in charge, beating Tottenham Hotspur in an FA Cup third round replay. Ian Bowyer was already at Forest and had won domestic and European trophies with Manchester City. Clough signed Scots duo John McGovern and John O'Hare in February who both were part of Clough's Derby County 1971–72 Football League title win. He signed Colin Barrett in March initially on loan. Clough brought John Robertson and Martin O'Neill back into the fold after they had requested transfers under Brown. Viv Anderson had previously debuted for the first team and became a regular under Clough. The young Tony Woodcock was at Forest but was then unrated by Clough and was to be loaned to Lincoln City. Forest were 13th in English football's second tier when Clough joined. They finished that season 16th. Forest signed Frank Clark in July of that close season on a free transfer. The season after Forest finished eighth in Clough's 1975–76 Football League first full season in charge. It was in this season McGovern became long standing club captain taking over from a game in which Bob 'Sammy' Chapman and Liam O'Kane were both injured. Peter Taylor on 16 July 1976 rejoined Clough becoming his Assistant Manager as he had been when winning the league at Derby. Taylor included being the club's talent spotter in his role. After assessing the players Taylor told Clough "that was a feat by you to finish eighth in the Second Division because some of them are only Third Division players". Taylor berated John Robertson for allowing himself to become overweight and disillusioned. He got Robertson on a diet and training regime that would help him become a European Cup winner. Taylor turned Woodcock from a reserve midfielder into a 42 cap England striker. In September 1976 he bought striker Peter Withe to Forest for £43,000, selling him to Newcastle United for £250,000 two years later. Withe was replaced in the starting team by Garry Birtles who Taylor had scouted playing for non-league Long Eaton United. Birtles also went on to represent England. In October 1976 Brian Clough acting on Peter Taylor's advice signed Larry Lloyd for £60,000 after an initial loan period. Together Clough and Taylor took Forest to new heights. The first trophy of the Clough and Taylor reign was the 1976–77 Anglo-Scottish Cup. Forest beat Orient 5–1 on aggregate in the two-legged final played in December 1976. Clough valued winning a derided trophy as the club's first silverware since 1959. He said, "Those who said it was a nothing trophy were absolutely crackers. We'd won something, and it made all the difference." On 7 May 1977, Jon Moore's own goal meant Forest in their last league game of the season beat Millwall 1–0 at the City Ground. This kept Forest in the third promotion spot in the league table and dependent on Bolton Wanderers dropping points in three games in hand in the fight for third place. On 14 May Kenny Hibbitt's goal from his rehearsed free kick routine with Willie Carr gave Wolves a 1–0 win at Bolton. Bolton's defeat reached the Forest team mid-air en route to an end of season break in Mallorca. Forest's third place promotion from the 1976–77 Football League Second Division was the fifth-lowest points tally of any promoted team in history, 52 (two points for a win in England until 1981). Taylor secretly followed Kenny Burns concluding Burns's reputation as a hard drinker and gambler was exaggerated. Taylor sanctioned his £150,000 July signing. Burns became FWA Footballer of the Year in 1977–78 after being moved from centre-forward to centre-back. Forest started their return to the top league campaign with a 3–1 win at Everton. Three further wins in league and cup followed without conceding a goal. Then came five early September goals conceded in losing 3–0 at Arsenal and beating Wolves 3–2 at home. Peter Shilton then signed for a record fee for a goalkeeper of £325,000. Taylor reasoned: "Shilton wins you matches." 20-year-old John Middleton was first team goalkeeper pre-Shilton. Middleton later in the month went in part exchange with £25,000 to Derby County for Archie Gemmill transferring to Forest. Gemmill was another Scottish former 1972 Derby title winner. Forest lost only three of their first 16 league games the last of which was at Leeds United on 19 November 1977. They lost only one further game all season, the 11 March FA Cup sixth round defeat at West Bromwich Albion. Forest won the 1977–78 Football League seven-points ahead of runners-up Liverpool. Forest became one of the few teams (and the most recent team to date) to win the First Division title the season after winning promotion from the Second Division. This made Clough the third of four managers to win the English league championship with two different clubs. Forest conceded just 24 goals in 42 league games. They beat Liverpool 1–0 in the 1978 Football League Cup Final replay despite cup-tied Shilton, Gemmill and December signing David Needham missing out. Chris Woods chalked up two clean sheets in the final covering Shilton's League Cup absence. McGovern missed the replay through injury, meaning Burns lifted the trophy as deputising captain. Robertson's penalty was the only goal of the game. Forest started season 1978–79 by beating Ipswich Town 5–0 for an FA Charity Shield record winning margin. In the 1978–79 European Cup they were drawn to play the trophy winners of the past two seasons, Liverpool. Home goals by Birtles and Barrett put Forest through 2–0 on aggregate. 26-year-old Barrett suffered a serious leg injury ten days later against Middlesbrough that ultimately ended his professional career two years later. On 9 December 1978, Liverpool ended Forest's 42 match unbeaten league run dating back to November the year before. The unbeaten run was the equivalent of a whole season surpassing the previous record of 35 games held by Burnley in 1920/21. The record stood until surpassed by Arsenal in August 2004, a month before Clough's death. Arsenal played 49 league games without defeat. In February 1979, Taylor authorised the English game's first £1 million transfer signing Trevor Francis from Birmingham City. In the European Cup semi-final first leg at home against 1. FC Köln, Forest were two goals behind after 20 minutes, then scored three to edge ahead before Köln equalised to start the German second leg ahead on the away goals rule. Ian Bowyer's goal in Germany put Forest through. Günter Netzer asked afterwards, "Who is this McGovern? I have never heard of him, yet he ran the game." Forest beat Malmö 1–0 in Munich's Olympiastadion in the 1979 European Cup Final; Francis, on his European debut, scored with a back post header from Robertson's cross. Forest beat Southampton in the final 3–2 to retain the League Cup; Birtles scored twice as did Woodcock once. Forest finished second in the 1978–79 Football League, eight points behind Liverpool. Forest declined to play in the home and away 1979 Intercontinental Cup against Paraguay's Club Olimpia. Forest beat F.C. Barcelona 2–1 on aggregate in the 1979 European Super Cup in January and February 1980, Charlie George scoring the only goal in the home first leg, while Burns scored an equaliser in the return in Spain. In the 1979–80 Football League Cup Forest reached a third successive final. A defensive mix up between Needham and Shilton let Wolves' Andy Gray tap in to an empty net. Forest passed up numerous chances, losing 1–0. In the 1979–80 European Cup quarter-final, Forest won 3–1 at Dinamo Berlin to overturn a 1–0 home defeat. In the semi-final they beat Ajax 2–1 on aggregate. They beat Hamburg 1–0 in the 1980 European Cup Final at Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to retain the trophy; after 20 minutes Robertson scored, after exchanging passes with Birtles, and Forest then defended solidly. Forest finished fifth in the 1979–80 Football League. In the 1980–81 European Cup first round, Forest lost 2–0 on aggregate to 1–0 defeats home and away by CSKA Sofia. McGovern subsequently said the double defeat by CSKA affected the team's self-confidence, in that they had lost out to modestly talented opponents. Forest lost the 1980 European Super Cup on away goals after a 2–2 aggregate draw against Valencia; Bowyer scored both Forest goals in the home first leg. On 11 February 1981, Forest lost 1–0 in the 1980 Intercontinental Cup against Uruguayan side, Club Nacional de Football. The match was played for the first time at the neutral venue National Stadium in Tokyo before 62,000 fans. The league and European Cup winning squad was broken up to capitalise on player sale value. Clough and Taylor both later said this was a mistake. The rebuilt side comprising youngsters and signings such as Ian Wallace, Raimondo Ponte and Justin Fashanu did not challenge for trophies. Taylor said in 1982, John McGovern and Peter Shilton transferred and Jimmy Gordon retired in the same close season. Clough without Taylor (1982–93) Anderlecht beat Forest in the 1983–84 UEFA Cup semi-finals in controversial circumstances. Several contentious refereeing decisions went against Forest. Over a decade later, it emerged that before the match, referee Guruceta Muro had received a £27,000 "loan" from Anderlecht's chairman Constant Vanden Stock. Anderlecht went unpunished until 1997, when UEFA banned the club from European competitions for one year. Muro died in a car crash in 1987. Forest beat Sheffield Wednesday on penalties in the Football League Centenary Tournament final in April 1988 after drawing 0–0. Forest finished third in the league in 1988 and made the 1987–88 FA Cup semi-finals. Stuart Pearce won the first of his five successive selections for the PFA Team of the Year. On 18 January 1989 Clough joined the fray of a City Ground pitch invasion by hitting two of his own team's fans when on the pitch. The football authorities responded with a fine and touchline ban for Clough. The match, against QPR in the League Cup, finished 5–2 to Forest. Forest beat Everton 4–3 after extra time in the 1989 Full Members Cup final, then came back to beat Luton Town 3–1 in the 1989 Football League Cup Final. This set Forest up for a unique treble of domestic cup wins, but tragedy struck a week after the League Cup win. Forest and Liverpool met for the second season in a row in the FA Cup semi-finals. The Hillsborough disaster claimed the lives of 97 Liverpool fans. The match was abandoned after six minutes. When the emotional replay took place, Forest struggled as Liverpool won 3–1. Despite these trophy wins, and a third-place finish in the First Division, Forest were unable to compete in the UEFA Cup, as English clubs were still banned from European competitions following the Heysel Stadium Disaster. Des Walker won the first of his four successive selections for the PFA Team of the Year. Nigel Jemson scored as Forest beat Oldham Athletic 1–0 to retain the League Cup in 1990. English clubs were re-admitted to Europe for the following season, but only in limited numbers, and Forest's League Cup win again did not see them qualify. The only UEFA Cup place that season went to league runners-up Aston Villa. Brian Clough reached his only FA Cup final in 1991 after countless replays and postponements in the 3rd, 4th and 5th rounds. Up against Tottenham Hotspur, Forest took the lead from a Pearce free kick, but Spurs equalised to take the game to extra-time, ultimately winning 2–1 after an own goal by Walker. Roy Keane declared himself fit to play in the final and was selected in preference to Steve Hodge; years later, Keane admitted he had not actually been fit to play, hence his insignificant role in the final. In the summer of 1991, Millwall's league top scorer Teddy Sheringham became Forest's record signing, for a fee of £2.1 million. That season, Forest beat Southampton 3–2 after extra time in the Full Members Cup Final, but lost the League Cup Final 1-0 to Manchester United thanks to a Brian McClair goal. This meant that Forest had played in seven domestic cup finals in five seasons, winning five of them. Forest finished eighth in the league that season to earn a place in the new FA Premier League. Walker transferred to Sampdoria during the summer of 1992. On 16 August 1992, Forest beat Liverpool 1–0 at home in the first-ever Premier League game to be televised live, with Sheringham scoring the only goal of the match. A week later, Sheringham moved to Tottenham. Forest's form slumped, and Brian Clough's 18-year managerial reign ended in May 1993 with Forest relegated from the inaugural Premier League. The final game of that season was away at Ipswich. Forest lost 2–1 with Clough's son, Nigel, scoring the final goal of his father's reign. Relegation was followed by Keane's £3.75 million British record fee transfer to Manchester United. Frank Clark (1993–1996) Frank Clark from Forest's 1979 European Cup winning team returned to the club in May 1993 succeeding Brian Clough as manager. Clark's previous greatest management success was promotion from the Fourth Division with Leyton Orient in 1989. Clark convinced Stuart Pearce to remain at the club and also signed Stan Collymore, Lars Bohinen and Colin Cooper. Clark brought immediate return to the Premier League when the club finished Division One runners-up at the end of the 1993–94 season. Forest finished third in 1994–95 and qualified for the UEFA Cup – their first entry to European competition in the post-Heysel era. Collymore then transferred in the 1995–96 close season to Liverpool for a national record fee of £8.5million. Forest reached the 1995–96 UEFA Cup quarter-finals, the furthest an English team reached in UEFA competition that season. They finished ninth in the league. The 1996–97 season quickly became a relegation battle. Clark left the club in December. Stuart Pearce and Dave Bassett (1997–1999) 34-year-old captain Stuart Pearce was installed as player-manager on a temporary basis just before Christmas in 1996 and he inspired a brief upturn in the club's fortunes. However, in March 1997 he was replaced on a permanent basis by Dave Bassett and left the club that summer after 12 years. Forest were unable to avoid relegation and finished the season in bottom place. They won promotion back to the Premier League at the first attempt, being crowned Division One champions in 1997–98. Bassett was sacked in January 1999, with Ron Atkinson replacing him. Into the 21st century below the top-flight (1999–2012) Ron Atkinson was unable to prevent Forest from once again slipping back into Division One, and announced his retirement from football management when Forest's relegation was confirmed on 24 April 1999, with three weeks of the Premier League seasons still to play. Former England captain David Platt succeeded Atkinson and spent approximately £12 million on players in the space of two seasons, including the Italian veterans Moreno Mannini, Salvatore Matrecano and Gianluca Petrachi. However, Forest could only finish 14th in Platt's first season and 11th in his second. He departed in July 2001 to manage the England U21 side and was succeeded by youth team manager Paul Hart. Now faced with huge debts, which reduced Forest's ability to sign new players, they finished 16th in Hart's first season in charge. By December 2001, Forest were reported as losing over £100,000 every week, and their financial outlook was worsened by the collapse of ITV Digital, which left Forest and many other Football League clubs in severe financial difficulties. Despite the off-field difficulties, Forest finished 2002–03 in sixth place and qualified for the play-offs, where they lost to Sheffield United in the semi-finals. A poor league run the following season, following the loss of several key players, led to the sacking of Hart in February 2004 with Forest in danger of relegation. The decision was unpopular with certain quarters of the fanbase and Hart was described as a 'scapegoat'. Joe Kinnear was subsequently appointed and led the club to a secure 14th place in the final league table. The 2004–05 season saw Forest drop into the relegation zone once more, leading to Kinnear's resignation in December 2004. Mick Harford took temporary charge of Forest over Christmas, before Gary Megson was appointed in the new year. Megson had already won two promotions to the Premier League with his previous club West Bromwich Albion, having arrived at the club when they were in danger of going down to Division Two, but failed to stave off relegation as the club ended the season second from bottom in 23rd place, becoming the first European Cup-winners ever to fall into their domestic third division. In Forest's first season in the English third tier in 54 years, a 3–0 defeat at Oldham Athletic in February 2006 led to the departure of Megson by "mutual consent" leaving the club mid-table only four points above the relegation zone. Frank Barlow and Ian McParland took temporary charge for the remainder of the 2005–06 season, engineering a six-match winning run and remaining unbeaten in ten games, the most notable result a 7–1 win over Swindon Town. Forest took 28 points from a possible 39 under the two, narrowly missing out on a play-off place, as they finished in 7th place. Colin Calderwood, previously of Northampton Town, was appointed as Forest's new manager in May 2006. He was their 12th new manager to be appointed since the retirement of Brian Clough 13 years earlier, and went on to become Forest's longest-serving manager since Frank Clark. The Calderwood era was ultimately one of rebuilding, and included the club's first promotion in a decade. In his first season, he led the club to the play-offs, having squandered a 7-point lead at the top of League One which had been amassed by November 2006. Forest eventually succumbed to a shock 5–4 aggregate defeat in the semi-finals against Yeovil Town; they had taken a 2–0 lead in the first leg at Huish Park, but were then beaten 5–2 on their own soil by the Somerset club. Calderwood achieved automatic promotion in his second year at the club, following an impressive run which saw Forest win six out of their last seven games of the season, culminating in a dramatic final 3–2 win against Yeovil at the City Ground. Forest kept a league record of 24 clean sheets out of 46 games, proving to be the foundation for their return to the second tier of English football and leaving them just one more promotion away from a return to the Premier League. However, Calderwood's side struggled to adapt to life in the Championship in the 2008–09 campaign and having been unable to steer Forest out of the relegation zone, Calderwood was sacked following a Boxing Day 4–2 defeat to the Championship's bottom club Doncaster Rovers. Under the temporary stewardship of John Pemberton, Forest finally climbed out of the relegation zone, having beaten Norwich City 3–2. Billy Davies, who had taken Forest's local rivals Derby County into the Premier League two seasons earlier, was confirmed as the new manager on 1 January 2009 and watched Pemberton's side beat Manchester City 3–0 away in the FA Cup, prior to taking official charge. Under Davies, Forest stretched their unbeaten record in all competitions following Calderwood's sacking to six matches, including five wins. He also helped them avoid relegation as they finished 19th in the Championship, securing survival with one game to go. Forest spent most of the 2009–10 campaign in a top-three position, putting together an unbeaten run of 19 league games, winning 12 home league games in a row (a club record for successive home wins in a single season), going unbeaten away from home from the beginning of the season until 30 January 2010 (a run spanning 13 games) whilst also claiming memorable home victories over local rivals Derby County and Leicester City. The club finished third, missing out on automatic promotion, and in the two-legged play-off semi-final were beaten by Blackpool, 2–1 away and 4–3 in the home leg, the club's first defeat at home since losing to the same opposition in September 2009. The 2010–11 season saw Forest finish in sixth place in the Championship table with 75 points, putting them into a play-off campaign for the fourth time in the space of eight years. Promotion was yet again to elude Forest, as they were beaten over two legs by eventual play-off final winners Swansea City. Having drawn the first leg 0–0 at the City Ground, they were eventually beaten 3–1 in the second leg. In June 2011, Billy Davies had his contract terminated, and was replaced as manager by Steve McClaren, who signed a three-year contract. Forest started the 2011–12 season with several poor results and after a 5–1 defeat away to Burnley, David Pleat and Bill Beswick left the club's coaching setup. Less than a week later, following a home defeat to Birmingham City, McClaren resigned, and chairman Nigel Doughty announced that he intended to resign at the end of the season. In October 2011, Nottingham Forest underwent several changes. These changes included the appointment of Frank Clark as new chairman of the club and also that of Steve Cotterill, replacing the recently departed Steve McClaren. Nigel Doughty, owner and previous chairman of the club, died on 4 February 2012, having been involved with the club since the late 1990s, with many estimating his total contribution as being in the region of £100 million. The Al-Hasawi era (2012–2017) The Al-Hasawi family, from Kuwait, purchased the club and became the new owners in July 2012. The Al-Hasawi family told press that they had a long-term vision for the club based around a 3–5-year plan, and after interviewing several potential new managers, appointed Sean O'Driscoll, formerly the manager at Doncaster Rovers and Crawley Town, as the manager on 19 July 2012 after a second round of talks with the then Crawley man. He was known for playing an attractive brand of passing football (which had taken Doncaster Rovers into the league's second tier for the first time since the 1950s) and what football fans would consider the Forest way. O'Driscoll had spent five months at the City Ground as Coach under Steve Cotterill in the 2011–12 season before taking over at Crawley. After taking over at Crawley, O'Driscoll never took charge of a single competitive game. By 15 December 2012, after the team's 0–0 draw away to Brighton, Forest sat in ninth position with 33 points, just three points off the play-off positions. The Al-Hasawi's 3–5-year plan had turned into a push for the play-offs in their first season as the owners. On the same weekend, the club announced that Omar Al-Hasawi had stepped down due to personal reasons and Fawaz Al-Hasawi, the majority shareholder with 75% had taken the position, with his brother Abdulaziz Al-Hasawi holding a 20% share and his cousin Omar Al-Hasawi holding a 5% share. On Boxing Day 2012, manager Sean O'Driscoll was sacked following a 4–2 victory over Leeds United with the club stating their intentions of a change ahead of the January transfer window and hopes of appointing a manager with Premiership experience. The man to replace O'Driscoll was Alex McLeish. The move was criticised by some members of the Forest fan base. Chief executive Mark Arthur as well as scout Keith Burt and club ambassador Frank Clark were dismissed in January 2013. On 5 February 2013, Forest and Alex McLeish had parted company by mutual agreement, just 40 days after McLeish took charge of the club. Forest supporters and pundits alike registered their concern for the state of the club, with journalist Pat Murphy describing the situation as a "shambles". Two days after McLeish's departure, the club re-appointed Billy Davies as manager, having been sacked as the team's manager twenty months previously. His first match in charge was a draw, followed by a run of 10 undefeated games. In March 2014, the club terminated Davies's employment, following a 5–0 defeat by Derby County. Neil Warnock turned down the job as Forest manager on the day Davies was sacked. After initially rejecting the job in March 2014, fans favourite Stuart Pearce was named the man to replace Billy Davies, taking over from caretaker manager Gary Brazil. He signed a two-year contract commencing on 1 July 2014. Pearce led Forest to an unbeaten start to the season but failed to keep up the form. He was sacked in February 2015 and replaced by another former Forest player, Dougie Freedman. Another mid-table finish meant that Forest began the 2015–16 season still in the Championship and now in their 17th season away from the Premier League. On 13 March 2016, Freedman was sacked, following a 3–0 defeat at home to Sheffield Wednesday. Paul Williams was then appointed as temporary manager as Nottingham Forest searched for their new manager. Finally, following months of speculation the former US Boulogne, Valenciennes FC, Real Sociedad, and Stade Rennais head coach Philippe Montanier was appointed on a two-year contract on 27 June 2016, but was sacked after fewer than seven months in charge. Mark Warburton was named as the club's new manager on 14 March 2017. Forest narrowly avoided relegation on the final day of the 2016–17 season, where a 3–0 home victory against Ipswich ensured their safety at the expense of Blackburn. Evangelos Marinakis (2017–present) On 18 May 2017, it was confirmed that Evangelos Marinakis had completed his takeover of Nottingham Forest, bringing an end to Al-Hasawi's reign as Forest owner. Incumbent manager Mark Warburton was sacked on 31 December 2017 following a 1–0 home defeat to struggling Sunderland, with a record of one win in seven. He was replaced by Spaniard Aitor Karanka, who arrived on 8 January 2018, immediately after caretaker manager Gary Brazil had masterminded a 4–2 home win over FA Cup holders Arsenal in the third round of the FA Cup. Karanka made 10 new signings during the January transfer window. Following a 17th-place finish in the Championship for the 2017–18 season, Karanka made 14 new signings during the summer transfer window and the following season results improved. However, despite a strong league position, Karanka left his position on 11 January 2019 after requesting to be released from his contract. He was replaced with former Republic of Ireland boss Martin O'Neill four days later. However, O'Neill was sacked in June after reportedly falling out with some of the senior first team players. He was replaced with Sabri Lamouchi on the same day. In Lamouchi's first season in charge, despite spending most of the season in the playoffs, Forest finished in 7th place despite sitting in 5th going into the final game. On 6 October 2020, Lamouchi was sacked by the club following a poor start to the 2020–21 season. He was replaced by former Brighton manager Chris Hughton. After an ultimately unsuccessful 11 months in charge, Hughton was sacked on 16 September 2021 after failing to win any of the club's opening 7 games of the 2021/22 season. Forest chairman Nicholas Randall had initially promised that Forest planned to return to playing European football within five seasons, and yet poor transfers and a toxic club culture meant that Forest remained in the Championship four years into the Marinakis era. In the summer of 2021, structural changes where made at the club to try and correct the previous mistakes. Forest appointed Dane Murphy as Chief Executive, and George Syrianos was brought in as head of recruitment to bring about a more analytics driven transfer policy. The Forest hierarchy committed to avoid the 'short-termism' of previous windows by no longer signing players for more than £18,000 a week and mostly targeting younger signings that could be sold for a profit. On 21 September 2021, Forest announced the appointment of Steve Cooper as the club's new head coach. Despite being bottom of the league when Cooper was appointed, Cooper inspired an impressive turnaround in form leaving the club in 7th position at Christmas. Club identity Crest and colours Nottingham Forest have worn red since the club's foundation in 1865. At the meeting in the Clinton Arms which established Nottingham Forest as a football club, the committee also passed a resolution that the team colours should be 'Garibaldi red'. This decision was made in honour of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian patriot who was the leader of the redshirts volunteers. At this time, clubs identified themselves more by their headgear than their shirts and a dozen red caps with tassels were duly purchased, making Forest the first club to 'officially' wear red, a colour that has since been adopted by a significant number of others. Forest’s kit is the reason behind Arsenal's choice of red, the club having donated a full set of red kits to Arsenal following their foundation (as Woolwich Arsenal) in 1886. Forest's tour of South America in 1905 inspired Argentine club Independiente to adopt red as their club colour, after club's President Arístides Langone described the tourists as looking like diablos rojos ("red devils"), which would become Independiente's nickname. The first club crest used by Forest was the city arms of Nottingham, which was first used on kits in 1947. The current club badge was introduced in 1974. The logo has been reported as being the brainchild of manager Brian Clough. However, he did not arrive at the club until the following year. Forest have two stars above the club badge to commemorate their European Cup victories in 1979 and 1980. In March 1973, a competition, was announced to design a new badge for Forest. The winning design was by Trent Polytechnic graphic design lecturer David Lewis. Lewis entered his design using his mother's maiden name in order to maintain anonymity, as one of the five judges was W. Payne, Associate Head of the Graphics Department at the polytechnic where Lewis taught. David Lewis also designed the Nottinghamshire County Council logo. Nomenclature The club has garnered many nicknames over time. Historically, the nickname of "Foresters" was used, as was "Garibaldis". "The Forest" or the simpler "Forest" – as used on the club crest – is commonly used, as is "the Reds". Another, lesser-used, nickname referring to the club is the "Tricky Trees". Stadium City Ground Since 1898 Nottingham Forest have played their home games at the City Ground in West Bridgford, on the banks of the River Trent. Prior to moving to the City Ground, Forest played their home games at Forest Recreation Ground, then Trent Bridge, and finally the purpose-built Town Ground. Since 1994 the City Ground has been all-seater, a preparation that was made in time for the ground to be a venue for Euro 96, and currently has a capacity of 30,445. The City Ground is 300 yards away from Notts County's Meadow Lane stadium on the opposite side of the Trent, meaning the two grounds are the closest professional football stadia geographically in England. In 1898 the City Ground was within the boundaries of Nottingham, which had been given city status the year before and gave rise to the name of the stadium, however a boundary change in the 1950s means that the City Ground now stands just outside of the city's boundaries in the town of West Bridgford. On 28 February 2019 Nottingham Forest announced plans to redevelop the City Ground and surrounding area, including the "creation of a new, world-class Peter Taylor Stand". It is expected this will increase the capacity of the stadium to 38,000, making it the largest football stadium in the East Midlands. The club were hopeful that building work could begin at the end of the 2019-20 season. However, the development was put on hold due to “delays in the planning process”. Ground history Local rivals, derbies and supporters Whilst Notts County is the closest professional football club geographically, Forest have remained at least one division higher since the 1994–95 season and the club's fiercest rivalry is with Derby County, located 14 miles away. The two clubs contest the East Midlands derby, a fixture which has taken on even greater significance since the inception of the Brian Clough Trophy in 2007. Leicester City were widely considered to be Forest's main East Midlands rivals prior to Brian Clough’s success at both Derby and Forest. The ferocity is now most fiercely felt by fans who live around the Leicestershire-Nottinghamshire border. Forest's other regional rival is Sheffield United, based in the neighbouring county of South Yorkshire, a rivalry which has roots in the UK miners' strike of 1984–85 when the miners of South Yorkshire walked out on long strikes but some Nottinghamshire miners, who insisted on holding a ballot, continued to work. The exciting 2003 Football League Championship Play-off semi-final between the two clubs, in which Sheffield United finished as 5–4 aggregate winners, also fuelled the rivalry. Honours Domestic League First Division/Premier League Champions (1): 1977–78 Runners-up (2): 1966–67, 1978–79 Football Alliance Champions (1): 1891–92 Cups FA Cup Winners (2): 1897–98, 1958–59 Runners-up (1): 1990–91 Football League Cup Winners (4): 1977–78, 1978–79, 1988–89, 1989–90 Runners-up (2): 1979–80, 1991–92 FA Charity Shield Winners (1): 1978 Runners-up (1): 1959 European European Cup Winners (2): 1978–79, 1979–80 European Super Cup Winners (1): 1979 Runners-up (1): 1980 Worldwide Intercontinental Cup Runners-up (1): 1980 Minor Anglo-Scottish Cup Winners (1): 1977 Second Division/Championship Champions (3): 1906–07, 1921–22, 1997–98 Runners-up (2): 1956–57, 1993–94 Promoted (1): 1976–77 Third Division/League One Champions (1): 1950–51 (South) Runners-up (1): 2007–08 Full Members Cup Winners (2): 1988–89, 1991–92 Managers Information correct as of match played 26 February 2022. Only competitive matches are counted. Caretaker managers are in italics Records Most appearances for the club (in all competitions): 692 – Bob McKinlay (1951–1970) Most goals for the club (in all competitions): 217 – Grenville Morris (1898–1913) Highest attendance: 49,946 Vs. Manchester United in Division 1, 28 October 1967 Lowest attendance: 4,030 Vs. Morecambe F.C. in the Football League Cup, 13 August 2008 Record receipts: £499,099 Vs. FC Bayern Munich in UEFA Cup quarter final 2nd leg, 19 March 1996 Longest sequence of league wins: 7, wins from 9 May 1922 to 1 September 1922 Longest sequence of league defeats: 14, losses from 21 March 1913 to 27 September 1913 Longest sequence of unbeaten league matches: 42, from 26 November 1977 to 25 November 1978 Longest sequence of league games without a win: 19, from 8 September 1998 to 16 January 1999 Longest sequence of league games without a goal: 7, 13 December 2003 to 7 February 2004 and 26 November 2011 to 31 December 2011 Quickest goal: League: 14 seconds, Jack Lester vs Norwich City, 8 March 2000 League Cup: 23 seconds, Paul Smith vs Leicester City, 18 September 2007 in the League Cup † Record win (in all competitions): 14–0, Vs. Clapton (away), 1st round FA Cup, 17 January 1891 Record defeat (in all competitions): 1–9, Vs. Blackburn Rovers, Division 2, 10 April 1937 Most league points in one season 2 points for a win (46 games): 70, Division 3 South, 1950–51 2 points for a win (42 Games): 64, Division 1. 1977-78 3 points for a win: 94, Division 1, 1997–98 Most league goals in one season: 110, Division 3, 1950–51 Highest league scorer in one season: Wally Ardron, 36, Division 3 (South), 1950–51 Most internationally capped player: Stuart Pearce, 76 for England (78 total) Youngest league player: Craig Westcarr, 16 years, Vs. Burnley 13 October 2001 Oldest league player: Dave Beasant, 42 years 47 days, Vs. Tranmere Rovers 6 May 2001 Largest transfer fee paid: £13,200,000 to Benfica for João Carvalho Largest transfer fee received: £15,000,000 from Middlesbrough for Britt Assombalonga ‡ † By agreement with Leicester City, the game was a replay as the original match three weeks previous was abandoned at half time, due to the collapse of Leicester player Clive Clarke, with Forest leading 1–0. ‡ Forest received £14,000,000 from Aston Villa for Matty Cash, but with add-on's this fee could potentially rise to £16,000,000. European record Players First team First team out on loan Under 23s squad Under 23s out on loan Under 18s squad Notable former players Player of the Season All-time XI In 1997 and 1998, as part of the release of the book The Official History of Nottingham Forest, a vote was carried out to decide on the club's official All Time XI. In 2016, Nottingham Forest season ticket holders voted for the club's greatest eleven to commemorate the club's 150th Anniversary. International players See List of Nottingham Forest F.C. international footballers Club staff Coaching staff Executive & front office Academy staff Notes References External links Association football clubs established in 1865 Bandy clubs established in 1865 Football clubs in England Premier League clubs English Football League clubs FA Cup winners EFL Cup winners UEFA Champions League winning clubs UEFA Super Cup winning clubs EFL Championship clubs 1865 establishments in England Defunct bandy clubs

United States federal judicial district

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For purposes of the federal judicial system, Congress has divided the United States into judicial districts. There are 94 federal judicial districts, including at least one district in each state, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Three territories of the United States — the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands — have district courts that hear federal cases, including bankruptcy cases. The breakdown of what is in each judicial district is at . Federal judicial districts have also been established in the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Courts in other insular areas are territorial courts under Article I of the Constitution, not United States district courts, although they have similar jurisdiction. Only two districts have jurisdiction over areas outside the state in which the court sits: The District of Wyoming includes all of Yellowstone National Park, including areas in Montana and Idaho. The District of Hawaii includes Midway Island, Palmyra Island, and a number of other uninhabited Pacific island possessions of the United States. Each district has its own United States district court (with a bankruptcy court under its authority), including judges, clerks, court reporters, and other support personnel, all employed by the judicial branch of the government and overseen by the Administrative Office of the Courts in Washington, D.C. There is also a United States Attorney in each district, who acts as the federal government's lawyer in the district, both prosecuting federal criminal cases and defending the government (and its employees) in civil suits against them; the U.S. Attorney is not employed by the judicial branch but by the Department of Justice, part of the executive branch. There is also a Federal Public Defender who represents people charged with federal crimes who cannot afford to hire their own lawyers; some FPDs cover more than one judicial district. Each district also has a United States Marshal who serves the court system. Census 1790–1840 From 1790 to 1840 judicial district offices were responsible for census activities, which were in turn conducted by the United States Marshal Service. After the passage of the Census Act of 1840 a central federal census was formed to take charge of census activities. List of districts Below is a list of the federal judicial districts and the place(s) where each court "sits" (holds trials) in each district. References United States federal judicial districts

Peter, Paul and Mary

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Peter, Paul and Mary were an American folk group formed in New York City in 1961, during the American folk music revival phenomenon. The trio was composed of tenor Peter Yarrow, baritone Paul Stookey, and contralto Mary Travers. The group's repertoire included songs written by Yarrow and Stookey, early songs by Bob Dylan, and covers of other folk musicians. They were enormously successful in the early- and mid-1960s, with their debut album topping the charts for weeks, and helped popularize the folk music revival. After the death of Travers in 2009, Yarrow and Stookey continued to perform as a duo under their individual names. Mary Travers said she was influenced by Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, and the Weavers. In the documentary Peter, Paul & Mary: Carry It On — A Musical Legacy, members of the Weavers discuss how Peter, Paul and Mary took over the torch of the social commentary of folk music in the 1960s. The group was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. Peter, Paul and Mary received the Sammy Cahn Lifetime Achievement Award from the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2006. History Early years and popularity (1961–1969) Manager Albert Grossman created Peter, Paul and Mary in 1961, after auditioning several singers in the New York folk scene, including Dave Van Ronk, who was rejected as too idiosyncratic and uncommercial, and Carolyn Hester. After rehearsing Yarrow, Stookey and Travers out of town in Boston and Miami, Grossman booked them into The Bitter End, a coffee house, nightclub and popular folk music venue in New York City's Greenwich Village. The group recorded their debut album, Peter, Paul and Mary, and it was released by Warner Bros. the following year. It included "Lemon Tree", "500 Miles", and the Pete Seeger hit tunes "If I Had a Hammer" (subtitled "The Hammer Song") and "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?" The album was listed in the Billboard Magazine Top Ten for 10 months, including seven weeks in the No. 1 position. It remained a main catalog-seller for decades to come, eventually selling over two million copies, earning double platinum certification from the RIAA in the United States alone. In 1963 the group released "Puff, the Magic Dragon", with music by Yarrow and words based on a poem that had been written by a fellow student at Cornell, Leonard Lipton. Despite rumors that the song refers to drugs, it is actually about the lost innocence of childhood. That same year, they appeared as the "mystery guest" on the CBS TV game show What's My Line? Dorothy Kilgallen correctly guessed their identity. That year the group performed "If I Had a Hammer" and "Blowin' in the Wind" at the August 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, best remembered for Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech. The Bob Dylan song "Blowin' in the Wind" was one of their biggest hit singles. They also sang other Dylan songs, such as "The Times They Are a-Changin'", "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right", and "When the Ship Comes In". Their success with Dylan's "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right" helped Dylan's The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan album rise into the top 30; it had been released four months earlier. In December 1969 "Leaving on a Jet Plane", written by the group's friend John Denver, became their only No. 1 single (as well as their final top 40 pop hit) and the group's sixth million-selling gold single. The track first appeared on their million-selling platinum certified Album 1700 in 1967 (which also contained their No. 9 hit "I Dig Rock and Roll Music"). After Eugene McCarthy's strong showing in the 1968 New Hampshire presidential primary, the group recorded "Eugene McCarthy For President (If You Love Your Country)" endorsing McCarthy, which was released without a record label. "Day Is Done", a No. 21 hit in June 1969 from the trio's Grammy Award-winning album Peter, Paul and Mommy, was the last Hot 100 hit the trio recorded. Breakup (1970–1978) The trio broke up in 1970 to pursue solo careers. Also that year, Yarrow was convicted of making sexual advances toward a 14-year-old girl. Years later, he received a presidential pardon from Jimmy Carter. During 1971 and 1972 Warner released a debut solo album, with the same style cover, by each member of the group. Travers did concerts and lectures across the United States. She also produced, wrote, and starred in a BBC-TV series. Stookey formed a Christian music group, the Body Works Band, and wrote "The Wedding Song (There Is Love)" for Yarrow's marriage to Marybeth McCarthy, the niece of Eugene McCarthy. Britain's Petula Clark also recorded a version of the song, which in 1973 charted strongly in the UK, Australia and others. Yarrow co-wrote and produced Mary MacGregor's Torn Between Two Lovers (No. 1, 1977) and earned an Emmy for three animated TV specials based on "Puff the Magic Dragon". While the group was de facto broken up and touring separately, it still managed to come together for a series of reunions before officially coming back together again. In 1972, the trio reunited for Together for McGovern, a concert at Madison Square Garden to support George McGovern's presidential campaign, and again in 1978 for a concert to protest nuclear energy. This concert was followed by a 1978 summer reunion tour. Included was a September 3 evening performance at Red Rocks Amphitheatre. A reunion album, Reunion, was released by Warner in 1978. In Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau said the group's decision to cover Bob Dylan's "Forever Young" as a "rinky-dink reggae like these three geezers means you've been middle-aged and liberal since you were fifteen." Reunion (1981–2009) Their 1978 summer reunion tour was so popular that the group decided to reunite more or less permanently in 1981. They continued to record albums and tour, playing around 45 shows a year, until Travers's 2009 death. After their reunion, double-bassist Dick Kniss (who had been their bassist in their studio recordings and with their 1960s tours) rejoined the group. Starting in 1990, multi-instrumentalist Paul Prestopino also joined the group. The trio received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience award on September 1, 1990. In 2004, Travers was diagnosed with leukemia, leading to the cancellation of that year's remaining tour dates. She received a bone marrow transplant. She and the rest of the trio resumed their tour on December 9, 2005, with a holiday performance at Carnegie Hall. The trio canceled several dates of their summer 2007 tour, as Travers had to undergo a second surgery. She was unable to perform on the trio's tour in mid-2009 because of the effects of leukemia, but Yarrow and Stookey performed the scheduled dates as a duo, calling the show "Peter & Paul Celebrate Mary and 5 Decades of Friendship". On September 16, 2009, Travers died at age 72, of complications from chemotherapy, following treatment for leukemia. It was the same year Peter, Paul and Mary were inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame. Discography Peter, Paul and Mary (1962) (Moving) (1963) In the Wind (1963) A Song Will Rise (1964) See What Tomorrow Brings (1965) The Peter, Paul and Mary Album (1966) Album 1700 (1967) Late Again (1968) Peter, Paul and Mommy (1969) Reunion (1978) No Easy Walk To Freedom (1986) Flowers and Stones (1990) LifeLines (1995) In These Times (2003) List of number-one hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) References External links Official home page Peter, Paul and Mary - Vocal Group Hall of Fame Page. Peter Yarrow Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2017) Musical groups established in 1961 Musical groups disestablished in 1970 Musical groups reestablished in 1978 Musical groups disestablished in 2009 American folk musical groups Grammy Award winners American musical trios Warner Records artists Musical groups from New York City 1961 establishments in New York City 1970 disestablishments in New York (state) 1978 establishments in New York City 2009 disestablishments in New York (state)

Bank holiday

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A bank holiday is a national public holiday in the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and the Crown dependencies. The term refers to all public holidays in the United Kingdom, be they set out in statute, declared by royal proclamation or held by convention under common law. The term "bank holiday" refers to the fact that banking institutions typically close for business on such holidays. List of current holidays Notes See also List of holidays by country Bank Holidays Act 1871 Proposed St David's Day bank holiday References External links UK bank holidays Scotland Bank Holidays - Scottish Government Public holidays (Ireland) British culture Irish culture Holidays United Kingdom, Bank holiday

Big Rock Candy Mountain

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"Big Rock Candy Mountain", first recorded by Harry McClintock in 1928, is a country folk song about a hobo's idea of paradise, a modern version of the medieval concept of Cockaigne. It is a place where "hens lay soft boiled eggs" and there are "cigarette trees". McClintock said that he wrote the song in 1895, based on tales from his youth hoboing through the United States, but some believe that at least aspects of the song have existed for far longer. It is catalogued as Roud Folk Song Index No. 6696. History The song was first recorded by McClintock, also known by his "hobo" name of Haywire Mac. McClintock said that he wrote the song, though it was likely partially based on other ballads, including "An Invitation to Lubberland" and "The Appleknocker's Lament". Other popular itinerant songs of the day such as "Hobo's Paradise", "Hobo Heaven", "Sweet Potato Mountains" and "Little Streams of Whiskey" likely served as inspiration, as they mention concepts similar to those in "Big Rock Candy Mountain". Before recording the song, McClintock cleaned it up considerably from the version he sang as a street busker in the 1890s. Originally the song described a child being recruited into hobo life by tales of the "big rock candy mountain". In later years, when McClintock appeared in court as part of a copyright dispute, he cited the original words of the song, the last stanza of which was: ”The punk rolled up his big blue eyes And said to the jocker, "Sandy, I've hiked and hiked and wandered too, But I ain't seen any candy. I've hiked and hiked till my feet are sore And I'll be damned if I hike any more To be buggered sore like a hobo's whore In the Big Rock Candy Mountains." In the released version this verse did not appear. The song was not popularized until 1939, when it peaked at #1 on Billboard magazine's country music charts. But it achieved more widespread popularity in 1949 when a sanitized version intended for children was re-recorded by Burl Ives. It has been recorded by many artists throughout the world, but a version recorded in 1960 by Dorsey Burnette to date was the biggest success for the song in the post-1954 "rock era", having reached No. 102 on Billboard's chart. The most famous version has this refrain: Oh, the buzzin' of the bees in the cigarette trees The soda water fountain Where the lemonade springs and the bluebird sings In that Big Rock Candy Mountain Sanitized versions have been popular, especially with children's musicians; in these, the "cigarette trees" become peppermint trees, and the "streams of alcohol" trickling down the rocks become streams of lemonade. The lake of gin is not mentioned, and the lake of whiskey becomes a lake of soda pop. The 2008 extended adaptation for children by Gil McLachlan tells the story as a child's dream, the last stanza being: In the Big Rock Candy Mountains you're going on a holiday Your birthday comes around once a week and it’s Christmas every day You never have to clean your room or put your toys away There's a little white horse you can ride of course You can jump so high you can touch the sky In the Big Rock Candy Mountains. Editions Folklorist John Greenway published the song in his American Folksongs of Protest (1953), redacting only the second to last line. Bowdlerized versions are included in Irwin Silber's Songs of the Great American West (1967) and Alan Lomax's The Penguin Book of American Folk Songs (1964). A folk version of the song is included in the Gordon "Inferno" Collection in the Library of Congress, under the title "The Appleknocker's Lament". Recordings Immediately after Harry McClintock's record, in November 1928, Ernie Hare recorded the song as Hobo Jack Turner. Vernon Dalhart and Company recorded this as The Big Rock Candy Mountains, on Edison Diamond Disc No. 52472-L, in February 1929. This version is now available on cylinder record, released in November 2016 by the Vulcan Cylinder Record Company. A version of the song was recorded by Pete Seeger for Folkways Records in 1957 (Track 2, Side 2 in the American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 1 LP). Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961) The New Christy Minstrels did a version of the song, which was included in a special compilation by Columbia Records of children's songs. The song was used in the 1987 film Ironweed and sung by Tom Waits. Musician Tom Chapin included a children's version of the song on his 1988 album Family Tree. Lisa Loeb sang a clean version of the song on her 2004 children's album Catch the Moon. In his 2004 album The Nifty Mervous Thrifty, Muck Sticky made a cover of this song. A version of the song was recorded by The Restarts, a punk band from London, England. In 2014, The Okee Dokee Brothers recorded a more family-friendly version of the song for their album Through the Woods, replacing references to alcohol and whiskey with chocolate and marmalade, for example. Other renditions The song was used in a 2005 Burger King commercial, although the lyrics are changed to reference the Burger King TenderCrisp. In the commercial almost all of the promises of the song are shown in detail. Darius Rucker appears as the cowboy singing the song. Brooke Burke also appears as a cowgirl. Comedian Sarah Silverman sang a version on The Sarah Silverman Program in the episode "There's No Place Like Homeless". The song was sung by Harry Dean Stanton in his role as Roman Grant in the HBO series Big Love. Singer-songwriter Bruce Hornsby has occasionally used the song as an intro to his song "Candy Mountain Run" in live performances Natalie Maines of The Chicks sang a version of the song on the 2016 episode "Gal of Constant Sorrow" of the television show The Simpsons, with references to characters on the show. In July, 2021 excerpts from the Harry McClintock version are featured in a Chevrolet Silverado commercial in which a cat is shown retrieving a stick from a lake. Soundtrack appearances The children-friendly version of the song was used in the Rankin Bass stop-motion TV special, The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town. The original Harry McClintock recording was included in the soundtrack for the 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou?. A performance of the song by John Hartford appears on the Down from the Mountain concert film and soundtrack in 2000. A recording of the song by Brie Larson appears on the soundtrack to the 2015 drama film Room, based on the novel of the same name by Emma Donoghue. Sung by characters in the opening scenes of the 2003 movie Runaway Jury. A Burl Ives version of the song appears in season four of Better Call Saul. References to the song Physical locations A cluster of brightly colored hills just north of Marysvale, Utah, near the Fishlake National Forest, is named the "Big Rock Candy Mountain". In 1928, after the song had been released, some Utah residents jokingly placed a sign at the base of the hills labeling it the "Big Rock Candy Mountain", along with a sign next to a nearby spring proclaiming it "Lemonade Springs". The Big Rock Candy Mountain Resort currently sits at the base of the hills offering lodging and an assortment of high adventure activities through Big Rock Adventure. The resort is also a major hub on the infamous Paiute ATV trail. Other rock formations in the United States have also borrowed the name of the song; the largest exposed rock in the South Platte rock climbing area of Colorado is also called "Big Rock Candy Mountain" because of its colored stripes resembling a candy cane. Additionally, one of the peaks in the Capitol State Forest in Washington State is named "Big Rock Candy Mountain". In literature In 1943, Wallace Stegner published an autobiographical novel titled The Big Rock Candy Mountain. He published a further autobiographical work in 1992 entitled Where the Bluebird Sings to the Lemonade Springs, a reference to a line in the song. In 1945, George Orwell referenced the song in the book Animal Farm with an animal version of heaven named Sugarcandy Mountain. In Glen Cook's 1982 novel Shadowline, first in the Starfishers trilogy, a planet named the Big Rock Candy Mountain is the location for several scenes. The song is discussed in depth in the book The Areas of My Expertise by John Hodgman, and performed by Jonathan Coulton in the audiobook. In 2005, Lucius Shepard referenced the song in the story 'Over Yonder'. In Mur Lafferty's Heaven novella series, the Big Rock Candy Mountain is portrayed as the hobo afterlife. In the 2014 Valiant Comics series The Delinquents, the Big Rock Candy Mountain is presented as a mesa, atop which is the "lost treasure of the hobos", a giant horn of plenty. In film and television The 1963 Famous Studios Screen Song, Hobo's Holiday, features the adult lyrics which appear on screen with a bouncing ball. The 1977 Rankin-Bass special The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town. In 1987, photographer Robert Frank directed a screenplay by Rudy Wurlitzer entitled Candy Mountain that references the song. The 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou? uses this song in the opening credits. The theme song to the 2008-2010 TV series The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack is a version of the song with modified lyrics, referring to "a place called Candied Island" instead of "Big Rock Candy Mountain". The series itself echoes the song, as it features two hobo-like characters searching for the fabled paradise of Candied Island. During the first dream sequence in the 2011 horror film Twixt, the lyrics of the song are sung with an alternate melody. In the 2003 film Runaway Jury, an adaptation of a John Grisham legal thriller, Jacob Wood has to learn the words of the song for his son's birthday. This does not occur in the novel. In the 2015 film Room, Ma (Brie Larson) sings a version of the song to her son Jack (Jacob Tremblay). In the SyFy channel series Van Helsing, Sam sings bits of the song in the episode "Little Thing" and the Burl Ives rendition is played over the closing credits of several episodes. A version of the song by Burl Ives is played in the season 4 episode "Something Stupid" of AMC's crime drama Better Call Saul. Throughout DuckTales (2017 TV series) episode GlomTales, Scrooge McDuck and his family are traveling to Rock Candy Mountain to find the Hobo King's treasure. The song appears in the background of a 2021 TV advertisement for the Chevrolet Silverado truck. In music In 1987, Scottish indie pop band The Motorcycle Boy released an original song with the same title as a single. In 1990, Jane Wiedlin recorded an unrelated song with the same title on her album Tangled. The song "Candy Mountain Cave", from the online video Charlie the Unicorn, parodies this song (to the tune of the "Clarinet Polka"). In 1978, country singer Mel Tillis released the single "Ain't No California", which includes the line, "Ain't no Big Rock Candy Mountain." References Further reading Harry McClintock songs 1928 songs American folk songs Burl Ives songs Street performance Fictional mountains Songs about mountains

The Proms

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The Proms or BBC Proms, formally named the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts Presented by the BBC, is an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music concerts and other events held annually, predominantly in the Royal Albert Hall in central London. The Proms were founded in 1895, and are now organised and broadcast by the BBC. Each season consists of concerts in the Royal Albert Hall, chamber music concerts at Cadogan Hall, additional Proms in the Park events across the UK on the Last Night of the Proms, and associated educational and children's events. The season is a significant event in British culture and in classical music. Czech conductor Jiří Bělohlávek described the Proms as "the world's largest and most democratic musical festival". Prom is short for promenade concert, a term which originally referred to outdoor concerts in London's pleasure gardens, where the audience was free to stroll around while the orchestra was playing. In the context of the BBC Proms, promming refers to the use of the standing areas inside the hall (the Arena and Gallery) for which ticket prices are much lower than for the seating. Proms concert-goers, particularly those who stand, are sometimes referred to as "Prommers" or "Promenaders". History Origins and Sir Henry Wood Promenade concerts had existed in London's pleasure gardens since the mid-18th century, and indoor proms became a feature of 19th century musical life in London from 1838, notably under the direction of Louis Antoine Jullien and Sir Arthur Sullivan. The annual series of Proms continuing today had their roots in that movement. They were inaugurated on 10 August 1895 in the Queen's Hall in Langham Place by the impresario Robert Newman, who was fully experienced in running similar concerts at His Majesty's Theatre. Newman wished to generate a wider audience for concert hall music by offering low ticket prices and an informal atmosphere, where eating, drinking and smoking were permitted to the promenaders. He stated his aim to Henry Wood in 1894 as follows: George Cathcart, an otolaryngologist, gave financial backing to Newman for the series (called "Mr Robert Newman's Promenade Concerts") on condition that Henry Wood be employed as the sole conductor. Wood, aged 26, seized this opportunity and built the "Queen's Hall Orchestra" as the ensemble specially devoted to performing the promenade concerts. Cathcart also stipulated (contrary to Newman's preference) the adoption of French or Open Diapason concert pitch, necessitating the acquisition of an entirely new set of wind instruments for the orchestra, and the re-tuning of the Queen's Hall organ. This coincided with the adoption of this lower pitch by other leading orchestras and concert series. Although the concerts gained a popular following and reputation, Newman went bankrupt in 1902, and the banker Edgar Speyer took over the expense of funding them. Wood received a knighthood in 1911. In 1914 anti-German feeling led Speyer to surrender his role, and music publishers Chappell & Co. took control of the concerts. Although Newman remained involved in artistic planning, it was Wood's name which became most closely associated with the Proms. As conductor from the first concert (which opened with Wagner's Rienzi overture) in 1895, Sir Henry was largely responsible for building the repertoire heard as the series continued from year to year. While including many popular and less demanding works, in the first season there were substantial nights devoted to Beethoven or Schubert, and a programme of new works was given in the final week. Distinguished singers including Sims Reeves and Signor Foli appeared. In the first two decades Wood firmly established the policy of introducing works by contemporary composers (both British and international) and of bringing fresh life to unperformed or under-performed works. A bronze bust of Sir Henry Wood recovered from the ruins of the bombed-out Queen's Hall in 1941, and now belonging to the Royal Academy of Music, is still placed in front of the organ for the whole Promenade season. Though the concerts are now called the BBC Proms, and are headlined with the BBC logo, the tickets are subtitled "BBC Music presents the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts". In 1927, following Newman's sudden death in the previous year, the BBC – later based at Broadcasting House next to the hall – took over the running of the concerts. This arose because William Boosey, then managing director of Chappell & Co. (the Prom. proprietors), detested broadcasting and saw the BBC's far-reaching demands and intentions in the control of musical presentation as a danger to the future of public concerts altogether. He decided to disband the New Queen's Hall Orchestra, which played for the last time at a Symphony concert on 19 March 1927. He found it more expedient to let the Queen's Hall to the broadcasting powers, rather than to continue the Promenade concerts and other big series independently in an unequal competition with what was effectively the Government itself. So the Proms were saved, but under a different kind of authority. The personnel of the New Queen's Hall Orchestra effectively continued until 1930 as "Sir Henry J. Wood and his Symphony Orchestra". When the BBC Symphony Orchestra (BBC SO) was formed in 1930, it became the main orchestra for the concerts. At this time the season consisted of nights dedicated to particular composers; Mondays were Wagner, Fridays were Beethoven, with other major composers being featured on other days. There were no Sunday performances. During World War II With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the BBC withdrew its support. However private sponsors stepped in to maintain the Proms, always under Sir Henry Wood's direction, until the Queen's Hall was devastated beyond repair during an air raid in May 1941. (The site is now occupied by the St George's Hotel and BBC Henry Wood House). The concerts then moved (until 1944) to their current home, the Royal Albert Hall, during the Promenade season presented by Keith Douglas in conjunction with the Royal Philharmonic Society (of which he was Secretary). The London Symphony Orchestra had sometimes assisted in the series since (after 1927) the New Queen's Hall Orchestra had ceased to function, and in 1942 Sir Henry Wood also invited the London Philharmonic Orchestra under its new leader Jean Pougnet to participate in this and subsequent seasons. In this he was attempting to maintain vigour in the programme, under the renewal of its relationship with the BBC as promoters. Sir Henry Wood continued his work with the Proms through vicissitudes with the BBC until his death in 1944, the year of his Jubilee Season. During that period Sir Adrian Boult, chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra, and Basil Cameron also took on conducting duties for the series, continuing them in 1944 when, under increased danger from bombing, they were moved again, this time to the Bedford Corn Exchange (home of the BBC Symphony Orchestra since 1941) which hosted them until the end of the War. Post-war Sir Adrian Boult and Basil Cameron continued as conductors of the Promenade Concerts after the War, on their return to the Royal Albert Hall, until the advent of Malcolm Sargent as Proms chief conductor in 1947. Sargent held this post until 1966; his associate conductor from 1949 to 1959 was John Hollingsworth. Sargent was noted for his immaculate appearance (evening dress, carnation) and his witty addresses where he good-naturedly chided the noisy Prommers. Sir Malcolm championed choral music and classical and British composers, especially Samuel Coleridge-Taylor. The charity founded in his name, CLIC Sargent, continues to hold a special Promenade Concert each year shortly after the main season ends. CLIC Sargent, the Musicians' Benevolent Fund and further musical charities (chosen each year) also benefit from thousands of pounds in donations from Prommers after most concerts. When asking for donations, Prommers from the Arena regularly announce to the audience the running donations total at concert intervals through the season, or before the concert when there is no interval. After Wood's death, Julian Herbage acted as de facto principal administrator of the Proms for a number of years, as a freelance employee after his retirement from the BBC, with assistance from such staff as Edward Clark and Kenneth Wright. During the tenure of William Glock as Controller of the Proms, from 1960 to 1973, the Proms repertory expanded both forwards in time, to encompass then contemporary and avant-garde composers such as Boulez, Berio, Carter, Dallapiccola, Peter Maxwell Davies, Gerhard, Henze, Ligeti, Lutosławski, Lutyens, Maw, Messiaen, Nono, Stockhausen, and Tippett, as well as backwards to include music by past composers such as Purcell, Cavalli, Monteverdi, Byrd, Palestrina, Dufay, Dunstaple, and Machaut, as well as less-often performed works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Joseph Haydn. From the 1960s, the number of guest orchestras at the Proms also began to increase, with the first major international conductors (Leopold Stokowski, Georg Solti, and Carlo Maria Giulini) performing in 1963, and the first foreign orchestra, the Moscow Radio Symphony Orchestra, performing in 1966. Since that time, almost every major international orchestra, conductor and soloist has performed at the Proms. In 1970, Soft Machine's appearance led to press attention and comment as the first "pop" band to perform there. The 1968 season began on a Friday night instead of the usual Saturday night. This concert marked a tribute to Sir Malcolm Sargent who had died shortly after delivering a brief speech from the rostrum at the Last Night in 1967. He had been too ill to actually conduct that concert. Every year since then, the Proms have always started on a Friday night in July. Since 1990 The Proms continue today, and still present newly commissioned music alongside pieces more central to the repertoire and early music. Innovations continue, with pre-Prom talks, lunchtime chamber concerts, children's Proms, Proms in the Park either appearing, or being featured more heavily over the past few years. In the UK, all concerts are broadcast on BBC Radio 3, an increasing number are televised on BBC Four with some also shown on BBC One and BBC Two. The theme tune that used to be played at the beginning of each programme broadcast on television (until the 2011 season) was an extract from the end of the "Red" movement of Arthur Bliss's A Colour Symphony. It is also possible to hear the concerts live from the BBC Proms website. The Last Night is also broadcast in many countries around the world. In 1996, a related series of eight lunchtime chamber concerts was started, taking place on Mondays during the Proms season. In their first year these were held in the Britten Hall of the Royal College of Music (just across Prince Consort Road from the Albert Hall). The following year they moved slightly further afield, to the Henry Cole Lecture Theatre at the Victoria and Albert Museum. In 2005, they moved further again, to the new Cadogan Hall, just off London's Sloane Square. These allow the Proms to include music which is not suitable for the vast spaces of the Albert Hall. From 1998 to 2007, the Blue Peter Prom, in partnership with long-running BBC television programme Blue Peter, was an annual fixture. Aimed at children and families, the Prom is informal, including audience participation, jokes, and popular classics. High demand for tickets – which are among the lowest priced in the season – saw this Prom be split in 2004 into two Proms with identical content. In 2008, the Blue Peter Prom was replaced with a Doctor Who Prom which was revived in both the 2010 and 2013 seasons. The 2004 season also featured the Hall's newly rebuilt pipe organ. It took two years to complete the task (2002–2004) and was the work of Noel Mander, Ltd., of London. It was the first complete restoration of the instrument since Harrison and Harrison's work in 1936. The tradition of Promming remains an important aspect of the festival, with over 1000 standing places available for each concert, either in the central arena (rather like the groundlings in the pit at Shakespeare's Globe) or high in the hall's gallery. Promming tickets cost the same for all concerts (currently £6 as of 2018), providing a considerably cheaper option for the more popular events. Since the tickets cannot be bought until 9am on the morning of the concert (although there are full-season tickets, first weekend and weekly passes available), they provide a way of attending otherwise sold-out concerts. In 2010, the Proms Archive was introduced on the BBC Proms webpage, to allow for a systematic searching of all works that have been performed and all artists who have appeared at the Proms since their inception. On 1 September 2011, a Prom given by the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra was severely affected by interruptions from pro-Palestinian protesters. While the Palestine Solidarity Campaign had urged a boycott, they denied being behind the disruption inside the Royal Albert Hall. For the first time ever, the BBC took a Prom concert off the air. Successive Controllers of the Proms after Glock have been Robert Ponsonby (1973–1985), John Drummond (1986–1995), Nicholas Kenyon (1996–2007), and Roger Wright (2007–2014). Between 1986 and 2014, the post of Director, BBC Proms had mostly been combined with the role of Controller, BBC Radio 3. Edward Blakeman, editor of BBC Radio 3, became interim Proms Director upon Wright's departure in July 2014. In May 2015, the BBC announced the appointment of David Pickard as the next Director of BBC Proms. Proms seasons 2006 The 2006 season (the 112th) marked the 250th birthday celebrations of Mozart and the centenary of Shostakovich's birth. New initiatives included four Saturday matinee concerts at the Cadogan Hall and the chance for audience members to get involved with The Voice, a collaborative piece performed in two Proms on 29 July. On 3 September 2006, a concert was cancelled due to a fire. The season saw the launch of a venture called the Proms Family Orchestra in which children and their extended families can make music with BBC musicians. 2007 The 2007 season ran from 13 July to 8 September. Early press coverage focused heavily on the fact that musical theatre star Michael Ball would be the central performer in a concert on 27 August and a concert of British film music on 14 July. This led to media accusations of "dumbing down", despite Kenyon's defence of the programme. Anniversaries marked in this Proms season included: The 150th anniversary of the birth of Sir Edward Elgar The 100th anniversary of the death of Edvard Grieg The 50th anniversary of the death of Jean Sibelius 80 years since the first BBC sponsorship of the Proms. The series also included an additional series of four Saturday matinee concerts at Cadogan Hall. The 2007 season was Kenyon's last season as controller of the BBC Proms, before he became managing director at the Barbican Centre. Roger Wright became Controller of the Proms in October 2007, whilst retaining responsibility for BBC Radio 3 and taking up a broader role controlling the BBC's classical music output across all media. 2008 The 2008 season ran from 18 July to 13 September 2008. The BBC released details of the season slightly earlier than usual, on 9 April 2008. Composers whose anniversaries were marked include: Ralph Vaughan Williams: 50th anniversary of his death Elliott Carter: 100th birthday Olivier Messiaen: 100th anniversary of his birth Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: centenary of his death Karlheinz Stockhausen: 80th anniversary of his birth The celebration of Stockhausen was centred on two large-scale concerts on 2 August 2008, and complementing Vaughan Williams's interest in folk music, the first Sunday was given over to a celebration of various aspects of British folk, including free events in Kensington Gardens and the Albert Hall, and ending with the first-ever Proms céilidh in the Albert Hall itself. Other changes included additional pre-Prom talks and events. For the first time, there was a related talk or event before every Prom, held in the Royal College of Music. The popular family-oriented Prom this year became the Doctor Who Prom, (in place of the Blue Peter Prom of recent years). The Doctor Who Prom included a mini-episode of Doctor Who, "Music of the Spheres". Just over a month before the announcement of the season, Margaret Hodge, a Minister of State at the Department for Culture, Media and Sport suggested "that the Proms was one of several big cultural events that many people did not feel comfortable attending" and advocated an increase in multicultural works and an effort to broaden the audience. Her comments received wide criticism in the musical world and media as being a fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of the Proms, with the then UK prime minister Gordon Brown even distancing himself from her remarks. 2009 In the 2009 season, which ran from 17 July to 12 September 2009, the total number of concerts reached 100 for the first time. The principal anniversary composers included: George Frideric Handel (250th anniversary of his death) Joseph Haydn (200th anniversary of his death) Felix Mendelssohn (200th anniversary of his birth) Henry Purcell (350th anniversary of his birth) Other composer anniversaries noted in the 2009 Proms included: Louis Andriessen (70th birthday) Harrison Birtwistle (75th birthday) John Casken (60th birthday) George Crumb (80th birthday) Frederick Delius (75th anniversary of his death) Edward Elgar (75th anniversary of his death) Jonathan Harvey (70th birthday) Gustav Holst (75th anniversary of his death) Albert Ketèlbey (50th anniversary of his death) Bohuslav Martinů (50th anniversary of his death) Peter Maxwell Davies (75th birthday) Heitor Villa-Lobos (50th anniversary of his death) The humorist and music impresario Gerard Hoffnung was also remembered with the performance in the Last Night of Malcolm Arnold's A Grand Grand Overture, which was commissioned for the first Hoffnung Music Festival. The 2009 Proms featured Bollywood music for the first time, as part of a day-long series of concerts and events also covering Indian classical music. Performers in the day included Ram Narayan, Rajan and Sajan Mishra, and Shaan. Noted historical anniversaries covered in the 2009 Proms included the 75th anniversary of the MGM film musical, and the 10th year of the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra. There was a child-oriented Prom to mark the Darwin bicentenary as well as a Free Family Prom including the Proms Family Orchestra. There was also a concert performance by the Ukulele Orchestra of Great Britain which was broadcast live on BBC Radio 3 and received critical acclaim. This concert included a version of Beethoven's Ode to Joy in which at least 1000 audience members participated with Ukuleles. 2010 The 2010 Proms season ran from 16 July to 11 September. The principal anniversary composers included: Frédéric Chopin (200th anniversary of his birth) Gustav Mahler (150th anniversary of his birth) Robert Schumann (200th anniversary of his birth) Stephen Sondheim (80th birthday) Arvo Pärt (75th birthday) Rodgers and Hammerstein (50th anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II) Other anniversaries of composers featured at the Proms included: Thomas Arne (300th anniversary of his birth) Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (300th anniversary of his birth) Samuel Barber (100th anniversary of his birth) Alban Berg (125th anniversary of his birth) George Benjamin (50th birthday) James Dillon (60th birthday) Bayan Northcott (70th birthday) Gunther Schuller (85th birthday) Mark-Anthony Turnage (50th birthday) Hugo Wolf (150th anniversary of his birth) In addition, Hubert Parry and Alexander Scriabin received particular focus. One day was dedicated particularly to Sir Henry Wood, including a recreation of the 1910 Last Night. For families, the Doctor Who Prom, first introduced in 2008, received new renditions hosted by the newest Doctor (Matt Smith) and his companions Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill). The booking system was also revised with a new online system to allow ticket buyers to set up a personalised Proms plan in advance to speed up the booking process. 2011 The 2011 Proms season began on 15 July 2011 and ran until 10 September 2011. The principal anniversary composers included: Percy Grainger (50th anniversary of his death) Franz Liszt (200th anniversary of his birth; 125th anniversary of his death) Gustav Mahler (100th anniversary of his death) Tomás Luis de Victoria (400th anniversary of his death) Other anniversaries of composers featured at the Proms included: Richard Rodney Bennett (75th birthday) Marc-André Dalbavie (50th birthday) Marcel Dupré (125th anniversary of his birth) Henri Dutilleux (95th birthday) Sofia Gubaidulina (80th birthday) Bernard Herrmann (100th anniversary of his birth) Stan Kenton (100th anniversary of his birth) Colin Matthews (65th birthday) Steve Reich (75th birthday) The music of Frank Bridge also received a particular non-anniversary-related focus. Other notable performances included the first Proms performance of Havergal Brian's Symphony No. 1 ('The Gothic'), which was also the 6th live performance ever, and subsequently released on a Hyperion commercial recording. The 2011 Proms season also featured new works by Sally Beamish, Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, Pascal Dusapin, Graham Fitkin, Thomas Larcher, Kevin Volans, Judith Weir, and Stevie Wishart. Prom 62, featuring the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra on 1 September 2011, was taken off air by the BBC following vocal anti-Israeli protests from some members of the audience. This was the first time that the BBC had taken a Proms concert off air mid-broadcast. The 2011 Proms also featured the first ever 'Comedy Prom' hosted by comedian and pianist Tim Minchin, as well as the debut of the Spaghetti Western Orchestra. No other 'Comedy Prom' has taken place to date. The children's prom of 2011 was based on the CBBC television series Horrible Histories and featured a number of songs from the show. 2012 The 2012 Proms was the 118th season, began on 13 July 2012 and ran until 8 September 2012. Notable aspects of the season included the first Beethoven symphony cycle by a single orchestra at the Proms since 1942, with Daniel Barenboim conducting the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra, and various works and concerts that highlighted the 2012 London Olympic Games. Composer anniversaries included: John Adams: 65th birthday John Cage: centenary Hugh Wood: 80th birthday The season also noted the 70th anniversary of the BBC programme Desert Island Discs. 2013 The 2013 season celebrated several composer anniversaries: Benjamin Britten: centenary Giuseppe Verdi: bicentenary Richard Wagner: bicentenary The season featured concert performances of seven of Wagner's thirteen operas, including Der Ring des Nibelungen performed over the course of one week by the Staatskapelle Berlin, conducted by Daniel Barenboim, the first time the complete Ring cycle had been performed at the Proms in a single season. BBC Radio 3 also collaborated with BBC Radio 2 and Radio 6. In 2013 Marin Alsop became the first female conductor of the Last Night of the Proms. 2014 The 2014 season had a number of pieces in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the outbreak of World War I, including the premier of the violin concerto "1914" by Gabriel Prokofiev and "Requiem Fragments" by John Tavener. Also performed were "War Elegy" by Ivor Gurney, and Benjamin Britten's "War Requiem". There were special proms for younger children (The Cbeebies prom), a staging of Kiss Me, Kate, and a concert inspired by the World War I-era War Horse, featuring puppets from the play. The late night proms season included performances by the Pet Shop Boys and Paloma Faith. Composers having special attention included Sir Harrison Birtwistle, Sir Peter Maxwell Davies (both celebrating their 80th birthdays in 2014), William Walton, and Richard Strauss. 2015 Themes for the 2015 season included works by Carl Nielsen and Jean Sibelius, in commemoration of the 150th anniversaries of each composer. The Late Night Proms included collaborations with BBC Asian Network (Prom 8), Radio 1 (Prom 16, featuring dance music hits from the past 20 years), Radio 6 Music (Prom 27) and Radio 1Xtra (Prom 37, which featured grime artists Stormzy, Wretch 32, Little Simz and others). 2016 The 2016 Proms season featured a new series of 'Proms at...' concerts which included performances at venues in London besides the Royal Albert Hall and Cadogan Hall, specifically: The Chapel, Old Royal Naval College, Greenwich Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, Shakespeare's Globe The Roundhouse, Camden Bold Tendencies Multi-Storey Car Park, Peckham These concerts were offered in place of the previous Saturday Matinee concerts at Cadogan Hall. 2016 marked David Pickard's first season as Director, BBC Proms. This marked the first time since the 1990s when the posts of Controller, BBC Radio 3 and Director, BBC Proms were not combined. 2017 The 2017 Proms season featured a number of composer anniversaries: John Adams: 70th birthday Philip Glass: 80th birthday John Williams: 85th birthday The season also continued the 'Proms at...' series, with the following concerts: Stage@TheDock, Hull (the first Prom to be given outside of the London metropolitan area since 1930) Southwark Cathedral Bold Tendencies Multi-Storey Car Park, Peckham Wilton's Music Hall The Tanks at Tate Modern In addition, Xian Zhang became the first female conductor ever to conduct the annual Prom which includes the Symphony No. 9 of Beethoven, on 30 July 2017. The 2017 Proms season featured 7 female conductors, the greatest number of female conductors in a single Proms season to that point. 2018 The 2018 season ran from 13 July to 8 September and featured a number of composer anniversaries: Leonard Bernstein: 100th anniversary of his birth Lili Boulanger: 100th anniversary of her death Claude Debussy: 100th anniversary of his death Hubert Parry: 100th anniversary of his death Women composers were also celebrated on the 100th anniversary of the extension of voting rights to some women in the UK. The 22 composers featured included Clara Schumann, Ethel Smyth, Amy Beach, Alma Mahler, Florence Price and Thea Musgrave. Prom 3, on 15 July, marked the fortieth anniversary of the BBC Young Musician competition and featured performances from a number of the competition's previous and current winners and finalists. 2019 The 2019 season ran from 19 July to 14 September. 2020 The 2020 season marked 125 years since the first Proms season and was reimagined due to the COVID-19 pandemic, running from 19 July to 12 September. It featured "a unique format to reflect the times, with a compelling multi-platform offer". 2021 The 2021 season ran from 30 July to 11 September. This year marked 150 years of the Royal Albert Hall. Composers commissioned for the season were James MacMillan, Elizabeth Ogonek, Augusta Read Thomas, Britta Byström, Shiva Feshareki, Nico Muhly, George Lewis, George Benjamin, Grace-Evangeline Mason and Gity Razaz. Last Night of the Proms Many people's perception of the Proms is based on the Last Night, although this is very different from the other concerts. It usually takes place on the second Saturday in September, and is broadcast in the UK on BBC Radio 3, and on television on BBC Two (first half) and BBC One (second half). The concert is traditionally in a lighter, 'winding-down' vein, with popular classics followed by a second half of British patriotic pieces. This sequence traditionally includes Edward Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1" (to part of which "Land of Hope and Glory" is sung) and Henry Wood's "Fantasia on British Sea Songs", followed by Thomas Arne's "Rule, Britannia!". The concert concludes with Hubert Parry's "Jerusalem", and the British national anthem, since 2010 in an arrangement by Benjamin Britten. The repeat of the Elgar march at the Last Night can be traced to the spontaneous audience demand for a double encore after its premiere at a 1901 Proms concert. The closing sequence of the second half became fully established in 1954 during Sargent's tenure as chief conductor. The Prommers have made a tradition of singing "Auld Lang Syne" after the end of the concert, but this was not included in the programme until 2015. However, when James Loughran, a Scot, conducted the Last Night concert in the late 1970s and early 1980s he did include the piece within the programme. Tickets are highly sought after. Promming tickets are priced the same as for that season's concerts, but seated tickets are more expensive. To pre-book a seat, it is necessary to have bought tickets for at least five other concerts in the season and an advance booking for the Last Night must include those five concerts; the seat for the Last Night cannot be a better one (in terms of its pricing) than those for the other concerts. After the advance booking period, there is no requirement to have booked for additional concerts, but by then the Last Night is usually sold out, although returns may be available. For standing places, a full season pass automatically includes admission to the Last Night; day Prommers must present five ticket stubs from previous concerts to qualify for a standing Last Night ticket, either in the Arena or Gallery (prior to 2009, the requirement was for six other concerts). some Arena standing tickets have been available for purchase on the day, with no requirement to have attended previous concerts. These are sold on a 'first-come first-served' basis to those prepared to queue. In the post-war period, with the growing popularity of the Last Night, the only way to obtain tickets was through a postal ballot held well in advance. An annual ballot now exists for the chance to purchase a maximum of two tickets from a special allocation of 100 stalls seats. Prommers with tickets are likely to queue up much earlier than usual (many overnight, and in past years, some slept outside the hall for up to three weeks to guard their place – although this is no longer permitted) to ensure a good place to stand; the resulting camaraderie adds to the atmosphere. Some attend in fancy dress, from dinner jackets to patriotic T-shirts. Many use the occasion for an exuberant display of Britishness. Union Flags are waved by the Prommers, especially during "Rule, Britannia!". Other national flags, balloons and party poppers are all welcomed – although John Drummond discouraged 'extraneous noise' during his tenure as director. Sir Henry Wood's bust is adorned with a laurel chaplet by representatives of the Promenaders, who often wipe an imaginary bead of sweat from his forehead or make some similar gentle visual joke. As with the rest of the season, the cost of promming tickets (standing tickets) is just £6. Many consider these to be the best tickets due to the atmosphere of standing in the hall for up to three hours, albeit with a twenty-five minute interval. Another tradition is that near the end of the concert the conductor makes a speech thanking the musicians and audiences, mentioning the main themes of the season, noting the cumulative donation collected for the Promenaders' musical charities over the season, and announcing the date of the First Night for the following year. This tradition dates from 1941, when Sir Henry Wood gave the first such speech at the close of that season, which was the first at the Royal Albert Hall, when he thanked colleagues and sponsors. Wood gave a similar speech at the 1942 Last Night, and a pre-recorded version was played at the 1943 Last Night. During his tenure as conductor, Sir Malcolm Sargent established the tone of making the Last Night speech more humorous. Subsequent conductors have generally continued this, although one exception was in 1997 when Sir Andrew Davis addressed the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales, Mother Teresa, and Sir Georg Solti in 1997. Leonard Slatkin, chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra from 2000 to 2004, expressed a desire to tone down the nationalism of the Last Night, and during the seasons from 2002 until 2007 "Rule Britannia" was only heard as part of Henry Wood's '"Fantasia on British Sea Songs" (another piece traditional to the Last Night) rather than separately. Slatkin, an American and the first non-Commonwealth citizen to lead the Last Night, conducted his first in 2001, just days after the 9/11 attacks. The atmosphere was more restrained and less festive than normal, with a heavily revised programme where the finale of Beethoven's 9th Symphony replaced the "Sea Songs", and Samuel Barber's "Adagio for Strings" was performed in tribute to 9/11 victims. On the day of the 2005 Last Night, the hall management received word of a bomb threat, which led to a thorough search of the Albert Hall for 5 hours, but the concert took place after a short delay. This has led to increased security concerns, given the stature of the Last Night in British culture, which Jacqui Kelly of the Royal Albert Hall staff noted: 2008 also contained some departures from the traditional programme. "Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1" was moved to after the conductor's speech. In addition, most of Wood's "Fantasia on British Sea Songs" was replaced by Vaughan Williams's Sea Songs as a final tribute in his anniversary year. However, Wood's arrangements of naval bugle calls from the start of the "Fantasia" were retained, and Sargent's arrangement of "Rule Britannia" returned with Bryn Terfel as soloist. As on his 1994 Last Night appearance, he sang one verse in a Welsh translation, with the chorus also translated into Welsh. Additionally, 2008 saw the inclusion of Scottish composer Anna Meredith to the programme for her Proms premiere, froms, which involved five different groups of musicians telecasting in from around Britain. 2009 saw the continued absence of Wood's Sea Songs, this time replaced by specially commissioned fanfares, and extracts from Handel's "Music for the Royal Fireworks". In 2009, for the first time, the Last Night was shown live in several cinemas across Asia and in Canada and Australia. The 2014 Last Night saw soprano Elizabeth Watts wearing a dress by Vivienne Westwood, which was auctioned in aid of Streetwise Opera. The online auction ran from 8 September to 18 September. In 2016, anti-Brexit protestors waved EU flags in addition to the usual Union Jack flags. The protests have continued in subsequent years. In 2020, the concert was performed to an empty hall, due to the COVID-19 restrictions in place in the UK. Last Night conductors The following table lists by year the conductors of the Last Night of the Proms. In general, since the tenure of Sargent, the Chief Conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra has led this concert, but guest conductors have directed the Last Night on several occasions. Additionally, the tradition was for a British conductor, and if not the current serving Chief Conductor, one who had an association with the BBC Symphony Orchestra or one of the other BBC orchestras. Charles Mackerras was the first non-British-born conductor to lead the Last Night, in 1980. Leonard Slatkin was the first American conductor of the Last Night in 2001. Jiří Bělohlávek was the first non-native English speaker to conduct the Last Night, in 2007. Marin Alsop was the Last Night's first female conductor in 2013. Proms in the Park The Royal Albert Hall could be filled many times over with people who would wish to attend. To involve extra people, and to cater for those who are not near London, the Proms in the Park concerts were started in 1996. Initially there was one, in Hyde Park adjacent to the Hall, which was a simple video relay of the concert at the Royal Albert Hall. As audiences grew, Proms in the Park started to have musicians of their own on stage, including the BBC Concert Orchestra. In the 2000s, Proms in the Park started to be held in other locations across the UK, usually with one of the BBC's orchestras playing. In 2005, Belfast, Glasgow, Swansea and Manchester hosted a Last Night Prom in the Park, broadcast live from each venue. In 2007 Manchester's prom was replaced by one in Middlesbrough. In 2008 the number reduced from five to four, in Hyde Park, Belfast, Glasgow and Swansea. 2009 returned to a total of five, in Hyde Park, Glasgow, Swansea, County Down and Salford. Each location has its own live concert, typically playing the national anthem of the host country, before joining in a live big screen video link up with the Royal Albert Hall for the traditional finale. In recent years Proms in the Park has become a series of established events in their own right, with events in Hyde Park and in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, managed by BBC Scotland, BBC Cymru Wales and BBC Northern Ireland respectively, in conjunction with the host local authority. Each event has a presenting team, a live orchestra, a video link to the Last Night of the Proms in London, and guest soloists and choirs. Events tend to move to different cities to cover a wider geographical area within the host nations. All of these events are incorporated within BBC One's live coverage of the Last Night of the Proms, with live link-ups to each of the venues. However, some more traditional elements of the Last Night of the Proms (such as "Jerusalem", "Rule Britannia" and "Land of Hope and Glory") have been removed on some years depending on local politics. As the popularity of Proms in the Park grew, many communities across the UK decided to hold their own "Proms in the Park" events that were not affiliated with the BBC. The first live relays outside of London were to Swansea and Birmingham in 1999. In 2001, there were also live link-ups to Cornwall and Liverpool. In 2011, Caerphilly's Proms in the Park was cancelled before the concert started due to heavy rainfall Proms seasons Proms Controllers William Glock (1960–1973) Robert Ponsonby (1973–1985) John Drummond (1986–1995) Nicholas Kenyon (1996–2007) Roger Wright (2007–2014) Edward Blakeman (interim Director; 2014–2015) David Pickard (2015–present) See also BBC Radio 2 Electric Proms List of music festivals in the United Kingdom References External links BBC Proms Archive BBC Proms reviews at musicOMH Detailed Concert Annals for the 1959–1961 season Nick Breckenfield, "The Last Night of the Proms 2007". classicalsource.com page Last night of the Proms 2016 Official photographer to the proms for over 40 years - Chris Christodoulou Music festivals established in 1895 1895 establishments in England Annual events in London Proms British classical music radio programmes Classical music festivals in England Classical music in London Concerts at the Royal Albert Hall Music festivals in London Recurring events established in 1895 Tourist attractions in the City of Westminster Summer events in England

Presenter

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A presenter is a person or organization responsible for the running of a public event, or someone who conveys information on media via a broadcasting outlet. Presenter may refer to: People News presenter, person who presents news during a news program Sports commentator, an announcer who presents analysis of a sporting event Radio personality, presenter or announcer on a radio show Television presenter, person who introduces or hosts television programs Talk show host, presenter of a television or radio talk show Disc jockey, person who presents recorded music for a live or radio audience Master of ceremonies, host and presenter at a ceremony or staged event Weather presenter, person who presents broadcast weather forecasts Other Microsoft PowerPoint, formerly known as Presenter Adobe Presenter, eLearning software released by Adobe Systems Presentation program

Silent Night

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"Silent Night" () is a popular Christmas carol, composed in 1818 by Franz Xaver Gruber to lyrics by Joseph Mohr in the small town of Oberndorf bei Salzburg, Austria. It was declared an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2011. The song has been recorded by many singers across many music genres. The version sung by Bing Crosby in 1935 has sold 10million copies as a single. History "" was first performed on Christmas Eve 1818 at St Nicholas parish church in Oberndorf, a village in the Austrian Empire on the Salzach river in present-day Austria. A young Catholic priest, Father Joseph Mohr, had come to Oberndorf the year before. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, he had written the poem "" in 1816 at Mariapfarr, the hometown of his father in the Salzburg Lungau region, where Joseph had worked as an assistant priest. The melody was composed by Franz Xaver Gruber, schoolmaster and organist in the nearby village of , now part of Lamprechtshausen. On Christmas Eve 1818, Mohr brought the words to Gruber and asked him to compose a melody and guitar accompaniment for that night's mass, after river flooding had possibly damaged the church organ. The church was eventually destroyed by repeated flooding and replaced with the Silent-Night-Chapel. It is unknown what inspired Mohr to write the lyrics, or what prompted him to create a new carol. According to Gruber, Karl Mauracher, an organ builder who serviced the instrument at the Oberndorf church, was enamoured of the song, and took the composition home with him to the Zillertal. From there, two travelling families of folk singers, the Strassers and the Rainers, included the tune in their shows. The Rainers were already singing it around Christmas 1819, and once performed it for an audience that included Franz I of Austria and Alexander I of Russia, as well as making the first performance of the song in the U.S., in New York City in 1839. By the 1840s the song was well known in Lower Saxony and was reported to be a favourite of Frederick William IV of Prussia. During this period, the melody changed slightly to become the version that is commonly played today. Over the years, because the original manuscript had been lost, Mohr's name was forgotten and although Gruber was known to be the composer, many people assumed the melody was composed by a famous composer, and it was variously attributed to Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven. However, a manuscript was discovered in 1995 in Mohr's handwriting and dated by researchers as . It states that Mohr wrote the words in 1816 when he was assigned to a pilgrim church in Mariapfarr, Austria, and shows that the music was composed by Gruber in 1818. This is the earliest manuscript that exists and the only one in Mohr's handwriting. Original melody The first edition was published by in 1833 in a collection of Four Genuine Tyrolean Songs, with the following musical text: The contemporary version, as in the choral example below, is: Translations In 1859, the Episcopal priest John Freeman Young, then serving at Trinity Church, New York City, wrote and published the English translation that is most frequently sung today, translated from three of Mohr's original six verses. The version of the melody that is generally used today is a slow, meditative lullaby or pastorale, differing slightly (particularly in the final strain) from Gruber's original, which was a "moderato" tune in time and siciliana rhythm. Today, the lyrics and melody are in the public domain, although newer translations usually are not. In 1998 the Silent Night Museum in Salzburg commissioned a new English translation by Bettina Klein of Mohr's German lyrics. Whenever possible, (and mostly), Klein leaves the Young translation unchanged, but occasionally Klein (and Mohr) varies markedly. For example, Nur das traute hochheilige Paar, Holder Knabe im lockigen Haar is translated by Young: "Round yon Virgin mother and child, Holy infant so tender and mild" whereas Klein rewords it: "Round yon godly tender pair, Holy infant with curly hair", a translation closer to the original. The carol has been translated into about 140 languages. Lyrics {| !German lyrics !Young's English lyrics |- | |style="padding-left:2em;"|Silent night! Holy night! All is calm, all is bright Round yon virgin mother and child! Holy infant, so tender and mild, Sleep in heavenly peace! Sleep in heavenly peace! Silent night! Holy night! Shepherds quake at the sight! Glories stream from heaven afar, Heavenly hosts sing Alleluia! Christ the Saviour is born! Christ the Saviour is born! Silent night! Holy night! Son of God, love's pure light Radiant beams from thy holy face With the dawn of redeeming grace, Jesus, Lord, at thy birth! Jesus, Lord, at thy birth! |} Musical settings Max Reger quotes the tune in the Christmas section of his organ pieces Sieben Stücke, Op. 145. Alfred Schnittke composed an arrangement of "Stille Nacht" for violin and piano in 1978, as a holiday greeting for violinist Gidon Kremer. Due to its dissonant and nightmarish character, the miniature caused a scandal in Austria. In film Several theatrical and television films depict how the song was ostensibly written. Most of them report the organ breaking down at the church in Oberndorf, which appeared in a fictional story published in the U.S. in the 1930s. The Legend of Silent Night (1968) TV film directed by Daniel Mann Silent Night, Holy Night (1976) animated short film by Hanna-Barbera. Silent Mouse (1988) television special directed and produced by Robin Crichton and narrated by Lynn Redgrave. Buster & Chauncey's Silent Night (1998) direct-to-video animated featurette Silent Night (2012) directed by Christian Vuissa The First Silent Night (2014), documentary narrated by Simon Callow Stille Nacht – ein Lied für die Welt (2018), music documentary created and directed by Hannes M. Schalle, narrated by Peter Simonischek. An English version, Silent Night – A Song for the World (2020), narrated by Hugh Bonneville, was released two years later. On record charts Several recordings of "Silent Night" have reached the record charts in various countries. These include: 1969–1979: Percy Sledge on the Dutch Charts 1972–1973: Tom Tomson on the Belgium Ultratop Flanders chart and on its Wallonia chart 1975–1976: The Cats on the Dutch Charts 1991–1992: Sinéad O'Connor on the Dutch Charts 2007–2008: Josh Groban on the Norwegian Charts and on the U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary Chart 2008: Glasvegas on the Swedish Charts 2009: Mariah Carey on the U.S. Billboard Digital Song Sales Chart 2013–2014: Elvis Presley on the French Charts 2013–2014: Nat King Cole on the French Charts 2017: The Temptations on the Sweden Heatseeker (Sverigetopplistan) charts References External links "Song of peace – 'Silent Night' as a message of peace" Translation of all six verses of the German original Free arrangements for piano and voice from Cantorion.org Silent Night Chapel, origin of song 1818 songs 19th-century hymns in German Austrian songs German-language Christmas carols Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity Songs about Jesus Volkslied

The Phantom of the Opera

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The Phantom of the Opera (French: Le Fantôme de l'Opéra) is a novel by French author Gaston Leroux. It was first published as a serial in Le Gaulois from 23 September 1909 to 8 January 1910, and was released in volume form in late March 1910 by Pierre Lafitte. The novel is partly inspired by historical events at the Paris Opera during the nineteenth century, and by an apocryphal tale concerning the use of a former ballet pupil's skeleton in Carl Maria von Weber's 1841 production of Der Freischütz. It has been successfully adapted into various stage and film adaptations, most notable of which are the 1925 film depiction featuring Lon Chaney, and Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical. History behind the novel Leroux initially was going to be a lawyer, but after spending his inheritance gambling he became a reporter for L'Écho de Paris. At the paper, he wrote about and critiqued dramas, as well as being a courtroom reporter. With his job, he was able to travel frequently, but he returned to Paris where he became a writer. Because of his fascination with both Edgar Allan Poe and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he wrote a detective mystery entitled The Mystery of the Yellow Room in 1907, and four years later he published Le Fantôme de l’Opéra. The novel was first published in newspapers before finally being published as a book. The setting of The Phantom of the Opera is the actual Paris opera house, Palais Garnier. Leroux had heard the rumours about the time the opera house was finished: Act One of the opera Helle had just finished when a fire in the roof of the opera house melted through a wire holding a counterweight for the chandelier, causing a crash that injured several and killed one. Using this accident paired with rumors of a ghost in that same opera house, Leroux wrote Le Fantôme de l'Opéra and published it in 1910, which was later published in English as The Phantom of the Opera. The details about the Palais Garnier, and rumours surrounding it, are closely linked in Leroux's writing. The underground lake that he wrote about does exist beneath the opera house, and it is still used for training firefighters to swim in the dark. The infamous chandelier crash also is true. However, he defended the rumors to be true, even on his death bed. The Phantom of the Opera origins came from Leroux's curiosity with the Phantom being real. In the prologue, he tells the reader about the Phantom and the research that he did to prove the truth of the ghost. Leroux's findings connected the corpse from the opera house to the Persian, to the Phantom, himself. The serialized version contains an entire chapter (“L'enveloppe magique”) that does not appear in the novel version—though much of its content was added in other chapters—and was not reprinted in English until 2014. Plot summary In the 1880s, in Paris, the Palais Garnier Opera House is believed to be haunted by an entity known as the Phantom of the Opera, or simply the Opera Ghost. A stagehand named Joseph Buquet is found hanged, the noose around his neck missing. At a gala performance for the retirement of the opera house's two managers, a young, little-known Swedish soprano, Christine Daaé, is called upon to sing in place of the Opera's leading soprano, Carlotta, who is ill, and Christine’s performance is an astonishing success. The Vicomte Raoul de Chagny, who was present at the performance, recognizes her as his childhood playmate and recalls his love for her. He attempts to visit her backstage, where he hears a man complimenting her from inside her dressing room. He investigates the room once Christine leaves, only to find it empty. At Perros-Guirec, Christine meets with Raoul, who confronts her about the voice he heard in her room. Christine tells him she has been tutored by the Angel of Music, whom her father used to tell them about. When Raoul suggests that she might be the victim of a prank, she storms off. Christine visits her father's grave one night, where a mysterious figure appears and plays the violin for her. Raoul attempts to confront it but is attacked and knocked out in the process. Back at the Palais Garnier, the new managers receive a letter from the Phantom demanding that they allow Christine to perform the lead role of Marguerite in Faust, and that Box 5 be left empty for his use, lest they perform in a house with a curse on it. The managers assume his demands are a prank and ignore them, resulting in disastrous consequences, as Carlotta ends up croaking like a toad, and the chandelier suddenly drops into the audience, killing a spectator. The Phantom, having abducted Christine from her dressing room, reveals himself as a deformed man called Erik. Erik intends to hold her prisoner in his lair with him for a few days. Still, she causes him to change his plans when she unmasks him and, to the horror of both, beholds his noseless, sunken-eyed face, which resembles a skull dried up by the centuries. Fearing that she will leave him, he decides to hold her permanently, but when Christine requests release after two weeks, he agrees on the condition that she wear his ring and be faithful to him. On the roof of the Opera House, Christine tells Raoul about her abduction and makes Raoul promise to take her away to a place where Erik can never find her, even if she resists. Raoul tells Christine he will act on his promise the next day, to which she agrees. However, Christine sympathizes with Erik and decides to sing for him one last time as a means of saying goodbye. Unbeknownst to Christine and Raoul, Erik has been watching them and overheard their whole conversation. The following night, the enraged and jealous Erik abducts Christine during a production of Faust and tries to force her to marry him. Raoul is led by a mysterious Opera regular known only as "The Persian" into Erik's secret lair deep in the bowels of the Opera House. Still, they end up trapped in a mirrored room by Erik, who threatens that unless Christine agrees to marry him, he will kill them and everyone in the Opera House by using explosives. Christine agrees to marry Erik. Erik initially tries to drown Raoul and the Persian, using the water which would have been used to douse the explosives. Still, Christine begs and offers to be his "living bride," promising him not to kill herself after becoming his bride, as she had just attempted suicide. Erik eventually releases Raoul and the Persian from his torture chamber. When Erik is alone with Christine, he lifts his mask to kiss her on her forehead and is eventually given a kiss back. Erik reveals that he has never kissed anyone, including his own mother, who would run away if he ever tried to kiss her. He is overcome with emotion. He and Christine then cry together, and their tears "mingle." She also holds his hand and says, "Poor, unhappy Erik," which reduces him to "a dog ready to die for her." He allows the Persian and Raoul to escape, though not before making Christine promise that she will visit him on his death day and return the gold ring he gave her. He also makes the Persian promise that afterward, he will go to the newspaper and report his death, as he will die soon "of love." Indeed, sometime later, Christine returns to Erik's lair, and by his request, buries him someplace where he will never be found, and returns the gold ring. Afterward, a local newspaper runs the simple note: "Erik is dead." Christine and Raoul elope together, never to return. The epilogue pieces together bits of Erik's life, information that "the narrator" obtained from the Persian. It is revealed that Erik was the son of a construction business owner, deformed at birth. He ran away from his native Normandy to work in fairs and caravans, schooling himself in the arts of the circus across Europe and Asia, and eventually building trick palaces in Persia and Turkey. Eventually, he returned to France and started his own construction business. After being subcontracted to work on the Palais Garnier's foundations, Erik had discreetly built himself a lair to disappear in, complete with hidden passages and other tricks that allowed him to spy on the managers. Characters Erik: The Phantom of the Opera, a deformed conjurer also referred to as the Angel of Music and the Opera Ghost. He tutors and eventually becomes obsessed with Christine Daaé. Christine Daaé: A young Swedish soprano at the Paris Opera House with whom the Phantom develops a deep obsession. Vicomte Raoul de Chagny: Christine's childhood friend and love interest. The Persian: A mysterious man from Erik's past. Comte Philippe de Chagny: Raoul's older brother. Armand Moncharmin and Firmin Richard: The new managers of the opera house. Madame Giry: The opera's box keeper (Mother of Meg) Meg Giry: Often referred to as "Little Meg", Madame Giry's daughter, a ballet girl. Debienne and Poligny: The previous managers of the opera house Carlotta: A spoiled prima donna; the lead soprano of the Paris Opera House. Madame Valérius: Christine's elderly guardian. Themes Music Leroux uses the operatic setting in The Phantom of the Opera to use music as a device for foreshadowing. Ribière makes note that Leroux was once a theatre critic and his brother was a musician, so he was knowledgeable about music and how to use it as a framing device. She uses the example of how Leroux introduces Danse Macabre which means "dance of death" in the gala scene which foreshadows the graveyard scene that comes later where the Phantom plays the fiddle for Christine and attacks Raoul when he tries to intervene. Drumright points out that music is evident throughout the novel in that it is the basis for Christine and Erik's relationship. Christine sees Erik as her Angel of Music that her father promised would come to her one day. The Phantom sees Christine as his musical protege, and he uses his passion for music to teach her everything he knows. Mystery Stylistically, the novel is framed as a mystery novel as it is narrated through a detective pulling his information from various forms of research. The mystery being uncovered is the Phantom who lurks through the opera house, seemingly appearing in places out of nowhere as if by magic. But, it seems that the mystery novel persona was a facade for the real genre being more of a Gothic romance. Gothic horror In his article, Fitzpatrick compares the Phantom to other monsters featured in Gothic horror novels such as Frankenstein's monster, Dr. Jekyll, Dorian Gray, and Count Dracula. The Phantom has a torture chamber where he kidnaps and kills people, and the walls of the chapel in the graveyard are lined with human bones. Indeed, Drumright notes that The Phantom of the Opera checks off every trope necessary to have a Gothic novel according to the Encyclopedia of Literature's description which says, “Such novels were expected to be dark and tempestuous and full of ghosts, madness, outrage, superstition, and revenge.” Although the Phantom is really just a deformed man, he has ghost-like qualities in that no one can ever find him or his lair and he is seen as a monster. People are frightened by him because of his deformities and the acts of violence he commits. Romance The novel features a love triangle between the Phantom, Christine, and Raoul. Raoul is seen as Christine's childhood love whom she is familiar with and has affection for. He is rich and therefore offers her security as well as a wholesome, Christian marriage. The Phantom, on the other hand, is not familiar. He is dark, ugly, and dangerous and therefore represents the forbidden love. However, Christine is drawn to him because she sees him as her Angel of Music, and she pities his existence of loneliness and darkness. Critical reception By the time Leroux published The Phantom of the Opera, he had already gained credibility as a crime mystery author in both French- and English-speaking countries. He had written six novels prior, two of which had garnered substantial popularity within their first year of publication called The Mystery of the Yellow Room and The Perfume of the Lady in Black. Although previous commentators have asserted that The Phantom of the Opera did not attain as much success as these previous novels, being particularly unpopular in France where it was first published, recent research into the novel's early reception and sales has indicated the contrary. One book review from the New York Times expressed disappointment in the way the phantom was portrayed, saying that the feeling of suspense and horror is lost once it is found out that the phantom is just a man. The majority of the notability that the novel acquired early on was due to its publication in a series of installments in French, American, and English newspapers. This serialized version of the story became important when it was read and sought out by Universal Pictures to be adapted into a movie in 1925. Leroux did not live to see all the success from his novel; he died in April 1927. Adaptations There have been many literary and other dramatic works based on Leroux's novel, ranging from stage musicals to films to children's books. Some well-known stage and screen adaptations of the novel are the 1925 film and the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical. Leroux's novel was made into two silent films. The first film version, a German adaptation called Das Gespenst im Opernhaus, is now a lost film. It was made in 1916 and was directed by Ernest Matray. The next adaptation into a silent film was made in 1925 by Universal Studios. This version stars Lon Chaney Sr. as the Phantom. Due to tensions on the set, there was a switch in directors and Edward Sedgwick finished the film while changing the direction the movie was going to take. His take on the novel and making it a dark romantic movie with comedy was not popular with audiences. Finally, the film was reworked one last time by Maurice Pivar and Lois Weber. They removed most of Sedgwick's contribution and returned to the original focus. This time, the movie was a success with audiences in 1925. In Lloyd Webber's musical, he was focused on writing more of a romance piece and found the book and the musical took off from there. Leroux's novel was more than just a mystery and had romance and other genres that would appeal to more audiences. Lloyd Webber used accounts from within the novel in the musical as well such as the real-life event of the chandelier falling. When Andrew Lloyd Webber created the musical, there started to be disagreements over whether it was "inspired by" or "based on" Gaston Leroux's novel. Bill O'Connell, an assistant to film producers in New York, contended for the original author's name to be included with the book that the musical is "based on" rather than "inspired by" because he viewed the latter as a minimization of Gaston Leroux's connection with the story. This was first produced in the mid-80s and has continued to remain popular, still running on Broadway and the West End and spawning multiple touring productions. The musical has received more than fifty awards and is seen by many as being the most popular musical on Broadway. References External links 1909 French novels 1910 French novels 1909 fantasy novels 1910 fantasy novels French horror fiction Novels set in the 1880s Novels set in Paris French novels adapted into films Novels adapted into comics French novels adapted into plays Novels adapted into radio programs French novels adapted into television shows Novels adapted into video games French Gothic novels Works originally published in Le Gaulois Novels first published in serial form Mystery novels Horror novels Romance novels Novels about music Novels by Gaston Leroux

Mau Mau Uprising

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The Mau Mau uprising (1952–1960), also known as the Mau Mau rebellion or the Mau Mau revolt, was a war in the British Kenya Colony (1920–1963) between the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA), also known as the Mau Mau, and the British authorities. Dominated by the Kikuyu people, Meru people and Embu people, the KLFA also comprised units of Kamba and Maasai peoples who fought against the white European colonist-settlers in Kenya, the British Army, and the local Kenya Regiment (British colonists, local auxiliary militia, and pro-British Kikuyu people). The capture of rebel leader Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 signalled the defeat of the Mau Mau, and essentially ended the British military campaign. However, the rebellion survived until after Kenya's independence from Britain, driven mainly by the Meru units led by Field Marshal Musa Mwariama and General Baimungi. Baimuingi, one of the last Mau Mau generals, was killed shortly after Kenya attained self-rule. The KLFA failed to capture widespread public support. Frank Füredi, in The Mau Mau War in Perspective, suggests this was due to a British policy of divide and rule. The Mau Mau movement remained internally divided, despite attempts to unify the factions. The British, meanwhile, applied the strategy and tactics they developed in suppressing the Malayan Emergency (1948–60). The Mau Mau Uprising created a rift between the European colonial community in Kenya and the metropole, and also resulted in violent divisions within the Kikuyu community: "Much of the struggle tore through the African communities themselves, an internecine war waged between rebels and so-called 'loyalists' – Africans who took the side of the government and opposed Mau Mau." Suppressing the Mau Mau Uprising in the Kenyan colony cost Britain £55 million and caused at least 11,000 deaths among the Mau Mau and other forces, with some estimates considerably higher. This included 1,090 executions by hanging. Etymology The origin of the term Mau Mau is uncertain. According to some members of Mau Mau, they never referred to themselves as such, instead preferring the military title Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA). Some publications, such as Fred Majdalany's State of Emergency: The Full Story of Mau Mau, claim it was an anagram of Uma Uma (which means "Get out! Get out!") and was a military codeword based on a secret language-game Kikuyu boys used to play at the time of their circumcision. Majdalany also says the British simply used the name as a label for the Kikuyu ethnic community without assigning any specific definition. Akamba people say the name Mau Mau came from Ma Umau meaning 'Our Grandfathers'. The term was first used during a pastoralists revolt against de-stocking that took place in 1938 led by Muindi Mbingu, during which he urged the colonists to leave Kenya so that his people (the Kamba) could live freely like the time of 'Our Grandfathers' ("Twenda kwikala ta maau mau maitu, tuithye ngombe ta Maau mau maitu, nundu nthi ino ni ya maau mau maitu"). As the movement progressed, a Swahili backronym was adopted: "Mzungu Aende Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru" meaning "Let the foreigner go back abroad, let the African regain independence". J. M. Kariuki, a member of Mau Mau who was detained during the conflict, suggests the British preferred to use the term Mau Mau instead of KLFA to deny the Mau Mau rebellion international legitimacy. Kariuki also wrote that the term Mau Mau was adopted by the rebellion in order to counter what they regarded as colonial propaganda. Another possible origin is a mishearing of the Kikuyu word for oath: "muuma. Author and activist Wangari Maathai indicates that, to her, the most interesting story of the origin of the name is the Kikuyu phrase for the beginning of a list. When beginning a list in Kikuyu, you say, "maũndũ ni mau, "the main issues are...", and hold up three fingers to introduce them. Maathai says the three issues for the Mau Mau were land, freedom, and self-governance. Background The armed rebellion of the Mau Mau was the culminating response to colonial rule. Although there had been previous instances of violent resistance to colonialism, the Mau Mau revolt was the most prolonged and violent anti-colonial warfare in the British Kenya colony. From the start, the land was the primary British interest in Kenya, which had "some of the richest agricultural soils in the world, mostly in districts where the elevation and climate make it possible for Europeans to reside permanently". Though declared a colony in 1920, the formal British colonial presence in Kenya began with a proclamation on 1 July 1895, in which Kenya was claimed as a British protectorate. Even before 1895, however, Britain's presence in Kenya was marked by dispossession and violence. In 1894, British MP Sir Charles Dilke had observed in the House of Commons, "The only person who has up to the present time benefited from our enterprise in the heart of Africa has been Mr. Hiram Maxim". During the period in which Kenya's interior was being forcibly opened up for British settlement, there was plenty of conflict and British troops carried out atrocities against the native population. Opposition to British imperialism existed from the start of British occupation. The most notable include the Nandi Resistance of 1895–1905; the Giriama Uprising of 1913–1914; the women's revolt against forced labour in Murang'a in 1947; and the Kolloa Affray of 1950. None of the armed uprisings during the beginning of British colonialism in Kenya were successful. The nature of fighting in Kenya led Winston Churchill to express concern in 1908 about how it would look if word got out: Settler societies during the colonial period could own a disproportionate share of land. The first settlers arrived in 1902 as part of Governor Charles Eliot's plan to have a settler economy pay for the Uganda Railway. The success of this settler economy would depend heavily on the availability of land, labour and capital, and so, over the next three decades, the colonial government and settlers consolidated their control over Kenyan land, and 'encouraged' native Kenyans to become wage labourers. Until the mid-1930s, the two primary complaints were low native Kenyan wages and the requirement to carry an identity document, the kipande. From the early 1930s, however, two others began to come to prominence: effective and elected African-political-representation, and land. The British response to this clamour for agrarian reform came in the early 1930s when they set up the Carter Land Commission. The Commission reported in 1934, but its conclusions, recommendations and concessions to Kenyans were so conservative that any chance of a peaceful resolution to native Kenyan land-hunger was ended. Through a series of expropriations, the government seized about of land, most of it in the fertile hilly regions of Central and Rift Valley Provinces, later known as the White Highlands due to the exclusively European-owned farmland there. In Nyanza the Commission restricted 1,029,422 native Kenyans to , while granting to 17,000 Europeans. By the 1930s, and for the Kikuyu in particular, land had become the number one grievance concerning colonial rule, the situation so acute by 1948 that 1,250,000 Kikuyu had ownership of 2,000 square miles (5,200 km2), while 30,000 British settlers owned 12,000 square miles (31,000 km2), albeit most of it not on traditional Kikuyu land. "In particular", the British government's 1925 East Africa Commission noted, "the treatment of the Giriama tribe [from the coastal regions] was very bad. This tribe was moved backwards and forwards so as to secure for the Crown areas which could be granted to Europeans." The Kikuyu, who lived in the Kiambu, Nyeri and Murang'a areas of what became Central Province, were one of the ethnic groups most affected by the colonial government's land expropriation and European settlement; by 1933, they had had over of their potentially highly valuable land alienated. The Kikuyu mounted a legal challenge against the expropriation of their land, but a Kenya High Court decision of 1921 reaffirmed its legality. In terms of lost acreage, the Masai and Nandi people were the biggest losers of land. The colonial government and white farmers also wanted cheap labour which, for a period, the government acquired from native Kenyans through force. Confiscating the land itself helped to create a pool of wage labourers, but the colony introduced measures that forced more native Kenyans to submit to wage labour: the introduction of the Hut and Poll Taxes (1901 and 1910 respectively); the establishment of reserves for each ethnic group, which isolated ethnic groups and often exacerbated overcrowding; the discouragement of native Kenyans' growing cash crops; the Masters and Servants Ordinance (1906) and an identification pass known as the kipande (1918) to control the movement of labour and to curb desertion; and the exemption of wage labourers from forced labour and other compulsory, detested tasks such as conscription. Native labourer categories Native Kenyan labourers were in one of three categories: squatter, contract, or casual. By the end of World War I, squatters had become well established on European farms and plantations in Kenya, with Kikuyu squatters comprising the majority of agricultural workers on settler plantations. An unintended consequence of colonial rule, the squatters were targeted from 1918 onwards by a series of Resident Native Labourers Ordinances—criticised by at least some MPs—which progressively curtailed squatter rights and subordinated native Kenyan farming to that of the settlers. The Ordinance of 1939 finally eliminated squatters' remaining tenancy rights, and permitted settlers to demand 270 days' labour from any squatters on their land. and, after World War II, the situation for squatters deteriorated rapidly, a situation the squatters resisted fiercely. In the early 1920s, though, despite the presence of 100,000 squatters and tens of thousands more wage labourers, there was still not enough native Kenyan labour available to satisfy the settlers' needs. The colonial government duly tightened the measures to force more Kenyans to become low-paid wage-labourers on settler farms. The colonial government used the measures brought in as part of its land expropriation and labour 'encouragement' efforts to craft the third plank of its growth strategy for its settler economy: subordinating African farming to that of the Europeans. Nairobi also assisted the settlers with rail and road networks, subsidies on freight charges, agricultural and veterinary services, and credit and loan facilities. The near-total neglect of native farming during the first two decades of European settlement was noted by the East Africa Commission. The resentment of colonial rule would not have been decreased by the wanting provision of medical services for native Kenyans, nor by the fact that in 1923, for example, "the maximum amount that could be considered to have been spent on services provided exclusively for the benefit of the native population was slightly over one-quarter of the taxes paid by them". The tax burden on Europeans in the early 1920s, meanwhile, was very light relative to their income. Interwar infrastructure-development was also largely paid for by the indigenous population. Kenyan employees were often poorly treated by their European employers, with some settlers arguing that native Kenyans "were as children and should be treated as such". Some settlers flogged their servants for petty offences. To make matters even worse, native Kenyan workers were poorly served by colonial labour-legislation and a prejudiced legal-system. The vast majority of Kenyan employees' violations of labour legislation were settled with "rough justice" meted out by their employers. Most colonial magistrates appear to have been unconcerned by the illegal practice of settler-administered flogging; indeed, during the 1920s, flogging was the magisterial punishment-of-choice for native Kenyan convicts. The principle of punitive sanctions against workers was not removed from the Kenyan labour statutes until the 1950s. As a result of the situation in the highlands and growing job opportunities in the cities, thousands of Kikuyu migrated into cities in search of work, contributing to the doubling of Nairobi's population between 1938 and 1952. At the same time, there was a small, but growing, class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu landholdings and forged ties with the colonial administration, leading to an economic rift within the Kikuyu. Mau Mau warfare Mau Mau were the militant wing of a growing clamour for political representation and freedom in Kenya. The first attempt to form a countrywide political party began on 1 October 1944. This fledgling organisation was called the Kenya African Study Union. Harry Thuku was the first chairman, but he soon resigned. There is dispute over Thuku's reason for leaving KASU: Bethwell Ogot says Thuku "found the responsibility too heavy"; David Anderson states that "he walked out in disgust" as the militant section of KASU took the initiative. KASU changed its name to the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1946. Author Wangari Maathai writes that many of the organizers were ex-soldiers who fought for the British in Ceylon, Somalia, and Burma during the Second World War. When they returned to Kenya, they were never paid and did not receive recognition for their service, whereas their British counterparts were awarded medals and received land, sometimes from the Kenyan veterans. The failure of KAU to attain any significant reforms or redress of grievances from the colonial authorities shifted the political initiative to younger and more militant figures within the native Kenyan trade union movement, among the squatters on the settler estates in the Rift Valley and in KAU branches in Nairobi and the Kikuyu districts of central province. Around 1943, residents of Olenguruone Settlement radicalised the traditional practice of oathing, and extended oathing to women and children. By the mid-1950s, 90% of Kikuyu, Embu and Meru were oathed. On 3 October 1952, Mau Mau claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. Six days later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu was shot dead in broad daylight in his car, which was an important blow against the colonial government. Waruhiu had been one of the strongest supporters of the British presence in Kenya. His assassination gave Evelyn Baring the final impetus to request permission from the Colonial Office to declare a State of Emergency. The Mau Mau attacks were mostly well organised and planned. The Mau Mau command, contrary to the Home Guard who were stigmatised as "the running dogs of British Imperialism", were relatively well educated. General Gatunga had previously been a respected and well-read Christian teacher in his local Kikuyu community. He was known to meticulously record his attacks in a series of five notebooks, which when executed were often swift and strategic, targeting loyalist community leaders he had previously known as a teacher. The Mau Mau military strategy was mainly guerrilla attacks launched under the cover of darkness. They used stolen weapons such as guns, as well as weapons such as machetes and bows and arrows in their attacks. They maimed cattle and, in one case, poisoned a herd. Women formed a core part of the Mau Mau, especially in maintaining supply lines. Initially able to avoid the suspicion, they moved through colonial spaces and between Mau Mau hideouts and strongholds, to deliver vital supplies and services to guerrilla fighters including food, ammunition, medical care, and of course, information. An unknown number also fought in the war, with the most high-ranking being Field Marshal Muthoni. British reaction The British and international view was that Mau Mau was a savage, violent, and depraved tribal cult, an expression of unrestrained emotion rather than reason. Mau Mau was "perverted tribalism" that sought to take the Kikuyu people back to "the bad old days" before British rule. The official British explanation of the revolt did not include the insights of agrarian and agricultural experts, of economists and historians, or even of Europeans who had spent a long period living amongst the Kikuyu such as Louis Leakey. Not for the first time, the British instead relied on the purported insights of the ethnopsychiatrist; with Mau Mau, it fell to Dr. John Colin Carothers to perform the desired analysis. This ethnopsychiatric analysis guided British psychological warfare, which painted Mau Mau as "an irrational force of evil, dominated by bestial impulses and influenced by world communism", and the later official study of the uprising, the Corfield Report. The psychological war became of critical importance to military and civilian leaders who tried to "emphasise that there was in effect a civil war, and that the struggle was not black versus white", attempting to isolate Mau Mau from the Kikuyu, and the Kikuyu from the rest of the colony's population and the world outside. In driving a wedge between Mau Mau and the Kikuyu generally, these propaganda efforts essentially played no role, though they could apparently claim an important contribution to the isolation of Mau Mau from the non-Kikuyu sections of the population. By the mid-1960s, the view of Mau Mau as simply irrational activists was being challenged by memoirs of former members and leaders that portrayed Mau Mau as an essential, if radical, component of African nationalism in Kenya and by academic studies that analysed the movement as a modern and nationalist response to the unfairness and oppression of colonial domination. There continues to be vigorous debate within Kenyan society and among the academic community within and without Kenya regarding the nature of Mau Mau and its aims, as well as the response to and effects of the uprising. Nevertheless, partly because as many Kikuyu fought against Mau Mau on the side of the colonial government as joined them in rebellion, the conflict is now often regarded in academic circles as an intra-Kikuyu civil war, a characterisation that remains extremely unpopular in Kenya. Kenyatta described the conflict in his memoirs as a civil war rather than a rebellion. One reason that the revolt was majorly limited to the Kikuyu people was, in part, that they had suffered the most as a result of the negative aspects of British colonialism. Wunyabari O. Maloba regards the rise of the Mau Mau movement as "without doubt, one of the most important events in recent African history". David Anderson, however, considers Maloba's and similar work to be the product of "swallowing too readily the propaganda of the Mau Mau war", noting the similarity between such analysis and the "simplistic" earlier studies of Mau Mau. This earlier work cast the Mau Mau war in strictly bipolar terms, "as conflicts between anti-colonial nationalists and colonial collaborators". Caroline Elkins' 2005 study, Imperial Reckoning, has met similar criticism, as well as being criticised for sensationalism. Broadly speaking, throughout Kikuyu history, there have been two traditions: moderate-conservative and radical. Despite the differences between them, there has been a continuous debate and dialogue between these traditions, leading to a great political awareness among the Kikuyu. By 1950, these differences, and the impact of colonial rule, had given rise to three native Kenyan political blocks: conservative, moderate nationalist and militant nationalist. It has also been argued that Mau Mau was not explicitly national, either intellectually or operationally. Bruce Berman argues that, "While Mau Mau was clearly not a tribal activism seeking a return to the past, the answer to the question of 'was it nationalism?' must be yes and no." As the Mau Mau rebellion wore on, the violence forced the spectrum of opinion within the Kikuyu, Embu and Meru to polarise and harden into the two distinct camps of loyalist and Mau Mau. This neat division between loyalists and Mau Mau was a product of the conflict, rather than a cause or catalyst of it, with the violence becoming less ambiguous over time, in a similar manner to other situations. British reaction to the uprising Philip Mitchell retired as Kenya's governor in summer 1952, having turned a blind eye to Mau Mau's increasing activity. Through the summer of 1952, however, Colonial Secretary Oliver Lyttelton in London received a steady flow of reports from Acting Governor Henry Potter about the escalating seriousness of Mau Mau violence, but it was not until the later part of 1953 that British politicians began to accept that the rebellion was going to take some time to deal with. At first, the British discounted the Mau Mau rebellion because of their own technical and military superiority, which encouraged hopes for a quick victory. The British army accepted the gravity of the uprising months before the politicians, but its appeals to London and Nairobi were ignored. On 30 September 1952, Evelyn Baring arrived in Kenya to permanently take over from Potter; Baring was given no warning by Mitchell or the Colonial Office about the gathering maelstrom into which he was stepping. Aside from military operations against Mau Mau fighters in the forests, the British attempt to defeat the movement broadly came in two stages: the first, relatively limited in scope, came during the period in which they had still failed to accept the seriousness of the revolt; the second came afterwards. During the first stage, the British tried to decapitate the movement by declaring a State of Emergency before arresting 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders (see Operation Jock Scott) and subjecting six of them to a show trial (the Kapenguria Six); the second stage began in earnest in 1954, when they undertook a series of major economic, military and penal initiatives. The second stage had three main planks: a large military-sweep of Nairobi leading to the internment of tens of thousands of the city's suspected Mau Mau members and sympathisers (see Operation Anvil below); the enacting of major agrarian reform (the Swynnerton Plan); and the institution of a vast villagisation programme for more than a million rural Kikuyu (see below). In 2012, the UK government accepted that prisoners had suffered "torture and ill-treatment at the hands of the colonial administration". The harshness of the British response was inflated by two factors. First, the settler government in Kenya was, even before the insurgency, probably the most openly racist one in the British empire, with the settlers' violent prejudice attended by an uncompromising determination to retain their grip on power and half-submerged fears that, as a tiny minority, they could be overwhelmed by the indigenous population. Its representatives were so keen on aggressive action that George Erskine referred to them as "the White Mau Mau". Second, the brutality of Mau Mau attacks on civilians made it easy for the movement's opponents—including native Kenyan and loyalist security forces—to adopt a totally dehumanised view of Mau Mau adherents. Resistance to both the Mau Mau and the British response was illustrated by Ciokaraine M'Barungu who famously asked that the British colonial forces not destroy the food used by her villagers, potentially starving the entire region. Instead, she urged the colonial forces guard the yams and bananas and stop the Mau Mau from killing any more residents. A variety of coercive techniques were initiated by the colonial authorities to punish and break Mau Mau's support: Baring ordered punitive communal-labour, collective fines and other collective punishments, and further confiscation of land and property. By early 1954, tens of thousands of head of livestock had been taken, and were allegedly never returned. Detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels were finally released in April 2012. State of emergency declared (October 1952) On 20 October 1952, Governor Baring signed an order declaring a state of emergency. Early the next morning, Operation Jock Scott was launched: the British carried out a mass-arrest of Jomo Kenyatta and 180 other alleged Mau Mau leaders within Nairobi. Jock Scott did not decapitate the movement's leadership as hoped, since news of the impending operation was leaked. Thus, while the moderates on the wanted list awaited capture, the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge (both later principal leaders of Mau Mau's forest armies), fled to the forests. The day after the round up, another prominent loyalist chief, Nderi, was hacked to pieces, and a series of gruesome murders against settlers were committed throughout the months that followed. The violent and random nature of British tactics during the months after Jock Scott served merely to alienate ordinary Kikuyu and drive many of the wavering majority into Mau Mau's arms. Three battalions of the King's African Rifles were recalled from Uganda, Tanganyika and Mauritius, giving the regiment five battalions in all in Kenya, a total of 3,000 native Kenyan troops. To placate settler opinion, one battalion of British troops, from the Lancashire Fusiliers, was also flown in from Egypt to Nairobi on the first day of Operation Jock Scott. In November 1952, Baring requested assistance from the Security Service. For the next year, the Service's A.M. MacDonald would reorganise the Special Branch of the Kenya Police, promote collaboration with Special Branches in adjacent territories, and oversee coordination of all intelligence activity "to secure the intelligence Government requires".In January 1953, six of the most prominent detainees from Jock Scott, including Kenyatta, were put on trial, primarily to justify the declaration of the Emergency to critics in London. The trial itself was claimed to have featured a suborned lead defence-witness, a bribed judge, and other serious violations of the right to a fair trial. Native Kenyan political activity was permitted to resume at the end of the military phase of the Emergency. Military operations The onset of the Emergency led hundreds, and eventually thousands, of Mau Mau adherents to flee to the forests, where a decentralised leadership had already begun setting up platoons. The primary zones of Mau Mau military strength were the Aberdares and the forests around Mount Kenya, whilst a passive support-wing was fostered outside these areas. Militarily, the British defeated Mau Mau in four years (1952–56) using a more expansive version of "coercion through exemplary force". In May 1953, the decision was made to send General George Erskine to oversee the restoration of order in the colony. By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, and the capture and 68 hour interrogation of General China on 15 January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters. Erskine's arrival did not immediately herald a fundamental change in strategy, thus the continual pressure on the gangs remained, but he created more mobile formations that delivered what he termed "special treatment" to an area. Once gangs had been driven out and eliminated, loyalist forces and police were then to take over the area, with military support brought in thereafter only to conduct any required pacification operations. After their successful dispersion and containment, Erskine went after the forest fighters' source of supplies, money and recruits, i.e. the native Kenyan population of Nairobi. This took the form of Operation Anvil, which commenced on 24 April 1954. Operation Anvil By 1954, Nairobi was regarded as the nerve centre of Mau Mau operations. The insurgents in the highlands of the Aberdares and Mt Kenya were being supplied provisions and weapons by supporters in Nairobi via couriers. Anvil was the ambitious attempt to eliminate Mau Mau's presence within Nairobi in one fell swoop. 25,000 members of British security forces under the control of General George Erskine were deployed as Nairobi was sealed off and underwent a sector-by-sector purge. All native Kenyans were taken to temporary barbed-wire enclosures. Those who were not Kikuyu, Embu or Meru were released; those who were remained in detention for screening. Whilst the operation itself was conducted by Europeans, most suspected members of Mau Mau were picked out of groups of the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru detainees by a native Kenyan informer. Male suspects were then taken off for further screening, primarily at Langata Screening Camp, whilst women and children were readied for 'repatriation' to the reserves (many of those slated for deportation had never set foot in the reserves before). Anvil lasted for two weeks, after which the capital had been cleared of all but certifiably loyal Kikuyu; 20,000 Mau Mau suspects had been taken to Langata, and 30,000 more had been deported to the reserves. Air power For an extended period of time, the chief British weapon against the forest fighters was air power. Between June 1953 and October 1955, the RAF provided a significant contribution to the conflict—and, indeed, had to, for the army was preoccupied with providing security in the reserves until January 1955, and it was the only service capable of both psychologically influencing and inflicting considerable casualties on the Mau Mau fighters operating in the dense forests. Lack of timely and accurate intelligence meant bombing was rather haphazard, but almost 900 insurgents had been killed or wounded by air attacks by June 1954, and it did cause forest gangs to disband, lower their morale, and induce their pronounced relocation from the forests to the reserves. At first armed Harvard training aircraft were used, for direct ground support and also some camp interdiction. As the campaign developed, Avro Lincoln heavy bombers were deployed, flying missions in Kenya from 18 November 1953 to 28 July 1955, dropping nearly 6 million bombs. They and other aircraft, such as blimps, were also deployed for reconnaissance, as well as in the propaganda war, conducting large-scale leaflet-drops. A flight of DH Vampire jets flew in from Aden, but were used for only ten days of operations. Some light aircraft of the Police Air Wing also provided support. After the Lari massacre, for example, British planes dropped leaflets showing graphic pictures of the Kikuyu women and children who had been hacked to death. Unlike the rather indiscriminate activities of British ground forces, the use of air power was more restrained (though there is disagreement on this point), and air attacks were initially permitted only in the forests. Operation Mushroom extended bombing beyond the forest limits in May 1954, and Churchill consented to its continuation in January 1955. Swynnerton Plan Baring knew the massive deportations to the already-overcrowded reserves could only make things worse. Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya's assistant director of agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self-sufficient in food and to enable them to practise alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income. The projected costs of the Swynnerton Plan were too high for the cash-strapped colonial government, so Baring tweaked repatriation and augmented the Swynnerton Plan with plans for a massive expansion of the Pipeline coupled with a system of work camps to make use of detainee labour. All Kikuyu employed for public works projects would now be employed on Swynnerton's poor-relief programmes, as would many detainees in the work camps. Detention programme When the mass deportations of Kikuyu to the reserves began in 1953, Baring and Erskine ordered all Mau Mau suspects to be screened. Of the scores of screening camps which sprang up, only fifteen were officially sanctioned by the colonial government. Larger detention camps were divided into compounds. The screening centres were staffed by settlers who had been appointed temporary district-officers by Baring. Thomas Askwith, the official tasked with designing the British 'detention and rehabilitation' programme during the summer and autumn of 1953, termed his system the Pipeline. The British did not initially conceive of rehabilitating Mau Mau suspects through brute force and other ill-treatment—Askwith's final plan, submitted to Baring in October 1953, was intended as "a complete blueprint for winning the war against Mau Mau using socioeconomic and civic reform". What developed, however, has been described as a British gulag. The Pipeline operated a white-grey-black classification system: 'whites' were cooperative detainees, and were repatriated back to the reserves; 'greys' had been oathed but were reasonably compliant, and were moved down the Pipeline to works camps in their local districts before release; and 'blacks' were the so-called 'hard core' of Mau Mau. These were moved up the Pipeline to special detention camps. Thus a detainee's position in Pipeline was a straightforward reflection of how cooperative the Pipeline personnel deemed her or him to be. Cooperation was itself defined in terms of a detainee's readiness to confess their Mau Mau oath. Detainees were screened and re-screened for confessions and intelligence, then re-classified accordingly. A detainee's journey between two locations along the Pipeline could sometimes last days. During transit, there was frequently little or no food and water provided, and seldom any sanitation. Once in camp, talking was forbidden outside the detainees' accommodation huts, though improvised communication was rife. Such communication included propaganda and disinformation, which went by such names as the Kinongo Times, designed to encourage fellow detainees not to give up hope and so to minimise the number of those who confessed their oath and cooperated with camp authorities. Forced labour was performed by detainees on projects like the thirty-seven-mile-long South Yatta irrigation furrow. Family outside and other considerations led many detainees to confess. During the first year after Operation Anvil, colonial authorities had little success in forcing detainees to cooperate. Camps and compounds were overcrowded, forced-labour systems were not yet perfected, screening teams were not fully coordinated, and the use of torture was not yet systematised. This failure was partly due to the lack of manpower and resources, as well as the vast numbers of detainees. Officials could scarcely process them all, let alone get them to confess their oaths. Assessing the situation in the summer of 1955, Alan Lennox-Boyd wrote of his "fear that the net figure of detainees may still be rising. If so the outlook is grim." Black markets flourished during this period, with the native Kenyan guards helping to facilitate trading. It was possible for detainees to bribe guards in order to obtain items or stay punishment. Interrogations and confessions By late 1955, however, the Pipeline had become a fully operational, well-organised system. Guards were regularly shifted around the Pipeline too in order to prevent relationships developing with detainees and so undercut the black markets, and inducements and punishments became better at discouraging fraternising with the enemy. The grinding nature of the improved detention and interrogation regimen began to produce results. Most detainees confessed, and the system produced ever greater numbers of spies and informers within the camps, while others switched sides in a more open, official fashion, leaving detention behind to take an active role in interrogations, even sometimes administering beatings. The most famous example of side-switching was Peter Muigai Kenyatta—Jomo Kenyatta's son—who, after confessing, joined screeners at Athi River Camp, later travelling throughout the Pipeline to assist in interrogations. Suspected informers and spies within a camp were treated in the time-honoured Mau Mau fashion: the preferred method of execution was strangulation then mutilation: "It was just like in the days before our detention", explained one Mau Mau member later. "We did not have our own jails to hold an informant in, so we would strangle him and then cut his tongue out." The end of 1955 also saw screeners being given a freer hand in interrogation, and harsher conditions than straightforward confession were imposed on detainees before they were deemed 'cooperative' and eligible for final release. While oathing, for practical reasons, within the Pipeline was reduced to an absolute minimum, as many new initiates as possible were oathed. A newcomer who refused to take the oath often faced the same fate as a recalcitrant outside the camps: they were murdered. "The detainees would strangle them with their blankets or, using blades fashioned from the corrugated-iron roofs of some of the barracks, would slit their throats", writes Elkins. The camp authorities' preferred method of capital punishment was public hanging. Commandants were told to clamp down hard on intra-camp oathing, with several commandants hanging anyone suspected of administering oaths. Even as the Pipeline became more sophisticated, detainees still organised themselves within it, setting up committees and selecting leaders for their camps, as well as deciding on their own "rules to live by". Perhaps the most famous compound leader was Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. Punishments for violating the "rules to live by" could be severe. European missionaries and native Kenyan Christians played their part by visiting camps to evangelise and encourage compliance with the colonial authorities, providing intelligence, and sometimes even assisting in interrogation. Detainees regarded such preachers with nothing but contempt. The lack of decent sanitation in the camps meant that epidemics of diseases such as typhoid swept through them. Official medical reports detailing the shortcomings of the camps and their recommendations were ignored, and the conditions being endured by detainees were lied about and denied. A British rehabilitation officer found in 1954 that detainees from Manyani were in "shocking health", many of them suffering from malnutrition, while Langata and GilGil were eventually closed in April 1955 because, as the colonial government put it, "they were unfit to hold Kikuyu for medical epidemiological reasons". While the Pipeline was primarily designed for adult males, a few thousand women and young girls were detained at an all-women camp at Kamiti, as well as a number of unaccompanied young children. Dozens of babies were born to women in captivity: "We really do need these cloths for the children as it is impossible to keep them clean and tidy while dressed on dirty pieces of sacking and blanket", wrote one colonial officer. Wamumu Camp was set up solely for all the unaccompanied boys in the Pipeline, though hundreds, maybe thousands, of boys moved around the adult parts of the Pipeline. Works camps There were originally two types of works camps envisioned by Baring: the first type were based in Kikuyu districts with the stated purpose of achieving the Swynnerton Plan; the second were punitive camps, designed for the 30,000 Mau Mau suspects who were deemed unfit to return to the reserves. These forced-labour camps provided a much needed source of labour to continue the colony's infrastructure development. Colonial officers also saw the second sort of works camps as a way of ensuring that any confession was legitimate and as a final opportunity to extract intelligence. Probably the worst works camp to have been sent to was the one run out of Embakasi Prison, for Embakasi was responsible for the Embakasi Airport, the construction of which was demanded to be finished before the Emergency came to an end. The airport was a massive project with an unquenchable thirst for labour, and the time pressures ensured the detainees' forced labour was especially hard. Villagisation programme If military operations in the forests and Operation Anvil were the first two phases of Mau Mau's defeat, Erskine expressed the need and his desire for a third and final phase: cut off all the militants' support in the reserves. The means to this terminal end was originally suggested by the man brought in by the colonial government to do an ethnopsychiatric 'diagnosis' of the uprising, JC Carothers: he advocated a Kenyan version of the villagisation programmes that the British were already using in places like Malaya. So it was that in June 1954, the War Council took the decision to undertake a full-scale forced-resettlement programme of Kiambu, Nyeri, Murang'a and Embu Districts to cut off Mau Mau's supply lines. Within eighteen months, 1,050,899 Kikuyu in the reserves were inside 804 villages consisting of some 230,000 huts. The government termed them "protected villages", purportedly to be built along "the same lines as the villages in the North of England", though the term was actually a "euphemism for the fact that hundreds of thousands of civilians were corralled, often against their will, into settlements behind barbed-wire fences and watch towers." While some of these villages were to protect loyalist Kikuyu, "most were little more than concentration camps to punish Mau Mau sympathizers." The villagisation programme was the coup de grâce for Mau Mau. By the end of the following summer, Lieutenant General Lathbury no longer needed Lincoln bombers for raids because of a lack of targets, and, by late 1955, Lathbury felt so sure of final victory that he reduced army forces to almost pre-Mau Mau levels. He noted, however, that the British should have "no illusions about the future. Mau Mau has not been cured: it has been suppressed. The thousands who have spent a long time in detention must have been embittered by it. Nationalism is still a very potent force and the African will pursue his aim by other means. Kenya is in for a very tricky political future." The government's public relations officer, Granville Roberts, presented villagisation as a good opportunity for rehabilitation, particularly of women and children, but it was, in fact, first and foremost designed to break Mau Mau and protect loyalist Kikuyu, a fact reflected in the extremely limited resources made available to the Rehabilitation and Community Development Department. Refusal to move could be punished with the destruction of property and livestock, and the roofs were usually ripped off of homes whose occupants demonstrated reluctance. Villagisation also solved the practical and financial problems associated with a further, massive expansion of the Pipeline programme, and the removal of people from their land hugely assisted the enaction of Swynnerton Plan. The villages were surrounded by deep, spike-bottomed trenches and barbed wire, and the villagers themselves were watched over by members of the Home Guard, often neighbours and relatives. In short, rewards or collective punishments such as curfews could be served much more readily after villagisation, and this quickly broke Mau Mau's passive wing. Though there were degrees of difference between the villages, the overall conditions engendered by villagisation meant that, by early 1955, districts began reporting starvation and malnutrition. One provincial commissioner blamed child hunger on parents deliberately withholding food, saying the latter were aware of the "propaganda value of apparent malnutrition". The Red Cross helped mitigate the food shortages, but even they were told to prioritise loyalist areas. The Baring government's medical department issued reports about "the alarming number of deaths occurring amongst children in the 'punitive' villages", and the "political" prioritisation of Red Cross relief. One of the colony's ministers blamed the "bad spots" in Central Province on the mothers of the children for "not realis[ing] the great importance of proteins", and one former missionary reported that it "was terribly pitiful how many of the children and the older Kikuyu were dying. They were so emaciated and so very susceptible to any kind of disease that came along". Of the 50,000 deaths which John Blacker attributed to the Emergency, half were children under the age of ten. The lack of food did not just affect the children, of course. The Overseas Branch of the British Red Cross commented on the "women who, from progressive undernourishment, had been unable to carry on with their work". Disease prevention was not helped by the colony's policy of returning sick detainees to receive treatment in the reserves, though the reserves' medical services were virtually non-existent, as Baring himself noted after a tour of some villages in June 1956. Political and social concessions by the British Kenyans were granted nearly all of the demands made by the KAU in 1951. On 18 January 1955, the Governor-General of Kenya, Evelyn Baring, offered an amnesty to Mau Mau activists. The offer was that they would not face prosecution for previous offences, but may still be detained. European settlers were appalled at the leniency of the offer. On 10 June 1955 with no response forthcoming, the offer of amnesty to the Mau Mau was revoked. In June 1956, a programme of land reform increased the land holdings of the Kikuyu.. This was coupled with a relaxation of the ban on native Kenyans growing coffee, a primary cash crop. In the cities the colonial authorities decided to dispel tensions by raising urban wages, thereby strengthening the hand of moderate union organisations like the KFRTU. By 1956, the British had granted direct election of native Kenyan members of the Legislative Assembly, followed shortly thereafter by an increase in the number of local seats to fourteen. A Parliamentary conference in January 1960 indicated that the British would accept "one person—one vote" majority rule. Deaths The number of deaths attributable to the Emergency is disputed. David Anderson estimates 25,000 people died; British demographer John Blacker's estimate is 50,000 deaths—half of them children aged ten or below. He attributes this death toll mostly to increased malnutrition, starvation and disease from wartime conditions. Caroline Elkins says "tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands" died. Elkins numbers have been challenged by Blacker, who demonstrated in detail that her numbers were overestimated, explaining that Elkins' figure of 300,000 deaths "implies that perhaps half of the adult male population would have been wiped out—yet the censuses of 1962 and 1969 show no evidence of this—the age-sex pyramids for the Kikuyu districts do not even show indentations." His study dealt directly with Elkins' claim that "somewhere between 130,000 and 300,000 Kikuyu are unaccounted for" at the 1962 census, and was read by both David Anderson and John Lonsdale prior to publication. David Elstein has noted that leading authorities on Africa have taken issue with parts of Elkins' study, in particular her mortality figures: "The senior British historian of Kenya, John Lonsdale, whom Elkins thanks profusely in her book as 'the most gifted scholar I know', warned her to place no reliance on anecdotal sources, and regards her statistical analysis—for which she cites him as one of three advisors—as 'frankly incredible'." The British possibly killed more than 20,000 Mau Mau militants, but in some ways more notable is the smaller number of Mau Mau suspects dealt with by capital punishment: by the end of the Emergency, the total was 1,090. At no other time or place in the British empire was capital punishment dispensed so liberally—the total is more than double the number executed by the French in Algeria. Wangari Maathai suggests that more than one hundred thousand Africans, mostly Kikuyus, may have died in the concentration camps and emergency villages. Officially 1,819 Native Kenyans were killed by the Mau Mau. David Anderson believes this to be an undercount and cites a higher figure of 5,000 killed by the Mau Mau. War crimes War crimes have been broadly defined by the Nuremberg principles as "violations of the laws or customs of war", which includes massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, mutilation, torture, and murder of detainees and prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity. David Anderson says the rebellion was "a story of atrocity and excess on both sides, a dirty war from which no one emerged with much pride, and certainly no glory". Political scientist Daniel Goldhagen describes the campaign against the Mau Mau as an example of eliminationism, though this verdict has been fiercely criticised. British war crimes The British authorities suspended civil liberties in Kenya. Many Kikuyu were forced to move. According to British authorities 80,000 were interned. Caroline Elkins estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were interned in detention camps also known as concentration camps. Other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. Most of the rest – more than a million Kikuyu – were held in "enclosed villages" as part of the villagisation program. Although some were Mau Mau guerrillas, most were victims of collective punishment that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands were beaten or sexually assaulted to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes". Castration by British troops and denying access to medical aid to the detainees were also widespread and common. Among the detainees who suffered severe mistreatment was Hussein Onyango Obama, the grandfather of U.S. President Barack Obama. According to his widow, British soldiers forced pins into his fingernails and buttocks and squeezed his testicles between metal rods and two others were castrated. The historian Robert Edgerton describes the methods used during the emergency: "If a question was not answered to the interrogator's satisfaction, the subject was beaten and kicked. If that did not lead to the desired confession, and it rarely did, more force was applied. Electric shock was widely used, and so was fire. Women were choked and held under water; gun barrels, beer bottles, and even knives were thrust into their vaginas. Men had beer bottles thrust up their rectums, were dragged behind Land Rovers, whipped, burned and bayoneted... Some police officers did not bother with more time-consuming forms of torture; they simply shot any suspect who refused to answer, then told the next suspect, to dig his own grave. When the grave was finished, the man was asked if he would now be willing to talk." In June 1957, Eric Griffith-Jones, the attorney general of the British administration in Kenya, wrote to the Governor, Sir Evelyn Baring, detailing the way the regime of abuse at the colony's detention camps was being subtly altered. He said that the mistreatment of the detainees is "distressingly reminiscent of conditions in Nazi Germany or Communist Russia". Despite this, he said that in order for abuse to remain legal, Mau Mau suspects must be beaten mainly on their upper body, "vulnerable parts of the body should not be struck, particularly the spleen, liver or kidneys", and it was important that "those who administer violence ... should remain collected, balanced and dispassionate". He also reminded the governor that "If we are going to sin", he wrote, "we must sin quietly." Author Wangari Maathai indicates that in 1954, three out of every four Kikuyu men were in detention, and that land was taken from detainees and given to collaborators. Detainees were pushed into forced labor. Maathai also notes that the Home Guard were especially known to rape women. The Home Guard's reputation for cruelty in the form of terror and intimidation was well known, whereas the Mau Mau soldiers were initially respectful of women. Chuka Massacre The Chuka Massacre, which happened in Chuka, Kenya, was perpetrated by members of the King's African Rifles B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on 13 June 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. The people executed belonged to the Kikuyu Home Guard – a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight the guerrillas. Nobody ever stood trial for the massacre. Hola massacre The Hola massacre was an incident during the conflict in Kenya against British colonial rule at a colonial detention camp in Hola, Kenya. By January 1959, the camp had a population of 506 detainees, of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp". This more remote camp near Garissa, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process" or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action – as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability. Mau Mau war crimes Lari massacres Mau Mau militants were guilty of numerous war crimes. The most notorious was their attack on the settlement of Lari, on the night of 25–26 March 1953, in which they herded men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, hacking down with machetes anyone who attempted escape, before throwing them back into the burning huts. The attack at Lari was so extreme that "African policemen who saw the bodies of the victims were physically sick and said 'These people are animals. If I see one now I shall shoot with the greatest eagerness, and it "even shocked many Mau Mau supporters, some of whom would subsequently try to excuse the attack as 'a mistake. A retaliatory massacre was immediately perpetrated by Kenyan security forces who were partially overseen by British commanders. Official estimates place the death toll from the first Lari massacre at 74, and the second at 150, though neither of these figures account for those who 'disappeared'. Whatever the actual number of victims, "[t]he grim truth was that, for every person who died in Lari's first massacre, at least two more were killed in retaliation in the second." Aside from the Lari massacres, Kikuyu were also tortured, mutilated and murdered by Mau Mau on many other occasions. Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow native Kenyans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found. Thirty-two European and twenty-six Asian civilians were also murdered by Mau Mau militants, with similar numbers wounded. The best known European victim was Michael Ruck, aged six, who was hacked to death with pangas along with his parents, Roger and Esme, and one of the Rucks' farm workers, Muthura Nagahu, who had tried to help the family. Newspapers in Kenya and abroad published graphic murder details, including images of young Michael with bloodied teddy bears and trains strewn on his bedroom floor. In 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used by members of Mau Mau to kill cattle in an incident of biological warfare. Legacy Although Mau Mau was effectively crushed by the end of 1956, it was not until the First Lancaster House Conference, in January 1960, that native Kenyan majority rule was established and the period of colonial transition to independence initiated. Before the conference, it was anticipated by both native Kenyan and European leaders that Kenya was set for a European-dominated multi-racial government. There is continuing debate about Mau Mau's and the rebellion's effects on decolonisation and on Kenya after independence. Regarding decolonisation, the most common view is that Kenya's independence came about as a result of the British government's deciding that a continuance of colonial rule would entail a greater use of force than that which the British public would tolerate. Nissimi argues, though, that such a view fails to "acknowledge the time that elapsed until the rebellion's influence actually took effect [and does not] explain why the same liberal tendencies failed to stop the dirty war the British conducted against the Mau Mau in Kenya while it was raging on". Others contend that, as the 1950s progressed, nationalist intransigence increasingly rendered official plans for political development irrelevant, meaning that after the mid-1950s British policy increasingly accepted Kenyan nationalism and moved to co-opt its leaders and organisations into collaboration. It has been argued that the conflict helped set the stage for Kenyan independence in December 1963, or at least secured the prospect of Black-majority rule once the British left. However, this is disputed and other sources downplay the contribution of Mau Mau to decolonisation. On 12 December 1964, President Kenyatta issued an amnesty to Mau Mau fighters to surrender to the government. Some Mau Mau members insisted that they should get land and be absorbed into the civil service and Kenya army. On 28 January 1965, the Kenyatta government sent the Kenya army to Meru district, where Mau Mau fighters gathered under the leadership of Field Marshall Mwariama and Field Marshall Baimungi. These leaders and several Mau Mau fighters were killed. On 14 January 1965, the Minister for Defence Dr Njoroge Mungai was quoted in the Daily Nation saying: "They are now outlaws, who will be pursued and brought to punishment. They must be outlawed as well in the minds of all the people of Kenya." On 12 September 2015, the British government unveiled a Mau Mau memorial statue in Nairobi's Uhuru Park that it had funded "as a symbol of reconciliation between the British government, the Mau Mau, and all those who suffered". This followed a June 2013 decision by Britain to compensate more than 5,000 Kenyans it had tortured and abused during the Mau Mau insurgency. Compensation claims In 1999, a collection of former fighters calling themselves the Mau Mau Original Group announced that they would attempt a £5 billion claim against the UK on behalf of hundreds of thousands of Kenyans for ill-treatment that they said they had suffered during the rebellion, though nothing came of it. In November 2002, the Mau Mau Trusta welfare group for former members of the movementannounced that it would attempt to sue the British government for widespread human rights violations it said had been committed against its members. Until September 2003, the Mau Mau movement was banned. Once the ban was removed, former Mau Mau members who had been castrated or otherwise tortured were supported by the Kenya Human Rights Commission, in particular by the commission's George Morara, in their attempt to take on the British government; their lawyers had amassed 6,000 depositions regarding human rights abuses by late 2002. 42 potential claimants were interviewed, from whom five were chosen to prosecute a test case; one of the five, Susan Ciong'ombe Ngondi, has since died. The remaining four test claimants are: Ndiku Mutua, who was castrated; Paulo Muoka Nzili, who was castrated; Jane Muthoni Mara, who was subjected to sexual assault that included having bottles filled with boiling water pushed up her vagina; and Wambugu Wa Nyingi, who survived the Hola massacre. Ben Macintyre of The Times said of the legal case: "Opponents of these proceedings have pointed out, rightly, that the Mau Mau was a brutal terrorist force, guilty of the most dreadful atrocities. Yet only one of the claimants is of that stampMr Nzili. He has admitted taking the Mau Mau oath and said that all he did was to ferry food to the fighters in the forest. None has been accused, let alone convicted, of any crime." Upon publication of Caroline Elkins' Imperial Reckoning in 2005, Kenya called for an apology from the UK for atrocities committed during the 1950s. The British government claimed that the issue was the responsibility of the Kenyan government, on the ground of "state succession" for former colonies, relying on an obscure legal precedent relating to Patagonian toothfish and the declaration of martial law in Jamaica in 1860. In July 2011, "George Morara strode down the corridor and into a crowded little room [in Nairobi] where 30 elderly Kenyans sat hunched together around a table clutching cups of hot tea and sharing plates of biscuits. 'I have good news from London', he announced. 'We have won the first part of the battle!' At once, the room erupted in cheers." The good news was that a British judge had ruled that the Kenyans could sue the British government for their torture. Morara said that, if the first test cases succeeded, perhaps 30,000 others would file similar complaints of torture. Explaining his decision, Mr Justice McCombe said the claimants had an "arguable case", and added: A Times editorial noted with satisfaction that "Mr Justice McCombe told the FCO, in effect, to get lost. Though the arguments against reopening very old wounds are seductive, they fail morally. There are living claimants and it most certainly was not their fault that the documentary evidence that seems to support their claims was for so long 'lost' in the governmental filing system." During the course of the Mau Mau legal battle in London, a large amount of what was stated to be formerly lost Foreign Office archival material was finally brought to light, while yet more was discovered to be missing. The files, known as migrated archives, provided details of British human rights abuses (torture, rape, execution) in its former colonies during the final stages of empire, including during Mau Mau, and even after decolonisation. Regarding the Mau Mau Uprising, the records included confirmation of "the extent of the violence inflicted on suspected Mau Mau rebels" in British detention camps documented in Caroline Elkins' study. Numerous allegations of murder and rape by British military personnel are recorded in the files, including an incident where a native Kenyan baby was "burnt to death", the "defilement of a young girl", and a soldier in Royal Irish Fusiliers who killed "in cold blood two people who had been his captives for over 12 hours". Baring himself was aware of the "extreme brutality" of the sometimes lethal torture meted outwhich included "most drastic" beatings, solitary confinement, starvation, castration, whipping, burning, rape, sodomy, and forceful insertion of objects into orificesbut took no action. Baring's inaction was despite the urging of people like Arthur Young, Commissioner of Police for Kenya for less than eight months of 1954 before he resigned in protest, that "the horror of some of the [camps] should be investigated without delay". In February 1956, a provincial commissioner in Kenya, "Monkey" Johnson, wrote to Attorney General Reginald Manningham-Buller urging him to block any enquiry into the methods used against Mau Mau: "It would now appear that each and every one of us, from the Governor downwards, may be in danger of removal from public service by a commission of enquiry as a result of enquiries made by the CID." The April 2012 release also included detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels. Commenting on the papers, David Anderson stated that the "documents were hidden away to protect the guilty", and "that the extent of abuse now being revealed is truly disturbing". "Everything that could happen did happen. Allegations about beatings and violence were widespread. Basically you could get away with murder. It was systematic", Anderson said. An example of this impunity is the case of eight colonial officials accused of having prisoners tortured to death going unpunished even after their actions were reported to London. Huw Bennett of King's College London, who had worked with Anderson on the Chuka Massacre, said in a witness statement to the court that the new documents "considerably strengthen" the knowledge that the British Army were "intimately involved" with the colonial security forces, whom they knew were "systematically abusing and torturing detainees in screening centres and detention camps". In April 2011, lawyers for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office continued to maintain that there was no such policy. As early as November 1952, however, military reports noted that "[t]he Army has been used for carrying out certain functions that properly belonged to the Police, eg. searching of huts and screening of Africans", and British soldiers arrested and transferred Mau Mau suspects to camps where they were beaten and tortured until they confessed. Bennett said that "the British Army retained ultimate operational control over all security forces throughout the Emergency", and that its military intelligence operation worked "hand in glove" with the Kenyan Special Branch "including in screening and interrogations in centres and detention camps". The Kenyan government sent a letter to the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, William Hague, insisting that the UK government was legally liable for the atrocities. The Foreign Office, however, reaffirmed its position that it was not, in fact, liable for colonial atrocities, and argued that the documents had not "disappeared" as part of a cover-up. Nearly ten years before, in late 2002, as the BBC aired a documentary detailing British human rights abuses committed during the rebellion and 6,000 depositions had been taken for the legal case, former district colonial officer John Nottingham had expressed concern that compensation be paid soon, since most victims were in their 80s and would soon pass away. He told the BBC: "What went on in the Kenya camps and villages was brutal, savage torture. It is time that the mockery of justice that was perpetrated in this country at that time, should be, must be righted. I feel ashamed to have come from a Britain that did what it did here [in Kenya]." Thirteen boxes of "top secret" Kenya files are still missing. In October 2012, Mr Justice McCombe granted the surviving elderly test claimants the right to sue the UK for damages. The UK government then opted for what the claimants' lawyers called the "morally repugnant" decision to appeal McCombe's ruling. In May 2013, it was reported that the appeal was on hold while the UK government held compensation negotiations with the claimants. Settlement On 6 June 2013, the foreign secretary, William Hague, told parliament that the UK government had reached a settlement with the claimants. He said it included "payment of a settlement sum in respect of 5,228 claimants, as well as a gross costs sum, to the total value of £19.9 million. The Government will also support the construction of a memorial in Nairobi to the victims of torture and ill-treatment during the colonial era." However he added, "We continue to deny liability on behalf of the Government and British taxpayers today for the actions of the colonial administration in respect of the claims". Mau Mau status in Kenya It is often argued that the Mau Mau Uprising was suppressed as a subject for public discussion in Kenya during the periods under Kenyatta and Daniel arap Moi because of the key positions and influential presence of some loyalists in government, business and other elite sectors of Kenyan society post-1963. Unsurprisingly, during this same period opposition groups tactically embraced the Mau Mau rebellion. Members of Mau Mau are currently recognised by the Kenyan Government as freedom-independence heroes and heroines who sacrificed their lives in order to free Kenyans from colonial rule. Since 2010, Mashujaa Day (Heroes Day) has been marked annually on 20 October (the same day Baring signed the Emergency order). According to the Kenyan Government, Mashujaa Day will be a time for Kenyans to remember and honour Mau Mau and other Kenyans who participated in the independence struggle. Mashujaa Day will replace Kenyatta Day; the latter has until now also been held on 20 October. In 2001, the Kenyan Government announced that important Mau Mau sites were to be turned into national monuments. This official celebration of Mau Mau is in marked contrast to a post-colonial norm of Kenyan governments rejection of the Mau Mau as a symbol of national liberation. Such a turnabout has attracted criticism of government manipulation of the Mau Mau uprising for political ends. See also The Black Man's Land Trilogy, series of films on Kenya Frank Kitson, author of Gangs and Counter-gangs Kurito ole Kisio Mathenge Muthoni wa Kirima Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers Robert Ruark, author of Something of Value and Uhuru Weep Not, Child Insurgency Mungiki, contemporary Kikuyu insurgency within Kenya General British military history History of Kenya Notes The name Kenya Land and Freedom Army is sometimes heard in connection with Mau Mau. KLFA was the name that Dedan Kimathi used for a coordinating body which he tried to set up for Mau Mau. It was also the name of another militant group that sprang up briefly in the spring of 1960; the group was broken up during a brief operation from 26 March to 30 April. Between 1895 and 1920, Kenya was formally known as British East Africa Protectorate; between 1920 and 1963, as Kenya Colony and Protectorate. "Squatter or resident labourers are those who reside with their families on European farms usually for the purpose of work for the owners. Contract labourers are those who sign a contract of service before a magistrate, for periods varying from three to twelve months. Casual labourers leave their reserves to engage themselves to European employers for any period from one day upwards." In return for his services, a squatter was entitled to use some of the settler's land for cultivation and grazing. Contract and casual workers are together referred to as migratory labourers, in distinction to the permanent presence of the squatters on farms. The phenomenon of squatters arose in response to the complementary difficulties of Europeans in finding labourers and of Africans in gaining access to arable and grazing land. During the Emergency, screening was the term used by colonial authorities to mean the interrogation of a Mau Mau suspect. The alleged member or sympathiser of Mau Mau would be interrogated in order to obtain an admission of guilt—specifically, a confession that they had taken the Mau Mau oath—as well as for intelligence. References Notes Bibliography Bennett, Huw. Fighting the Mau Mau: The British army and counter-insurgency in the Kenya emergency. Cambridge University Press, 2013. US edition UK edition Further reading External links Archive newsreels from Pathé News. Includes footage of: military operations against Mau Mau; the capture of Dedan Kimathi; capture of General China (Waruhiu Itote); the survivors of the Lari massacre and the defendants' trial; Operation Anvil. Colonial Film's archive footage of Mau Mau "Lost" Mau Mau-era government-documents posted by the BBC's Dominic Casciani "Mau-Mau" Podcast about the Mau Mau Uprising and British repression from Radiolab (WNYC – New York Public Radio) Surrender Pass issued under Baring's 18 January 1955 Amnesty 20th-century revolutions 20th-century conflicts African resistance to colonialism Wars involving Kenya Wars of independence 20th century in Kenya Insurgencies in Africa Rebellions against the British Empire Kikuyu Proxy wars

Freedom of information laws by country

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Freedom of information laws allow access by the general public to data held by national governments and, where applicable, by state and local governments. The emergence of freedom of information legislation was a response to increasing dissatisfaction with the secrecy surrounding government policy development and decision making. In recent years Access to Information Act has also been used. They establish a "right-to-know" legal process by which requests may be made for government-held information, to be received freely or at minimal cost, barring standard exceptions. Also variously referred to as open records, or sunshine laws (in the United States), governments are typically bound by a duty to publish and promote openness. In many countries there are constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information, but these are usually unused if specific support legislation does not exist. Additionally, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 has a target to ensure public access to information and the protection of fundamental freedoms as a means to ensure accountable, inclusive and just institutions. Introduction Over 100 countries around the world have implemented some form of freedom of information legislation. Sweden's Freedom of the Press Act of 1766 is the oldest in the world. Most freedom of information laws exclude the private sector from their jurisdiction thus information held by the private sector cannot be accessed as a legal right. This limitation has serious implications because the private sector performs many functions which were previously the domain of the public sector. As a result, information that was previously public is now within the private sector, and the private contractors cannot be forced to disclose information. Other countries are working towards introducing such laws, and many regions of countries with national legislation have local laws. For example, all U.S. states have laws governing access to public documents belonging to the state and local taxing entities. Additionally, the U.S. Freedom of Information Act governs record management of documents in the possession of the federal government. A related concept is open meetings legislation, which allows access to government meetings, not just to the records of them. In many countries, privacy or data protection laws may be part of the freedom of information legislation; the concepts are often closely tied together in political discourse. A basic principle behind most freedom of information legislation is that the burden of proof falls on the body asked for information, not the person asking for it. The person making the request does not usually have to give an explanation for their actions, but if the information is not disclosed a valid reason has to be given. In 2015 The UNESCO General Conference voted to designate Sept. 28 as “International Day for the Universal Access to Information” or, as it is more commonly known, Access to Information Day. The date had previously been celebrated as “Right to Know Day” since 2002. The UNESCO resolution recommends approval by the UN General Assembly. Legislation by country Albania In Albania, the constitution of 1998 guarantees the right of access to information; the legislation for supporting this is Law no. 119/2014 "On the right to information" (Ligji nr. 119/2014 "Për të drejtën e informimit"). The law regulates the right of access to information being produced or held by public sector. The rules contained in this law are designated to ensure the public access to information, in the framework of assuming the rights and freedoms of the individual in practice, as well as establishing views on the state and society situation. This law aims also at encouraging integrity, transparency and accountability of the public sector bodies. Every person shall, where deemed that the rights provided for in this law have been violated, be entitled to file a complaint administratively to the Information and Data Protection Commissioner's Office. Argentina In Argentina, the Access to public information Act (Ley 27.275) was adopted in 2016. Armenia The Law on Freedom of Information was unanimously approved by the Parliament on 23 September 2003 and went into force in November 2003. Australia In Australia, the was passed at the federal level in 1982, applying to all "ministers, departments and public authorities" of the Commonwealth. The act was amended in 2010 under the Rudd Government, establishing the government office of the information commissioner, to further promote freedom of information. There is similar legislation in all states and territories: Australian Capital Territory, the New South Wales, the Northern Territory, the Queensland, the South Australia, the Tasmania, the Victoria, the Western Australia, the Azerbaijan In Azerbaijan, a Law on Access to Information was approved in 2005. It has gone into effect. Previously in 1998 there was accepted Law on Freedom on Information, but the Law of 2005 provided more detailed and secured regulation for access to official information. Bangladesh On October 21, 2008, the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh issued in the Bangladesh Gazette the Right to Information Ordinance (No. 50 of 2008), based loosely on the Indian Right to Information Act, 2005. The Ordinance was passed by the current government of Bangladesh in the first session of this parliament on March 29, 2009. The A2i programme is a part of the Vision 2021, a political manifesto of the Bangladesh Awami League party before winning the National Elections of 2008. Belgium Article 32 of the Constitution was amended in 1993 to include a right of access to documents held by the government. Belize In Belize, the was passed in 1998 was amended in 2000 and is currently in force, though a governmental commission noted that "not much use has been made of the Act". Bhutan The National Assembly of Bhutan passed an RTI Bill in February 2014. Its purpose is to curb corruption by providing the public with the right to access information. Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) was the first country in the Balkan region to adopt a Freedom of Information Act. or FOIA - was adopted by the Parliament Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 17 November 2000. Both federal entities - the Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - passed freedom of information laws in 2001, the and respectively. The FOIA Act changed on the BiH state level two times. The first alteration was passed in 2006, enabling stronger legal protection within the framework of administrative law of BiH. The second alteration was passed in December 2009, which enforced legal penalties for prescribed violations. Brazil In Brazil, the Article 5, XXXIII, of the Constitution sets that "everyone shall have the right to receive information of his own interest or of public interest from public entities, which shall be given within the time prescribed by law". Also, article 22 of the Federal law nº 8.159/1991 grants the right to "full access to public documents". A statute passed in 2011 and that will enter into force in 2012 (Federal Law 12.527/2011, promulgated on 28 November 2011) regulates the manner and the timetable for the information to be given by the State. Bulgaria In Bulgaria, the was passed in 2000, following a 1996 recommendation from the Constitutional Court to implement such a law. Canada In Canada, the allows citizens to demand records from federal bodies. The act came into force in 1983, under the Pierre Trudeau government, permitting Canadians to retrieve information from government files, establishing what information could be accessed, mandating timelines for response. This is enforced by the Information Commissioner of Canada. There is also a complementary that was introduced in 1983. The purpose of the Privacy Act is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a federal government institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information. It is a Crown copyright. Complaints for possible violations of the Act may be reported to the Privacy Commissioner of Canada. Canadian access to information laws distinguish between access to records generally and access to records that contain personal information about the person making the request. Subject to exceptions, individuals have a right of access to records that contain their own personal information under the Privacy Act but the general public does not have a right of access to records that contain personal information about others under the Access to Information Act. Each province and territory in Canada has its own access to information legislation. In many cases, this is also the provincial public sector privacy legislation. For example: Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Alberta) Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Manitoba) Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Newfoundland and Labrador) Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Nova Scotia) Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Ontario) Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Saskatchewan) Act respecting access to documents held by public bodies and the protection of personal information (Quebec) From 1989 to 2008, requests made to the federal government were catalogued in the Coordination of Access to Information Requests System. A 393-page report released in September 2008, sponsored by several Canadian newspaper groups, compares Canada's Access to Information Act to the FOI laws of the provinces and of 68 other nations. In 2009, The Walrus (magazine) published a detailed history of FOI in Canada. Cayman Islands The Freedom of Information Law was passed in 2007 and was brought into force in January 2009. Chile In Chile, article 8 of the Constitution provides for the freedom of information. A law titled Law on Access to Public Information (Ley de Acceso a la Información Pública) took effect on April 20, 2009. China In April 2007, the State Council of the People's Republic of China promulgated the "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Open Government Information" (中华人民共和国政府信息公开条例), which came into effect on May 1, 2008. Colombia The Colombian constitution grants the right of access to public information through Law 57 of 1985 which thereby mandates the publishing of acts and official documents. This is implemented and applies to documents that belong to official facilities (offices or the like). Additionally there is the anti corruption statement of Law 190 of 1955 also known as anti corruption act which in its 51st article mandates public offices to list in visible area all the contracts and purchases made by month. The latter taking place slowly. A more modern law, the "Ley de transparencia y del derecho de acceso a la información pública nacional" its at its final stages. Article 23 of the constitution states that "Every person has the right to present petitions to the authorities for the general or private interest and to secure their prompt resolution. The legislative body may regulate the presentation of petitions to private organisations in order to guarantee fundamental rights." This article justifies the existence of a jurisdictional mechanism known a petition action. This action is regulated by the law 1755 of 2015 and is considered by the Colombian Judicial Doctrine as a fundamental human right. According to the law all petitions should be fully addressed in 15 business days. If not addressed the official in charge of resolving the petition may be charged with misconduct. Cook Islands Access to official information is governed by the Official Information Act 2008. The law is based heavily on the New Zealand legislation. Croatia In Croatia, the (Act on the Right of Access to Information) first introduced in 2003 extends to all public authorities. Cyprus The right of access to information in Cyprus is guaranteed in constitutional provisions on freedom of expression. The No. 184(I)/2017 law on access to information in the southern part of the Republic of Cyprus of the country has been published on 22 December 2017. A law that falls below Council of Europe standards in the Northern occupied part of Cyprus. The right to access to public information is provided in different ways in the two parts of the island, in which Cyprus is de facto divided. As to 2011, a research by the Open Cyprus Project showed that there was a level of 75% of administrative silence island-wide, in response to information requests. Over half of the respondents to this survey stated that, in practice, access to key documents is not possible. Since late 2013, a draft law on the Right to Access Public Information was being discussed in the Parliament of the Republic of Cyprus. On 22 December 2017 the law has finally been approved (Law number 184(I)/2017 Law on the Right of Access to Information of the Public Sector). Czech Republic In the Czech Republic, the (Act No. 106/1999 Coll. on Free Access to Information) covers the "state agencies, territorial self-administration authorities and public institutions managing public funds" as well as any body authorised by the law to reach legal decisions relating to the public sector, to the extent of such authorisation. Denmark Access to Public Administration Files Act of 1985 is a Danish act passed by the Folketing concerning public access to governmental records. The Act came into force in 1987 and repealed the Public Records Act of 1970. New version of the Act came into force on 1 January 2014. Denmark is considered to be a historic pioneer in the field of FOI along with Sweden, Finland and Norway. There is no constitutional basis in the Constitution of Denmark for the right of the public to information. Denmark scores 64 points in Global Right to Information Rating. Scope According to the Act of 1985, Section 4 Part 1 states that “any person may ask to see documents received or issued by an administrative authority.” Information concerning administrative matters of the public administration; electricity and heating utilities as well as private bodies receiving public funding or performing public function can be acquired. Yet, the information concerning activities of judicial branch and legislators is not accessible. Procedure Reasons do not have to be given while making a request; however, the authorities can ask for additional information regarding document. The requests are supposed to be handled as soon as possible; if within period of 10 days response to an application was not provided, the authority has to inform on reasons for the delay as well as expected date for a decision. More detailed procedures are not laid down in the Act. Exceptions Access to information is limited by “the obligation to maintain secrecy.” Considerations of State security, defence, foreign policy, external economic interests as well as public financial interests can limit the granting of access to the information. Registers and records processed electronically are excluded from the administrative documents that can be given access to. Section 10 outlines other areas excluded from access, such as records of meetings of the Council of State, minutes, as well as documents prepared for such meetings; correspondence between ministries concerning legislation and material used for scientific research or public statistics. Appeals Decision to grant or not to grant access can be appealed. Decisions can also be appealed externally to Folketingets Ombudsman. Ombudsman can also deliver opinions and review decisions; however, these are not binding even though generally followed. Ombudsman receives 200-300 complaints annually; approximately 15 percent of complaints are ruled in favour of appellants. Revisions The exemption regarding EU documents was taken out of the Act in 1991. Amendments were also made in 2000; they concerned data on the employees of the Government. In January 2014 new Public Records Act was enforced. The new act was highly debated since it was considered to limit transparency in the Government and legislative proceedings; Denmark received one point less in the category of Political Environment when compared with the Freedom of the Press report of 2015. The new legislation caused demonstrations and protests. It can be regarded as a response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks. After the Public Records Act of 2013 came into effect, public access to information regarding the Intelligence Services instead of falling under the Public Records Act is now managed by the Act on the Security and Intelligence Service as well as the Act on the Defense Intelligence Service. In addition, the access to legislative process was further restricted. According to the new Act documents in the drafting stage are not to be accessed as well as “other corresponding political activities,” so restriction is not concerning only Bills. In the future, it will not be possible to find the calendars of ministers being published. Nevertheless, the Act was created while keeping in mind the strengthening the project of the Open Government; the list of institutions covered by the Act was extended as well as list of public-private institutions and companies. Dominican Republic Hipólito Mejía approved (Law number 200-04 - Law on Access to Information) on 28 July 2004, which allows public access to information from the government and private organisations that receive public money to conduct state business. Rough drafts and projects that are not part of an administrative procedure are not included. Ecuador In Ecuador, the of 2004 declares that the right of access to information is guaranteed by the state. El Salvador In El Salvador, the was given assent by The Legislative Assembly of El Salvador on 3 March 2011. Estonia In Estonia, the of 2000 seeks to "ensure that the public and every person has the opportunity to access information intended for public use, based on the principles of a democratic and social rule of law and an open society, and to create opportunities for the public to monitor the performance of public duties". It extends to all "holders of information", covering all state and local government bodies, legal persons in public law and legal persons in private law if they are performing public duties (providing health, education etc.). Europe In matters concerning the local, national and transboundary environment, the Aarhus convention grants the public rights regarding access to information, public participation and access to justice in governmental decision-making processes. It focuses on interactions between the public and public authorities. Council of Europe The recognition of the right to access to public information under Article 10 (including "freedom (..) to receive (..) information") of the European Convention on Human Rights was one of subjects in Guerra v. Italy case before the European Court of Human Rights in 1998. The majority considered Article 10 was not applicable to the complaint. However, the court found that in the specific case, which included living near a high-risk factory, not providing information was in violation of Article 8 (respect to private and family life). Besides, two judges expressed a dissent on applicability of Article 10, and further six judges reserved a possibility, that in other circumstances, right to access to information could be protected by Article 10. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has considered in 1996, that "public access to clear and full information on this subject [Chernobyl disaster]—and many others for that matter—must be viewed as a basic human right". In 2009, CoE Convention on Access to Official Documents was opened for signature. European Union Right of access to documents of the Union and give ″[a]ny citizen of the Union, and any natural or legal person residing or having its registered office in a Member State, [...] a right of access to documents of the institutions, bodies, offices and agencies of the Union, whatever their medium." It follows from Article 15 TFEU that this right is "subject to the principles and the conditions to be defined" in legislation. further defines this right of access to documents of the three institutions; for most other EU bodies and agencies, there is a provision in the legal act establishing them which makes Regulation No 1049/2001 applicable to them as well. In some other cases, specific rules apply (e.g. to the EESC, the CoR, the Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors and the ECB). "Document" is defined broadly and it is assumed that all documents, even if classified, may be subject to right of access unless it falls under one of the exceptions. If access is refused, the applicant is allowed a confirmatory request. A complaint against a refusal can be made with the European Ombudsman and/or an appeal can be brought before the European General Court. Re-use of public sector information In addition, sets out the rules and practices for accessing public sector information resources for further exploitation. This directive has been reviewed in 2013 by Register of lobbyists Since 2008, the European Commission operates the Register of Interest representatives, a voluntary register of lobbyists at the European union. Access to Environmental Information Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and Council provides for citizens of each country to have freedom of access to information on the environment, in line with the requirements of the Aarhus Convention. Governments are required to transcribe the directive into national legislation (for example, in the United Kingdom, the Environmental Information Regulations 2004). Personal data Directive 95/46/EC, the Data Protection directive, provides a variety of rights in relation to personal data, including a right of access. This has been transcribed into national legislation through, for example, the Data Protection Act 1998 (United Kingdom) and the Data Protection 2003 (Ireland). Finland In Finland, the (Act on the Openness of Public Documents of 1951) established the openness of all records and documents in the possession of officials of the state, municipalities, and registered religious communities. Exceptions to the basic principle could only be made by law, or by an executive order for specific enumerated reasons such as national security. The openness of unsigned draft documents was not mandated, but up to the consideration of the public official. This weakness of the law was removed when the law was revised in the 1990s. The revised law, the (Act on the Openness of Government Activities of 1999), called in short "Publicity Act" () also extended the principle of openness to corporations that perform legally mandated public duties, such as pension funds and public utilities, and to computer documents. The Publicity Act establishes a process by which any person may access any record in possession of an authority. The person may ask the authority for the document in person or in writing. When making the request, the requester needs to specify the document so that it can be identified. However, the authority is liable to assist the person with its document registers and indices in this task. After receiving the request, the authority has two weeks to give the document. If the decision is negative, and document is withheld, the requester may appeal to the administrative court. The document may be given orally, for reading and copying in the authority's premises or as an electronic or paper copy, as requested by the person. However, the copying may be declined if it would be unfeasible because of the large number of documents or otherwise technically difficult. There are also a number of limitations on the release of electronic documents designed for the protection of the individual privacy. The reasons for withholding a document are listed in the article 24 of the Act. They may be grouped to three categories: automatic non-openness, conditional non openness or conditional openness. The documents where automatic non-openness is prescribed remain withheld in all cases. In the case of conditional non-openness, the reasonability of the non-openness is reviewed case-by-case by the authority and, if appeals are made, by the court. In the third category, openness is a rule, and the reason for non-openness needs to be established by the authority. The absolute reasons for non-openness are (subpoint of Article 24 in captions) Documents of the foreign policy committee of the Council of State, foreign policy memos of the foreign ministry on political status, negotiations with foreign governments or organisations and diplomatic cryptograms, unless released by the ministry (1) registers held by law enforcement for investigation and prevention of crimes, as well as passport or ID card photos and biometric information on them (4) statistics and other documents on economic policy that might affect financial markets, until they are released to public (13) documents handed over to a statistical authority for the compilation of statistics and documents handed over voluntarily to an authority for purposes of research and statistics (16) documents containing medical information, information on sexual orientation or information pertaining to a customer of labour administration or of social services (25) documents containing information on a judicial psychiatric examination or on certain personal investigations relating to execution of prison sentences and similar custodial sentences (26) documents containing results or information from individual psychological testing (29) documents relating to the care of students, as well as any student evaluations containing verbal information on the personal qualities of the student (30) documents containing a secret phone number, or the location of a mobile communications device (31) documents identifying an anonymous witness (31a) documents containing information on individual's political opinions, hobbies, personal habits, membership and activities in associations, family life or opinions uttered within private life. However, information on having held positions of responsibility held or having been a candidate for them is public, as well as being aa founding member of a political party or electoral association. (32) Conditional non-openness is mandated for the following categories of documents, unless it is "obviously clear" that the protected interest is not endangered documents concerning international relations of Finland, Finnish institutions or Finnish persons, unless it is obviously clear that no harm will befall on Finnish foreign relations now or in the future (2) documents concerning criminal investigations or pending prosecutions until the investigation is over or the prosecution has pleaded, unless it is obviously clear that the investigation or the prosecution is not harmed and no private person will suffer material harm nor suffering (3) documents on security of buildings, facilities, communications or information systems, unless it is obviously clear that the security is not endangered (7) all documents of Finnish Security Intelligence Service and other documents concerning state security, unless it is obviously clear that state security is not endangered (9) documents concerning national defence or military intelligence, unless it is obviously clear that national defence is in no way harmed or endangered (10) documents, records and data used as a basis for or concerning an academic thesis, scientific or scholarly research or product development, unless it is obviously clear that the research, development or study, their proper evaluation, the student or the researcher or the funder of the work are not harmed (21) documents concerning a refugee or an applicant for a visa, residence permit or an asylum, unless it is obviously clear that the person or his loved ones are not harmed (24) information contained in the criminal register and in other registers held by authorities overseeing the execution of punishments, as well as documents of authorities if they contain personal information on persons who have lost their personal freedom or who participate in witness protection programme, unless it is obviously clear that the security, future employment and social reintegration of the person will not be endangered and there is a valid reason for releasing the specific information in question (28) Conditional openness is prescribed for the following categories of information: technical and tactical methods of police, Finnish Border Guard and prison authorities, if their release would make the work of such authorities more difficult (5) administrative complaints during their handling, if their release would harm investigation or be likely to cause suffering or harm to a party in the matter, unless grave reasons exist for release of information (6) information on civil defence or rescue preparations and on safety investigations, if the release would endanger rescue work, civil defence preparations, safety or security or their continued development, or would endanger getting information in future safety investigations, or would hurt the victims of an accident, their memory or their loved ones (8) information on financial, monetary, labour or fiscal policy measures or their preparations or pre-studies if the release would defeat the purpose of such measures, endanger the negotiation position of the state or otherwise cause great harm to the management of such policies (11) studies conducted by regulatory authorities of financial and pension institutions, if the studies include information on the regulated bodies and the release would endanger the proper functioning of financial markets (12) documents containing information on endangered species or valuable natural areas, if the release would endanger their preservation (14) documents pertaining to an investigation or other control measure by an authority if the release would endanger the regulatory control measure or its purpose (15) detailed returns of political candidates on their campaign funding (15) business and professional secrets of public bodies, if a competing the body would suffer economic harm, or a public or private body pursuing competing or similar activities would gain a competitive advantage by the release or if the possibilities of a body bound by the Publicity Act to make advantageous purchases or other financial arrangements would be harmed (17) documents used by a public body in a collective bargaining or labour action if the release would harm the public body as the employer (18) documents used for preparation of a legal action, if the release would harm a public body as a party to a suit (19) documents containing information on entrance examination or other examination or test, if the release would defeat the purpose of the test or exam or prevent its future use (22) documents containing sensitive information on the private life of a suspect, plaintiff, witness or other party to a criminal investigation, or information on the victim that would hurt the victim's memory or her loved ones, unless the release is necessary to conduct the work of an authority (26) Non-open information remains non-open for 25 years after it was created or obtained by an authority. Documents that are non-open to protect the privacy of an individual remain non-open for 50 years after the protected individual has died. If information is still, after 25 years, valid and describes a security measure of a building, facility, system or method or it is still part of a plan used for national defence or civil defence, it remains non-open as long as the information is pertinent for the purpose. The same indefinite non-openness applies to all documents under international security obligations, if the release might still affect Finnish foreign relations negatively. The non-openness of other documents may be prolonged up to 55 years by the Council of State, if necessary to safeguard a protected interest. France In France, the accountability of public servants is a constitutional right, according to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The implementing legislation is the (Act No. 78-753 of 17 July 1978. On various measures for improved relations between the Civil Service and the public and on various arrangements of administrative, social and fiscal nature). It sets as a general rule that citizens can demand a copy of any administrative document (in paper, digitised or other form), and establishes the Commission d’Accès aux Documents Administratifs, an independent administrative authority, to oversee the process. Georgia In Georgia, the General Administrative Code contains a . Germany In Germany, the federal government passed a freedom of information law on September 5, 2005; it was last updated on August 7, 2013. The law grants each person an unconditional right to access official federal information. No legal, commercial, or any other kind of justification is necessary. Thirteen of the sixteen Bundesländer—Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein and Thüringen—have approved individual "Informationsfreiheitsgesetze" (Freedom of Information laws). Greece In Greece, the 1975 Greek Constitution guaranteed the right of access to administrative documents and the right of citizens to obtain information. However it was not until 1986 that the first law was passed to provide for access to information. Article 16 (Right to Access Administrative Documents—Δικαίωμα γνώσης διοικητικών εγγράφων) of Law 1599/1986 (State-citizenry Relationship—Σχέσεις Κράτους-πολίτη) introduced the right of all citizens to read most administrative documents. This right is now codified as article 5 (Access to documents—Πρόσβαση σε έγγραφα) of the Administrative Procedural Code (Κώδικας Διοικητικής Διαδικασίας), Law 2690/1999. Under this article, citizens have a right to know the content of administrative documents. Administrative documents are defined as those produced by public sector entities, such as reports, studies, minutes, statistical data, circulars, instructions, responses, consultatory responses, and decisions. In addition, citizens with a legitimate interest may also access private documents stored by public services. The right cannot be exercised if the document concerns the private or family lives of others, or if the document's confidentiality is safeguarded by specific legal provisions. Furthermore, the public body can refuse access if the document refers to discussions in the Cabinet, or if accessing the document can seriously hamper criminal or administrative violation investigations carried out by judicial, police, or military authorities. Citizens may study the documents at the place where they are archived, or they may obtain a copy at their own cost. Access to one's own medical data is provided with the help of a doctor. Access to documents should take into account whether they be covered by copyright, patent, or trade secret regulations. In addition, Law 3448/2006, on the reuse of public sector information, harmonises the national laws with the requirements on the European Union Directive 2003/98/EC. Guyana Guyana has a freedom of information act, which came into force in 2013, but it has relatively weak provisions.A commission tasked with ensuring asset declarations by government officials has begun functioning since 2018.Guyana also entered into the EITI, which guarantees the transparency of the proceeds of oil reserves of countries. Hong Kong In Hong Kong there are no laws specifically enacted to guarantee the freedom of information. Since March 1995, the Government of Hong Kong has promulgated a "Code on Access to Information" to serve a similar purpose. This code, like other internal regulations of the Government, was not legislated by the Legislative Council and has a minimal legal status. It requires government agencies listed in its appendix to appoint Access to Information Officers to answer citizens' requests for governmental records. A fee may be charged prior to the release of information. The code does not require the government to archive information. Hungary In Hungary, the of 1992 extends a right of access to all data of public interest, defined as any information processed by a body performing a governmental function. Complaints and contested applications may be appealed to the Data Protection Commissioner or to the court. In 2005 the Parliament adopted the (Act XC of 2005). The Act has three basic parts: 1. electronic disclosure of certain data by public sector bodies, 2. publicity of legislation and 3. openness of Court decisions. Iceland In Iceland the Information Act (Upplýsingalög) Act no. 50/1996 gives access to public information. India The Right to Information Act (RTI Act) was passed by Parliament on 11 May 2005 and was published in the gazette of India on 15 June 2005. It came into effect on 12 October 2005 replacing the erstwhile Freedom of information Act, 2002. The Supreme Court of India had, in several Judgments prior to enactment of both Acts, interpreted Indian Constitution to read Right to Information as the Fundamental Right as embodied in Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression and also in Right to Life. RTI Act laid down a procedure to guarantee this right. Under this law all Government Bodies or Government funded agencies have to designate a Public Information Officer (PIO). The PIO's responsibility is to ensure that information requested is disclosed to the petitioner within 30 days or within 48 hours in case of information concerning the life or liberty of a person. The law was inspired by previous legislation from select states (among them Tamil Nadu (1997), Goa (1997), Rajasthan (2000), Karnataka (2000), Delhi (2001), Maharashtra (2002) etc.) that allowed the right to information (to different degrees) to citizens about activities of any State Government body. 12. Question No.115 Starred 28.11.2019 India Justice Report 2019 Legal Aid to Poor A number of high-profile disclosures revealed corruption in various government schemes such scams in Public Distribution Systems (ration stores), disaster relief, construction of highways etc. The law itself has been hailed as a landmark in India's drive towards more openness and accountability. However the RTI has certain weaknesses that hamper implementation. There have been questions on the lack of speedy appeal to non-compliance to requests. The lack of a central PIO makes it difficult to pin-point the correct PIO to approach for requests. There is also a criticism of the manner in which the Information Commissioners are appointed to head the information commission. It is alleged by RTI Activists that bureaucrats working in close proximity with the government are appointed in the RTI Commissions in a non-transparent manner. The PIO, being an officer of the relevant Government institution, may have a vested interest in not disclosing damaging information on activities of his/her Institution, This therefore creates a conflict of interest. In the state of Maharashtra it was estimated that only 30% of the requests are actually realised under the Maharashtra Right to Information act. The law does not allow disclosure of information that affects national security, defence, and other matters that are deemed of national interest. Iran The Law on Dissemination of and Free Access to Information was approved by Iranian Parliament in 2008. Its English and Arabic renditions were officially released as part of the government's efforts to promote Freedom of Information (FOI) in October 2018. Ireland In Ireland the Freedom of Information Act 1997 came into effect in April, 1998. This provided for members of the public to access information specifically about themselves, amend incorrect information, and request an explanation behind administrative decisions concerning themselves, as well as allowing any person to access records generated by a list of specified public bodies. The Act is seen as having led to a sea-change in the relationship between the citizen, journalists, government departments and public bodies. Disclosure is the default assumption of the Act; bodies can withhold information only by citing exemptions specified in the legislation. Decisions of public bodies in relation to requests for information may be reviewed by the Information Commissioner. The Act was subsequently amended by the Freedom of Information (Amendment) Act 2003. The amendments introduced fees for non-personal requests and restricted the kinds of material which could be accessed. On 14 October 2014, the Freedom of Information Act 2014 repealed the 1997 and 2003 Acts, removing most of the restrictions introduced in 2003 and widened the range of bodies covered to all public bodies, unless specifically exempt. It also allowed for the Government to prescribe (or designate) other bodies receiving significant public funds, so that the FOI legislation applies to them also. Israel In Israel, the Freedom of Information Law, 5758–1998, supported by the Freedom of Information Regulations, 5759–1999, controls freedom of information. It defines the bodies subject to the legislation by a set of listed categories - essentially, most public bodies - and provides for the government to publish a list of all affected bodies. However, this list does not seem to have been made publicly available, if indeed it was ever compiled. Many public bodies are not obliged to follow the law, which limits the potential for use by the public. The Israeli Freedom of Information Law has, in some cases, actually achieved the opposite intended result. some Government agencies now take the position that a citizen may only request information via FOIL—i.e., an official letter designated as such and including the 95 shekel fee. Thus an Israeli citizen in many cases cannot simply write a letter asking a question, and can be asked to file a FOIL application with a fee and wait the minimum statutory 30 days for a reply, which the agency can extend to 60 days. In many cases FOIL letters are simply ignored, or some laconic response is sent stating the request is either unclear, unspecific, too vague or some other legalese, anything in order to keep the information away from the public. When the 60 days are up, if the anticipated result usually yield nothing significant, the applicant must petition the District Court to compel disclosure, a procedure that requires attorneys to draft pleadings and a payment of (approximately) $420 court fee. A judgement in such FOIL appeals in Israel can take many months, and again the agency can easily avoid disclosure by simply not complying, although risking being charged with contempt of court. While there are some successes in courts compelling Israeli government agencies to disclose information, they are usually in non-controversial areas. The law provides for the expected "security" exemption and an applicant applying for such information can expect not to benefit from FOIL (and also have his or her court appeal rejected). Applicants can sometimes be helped by The Movement for Freedom of Information. Italy Chapter V of Law No. 241 of 7 August 1990 provides for access to administrative documents. However, the right to access is limited. The law states that those requesting information must have a legal interest. The 1992 regulations require "a personal concrete interest to safeguard in legally relevant situations." The courts have ruled that this includes the right of environmental groups and local councilors to demand information on behalf of those they represent. It was amended in 2005. The revision appears to adopt the court rulings and relax the interest somewhat to allow access when an individual can show they represent a more general public interest. Jamaica In Jamaica, the relevant legislation is the . Japan In Japan, the "Law Concerning Access to Information Held by Administrative Organs" (行政機関の保有する情報の公開に関する法律) was promulgated in 1999. The law was enforced in 2001. Small town governments, rather than the federal government, were the first to take measures to enact freedom of information as the national government was "not...as eager as local governments to deal with freedom of information legislation" Local efforts in some ways predate national efforts; In many local governments, regulations about information disclosure (情報公開条例) were established starting from the latter half of the 1980s. Latvia The Constitution of Latvia states: "Article 100. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the right to freely receive, keep and distribute information and to express his or her views. Censorship is prohibited." The right to access state held information has been repeatedly recognised by the Constitutional Court of Latvia, most notably in its judgment "On Conformity of the Cabinet of Ministers 21 January 1997 Regulations No.46 "On Government Agreements" with the 20 November 1998 "Information Accessibility Law" The Law on Freedom of Information was signed into law by the State President in November 1998 and has been amended a number of times recently. Any person can ask for information in "any technically feasible form" without having to show a reason. The request can be oral or written. Bodies must respond in 15 days. Malta On the 1st of September 2012, Legal Notice 156 of 2012 brought the Freedom of Information Act (Chapter 496 of the Laws of Malta) fully into force, allowing the public (resident citizens of Malta, the EU and the EEA) to submit requests for documents/information held by the Government. FOI requests are submitted free of charge but processing of documents by public authorities may require the public to pay fees which never exceed Eur 40. When access to documents is refused, the FOIA in Malta provides for a complaint and appeal mechanism that can be ultimately resolved through the Courts of Appeal. Liberia President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf signed the Freedom of Information Act of 2010 into law in October 2010. Liberia became only the fourth country in Africa, and the first in West Africa, to pass such legislation. The law allows both the media and individual citizens to demand information from any public authority or any private authority that carries out government functions. North Macedonia Article 16 of the Constitution of North Macedonia guarantees "access to information and the freedom of reception and transmission of information". The Law on Free Access to Information of Public Character was adopted on 25 January 2006. It is scheduled to go into force in September 2006.The law allows any natural or legal person to obtain information from state and municipal bodies and natural and legal persons who are performing public functions. The requests can be oral, written or electronic. Requests must be responded to in 10 days. Malaysia The state of Selangor passed the Freedom of Information Enactment (Selangor) 2010 on 1 April 2011, allowing the Malaysian public an access to the state documents including that of local councils, city halls and state government-linked companies. Subsequently, the state of Penang passed the Freedom of Information bill on 4 November 2011, allowing the public to access to state documents. Both states are under the ruling of the federal opposition Pakatan Rakyat. Maldives The Maldives passed the Right to Information Act (RTI) on January 12, 2014. Mexico The Constitution was amended in 1977 to include a right of freedom of information. Article 6 says in part, "the right of information shall be guaranteed by the state." The Supreme Court made a number of decisions further enhancing that right. The Federal Law of Transparency and Access to Public Government Information was unanimously approved by Congress in April 2002 and signed by President Fox in June 2002. It went into effect in June 2003. Moldova Article 34 of the Constitution provides for a right of access to information. The Law of the Republic of Moldova on Access to Information was approved by Parliament in May 2000 and went into force in August 2000. Under the law, citizens and residents of Moldova can demand information from state institutions, organisations financed by the public budget and individuals and legal entities that provide public services and hold official information. Montenegro A freedom of information law was passed in Montenegro late in 2005, after a process of several years. Nepal Nepal Government passed a draft of information act on September, 2007 on behalf of freedom. Based on that draft, the government enacted a specific law to regulate right to information on July 18, 2007. However, on February, 2009 for the protection, promotion and execution of Right to Information in Nepal National Information Commission formed Right to Information Act, 2007. Netherlands Article 110 of the Constitution states: "In the exercise of their duties government bodies shall observe the principle of transparency in accordance with the rules to be prescribed by Act of Parliament." The Dutch act on public access to government information entered into force in 1980 and is updated several times later. Under the act known as the , or Wob for short, any person can demand information (called wobbing) related to an administrative matter if it is contained in documents held by public authorities or companies carrying out work for a public authority. The request can either be written or oral. The authority has two (on environmental issues) or four weeks to respond. The act also obliges the government to provide information unsolicited as it is in the interest of good and democratic governance. New Zealand In New Zealand, the relevant legislation is the Official Information Act 1982. This implemented a general policy of openness regarding official documents and replaced the Official Secrets Act. Nigeria Former President Goodluck Jonathan signed into law the Freedom of Information (FoI) Bill, awaited for 12 years by media proprietors and practitioners alike, during which the Villa got knocks for filibustering and lawmakers complained of bombardment by campaigners. The House of Representatives passed the Bill on February 24, 2011, and the Senate dialled up integrity on March 16 as it delivered on promise to pass it. The harmonised version was passed by both Chambers on May 26, 2011.It was conveyed to Jonathan on May 27, and he signed it on May 28, 2011, according to a statement Aso Rock issued on Tuesday. Two states in Nigeria (namely Ekiti and Lagos State) have adopted the Freedom of Information Act at State level but they have extended the response date at State level from 7 days to 14 days. More states are expected to adopt the bill and come up with their own version. Norway The current freedom of information legislation was enacted May 19. 2006, and superseded the previous law of 1970 by January 1, 2009. Article 100 of the Constitution gives access to public documents. The basic principle of the law is everyone has the right to access to State and municipal documents and to be present at sittings of courts and elected assemblies. Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf promulgated the Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002 in October 2002. The law allows any citizen access to public records held by a public body of the federal government including ministries, departments, boards, councils, courts and tribunals. It does not apply to government owned corporations or provincial governments. The bodies must respond within 21 days. More recently, by virtue of the 18th Amendment of 2010, article 19A has been inserted in the Constitution of Pakistan. It gives the right to access to information the status of a fundamental constitutional right. Article 19A "Right to Information" reads: "Every citizen shall have the right to have access to information in all matters of public importance subject to regulation and reasonable restrictions imposed by law". Paraguay The National Constitution of Paraguay enacted in 1992, guarantees the right to be informed and to receive true, responsible, and equitable information (Art. 28). The same article states that public sources of information are free, and that a law will regulate the modalities, time periods, and sanctions “in order to make this right effective”. In practice, this last provision delayed the recognition of the right due to the absence of a law making it “effective”. Congress, government agencies and Courts were reluctant to enforce the right to access public sources of information until 2013. A Supreme Court judgment (No. 1306 of 15 October 2013), marked the beginning of what has been called a “Transparency Spring”. The ruling from the Supreme Court was made in the context of an Amparo filed by a citizen called Jose Daniel Vargas Tellez, after the San Lorenzo Municipality denied him access to the information about the names, the job descriptions and the wages of all the employees that were working in that public office. The Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeals rejected the Amparo on the grounds that information of that type was considered sensitive by the Data Protection and Privacy Act (Law 1682/02 and 1969/02). The latter rulings were challenged on constitutional grounds and the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Vargas Tellez holding that while this information relating to the identity and wages of public employees and officers constitutes personal propriety data, it is nonetheless registered in a “public source of information”, which makes it available to any citizen who requests it. The right to access to these informations is recognised under the Constitution and international instruments such as the American Convention on Human Rights (Art. 13); The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Art. 19); and the United Nations Convention against Corruption (Art. 13). Following the Supreme Court's decision, and with the support of the civil society and President Horacio Cartes, the first Transparency law was enacted (Law No. 5189/14) requiring all public offices to disclose information regarding the use of public funds to pay salaries. In addition, The Freedom of Information and Government Transparency Law (Law 5282/2014) was enacted in 2014 and a final regulation of 2015 (Executive Decree 4064/15) set the final step in the road to Transparency. These rules expressly recognize that the right to access public information is a human right, which improves the State, promotes citizen participation and public accountability, and serves as a tool to combat corruption. Currently, all requests to access public information can be done online through a single portal, and government offices are obliged to respond within 15 days. Paraguay became internationally committed to promote transparency, empower citizens, fight corruption, and harness new technologies to strengthen governance after becoming a member of the Open Government Partnership. Presently, most government offices have Transparency offices and can provide information to citizens and receive reports of corruption. The main Executive agency in charge of promoting Electronic Government is the SENATICS. Art 28 of the Constitution also states that any person affected by the diffusion of a false, distorted, or ambiguous information has the right to demand its rectification or its clarification by the same means and under the same conditions in which it was divulged, without prejudice to the other compensatory rights. There is also a specific law that regulates Habeas Data, and any citizen can request a copy of publicly or privately held information relating to him, and can demand that any inaccurate data found be destroyed. Philippines On July 23, 2016, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte signed the executive order on freedom of information to be implemented effectively in all offices under the executive branch of government. Pitcairn Islands Section 13(4) of the Constitution of the Pitcairn Islands provides that "Freedom of information in Pitcairn shall be provided by Ordinance, which shall reflect the freedom of information legislation of the United Kingdom adapted to the circumstances of Pitcairn". The Freedom of Information Ordinance 2012 implements this requirement. Poland Article 61 of the Constitution provides for the right to information and mandates that Parliament enact a law setting out this right. The Law on Access to Public Information was approved in September 2001 and went into effect in January 2002. The Act allows anyone to demand access to public information, public data and public assets held by public bodies, private bodies that exercise public tasks, trade unions and political parties. The requests can be oral or written. The bodies must respond within 14 days. Portugal The Portuguese Constitution guarantees the right of access to administrative documents in its Article 268, titled "Citizens’ rights and guarantees [before the Administration]". Its paragraphs (1), (2) and (6) read as following: "1. Citizens have the right to be informed by the Administration, whenever they so request, as to the progress of the procedures and cases in which they are directly interested, together with the right to be made aware of the definitive decisions that are taken in relation to them. 2. Without prejudice to the law governing matters concerning internal and external security, criminal investigation and personal privacy, citizens also have the right of access to administrative files and records. [...] 6. For the purposes of paragraphs (1) and (2) the law shall lay down a maximum time limit for responses by the Administration." The rule enshrined in Art. 268, par. (2) of the Constitution is known as the "principle of open Administration" and it is regulated by Law no. 26/2016 (Lei n.º 26/2016, de 22 de Agosto) which also enacts into national law the European Directives no. 2003/4/EC and 2003/98/EC. Art. 15 of this law requires public entities to respond to each request within 10 days and the law's Chapter 3 created an independent watchdog to keep track of compliance with its rules, the Commission for Access to Administrative Documents (Comissão de Acesso aos Documentos Administrativos). Romania Since 2001 there is one law on Freedom of Information and one on transparent decision-making processes in public administration (a sunshine law). Rwanda The law Relating to Access to Information was passed on the 08/02/2013. It puts forth the purpose of the law, recognises the right to access to information, the procedures for accessing information, and compliance related issues.available at http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/postoftheday/2013/18/Rwanda_ATI_Law_March2013_NewDelhi_SatbirS.pdf Serbia In Serbia, the gives access to documents of public authorities. Seychelles The President of the Republic, Mr Danny Faure assented to the Access to Information Act in July 2018. The Access to Information Bill 2018 was published in the Official Gazette on the 24th of March 2017. The Right of Access to Information is guaranteed under Article 28 of the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles. This Act gives the public with the constitutional right of access to information held by public authorities performing a governmental function. The Act will is administered and applied by an independent Information Commission, the setting of which has been cleared with the enactment of the Law. The commission is appointed by the President in consultation with the Speaker of the National Assembly on the recommendation of the Constitutional Appointments Authority (CAA).The Information Commission strives to promote awareness, educate and popularise the right to access to information and fosters good governance by enhancing transparency, accountability and integrity in the Public Service and Administration. https://www.infocom.sc/ Slovakia Slovakia passed the Freedom of Information Act in May 2000 (Num. law: 211/2000 Z. z.). Under the law, everybody can demand information from state institutions, organisations, from municipalities, individuals and legal entities financed by the public budget. Slovenia Slovenia passed the Access to Public Information Act in March 2003. The Act governs the procedure which ensures everyone free access to public information held by state bodies, local government bodies, public agencies, public funds and other entities of public law, public powers holders and public service contractors. South Africa Section 32 of the Constitution of South Africa guarantees "the right of access to any information held by the state; and any information that is held by another person and that is required for the exercise or protection of any rights." This right is implemented through the Promotion of Access to Information Act, which was enacted on 2 February 2000. The right of access to privately held information is an interesting feature, as most freedom of information laws only cover governmental bodies. South Korea The Constitutional Court ruled in 1989 that there is a constitutional right to information "as an aspect of the right of freedom of expression and specific implementing legislation to define the contours of the right was not a prerequisite to its enforcement." The Act on Disclosure of Information by Public Agencies was enacted in 1996 and went into effect in January 1998. It allows citizens to demand information held by public agencies. Sri Lanka Sri Lanka's Right to Information Act No 12 of 2016 was certified on 4 August 2016. After much debate and many amendments to the draft Bill, the final Act comprising 44 Sections was certified in early August 2016. The implementation of the Act is expected to take time due to the necessity of establishing cadre positions in government institutions to provide information to the general public. The Act is considered to hold many strengths and positive features that would effectively authorize citizens to be actively involved in the process of governance. Moreover, Article 14A(1) introduced by virtue of 19th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka has paved the way for the recognition of right to information as a fundamental right. Sweden In Sweden, the Swedish Freedom of the Press Act grants public access to official documents and is included in the Constitution of Sweden. Dating back to 1766, it is the first freedom of information legislation in the modern sense. In modern times the right has become known as the Principle of Public Access (Swedish: offentlighetsprincipen). The Principle of Public Access means that the general public is guaranteed insight into activities pursued by government agencies. All official documents handled by government agencies are public unless they contain information specified as secret under the Public Access to Information and Secrecy Act. Each request to take part of official documents is handled individually and classifying documents or information as secret is subject to appeal. The constitution also grants the right for government employees to pass on information without risk of criminal charges or repercussions and the right to attend court proceedings and meetings of legislative assemblies like the Riksdag. There are a number of exemptions to this principle when the information concerns: The security of Sweden or its relations with another state or international organization The central fiscal, monetary or currency policy of Sweden The inspection, control or other supervisory activities of a public authority The interest of preventing or prosecuting crime The economic interests of the public institutions The protection of the personal or economic circumstances of private subjects The preservation of animal or plant species Switzerland Switzerland is a federal state. Access to federal documents is governed by the Swiss Federal Act on the Principle of Freedom of Information in Public Administration, and supervised by the Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner. Access to documents at the cantonal level is governed by cantonal laws, which are mostly similar to the federal law. As of 2018, the cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden, Glarus, Lucerne, Nidwalden, Obwalden and Thurgau do not have freedom of information legislation. Taiwan The "Freedom of Government Information Law" (政府資訊公開法), enacted by the Legislative Yuan of the ROC government in Taiwan, has been in force since 28 December 2005. Tanzania Tanzania's was passed in 2016. Thailand In Thailand, the relevant legislation is the . Trinidad and Tobago In Trinidad and Tobago, the relevant legislation is the . Tunisia Tunisia adopted a freedom of information law after the revolution, in 2016. However the law was criticized for security related exemptions. A 2018 law requiring public officials revealing their assets was a step forward to transparency. Turkey In Turkey, the (Bilgi Edinme Hakkı Kanunu) was signed on October 24, 2003, and it came into effect 6 months later on April 24, 2004. Uganda In Uganda, the (ATI) was approved in 2005 but its regulations were not passed until 2011. The laws states that citizen and especially journalists can demand accountability from a government official. The Hub for Investigative Media (HIM) in Uganda offers training programs that teaches East-African journalists in matters of fact-checking and digital security. HIM also has made government officials are of the ATI law and its provision. They have also conducted a nationwide campaign to train journalists on the knowledge and application of the ATI laws as right holders. Ukraine The 1996 Constitution does not include a specific general right of access to information but contains a general right of freedom of collect and disseminate information and rights of access to personal and environmental information. The Art. 5 of The Law on Information of 1992 (revised in 2011) provides the term «right for information» which includes the possibility of free collection, usage, distribution, storage and protection of information necessary for the exercise of person's rights, freedoms and legitimate interests. Law on Access to Public Information was adopted 13 January 2011 and go into force from 9 May 2011. It widens the range of subjects, obliged to provide information, gives legislative definition of public information and makes public information accessible with statutory restrictions. United Kingdom The Freedom of Information Act 2000 (2000 c. 36) is the implementation of freedom of information legislation in the United Kingdom on a national level, with the exception of Scottish bodies, which are covered by the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 (2002 asp. 13). Environmental information is covered by further legislation Environmental Information Regulations 2004. Tony Blair, the UK Prime Minister who introduced the Freedom of Information Act, later expressed regret over the Act, claiming that the Act impeded the ability of officials to deliberate "with a reasonable level of confidentiality". United States In the United States the Freedom of Information Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 4, 1966, and went into effect the following year. Ralph Nader has been credited with the impetus for creating this act, among others. The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments were signed by President Bill Clinton on October 2, 1996. The Act applies only to federal agencies. However, all of the states, as well as the District of Columbia and some territories, have enacted similar statutes to require disclosures by agencies of the state and of local governments, though some are significantly broader than others. Some state and local government agencies attempt to get around state open records laws by claiming copyright for their works and then demanding high fees to license the public information. Some states expand government transparency through open meeting laws, which require government meetings to be announced in advance and held publicly. Uruguay The Act was enacted in 2008 under President Vazquez's Administration and is mainly implemented by the Judiciary. Zimbabwe In Zimbabwe, the Access to Information and Privacy Act (AIPPA) was signed by their President Robert Mugabe in February 2002. Pending legislation by country In Argentina, the national freedom of information legislation has been enacted by law 27.275 (2016), but only a few states have their own legislation on a local level. Such is the case of the City of Buenos Aires. In Barbados, the Government headed by David Thompson has proposed to put in place a Freedom of Information Bill. The Government has launched various initiatives to vett the proposed bill with the citizens of the country for comment. In [Botswana] Botswana enacted the Freedom of Information Act and it commenced in 2018. The Data Protection Act was also assented to by Parliament in 2018 and is awaiting commencement. In the Cayman Islands, the is expected to go into effect on January 1, 2009. In Fiji, the constitution gives a general right of access, but enabling legislation has not yet been passed. A draft Freedom of Information Bill was circulated in 2000 but derailed by political unrest; the government has not yet begun work on a second bill. In Ghana, the was resubmitted to the Cabinet in 2005. In Indonesia, the House of Representatives drafted and submitted a freedom of information bill in 2004, and in 2008 passed with the name Public Information Openness Law. In Jordan, there is a draft Law on the which was passed onto Parliament at the end of 2005. In Kenya, the draft Freedom of Information Act 2007 will soon be tabled into Parliament. In Lesotho, the Access and Receipt of Information Bill was before Parliament in 2003–4, but the current status of the legislation is unknown In Mauritius, there is currently no freedom of information legislation. In 2005, the government pledged to enact a Freedom of Information Act but no legislation has yet been passed. In Mozambique, the government produced a draft Freedom of Information Bill in August 2005. It is expected to become law within two years. In Nauru, the Freedom of Information Act 2004 was laid before the parliament in that year, but was not passed. Further work on the legislation is currently being held back, pending a review of the country's Constitution. In Sri Lanka, the 2004 draft Freedom of Information Act has been endorsed by both major parties, but had not been passed as of January 2005. In August 2016 the Right to Information Act was unanimously certified by parliament. Passed Right to Information on February 3, 2017 See also Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters Access to public information Freedom in the world Freedom of information Information commissioner Need to know Non-profit organizations and access to public information Open government Right to know Secrecy Transparency in behaviour People David Banisar Alasdair Roberts Zev Yaroslavsky, Los Angeles City Council member (1974–94) who authored city's freedom-of-information ordinance References External links International Freedominfo: one-stop portal for freedom of information laws and movements around the world. Right2Info : good law and practice from around the world, including links to RTI and other related laws and constitutional provisions from nearly 100 countries. Open Government: a Journal on Freedom of Information. An open access e-journal with peer-reviewed research and commentary on FOI worldwide. Now defunct? FOIAnet ARTICLE 19: Global human rights organisation which promotes freedom of expression and access to information The Access Initiative The Publics Right to Know Freedom of Information Training Manual for Public Officials Model Freedom of Information Law National Right to Information Laws, Regulations and Bills Map, November 2011 Global Integrity Transparency Report, covers over 80 countries, updated yearly International survey of FOI laws, mid-2005 World FOI Chart, comparative table of FOI laws Global index of FOI rulings Europe Access Info Europe UK Campaign for Freedom of Information Privacy & Data Protection: UK's leading journal on FOI issues. Legal Leaks - Freedom of Information and Journalism Transparency International BiH Brazil The law on access to information, privacy, and health research in Brazil (english) Legislation Brazil with transparent information (portuguese) Brazil access to information (portuguese) Brazil Transparency Public (portuguese) India Government portal for Right to Information Government Portal for filing RTI Online - central government only Nepal Right to Information Act 2007 South Korea Seoul Information Communication Plaza - Information disclosure by the city of seoul Turkey Turkish Right to Know Act - Civil Portal United States The National Freedom of Information Coalition The WikiFoia A wiki for state and local laws, news and support The National Security Archive – a collection of declassified documents acquired through the FOIA Comprehensive list of FOIA officers in US government FOIA Guidance -- U.S. Department of Justice Guide to the Freedom of Information Act, 2009 Georgia Open Records Act, Ballotpedia Open Meetings The Public Notice Resource Center – A non profit group that protects open meetings laws PNRC Of Record Breaking News Blog Data laws Government information Law by country

Sixth form

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In the education systems of England, Northern Ireland, Wales, Jamaica and some other Commonwealth countries, sixth form represents the 2 years of post-GCSE academic education, where students start the first academic year in the sixth form (1st September) age 16 and finish age 17 (at the end of the academic year, 31 August) and start the second academic year in the sixth form age 17 and finish age 18. During the two years they prepare for their A-level (or equivalent) examinations. In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the term Key Stage 5 has the same meaning. It only refers to post-16 academic education and not to vocational education. England and Wales The term sixth form describes the two school years which are called the Lower Sixth (L6) and Upper Sixth (U6) by many schools, students aged 17 or 18 by 31 August. The term survives from an earlier system when the first five years of English secondary schooling were known as forms (which would originally have been long backless benches on which rows of pupils sat in the classroom). Pupils started their first year of secondary school in the first form or first year, and this was the academic year in which pupils would normally be 12 years old by 31 August. Pupils would move up a form each year before entering the fifth form in the academic year in which they would be 16 years old by 31 August. Those who stayed on at school to study for A-levels moved up into the sixth form, which was divided into the Lower Sixth and the Upper Sixth. In some private schools, the term Middle Sixth was used in place of Upper Sixth, with the latter being used for those who stayed on for an extra term to take the entrance examinations that were previously set for candidates to Oxford or Cambridge universities. Other schools described these Oxbridge examination students as being in the Seventh Form or Third Year Sixth. The system was changed for the 1990–1991 academic year and school years are now numbered consecutively from primary school onwards. Year 1 is the first year of primary school after Reception. The first year of secondary school is Year 7. The Lower Sixth (the first year of sixth form) is Year 12 and the Upper Sixth (the second year of sixth form) is Year 13. Public (fee-charging) schools, along with some state schools, tend to use the old system of numbering. In some parts of the country, specialist sixth form colleges were introduced. A large proportion of English secondary schools no longer have an integral sixth form. This is mainly related to reforms in the later 20th century, where different political areas became a factor in the introduction of colleges instead of the original sixth forms. There are now numerous sixth form colleges throughout England and Wales, and in areas without these, sixth form schools and specialist further education (FE) colleges called tertiary colleges may fill the same role. Sixth form is not compulsory in England and Wales (although from 2013 onwards, people of sixth form age must remain in some form of education or training in England only; the school leaving age remains 16 in Wales); however, university entrance normally requires at least three A level qualifications and perhaps one AS level. Before the most recent reforms, students would usually select between three and five subjects from the GCSEs they have just taken, for one "AS" year, the AS exams being taken at the end of Lower Sixth. Three subjects would then be carried into the A2 year (the dropped AS being "cashed in" as a qualification), then further exams would be taken at the end of that year. The marks attained in both sets of exams were converted into UCAS points, which must meet the offer made by the student's chosen university. Since the move to a "linear" system, students more commonly choose three to five subjects and either continue to study them for the full two years before a single set of final "A level" exams, or choose to drop one or two subjects by sitting "AS level" exams at the end of the first year. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, the equivalent of Reception is "P1", and the equivalent of the English Year 1 "P2", while the first year of secondary school is known as Year 8 or first year (rather than Year 7 as in England), and following that Lower and Upper Sixth are Year 13 and Year 14 respectively. Scotland In the Scottish education system, the final year of school is known as Sixth Year or S6. During this year, students typically study Advanced Higher and/or Higher courses in a wide range of subjects, taking SQA exams at the end of both S5 and S6. Pupils in Scotland may leave once they have reached the age of 16; those who reach 16 before 30 September may leave after national examinations in May, whilst those who are 16 by the end of February may leave the previous Christmas. It is not essential for candidates to do a sixth year if they wish to attend a Scottish university, as they have obtained adequate Higher grades in S5 and may apply and receive acceptance, though this is conditional on being successful in the examinations. However, the vast majority of Scottish students return for S6 if they plan to attend university. Some English universities will also accept Scottish students who have obtained adequate Higher grades in S5. It was announced in December 2008 that, as from 2010, UCAS will increase the number of points awarded to those who achieve Highers and Advanced Highers. In some cases, particularly in independent schools, the term sixth form is also used for the last two years of secondary education. Jamaica In the Jamaican Education System, sixth form describes the two school years which are called the Lower Sixth (6B) and Upper Sixth (6A), or grades 12 (lower) and 13 (upper), by many schools, students aged 17 or 18 by October 31. Sixth form is an optional, two years long, advanced post secondary program, at the end of which students write the CAPE (Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Exams). These are the equivalent of the GCE A Level examinations which were the standard up until 2003. Some students still choose to sit A-levels if they wish, but in doing so they must still meet CAPE's basic subject requirements/groupings. CAPE and A-level exams are significantly harder than exams sat at the end of high school, and are often thought to be harder than most exams students will ever sit in university. Students usually select between three and five subjects from the GCSEs/CAPE they have just taken. Other countries In some secondary schools in Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, the sixth and seventh years, are called Lower and Upper Sixth respectively. In India and Nepal, it is the "+2" part of the "10+2" educational system. In India this is also referred to as "intermediate". Similarly, the term sixth form is also used to define the final two years of education before entering university in Malta. In Malaysia, a sixth form is known as "Tingkatan 6," and lasts for three semesters. In Singapore, however, the equivalent of a sixth form college would be called a junior college, where pupils take their Cambridge GCE A-levels after two years. Prior to the 1990s, these two years were known as "Pre-University" (Pre-U) 1 and 2. In New Zealand, under the old system of forms, standards and juniors, sixth form was the equivalent of Year 12 in today's system. Year 13 was known as seventh form. Australia also sometimes uses the term for year 12, though the Australian year 12 is equivalent to the NZ Year 13 / seventh form and the UK's upper sixth / Year 13. In Brunei, sixth form comprises Year 12 and 13, which may also be referred to as Lower and Upper Sixth. At the end of the schooling, students sit for Brunei-Cambridge GCE A Level. Students may also opt to take Advanced Subsidiary Level or AS Level halfway at the end of Lower Sixth or halfway through Upper Sixth. Sixth form is not compulsory, but a preferable choice for students wishing to continue in academic studies leading to university level. In some college preparatory schools in the United States, such as The Hill School, Woodberry Forest School, Ethical Culture Fieldston School, Kent School, Pomfret School, The Church Farm School, The Haverford School, Portsmouth Abbey School and more, sixth form refers to the final year of education prior to college. It is the equivalent of twelfth grade in the US education system. See also Sixth form college Education in the United Kingdom Eleventh grade and Twelfth grade—Equivalent American grades for this age range Ontario Academic Credit References 6 Education in Barbados Education in Hong Kong Education in Jamaica Education in Malta Education in the United Kingdom

Marlborough Region

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The Marlborough Region (, or Tauihu), commonly known simply as Marlborough, is one of the regions of New Zealand, located in the northeast of the South Island. Marlborough is a unitary authority, both a region and a district. Marlborough District Council is based at Blenheim, the largest town. The region has a population of . Marlborough is known for its dry climate, the Marlborough Sounds, and Sauvignon blanc wine. It takes its name from the earlier Marlborough Province, which was named after General The 1st Duke of Marlborough, an English general and statesman. Geography Marlborough's geography can be roughly divided into four sections. The south and west sections are mountainous, particularly the southern section, which rises to the peaks of the Kaikoura Ranges. These two mountainous regions are the final northern vestiges of the ranges that make up the Southern Alps, although that name is rarely applied to mountains this far north. Between those two sections is the long straight valley of the Wairau River. This broadens to wide plains at its eastern end, in the centre of which stands the town of Blenheim. This region has fertile soil and temperate weather, which has enabled it to become the centre of the New Zealand wine industry. The fourth geographic zone lies along its north coast. Here the drowned valleys of the Marlborough Sounds make for a convoluted and attractive coastline. The town of Picton is located at the southern end of one of the larger sounds, Queen Charlotte Sound. The town of Havelock is at the southern end of the Pelorus Sound; this sound feeds into Kenepuru Sound. Climate In line with most of New Zealand, the Marlborough region has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) with warm summers, cool winters, and rainfall distributed across the year. Demography Marlborough Region covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2. The region is home to % of New Zealand's population. Marlborough Region had a usual resident population of 47,340 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 3,924 people (9.0%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 4,782 people (11.2%) since the 2006 census. There were 18,675 households. There were 23,610 males and 23,730 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.99 males per female. The median age was 45.5 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 8,259 people (17.4%) aged under 15 years, 7,158 (15.1%) aged 15 to 29, 21,378 (45.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 10,548 (22.3%) aged 65 or older. Of those at least 15 years old, 5,868 (15.0%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 8,454 (21.6%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $31,500, compared with $31,800 nationally. 5,445 people (13.9%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 19,530 (50.0%) people were employed full-time, 6,174 (15.8%) were part-time, and 879 (2.2%) were unemployed. Towns and settlements Marlborough has three towns with a population over 1,000. Together they are home to % of the region's population. Other towns and settlements include: Anakiwa Grovetown Havelock Ngākuta Bay Ōkiwi Bay Rai Valley Rārangi Seddon Spring Creek Tuamarina Wairau Valley Ward Woodbourne Culture and identity Ethnicities in the 2018 New Zealand census were 87.8% European/Pākehā, 13.3% Māori, 3.1% Pacific peoples, 4.1% Asian, and 2.5% other ethnicities (totals add to more than 100% since people could identify with multiple ethnicities). The proportion of Marborough residents born overseas was 17.4%, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people objected to giving their religion, 53.2% had no religion, 35.5% were Christian, 0.5% were Hindu, 0.1% were Muslim, 0.6% were Buddhist and 2.3% had other religions. Economy The subnational gross domestic product (GDP) of Marlborough was estimated at NZ$3.25 billion in the year to March 2019, 1.1% of New Zealand's national GDP. The regional GDP per capita was estimated at $66,277 in the same period. In the year to March 2018, primary industries contributed $650 million (21.3%) to the regional GDP, goods-producing industries contributed $1.55 billion (37.9%), service industries contributed $1.56 billion (51.2%), and taxes and duties contributed $260 million (8.6%). Agriculture Marlborough has of horticultural land as of 2017, the second-largest area in New Zealand behind Canterbury. Wine grapes make up 23,050 hectares of that area, with sweetcorn and peas being the only other crops with more than 100 hectares planted area. Wine The Marlborough climate has a strong contrast between hot sunny days and cool nights, which extends the ripening period of the vines. This results in more intense flavour and aroma characters in the wine. The first commercial vineyards were planted around Blenheim in 1973, and Marlborough subsequently grew to become New Zealand's largest and most internationally well-known wine-producing region. Due to this growth, particularly in the export market, the Marlborough wine region now produces three quarters of all New Zealand wine. The most important varietal is Sauvignon Blanc, which is recognised as world class; wine writers Oz Clarke and George Taber have described Marlborough's Sauvignon Blanc as the best in the world. Also important is the production of méthode traditionelle sparkling wine made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, which has attracted investment from large Champagne producers Mumm, Deutz, Moët & Chandon and Veuve Clicquot. Government and defence The New Zealand Defence Force operates RNZAF Base Woodbourne, co-located with Woodbourne Airport west of Blenheim. The Waihopai communications monitoring facility, run by the Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB) and part of the ECHELON network, is located in the Waihopai Valley southwest of Renwick. Government and politics Marlborough is administered by a unitary authority, the Marlborough District Council. Between 1859 and 1876 Marlborough had its own provincial government, and was known as the Marlborough Province, which ended when the Abolition of the Provinces Act came into force on 1 November 1876. The Marlborough District Council consists of a mayor and 13 councillors. The councillors are elected from three wards: seven from the Blenheim ward, and three each from the Marlborough Sounds and Wairau-Awatere wards. The mayor is elected at-large. Elections are held every three years in conjunction with nationwide local elections, with the next election on 8 October 2022. As of April 2020, the mayor and councillors are: Mayor: John Leggett Councillors – Blenheim ward: Jenny Andrews, Jamie Arbuckle, David Croad, Brian Dawson, Michael Fitzpatrick, Mark Peters, Thelma Sowman Councillors – Marlborough Sounds ward: Barbara Faulls, David Oddie, Nadine Taylor (deputy mayor) Councillors – Wairau-Awatere ward: Cynthia Brooks, Gerald Hope, Francis Maher Nationally, Marlborough is part of the Kaikōura electorate, which also includes the Canterbury region north of the Ashley River / Rakahuri. For the Māori roll, Marlborough is part of the Te Tai Tonga electorate, as is the entire South Island. The electorate was first contested in the 1996 general election, the first under the new MMP voting system. From 1938 to 1996, the region was covered by the Marlborough electorate. Marlborough is considered a safe area for the National Party, with the region held continuously by the party since the 1975 general election. Stuart Smith of the National Party has been the MP for the Kaikōura electorate since the 2014 general election. Rino Tirikatene of the Labour Party is the MP for the Te Tai Tonga electorate. A combined District and High Court at Blenheim serves the region judicially. Transport Marlborough is served by four state highways: State Highway 1, , State Highway 62, and State Highway 63. State Highway 1 is the main highway in the region, connecting Picton and Blenheim, and connecting the region south to Christchurch via Seddon and Kaikoura. State Highway 6 connects Blenheim and Renwick, and connects the region to Nelson and Tasman via Havelock. State Highway 63 leaves State Highway 6 at Renwick and travels via the Wairau Valley and Saint Arnaud to meet SH 6 again at Kawatiri, providing a direct route to the West Coast and bypassing Nelson. State Highway 62 is a short highway linking SH 1 at Spring Creek with SH 6 north of Renwick, providing a direct route between Picton and Nelson and bypassing Blenheim. The Main North Line railway serves the region, running roughly parallel so State Highway 1. The first section of the line in Marlborough opened on 18 November 1875 between Blenheim and Picton. The line south of Blenheim opened to Seddon in October 1902, to Ward in April 1911, and to Wharanui in December 1915. The line finally opened across the present-day Marlborough border in October 1942 when the line was extended to Clarence. The entire line through to Christchurch opened on 15 December 1945 when the railheads met at Kaikoura. Today, the line is used by the Coastal Pacific passenger train, which operates one return journey per day during the summer months. The line is also heavily used by freight trains between Christchurch and the Cook Strait rail ferry at Picton. Woodbourne Airport (trading as Marlborough Airport) is the region's main airport. Air New Zealand Link operates flights from Woodbourne to Auckland and Wellington and Sounds Air operates flights from Woodbourne to Wellington and Christchurch Airport. Sounds Air also operates flights from Picton Aerodrome to Wellington. Port Marlborough at Picton is the region's main seaport. Interislander and Bluebridge both operate roll-on-roll-off ferry services between Picton and Wellington. Education There are 29 primary and secondary schools in Marlborough. There are 22 state primary schools, one state intermediate school (Bohally Intermediate in Blenheim), three state secondary schools (Marlborough Boys' College and Marlborough Girls' College in Blenheim, and Queen Charlotte College in Picton), and one state area school (Rai Valley Area School). There are two state-integrated schools, one Catholic primary school and one Christian composite school, both in Blenheim. References External links Marlborough District Council Discover Marlborough: The Marlborough Web Directory Marlborough Online Territorial authorities of New Zealand

The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask

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The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 home console. It was released worldwide in 2000 as the sixth main installment in The Legend of Zelda series and was the second to use 3D graphics, following 1998's The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, to which it is a direct sequel. Designed by a creative team led by Eiji Aonuma, Yoshiaki Koizumi, and Shigeru Miyamoto, Majora's Mask was completed in less than two years. It featured enhanced graphics and several gameplay changes from its predecessor, though it reused a number of elements and character models, which the game's creators called a creative decision made necessary by time constraints. The story of Majora's Mask takes place two months after the events of Ocarina of Time. It follows Link, who on a personal quest ends up in Termina, a world parallel to Hyrule. Upon reaching Termina, Link learns that the world is endangered as the moon will fall into the world in three days. The game introduced several novel concepts, revolving around the perpetually repeating three-day cycle and the use of various masks that can transform Link into different beings. As the player progresses through the game, Link also learns to play numerous melodies on his Ocarina, which allow him to control the flow of time or open passages to four temple dungeons. Characteristic of the Zelda series, completion of the game involves successfully traversing through several dungeons, each of which contain a number of complex puzzles and enemies. On the Nintendo 64, Majora's Mask—unlike Ocarina of Time—required the Expansion Pak, which provided additional memory for more refined graphics and greater flexibility in generating on-screen characters. Majora's Mask earned widespread acclaim from critics and is widely considered one of the best video games ever made. It received praise for the gameplay, graphics, story and has been noted for its darker tone and themes compared to the other titles in the franchise as well for its distinct art style and level design. While the game only sold about half as many copies as its predecessor, it generated a substantial cult following. The game was rereleased as part of The Legend of Zelda: Collector's Edition for the GameCube in 2003, for the Wii's Virtual Console service in 2009, for the Wii U's Virtual Console service in 2016, and for Nintendo Switch Online in 2022. An enhanced remake for the Nintendo 3DS, The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask 3D, was released in 2015. Gameplay The gameplay of Majora's Mask expands on that of Ocarina of Time. It retains the concept of dungeon puzzles and ocarina songs and introduces new elements including character transformations and a three-day cycle. As in previous installments, Link can perform basic actions such as walking, running and limited jumping (although sometimes Link performs flips), and must use items to battle enemies and solve puzzles. Link's main weapon is a sword, and other weapons and items are available—Link can block or reflect attacks with a shield, stun enemies by throwing Deku Nuts, attack from a distance with a bow and arrow, and use bombs to destroy obstacles and damage enemies. He can also latch onto objects or paralyze enemies with the Hookshot. Magic power allows attacks such as magical arrows or spin attacks and the use of special items such as the Lens of Truth, which allows the player to see invisible objects and disappears fake objects. Similar to the other games, the player has to progress through a variety of dungeons. These dungeons includes numerous puzzles that the player need to solve with its actual equipment and/or mechanics set in the dungeon depending on its theme. Similar to A Link to the Past and its predecessor; which is now a tradition into the series, the player can obtain a map and a compass for assistance, although they are optional. The player also has to find a key to unlock the boss' room. New to Majora's Mask are little fairies, which are collectibles. Fifteen are set through a dungeon and the player has to find them all and put them back in their respective fountain to gain a new ability, such as a greater defense or an upgraded "Spin Attack". Masks and transformations While the masks in Ocarina of Time are limited to an optional side-quest, they play a central role in Majora's Mask, which has twenty-four masks in total. Link can transform himself at will into different creatures: the Deku Mask transforms Link into a Deku Scrub, the Goron Mask into a Goron, and the Zora Mask into a Zora. Each form features unique abilities: Deku Link can perform a spin attack, shoot bubbles, skip on water, and fly for a short time by launching from Deku Flowers; Goron Link can roll at high speeds (and grow spikes at higher speeds), punch with deadly force, pound the ground with his massive, rock-like body, walk in lava without taking damage, and weigh down heavy switches; Zora Link can swim faster than normal Link, throw boomerang-like fins from his arms, generate a force field, and walk on the bottoms of bodies of water. Many areas can be accessed only by use of these abilities. Link and his three transformations receive different reactions from non-player characters (NPCs). For instance, Goron and Zora Link can exit Clock Town at will, but Deku Link is not permitted to leave due to his childlike appearance. Animals also interact differently to Link's four forms. They are indifferent to Link's normal form, attack Deku Link, are frightened by Goron Link, and chase Zora Link. The final obtainable mask is the Fierce Deity's Mask. Even though the use of this mask is strictly limited to boss battles, it is possible to wear it anywhere using a glitch. Upon donning this mask, Link grows to nearly two-and-a-half times his normal height and gains white clothes and war paint on his face. Fierce Deity Link's sword is helix-shaped and shoots beams at enemies. Other masks provide situational benefits. For example, the Great Fairy's Mask helps retrieve stray fairies in the four temples, the Bunny Hood increases Link's movement speed, and the Stone Mask renders Link invisible to most NPCs and enemies. Less valuable masks are usually involved only in optional side-quests or specialized situations. Examples include the Postman's Hat, which grants Link access to items in mailboxes, and Kafei's Mask, which initiates a long side-quest to receive the Couple's Mask. Three-day cycle Majora's Mask imposes a time limit of three days (72 hours) in-game time, which is about 54 minutes in real time. An on-screen clock tracks the day and time. Link can return to 6:00 am of the first day by playing the Song of Time on the Ocarina of Time. If he does not before the 72 hours expire, then the moon will destroy Termina and Link will lose everything he accomplished during these three days. A real-time countdown will begin when only 6 hours remain. However, returning to the first day saves the player's progress and major accomplishments permanently, such as the collection of maps, masks, music, and weapons. Cleared puzzles, keys, and minor items will be lost, as well as any rupees not in the bank, and almost all characters will have no recollection of meeting Link. Link can slow down time or warp to the next morning or evening by playing the Inverted Song of Time and the Song of Double Time. Owl statues scattered across certain major areas of the world allow the player to temporarily save their progress after activation and also provide warp points to quickly navigate the world. Other uses for music include manipulating the weather, teleporting between owl statues spread throughout Termina, and unlocking the four temples. Each transformation mask uses a different instrument: Deku Link plays a multi-horn instrument called the "Deku Pipes", Goron Link plays a set of bongo drums tied around his waist, and Zora Link plays a guitar made from a large fish skeleton. Jackson Guitars created a limited edition 7-string replica of this guitar that was the grand prize in a contest in Nintendo Power, known as the "Jackson Zoraxe". During the three-day cycle, many non-player characters follow fixed schedules that Link can track using the Bombers' Notebook. The notebook tracks the twenty characters in need of help, such as a soldier to whom Link delivers medicine and a couple whom Link reunites. Blue bars on the notebook's timeline indicate when characters are available for interaction, and icons indicate that Link has received items, such as masks, from the characters. Plot Setting and characters The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask is set in Termina, a land parallel to Hyrule, the main setting of most Zelda games. Termina is a world that is trapped within a perpetual three day limbo, between the time when Link first enters Termina at the beginning of Majora's Mask, and when a large falling moon crashes into the land causing its apocalyptic destruction and killing its inhabitants 72 hours later. The Skull Kid, a former inhabitant of Hyrule, obtains Majora's Mask and wills Termina into existence, due to the evil power of the mask combined with Skull Kid's heavy heart. The residents of Termina, who are created from the Skull Kid's memories, resemble the residents of Hyrule featured in Ocarina of Time, and possess their own unique culture and myths. One of these myths tells of how Termina was divided into four quadrants by four magic giants that live in each of the land's regions and how harmony was restored to the land. The giants were friends of an imp, who repeatedly wronged the people out of anger caused by feelings of neglect. The giants, who were worshipped like gods, urged the imp to return to the heavens and restore peace to the world. This myth emphasises that Hyrule is Termina's heaven and that the imp is the Skull Kid. Termina is depicted as a darker, more unsettling version of Hyrule, in which landmarks are familiar and side characters who previously appeared in Ocarina of Time are presented with individual stories of misfortune. At the center of Termina lies Clock Town, which features a large clock tower that counts down the days before the Carnival of Time—a festival where the people of Termina pray for good luck and harvests. Termina Field surrounds Clock Town; beyond lie a swamp, mountain range, bay, and canyon in each of the four cardinal directions. Each of the areas contains a temple and is home to a unique race of creatures who have in some way been impacted by the misdeeds of the Skull Kid. The Southern Swamp contains the Deku Palace and the Woodfall Temple, an ancient shrine that contains monsters and a giant masked jungle warrior, Odolwa, who has been poisoning the swamp. The Snowhead mountain range, north of Clock Town, is the site of the Goron village. Normally a lush pine forest region most of the year, the area has been experiencing an unusually long winter caused by the mechanical monster Goht in Snowhead Temple. The western area of Termina, the Great Bay, is home to the Zora and Gerudo civilizations. A giant masked fish, Gyorg, is generating storms and contaminating the water surrounding the Great Bay Temple. The desolate Ikana Canyon, to the east of Clock Town, is the site of a former kingdom. It is inhabited mainly by the undead, except for a ghost researcher and his daughter Pamela, as well as a thief named Sakon. Two giant masked insectoid serpents known as Twinmold are casting a dark aura from their nest in Stone Tower Temple, causing the corpses of former citizens and soldiers to be revived as undead monsters. Romani Ranch, southwest of Clock Town, is the site of a ranch which houses Romani, her older sister, Cremia, Grog, and Mamamu Yan. In a sidequest, Link can help Romani protect the ranch's cows from being abducted by alien-like creatures of unknown origin colloquially dubbed "Ghosts", "Them", and "They". After the final confrontation with Skull Kid, Link is transported to the inside of the moon, which is portrayed as a green field with a single, large tree in the center with four children donning the masks of the game's four preceding bosses playing underneath it. The children are never named nor otherwise referenced in the game, though they resemble the Traveling Mask Salesman. Plot Majora's Mask takes place a few months after The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time and begins with Link searching for his departed fairy, Navi. While riding through a forest in Hyrule on his horse Epona, Link is ambushed by a Skull Kid wearing a mysterious mask and his fairy friends Tatl and Tael, who steal both Epona and the Ocarina of Time. Link follows them down a dark cave and confronts the Skull Kid, who taunts him and casts a curse transforming him into a Deku Scrub. Tatl prevents Link from pursuing the Skull Kid as he escapes with Tael, resulting in Tatl being separated from her brother. Having no other choice, Tatl asks Link to find Tael who flew to the Clock Tower of the land of Termina; there, he meets the Happy Mask Salesman, who offers to help Link heal his curse in exchange for retrieving the mysterious mask from the Skull Kid, and tells Link he must also obtain the Ocarina of Time in three days. Link and Tatl enter Clock Town, in the middle of the Carnival of Time, set in three days. From a fairy, they learn that the Skull Kid is waiting at the top of the tower, which is only accessible during the eve of the carnival. As the two interact with the residents of Clock Town, they learn of the havoc that Skull Kid had wrought prior to their arrival. At midnight on the third day, the Clock Tower opens, which Link and Tatl ascend. At the top, they confront Skull Kid, and Tatl implores Skull Kid to return the mask, and Skull Kid use the mask's power to expedite the moon's collision with Termina while Tael hurriedly speaks a riddle to them: "Swamp. Mountain. Ocean. Canyon... hurry, the four who are there... bring them here!" Link manages to retrieve the Ocarina of Time and plays the Song of Time, a song Princess Zelda taught him before he left Hyrule. Link and Tatl are brought back through the first day. Meeting with the Happy Mask Salesman again, Link returns to his human form and seals his Deku curse into a mask which can turn him back into a Deku Scrub at will. The salesman then explains that the mask conceals an evil, apocalyptic power that was used by an ancient tribe in hexing rituals known as Majora. The troubles caused by the mask were so great, the ancient ones sealed the mask to prevent it from being misused. Link starts his quest by first going to Woodfall; on his way, Tatl explains that Skull Kid was lonely and they became friends, and he stole the Majora's Mask from the sleeping salesman. At Woodfall, Link becomes embroiled into a wrongful execution following the Deku princess' kidnapping after the lake got poisoned. Link manages to save the princess and lift the cursed lake and prevent the execution after saving a Giant, a being capable of stopping the moon's fall and learns that Skull Kid laid a curse on all the four regions without explanations. On Snowhead, Link saves the Gorons from being frozen by a cursed winter with the power of the late legendary Darmani the Third. At the Great Bay, Link buries Mikau, a Zora which is the guitarist of the "Indigo Go", the music group for the Carnival. Link fulfills Mikau's last wish to save the Great Bay ocean, and help Lulu the singer to recover her voice she lost after giving birth to seven babies. Successful, they go to Ikana Canyon, where Link saves a family father and an army being cursed to live after being killed in an old war. With all four curses lifted, Link confronts Skull Kid again at the top of the Clock Tower and summons the Four Giants, who halt the moon's descent. Majora's Mask reveals he manipulated the Skull Kid and flies up to possess the moon instead. With Tatl at his side, Link follows Majora's Mask to the inside of the moon; deeper into the moon, Link encounters Majora in its bestial form, and defeats it once and for all, returning the moon to its proper place in the sky. The Four Giants return to their sleep, and it's revealed that they were former friends of Skull Kid; they were sealed to prevent him from using Majora's power. The siblings fairies reunite with the newly liberated Skull Kid while The Happy Mask Salesman takes Majora's Mask, now purified of its evil power. Link then leaves Termina on Epona after saying goodbye to Tatl, now close friends, while the Carnival of Time has started. In the post-credits scene, Link leaves the forest, and a drawing on a tree stump of Link, Tatl, Tael, the Skull Kid, and the Four Giants is shown. Development Following the release of The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening in 1993, fans waited five years for Ocarina of Time, the active development of which took four years. By reusing the game engine and graphics from Ocarina of Time, a smaller team required only one year to finish Majora's Mask, with development having started in January 1999. The game was developed by a team led by Eiji Aonuma, Shigeru Miyamoto, and Yoshiaki Koizumi. According to Aonuma, they were "faced with the very difficult question of just what kind of game could follow Ocarina of Time and its worldwide sales of seven million units", and as a solution, came up with the three-day system to "make the game data more compact while still providing deep gameplay". According to Aonuma, the concept of time repeatedly looping was inspired by the 1998 film Run Lola Run. Miyamoto and Koizumi came up with the story that served as the basis for the script written by Mitsuhiro Takano. The idea of the "three-day system" came from Miyamoto and Koizumi. The development team's main goal was to make a refined, compact successor to Ocarina of Time that would allow players to have a different experience each time they played it. Majora's Mask first appeared in the media in May 1999, when Famitsu stated that a long-planned Zelda expansion for the 64DD was under development in Japan. This project was tentatively titled "Ura Zelda" ("ura" translates roughly to "hidden" or "behind"). This expansion would take Ocarina of Time and alter the level designs, similar to how the "master quest" expanded upon the original Legend of Zelda. In June, Nintendo announced that "Zelda: Gaiden", which roughly translates to "Zelda: Side Story", would appear as a playable demo at the Nintendo Space World exhibition on August 27, 1999. The media assumed that Zelda: Gaiden was the new working title for Ura Zelda. Screenshots of Zelda: Gaiden released in August 1999 show unmistakable elements of the final version of Majora's Mask, such as the large clock that dominates the center of Clock Town, the timer at the bottom of the screen, and the Goron Mask. Story and gameplay details revealed later that month show that the story concept as well as the use of transformation masks were already in place. That same month, Miyamoto confirmed that Ura Zelda and Zelda: Gaiden were separate projects. It was unclear if Zelda: Gaiden was an offshoot of Ura Zelda or if the two were always separate. Ura Zelda might have become Ocarina of Time Master Quest outside Japan, and was released on a bonus disc for the GameCube given to those who pre-ordered The Wind Waker in the US and bundled with the GameCube game in Europe. In November, Nintendo announced a "Holiday 2000" release date for Zelda: Gaiden. By March 2000, what ultimately became the final titles were announced: Zelda no Densetsu Mujura no Kamen in Japan and The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask elsewhere. Technical differences from Ocarina of Time Majora's Mask runs on an upgraded version of the engine used in Ocarina of Time and requires the use of the Nintendo 64's 4 MB Expansion Pak, making it one of the two games that require said peripheral; the other being Donkey Kong 64. IGN theorized this requirement is due to Majora's Masks possible origin as a Nintendo 64DD game, which would necessitate an extra 4 MB of RAM. The use of the Expansion Pak allows for greater draw distances, more accurate dynamic lighting, more detailed texture mapping and animation, complex framebuffer effects such as motion blur, and more characters displayed on-screen. This expanded draw distance allows the player to see much farther and eliminates the need for the fog effect and "cardboard panorama" seen in Ocarina of Time, which were used to obscure distant areas. IGN considered the texture design to be one of the best created for the Nintendo 64, saying that although some textures have a low resolution, they are "colorful and diverse", which gives each area "its own unique look". Music The music was written by longtime series composer Koji Kondo, and Toru Minegishi. The soundtrack largely consists of reworked music from Ocarina of Time, complemented with other traditional Zelda music such as the "Overworld Theme" and new material. Kondo describes the music as having "an exotic Chinese-opera sound". As the three-day cycle progresses, the theme song of Clock Town changes between three variations, one for each day. IGN relates the shift in music to a shift in the game's atmosphere, saying that the quickened tempo of the Clock Town music on the second day conveys a sense of time passing quickly. The two-disc soundtrack was released in Japan on June 23, 2000, and features 112 tracks from the game. Reception In Japan, 314,044 copies of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask were sold during its first week on sale, eventually selling 601,542 copies by the end of 2000. In the United States, it was the fourth best-selling game of 2000 with 1,206,489 copies sold for . In Europe, it was the eighth highest-grossing game of 2000 with €27,000,000 or grossed that year. Ultimately, 3.36 million copies were sold worldwide for the Nintendo 64. Like its predecessor, Majora's Mask received critical acclaim. The game holds a score of 95/100 on review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Opinions were favorable regarding how the game compared with Ocarina of Time, which is often cited as one of the greatest video games of all time. Reviewers praised its visuals, gameplay, writing, and soundtrack. Greg Orlando reviewed the Nintendo 64 version of the game for Next Generation, rating it four stars out of five, calling it, "Another beautiful Link in the chain". Game Informer called the three-day cycle "one of the most inventive premises in all of gaming", and also stated that "[w]ithout question, Majora's Mask is the finest adventure the Nintendo 64 has to offer". It is often regarded as the darkest and most original game in the Legend of Zelda series. Edge magazine referred to Majora's Mask as "the oddest, darkest and saddest of all Zelda games." N64 Magazine ended their review by saying, "it was told that Majora's Mask should cower in the shadow of Ocarina of Time. Instead, it shines just as brightly", awarding the game 96%. IGN described Majora's Mask as "The Empire Strikes Back of Nintendo 64...it's the same franchise, but it's more intelligent, darker, and tells a much better storyline." GamePro characterized the story as "surreal and spooky, deep, and intriguing" and the game as "living proof that the N64 still has its magic." Majora's Mask has also placed highly in publication and fan-voted polls. However, some critics felt that Majora's Mask was not as accessible as Ocarina of Time. GameSpot, which awarded Ocarina of Time 10/10, only gave Majora's Mask 8.3/10, writing that some might "find the focus on minigames and side quests tedious and slightly out of place," and that the game was much more difficult than its predecessor. GameRevolution wrote that it "takes a little longer to get into this Zelda", but also that "there are moments when the game really hits you with all its intricacies and mysteries, and that makes it all worthwhile." Majora's Mask was a runner-up for GameSpots annual "Best Nintendo 64 Game" award, losing to Perfect Dark. It was also nominated for "Best Adventure Game" among console games. The game was ranked 155th in Electronic Gaming Monthly'''s "The Greatest 200 Video Games of Their Time" in 2006. Legacy In 2003, Nintendo rereleased Majora's Mask on the GameCube as part of The Legend of Zelda: Collector's Edition, a special promotional disc which also contained three other The Legend of Zelda games and a twenty-minute demo of The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker. This disc came bundled with a GameCube console, as part of a subscription offer to Nintendo Power magazine, or through Nintendo's official website. The Collector's Edition was also available through the Club Nintendo reward program, with a bonus discount offered in 2004 with the purchase of The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures during the month long . Similar to other GameCube rereleases, versions of the games featured in the Collector's Edition are emulations of the originals using GameCube hardware. The only differences are minor adjustments to button icons to conform to the GameCube's controller. Majora's Mask also boots with a disclaimer that some of the original sounds from the game may cause problems due to their emulation. Aside from these deliberate changes, GameSpot's Ricardo Torres found that the frame rate "appears choppier" and noted inconsistent audio. The GameCube version also features a slightly higher native resolution than its Nintendo 64 counterpart, as well as progressive scan.Majora's Mask was released on the Wii's Virtual Console service in Europe and Australia on April 3, 2009, and Japan on April 7, 2009. It was later released in North America on May 18, 2009, and commemorated as the 300th Virtual Console game available for purchase in the region. During January 2012, Club Nintendo members could download Majora's Mask onto the Wii Console for 150 coins. A similar deal was offered at the end of Club Nintendo in 2015. The game was released for the Wii U's Virtual Console service in Europe on June 23, 2016 and in North America on November 24, 2016. In October 2021, Nintendo announced Majora's Mask as one of the games to be released through the Nintendo Switch Online Expansion Pack service, scheduled for release on February 25, 2022. The game served as the primary inspiration for the popular 2010s web serial and web series Ben Drowned by Alexander D. Hall, which helped define the creepypasta genre of online storytelling. Content based on Majora's Mask has also appeared in the Super Smash Bros. series. A stage based on the Great Bay Coast area of the game, titled "Great Bay", appears in Super Smash Bros. Melee and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. Skull Kid also appears as a computer-controlled Assist Trophy in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Ultimate, while the Moon appears as an Assist Trophy in Ultimate as well. A Skull Kid-themed mask is available as customizable headgear to be worn by Mii characters in Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Ultimate. A fan-made patch for the Nintendo 64 version entitled N64HD—featuring enhanced graphics, textures, and lighting—was released in 2021. Having been in development for five years, it overhauls over 6000 in-game textures. Nintendo 3DS remake After the release of The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 3D, a remake of Ocarina of Time for the Nintendo 3DS, director Eiji Aonuma suggested that a Majora's Mask remake was dependent on interest and demand. Following this news, a fan campaign called "Operation Moonfall" was launched to promote a remake of Majora's Mask for the 3DS. The campaign name is a reference to a similar fan-based movement, Operation Rainfall, set up to persuade Nintendo of America to localize a trio of role-playing games for the Wii. The petition reached 10,000 signatures within five days. In response to an email sent by a customer, a representative of Nintendo of America wrote: "At the risk of dampening the excitement you feel, I must be clear that no official announcements have been made regarding a remake of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask for the Nintendo 3DS. However, we like hearing what our consumers find important." In an interview with GamesRadar in November 2011, Zelda producer Eiji Aonuma acknowledged Operation Moonfall and told fans that he hopes to respond to their request sometime in the future. At E3 2012, Miyamoto stated that a 3DS remake was still under consideration. Shortly after E3 2013, Miyamoto once again commented that the fans supporting a Majora's Mask 3DS remake were "still in his memory". On November 5, 2014, Nintendo announced in a Nintendo Direct presentation that The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask 3D would be released for the Nintendo 3DS in the spring of 2015. Like Ocarina of Time 3D before it, the remake features improved character models and stereoscopic 3D graphics, along with altered boss battles, an additional fishing minigame, and support for New Nintendo 3DS systems. To update the game for modern audiences, Aonuma and the team at Grezzo compiled a list of gameplay moments that stuck out to them as unreasonable for players, colloquially dubbed the "what in the world" list. The game was released worldwide in February 2015, coinciding with the launch of the New Nintendo 3DS system in North America and Europe. A special edition New Nintendo 3DS XL model was launched alongside the game, with the European release featuring a pin badge, double-sided poster, and steelbook case. The UK retailer Game offered a Majora's Mask''-themed paperweight as a pre-order bonus for the standard edition of the game. Notes References External links 2000 video games Apocalyptic video games Cancelled 64DD games Impact event video games Interactive Achievement Award winners Fiction set on moons Nintendo 64 games Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games GameCube games Fiction about giants Single-player video games Majora's Mask Dark fantasy video games Video games about shapeshifting Video games about size change Video games about time loops Video games developed in Japan Video games featuring parallel universes Video games scored by Koji Kondo Video games set on the Moon Virtual Console games Virtual Console games for Wii Virtual Console games for Wii U Video games about time travel Video games with time manipulation Nintendo Switch Online Nintendo 64 games Portal fantasy

Live with Kelly and Ryan

eng_Latn

Live with Kelly and Ryan (or simply Live) is an American syndicated morning talk show hosted by Kelly Ripa and Ryan Seacrest. Executive produced by Michael Gelman, the Live with... show formula has aired under various hosts since 1983 locally on WABC-TV in New York City and 1988 nationwide. , it is produced by WABC. With roots in A.M. Los Angeles and A.M. New York, Live began as The Morning Show, hosted by Regis Philbin and Cyndy Garvey; the show rose to national prominence as Live with Regis and Kathie Lee when Philbin was joined by Kathie Lee Gifford. That incarnation of the program ran for 12 years and continued as Live with Regis and Kelly for another decade before Ripa, after hosting with guest co-hosts for nearly a year, was paired with former NFL star Michael Strahan. The franchise has had longstanding success and has won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show and Outstanding Talk Show Hosts. On January 19, 2016, the show was renewed through the 2019–20 season. On February 12, 2016, a special episode focused on Ripa's 15 years as part of the program. On April 18, 2016, Strahan and ABC announced that he was leaving the show to join ABC's Good Morning America full-time. On May 1, 2017, it was announced that Ryan Seacrest would join Ripa as her new permanent co-host, succeeding Strahan. Production Concept Executive producer Michael Gelman said in 1993, "The real concept of the show, in a symbolic sense, is that they are husband and wife. They have their coffee mugs and they're chit-chatting about what's going on." That is the basis of the show's signature "Host Chat", an unscripted on-air conversation between the co-hosts that opens each show. Following Host Chat is "Travel Trivia," in which the show telephones a home viewer, and that viewer must answer a question (usually about a guest on a recent show) to win a vacation for themselves and a door prize for a member of the studio audience. The show then continues with interviews with celebrity guests, musical performances, and other recurring segments, including regular features showcasing fashion, food, health, and lifestyle topics. The husband and wife breakfast chat program was popular in old time radio, beginning with Ed and Pegeen Fitzgerald, and later Dick Kollmar and Dorothy Kilgallen and Tex McCrary and Jinx Falkenburg. Parodied by Woody Allen in his film Radio Days, these programs were popular locally in New York, and Philbin would have heard them growing up. The format of Live! has been emulated by other successful talk shows such as the British programmes This Morning and Today with Des and Mel. However, it has also proven to be resilient against similarly formatted talk shows from other syndicators or networks, seeing programs such as George & Alana, Donny & Marie, Living It Up! With Ali & Jack, The Morning Show with Mike and Juliet, and Anderson Live all launch and end in short periods of time throughout its entire run, and fail to make any headway in the traditional 9 a.m. local time slot Live! has been traditionally slotted in for most markets. The show is broadcast live from New York City, on weekdays at 9 a.m. for stations in the Eastern Time Zone, and is tape-delayed for the rest of the country. Although the program is generally associated with the ABC network and airs on all ABC owned-and-operated stations, in many markets the program is syndicated to stations affiliated with other networks. Live did not air in a morning timeslot on all ABC-owned stations until September 2013, as WLS-TV in Chicago programmed the 9 a.m. timeslot with The Oprah Winfrey Show (WLS-TV was the originating station for the program in the 1980s), then Windy City Live after Oprah concluded its run in 2011. Although WLS-TV had carried the New York-based Live in an overnight timeslot earlier in its run, the show aired on other Chicago stations, including WGN-TV from 2002 through 2013. Recurring segments Guinness World Record Breaker Week, New York Auto Show Week, Broadway Week, and Top Teacher Week are examples of features frequently visited on the show, highlighting a different aspect of the theme everyday that week. Live will also invite "whiz kids" to oppose the co-hosts at spelling, athletics, mathematics, sport stacking, and technology, among other tasks. A recurring gag with Philbin as co-host was him challenging seniors—preferably over the age of 100—at tennis, basketball, ping-pong, and bowling, for example. Regular contributors to the show include toy enthusiast Chris Byrne, style maven Lawrence Zarian, animal expert Peter Gros, automotive expert Alan Taylor, pediatrician Greg Yapalater, home and gardening show host Katie Brown, technology specialist Leo Laporte, entrepreneur Carley Roney, Science Bob, veterinarian Jennifer Jellison, and nutrition expert Wendy Bazilian. Specials The show has hosted a number of specials over the years since it began. Specials have included a Halloween celebration in which the co-hosts wore dozens of costumes and portrayed some of the most famous and infamous names in pop culture. In February 2011, Live threw a wedding for a couple who wrote in with reasons why they should be married on the show. Viewer submissions have also been accepted for their "Moms Dream Come True Special," where the co-hosts pay tribute to a select group of mothers. The show has aired a Post-Oscar Special the day after the awards ceremony live from the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood. On location Live has been to eight countries and nearly 25 states, logging . The list of remotes includes: Tampa, Hawaii, Monaco, Banff, San Antonio, Aspen, Walt Disney World, New Orleans, Disneyland, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Paris, Detroit, Chicago, The Bronx, Los Angeles, the USS Intrepid, Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Maui, Prince Edward Island, London, Scottsdale, the White House, Charlotte, Churchill Downs, Niagara Falls, Puerto Rico, Marina del Rey, Philadelphia, Branson, Mount Rushmore, The Bahamas, and the Dolby Theatre's set for the 85th Academy Awards. While on location, the co-hosts transplant the franchise's own brand of entertainment-oriented talk with the beauty of the particular location providing a colorful backdrop to the show's segments. History Co-host timeline 1983–1988: The Morning Show The Morning Show, co-hosted by Regis Philbin and Cyndy Garvey, premiered locally on WABC-TV in New York on April 4, 1983. In 1984, Garvey left the show and Philbin hired Ann Abernathy, whom he remembered from his time at KABC for her engaging personality, to assume the co-host duties. After Abernathy got married and decided to return to Los Angeles, Kathie Lee Johnson (later Gifford) joined Philbin officially on June 24, 1985. Their chemistry proved to be successful as The Morning Show soon became number 1 in the market and went on to debut in national syndication on September 5, 1988, when the title was changed to Live with Regis and Kathie Lee. 1988–2000: Live with Regis and Kathie Lee Early on, Live matched its local success with impressive national ratings and established itself as a dominant fixture in American television. Entertainment Weekly described Regis Philbin and Kathie Lee Gifford as "an agreeable mismatch" and their famous banter as "playful, edgy, and amusing." Gifford's positivity throughout public scandals such as the 1996 accusation that her clothing line was being run under sweatshop conditions and her husband Frank Gifford's 1997 affair with a flight attendant resonated with the female demographic of the show, but ultimately made her a media target prompting her emotional departure on July 28, 2000. "Over a third of my life has been [at Live]," she said. "This is family. It is been an amazing journey." Gifford appeared on Live! with Regis and Kelly on three occasions, for the show's 20th Anniversary special on September 14, 2007, to promote her book Just When I Thought I'd Dropped My Last Egg: Life and Other Calamities on April 14, 2009, and again as a guest to bid farewell to Philbin on his second to last show, November 17, 2011. Gifford went on to host the fourth hour of Today with Hoda Kotb; that show mainly airs an hour after Live! in most markets, though a few markets where both shows air at 10:00 a.m. against each other do exist. 2000–2001: Live with Regis When looking for Gifford's replacement, Philbin and executive producer Michael Gelman teamed Philbin with a handful of potential co-hosts, including Joy Philbin, Kathleen Murphy, Rosie O'Donnell, Jann Carl, Whoopi Goldberg, Kathy Fountain, Gloria Estefan, Jillian Reynolds, Lisa Rinna, Caroline Rhea and Suzanne Sena. This met with positive fan response and a 26 percent ratings increase. Philbin won his first Daytime Emmy Award for Live during the six-month period, which he would go on to win twice with co-host Kelly Ripa. Ripa had auditioned four months into the search, on November 1, 2000. Ripa was announced as the official replacement on February 5, 2001. 2001–2011: Live! with Regis and Kelly Live! with Regis and Kelly's young-audience demographics increased by 80 percent, with Ripa credited for bringing "a new life to the show." Seven months into Philbin and Ripa's run, the September 11 attacks on New York occurred, with coverage beginning twelve minutes before that day's episode would have started. The show was pre-empted for a week following the attacks and returned September 18, 2001. They hosted the annual Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade during this era. Philbin had hip surgery in 2009. Nick Cannon replaced him as the host for that Christmas special. Ryan Seacrest took over for Philbin in 2010. Ripa had a stress fracture, so Maria Menounos took over for her as the co-hostess. Shortly after celebrating his and Ripa's 10th anniversary together, Philbin announced on January 18, 2011, that he would leave Live!. The show then held a "Regis Farewell Celebration Season", showcasing Philbin's top moments from his 28 years on the program, 1983–2011. His final show aired November 18, 2011. 2011–2012: Live! with Kelly (first era) After Philbin's departure, the show was renamed Live! with Kelly. Joining Ripa were various co-hosts from broadcasting and entertainment. On November 21, 2011, Jerry Seinfeld was the first of 60 men and women to join Ripa at the co-host desk, including: Reggie Bush, Kyle MacLachlan, Russell Brand, Howie Mandel, Carl Edwards, Chris Harrison, Daniel Radcliffe, Michael Buckley, Michael Catherwood, Rob Lowe, Martin Short, Neil Patrick Harris, Peter Facinelli, Boomer Esiason, Ben Mulroney, Dan Abrams, Rob Thomas, David Duchovny, Pat Kiernan, Derek Hough, D. L. Hughley, Jesse Palmer, Carson Kressley, Carrie Ann Inaba, Mark Feuerstein, Jim Parsons, Nick Lachey, Jonah Hill, Michael Strahan, Apolo Anton Ohno, Joel McHale, Cat Deeley, Tyler Perry, Andy Cohen, Alec Baldwin, Josh Groban, Jerry O'Connell, Seth Meyers, Mike Greenberg, Kristin Chenoweth, Andy Samberg, Mark Consuelos, Lucy Liu, Taye Diggs, Randy Jackson, Mario Lopez, Matthew Broderick, Mary J. Blige, Ed Robertson, Michael Bublé, Matthew Morrison, Kevin Jonas, Tony Potts, Dana Carvey, Jimmy Kimmel, Kim Kardashian, L.A. Reid, Bryant Gumbel, Daniel Dae Kim, Jussie Smollett and Sam Champion. In April 2012, Live! debuted a new set described as a "contemporary downtown-style loft, spacious and yet maintaining the studio's warmth and intimacy." It was the first major set re-design since the start of the show's 10th season in national syndication (1997–98). In July 2012, People magazine reported that Meyers, Groban and Strahan were the top three contenders in the running to replace Philbin. 2012–2016: Live with Kelly and Michael On the September 4, 2012 episode, Michael Strahan made his 16th appearance on the show and was introduced as Ripa's permanent co-host. The former New York Giants defensive end had begun his TV career on Fox NFL Sunday, a job he said he would keep even though it shoots in Los Angeles. The Ripa-Strahan chemistry proved to be successful. Live With Kelly & Michael had been the No. 2 syndicated talk show averaging a 2.8 national rating over Strahan's entire tenure while Live With Regis & Kelly averaged a 2.6. Live With Kelly & Michael brought in 268,000 more audience members daily, on average, than the show attracted during the end of the Regis run. On January 19, 2016, the show was renewed through at least the 2019–2020 season. On April 19, 2016, it was announced that Strahan would leave Live to join Good Morning America full-time. The decision was revealed to the program's production staff just after that day's broadcast of Live, and officially announced on the program by Strahan the following day. Ripa, however, was absent from that day's episode, and ABC announced later in the day that Live would have guest co-hosts through April 25, 2016. Although speculated to have been a reaction to Strahan's abrupt exit, an ABC staff member stated to Variety that Ripa's sudden absence was a "pre-scheduled vacation". Ripa returned on April 26, 2016, using the opening of the episode to address the reception to Strahan's exit, and ABC's continued commitment to Live as a series. She said she was annoyed that ABC had not given her advance notice of negotiations to move Strahan to GMA. Strahan's final episode on Live occurred on May 13, 2016 and featured several flashback moments from the four years that he co-hosted the show. 2016–2017: Live with Kelly (second era) On May 16, 2016, Ripa began the second era of her Live career as a single co-host. Jimmy Kimmel joined her as her first guest co-host. 2017–present: Live with Kelly and Ryan On May 1, 2017, it was announced that Ryan Seacrest would succeed Strahan as the new permanent co-host, after a year long syndicated co-host search. Seacrest also joined as an executive producer to the show. On September 5, 2017, Live with Kelly and Ryan updated the show's look with a new, modern logo, modifications to the studio, and a brand new show opener. The 31st season premiered on September 3, 2018, while the 32nd season premiered on September 2, 2019. On May 1, 2018, Ripa and Seacrest celebrated their first anniversary with a look back at the best moments of the past year. They did the same thing from April 29 to May 3, 2019 for their second anniversary. In March 2020, the show began broadcasting remotely from the host's homes due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, Regis Philbin died on July 24. On August 26, 2020, it was announced that the 33rd season would premiere on September 7, with the show returning to its New York City studio the next day. The premiere did not have a studio audience and the hosts were seated six feet apart. Beginning with the 2020-21 season, DMD began to authorize the show's ABC affiliates to run the show a second time daily in an overnight timeslot, allowing late night viewers to watch the show or record it, even if it was pre-empted by breaking news spilling over from Good Morning America. Critical reception The New York Daily News gave the program a positive review, " … When it comes to the amount and playfulness of morning talk, nothing beats Live". In 2001, 2011, 2012, 2015, and 2016 the show won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Hosts and in its 24th year, after twenty-one nominations, it won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show. In addition, its co-hosts have received two TV Guide Award nominations for Favorite Daytime Talk Show and multiple People's Choice nominations for Favorite Talk Show Host. According to daytime television ratings, viewership averages 5 million per episode, ranking number 1 in all big markets, such as New York City, Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Dallas, San Francisco, Miami, West Palm Beach, and many others. Dominating its time periods, Live is the top-rated morning show and regularly the #1 syndicated talk show. References External links Live with Kelly and Michael at TVGuide.com 1983 American television series debuts 1980s American television talk shows 1990s American television talk shows 2000s American television talk shows 2010s American television talk shows 2020s American television talk shows English-language television shows First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television Television series by Ryan Seacrest Productions Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show winners Television shows filmed in New York City

River delta

eng_Latn

A river delta is a landform created by deposition of sediment that is carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or stagnant water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more rarely) another river that cannot carry away the supplied sediment. The size and shape of a delta is controlled by the balance between watershed processes that supply sediment, and receiving basin processes that redistribute, sequester, and export that sediment. The size, geometry, and location of the receiving basin also plays an important role in delta evolution. River deltas are important in human civilization, as they are major agricultural production centers and population centers. They can provide coastline defense and can impact drinking water supply. They are also ecologically important, with different species' assemblages depending on their landscape position. Etymology A river delta is so named because the shape of the Nile Delta approximates the triangular uppercase Greek letter delta. The triangular shape of the Nile Delta was known to audiences of classical Athenian drama; the tragedy Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus refers to it as the "triangular Nilotic land", though not as a "delta". Herodotus's description of Egypt in his Histories mentions the Delta fourteen times, as "the Delta, as it is called by the Ionians", including describing the outflow of silt into the sea and the convexly curved seaward side of the triangle. Despite making comparisons to other river-systems' deltas, Herodotus did not describe them as "deltas". The Greek historian Polybius likened the land between the Rhône and Isère rivers to the Nile Delta, referring to both as islands, but did not apply the word delta. According to the Roman geographer Strabo, the Cynic philosopher Onesicritus of Astypalaea, who accompanied Alexander the Great's conquests in India, reported that Patalene (the delta of the Indus River) was "a delta". (). The Roman author Arrian's Indica states that "the delta of the land of the Indians is made by the Indus river no less than is the case with that of Egypt". As a generic term for the landform at the mouth of river, the word delta is first attested in the English-speaking world in the late 18th century, in the work of Edward Gibbon. Formation River deltas form when a river carrying sediment reaches a body of water, such as a lake, ocean, or a reservoir. When the flow enters the standing water, it is no longer confined to its channel and expands in width. This flow expansion results in a decrease in the flow velocity, which diminishes the ability of the flow to transport sediment. As a result, sediment drops out of the flow and is deposited as alluvium, which builds up to form the river delta. Over time, this single channel builds a deltaic lobe (such as the bird's-foot of the Mississippi or Ural river deltas), pushing its mouth into the standing water. As the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation (see slope). As the gradient of the river channel decreases, the amount of shear stress on the bed decreases, which results in the deposition of sediment within the channel and a rise in the channel bed relative to the floodplain. This destabilizes the river channel. If the river breaches its natural levees (such as during a flood), it spills out into a new course with a shorter route to the ocean, thereby obtaining a steeper, more stable gradient. Typically, when the river switches channels in this manner, some of its flow remains in the abandoned channel. Repeated channel-switching events build up a mature delta with a distributary network. Another way these distributary networks form is from the deposition of mouth bars (mid-channel sand and/or gravel bars at the mouth of a river). When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a river, the flow is routed around it. This results in additional deposition on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river into two distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is the Wax Lake Delta. In both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas of low deposition. This results in the smoothing of the planform (or map-view) shape of the delta as the channels move across its surface and deposit sediment. Because the sediment is laid down in this fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates a fan. The more often the flow changes course, the shape develops as closer to an ideal fan, because more rapid changes in channel position result in more uniform deposition of sediment on the delta front. The Mississippi and Ural River deltas, with their bird's-feet, are examples of rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical fan shape. Alluvial fan deltas, as seen by their name, avulse frequently and more closely approximate an ideal fan shape. Most large river deltas discharge to intra-cratonic basins on the trailing edges of passive margins due to the majority of large rivers such as the Mississippi, Nile, Amazon, Ganges, Indus, Yangtze, and Yellow River discharging along passive continental margins. This phenomenon is due mainly to three factors: topography, basin area, and basin elevation. Topography along passive margins tend to be more gradual and widespread over a greater area enabling sediment to pile up and accumulate over time to form large river deltas. Topography along active margins tend to be steeper and less widespread, which results in sediments not having the ability to pile up and accumulate due to the sediment traveling into a steep subduction trench rather than a shallow continental shelf. There are many other lesser factors that could explain why the majority of river deltas form along passive margins rather than active margins. Along active margins, orogenic sequences cause tectonic activity to form over-steepened slopes, brecciated rocks, and volcanic activity resulting in delta formation to exist closer to the sediment source. When sediment does not travel far from the source, sediments that build up are coarser grained and more loosely consolidated, therefore making delta formation more difficult. Tectonic activity on active margins causes the formation of river deltas to form closer to the sediment source which may affect channel avulsion, delta lobe switching, and auto cyclicity. Active margin river deltas tend to be much smaller and less abundant but may transport similar amounts of sediment. However, the sediment is never piled up in thick sequences due to the sediment traveling and depositing in deep subduction trenches. Types Deltas are typically classified according to the main control on deposition, which is a combination of river, wave, and tidal processes, depending on the strength of each. The other two factors that play a major role are landscape position and the grain size distribution of the source sediment entering the delta from the river. Fluvial-dominated deltas Fluvial-dominated deltas are found in areas of low tidal range and low wave energy. Where the river water is nearly equal in density to the basin water, the delta is characterized by homopycnal flow, in which the river water rapidly mixes with basin water and abruptly dumps most of its sediment load. Where the river water has higher density than basin water, typically from a heavy load of sediment, the delta is characterized by hypercynal flow in which the river water hugs the basin bottom as a density current that deposits its sediments as turbidites. When the river water is less dense than the basin water, as is typical of river deltas on an ocean coastline, the delta is characterized by hypopycnal flow in which the river water is slow to mix with the denser basin water and spreads out as a surface fan. This allows fine sediments to be carried a considerable distance before settling out of suspension. Beds in a hypocynal delta dip at a very shallow angle, around 1 degree. Fluvial-dominated deltas are further distinguished by the relative importance of the inertia of rapidly flowing water, the importance of turbulent bed friction beyond the river mouth, and buoyancy. Outflow dominated by inertia tend to form Gilbert type deltas. Outflow dominated by turbulent friction is prone to channel bifurcation, while buoyancy-dominated outflow produces long distributaries with narrow subaqueous natural levees and few channel bifurcations. The modern Mississippi River delta is a good example of a fluvial-dominated delta whose outflow is buoyancy-dominated. Channel abandonment has been frequent, with seven distinct channels active over the last 5000 years. Other fluvial-dominated deltas include the Mackenzie delta and the Alta delta. Gilbert deltas A Gilbert delta (named after Grove Karl Gilbert) is a type of fluvial-dominated delta formed from coarse sediments, as opposed to gently-sloping muddy deltas such as that of the Mississippi. For example, a mountain river depositing sediment into a freshwater lake would form this kind of delta. It is commonly a result of homopycnal flow. Such deltas are characterized by a tripartite structure of topset, foreset, and bottomset beds. River water entering the lake rapidly deposits its coarser sediments on the submerged face of the delta, forming steeping dipping foreset beds. The finer sediments are deposited on the lake bottom beyond this steep slope as more gently dipping bottomset beds. Behind the delta front, braided channels deposit the gently dipping beds of the topset on the delta plain. While some authors describe both lacustrine and marine locations of Gilbert deltas, others note that their formation is more characteristic of the freshwater lakes, where it is easier for the river water to mix with the lakewater faster (as opposed to the case of a river falling into the sea or a salt lake, where less dense fresh water brought by the river stays on top longer). Gilbert himself first described this type of delta on Lake Bonneville in 1885. Elsewhere, similar structures occur, for example, at the mouths of several creeks that flow into Okanagan Lake in British Columbia and forming prominent peninsulas at Naramata, Summerland, and Peachland. Wave-dominated deltas In wave dominated deltas, wave-driven sediment transport controls the shape of the delta, and much of the sediment emanating from the river mouth is deflected along the coast line. The relationship between waves and river deltas is quite variable and largely influenced by the deepwater wave regimes of the receiving basin. With a high wave energy near shore and a steeper slope offshore, waves will make river deltas smoother. Waves can also be responsible for carrying sediments away from the river delta, causing the delta to retreat. For deltas that form further upriver in an estuary, there are complex yet quantifiable linkages between winds, tides, river discharge, and delta water levels. Tide-dominated deltas Erosion is also an important control in tide-dominated deltas, such as the Ganges Delta, which may be mainly submarine, with prominent sandbars and ridges. This tends to produce a "dendritic" structure. Tidal deltas behave differently from a river- and wave-dominated deltas, which tend to have a few main distributaries. Once a wave- or river-dominated distributary silts up, it is abandoned, and a new channel forms elsewhere. In a tidal delta, new distributaries are formed during times when there is a lot of water around – such as floods or storm surges. These distributaries slowly silt up at a more or less constant rate until they fizzle out. Tidal freshwater deltas A tidal freshwater delta is a sedimentary deposit formed at the boundary between an upland stream and an estuary, in the region known as the "subestuary". Drowned coastal river valleys that were inundated by rising sea levels during the late Pleistocene and subsequent Holocene tend to have dendritic estuaries with many feeder tributaries. Each tributary mimics this salinity gradient from their brackish junction with the mainstem estuary up to the fresh stream feeding the head of tidal propagation. As a result, the tributaries are considered to be "subestuaries". The origin and evolution of a tidal freshwater delta involves processes that are typical of all deltas as well as processes that are unique to the tidal freshwater setting. The combination of processes that create a tidal freshwater delta result in a distinct morphology and unique environmental characteristics. Many tidal freshwater deltas that exist today are directly caused by the onset of or changes in historical land use, especially deforestation, intensive agriculture, and urbanization. These ideas are well illustrated by the many tidal freshwater deltas prograding into Chesapeake Bay along the east coastline of the United States. Research has demonstrated that the accumulating sediments in this estuary derive from post-European settlement deforestation, agriculture, and urban development. Estuaries Other rivers, particularly those on coasts with significant tidal range, do not form a delta but enter into the sea in the form of an estuary. Notable examples include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Tagus estuary. Inland deltas In rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river divides into multiple branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea. Such an area is called an inland delta, and often occurs on former lake beds. The term was first coined by Alexander von Humboldt for the middle reaches of the Orinoco River, which he visited in 1800. Other prominent examples include the Inner Niger Delta, Peace–Athabasca Delta, the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, and the Sistan delta of Iran. The Danube has one in the valley on the Slovak-Hungarian border between Bratislava and Iža. In some cases, a river flowing into a flat arid area splits into channels that evaporate as it progresses into the desert. The Okavango Delta in Botswana is one example. Mega deltas The generic term mega delta can be used to describe very large Asian river deltas, such as the Yangtze, Pearl, Red, Mekong, Irrawaddy, Ganges-Brahmaputra, and Indus. Sedimentary structure The formation of a delta is complicated, multiple, and cross-cutting over time, but in a simple delta three main types of bedding may be distinguished: the bottomset beds, foreset/frontset beds, and topset beds. This three part structure may be seen in small scale by crossbedding. The bottomset beds are created from the lightest suspended particles that settle farthest away from the active delta front, as the river flow diminishes into the standing body of water and loses energy. This suspended load is deposited by sediment gravity flow, creating a turbidite. These beds are laid down in horizontal layers and consist of the finest grain sizes. The foreset beds in turn are deposited in inclined layers over the bottomset beds as the active lobe advances. Foreset beds form the greater part of the bulk of a delta, (and also occur on the lee side of sand dunes). The sediment particles within foreset beds consist of larger and more variable sizes, and constitute the bed load that the river moves downstream by rolling and bouncing along the channel bottom. When the bed load reaches the edge of the delta front, it rolls over the edge, and is deposited in steeply dipping layers over the top of the existing bottomset beds. Under water, the slope of the outermost edge of the delta is created at the angle of repose of these sediments. As the foresets accumulate and advance, subaqueous landslides occur and readjust overall slope stability. The foreset slope, thus created and maintained, extends the delta lobe outward. In cross section, foresets typically lie in angled, parallel bands, and indicate stages and seasonal variations during the creation of the delta. The topset beds of an advancing delta are deposited in turn over the previously laid foresets, truncating or covering them. Topsets are nearly horizontal layers of smaller-sized sediment deposited on the top of the delta and form an extension of the landward alluvial plain. As the river channels meander laterally across the top of the delta, the river is lengthened and its gradient is reduced, causing the suspended load to settle out in nearly horizontal beds over the delta's top. Topset beds are subdivided into two regions: the upper delta plain and the lower delta plain. The upper delta plain is unaffected by the tide, while the boundary with the lower delta plain is defined by the upper limit of tidal influence. Existential threats to deltas Human activities in both deltas and the river basins upstream of deltas can radically alter delta environments. Upstream land use change such as anti-erosion agricultural practices and hydrological engineering such as dam construction in the basins feeding deltas have reduced river sediment delivery to many deltas in recent decades. This change means that there is less sediment available to maintain delta landforms, and compensate for erosion and sea level rise, causing some deltas to start losing land. Declines in river sediment delivery are projected to continue in the coming decades. The extensive anthropogenic activities in deltas also interfere with geomorphological and ecological delta processes. People living on deltas often construct flood defences which prevent sedimentation from floods on deltas, and therefore means that sediment deposition can't compensate for subsidence and erosion. In addition to interference with delta aggradation, pumping of groundwater, oil, and gas, and constructing infrastructure all accelerate subsidence, increasing relative sea level rise. Anthropogenic activities can also destabilise river channels through sand mining, and cause saltwater intrusion. There are small-scale efforts to correct these issues, improve delta environments and increase environmental sustainability through sedimentation enhancing strategies. While nearly all deltas have been impacted to some degree by humans, the Nile Delta and Colorado River Delta are some of the most extreme examples of the devastation caused to deltas by damming and diversion of water. Historical data documents show that during the Roman Empire and Little Ice Age (times where there was considerable anthropogenic pressure), there was significant sediment accumulation in deltas. The industrial revolution has only amplified the impact of humans on delta growth and retreat. Deltas in the economy Ancient deltas are a benefit to the economy due to their well sorted sand and gravel. Sand and gravel is often quarried from these old deltas and used in concrete for highways, buildings, sidewalks, and even landscaping. More than 1 billion tons of sand and gravel are produced in the United States alone. Not all sand and gravel quarries are former deltas, but for ones that are, much of the sorting is already done by the power of water. Urban areas and human habitation tends to locate in lowlands near water access for transportation and sanitation. This makes deltas a common location for civilizations to flourish due to access to flat land for farming, freshwater for sanitation and irrigation, and sea access for trade. Deltas often host extensive industrial and commercial activities as well as agricultural land which are often in conflict. Some of the world's largest regional economies are located on deltas such as the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, European Low Countries and the Greater Tokyo Area. Examples The Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, which spans most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India empties into the Bay of Bengal, is the world's largest delta. The Selenga River delta in the Russian republic of Buryatia is the largest delta emptying into a body of fresh water, in its case Lake Baikal. Other deltas Amazon Delta Danube Delta Ebro Delta Euphrates Delta Fly Delta Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta Godavari Delta Indus River Delta Irrawaddy Delta Kaveri Delta Krishna Delta Lena Delta Mackenzie Delta Mahanadi River Delta Mekong Delta Mississippi River Delta Niger Delta Nile Delta Okavango Delta Orinoco Delta Paraná Delta Parnaíba Delta Pearl River Delta Po Delta Red River Delta Rhine Delta Rhône Delta Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta St. Clair Delta Salween Delta Volga Delta Yangtze Delta Yellow River Delta (also known as Huanghe) Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta Zambezi Delta Deltas on Mars Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had large amounts of water. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below are pictures of a few. See also References Bibliography Renaud, F. and C. Kuenzer 2012: The Mekong Delta System – Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta, Springer, , , pp. 7–48 KUENZER C. and RENAUD, F. 2012: Climate Change and Environmental Change in River Deltas Globally. In (eds.): Renaud, F. and C. Kuenzer 2012: The Mekong Delta System – Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta, Springer, , , pp. 7–48 External links Louisiana State University Geology – World Deltas http://www.wisdom.eoc.dlr.de WISDOM Water related Information System for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong Delta Wave-dominated river deltas on coastalwiki.org – A coastalwiki.org page on wave-dominated river deltas Aquatic ecology Ecology Coastal geography Sedimentology Fluvial landforms Water streams Bodies of water Water

Public holidays in Australia

eng_Latn

Public holidays in Australia refer to the holidays recognised in law in Australia. Although they are declared on a state and territory basis, they comprise a mixture of nationally celebrated days and holidays exclusive to the individual jurisdictions. Public holidays function as non-working days, with workers generally receiving full paid leave independently of annual leave. Those working on public holidays receive additional penalty rates of pay. Where they fall on a weekend, public holidays are generally declared in lieu for the following Monday. Statutory holidays in Australia are based on varying religious, cultural and civic observations. Christian celebrations, namely Christmas and Easter, are some of the most significant ones observed. A labour day is observed in each state and territory, although it is varied in date. There are two significant national days, Australia Day (26 January) and Anzac Day (25 April), which are nationwide public holidays. When a public holiday occurs on a Friday or Monday, the three-day period is colloquially known as a "long weekend". Nature of public holidays Traditionally, Australians in employment (whether in the public or private sector) have had the right to take a public holiday off work with regular pay. In recent years this tradition has changed somewhat. For example, businesses that normally open on a public holiday may request employees to work on that day. Employers can deny employees a holiday only on reasonable business grounds. From 2006, WorkChoices eliminated the entitlement to penalty rates in many workplaces; however since the implementation of the Fair Work Act 2009 and the modern awards in 2010, most public-holiday penalty rates have increased dramatically employees generally receive pay at a penalty rate—usually 2.5 times (known as "double time and a half") the base rate of pay—when they work on a public holiday. Besides designating days as public holidays, Australian authorities also designate some of these days as restricted trading days. Public holidays are determined by a combination of: statutes, with specific gazetting of public holidays industrial awards and agreements If a standard public holiday falls on a weekend, a substitute public holiday will sometimes be observed on the first non-weekend day (usually Monday) after the weekend, whether by virtue of the public holiday legislation or by ad hoc proclamation. Workers required to work on a public holiday or substituted public holiday will usually be entitled to remuneration at a holiday penalty rate. All states have their own public holidays in addition to national public holidays, and in some states certain public holidays, such as Melbourne Cup Day, are in force in only part of a state. Alcohol licences in several states prevent sale of alcohol on certain public holidays, such as Good Friday. Public holidays Legend: B City of Brisbane only. The Royal National Agricultural (RNA) Show Day (Brisbane only) is held on the Wednesday during the RNA Show period. The RNA Show commences on the first Friday in August, unless the first Friday is prior to 5 August, then it commences on the second Friday of August. Other Queensland show holidays: Show holiday dates | Public, school and show holidays C = Conditional: Public Service employees or where defined in Employment Agreement/Award H = Hobart area only NH = Not Hobart area P Part day, from 7 pm to midnight (6 pm to midnight for QLD) † Often substituted with the Geelong Cup for Geelong residents. For regional Victoria other local cup days are sometimes substituted. * The holiday is legislated for the 3rd Monday of May. Since 2006 it has been moved via the issuing of a special Proclamation by the Governor, to the 2nd Monday of March, on a trial basis. ** Sunday is nominally a public holiday in South Australia *** Depends on occupation, generally from 6 pm to midnight Substitute holidays for holidays falling on a weekend When a public holiday falls on a weekend, the following work day may be considered a public holiday depending on the state/territory and the holiday in question. Holidays that always fall on a particular day of the week are not listed in this table. Prior to 2008, Victorian law only specified substitute holidays for New Year and Boxing Day, and only if they fell on a Sunday. From 2008, Victorian law specifies the substitute holidays in the table above. Since Easter Monday can occur as late as 26 April it is possible for the Easter Monday holiday to coincide with Anzac Day, as occurred in 2011. State Acts do not give a provision to separate the days when this occurs, so no additional public holiday is given by law. However an extra day is usually proclaimed by the minister, so as to have a steady number of public holidays each year. In the year 2038, Anzac Day will coincide with Easter Sunday. Australia Day Nationally, Australia Day was originally celebrated on 30 July 1915. Recorded celebrations of the 26 January date back to 1808 in Australia, and in 1818, Governor Lachlan Macquarie held the first official celebration of Australia Day. 26 January was chosen because it is the day of the establishment of the first British settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip in 1788. It was made a public holiday in New South Wales in 1836, and Victoria adopted the day as a public holiday in 1931. The 26 January commenced to be recognised by all states and territories as Australia Day in 1946. Australia Day has been celebrated as a national public holiday on 26 January since 1994. Since 1960, the winner of the Australian of the Year award is announced by the Prime Minister on the eve of Australia Day (25 Jan). Labour Day Labour Day commemorates the achievements of the Australian labour movement. The celebration of Labour Day has its origins in the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest. On 21 April 1856 Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne, Australia, stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day. Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as the first organised workers in the world to achieve an eight-hour day with no loss of pay, which subsequently inspired the celebration of Labour Day and May Day. In Tasmania the public holiday is called Eight Hours Day and in the Northern Territory it is called May Day. The Labour Day public holiday varies considerably between the various states and territories. It is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia. In Western Australia, it is the first Monday in March. In both Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March. In the Northern Territory, and in Queensland it is the first Monday in May. More than 80 countries celebrate Labor Day. Labor Day is a long weekend. Easter The days of Easter vary each year depending on the day determined by the Western Christian calendar. Until 1994 Easter Tuesday was a Bank Holiday in Victoria (it retains this status partially in Tasmania). The day after Good Friday and before Easter Sunday is traditionally known as Holy Saturday. However, the states where that day is a public holiday use different terminology – it is officially gazetted as "Easter Saturday" in the ACT, New South Wales, and the Northern Territory; as "the day after Good Friday" in Queensland and South Australia; and as "Saturday before Easter Sunday" in Victoria. ANZAC Day ANZAC Day is a day on which the country remembers those citizens who fell fighting or who served the country in wars. ANZAC Day is commemorated on 25 April every year. The tradition began to remember the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) soldiers who landed at Gallipoli in Turkey during World War I. ANZAC Day commemoration features marches by veterans and by solemn "Dawn Services", a tradition started in Albany, Western Australia on 25 April 1923 and now held at war memorials around the country, accompanied by thoughts of those lost at war to the ceremonial sounds of The Last Post on the bugle. The fourth stanza of Laurence Binyon's poem For the Fallen (known as the "Ode of Remembrance") is often recited. Queen's Birthday In all states and territories except Queensland and Western Australia, the Queen's Birthday is observed on the second Monday in June. Because Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the Governor of Western Australia proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show. There is no firm rule to determine this date before it is proclaimed, though it is typically the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October: in 2011 the Queen's Birthday holiday in Western Australia was moved from Monday, 3 October 2011 to Friday, 28 October 2011 to coincide with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), which was held in Perth. In parts of the Pilbara, it is celebrated on a different date from the rest of Western Australia, and it may even be celebrated on different dates in different parts of the Pilbara. In Queensland, it is celebrated on the 1st Monday in October. The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of King George III. Until 1936 it was held on the actual birthday of the Monarch, but after the death of King George V, it was decided to keep the date at mid-year. On that day the "Queen's Birthday honours list" is released naming new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours. This occurs on the date observed in the Eastern States, not the date observed in Western Australia. The Queen's Birthday weekend and Empire Day, 24 May, were long the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia. Although they still occur, the tradition has recently been overshadowed by larger New Year's Eve fireworks, as the sale of fireworks to the public was banned by the states in the 1980s, and in the ACT as of 24 August 2009. In the Northern Territory fireworks remain available to the public on 1 July for the celebration of Territory Day. Christmas Day Christmas is observed on 25 December each year to commemorate the birth of Jesus. In Australia, it was introduced with British settlement in 1788 as the cultural norms were transferred to the new colonies. Boxing Day Boxing Day is on the day after Christmas, i.e. 26 December each year, except in South Australia. In South Australia, the first otherwise working day after Christmas is a public holiday called Proclamation Day. Boxing Day is noted for the start of the post-Christmas sale season. The day has also become a significant sporting day. Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test match; the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race also starts on this day. Other holidays Sunday is nominally a public holiday in South Australia. Proclamation Day is in December in South Australia only. Canberra Day is held on the 2nd Monday in March in the ACT. Prior to 2008, this holiday was celebrated on the 3rd Monday of March. Melbourne Cup Day is held on the first Tuesday of November—the day of the Melbourne Cup. It was originally observed only in the Melbourne metropolitan area. From 2007 to 2009 in ACT, Melbourne Cup day was also a holiday called "Family and Community Day". The holiday continued from 2010 to 2017 but no longer coincided with Melbourne Cup day. In Victoria, the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic) was amended from 24 September 2008 and made the Melbourne Cup Day holiday applicable in all parts of the state (unless another day is observed in substitute). It also made the holiday applicable to employees covered by federal awards. Recreation Day is the first Monday of November, and celebrated in Northern Tasmania where Regatta Day is not a holiday. Regatta Day is the second Monday in February, and is celebrated in Southern Tasmania. Previously it was held on the second Tuesday in February. Geelong Cup Day is held on the fourth Wednesday of October in the city of Geelong, Victoria Queensland Day is celebrated on 6 June each year, but not with a public holiday. Adelaide Cup Day is held on the second Monday in March in South Australia (held in May before 2006) Western Australia Day in Western Australia on the first Monday in June. Picnic Day in the Northern Territory in August, and also May Day Tasmania has Easter Tuesday as a bank holiday (for bank and government employees only). New South Wales has the first Monday in August as a bank holiday (for bank employees only). Many cities and towns observe local public holidays for their local Agricultural Show. For example: Darwin Show Day in Darwin area in late July Royal Queensland Show Day in Brisbane area in August Gold Coast Show in Gold Coast area in October Territory Day celebrated in the Northern Territory on July 1 while not a designated public holiday, it remains the only Australian public celebration where the public may purchase fireworks for home detonation Public holidays by state Queensland The days are set in the Holidays Act 1983. Most public holidays include a second public holiday on a week-day if they happen to fall on Saturday or Sunday. In which case, both days are public holidays. New Year's Day: 1 January, and if 1 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday. Australia Day: 26 January, and if 26 January is a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday. Good Friday: on the date it is publicly observed, always a Friday. The day after Good Friday: Always a Saturday, one day after Good Friday. Easter Monday: The next Monday after Good Friday. ANZAC Day: 25 April, and if 25 April is a Sunday, 26 April. Labour Day ("May Day"): 1st Monday in May. Birthday of the Sovereign: 1st Monday in October. Christmas Day: 25 December. Boxing Day: 26 December. If Christmas Day (25 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 27 December is also a public holiday. If Boxing day (26 December) is a Saturday or Sunday, then 28 December is also a public holiday. Because of the variable days of Easter, Anzac day could fall on an Easter holiday. When ANZAC falls on Saturday, there is no week day public holiday. In such situations it is generally expected that the minister will proclaim extra public holidays on week-days to ensure every year has the same number of public holidays on week-days. The minister of the state may proclaim and adjustments or additions, such as the date of the Brisbane Ekka Show day holiday. This day has historically always been proclaimed for the second Wednesday in August, except if there are 5 Wednesday's in August, in which case the third Wednesday in August. New South Wales Public holidays generally follow the national pattern, but special cases are resolved by the State Government and advised by proclamation. Details of future holidays can be found on the NSW Industrial Relations website. Public holidays are regulated by the New South Wales Public Holidays Act 2010 No 115, which supersedes the Banks and Bank Holidays Act 1912 No 43. The first Monday in August is a Bank Holiday, during which banks and financial institutions are closed. Australian Capital Territory & Jervis Bay Territory Most New South Wales public holidays are public holidays in the Australian Capital Territory, with the addition of Canberra Day. South Australia Public holidays in South Australia are set out in the Holidays Act 1910, while additional holidays may be proclaimed in all or part of the State by the Governor. The Act defines public holidays and bank holidays, which are the same except where a holiday falls on a Saturday, in which case the public holiday is held on the following Monday and both the Saturday and Monday are bank holidays. Victoria Public holidays in Victoria are regulated by the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993. Victorian employees fall under the Workchoices system either as coming within the Commonwealth constitutional power (called "constitutional corporation employees") or because of Victoria's referral of its legislative powers to the Commonwealth for particular workplace relations matters. Employee entitlements to public holidays and additional pay depend on whether they are covered by a federal award or agreement. Employees not covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays under the Victorian Public Holidays Act 1993. Also, all permanent employees not covered by a federal award or agreement who would normally work on a public holiday (or a substitute public holiday) are entitled to the holiday without loss of pay. Their employers are not required to provide additional payment if they work on a public holiday, but this does not exclude the possibility of employees and employers negotiating for additional pay. Employees who are covered by a federal award or agreement are entitled to public holidays as provided by the relevant federal award or agreement and the Public Holidays Act 1993. Many federal awards and agreements also provide for additional penalty rates for work performed on a public holiday. Restricted shop trading laws apply to Good Friday, Christmas Day and before 1 pm on Anzac Day. On these days only exempted businesses are permitted to open for trading. All public holidays and substitute public holidays are bank holidays. In August 2015, the day before the AFL Grand Final, as well as Easter Sunday, were gazetted as Public Holidays within Victoria. This date of the holiday is as gazetted by the Victorian Government and cannot be accurately predicted. In 2019, the Victorian Parliament legislated the AFL Grand Final public holiday by amending the Public Holidays Act 1993 (Vic). The Victorian public holidays are as follows: * Melbourne Cup Day is observed in most of the state, but various cup days and show days in the state's west are locally substituted. See the list at Non-Metropolitan Public Holiday Dates (Victoria Online). Melbourne Show Day used to be observed on the Thursday in the last full week of September as a half-day public holiday—later changing to full day—until 1994 (abolished by the state government). Easter Tuesday was observed as a Bank Holiday in Victoria until 1994 (also abolished by the state government). Western Australia *If a Public Holiday falls on a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday is also observed as a Public Holiday #The Queens Birthday may be held of a different date in regional communities Penalty rates Penalty rates are the rates of pay which an employee is paid higher than their standard base rate for working at times or on days, such as public holidays, which are outside the normal working week. They were introduced in 1947 for workers working on the Sabbath, as most workers were Christian, while today, these rates of pay are set by the Fair Work Commission. See also Australian labour law Australian Pay and Classification Scales References Australia Holidays

Organ transplantation

eng_Latn

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transported from a donor site to another location. Organs and/or tissues that are transplanted within the same person's body are called autografts. Transplants that are recently performed between two subjects of the same species are called allografts. Allografts can either be from a living or cadaveric source. Organs that have been successfully transplanted include the heart, kidneys, liver, lungs, pancreas, intestine, thymus and uterus. Tissues include bones, tendons (both referred to as musculoskeletal grafts), corneae, skin, heart valves, nerves and veins. Worldwide, the kidneys are the most commonly transplanted organs, followed by the liver and then the heart. Corneae and musculoskeletal grafts are the most commonly transplanted tissues; these outnumber organ transplants by more than tenfold. Organ donors may be living, brain dead, or dead via circulatory death. Tissue may be recovered from donors who die of circulatory death, as well as of brain death – up to 24 hours past the cessation of heartbeat. Unlike organs, most tissues (with the exception of corneas) can be preserved and stored for up to five years, meaning they can be "banked". Transplantation raises a number of bioethical issues, including the definition of death, when and how consent should be given for an organ to be transplanted, and payment for organs for transplantation. Other ethical issues include transplantation tourism (medical tourism) and more broadly the socio-economic context in which organ procurement or transplantation may occur. A particular problem is organ trafficking. There is also the ethical issue of not holding out false hope to patients. Transplantation medicine is one of the most challenging and complex areas of modern medicine. Some of the key areas for medical management are the problems of transplant rejection, during which the body has an immune response to the transplanted organ, possibly leading to transplant failure and the need to immediately remove the organ from the recipient. When possible, transplant rejection can be reduced through serotyping to determine the most appropriate donor-recipient match and through the use of immunosuppressant drugs. Types of transplant Autograft Autografts are the transplant of tissue to the same person. Sometimes this is done with surplus tissue, tissue that can regenerate, or tissues more desperately needed elsewhere (examples include skin grafts, vein extraction for CABG, etc.). Sometimes an autograft is done to remove the tissue and then treat it or the person before returning it (examples include stem cell autograft and storing blood in advance of surgery). In a rotationplasty, a distal joint is used to replace a more proximal one; typically a foot or ankle joint is used to replace a knee joint. The person's foot is severed and reversed, the knee removed, and the tibia joined with the femur. Allograft and allotransplantation An allograft is a transplant of an organ or tissue between two genetically non-identical members of the same species. Most human tissue and organ transplants are allografts. Due to the genetic difference between the organ and the recipient, the recipient's immune system will identify the organ as foreign and attempt to destroy it, causing transplant rejection. The risk of transplant rejection can be estimated by measuring the Panel reactive antibody level. Isograft A subset of allografts in which organs or tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an immune response. Xenograft and xenotransplantation A transplant of organs or tissue from one species to another. An example is porcine heart valve transplant, which is quite common and successful. Another example is attempted piscine-primate (fish to non-human primate) transplant of islet (i.e. pancreatic or insular tissue) tissue. The latter research study was intended to pave the way for potential human use if successful. However, xenotransplantion is often an extremely dangerous type of transplant because of the increased risk of non-functional compatibility, rejection, and disease carried in the tissue. In an opposite twist, Ganogen Research Institute CEO Eugene Gu is studying how to transplant human fetal hearts and kidneys into animals for future transplantation into human patients to address the shortage of donor organs. Domino transplants In people with cystic fibrosis (CF), where both lungs need to be replaced, it is a technically easier operation with a higher rate of success to replace both the heart and lungs of the recipient with those of the donor. As the recipient's original heart is usually healthy, it can then be transplanted into a second recipient in need of a heart transplant, thus making the person with CF a living heart donor. In a 2016 case at Stanford Medical Center, a woman who was needing a heart-lung transplant had cystic fibrosis which had led to one lung expanding and the other shrinking thereby displacing her heart. The second patient who in turn received her heart was a woman with right ventricular dysplasia which had led to a dangerously abnormal rhythm. The dual operations actually required three surgical teams including one to remove the heart and lungs from a recently deceased initial donor. The two living recipients did well and in fact, had an opportunity to meet six weeks after their simultaneous operations. Another example of this situation occurs with a special form of liver transplant in which the recipient suffers from familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, a disease where the liver slowly produces a protein that damages other organs. The recipient's liver can then be transplanted into an older person for whom the effects of the disease will not necessarily contribute significantly to mortality. This term also refers to a series of living donor transplants in which one donor donates to the highest recipient on the waiting list and the transplant center utilizes that donation to facilitate multiple transplants. These other transplants are otherwise impossible due to blood type or antibody barriers to transplantation. The "Good Samaritan" kidney is transplanted into one of the other recipients, whose donor in turn donates his or her kidney to an unrelated recipient. Depending on the person on the waiting list, this has sometimes been repeated for up to six pairs, with the final donor donating to the person at the top of the list. This method allows all organ recipients to get a transplant even if their living donor is not a match to them. This further benefits people below any of these recipients on waiting lists, as they move closer to the top of the list for a deceased-donor organ. Johns Hopkins Medical Center in Baltimore and Northwestern University's Northwestern Memorial Hospital have received significant attention for pioneering transplants of this kind. In February 2012, the last link in a record 60-person domino chain of 30 kidney transplants was completed. ABO-incompatible transplants Because very young children (generally under 12 months, but often as old as 24 months) do not have a well-developed immune system, it is possible for them to receive organs from otherwise incompatible donors. This is known as ABO-incompatible (ABOi) transplantation. Graft survival and people's mortality is approximately the same between ABOi and ABO-compatible (ABOc) recipients. While focus has been on infant heart transplants, the principles generally apply to other forms of solid organ transplantation. The most important factors are that the recipient not have produced isohemagglutinins, and that they have low levels of T cell-independent antigens. United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) regulations allow for ABOi transplantation in children under two years of age if isohemagglutinin titers are 1:4 or below, and if there is no matching ABOc recipient. Studies have shown that the period under which a recipient may undergo ABOi transplantation may be prolonged by exposure to nonself A and B antigens. Furthermore, should the recipient (for example, type B-positive with a type AB-positive graft) require eventual retransplantation, the recipient may receive a new organ of either blood type. Limited success has been achieved in ABO-incompatible heart transplants in adults, though this requires that the adult recipients have low levels of anti-A or anti-B antibodies. Renal transplantation is more successful, with similar long-term graft survival rates to ABOc transplants. Transplantation in obese individuals Until recently, people labeled as obese were not considered appropriate candidate donors for renal transplantation. In 2009, the physicians at the University of Illinois Medical Center performed the first robotic renal transplantation in an obese recipient and have continued to transplant people with Body Mass Index (BMI)'s over 35 using robotic surgery. As of January 2014, over 100 people that would otherwise be turned down because of their weight have successfully been transplanted. Organs and tissues transplanted Chest Heart (deceased-donor only; porcine xenograft attempted) Lung (deceased-donor and living-related lung transplantation) Abdomen Kidney (deceased-donor and living-donor; porcine xenograft attempted) Liver (deceased-donor, which enables donation of a whole liver; and living-donor, where each donor can provide up to 70% of a liver) Pancreas (deceased-donor only; a very severe type of diabetes ensues if a live person's entire pancreas is removed) Intestine (deceased-donor and living-donor; normally refers to the small intestine) Stomach (deceased-donor only) Testis (deceased-donor and living-donor) Penis (deceased-donor only) Tissues, cells and fluids Hand (deceased-donor only), see the first recipient Clint Hallam Cornea (deceased-donor only) see the ophthalmologist Eduard Zirm Skin, including face replant (autograft) and face transplant (extremely rare) Islets of Langerhans (pancreas islet cells) (deceased-donor and living-donor) Bone marrow/Adult stem cell (living-donor and autograft) Blood transfusion/Blood Parts Transfusion (living-donor and autograft) Blood vessels (autograft and deceased-donor) Heart valve (deceased-donor, living-donor and xenograft [porcine/bovine]) Bone (deceased-donor and living-donor) Types of donor Organ donors may be living or may have died of brain death or circulatory death. Most deceased donors are those who have been pronounced brain dead. Brain dead means the cessation of brain function, typically after receiving an injury (either traumatic or pathological) to the brain, or otherwise cutting off blood circulation to the brain (drowning, suffocation, etc.). Breathing is maintained via artificial sources, which, in turn, maintains heartbeat. Once brain death has been declared the person can be considered for organ donation. Criteria for brain death vary. Because less than 3% of all deaths in the US are the result of brain death, the overwhelming majority of deaths are ineligible for organ donation, resulting in severe shortages. Organ donation is possible after cardiac death in some situations, primarily when the person is severely brain-injured and not expected to survive without artificial breathing and mechanical support. Independent of any decision to donate, a person's next-of-kin may decide to end artificial support. If the person is expected to expire within a short period of time after support is withdrawn, arrangements can be made to withdraw that support in an operating room to allow quick recovery of the organs after circulatory death has occurred. Tissue may be recovered from donors who die of either brain or circulatory death. In general, tissues may be recovered from donors up to 24 hours past the cessation of heartbeat. In contrast to organs, most tissues (with the exception of corneas) can be preserved and stored for up to five years, meaning they can be "banked." Also, more than 60 grafts may be obtained from a single tissue donor. Because of these three factorsthe ability to recover from a non-heart beating donor, the ability to bank tissue, and the number of grafts available from each donortissue transplants are much more common than organ transplants. The American Association of Tissue Banks estimates that more than one million tissue transplants take place in the United States each year. Living donor In living donors, the donor remains alive and donates a renewable tissue, cell, or fluid (e.g., blood, skin), or donates an organ or part of an organ in which the remaining organ can regenerate or take on the workload of the rest of the organ (primarily single kidney donation, partial donation of liver, lung lobe, small bowel). Regenerative medicine may one day allow for laboratory-grown organs, using person's own cells via stem cells, or healthy cells extracted from the failing organs. Deceased donor Deceased donors (formerly cadaveric) are people who have been declared brain-dead and whose organs are kept viable by ventilators or other mechanical mechanisms until they can be excised for transplantation. Apart from brain-stem dead donors, who have formed the majority of deceased donors for the last 20 years, there is increasing use of donation-after-circulatory-death-donors (formerly non-heart-beating donors) to increase the potential pool of donors as demand for transplants continues to grow. Prior to the recognition of brain death in the 1980s, all deceased organ donors had died of circulatory death. These organs have inferior outcomes to organs from a brain-dead donor. For instance, patients who underwent liver transplantation using donation-after-circulatory- death (DCD) allografts have been shown to have significantly lower graft survival than those from donation-after-brain-death (DBD) allografts due to biliary complications and primary nonfunction in liver transplantation (PNF). However, given the scarcity of suitable organs and the number of people who die waiting, any potentially suitable organ must be considered. Jurisdictions with medically-assisted suicide may co-ordinate organ donations from that source. In 2016, a woman who was born without a uterus had a uterus successfully transplanted from a deceased donor. The donated uterus successfully sustained a pregnancy. Allocation of organs In most countries there is a shortage of suitable organs for transplantation. Countries often have formal systems in place to manage the process of determining who is an organ donor and in what order organ recipients receive available organs. The overwhelming majority of deceased-donor organs in the United States are allocated by federal contract to the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN), held since it was created by the Organ Transplant Act of 1984 by the United Network for Organ Sharing or UNOS. (UNOS does not handle donor cornea tissue; corneal donor tissue is usually handled by various eye banks.) Individual regional organ procurement organizations (OPOs), all members of the OPTN, are responsible for the identification of suitable donors and collection of the donated organs. UNOS then allocates organs based on the method considered most fair by the scientific leadership in the field. The allocation methodology varies somewhat by organ, and changes periodically. For example, liver allocation is based partially on MELD score (Model of End-Stage Liver Disease), an empirical score based on lab values indicative of the sickness of the person from liver disease. In 1984, the National Organ Transplant Act (NOTA) was passed which gave way to the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network that maintains the organ registry and ensures equitable allocation of organs. The Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients was also established to conduct ongoing studies into the evaluation and clinical status of organ transplants. In 2000 the Children's Health Act passed and required NOTA to consider special issues around pediatric patients and organ allocation (Services). An example of "line jumping" occurred in 2003 at Duke University when doctors attempted to correct an initially incorrect transplant. An American teenager received a heart-lung donation with the wrong blood type for her. She then received a second transplant even though she was then in such poor physical shape that she normally would not be considered a good candidate for a transplant. In an April 2008 article in The Guardian, Steven Tsui, the head of the transplant team at Papworth Hospital in the UK, is quoted in raising the ethical issue of not holding out false hope. He stated, "Conventionally we would say if people's life expectancy was a year or less we would consider them a candidate for a heart transplant. But we also have to manage expectations. If we know that in an average year we will do 30 heart transplants, there is no point putting 60 people on our waiting list, because we know half of them will die and it's not right to give them false hope." Experiencing somewhat increased popularity, but still very rare, is directed or targeted donation, in which the family of a deceased donor (often honoring the wishes of the deceased) requests an organ be given to a specific person. If medically suitable, the allocation system is subverted, and the organ is given to that person. In the United States, there are various lengths of waiting times due to the different availabilities of organs in different UNOS regions. In other countries such as the UK, only medical factors and the position on the waiting list can affect who receives the organ. One of the more publicized cases of this type was the 1994 Chester and Patti Szuber transplant. This was the first time that a parent had received a heart donated by one of their own children. Although the decision to accept the heart from his recently killed child was not an easy decision, the Szuber family agreed that giving Patti's heart to her father would have been something that she would have wanted. Access to organ transplantation is one reason for the growth of medical tourism. Reasons for donation and ethical issues Living related donors Living related donors donate to family members or friends in whom they have an emotional investment. The risk of surgery is offset by the psychological benefit of not losing someone related to them, or not seeing them suffer the ill effects of waiting on a list. Paired exchange A "paired-exchange" is a technique of matching willing living donors to compatible recipients using serotyping. For example, a spouse may be willing to donate a kidney to their partner but cannot since there is not a biological match. The willing spouse's kidney is donated to a matching recipient who also has an incompatible but willing spouse. The second donor must match the first recipient to complete the pair exchange. Typically the surgeries are scheduled simultaneously in case one of the donors decides to back out and the couples are kept anonymous from each other until after the transplant. Paired exchange programs were popularized in the New England Journal of Medicine article "Ethics of a paired-kidney-exchange program" in 1997 by L.F. Ross. It was also proposed by Felix T. Rapport in 1986 as part of his initial proposals for live-donor transplants "The case for a living emotionally related international kidney donor exchange registry" in Transplant Proceedings. A paired exchange is the simplest case of a much larger exchange registry program where willing donors are matched with any number of compatible recipients. Transplant exchange programs have been suggested as early as 1970: "A cooperative kidney typing and exchange program." The first pair exchange transplant in the US was in 2001 at Johns Hopkins Hospital. The first complex multihospital kidney exchange involving 12 people was performed in February 2009 by The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Barnes-Jewish Hospital in St. Louis and Integris Baptist Medical Center in Oklahoma City. Another 12-person multihospital kidney exchange was performed four weeks later by Saint Barnabas Medical Center in Livingston, New Jersey, Newark Beth Israel Medical Center and New York-Presbyterian Hospital. Surgical teams led by Johns Hopkins continue to pioneer in this field by having more complex chain of exchange such as eight-way multihospital kidney exchange. In December 2009, a 13 organ 13 recipient matched kidney exchange took place, coordinated through Georgetown University Hospital and Washington Hospital Center, Washington DC. Paired-donor exchange, led by work in the New England Program for Kidney Exchange as well as at Johns Hopkins University and the Ohio OPOs may more efficiently allocate organs and lead to more transplants. Good Samaritan Good Samaritan or "altruistic" donation is giving a donation to someone that has no prior affiliation with the donor. The idea of altruistic donation is to give with no interest of personal gain, it is out of pure selflessness. On the other hand, the current allocation system doesn't assess a donor's motive, so altruistic donation isn't a requirement. Some people choose to do this out of a personal need to donate. Some donate to the next person on the list; others use some method of choosing a recipient based on criteria important to them. Web sites are being developed that facilitate such donation. It has been featured in recent television journalism that over half of the members of the Jesus Christians, an Australian religious group, have donated kidneys in such a fashion. Financial compensation Monetary compensation for organ donors, in the form of reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses, has been legalised in Australia, and strictly only in the case of kidney transplant in the case of Singapore (minimal reimbursement is offered in the case of other forms of organ harvesting by Singapore). Kidney disease organizations in both countries have expressed their support. In compensated donation, donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs. This practice is common in some parts of the world, whether legal or not, and is one of the many factors driving medical tourism. In the illegal black market the donors may not get sufficient after-operation care, the price of a kidney may be above $160,000, middlemen take most of the money, the operation is more dangerous to both the donor and receiver, and the receiver often gets hepatitis or HIV. In legal markets of Iran the price of a kidney is $2,000 to $4,000. An article by Gary Becker and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations" said that a free market could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modeling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000). In the United States, The National Organ Transplant Act of 1984 made organ sales illegal. In the United Kingdom, the Human Organ Transplants Act 1989 first made organ sales illegal, and has been superseded by the Human Tissue Act 2004. In 2007, two major European conferences recommended against the sale of organs. Recent development of web sites and personal advertisements for organs among listed candidates has raised the stakes when it comes to the selling of organs, and have also sparked significant ethical debates over directed donation, "good-Samaritan" donation, and the current US organ allocation policy. Bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that organ solicitation on billboards and the internet may actually increase the overall supply of organs. In an experimental survey, Elias, Lacetera and Macis (2019) find that preferences for compensation for kidney donors have strong moral foundations; participants in the experiment especially reject direct payments by patients, which they find would violate principles of fairness. Many countries have different approaches to organ donation such as: the opt-out approach and many advertisements of organ donors, encouraging people to donate. Although these laws have been implemented into a certain country they are not forced upon very one as it is an individual decision. Two books, Kidney for Sale By Owner by Mark Cherry (Georgetown University Press, 2005); and Stakes and Kidneys: Why markets in human body parts are morally imperative by James Stacey Taylor: (Ashgate Press, 2005); advocate using markets to increase the supply of organs available for transplantation. In a 2004 journal article economist Alex Tabarrok argues that allowing organ sales, and elimination of organ donor lists will increase supply, lower costs and diminish social anxiety towards organ markets. Iran has had a legal market for kidneys since 1988. The donor is paid approximately US$1200 by the government and also usually receives additional funds from either the recipient or local charities. The Economist and the Ayn Rand Institute approve and advocate a legal market elsewhere. They argued that if 0.06% of Americans between 19 and 65 were to sell one kidney, the national waiting list would disappear (which, the Economist wrote, happened in Iran). The Economist argued that donating kidneys is no more risky than surrogate motherhood, which can be done legally for pay in most countries. In Pakistan, 40 percent to 50 percent of the residents of some villages have only one kidney because they have sold the other for a transplant into a wealthy person, probably from another country, said Dr. Farhat Moazam of Pakistan, at a World Health Organization conference. Pakistani donors are offered $2,500 for a kidney but receive only about half of that because middlemen take so much. In Chennai, southern India, poor fishermen and their families sold kidneys after their livelihoods were destroyed by the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. About 100 people, mostly women, sold their kidneys for 40,000–60,000 rupees ($900–1,350). Thilakavathy Agatheesh, 30, who sold a kidney in May 2005 for 40,000 rupees said, "I used to earn some money selling fish but now the post-surgery stomach cramps prevent me from going to work." Most kidney sellers say that selling their kidney was a mistake. In Cyprus in 2010 police closed a fertility clinic under charges of trafficking in human eggs. The Petra Clinic, as it was known locally, imported women from Ukraine and Russia for egg harvesting and sold the genetic material to foreign fertility tourists. This sort of reproductive trafficking violates laws in the European Union. In 2010 Scott Carney reported for the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting and the magazine Fast Company explored illicit fertility networks in Spain, the United States and Israel. Forced donation There have been concerns that certain authorities are harvesting organs from people deemed undesirable, such as prison populations. The World Medical Association stated that prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely, and therefore their organs must not be used for transplantation. According to former Chinese Deputy Minister of Health, Huang Jiefu, the practice of transplanting organs from executed prisoners is still occurring . World Journal reported Huang had admitted approximately 95% of all organs used for transplantation are from executed prisoners. The lack of a public organ donation program in China is used as a justification for this practice. In July 2006, the Kilgour-Matas report stated, "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six-year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and "we believe that there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners". Investigative journalist Ethan Gutmann estimates 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008. However 2016 reports updated the death toll of the 15-year period since the persecution of Falun Gong began putting the death toll at 150 thousand to 1.5 million. In December 2006, after not getting assurances from the Chinese government about allegations relating to Chinese prisoners, the two major organ transplant hospitals in Queensland, Australia stopped transplant training for Chinese surgeons and banned joint research programs into organ transplantation with China. In May 2008, two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for "the Chinese government to fully explain the allegation of taking vital organs from Falun Gong practitioners and the source of organs for the sudden increase in organ transplants that has been going on in China since the year 2000". People in other parts of the world are responding to this availability of organs, and a number of individuals (including US and Japanese citizens) have elected to travel to China or India as medical tourists to receive organ transplants which may have been sourced in what might be considered elsewhere to be unethical manner. Proliferation Some estimates of the number of transplants performed in various regions of the world have been derived from the Global Burden of Disease Study. According to the Council of Europe, Spain through the Spanish Transplant Organization shows the highest worldwide rate of 35.1 donors per million population in 2005 and 33.8 in 2006. In 2011, it was 35.3. In addition to the citizens waiting for organ transplants in the US and other developed nations, there are long waiting lists in the rest of the world. More than 2 million people need organ transplants in China, 50,000 waiting in Latin America (90% of which are waiting for kidneys), as well as thousands more in the less documented continent of Africa. Donor bases vary in developing nations. In Latin America the donor rate is 40–100 per million per year, similar to that of developed countries. However, in Uruguay, Cuba, and Chile, 90% of organ transplants came from cadaveric donors. Cadaveric donors represent 35% of donors in Saudi Arabia. There is continuous effort to increase the utilization of cadaveric donors in Asia, however the popularity of living, single kidney donors in India yields India a cadaveric donor prevalence of less than 1 pmp. Traditionally, Muslims believe body desecration in life or death to be forbidden, and thus many reject organ transplant. However most Muslim authorities nowadays accept the practice if another life will be saved. As an example, it may be assumed in countries such as Singapore with a cosmopolitan populace that includes Muslims, a special Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura governing body is formed to look after the interests of Singapore's Muslim community over issues that includes their burial arrangements. Organ transplantation in Singapore being thus optional for Muslims, is generally overseen by the National Organ Transplant Unit of the Ministry of Health (Singapore). Due to a diversity in mindsets and religious viewpoints, while Muslims on this island are generally not expected to donate their organs even upon death, youths in Singapore are educated on the Human Organ Transplant Act at the age of 18 which is around the age of military conscription. The Organ Donor Registry maintains two types of information, firstly people of Singapore that donate their organs or bodies for transplantation, research or education upon their death, under the Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act (MTERA), and secondly people that object to the removal of kidneys, liver, heart and corneas upon death for the purpose of transplantation, under the Human Organ Transplant Act (HOTA). The Live on social awareness movement is also formed to educate Singaporeans on organ donation. Organ transplantation in China has taken place since the 1960s, and China has one of the largest transplant programmes in the world, peaking at over 13,000 transplants a year by 2004. Organ donation, however, is against Chinese tradition and culture, and involuntary organ donation is illegal under Chinese law. China's transplant programme attracted the attention of international news media in the 1990s due to ethical concerns about the organs and tissue removed from the corpses of executed criminals being commercially traded for transplants. In 2006 it became clear that about 41,500 organs had been sourced from Falun Gong practitioners in China since 2000. With regard to organ transplantation in Israel, there is a severe organ shortage due to religious objections by some rabbis who oppose all organ donations and others who advocate that a rabbi participates in all decision making regarding a particular donor. One-third of all heart transplants performed on Israelis are done in the People's Republic of China; others are done in Europe. Dr. Jacob Lavee, head of the heart-transplant unit, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv, believes that "transplant tourism" is unethical and Israeli insurers should not pay for it. The organization HODS (Halachic Organ Donor Society) is working to increase knowledge and participation in organ donation among Jews throughout the world. Transplantation rates also differ based on race, sex, and income. A study done with people beginning long term dialysis showed that the sociodemographic barriers to renal transplantation present themselves even before patients are on the transplant list. For example, different groups express definite interest and complete pretransplant workup at different rates. Previous efforts to create fair transplantation policies had focused on people currently on the transplantation waiting list. In the United States, nearly 35,000 organ transplants were done in 2017, a 3.4 percent increase over 2016. About 18 percent of these were from living donors – people who gave one kidney or a part of their liver to someone else. But 115,000 Americans remain on waiting lists for organ transplants. History Successful human allotransplants have a relatively long history of operative skills that were present long before the necessities for post-operative survival were discovered. Rejection and the side effects of preventing rejection (especially infection and nephropathy) were, are, and may always be the key problem. Several apocryphal accounts of transplants exist well prior to the scientific understanding and advancements that would be necessary for them to have actually occurred. The Chinese physician Pien Chi'ao reportedly exchanged hearts between a man of strong spirit but weak will with one of a man of weak spirit but strong will in an attempt to achieve balance in each man. Roman Catholic accounts report the 3rd-century saints Damian and Cosmas as replacing the gangrenous or cancerous leg of the Roman deacon Justinian with the leg of a recently deceased Ethiopian. Most accounts have the saints performing the transplant in the 4th century, many decades after their deaths; some accounts have them only instructing living surgeons who performed the procedure. The more likely accounts of early transplants deal with skin transplantation. The first reasonable account is of the Indian surgeon Sushruta in the 2nd century BC, who used autografted skin transplantation in nose reconstruction, a rhinoplasty. Success or failure of these procedures is not well documented. Centuries later, the Italian surgeon Gasparo Tagliacozzi performed successful skin autografts; he also failed consistently with allografts, offering the first suggestion of rejection centuries before that mechanism could possibly be understood. He attributed it to the "force and power of individuality" in his 1596 work De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem. The first successful corneal allograft transplant was performed in 1837 in a gazelle model; the first successful human corneal transplant, a keratoplastic operation, was performed by Eduard Zirm at Olomouc Eye Clinic, now Czech Republic, in 1905. The first transplant in the modern sense – the implantation of organ tissue in order to replace an organ function – was a thyroid transplant in 1883. It was performed by the Swiss surgeon and later Nobel laureate Theodor Kocher. In the preceding decades Kocher had perfected the removal of excess thyroid tissue in cases of goiter to an extent that he was able to remove the whole organ without the person dying from the operation. Kocher carried out the total removal of the organ in some cases as a measure to prevent recurrent goiter. By 1883, the surgeon noticed that the complete removal of the organ leads to a complex of particular symptoms that we today have learned to associate with a lack of thyroid hormone. Kocher reversed these symptoms by implanting thyroid tissue to these people and thus performed the first organ transplant. In the following years Kocher and other surgeons used thyroid transplantation also to treat thyroid deficiency that appeared spontaneously, without a preceding organ removal. Thyroid transplantation became the model for a whole new therapeutic strategy: organ transplantation. After the example of the thyroid, other organs were transplanted in the decades around 1900. Some of these transplants were done in animals for purposes of research, where organ removal and transplantation became a successful strategy of investigating the function of organs. Kocher was awarded his Nobel Prize in 1909 for the discovery of the function of the thyroid gland. At the same time, organs were also transplanted for treating diseases in humans. The thyroid gland became the model for transplants of adrenal and parathyroid glands, pancreas, ovary, testicles and kidney. By 1900, the idea that one can successfully treat internal diseases by replacing a failed organ through transplantation had been generally accepted. Pioneering work in the surgical technique of transplantation was made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel, with Charles Guthrie, with the transplantation of arteries or veins. Their skillful anastomosis operations and the new suturing techniques laid the groundwork for later transplant surgery and won Carrel the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. From 1902, Carrel performed transplant experiments on dogs. Surgically successful in moving kidneys, hearts, and spleens, he was one of the first to identify the problem of rejection, which remained insurmountable for decades. The discovery of transplant immunity by the German surgeon Georg Schöne, various strategies of matching donor and recipient, and the use of different agents for immune suppression did not result in substantial improvement so that organ transplantation was largely abandoned after WWI. In 1954, the first ever successful transplant of any organ was done at the Brigham & Women's Hospital in Boston, Ma. The surgery was done by Dr. Joseph Murray, who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work. The reason for his success was due to Richard and Ronald Herrick of Maine. Richard Herrick was a in the Navy and became severely ill with acute renal failure. His brother Ronald donated his kidney to Richard, and Richard lived another 8 years before his death. Before this, transplant recipients didn't survive more than 30 days. The key to the successful transplant was the fact that Richard and Ronald were identical twin brothers and there was no need for anti-rejection medications, which was not known about at this point. This was the most pivotal moment in transplant surgery because now transplant teams knew that it could be successful and the role of rejection/anti-rejection medicine. Major steps in skin transplantation occurred during the First World War, notably in the work of Harold Gillies at Aldershot. Among his advances was the tubed pedicle graft, which maintained a flesh connection from the donor site until the graft established its own blood flow. Gillies' assistant, Archibald McIndoe, carried on the work into the Second World War as reconstructive surgery. In 1962, the first successful replantation surgery was performed – re-attaching a severed limb and restoring (limited) function and feeling. Transplant of a single gonad (testis) from a living donor was carried out in early July 1926 in Zaječar, Serbia, by a Russian émigré surgeon Dr. Peter Vasil'evič Kolesnikov. The donor was a convicted murderer, one Ilija Krajan, whose death sentence was commuted to 20 years imprisonment, and he was led to believe that it was done because he had donated his testis to an elderly medical doctor. Both the donor and the receiver survived, but charges were brought in a court of law by the public prosecutor against Dr. Kolesnikov, not for performing the operation, but for lying to the donor. The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the Ukrainian surgeon Yurii Voronoy in the 1930s; but failed due to Ischemia. Joseph Murray and J. Hartwell Harrison performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical twins, in 1954, because no immunosuppression was necessary for genetically identical individuals. In the late 1940s Peter Medawar, working for the National Institute for Medical Research, improved the understanding of rejection. Identifying the immune reactions in 1951, Medawar suggested that immunosuppressive drugs could be used. Cortisone had been recently discovered and the more effective azathioprine was identified in 1959, but it was not until the discovery of cyclosporine in 1970 that transplant surgery found a sufficiently powerful immunosuppressive. There was a successful deceased-donor lung transplant into an emphysema and lung cancer sufferer in June 1963 by James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi. The patient John Russell survived for eighteen days before dying of kidney failure. Thomas Starzl of Denver attempted a liver transplant in the same year, but he was not successful until 1967. In the early 1960s and prior to long-term dialysis becoming available, Keith Reemtsma and his colleagues at Tulane University in New Orleans attempted transplants of chimpanzee kidneys into 13 human patients. Most of these patients only lived one to two months. However, in 1964, a 23-year-old woman lived for nine months and even returned to her job as a school teacher until she suddenly collapsed and died. It was assumed that she died from an acute electrolyte disturbance. At autopsy, the kidneys had not been rejected nor was there any other obvious cause of death. One source states this patient died from pneumonia. Tom Starzl and his team in Colorado used baboon kidneys with six human patients who lived one or two months, but with no longer term survivors. Others in the United States and France had limited experiences. The heart was a major prize for transplant surgeons. But over and above rejection issues, the heart deteriorates within minutes of death, so any operation would have to be performed at great speed. The development of the heart-lung machine was also needed. Lung pioneer James Hardy was prepared to attempt a human heart transplant in 1964, but when a premature failure of comatose Boyd Rush's heart caught Hardy with no human donor, he used a chimpanzee heart, which beat in his patient's chest for approximately one hour and then failed. The first partial success was achieved on 3 December 1967, when Christiaan Barnard of Cape Town, South Africa, performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant with patient Louis Washkansky as the recipient. Washkansky survived for eighteen days amid what many saw as a distasteful publicity circus. The media interest prompted a spate of heart transplants. Over a hundred were performed in 1968–1969, but almost all the people died within 60 days. Barnard's second patient, Philip Blaiberg, lived for 19 months. It was the advent of cyclosporine that altered transplants from research surgery to life-saving treatment. In 1968 surgical pioneer Denton Cooley performed 17 transplants, including the first heart-lung transplant. Fourteen of his patients were dead within six months. By 1984 two-thirds of all heart transplant patients survived for five years or more. With organ transplants becoming commonplace, limited only by donors, surgeons moved on to riskier fields, including multiple-organ transplants on humans and whole-body transplant research on animals. On 9 March 1981, the first successful heart-lung transplant took place at Stanford University Hospital. The head surgeon, Bruce Reitz, credited the patient's recovery to cyclosporine. As the rising success rate of transplants and modern immunosuppression make transplants more common, the need for more organs has become critical. Transplants from living donors, especially relatives, have become increasingly common. Additionally, there is substantive research into xenotransplantation, or transgenic organs; although these forms of transplant are not yet being used in humans, clinical trials involving the use of specific cell types have been conducted with promising results, such as using porcine islets of Langerhans to treat type 1 diabetes. However, there are still many problems that would need to be solved before they would be feasible options in people requiring transplants. Recently, researchers have been looking into means of reducing the general burden of immunosuppression. Common approaches include avoidance of steroids, reduced exposure to calcineurin inhibitors, and other means of weaning drugs based on patient outcome and function. While short-term outcomes appear promising, long-term outcomes are still unknown, and in general, reduced immunosuppression increases the risk of rejection and decreases the risk of infection. The risk of early rejection is increased if corticosteroid immunosuppression are avoided or withdrawn after renal transplantation. Many other new drugs are under development for transplantation. The emerging field of regenerative medicine promises to solve the problem of organ transplant rejection by regrowing organs in the lab, using person's own cells (stem cells or healthy cells extracted from the donor site). Timeline of transplants 1869: First skin autograft-transplantation by Carl Bunger, who documented the first modern successful skin graft on a person. Bunger repaired a person's nose destroyed by syphilis by grafting flesh from the inner thigh to the nose, in a method reminiscent of the Sushrutha. 1905: First successful cornea transplant by Eduard Zirm (Czech Republic) 1908: First skin allograft-transplantation of skin from a donor to a recipient (Switzerland) 1931: First uterus transplantation (Lili Elbe). 1950: First successful kidney transplant by Dr. Richard H. Lawler (Chicago, US) 1954: First living related kidney transplant (identical twins) (US) 1954: Brazil's first successful corneal transplant, the first liver (Brazil) 1955: First heart valve allograft into descending aorta (Canada) 1963: First successful lung transplant by James D. Hardy with patient living 18 days (US) 1964: James D. Hardy attempts heart transplant using chimpanzee heart (US) 1964: Human patient lived nine months with chimpanzee kidneys, twelve other human patients only lived one to two months, Keith Reemtsma and team (New Orleans, US) 1965: Australia's first successful (living) kidney transplant (Queen Elizabeth Hospital, SA, Australia) 1966: First successful pancreas transplant by Richard C. Lillehei and William Kelly (Minnesota, US) 1967: First successful liver transplant by Thomas Starzl (Denver, US) 1967: First successful heart transplant by Christian Barnard (Cape Town, South Africa) 1981: First successful heart/lung transplant by Bruce Reitz (Stanford, US) 1983: First successful lung lobe transplant by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada) 1984: First successful double organ transplant by Thomas Starzl and Henry T. Bahnson (Pittsburgh, US) 1986: First successful double-lung transplant (Ann Harrison) by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada) 1990: First successful adult segmental living-related liver transplant by Mehmet Haberal (Ankara, Turkey) 1992: First successful combined liver-kidney transplantation from a living-related donor by Mehmet Haberal (Ankara, Turkey) 1995: First successful laparoscopic live-donor nephrectomy by Lloyd Ratner and Louis Kavoussi (Baltimore, US) 1997: First successful allogeneic vascularized transplantation of a fresh and perfused human knee joint by Gunther O. Hofmann 1997: Illinois' first living donor kidney-pancreas transplant and first robotic living donor pancreatectomy in the US. University of Illinois Medical Center 1998: First successful live-donor partial pancreas transplant by David Sutherland (Minnesota, US) 1998: First successful hand transplant by Dr. Jean-Michel Dubernard (Lyon, France) 1998: United States' first adult-to-adult living donor liver transplant University of Illinois Medical Center 1999: First successful tissue engineered bladder transplanted by Anthony Atala (Boston Children's Hospital, US) 2000: First robotic donor nephrectomy for a living-donor kidney transplant in the world University of Illinois Medical Center 2004: First liver and small bowel transplants from same living donor into same recipient in the world University of Illinois Medical Center 2005: First successful ovarian transplant by Dr. P. N. Mhatre (Wadia Hospital, Mumbai, India) 2005: First successful partial face transplant (France) 2005: First robotic hepatectomy in the United States University of Illinois Medical Center 2006: Illinois' first paired donation for ABO incompatible kidney transplant University of Illinois Medical Center 2006: First jaw transplant to combine donor jaw with bone marrow from the patient, by Eric M. Genden (Mount Sinai Hospital, New York City, US) 2006: First successful human penis transplant (later reversed after 15 days due to 44-year-old recipient's wife's psychological rejection) (Guangzhou, China) 2008: First successful complete full double arm transplant by Edgar Biemer, Christoph Höhnke and Manfred Stangl (Technical University of Munich, Germany) 2008: First baby born from transplanted ovary. The transplant was carried out by Dr Sherman Silber at the Infertility Centre of St Louis in Missouri. The donor is her twin sister. 2008: First transplant of a human windpipe using a patient's own stem cells, by Paolo Macchiarini (Barcelona, Spain) 2008: First successful transplantation of near total area (80%) of face, (including palate, nose, cheeks, and eyelid) by Maria Siemionow (Cleveland Clinic, US) 2009: Worlds' first robotic kidney transplant in an obese patient University of Illinois Medical Center 2010: First full facial transplant by Dr. Joan Pere Barret and team (Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron on 26 July 2010, in Barcelona, Spain) 2011: First double leg transplant by Dr. Cavadas and team (Valencia's Hospital, La Fe, Spain) 2012: First simultaneous robotic bariatric surgery (sleeve gastrectomy) and kidney transplantation (university of Illinois at Chicago). (1). (2) 2012: First Robotic Alloparathyroid transplant. University of Illinois Chicago 2013: First successful entire face transplantation as an urgent life-saving surgery at Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology branch in Gliwice, Poland. 2014: First successful uterine transplant resulting in live birth (Sweden) 2014: First successful penis transplant. (South Africa) 2014: First neonatal organ transplant. (UK) 2018: Skin gun invented, which takes a small amount of healthy skin to be grown in a lab, then is sprayed onto burnt skin. This way skin will heal in days instead of months and will not scar. 2019: First drone delivery of a donated kidney, that was then successfully transplanted into a patient. (US) 2021: First transplant of both arms and shoulders performed on an Icelandic patient at the Édouard Herriot Hospital. (FR) 2022: First successful heart transplant from a pig to a human patient. (US) Society and culture Success rates Since 2000, there have been approximately 2,200 lung transplants performed each year worldwide. From 2000 to 2006, the median survival period for lung transplant patients has been 5-and-a-half years, meaning half the patients survived for a shorter time period and half survived for a longer period. Comparative costs One of the driving forces for illegal organ trafficking and for "transplantation tourism" is the price differences for organs and transplant surgeries in different areas of the world. According to the New England Journal of Medicine, a human kidney can be purchased in Manila for $1000–2000, but in urban Latin America a kidney may cost more than $10,000. Kidneys in South Africa have sold for as high as $20,000. Price disparities based on donor race are a driving force of attractive organ sales in South Africa, as well as in other parts of the world. In China, a kidney transplant operation runs for around $70,000, liver for $160,000, and heart for $120,000. Although these prices are still unattainable to the poor, compared to the fees of the United States, where a kidney transplant may demand $100,000, a liver $250,000, and a heart $860,000, Chinese prices have made China a major provider of organs and transplantation surgeries to other countries. In India, a kidney transplant operation runs for around as low as $5,000. Safety In the United States of America, tissue transplants are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which sets strict regulations on the safety of the transplants, primarily aimed at the prevention of the spread of communicable disease. Regulations include criteria for donor screening and testing as well as strict regulations on the processing and distribution of tissue grafts. Organ transplants are not regulated by the FDA. It is essential that the HLA complexes of both the donor and recipient be as closely matched as possible to prevent graft rejection. In November 2007, the CDC reported the first-ever case of HIV and Hepatitis C being simultaneously transferred through an organ transplant. The donor was a 38-year-old male, considered "high-risk" by donation organizations, and his organs transmitted HIV and Hepatitis C to four organ recipients. Experts say that the reason the diseases did not show up on screening tests is probably because they were contracted within three weeks before the donor's death, so antibodies would not have existed in high enough numbers to detect. The crisis has caused many to call for more sensitive screening tests, which could pick up antibodies sooner. Currently, the screens cannot pick up on the small number of antibodies produced in HIV infections within the last 90 days or Hepatitis C infections within the last 18–21 days before a donation is made. NAT (nucleic acid testing) is now being done by many organ procurement organizations and is able to detect HIV and Hepatitis C directly within seven to ten days of exposure to the virus. Transplant laws Both developing and developed countries have forged various policies to try to increase the safety and availability of organ transplants to their citizens. However, whilst potential recipients in developing countries may mirror their more developed counterparts in desperation, potential donors in developing countries do not. The Indian government has had difficulty tracking the flourishing organ black market in their country, but in recent times it has amended its organ transplant law to make punishment more stringent for commercial dealings in organs. It has also included new clauses in the law to support deceased organ donation, such as making it mandatory to request for organ donation in case of brain death. Other countries victimized by illegal organ trade have also implemented legislative reactions. Moldova has made international adoption illegal in fear of organ traffickers. China has made selling of organs illegal as of July 2006 and claims that all prisoner organ donors have filed consent. However, doctors in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, have accused China of abusing its high capital punishment rate. Despite these efforts, illegal organ trafficking continues to thrive and can be attributed to corruption in healthcare systems, which has been traced as high up as the doctors themselves in China and Ukraine, and the blind eye economically strained governments and health care programs must sometimes turn to organ trafficking. Some organs are also shipped to Uganda and the Netherlands. This was a main product in the triangular trade in 1934. Starting on 1 May 2007, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions in China. Only a few certified hospitals will be allowed to perform organ transplants in order to curb illegal transplants. Harvesting organs without donor's consent was also deemed a crime. On 27 June 2008, Indonesian, Sulaiman Damanik, 26, pleaded guilty in Singapore court for sale of his kidney to CK Tang's executive chair, Tang Wee Sung, 55, for 150 million rupiah (S$22,200). The Transplant Ethics Committee must approve living donor kidney transplants. Organ trading is banned in Singapore and in many other countries to prevent the exploitation of "poor and socially disadvantaged donors who are unable to make informed choices and suffer potential medical risks." Toni, 27, the other accused, donated a kidney to an Indonesian patient in March, alleging he was the patient's adopted son, and was paid 186 million rupiah (US$20,200). Upon sentence, both would suffer each, 12 months in jail or 10,000 Singapore dollars (US$7,600) fine. In an article appearing in the April 2004 issue of Econ Journal Watch, economist Alex Tabarrok examined the impact of direct consent laws on transplant organ availability. Tabarrok found that social pressures resisting the use of transplant organs decreased over time as the opportunity of individual decisions increased. Tabarrok concluded his study suggesting that gradual elimination of organ donation restrictions and move to a free market in organ sales will increase supply of organs and encourage broader social acceptance of organ donation as a practice. In the United States 24 states have no law preventing discrimination against potential organ recipients based on cognitive ability, including children. A 2008 study found that of the transplant centers surveyed in those states 85 percent considered disability when deciding transplant list and forty four percent would deny an organ transplant to a child with a neurodevelopmental disability. Ethical concerns The existence and distribution of organ transplantation procedures in developing countries, while almost always beneficial to those receiving them, raise many ethical concerns. Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to transplant are major ethical issues to consider, as well as the notion of distributive justice. The World Health Organization argues that transplantations promote health, but the notion of "transplantation tourism" has the potential to violate human rights or exploit the poor, to have unintended health consequences, and to provide unequal access to services, all of which ultimately may cause harm. Regardless of the "gift of life", in the context of developing countries, this might be coercive. The practice of coercion could be considered exploitative of the poor population, violating basic human rights according to Articles 3 and 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. There is also a powerful opposing view, that trade in organs, if properly and effectively regulated to ensure that the seller is fully informed of all the consequences of donation, is a mutually beneficial transaction between two consenting adults, and that prohibiting it would itself be a violation of Articles 3 and 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Even within developed countries there is concern that enthusiasm for increasing the supply of organs may trample on respect for the right to life. The question is made even more complicated by the fact that the "irreversibility" criterion for legal death cannot be adequately defined and can easily change with changing technology. Artificial organ transplantation Surgeons, notably Paolo Macchiarini, in Sweden performed the first implantation of a synthetic trachea in July 2011, for a 36-year-old patient who was suffering from cancer. Stem cells taken from the patient's hip were treated with growth factors and incubated on a plastic replica of his natural trachea. According to information uncovered by the Swedish documentary "Dokument Inifrån: Experimenten" (Swedish: "Documents from the Inside: The Experiments") the patient, Andemariam went on to suffer an increasingly terrible and eventually bloody cough to dying, incubated, in the hospital. At that point, determined by autopsy, 90% of the synthetic windpipe had come loose. He allegedly made several trips to see Macchiarini for his complications, and at one point had surgery again to have his synthetic windpipe replaced, but Macchiarini was notoriously difficult to get an appointment with. According to the autopsy, the old synthetic windpipe did not appear to have been replaced. Macchiarini's academic credentials have been called into question and he has recently been accused of alleged research misconduct. Left-Ventricular Assist Devices (LVADs) as often used as a "bridge" to provide additional time while a patient waits for a transplant. For example, former US vice-president Dick Cheney had a LVAD implanted in 2010 and then twenty months later received a heart transplant in 2012. In year 2012, about 3,000 ventricular assist devices were inserted in the United States, as compared to approximately 2,500 heart transplants. The use of airbags in cars as well as greater use of helmets by bicyclists and skiers has reduced the number of persons with fatal head injuries, which is a common source of donors hearts. Research An early-stage medical laboratory and research company, called Organovo, designs and develops functional, three dimensional human tissue for medical research and therapeutic applications. The company utilizes its NovoGen MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting. Organovo anticipates that the bioprinting of human tissues will accelerate the preclinical drug testing and discovery process, enabling treatments to be created more quickly and at lower cost. Additionally, Organovo has long-term expectations that this technology could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation. A further area of active research is concerned with improving and assessing organs during their preservation. Various techniques have emerged which show great promise, most of which involve perfusing the organ under either hypothermic (4-10C) or normothermic (37C) conditions. All of these add additional cost and logistical complexity to the organ retrieval, preservation and transplant process, but early results suggest it may well be worth it. Hypothermic perfusion is in clinical use for transplantation of kidneys and liver whilst normothermic perfusion has been used effectively in the heart, lung, liver and, less so, in the kidney. Another area of research being explored is the use of genetically engineered animals for transplants. Similar to human organ donors, scientists have developed a genetically engineered pig with the aim of reducing rejection to pig organs by human patients. This is currently at the basic research stage, but shows great promise in alleviating the long waiting lists for organ transplants and the number of people in need of transplants outweighs the amount of organs donated. Trials are being done to prevent the pig organ transplant to enter a clinical trial phase until the potential disease transfer from pigs to humans can be safely and satisfactorily managed (Isola & Gordon, 1991). See also Artificial organ Beating heart cadaver Blood transfusion Laboratory-grown organ Organ donation Regenerative medicine Transplant rejection Xenotransplantation References Isola, L. M., & Gordon, J. W. (1991). Transgenic animals: a new era in developmental biology and medicine. Biotechnology (Reading, Mass.), 16, 3–20. Further reading External links Organ Transplant survival rates from the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients The Gift of a Lifetime – Online Educational Documentary "Overcoming the Rejection Factor: MUSC's First Organ Transplant" online exhibit at Waring Historical Library

Mont Blanc Tunnel

eng_Latn

The Mont Blanc Tunnel is a highway tunnel between France and Italy, under the Mont Blanc mountain in the Alps. It links Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, France with Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, Italy, via the French Route Nationale 205 and the Italian Traforo T1 (forming the European route E25), in particular the motorways serving Geneva (A40 of France) and Turin (A5 of Italy). The passageway is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes, particularly for Italy, which relies on this tunnel for transporting as much as one-third of its freight to northern Europe. It reduces the route from France to Turin by and to Milan by . Northeast of Mont Blanc's summit, the tunnel is about southwest of the tripoint with Switzerland, near Mont Dolent. The agreement between France and Italy on building a tunnel was signed in 1949. Two operating companies were founded, each responsible for one half of the tunnel: the French Autoroutes et tunnel du Mont-Blanc (ATMB), founded on 30 April 1958, and the Italian Società italiana per azioni per il Traforo del Monte Bianco (SITMB), founded on 1 September 1957. Drilling began in 1959 and was completed in 1962; the tunnel was opened to traffic on 19 July 1965. The tunnel is in length, in width, and in height. The passageway is not horizontal, but in a slightly inverted "V", which assists ventilation. The tunnel consists of a single gallery with a two-lane dual direction road. At the time of its construction, it was three times longer than any existing highway tunnel. The tunnel passes almost exactly under the summit of the Aiguille du Midi. At this spot, it lies beneath the surface, making it the world's second deepest operational tunnel after the Gotthard Base Tunnel. The Mont Blanc Tunnel was originally managed by the two building companies. Following a fire in 1999 in which 39 people died, which showed how lack of coordination could hamper the safety of the tunnel, all the operations are managed by a single entity: MBT-EEIG, controlled by both ATMB and SITMB together, through a 50–50 shares distribution. An alternative route for road traffic between France to Italy is the Fréjus Road Tunnel. Road traffic grew steadily until 1994, even with the opening of the Fréjus tunnel. Since then, the combined traffic volume of the former has remained roughly constant. Construction statistics Workforce: five engineers and 350 workmen worked an estimated grand total of 4.6 million man-hours to complete the project Explosives: of explosives were used to blast of rock Energy: 37 million kilowatt-hours and of fuel for trucks and engines Other facts: 771,240 bolts, 6,900 drill rods, and of iron were used to support the vault, of formwork for of cement (mixed with of aggregates) History The idea of building a tunnel underneath the Mont Blanc to avoid the need for lengthy circumnavigation dates back to the nineteenth century during the heyday of the railway. However, the idea did not receive widespread attention until 1907, when Francesco Farinet, a Member of Parliament of the Aosta Valley, advocated constructing of the tunnel. In 1908, a first design was presented by French engineer Arnold Monod, to much interest from Italian and French politicians. However, due to political turmoil and World War I and World War II, the project did not start until 1959, when excavations on the tunnel officially began. This was preceded by the signing of a national charter for the tunnel construction, ratified by the parliaments of France (1957) and Italy (1954). That same year, the STMB (Société du tunnel du Mont Blanc) was formed, which became ATMB (Autoroutes et Tunnel du Mont Blanc) in 1996. In 1962, the French and Italian drilling teams met on 4 August. The opening was successful, with an axis variation of less than . Three years later the tunnel was inaugurated by the French president, Charles de Gaulle, and the Italian President, Giuseppe Saragat on 16 July 1965. The tunnel opened to traffic on 19 July. Surveillance cameras were installed in 1978. The tunnel underwent extensive modernisation works in 1990, including the addition of safety features such new video surveillance cameras, 8 pressurized emergency shelters, a sprinkler system and other safety maintenance. In 1997, a fire detection system was installed along with centralized safety equipment management, and new variable message signs. On the morning of 24 March 1999, the engine of a Belgian transport truck caught fire in the tunnel. The event expanded into a catastrophe which cost the lives of 39 people and led to a three-year tunnel closure until 9 March 2002. The reopening followed an extensive overhaul of the safety features. The highway trunk from Aosta to the tunnel on the Italian side was completed in 2007. Traffic In 2010, the average traffic volume was 4,945 vehicles per day, or around 1.80 million vehicles per year. In 2011, there were an average of 5,113 vehicles per day (about 1.87 million vehicles per year). Although several lines of vehicles can queue up at the toll station, only a limited number of vehicles per unit time is allowed to transit the tunnel to ensure a safety distance between them. Within the tunnel, a minimum speed of 50 km/h and a maximum speed of 70 km/h applies, while the prescribed distance between vehicles is 150 m; trucks are allowed to enter in groups of five. These security measures were taken as a consequence of the 1999 tunnel fire. Pedestrians can cross the tunnel by bus; bicycles can also be carried through the tunnel with a reservation. Toll The tunnel crossing is subject to a toll; the toll differs from Italy to France because of their different VAT rates. In 2013, the one-way ticket for a car was €40.90 (€41.40 on the Italian side), while the return ticket, valid for 7 days, was €51 (€51.60 on the Italian side). In 2016, the one-way ticket for a car cost €43.50 (€44.20 on the Italian side). Mont Blanc Tunnel Tolls on the Italian side from 1 January 2019 (22% VAT included) Mont Blanc Tunnel Tolls on the French side from 1 January 2019 (20% VAT included) See also National Geographic Seconds From Disaster episodes References External links "Traffic Tunnel to Pierce Mt Blanc." Popular Mechanics, April 1952, pp. 92–96. Detailed drawings of planned tunnel construction ATMB, Official Company Website ATMB, Official Company Website ATMB, Official Company Website Chamonix-Mont-Blanc Map BBC story on fire trial Road tunnels in France Road tunnels in Italy Transport in Aosta Valley Tunnels in the Alps France–Italy border crossings Mont Blanc Tunnels completed in 1965 Toll tunnels in Europe 1965 establishments in France 1965 establishments in Italy 1999 fires March 1999 events in Europe Transport in Courmayeur

Venus Williams

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Venus Ebony Starr Williams (born June 17, 1980) is an American professional tennis player. A former world No. 1 in both singles and doubles, Williams is widely regarded as one of the all-time greats of the sport of tennis. Along with younger sister Serena Williams, she is credited with ushering in a new era of power and athleticism on the women's professional tennis tour. Williams has been ranked world No. 1 by the Women's Tennis Association for a total of 19 weeks (11 in singles and 8 in doubles). She first reached the No. 1 ranking in singles on February 25, 2002, becoming the first African American woman to do so in the Open Era, and the second all time since Althea Gibson. She became the world No. 1 in doubles for the first time on June 7, 2010, alongside Serena, after the pair won their fourth consecutive Grand Slam doubles crown. Williams's seven Grand Slam singles titles are tied for 12th on the all-time list, and 8th on the Open Era list, more than any other active female player except her sister. She has reached 16 Grand Slam finals, most recently at Wimbledon in 2017. Her five Wimbledon singles titles tie her with two other women for eighth place on the all-time list. She is No. 4 on the Open Era List, behind the nine titles of Martina Navratilova and the seven of Serena Williams and Steffi Graf. From the 2000 Wimbledon Championships to the 2001 US Open, Williams won four of the six Grand Slam singles tournaments. At the 2021 Wimbledon Championships, Williams extended her record as the all-time leader, male or female, in Grand Slams played, with 90. With her run to the 2017 Wimbledon singles final, she broke the record for longest time between first and most recent grand slam singles finals appearances. Williams was twice the season prize money leader in 2001 and 2017, and currently ranks second behind Serena in career prize money earned with over $41.8 million. She has also won 14 Grand Slam Women's doubles titles, all with Serena Williams; the pair is unbeaten in Grand Slam doubles finals.[19] Williams also has two Mixed Doubles titles. Williams has won four Olympic gold medals, one in singles and three in women's doubles with her sister, along with a silver medal in mixed doubles, tying her with Kathleen McKane Godfree for the most Olympic medals won by a male or female tennis player in history. At the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Williams became only the second player to win Olympic gold medals in both singles and doubles at one Olympic Games, after Helen Wills Moody at the 1924 Summer Olympics (she was followed by her sister in 2012). After winning silver in mixed doubles with Rajeev Ram at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics, Williams became the first tennis player to win a medal at four Olympic games, as well as the first player in the Open Era to win an Olympic medal in all three events (singles, doubles, mixed). She and Serena are also the only tennis players in history with four Olympic gold medals, as well as the only ones to win Olympic gold in the same event on three occasions. She along with her sister Serena are the only Open Era female tennis players to win Olympic Gold in both singles and doubles category. With 49 WTA singles titles, Williams trails only her sister Serena Williams among active players on the WTA Tour with most singles titles. Along with her 22 WTA doubles titles and two mixed doubles titles, Venus' combined total of 73 WTA titles is also second among active players behind Serena. Her 35-match winning streak from the 2000 Wimbledon Championships to the 2000 Generali Ladies Linz tournament final is the longest since January 1, 2000. She is also one of only two active WTA players to have reached the finals of all four Grand Slams, along with sister Serena. Early life Williams was born in Lynwood, California, to Richard Williams and Oracene Price. Her talents were apparent at the age of seven when a professional local tennis player named Tony Chesta spotted Williams and quickly identified her potential in the sport. The Williams family moved from Compton, California, to West Palm Beach, Florida, when she was ten, so that she and her sister Serena could attend the tennis academy of Rick Macci, who took notice of the sisters and who would provide additional coaching. He did not always agree with Williams' father but respected that "he treated his daughters like kids, allowed them to be little girls". Richard stopped sending his daughters to national junior tennis tournaments when Williams was eleven, since he wanted them to take it slowly and focus on schoolwork. Another motivation was racial, as he had allegedly heard parents of other players disparage the Williams sisters during tournaments. At that time, Williams held a 63–0 record on the United States Tennis Association junior tour and was ranked No. 1 among the under-12 players in Southern California. In 1995, Richard pulled his daughters out of Macci's academy, and from then on took over all coaching at their home. Playing style Williams is an aggressive player, with an all-court game. Due to her assertive playing style, she typically accumulates large numbers of both winners and unforced errors. She possesses powerful groundstrokes on both sides, and is capable of hitting both her forehand and backhand flat, and with topspin. She is also adept at hitting her backhand with slice, to slow down rallies and disrupt pace within rallies. Her serve is powerful, allowing her to serve numerous aces in any match. At the peak of her career, her first serve would average 113 mph (182 km/h), and would frequently peak at 124 mph (199 km/h); her serve has slowed since then, averaging 107 mph (172 km/h), and peaking at 117 mph (189 km/h). She possesses effective kick and slice serves, which she deploys as second serves, preventing opponents from scoring free points. Up to 2014, she held the record for the fastest serve on the WTA Tour, recorded at the 2007 US Open, at 129 mph (208 km/h). She likes to approach the net, and finish points quickly. Her height, at , provides her with a long arm span, allowing her to reach any ball while positioned at the net. She has a complete repertoire of shots to perform at the net, allowing her to hit deft volleys with ease. Due to her all-court game, Williams can hit winners from any position. An exceptional tactical player with remarkable problem-solving skills, she also plays with sheer power and aggression. She relies on defense infrequently, rarely hitting drop shots and lobs, as her exceptional speed and court coverage allow her to hit with assertive power and strength from frequently defensive positions. Further strengths include her detailed and intricate footwork, and supreme athleticism. She has been noted for her elegant style of play, and she prefers to play on fast grass, hard, and carpet courts. Professional career 1994–96: Professional debut Williams turned professional on October 31, 1994, at the age of fourteen. In the first round of the tournament, Venus played former NCAA singles champion Shaun Stafford, who earlier that year had reached the fourth round of the French Open. Williams beat her fellow American 6-3, 6-4. In the second round of her first professional tournament, the Bank of the West Classic in Oakland, Williams was up a set and a service break against world No. 2 Arantxa Sánchez Vicario before losing the match. Vicario went on to win the title by defeating Martina Navratilova. That was the only tournament Williams played in 1994. In 1995, Williams played three more events as a wild card, falling in the first round of the tournament in Los Angeles and the tournament in Toronto but reaching the quarterfinals of the tournament in Oakland, defeating No. 18 Amy Frazier in the second round for her first win over a top 20 ranked player before losing to Magdalena Maleeva. Williams played five events in 1996, falling in the first round four times but reaching the third round in Los Angeles, before losing to No. 1 Steffi Graf. 1997–99: Early success 1997: Debut Grand Slam singles final Williams played 15 tour events in 1997, including five Tier I tournaments. She reached the quarterfinals in three of the Tier I events – the State Farm Evert Cup in Compton, California, the European Indoor Championships in Zürich, and the Kremlin Cup in Moscow. In Indian Wells in March, Williams defeated No. 9 Iva Majoli in the third round for her first win over a player ranked in the top 10. She then lost in the quarterfinals to No. 8 Lindsay Davenport in a third set tiebreak. Her ranking broke into the top 100 on April 14, 1997. She made her debut in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament at the French Open, reaching the second round before losing to Nathalie Tauziat. She then lost in the first round of Wimbledon to Magdalena Grzybowska. During her debut at the US Open, she lost the final to Martina Hingis after defeating Irina Spîrlea in a semifinal which saw Spîrlea and Williams collide during a changeover when neither would yield as they passed the umpire's chair. Richard Williams, her father, later claimed that this incident was racially motivated. She was the first woman since Pam Shriver in 1978 to reach a US Open singles final on her first attempt and was the first unseeded US Open women's singles finalist since 1958. On September 8, 1997, her ranking broke into the top 50 for the first time. She ended the year ranked No. 22 1998: 1st WTA singles title, entering the top 10 and first Grand Slam doubles titles In her debut at the Australian Open, Williams defeated younger sister Serena Williams in the second round, which was the sisters' first professional meeting. Williams eventually lost in the quarterfinals to No. 3 Davenport. Three weeks later, Williams defeated No. 2 Davenport for the first time in the semifinals of the IGA Tennis Classic in Oklahoma City. Williams then defeated Joannette Kruger in the final to win the first singles title of her career. In her first Tier I event of the year, Williams lost in the semifinals of the State Farm Evert Cup in Indian Wells to No. 1 Hingis. The following week, Williams won the Tier I Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida, defeating No. 1 Hingis in the semifinals. On March 30, 1998, her ranking broke into the top 10 for the first time, at No. 10. Williams played only one tournament on clay before the 1998 French Open. At the Italian Open in Rome, she defeated her sister in the quarterfinals and No. 5 Sánchez Vicario in the semifinals before losing to No. 1 Hingis in the final. She lost again to Hingis in the quarterfinals of the French Open. She lost her first match at the Direct Line International Championships in Eastbourne on grass before losing to No. 3 and eventual champion Jana Novotná in the quarterfinals of Wimbledon. On July 27, 1998, her ranking rose to No. 5. Williams played three tournaments during the North American 1998 summer hard court season. She reached her fifth final of the year at the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford, California, defeating No. 6 Monica Seles in the semifinals before losing to No. 1 Davenport. Patellar tendonitis in her left knee caused her to retire from her quarterfinal match at the tournament in San Diego while trailing Mary Pierce 4–0 in the third set. At the US Open, Williams defeated fourth-seeded Sánchez Vicario in the quarterfinals before losing to second seeded and eventual champion Davenport in the semifinals. 1998 was the first year that Williams reached at least the quarterfinals of all slams. Williams played four tournaments in the remainder of 1998. She won her third title of the year at the Grand Slam Cup in Munich in September, defeating No. 9 Patty Schnyder in the final. She lost in the second round of the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt before losing in the final of the Tier I Swisscom Challenge in Zürich to No. 1 Davenport and the semifinals of the Tier I Kremlin Cup in Moscow to Pierce. She had earned enough points during the year to participate in the year-ending Chase Championship but withdrew from the tournament because of tendonitis in her knee. She finished the year ranked No. 5. In 1998, Williams teamed with Justin Gimelstob to win the mixed doubles titles at the Australian Open and the French Open. Her sister Serena Williams won the other two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles that year, completing a "Williams Family Mixed Doubles Grand Slam". Williams won the first two women's doubles titles of her career, in Oklahoma City and Zürich. Both titles came with her sister, becoming only the third pair of sisters to win a WTA tour doubles title. 1999: Three Tier I titles Williams started the 1999 tour in Australia, where she lost to No. 10 Steffi Graf in the quarterfinals of the Medibank International in Sydney and No. 1 Davenport in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open. However, she rebounded at the Faber Grand Prix in Hanover, defeating Graf for the first time in the semifinals before losing the final to No. 3 Novotná. Williams then successfully defended her titles in both Oklahoma City and Key Biscayne. She defeated Novotná and Graf to reach the final in Key Biscayne, where she defeated her sister in three sets in the first final on the WTA Tour to be contested by two sisters. Williams played four clay court events during the spring. She lost her first match at the Bausch & Lomb Championships in Amelia Island, Florida. Three weeks later, however, she won her first title on clay at the Betty Barclay Cup in Hamburg, defeating Mary Pierce in the final. Williams then won the Tier I Italian Open in Rome, defeating No. 1 Hingis in the semifinals and No. 8 Pierce in the final. At the French Open, she extended her winning streak to 22 matches before losing in the fourth round to No. 125 Barbara Schwartz. Williams teamed with Serena Williams to win the women's doubles title at this event, the first Grand Slam title the pair won together. At the 1999 Wimbledon Championships, Williams defeated No. 17 Anna Kournikova in the fourth round to reach the quarterfinals for the second consecutive year, where she lost to eventual runner-up Graf. Williams rebounded in the summer when she won two Fed Cup matches against Italy and lost in the final of the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford to No. 1 Davenport. One week later, Williams defeated Davenport in the semifinals of the TIG Tennis Classic in San Diego before losing to No. 2 Hingis in the final. In her last tournament before the US Open, Williams won the Pilot Pen Tennis in New Haven, Connecticut, defeating No. 5 Seles in the semifinals and Davenport in the final. On August 30, 1999, her world ranking reached third for the first time. Seeded third at the US Open, Williams lost in the semifinals to No. 1 Hingis in three sets. However, she teamed with singles champion Serena Williams at this event to win their second Grand Slam women's doubles title. During the remainder of the year, Williams contributed to the USA's victory over Russia in the Fed Cup final, winning one singles rubber before joining her sister to win the doubles rubber. At the Grand Slam Cup in Munich, Williams defeated Hingis in the semifinals before losing to her sister Serena for the first time in the final. Williams won her sixth title of the year at the Tier I event in Zurich, defeating No. 1 Hingis in the final. Four weeks later, she lost to Davenport in the semifinals of the tournament in Philadelphia. Making her debut at the year-ending Chase Championships, Williams lost to Hingis in the semifinals. She finished the year ranked No. 3. 2000–02: Williams sisters domination 2000: Olympic gold medals and 1st & 2nd Grand Slam titles In 2000, Williams missed the first five months of the year with tendinitis in both wrists. She returned to the tour during the European clay court season. She lost in the quarterfinals of the Betty Barclay Cup in Hamburg to Amanda Coetzer and in the third round of the Tier I Italian Open in Rome to Jelena Dokić. Although she had won only two of her four matches before the French Open, she was seeded fourth there. She won her first four matches in Paris without losing a set before losing in the quarterfinals to eighth-seeded and former champion Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in three sets. Williams then won 35 consecutive singles matches and six tournaments. She won her first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, defeating No. 1 Martina Hingis in the quarterfinals, sister Serena in the semifinal and defending champion Lindsay Davenport in the final. She also teamed with her sister Serena to win the women's doubles title at this event. She won three Tier II events during the North American summer hard court season, defeating Davenport in the final of the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford and Monica Seles in the finals of both the Acura Classic in San Diego and the Pilot Pen Tennis championships in New Haven. At the US Open, Williams defeated No. 1 Hingis in the semifinals and No. 2 Davenport in the final. At the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, she defeated Sánchez Vicario in the quarterfinals, Seles in the semifinals, and Elena Dementieva in the final to win the gold medal. She also won the gold medal in women's doubles with her younger sister Serena. Davenport eventually snapped her winning streak in October in the final of the Linz Open. Williams did not play a tournament the rest of the year because of anemia. She finished the year ranked No. 3 and with six singles titles. 2001: 3rd & 4th Grand Slam titles In 2001, Williams reached the semifinals of the Australian Open for the first time, where she lost to No. 1 Hingis. However, Williams teamed with her sister to win the doubles title at the event, completing a Career Golden Slam in women's doubles for the pair. Williams also reached the semifinals of the Tier I Tennis Masters Series tournament in Indian Wells, California, where she controversially defaulted her match with her sister just before the match started. Williams had been suffering from knee tendinitis throughout the tournament and eventually this prevented her from playing. The following day, Williams and her father Richard were booed as they made their way to their seats to watch the final. Serena Williams was subsequently booed during the final with Kim Clijsters and during the trophy presentation. Due to this, neither Williams sister entered the tournament for 14 years, with her sister Serena entering in 2015 after appeals for forgiveness from the event and the WTA Tour. Williams rebounded from the Indian Wells 'boycott' controversy to win the next tournament on the tour calendar, the Tier I Ericsson Open in Key Biscayne, Florida. She defeated Hingis in the semifinals and No. 4 Jennifer Capriati in the final, after saving eight championship points. Because of this victory, her ranking rose to a career high of No. 2. During the European clay court season, Williams won the Tier II tournament in Hamburg but lost in the third round of the Tier I EUROCARD Ladies German Open to No. 18 Justine Henin and the first round of the French Open to Barbara Schett. This was only the second time that she had lost in the first round of a Grand Slam singles tournament. Williams then successfully defended her Wimbledon title, defeating third-seeded Davenport in the semifinals and eighth-seeded Henin in three sets in Henin's first Wimbledon final. During the North American summer hard court season, Williams won for the second consecutive year the tournaments in San Diego, defeating Seles in the final, and in New Haven, defeating Davenport in the final. Williams also won the US Open singles title for the second consecutive year, without dropping a set. In the quarterfinals, she beat fifth-seeded Clijsters, followed by a semifinal victory over No. 2 Capriati. She played her sister Serena in the final, which was the first Grand Slam singles final contested by two sisters during the open era. Venus won the match and her fourth Grand Slam singles title. Williams also became only the sixth woman in history to win the singles titles at both Wimbledon and the US Open in consecutive years, the others being Martina Navratilova (twice), Steffi Graf (twice), Althea Gibson, Maureen Connolly Brinker, and Helen Wills Moody (twice). 2002: World No. 1 ranking and 4 consecutive Grand Slam singles finals Williams began 2002 by winning the Mondial Australian Women's Hardcourts in Gold Coast, Australia, defeating Henin in the final. However, she then lost for the first time in her career to Seles in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open. Williams then went on to win the Open Gaz de France in Paris when Jelena Dokić withdrew from the final, and the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp, Belgium, defeating Henin in the final. As a result of her strong start to the season, Williams assumed the world No. 1 position for the first time on February 25, dislodging Capriati. Williams was the first African-American woman ever to hold the ranking. She held it for just three weeks before surrendering it back to Capriati. Williams failed to defend her title in Miami after losing in the semifinals to her sister Serena. However, she made a strong start to the clay-court season, winning the Bausch & Lomb Championships in Amelia Island, Florida, defeating Henin in the final. A week after winning that tournament, she once again replaced Capriati as the No. 1, before losing it again to Capriati after three weeks. During those three weeks, Williams had made the final in Hamburg, defeating Hingis in the semifinals before losing to Clijsters in the final. Seeded second at the French Open, Williams defeated former champion Seles to reach the semifinals for the first time. There, she defeated Clarisa Fernández. In the final, Williams met her sister Serena Williams for a second time in a Grand Slam final, with her sister winning. Williams once again replaced Capriati as the No. 1 as a result of reaching the final. As the top seed at Wimbledon, Williams defeated Henin in the semifinals to make the final for the third consecutive year. However, there, she lost to her sister Serena. This result meant Serena Williams replaced Venus as the No. 1. The Williams sisters teamed up to win the women's doubles title at the event, their fifth Grand Slam women's doubles title together. Williams won the titles in San Diego and New Haven for the third consecutive year, defeating Davenport and Dokic to win the former and defeating Davenport in the final of the latter. At the US Open, Williams defeated Seles in the quarterfinals and Amélie Mauresmo in three sets to make the final. Playing her younger sister Serena for their third consecutive Grand Slam final, her sister won once again. After that, Williams played just four more matches during the season. She reached the semifinals at the year-ending Sanex Championships after defeating Seles in the quarterfinals, but she then was forced to retire against Clijsters due to injury. Williams finished the year ranked No. 2 having won seven titles, her best showing in both respects of her career. 2003–06: Injuries and losses 2003: Australian Open & Wimbledon finals, injuries Williams started 2003 by defeating fifth seed Justine Henin to make the final of the Australian Open for the first time. In the final, however, she lost to her sister Serena. This marked the first time in the open era that the same two players had met in four consecutive Grand Slam finals. Venus and Serena Williams teamed to win the women's doubles title at the event, their sixth Grand Slam title in women's doubles. In February, Williams won the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp, Belgium for the second consecutive year, defeating Kim Clijsters in the final. However, shortly afterwards, she began to struggle with injury. She reached the final of the clay-court J&S Cup in Warsaw, before being forced to retire against Amélie Mauresmo. She then suffered her earliest exit at a Grand Slam tournament in two years when she lost in the fourth round of the French Open to Vera Zvonareva. At Wimbledon, Williams was seeded fourth. Williams defeated former champion Lindsay Davenport in the quarterfinals and Kim Clijsters in the semifinals to advance to her fourth consecutive Wimbledon final, where she lost again to sister Serena. Wimbledon was Williams's last event of the year as an abdominal injury that occurred during the Clijsters match prevented her from playing again. While she was recovering from the injury, her sister Yetunde Price was murdered. Williams finished the year ranked No. 11. It was the first time in nearly six years that she had dropped out of the top 10. 2004: Tough losses and further injuries In 2004, Williams came back to the tour suffering inconsistent results. As the third seed because of a protected ranking, she reached the third round of the Australian Open, where she lost to Lisa Raymond. She then lost in the quarterfinals of her next three tournaments. Williams began to find her form at the beginning of the clay-court season. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, Williams defeated Conchita Martínez in the final to win her first title in over a year and the second Tier I title on clay of her career. She then won in Warsaw, defeating Svetlana Kuznetsova in the final, before reaching the final of the Tier I German Open in Berlin. She then withdrew from that match against Mauresmo due to injury. Going into the French Open, Williams had the best clay-court record among the women and was among the favorites to win the title; however, after making the quarterfinals to extend her winning streak on the surface to 19 matches, she lost to eventual champion Anastasia Myskina. Despite her defeat, she re-entered the top 10. In the Wimbledon Women's Singles, Williams lost a controversial second-round match to Croatian Karolina Šprem. The umpire of the match, Ted Watts, awarded Šprem an unearned point in the second-set tiebreak. Upon the conclusion of the match, he was relieved of his duties. This defeat marked the first time since 1997 that Williams had exited Wimbledon prior to the quarterfinals. After Wimbledon, Williams reached her fourth final of the year at the Bank of the West Classic in Stanford, California, where she was beaten by Lindsay Davenport for the first time since 2000. As the defending champion at the Athens Olympics, Williams lost in the third round to Mary Pierce. She then won three very close matches against Petra Mandula, Shikha Uberoi and Chanda Rubin to make the fourth round of the US Open where she lost to Davenport, the first time she had ever lost at the US Open prior to the semifinals. Williams completed the year by losing in the quarterfinals of three indoor tournaments in the fall, a period that included defeat in her first meeting with 17-year-old Wimbledon champion Maria Sharapova at the Zurich Open. Williams finished the year as No. 9 and did not qualify for the year-ending WTA Tour Championships. 2005: Third Wimbledon title In 2005, Williams started the year by losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to Alicia Molik. She then reached the final in Antwerp, defeating Clijsters and Myskina en route. In the final, Williams was a set and a service break up against Mauresmo before eventually losing. In March, at the NASDAQ-100 Open in Miami, Williams defeated sister and Australian Open champion Serena Williams in the quarterfinals, the first time she had defeated her sister Serena since 2001. Williams went on to lose in the semifinals to No. 3 Sharapova. In May, Williams won her first title in over a year at the clay-courts at the İstanbul Cup, defeating Nicole Vaidišová in the final. However, at the French Open, she lost in the third round to 15-year-old Sesil Karatantcheva, who subsequently tested positive for steroids and was suspended. Williams was seeded 14th for the 2005 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Singles. In the quarterfinals of the tournament, she defeated French Open runner-up Pierce in a second-set tiebreak, winning it 12–10 to make the semifinals of a Grand Slam for the first time in two years. There, she defeated defending champion and second-seeded Maria Sharapova to make the Wimbledon final for the fifth time in six years. Playing top-seeded Davenport in the final, Williams saved a match point with a backhand winner en route to winning. This was Williams's third Wimbledon singles title, her fifth Grand Slam singles title overall and her first since 2001. It was the first time in 70 years that a player had won after being down match point during the women's final at Wimbledon. In addition, Williams was the lowest-ranked (No. 16) and lowest-seeded (14th) champion in tournament history. Williams returned to the top 10 following the victory. Following Wimbledon, Williams reached her fourth final of the year in Stanford, where she lost to Clijsters. At the US Open, Williams achieved her second consecutive win over her sister Serena in the fourth round, but then lost in the quarterfinals to eventual champion Kim Clijsters. Williams did not qualify for the year-ending Sony Ericsson Championships because of an injury sustained during the tournament in Beijing. She finished the year ranked No. 10. It was the first year since 2001 that she had finished a year ranked higher than her sister Serena Williams. 2006: Wrist injury and drop in the rankings In 2006, Williams was upset in the first round of the Australian Open by Tsvetana Pironkova, which was her earliest loss ever at that tournament. After that loss, she did not play again for three months due to a wrist injury. She returned in late April on clay in Warsaw, where she defeated former No. 1 Martina Hingis in the second round, before losing to Svetlana Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals. Williams completed the clay-court season by reaching the quarterfinals of the French Open, where she lost to Nicole Vaidišová. Williams was the defending champion and one of the favorites to win the singles title at Wimbledon. However, she lost in the third round to 26th-seeded Jelena Janković. After the loss, Williams said that she was having pain in her left wrist, although she admitted that the injury was not the cause of her loss. Williams did not play in the US Open series or the US Open itself due to the wrist injury. In October, during her first tournament in almost three months, she reinjured her wrist at the tournament in Luxembourg and lost in the second round to qualifier Agnieszka Radwańska. Williams finished the season as No. 46, her lowest finish since she began to play on the WTA Tour full-time in 1997. It was the second consecutive year she finished higher than her sister Serena, who finished the year at No. 95. 2007–10: Return to form and No. 2 ranking 2007: Fourth Wimbledon title Williams withdrew from the 2007 Australian Open, the second consecutive Grand Slam that she had missed due to her recurring wrist injury. She returned in February at the Cellular South Cup in Memphis, USA, defeating top-seeded Shahar Pe'er in the final, her first singles title since her victory at Wimbledon in 2005. At the beginning of the clay-court season, Williams reached the semifinals of the Tier I Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, where she lost to Jelena Janković on a third set tiebreak. She also lost to fourth seed Janković in the third round of the French Open, her third consecutive loss to Janković. During her second round win over Ashley Harkleroad, Williams hit a serve, which was the second fastest woman's serve ever recorded and the fastest ever recorded during a main draw match at the time. Williams was ranked No. 31 going into Wimbledon and was seeded 23rd at the tournament due to her previous results at Wimbledon. Williams was a game away from defeat in her first round match against Alla Kudryavtseva and in her third round match against Akiko Morigami she was two points away from defeat, but she eventually won both 7–5 in the third set. She then advanced to reach her sixth Wimbledon final, after beating Maria Sharapova, Svetlana Kuznetsova and Ana Ivanovic in straight sets en route, where she defeated 18th seed Marion Bartoli also in straight sets. Williams thus became only the fourth woman in the open era to win Wimbledon at least four times, along with Billie Jean King, Martina Navratilova and Steffi Graf. She also became the lowest-seeded Wimbledon champion in history, breaking the record she herself set in 2005. Williams returned to the top 20 as a result of the win. At the US Open, after setting a Grand-Slam record serve in the opening round, Williams advanced to her first Grand Slam semifinal outside of Wimbledon since 2003. However she then lost to eventual champion Justine Henin. The tournament resulted in Williams's ranking moving up to No. 9. Williams then won her third title of the year at the Hansol Korea Open Tennis Championships in Seoul, South Korea, defeating Maria Kirilenko in the final, before then losing in the final of the Japan Open Tennis Championships in Tokyo to Virginie Razzano. Williams had earned enough points during the year to qualify for the year-ending WTA Tour Championships in Madrid; however, she withdrew because of continuing problems with anemia. Williams finished the year as No. 8 with three titles, her best performance in both respects since 2002, and a winning percentage of 83 percent. 2008: Fifth Wimbledon title, Tour Championships title and Olympic gold in doubles In 2008, as the eighth seed at the Australian Open, Williams reached the quarterfinals for the first time since 2003. However, she then lost to eventual runner-up Ana Ivanovic. Williams made her first semifinal of the year at the Bangalore Open in Bangalore, India, where she met sister Serena for the first time since 2005 with Serena Williams winning despite Venus Williams holding a match point in the third set tie break. Williams missed two tournaments at the beginning of the clay-court season due to undisclosed medical problems. At the French Open, Williams was seeded eighth but was eliminated by 26th-seeded Italian Flavia Pennetta in the third round. Williams was the defending champion and seventh-seeded player at Wimbledon. Without dropping a set, she reached her seventh Wimbledon singles final. She then won her fifth Wimbledon singles title, and seventh Grand Slam singles title overall, by beating sister Serena in straight sets. This was the first time since 2003 that Venus and Serena Williams had played each other in a Grand Slam final and was the first time since 2001 that Venus had defeated her in a Grand Slam final. Venus and Serena Williams then teamed to win the women's doubles title, their first Grand Slam doubles title together since 2003. Williams lost in the quarterfinals of the Beijing Olympics to Li Na. She did, however, earn a gold medal along with her sister Serena in women's doubles, their second gold medal as a team, having won together at the Sydney Olympics in 2000. At the US Open, Williams was playing some of her best tennis since dominating the circuit in 2003, However, she was defeated in two tiebreaks by Serena Williams (the eventual tournament winner) in a close quarterfinal match, after Williams had led 5–3 in both sets. At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart, Germany in October, Williams defeated a player ranked in the top three for the first time that season by defeating No. 3 Dinara Safina to reach her third semifinal of the year. There, she lost to Janković. A fortnight later, Williams won the Zurich Open, defeating Ivanovic in the semifinals before defeating Pennetta in the final to claim her second title of the year and secure a position in the year-ending 2008 WTA Tour Championships in Doha, Qatar. There, Williams defeated No. 2 Safina, No. 3 Serena Williams and No. 5 Dementieva in the preliminary round-robin stage. In the semifinals, Williams defeated No. 1 Janković before winning the year-ending tournament for the first time by defeating Vera Zvonareva in the final. She ended the year ranked No. 6 with three titles and a winning percentage of 78 percent. 2009: Wimbledon runner-up and 4 consecutive Grand Slam doubles titles As the sixth seed at the 2009 Australian Open, Williams lost in the second round to Carla Suárez Navarro after holding a match point in the third set. However, she teamed up with her sister Serena to win the women's doubles title at the event, their eighth Grand Slam doubles title together. Williams rebounded in singles play in February at the Premier 5 (formerly Tier I) Dubai Tennis Championships, defeating defending champion and No. 4 Dementieva in the quarterfinals and No. 1 Serena Williams in the semifinals on a third set tiebreak. The latter win meant that Williams led the head-to-head in career matches with her sister for the first time since 2002. Williams went on to defeat Virginie Razzano in the final. This win meant Williams was ranked in the top five for the first time since 2003, while it also marked her 40th professional singles title, only the twelfth player in the open era to achieve the feat. Williams won another title the following week at the Abierto Mexicano Telcel in Acapulco, Mexico, defeating Pennetta in the final. This was her first title on clay since 2005. On European clay, Williams reached the semifinals in Rome before losing to No. 1 Safina. This run meant Williams was ranked in the top three for the first time since 2003. Seeded third at the French Open, Williams lost to Ágnes Szávay in the third round, the third consecutive year she had exited at that stage. Williams was seeded third at Wimbledon. She advanced to her eighth Wimbledon final, at which point she had won 34 straight sets (held since Wimbledon 2007). In the final, however, she lost the first set tie-break, and from then on lost in two sets to sister Serena. The Williams sisters teamed up to win the doubles title at the tournament for the fourth time. In Stanford, Williams defeated Maria Sharapova and Elena Dementieva to advance to the finals, where she would lose to Marion Bartoli. Teaming with her sister, she played doubles and won the title, defeating Monica Niculescu and Yung-Jan Chan. At the 2009 US Open, as the third seed, Williams made it to the fourth round before losing to Kim Clijsters in three sets. Williams then teamed up with Serena Williams to play doubles at the open, where they won the title over defending champions and No. 1s in doubles, Cara Black and Liezel Huber, claiming their third grand slam doubles title in 2009. Williams's last tournament in 2009 was the year-ending Sony Ericsson Championships, where she was the defending champion in singles. She was in the maroon group which includes her sister Serena Williams, along with Elena Dementieva and Svetlana Kuznetsova. She lost her first match against Dementieva, and her second match against her sister Serena- both in straight sets, after taking the first set. In her third and final RR match, Williams defeated Svetlana Kuznetsova. Because of Dementieva's loss to Kuznetsova in their round robin match, Williams advanced to the semifinal of the championships. In her semifinal match, she defeated Jelena Janković of Serbia to advance to her second consecutive final in the tournament. In the final, she lost to her sister Serena. In doubles, Williams teamed with her sister as the second seeds. However, they lost to Nuria Llagostera Vives and María José Martínez Sánchez in the semifinal. Their doubles record at the end of the year stood at 24–2. Williams finished 2009 ranked No. 6 in singles (with a winning percentage of 70 percent) and No. 3 in doubles with Serena Williams, in spite of them playing only six events together that year. 2010: No. 2 singles ranking and No. 1 doubles ranking Williams played at the Australian Open as the sixth seed. She defeated 17th-seeded Francesca Schiavone in the fourth round. She was two points from defeating 16th-seeded Li Na in the quarterfinals before losing in three sets. In doubles, she teamed with her sister Serena to successfully defend their title, defeating the top-ranked team of Cara Black and Liezel Huber in the final. She went onto the clay at the Abierto Mexico Telcel in Acapulco, where she was the defending champion. She reached the semifinals after recovering from a 1–5 third set deficit to Laura Pous Tió in the quarterfinals. In the final, she defeated first-time finalist Polona Hercog from Slovenia. This was her 43rd career title, the most among active female players. Her next tournament was the Premier Mandatory Sony Ericsson Open in Key Biscayne, where she was seeded third. She defeated No. 9 Agnieszka Radwańska in the quarterfinals and No. 13 Marion Bartoli in the semifinals to reach her third straight WTA tour final and fourth Sony Ericsson Open final. She was defeated by Kim Clijsters in the final in just 58 minutes, ending her 15-match winning streak. By reaching the final, her ranking improved to No. 4 and she crossed the $26 million mark in career prize money, the only player besides Serena Williams to do so. The knee injury that hampered her during the final of the Sony Ericsson Open forced her to skip the Fed Cup tie against Russia and the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart. Williams returned to the tour at the Premier 5 Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome. She suffered the worst defeat of her career in the quarterfinals, losing to No. 4 Jelena Janković. Despite this loss, Williams's ranking improved to No. 3 on May 10. Her next tournament was the Madrid Open, a Premier Mandatory tournament. She lost to Aravane Rezaï in the final. In doubles, she teamed with her sister Serena to win the title. On May 17, her ranking improved to No. 2, behind only Serena. This was the fourth time that the Williams sisters have occupied the top two spots, and the first time since May 2003. Her next tournament was the French Open, where she played both singles and doubles despite her knee injury. Seeded second in singles, she advanced past the third round at this tournament for the first time since 2006 before losing to Nadia Petrova in the round of 16. She also played doubles with Serena as the top seeds. Their defeat of Huber and Anabel Medina Garrigues in the semifinals increased their doubles ranking to No. 1. They then defeated 12th seeded Květa Peschke and Katarina Srebotnik in the final to win their fourth consecutive Grand Slam women's doubles title. By virtue of reaching the No. 1-ranking in doubles on June 7, 2010, Venus and Serena became just the 6th and 7th women to reach the No. 1 ranking in both singles and doubles following in the footsteps of Martina Navratilova, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Martina Hingis, Lindsay Davenport, and Kim Clijsters. Her next tournament was the Wimbledon Championships, where she had reached the final the previous three years. Despite her knee injury, she made it to the quarterfinals, where she lost to Tsvetana Pironkova. Pironkova was ranked No. 82 and had never gone past the second round of a Grand Slam event. As a result, Williams dropped to No. 4. She was the defending champion in doubles with her sister Serena, having won the tournament in the previous two years. However, they lost this time in the quarterfinals to Elena Vesnina and Vera Zvonareva. Williams then missed all tournaments in the US Open Series because of a left knee injury but still participated at the US Open as the third seed. She won three matches to move into the fourth round. Williams became one of only two women in 2010 (along with Caroline Wozniacki) to reach at least the fourth round at all four Grand Slam singles tournaments. Williams then defeated Pe'er and French Open champion Schiavone en route to her eighth US Open semifinal, against defending champion Clijsters. Williams won the first set of their match and recovered from 5–2 down in the second set but ultimately double-faulted on a key point near the end of the match and lost in three sets. Because of Serena's withdrawal from the US Open, Williams did not participate at the doubles event, where she was the defending champion. The recovery of her left knee took longer than expected and it forced her to miss the rest of 2010, including the year-ending Sony Ericsson Championships and Fed Cup final. Williams ended the year ranked fifth in singles, the first time she ended a year in the top five since 2002, while playing only nine tournaments. She finished the year ranked eleventh in doubles. 2011–13: Injuries and illness 2011: Sjögrens Syndrome diagnosis Williams began the year at the final edition of Hong Kong Tennis Classic exhibition event. She lost both her singles matches against Vera Zvonareva and Li Na, but she helped Team America to win the silver group. At the Australian Open, Williams retired in the second game of her third round match against Andrea Petkovic after sustaining a hip muscle injury in her second round. This was Williams's first retirement during a match in a Grand Slam tournament since 1994 and thus ended her record of most Grand Slam matches without ever retiring, with 250 consecutive matches. This was also her first retirement from a match since LA Women's Tennis Championships in Los Angeles in 2004, ending her 294 consecutive matches without retiring. The injury forced Williams to pull out of the Fed Cup quarterfinal against Belgium, the Dubai Tennis Championships, and the Mexican Open, where she was the two-time defending champion in both tournaments. She subsequently withdrew from the Miami Open causing her ranking to drop to number fifteen. She also missed the clay court season which caused her ranking to drop to number twenty-nine. Her absence from the French Open marked the first Grand Slam tournament since the 2003 US Open where neither of the Williams sisters were competing. Williams then made her first appearance since the Australian Open in Eastbourne. Unseeded, she lost for the first time in eleven meetings to Daniela Hantuchová in the quarterfinals. She was seeded 23rd at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships. She played for nearly three hours in her second round match against Japanese veteran Kimiko Date-Krumm, winning in three tough sets. She then defeated Spaniard María José Martínez Sánchez in the third round, but was defeated by Bulgarian 32nd seed Tsvetana Pironkova in the fourth round. Originally scheduled to participate in the 2011 Rogers Cup in Toronto and the 2011 Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, Williams withdrew due to viral illness. Her next scheduled tournament was the US Open. Unseeded at the US Open, Williams defeated Vesna Dolonts in the first round. She was scheduled to meet 22nd seed Sabine Lisicki in the second round, but withdrew before the match began after being diagnosed with Sjögren's syndrome, an autoimmune disease which causes fatigue and muscle and joint pain. This was the first time in her career that she did not reach the quarterfinals or better in any of the Grand Slam tournaments in a season. As a result, her ranking dropped to one-hundred and five. Williams did not play for the rest of the year at a competitive level; she appeared in three exhibitions tournaments in November and early December. She played against sister Serena in Colombia, which she won in straight sets. The week later, the sisters appeared in Milan, Italy to play exhibition against Italian duo Francesca Schiavone and Flavia Pennetta. Williams lost both her singles tie-break matches but won the doubles pairing with her sister. Williams played her third exhibition tournament in Barbados where she lost to Victoria Azarenka. She ended the year ranked No. 102. This was her first year-end finish ranked outside of the top 50 since 1997. 2012: Comeback and Olympic gold record Williams was scheduled to play in Auckland in preparation for the Australian Open. but withdrew from both tournaments due to health problems, announcing that she would return to the WTA tour in February. This dropped her ranking to No. 135. In February, Williams returned to competition in the doubles match of the Fed Cup World Group II tie between USA and Belarus. Playing with Liezel Huber, she won the dead-rubber in straight sets. Williams was granted wildcards to participate in the Miami and Charleston tournaments. In the first round of Miami — her first singles match since the 2011 US Open — Williams defeated Japanese veteran Kimiko Date-Krumm in straight sets. In the second round, she defeated No. 3 Petra Kvitová, her first top-3 victory since beating Svetlana Kuznetsova in 2009. In the third round, she saved a match point and defeated Aleksandra Wozniak in a three-set tiebreaker that ended a nearly three-hour match. In the round of 16, she bested No. 15 Ana Ivanovic in three sets to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to the eventual champion, Agnieszka Radwańska in straight sets. Her run improved her ranking to number 87. A week later in Charleston, she reached her second consecutive quarterfinal, where she lost in three sets to Samantha Stosur. Williams was granted wildcards to participate in Madrid and Rome. In Madrid, she lost in the second round to Angelique Kerber, but still improved her ranking to No. 63. A week later in Rome, she reached her third quarterfinal of the four tournaments she had participated in with a straight-sets victory against Samantha Stosur in the third round. She lost in the quarterfinals in straight sets to the No. 2, defending and eventual champion Maria Sharapova. Her appearance in Rome increased her ranking to No. 52, placing her as the third-ranked American. She lost in the second round of the French Open to Agnieszka Radwańska in straight sets. At Wimbledon, Williams was unseeded for the first time since 1997. She lost to Elena Vesnina in the first round in straight sets. This was the first time Williams lost in the first round of a Grand Slam since the 2006 Australian Open, and her first opening round loss at Wimbledon since her debut in 1997. Williams fared better in her return to doubles competition where she played alongside her sister, Serena. In just the pair's first tournament since 2010 Wimbledon, the unseeded sisters advanced to the final with victories over fourth-seeds Maria Kirilenko and Nadia Petrova in the second round and top-seeds Liezel Huber and Lisa Raymond in the semifinals. The Williams sisters claimed their fifth Wimbledon doubles title after defeating sixth-seeds Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká in straight sets in the final, on the same day Serena Williams won her fifth Wimbledon singles title. Williams's next stop was the 2012 London Summer Olympics which was held at the All England Club, Wimbledon. She entered the women's singles and women's doubles events, partnering with sister Serena in doubles. In singles, Williams defeated Sara Errani and Aleksandra Wozniak in convincing fashion to reach the third round where she faced Angelique Kerber. She lost to Kerber in two tiebreaks despite having three set points and leading 5–1 in the tiebreak in the first set. In doubles, the unseeded Williams sisters advanced to the final, which was a repeat of their final at Wimbledon against Hlaváčková and Hradecká. The sisters won their third gold medal in doubles after defeating the Czech pair in straight sets. With the win (and her sister Serena's win in the singles event), the Williams sisters claimed the most Olympic gold medals of any other tennis player, male or female. Next, Williams played at Cincinnati where she received a singles wild card entry. She defeated her first two opponents, Maria Kirilenko and Chanelle Scheepers, in three tight sets before crushing 8th seed Sara Errani in the third round. In the quarterfinal, she defeated her second top 10 opponent in a row Samantha Stosur in three sets to advance to her first semifinal since the 2010 US Open. In the semifinal Williams played through a back injury, eventually losing in three sets to Li Na in a match where her average first serve was between 80 and 90 miles per hour. Her semifinal run brought her ranking back within the top 50 for the first time in almost a year. At the US Open Williams lost in a second-round match against Angelique Kerber in three sets, despite having a 4–2 lead in the third set. Williams won her 44th WTA career title and her first title in over two and half years at the 2012 BGL Luxembourg Open, where she defeated Monica Niculescu in straight sets. Williams also qualified for the WTA Tournament of Champions in Sofia, but withdrew as the tournament clashed with her and her sister Serena's 'Breaking the Mould' tour in Africa. With her title in Luxembourg, her ranking rose to number 24. She ended the year with this ranking. 2013: Back injury At the 2013 Hopman Cup, and playing for USA (with John Isner), the first rubber was against South Africa. Williams beat Chanelle Scheepers and, with John Isner, they comfortably defeated the South African pair Chanelle Scheepers and Kevin Anderson. In USA's second rubber against France, she won both her singles and in mixed doubles defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga and Mathilde Johansson. Next she faced Anabel Medina Garrigues of Spain and won in two sets. From there Williams went onto the Australian Open, seeded 25, after missing it the previous year due to injury. She beat Galina Voskoboeva and Alizé Cornet before losing to the second seed, Maria Sharapova. Her next tournament was Brasil Tennis Cup. She participated the tournament as the 1st seed. She defeated Mirjana Lučić-Baroni in the first round, Garbiñe Muguruza in the second round and Magdaléna Rybáriková during the quarterfinals. Reaching her first semifinal of the year, she was then defeated by Olga Puchkova in three sets. This tournament allowed Williams to strengthen her position in the Top 20. She retired from the 2013 Sony Open Tennis in the third round due to a lower back injury. One week after Miami, Williams participated in Charleston as the fifth seed. She reached the semifinals, after playing both her third round and quarterfinals matches on the same day, where she lost to her sister, Serena, in two sets in the sisters' first meeting since the 2009 WTA Tour Championships.A few weeks later she participated in Fed Cup, in a tie between the United States and Sweden. After Sloane Stephens lost the opening match, Williams stepped into her spot, winning a match against Johanna Larsson, after converting on her eighth match point. This was the first time in Williams's career that she clinched the winning match in a Fed Cup tie, leading the United States to a 3–2 victory over Sweden. Williams's next event was the Mutua Madrid Open where she withdrew just before playing her first round match, her next tournament was the Italian Open in Rome where she lost in the first round to Laura Robson. Williams then played at the 2013 French Open where she lost to Urszula Radwanska in the first round. She was also entered in Doubles with her sister Serena but pulled out just before their 1st Round match. Williams pulled out of the 2013 Wimbledon Championships due to a back injury. It was the first time she has missed Wimbledon in her career. At the Roger's Cup, she lost in the first round to 13th seed Kirsten Flipkens in three sets. At the 2013 Western and Southern Open, she defeated qualifier Jana Cepelova in straight sets, before losing in the second round to Elena Vesnina in three sets. Her next tournament was the 2013 US Open. She pulled an upset in the first round by defeating 12th seed Kirsten Flipkens in a rematch of the Roger's Cup first round. She was defeated by Zheng Jie in three sets. She entered the doubles with Serena Williams. They beat Carla Suarez Navarro and Silvia Soler Espinosa in the first round. In the second round, the duo beat the 7th seeded team of Abigail Spears and Raquel Kops-Jones, and defeated the 11th seeded team of Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova and Lucie Safarova in the third round. In the quarterfinals, they defeated the 1st seeded team of Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci in a rematch of the Australian Open quarterfinals. Their run ended in the semifinals against the 5th seeded team and eventual champions Lucie Hradecka and Andrea Hlavackova. Her next tournament was the Toray Pan Pacific Open. She defeated Mona Barthel in the first round, and upset the 1st-seeded and No. 2-ranked Victoria Azarenka in the second round. In the third round, she came back from a set down to beat the 13th seed Simona Halep in three sets to make it to the quarterfinals of the Premier 5 event. In the quarterfinals she defeated Canadian Eugenie Bouchard in three sets, but fell in the semifinals to Petra Kvitova in another three set match. Williams subsequently played at the 2013 China Open in Beijing where she played singles and doubles. Williams lost her second round match in singles losing to Sabine Lisicki and she also lost her first round match in doubles despite having two match points. Williams's last tournament of the season was the 2013 Kremlin Cup in Moscow, but she withdrew due to injury, bringing an end to her 2013 season. 2014–17: Resurgence and first Grand Slam finals since 2009 2014: Ending title drought Williams started her official tennis season as No. 47 at the 2014 ASB Classic in Auckland, where she finished runner-up to Ana Ivanovic. She next participated, unseeded, at the 2014 Australian Open where she lost in the first round to No. 23 Ekaterina Makarova in three sets. Moving on to Doha, Williams lost to No. 6 Petra Kvitová in the second round at the 2014 Qatar Total Open after failing to put away match point in the third set tie-break. Williams then entered the Dubai Tennis Championships where she defeated five top-40 players to win her biggest title since the Mutua Madrid Open in 2010 and, at 33 years and 8 months of age, became the seventh-oldest woman to win a WTA singles title. En route, she avenged her loss to Ana Ivanovic in Auckland 6–2, 6–1 and her sister Serena's loss to Alizé Cornet in the semifinals, then won the title match the 6–3, 6–0, keeping her head-to-head record perfect against Caroline Wozniacki. Williams then competed in Miami at the 2014 Sony Open Tennis and in Charleston at the 2014 Family Circle Cup where she lost to Dominika Cibulková on hard and Eugenie Bouchard on clay, respectively – both in the round of 16 and both in three sets. At the 2014 Internazionali BNL d'Italia, Williams failed to force three sets in a loss for the first time that year, falling 4–6, 2–6 to Carla Suárez Navarro. At the 2014 French Open, Williams was upset by No. 56 Anna Karolína Schmiedlová in three sets. Williams then lost in the third round of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships, 7–5, 6–7, 5–7 to eventual champion Petra Kvitová in a classic and much-praised encounter that saw 34 holds of serve and only two breaks. Williams was the only player to take a set against Kvitová in the tournament. Williams played her first tournament of the 2014 US Open Series at the 2014 Bank of the West Classic, where she is a two-time former champion. In the second round, she scored her first Top-10 victory of the year and improved her head-to-head record against Victoria Azarenka to 4–0. In the quarterfinals, Williams lost to No. 18 Andrea Petkovic in three sets. At the 2014 Rogers Cup, Williams defeated No. 24 Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in three sets, scoring her first victory at that tournament on her fifth attempt. She defeated No. 7 Angelique Kerber in the third round in a three-set thriller described by one of the commentators as "quite simply one of the matches of the 2014 season so far on the WTA". Williams produced yet another upset in three sets against Carla Suárez Navarro to advance to the semifinals, where she defeated younger sister and No. 1 Serena Williams in the pair's 25th meeting. It was her 14th victory over a reigning No. 1 and her first since the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, when she defeated Dinara Safina 6–1, 6–0 in the semifinals. It was also the first time since 2009 that Williams had beaten her younger sister Serena. She lost the championship match 4–6, 2–6 to No. 5 Agnieszka Radwańska. At her final tournament before the 2014 US Open, Williams lost in a tight three-setter to No. 17 Lucie Šafářová in the first round at the 2014 Western & Southern Open. At the US Open Williams made it to the third round for the first time since 2010 and was two points away (multiple times) from moving into the Round of 16 before ultimately going down to 13th-seeded Sara Errani for the first time in four meetings. Williams's next tournament was at the 2014 Coupe Banque Nationale in Quebec, where she received a wildcard as the No. 1 seed. She advanced to the quarterfinals in straight-set first- and second-round victories and was set to play Czech player, Lucie Hradecká. She defeated Hradecká in a 2-hour, 13-minute match, winning 6–3, 4–6, 7–6(3). In the semifinal, Williams beat fellow countrywomen Shelby Rogers in straight sets to progress to her fourth final of the year, where she lost to a resurgent Mirjana Lučić-Baroni in straight sets. Williams then played at the 2014 Wuhan Open, where she lost in the first round to Caroline Garcia despite having held a match point. Her final tournament of the year was at the 2014 China Open, where she won her first two matches before withdrawing before the third round. Williams ended the year ranked No. 19 in singles, the first finish since 2010 inside the top 20. Williams joined the Bangalore Raptors team in 2014 for the first edition of Champions Tennis League India. 2015: Improvement at the Grand Slams and re-entering the top 10 Williams started off her season at the 2015 ASB Classic, where she won her 46th career singles title by defeating Caroline Wozniacki in three sets in the final. Then, at the Australian Open, Williams made it to the quarterfinals at a Grand Slam for the first time since the 2010 US Open. She defeated Camila Giorgi in the third round having to recover from 4–6, 2–4 and 0–40 down to reach the second week of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time since the 2011 Wimbledon Championships and then overturned a three-match losing streak to Agnieszka Radwańska before losing to Madison Keys after being up a break in the deciding set. Williams had her 16-match winning streak at the Dubai Tennis Championships ended by Lucie Šafářová in the third round. Her next tournament was at the Qatar Total Open where she saved a match point in a heated encounter versus Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová in the second round before defeating Agnieszka Radwańska for a second time in 2015 to advance to the semifinals. She ended up losing in three sets to Victoria Azarenka. Williams competed at the Miami Open, where she won against Samantha Stosur in the third round and Caroline Wozniacki in the fourth round (scoring her fourth top-10 win of the season and improving her head-to-head record against Wozniacki to a perfect 7–0). In the quarterfinals, she was defeated by Carla Suárez Navarro in three sets. Williams began her clay court season at the Madrid Open where she lost in the first round to Victoria Azarenka in straight sets. She made it to the third round of the Italian Open before losing to Simona Halep. Williams failed to win her opening match at the 2015 French Open, where she lost in straight sets to American Sloane Stephens. She did not attend her mandatory post-match press conference and was subsequently fined $3000. Williams then played at Wimbledon, winning her first three rounds in straight sets. She then lost to her sister, Serena, in the fourth round in straight sets (4–6, 3–6). Williams then played at the Istanbul Cup where she lost in the first round to qualifier Kateryna Bondarenko. Williams began her US Open series at the Rogers Cup, where she was a finalist last year. She lost in the first round, 6–0, 6–3 to Sabine Lisicki. Her loss pushed her outside of the top 20. Her next tournament was at the Western and Southern Open in Cincinnati. She made it to the second round and was set to play Ana Ivanovic, before she withdrew due to a virus. She was seeded 23rd for the US Open and played Monica Puig in the first round. She led 6–4, 5–3 and held three match points, but lost the second set. She won the match 6–4, 6–7(7–9), 6–3. In the second round, she overcame 2 costly double faults in the second set to defeat fellow American Irina Falconi 6–3, 6–7(2–7), 6–2. She defeated 12th seed Belinda Bencic and qualifier Anett Kontaveit in straight sets in the third and fourth rounds, respectively. Williams played her sister, Serena Williams, in the quarterfinals in their 5th meeting at the US Open and their 27th meeting overall. Williams lost the match in three sets (2–6, 6–1, 3–6). Williams scored her fifth top 10 win of the season by defeating No. 7 Agnieszka Radwańska in the first round of the Wuhan Open. She then beat qualifier Julia Görges in the second round for her 700th career win (becoming only the ninth woman in the Open Era to achieve this feat). She landed another top 10 victory by winning against No. 10 Carla Suárez Navarro in the third round. Williams defeated both Johanna Konta and Roberta Vinci (saving match point) in three sets to move into the championship match where she won her biggest title in more than 5 years when her opponent, No. 8 Garbiñe Muguruza, retired while trailing a set and a double break. The next week Williams lost to Ana Ivanovic in the second round of the China Open. She made it to the semifinals of the Hong Kong Open where she lost in a tight two-setter to eventual champion Jelena Janković. With her results throughout the season, Williams became an Alternate for the WTA Finals in Singapore. Additionally, she qualified for the WTA Elite Trophy in Zhuhai where she is the number one seed. She defeated Madison Keys in her first round-robin match in three sets, 3–6, 7–6(7–5), 6–1. In her second round-robin match she defeated wildcard Zheng Saisai 4–6, 6–1, 6–1 to advance to the semifinals, where she defeated Roberta Vinci for a fifth consecutive time. Williams captured the first WTA Elite Trophy, her third WTA title of the season and 48th title of her career by defeating Karolína Plíšková, 7–5, 7–6(8–6) in the final. She re-entered the top ten for the first time since 2011 and ended the year at No. 7 in the WTA rankings. Williams was the 10th most popular player of the year according to the WTA's website and received the WTA Comeback Player of the Year award. 2016: Wimbledon semifinal, highest ranking since 2011 and record Olympic medal tally Williams began 2016 by playing at the World Tennis Thailand Championship – an exhibition event in Thailand – where she lost to Sara Errani and Angelique Kerber. She then entered the ASB Classic, where she was the No. 1 seed and defending champion, and lost in the first round to 18-year-old Daria Kasatkina. (This was also Williams's first tournament since the 2011 Australian Open as a top-10 player.) At the Australian Open, Williams, seeded 8th, lost to Johanna Konta in the first round. Afterwards, she helped the USA Fed Cup Team to a 4–0 victory over Poland, winning both of her singles matches. Williams's next tournament was at the Taiwan Open, where she was the No. 1 seed. She defeated Misaki Doi in the final, earning her 49th career title. Williams returned to Indian Wells for the first time in 15 years after boycotting the tournament in 2001, but lost in the second round to Kurumi Nara. The following week, she was knocked out in the second round of the Miami Open by qualifier Elena Vesnina. Both results marked her worst exits at Indian Wells and Miami in her 23-year career. She began the clay-court season with a win over Alison Riske at the Charleston Open, before losing to Yulia Putintseva in the third round in three tight sets. Williams was scheduled to begin her clay-court season at the Madrid Open but withdrew due to a hamstring injury. The following week, she lost in the second round in Rome. Seeded 9th at the French Open, Williams won her first two rounds in straight sets to set up a third-round clash with Alizé Cornet, whom she defeated in three sets to reach the fourth round for the first time since 2010. She recorded the 200th loss of her career against 8th-seeded Timea Bacsinszky, who won in straight sets. However, her result pushed her back into the top 10 for the first time since her loss at the Australian Open. She also won her first Grand Slam doubles match with sister Serena Williams since the 2014 US Open. At the Wimbledon Championships, Williams reached the third round of the championships where she overcame the 29th seed, Daria Kasatkina, in a 2-hour, 42-minute marathon. She defeated 12th seed Carla Suarez Navarro in the fourth round, and now leads 4–3 in their head-to-head meetings. Williams advanced to the quarterfinals for the first time in six years, where she defeated Yaroslava Shvedova. In her first Grand Slam semifinal since the 2010 US Open and her first Wimbledon semifinal since 2009, she lost to 4th seed Angelique Kerber in straight sets. In the doubles tournament, Venus and Serena Williams advanced to their first Grand Slam Doubles final since 2012. They then won their 14th major title together and sixth at Wimbledon. Williams began her US Open series at the Stanford Classic, where she was the No. 1 seed. She defeated Magda Linette in the second round and compatriots Catherine Bellis and Alison Riske in the quarterfinals and semifinals respectively to reach her eighth final in Stanford. She lost to Johanna Konta, 5–7, 7–5, 2–6. By virtue of her result, Williams ascended to No. 6 in the rankings, her highest position since being diagnosed with Sjögren's syndrome in 2011. Williams then entered the Rogers Cup. Having received a bye in the first round, Williams won her second-round match against Barbora Strycova in straight sets. She fell to Madison Keys in the third round in three sets. Williams failed to medal in her singles and doubles events at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics, falling in the first round in both events, marking her worst exits of her Olympic career. She entered the mixed doubles event with Rajeev Ram, defeating the Netherlands in the first round after saving match point. The pair then defeated Italy in the quarterfinals and India in the semifinals to set up a clash with the United States team of Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Jack Sock in the gold medal match. The duo lost to Mattek-Sands and Sock 7–6(7–3), 1–6, [7–10]. By winning a silver medal, Williams became the only female player (besides Kathleen McKane Godfree) to win a medal in all three events (singles, doubles and mixed); her five medals mean she now shares the record for most Olympic medals won in tennis with Godfree. At the US Open, Williams broke the record for the most Grand Slam appearances, surpassing Amy Frazier's record of 71. This is also the first time that she's been seeded in the top ten at all four Grand Slam tournaments this year, having last achieved this in 2010. She won her first three-round matches respectively against Kateryna Kozlova, Julia Görges and the 26th seed Laura Siegemund. She lost in the fourth round to 10th seed Karolína Plíšková after failing to convert match point. In September 2016, in response to WADA database leak, Williams confirmed the usage of banned substances classified by WADA as Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUEs), stating: "The applications for TUEs under the Tennis Anti-Doping program require a strict process for approval which I have adhered to when serious medical conditions have occurred". Williams failed to defend her title in Wuhan, falling in the third round to 9th seed Svetlana Kuznetsova. This pushed her outside of the top ten for a second time this year. The following week she was bundled out of the China Open in the first round by No. 223-ranked Peng Shuai. Williams qualified for the WTA Elite Trophy, where she was the defending champion, however she decided not to participate. She finished the year ranked No. 17. 2017: Australian Open, Wimbledon & Tour Championships finalist, return to the top 5 Williams began her 2017 season at the ASB Classic, winning her opening match against local wildcard Jade Lewis before withdrawing due to a right arm pain. Seeded 13th at the Australian Open, Williams defeated Kateryna Kozlova, qualifier Stefanie Vögele, Duan Yingying and qualifier Mona Barthel in the opening four rounds respectively in straight sets to advance to the quarterfinals. She defeated 24th seed Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova for her 50th win at the Australian Open, the first time Williams won a quarterfinal match in Melbourne since defeating Daniela Hantuchová in 2003. Coming back from a set down in her semifinal match, Williams defeated rising American star Coco Vandeweghe 6–7(3–7), 6–2, 6–3 to advance to her first Grand Slam final since Wimbledon 2009 and her first Australian Open final since 2003. In doing so, she set the Open Era record for the longest span (20 years) between grand slam singles final appearances, having first reached a grand slam singles final at the 1997 US Open. In a closely fought final, she lost 6–4, 6–4 to her younger sister Serena Williams, who made history by winning her 23rd Grand Slam singles title, surpassing the mark set by Steffi Graf. The following week, Williams competed in the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy, but lost in the second round to eventual champion Kristina Mladenovic. At the Indian Wells Masters, Williams came back from 1–6, 1–4 down and saved three match points in the second round to defeat Jelena Jankovic, tying their head-to-head record at seven-all. This was her first win at Indian Wells since 2001. She defeated Lucie Safarova and qualifier Peng Shuai in the third and fourth rounds respectively, avenging her previous losses to both players. She lost to the eventual champion, Elena Vesnina, in the quarterfinals. The following week, Williams scored her first top-ten win since 2015, against Svetlana Kuznetsova in the fourth round of the Miami Open. She defeated No. 1 Angelique Kerber in the quarterfinals, becoming the oldest player to beat a current No. 1. She lost for a third consecutive time to eventual champion Johanna Konta in straight sets in her first semifinal in Miami since 2010. This marked her fourth consecutive loss to eventual champions. The following week, after receiving a bye, Williams lost to eventual semi-finalist Laura Siegemund in the Volvo Car Open. Having saved match point in the second set, Williams forced two match points in the third set, but Siegemund saved both. After the match, Williams said, "This could be the best match she'll ever play in her life. I basically won the match but still lost." Williams withdrew from the Madrid Open after an injury to her right arm. She made her European clay-court debut at the Italian Open where she defeated Yaroslava Shvedova and Lesia Tsurenko in straight sets. She defeated No. 6 Johanna Konta in the third round, but lost in her first quarterfinal in Rome since 2012 to Garbiñe Muguruza in three sets. During this match, Williams hit a reactionary lob off an attacking forehand that was voted WTA shot of the month. Williams defeated Qiang Wang, Kurumi Nara and Elise Mertens in the first three rounds of the French Open before again losing to Bacsinszky in the fourth round, this time in three sets. Williams entered Wimbledon as the number 10 seed. She defeated Elise Mertens, Qiang Wang, Naomi Osaka and Ana Konjuh to reach the quarterfinals for the 13th time in her career, where she defeated the 2017 French Open Champion Jelena Ostapenko in straight sets. This was also her 100th career match at Wimbledon. She advanced to her ninth Wimbledon final by defeating Johanna Konta in straight sets in the semifinals. This marked her 87th win at Wimbledon, the third most on the all-time list. This also marked the first season since 2003 that Williams reached two slam finals. Williams lost the final in straight sets to Garbiñe Muguruza. She gained the No. 9 ranking by reaching the final, her second appearance in the top 10 in 2017; she had briefly returned to the top 10 in 2017 by virtue of beating Angelique Kerber in Miami. Williams began her play in the US Open Series at the Canadian Open. She defeated qualifier Irina-Camelia Begu in three sets and Kateřina Siniaková in straight sets before losing to fifth seed and eventual champion Elina Svitolina in the third round. The next week Williams competed in the Cincinnati Masters tournament. She defeated Alison Riske in the first round before losing to Ashleigh Barty in the second round. Barty was the first person to have defeated Williams and fail to reach at least the semifinals of the event in which they had defeated her in 2017. At the 2017 US Open, Williams defeated Viktória Kužmová, Océane Dodin, and Maria Sakkari to reach the fourth round. Williams reached the second week of all grand slams in a single season for the first time since 2010, and reached the second week of seven consecutive grand slams, the longest streak among WTA players at that time. In the fourth round, Williams beat Carla Suárez Navarro in three sets to reach her twelfth US Open quarterfinal, where she defeated Petra Kvitová in a third set tiebreak during the two-hour, thirty-five minute match. She also guaranteed her return to the top five in the WTA Rankings at the conclusion of the tournament for the first time since January 2011. Williams then lost in three sets to fellow American and eventual champion Sloane Stephens in her first US Open semifinal since 2010. On September 26, Williams qualified for the WTA Finals for the first time since 2010. In her first tournament after the U.S. Open, Williams defeated Risa Ozaki in the first round of the Hong Kong Open, before falling to Naomi Osaka. At the WTA Finals, Williams was placed in the White Group with Karolína Plíšková, Garbiñe Muguruza and Jelena Ostapenko. After losing her first match to Pliskova in straight sets, Williams defeated Ostapenko in a marathon match lasting almost three and a half hours. She defeated Muguruza in straight sets to progress to the semifinals, avenging her loss to the Spaniard in the Wimbledon final. Williams then defeated Caroline Garcia in three sets to advance to her first final at the year-end championships since 2009, where she finished runner-up to sister Serena Williams. She met Caroline Wozniacki in the final, where she found herself down a set and 0–5. Despite winning the next four games, she lost the match, 4–6, 4–6. She finished the year ranked number 5 and topped the prize money list for this year. 2018–present: Dip in rankings, struggles 2018: 1000th match, struggle with form Williams began her 2018 season at the Sydney International, where she was the second seed and received a first-round bye. In the second round she lost to German woman Angelique Kerber, who went on to win the tournament. As the fifth seed and defending finalist at the Australian Open, Williams lost in straight sets to Belinda Bencic in the first round, ending her streak of seven consecutive appearances in the second week of the Grand Slams, and as a result dropping considerably in the rankings as well. Williams competed in the Fed Cup quarter-finals against the Netherlands. She won both her singles matches in straight sets against Arantxa Rus and Richèl Hogenkamp to send the United States into the semifinals. She also played her career 1000th match and earned her 20th Fed Cup singles win. After receiving a first round bye at the Indian Wells Masters, Williams defeated Sorana Cirstea to set up a match with her sister, Serena, in the third round. She defeated her for the 12th time in her career – her first straight sets victory against her since the 2008 Wimbledon Championships final almost a decade earlier. She then defeated Anastasija Sevastova in the fourth round and Carla Suarez Navarro in the quarterfinals, both in straight sets. She then fell to Daria Kasatkina in a close three set match in the semifinals. The following week at the Miami Open, Williams saved three match points in her third round match against Dutch woman Kiki Bertens. She subsequently knocked out defending champion English woman Johanna Konta in the fourth round, before falling rather unexpectedly to her compatriot and qualifier Danielle Collins in the quarterfinals. Williams began her clay court season at the Madrid Open where she lost to Anett Kontaveit in the first round. Seeded eighth at the Italian Open, she received a first round bye, before defeating Elena Vesnina in three sets. She lost to Kontaveit again in the third round. Williams also played doubles with compatriot Madison Keys, but the team withdrew after winning their first round match with Keys sustaining an injury. Williams lost to Qiang Wang in the first round of the French Open, marking the first time she has lost in the first round of consecutive Grand Slam events. Williams also reached the third round in doubles with Serena, losing to third seeds Klepac and Martinez Sanchez. The defending finalist at the Wimbledon, Williams defeated Johanna Larsson and Alexandra Dulgheru in the first and second rounds respectively, before losing to Kiki Bertens in the third round. As a result, she dropped out of the top ten rankings. Williams began her US Open series at the Silicon Valley Classic after accepting a wildcard, defeating Heather Watson in the second round, before losing in the quarterfinals to eventual finalist Maria Sakkari. She won her opening two rounds at the Rogers Cup before losing 6–2, 6–2 to the then world number one, Romanian woman Simona Halep, hampered by a right knee injury. She withdrew from the Western & Southern Open the following week with the same injury. At the US Open, Williams defeated 2004 champion Svetlana Kuznetsova and Camila Giorgi en route to a third round encounter – and 30th career match overall, with Serena, where she was handed her most-lopsided loss against her in five years. Following the US Open, Venus withdrew from the Wuhan Open and China Open, citing "she was not physically ready to compete". She was scheduled to finish her season at the Luxembourg Open, but pulled out due to a knee injury. She finished the season ranked no. 40, the first time since 2013 she failed to finish the season inside the top 20. Williams parted ways with her long-time coach David Witt at the end of the 2018 season. 2019: Continued struggles, Out of top 50 Williams began her 2019 season with an exhibition match against Serena at the Mubadala World Tennis Championship, which she won 10–8 in the match tiebreak. Williams then played in the ASB Classic in Auckland, where she was seeded sixth. She defeated Victoria Azarenka and Lauren Davis, before losing in the quarterfinals to Bianca Andreescu in three sets. Unseeded at the Australian Open, Williams defeated Mihaela Buzarnescu and French woman Alizé Cornet, both in three sets, to set up a meeting with the topseeded Simona Halep in the third round. Williams lost to Halep 2–6, 3–6. Ranked 36th and unseeded at the Indian Wells, Williams started with a win over Andrea Petkovic, before coming back from a set and a double break down to beat the third seed Petra Kvitová in the second round. This was Williams's first top five win since the 2017 WTA Finals. She then defeated Christina McHale and Mona Barthel to advance to her third straight Indian Wells quarterfinal, where she lost to the 8th seed and eventual runner-up Angelique Kerber. Ranked 43rd as she entered the Miami Open, Williams beat Dalila Jakupović, Spanish woman Carla Suarez Navarro and Daria Kasatkina, all in straight sets, before falling again to third ranked Simona Halep in the fourth round. Williams started her clay court season as a wildcard at the Italian Open. She defeated Belgian woman Elise Mertens in a third set tiebreak (after three hours of play) to set up a second round match with her sister Serena. Due to a left knee injury, however, Serena was forced to withdraw from the match. Williams then fell to eventual runner-up Johanna Konta in the third round in straight sets. She subsequently fell to the ninth seed, Elina Svitolina, in the French Open first round, her second year in a row failing to win a match at the French Open. For the first time since 2011 and fourth time in her career, Williams played a Wimbledon warmup event after accepting a wildcard into the Nature Valley Classic. She defeated Aliaksandra Sasnovich in the first round to set up a meeting with Wang Qiang, which Williams also won to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to eventual champion and new world number one Australian Ashleigh Barty. However, thanks to this run, Williams returned to the top fifty in the rankings. She also accepted a wildcard to play doubles with Harriet Dart, losing in the first round in a match tiebreak. At Wimbledon, Williams, whilst unseeded, faced compatriot Coco Gauff, a fifteen-year-old qualifier, the youngest qualifier in the history of the event. Gauff stunned Williams in a tight two-set match: 6–4, 6–4. The loss matched 2012 as her earliest Wimbledon exit. Williams also entered the mixed doubles with Frances Tiafoe and they lost in the second round. Williams fell in the first round of the Silicon Valley Classic and the Rogers Cup to Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Carla Suarez Navarro, respectively. At the Western & Southern Open, Williams ended her four-match losing streak with a straight sets victory over compatriot Lauren Davis before defeating defending champion and fifth seed Kiki Bertens in a third set tiebreak. Williams then came back from a set down against Donna Vekic to advance to her fourth quarterfinal of 2019, where she fell to eventual champion Madison Keys. Williams next played at the US Open where she lost just one game against Zheng Saisai before falling to eventual semi-finalist Elina Svitolina in the second round. Williams accepted a wild card to play the Wuhan Open, where she lost in the first round to Danielle Collins. Next, Williams defeated Barbora Strycova in the first round of the China Open before losing to Belinda Bencic after having two match points. Williams's season ended with a first round loss to eventual champion Rebecca Peterson at the Tianjin Open. 2020: Dismal results, Three Grand Slam first round exits, One match win, out of top 75 Williams was scheduled to start her 2020 season at the Brisbane International but withdrew before the tournament began. She also had to withdraw from the Adelaide International. At the Australian Open, Williams was beaten by Coco Gauff in the first round. At the Mexican Open, where she was the fifth seed, Williams was beaten by qualifier Kaja Juvan. After a four-month break due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Williams returned to competition by playing World TeamTennis. Her first official tournament back was the 2020 Top Seed Open, where she defeated Victoria Azarenka in the first round, then took on sister Serena for the 31st time in the second round, losing to her in a tight three-set match. Williams then fell to Dayana Yastremska in the first round of the Western & Southern Open. Following the tournament, Williams dropped to no. 67 in the WTA 31 August 2020 rankings. At the 2020 US Open, Williams lost in straight sets against WTA no. 26 Karolina Muchova in the first round. Williams travelled to 2020 Italian Open (tennis) in Rome the week after the US Open to join the rescheduled clay court swing. In the first round, she drew Azarenka for the second time in five weeks; on this occasion, Williams lost in straight sets, taking their career head-to-head record to 6–2 in Williams's favor. At the 2020 French Open, Williams crashed out in straight-sets to Anna Karolína Schmiedlová. She finished the year with one match win and a 1–8 tour record. Williams's ranking fell to 78 in the world by the end of the season. 2021: Out of the top 100, lowest ranking in 10 years, 90th Grand Slam appearance Williams started the 2021 season at the Yarra Valley Classic, where she defeated Arantxa Rus in straight sets before losing in straight sets to number four seed Petra Kvitova. She also reached the second round of the 2021 Australian Open. Since then Williams was on a 5-match losing streak and dropped out of the top 100 in May, before the 2021 French Open, to her lowest ranking since 2011. At the French Open, she lost in the first round to 32nd seed Ekaterina Alexandrova. She received a wildcard for the main draw of the 2021 Wimbledon Championships but she was later upgraded to the main draw as direct entry due to Naomi Osaka's withdrawal. She won her first round match against Mihaela Buzarnescu. This was Venus Williams's record breaking 90th Grand Slam appearance and also her 90th match win at Wimbledon. Rivalries Venus vs. Serena Williams Williams has played younger sister Serena in 31 professional matches since 1998. Overall, Venus has won 12 of those matches and Serena Williams has won 19. They have met in 15 Grand Slam tournaments, with Venus Williams winning five matches to her sister Serena's ten. They have met in nine Grand Slam tournament finals, with Venus winning twice. Of the six occasions where they met in an earlier round, the victor has gone on to win the championship four times (Venus once, in the 2000 Wimbledon Championships). Beginning with the 2002 French Open, they played each other in four consecutive Grand Slam singles finals, the first time in the open era that the same two players contested four consecutive major finals. Williams vs. Hingis Williams and Hingis met 21 times during their careers. The overall head-to-head series is 11–10 in Hingis' favor. Their rivalry is one of the best in women's sports and has been called a "rivalry for the ages". They met in the 1997 US Open final during Williams's debut; Hingis won the match in straight sets. Williams vs. Davenport Davenport leads the rivalry 14–13 in their 27 professional matches. Williams leads 3–0 in Grand Slam Finals. The most noteworthy match they played was the 2005 Wimbledon championships which broke the record for the longest Wimbledon women's final. Williams won the match and also saved a match point, which makes her only the second woman in the Open Era to save a match point and go on to win a Major final. Fight for equal prize money Despite years of protesting by tennis pioneer Billie Jean King and others, in 2005 the French Open and Wimbledon still refused to pay women's and men's players equally through all rounds. In 2005, Williams met with officials from both tournaments, arguing that female tennis players should be paid as much as male tennis players. Although WTA tour President Larry Scott commented that she left "a very meaningful impression", Williams's demands were rejected. The turning point was an essay published in The Times on the eve of Wimbledon in 2006. In it, Williams accused Wimbledon of being on the "wrong side of history". In response, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and members of Parliament publicly endorsed Williams's arguments. Later that year, the Women's Tennis Association and UNESCO teamed for a campaign to promote gender equality in sports, asking Williams to lead the campaign. Under enormous pressure, Wimbledon announced in February 2007 that it would award equal prize money to all competitors in all rounds, and the French Open followed suit a day later. In the aftermath, the Chicago Sun-Times cited Williams as "the single factor" that "changed the minds of the boys" and a leader whose "willingness to take a public stand separates her not only from most of her female peers, but also from our most celebrated male athletes". Williams herself commented, "Somewhere in the world a little girl is dreaming of holding a giant trophy in her hands and being viewed as an equal to boys who have similar dreams." Williams herself became the first woman to benefit from the equalization of prize money at Wimbledon, as she won the 2007 tournament and was awarded the same amount as the male winner Roger Federer. Williams's fight for equality was documented in Nine for IX, Venus Vs. It premiered on July 2, 2013. Other on court activities 1998: Karsten Braasch vs. the Williams sisters Williams, along with her sister Serena, competed in a "Battle of the Sexes" against Karsten Braasch at the 1998 Australian Open. Braasch, the world's 203rd-ranked player, was more than 13 years older than the sisters and was described by a journalist as "a man whose training regime centered around a pack of cigarettes and more than a couple bottles of ice cold lager." However, he defeated both sisters in a single set against each, beating Serena 6–1 and Venus 6–2. After the sets, Braasch said "500 and above, no chance." He added that he had played as if ranked 600th in order to keep the game "fun." Personal life In 2003, Yetunde Price, Venus and Serena Williams's 31-year-old sister as well as their personal assistant, was shot dead in Compton, California near the courts on which the sisters once practiced. The Williams family issued this statement shortly after the death: "We are extremely shocked, saddened and devastated by the shooting death of our beloved Yetunde. She was our nucleus and our rock. She was a personal assistant, confidante, and adviser to her sisters, and her death leaves a void that can never be filled. Our grief is overwhelming, and this is the saddest day of our lives." On December 13, 2007, Williams received her associate degree in fashion design from the Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale. In 2011, Williams was forced to withdraw from the US Open before her second-round match following a Sjögren's syndrome diagnosis. After the diagnosis, she adopted a vegan diet and reduced her intake of calories and sugars to return to fitness. In 2015, Williams received a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration from Indiana University East. She began her studies toward the degree in 2011 through a reciprocal agreement between the university and the Women's Tennis Association that allows athletes to play tennis professionally while studying online. Williams has expressed her desire to earn an MBA in the near future. Williams is a Jehovah's Witness. Relationships Williams has dated golfer Hank Kuehne, who was a visible presence from the time of Wimbledon 2007 until 2010. In 2012, she met Cuban model Elio Pis when he was hired as an underwear model for her clothing line; they dated until 2015. She dated publishing heir Nicholas Hammond for two years until 2019. 2017 car accident On June 9, 2017, Williams was driving in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida when another car collided with her SUV before she cleared the intersection, an accident that killed a 78-year-old man and injured another person in the second vehicle. Police originally said that Williams was "at fault" for the accident, but after reviewing surveillance video, they determined on July 7 that she had not caused it. On December 21, 2017, authorities determined that the accident had occurred after Williams' vehicle was unlawfully cut off by an unidentified driver of a third vehicle, making a left turn in front of Williams. A nearby surveillance camera had recorded Williams lawfully entering the intersection. Authorities determined the accident was caused by the unidentified third driver, not by Williams. Business ventures Williams is the chief executive officer of her interior design firm V Starr Interiors, located in Jupiter, Florida. Her company designed the set of the Tavis Smiley Show on the Public Broadcasting Service, the Olympic athletes' apartments as part of New York City's failed bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics, and residences and businesses in the Palm Beach, Florida area. In 2001, Williams was named among the 30 most powerful women in America by the Ladies Home Journal. In 2007, Williams teamed with retailer Steve & Barry's to launch her own fashion line, EleVen. "I love fashion and the idea that I am using my design education to actually create clothing and footwear that I will wear on and off the tennis court is a dream come true for me. The vision has been to create a collection that will allow women to enjoy an active lifestyle while remaining fashionable at the same time. I'm thrilled with everything we've created to launch EleVen." Williams's line debuted during the 2012 New York fashion week. It was modeled by athletes rather than models, as Williams chose to feature the type of people for whom the line was designed. She also wears outfits from her fashion line on the tennis court. In June 2009, Williams was named 77th in the Top 100 Most Powerful Celebrities list compiled by Forbes magazine. In August 2009, Williams and her sister Serena became minority owners of the Miami Dolphins. The announcement was made during a press conference overlooking the practice field. This made the sisters the first African-American women to obtain ownership in an NFL franchise. Stephen M. Ross, the majority owner of the Dolphins, said: "We are thrilled to have Venus and Serena Williams join the Dolphins as limited partners. They are among the most admired athletes in the world and have become global ambassadors for the game of tennis. Their addition to our ownership group further reflects our commitment to connect with aggressively and embrace the great diversity that makes South Florida a multicultural gem." In late June 2010, Williams released her first book, Come to Win; On How Sports Can Help You Top Your Profession, which she cowrote with Kelly E. Carter. To promote the book, she embarked on a nationwide tour and appeared on several talk shows, including The Early Show and Good Morning America. The book reached the top five on The New York Times Best Seller List. In October 2021, Williams entered a long-term partnership with GhostBed, the leading online mattress retailer and manufacturer of boxed beds, which envisions an initial collection of performance mattresses designed by Venus Williams that will later expand into a full sleep solutions and home furnishings lineup. Recognition In 2005, Tennis Magazine ranked Williams as the 25th-best player of the past 40 years. In June 2011, she was named one of the "30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future" by Time. In March 2012, Tennis Channel aired a television series listing the 100 greatest players of all time, ranking Williams 22nd. In the series, Lindsay Davenport says: "Venus had more power than any other player on tour." In 2018, Tennis Magazine ranked Williams as the eighth-best female player of the Open Era. In May 2020, both the Tennis Channel and Newsday ranked Williams as the eighth-greatest female player of all time. Equipment Coach: Richard Williams, Oracene Price Racket: Wilson Blade 104 Clothing: EleVen Shoes: Nike In 1995, when Williams was 14 years old, she signed an endorsement deal with Reebok and wore the company's apparel and shoes. She used a Wilson Hammer 6.2 Stretch racket. Career statistics Grand Slam tournament performance timeline Current through the Wimbledon Championships. Grand Slam tournament finals Singles: 16 (7 titles, 9 runner-ups) Doubles: 14 (14-0) Mixed doubles: 3 (2 titles, 1 runner-up) World Team Tennis Williams has played 14 seasons of World TeamTennis, making her debut in 2000 with the St. Louis Aces, playing a season with the Delaware Smash in 2005, three seasons with the Philadelphia Freedoms from 2006 to 2008, and eight seasons with the Washington Kastles in 2010–2015, 2017–2019. She has five King Trophies, claiming her first with the Freedoms in 2006 and four trophies with the Kastles in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2015. She was also named the 2012 WTT Final MVP for her efforts. It was announced she will be joining the Washington Kastles during the 2020 WTT season set to begin July 12 at The Greenbrier. Records and achievements These records were attained in Open Era of tennis. Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements. Records in italics are currently active streaks. Awards 1995 Sports Image Foundation Award for conducting tennis clinics in low-income areas 1997 WTA Newcomer of the Year September's Olympic Committee Female Athlete 1998 Tennis Magazine's Most Improved Player 2000 WTA Player of the Year WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) Sports Illustrated for Women's Sportswoman of the Year Teen Choice Awards – Extraordinary Achievement Award Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 62) Women's Sports Foundation Sportswoman of the Year for team sports (with Serena Williams) 2001 Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award EMMA Best Sport Personality Award Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 57) 2002 Best Female Athlete ESPY Award Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 60) 2003 The President's Award of the 34th NAACP Image Awards Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 65) 2004 Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 1) Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 77) 2005 Glamour Magazine's Women of the Year Award Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 81) Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) 2006 Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award BET's Best Female Athlete of the Year Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 1) Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 90) 2007 Gitanjali Diamond Award Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) Vogue Magazine Top 10 Best Dressed List for 2007 2008 Whirlpool 6th Sense Player of the Year Award Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) Anti-Defamation League Americanism Award Whirlpool 6th Sense Player of the Year Award ITF Women's Doubles World Champion (with Serena Williams) WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) WTA Fan Favorite Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) Doha 21st Century Leaders Awards – Outstanding Leadership Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 77) Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 2) 2009 WTA doubles team of the year (with Serena Williams) WTA Fan Favorite Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) 2010 Caesars Tennis Classic Achievement Award Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 83) YWCA GLA Phenomenal Woman of the Year Award WTA Fan Favorite Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) Forbes 30 Utterly Inspiring Role Models Forbes 100 Most Powerful Women in the World (No. 60) Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 2) Jefferson Award for Outstanding Public Service in Professional Sports 2011 Forbes The Celebrity 100 (No. 86) TIME Magazine 30 Legends of Women's Tennis Forbes Most Powerful Black Women In The U.S. (No. 10) Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 2) 2012 World TeamTennis Finals Most Valuable Player WTA Player Service Award WTA Fan Favorite Doubles Team of the Year (with Serena Williams) 2013 BET Black Girls Rock! Star Power Award Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) WTA Player Service Award 2014 Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) WTA Fan Favorite Dress (2014 Wimbledon) Tennis Magazine Top 10 Matches of 2014 No. 3 (2014 Wimbledon 3rd Round) ESPN Tennis Top 10 Women's Matches of 2014 No. 3 (2014 Wimbledon 3rd Round) 2015 US Open Sportsmanship Award WTA February Best Dressed Player WTA French Open Best Dressed Player WTA October Best Dressed Player Harris Poll Top 10 Favorite Female Sports Star (No. 3) Harris Poll Top 10 Greatest Tennis Player (No. 5) WTA Comeback Player of the Year WTA Social Fan Favorite – #TBT of the Year 2016 Sports Illustrated Fashionable 50 Athletes Nielsen Most Marketable Athletes in the U.S. (No. 6) 2017 ESPN WTA Player of the Year Nielsen Most Marketable Athletes in the U.S. (No. 2) 2019 Sports Illustrated Fashionable 50 Athletes Filmography Williams' teenage transition into a professional tennis player is depicted in the 2021 feature movie King Richard. Television See also WTA Tour records Grand Slam (tennis) List of WTA number 1 ranked singles tennis players List of WTA number 1 ranked doubles tennis players List of female tennis players List of tennis tournaments List of tennis rivalries Tennis records of the Open Era - Women's Singles All-time tennis records – women's singles Graf–Navratilova rivalry Graf–Sabatini rivalry Graf–Seles rivalry Hingis – V. Williams rivalry Williams sisters rivalry List of Grand Slam women's singles champions List of Grand Slam women's doubles champions List of Grand Slam mixed doubles champions References Notes Further reading External links 1980 births 20th-century African-American people 20th-century African-American women 21st-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American women African-American female tennis players American Jehovah's Witnesses American female tennis players Australian Open (tennis) champions French Open champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles Hopman Cup competitors Indiana University alumni Living people Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics Miami Dolphins owners Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis Olympic silver medalists for the United States in tennis People from Palm Beach Gardens, Florida Sportspeople from Compton, California Sportspeople from Saginaw, Michigan Sportspeople from West Palm Beach, Florida Tennis people from California Tennis people from Florida Tennis people from Michigan Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon champions World No. 1 tennis players Williams family (tennis)

Rail transport in India

eng_Latn

Railway transportation is an important mode of the conveyance of people and goods in India. Indian Railways (IR) is the primary operator of rail operations throughout the country, a state-owned organisation of the Ministry of Railways, which historically had its own government budget. Between 2019 and 2020, 22.15 million passengers used the Indian Railways network daily. In the same period, 3.32 million metric tons of freight was also shipped daily on the IR network. Other locally owned public corporations operate various suburban and urban railways throughout the country, such as Chennai Metro and the trams in Kolkata. Private sector operations currently exist only for freight trains and railroads, exclusively for non-passenger usage, but there were renewed efforts in 2020 to encourage private sector involvement in the running of passenger trains. In March 2020, the national rail network comprised of track over a route of and 7,325 stations. It is the fourth-largest national railway network in the world (after those of the United States, Russia, and China). 36.83% of routes are double or multi-tracked. As of April 2021, or 71% of the broad-gauge routes have been electrified with 25 KV AC electric traction. It is one of the busiest networks in the world, transporting 8.086 billion passengers and 1.208 billion tonnes of freight annually. Indian Railways is the world's eighth largest employer, with more than 1.254 million employees as of March 2020. As of March 2020, IR's rolling stock consisted of 293,077 freight wagons, 76,608 passenger coaches and 12,729 locomotives. Successive administrations of the Government of India have worked on improving the railways. Projects include the electrification of the entire IR network by 2023, new trains that can operate on existing rail infrastructure at 200 km/h, and new high-speed railways that can operate at speeds in excess of 300 km/h. India has also played a supporting role in the improvement of rail infrastructure overseas. , India has invested over $1 billion towards upgrading railways and trains in Sri Lanka using 'Make in India' technology. As of 2020, only three rail connections to foreign countries were functioning, two to Nepal and one to Bangladesh, though an 18 km railway link to Bhutan is also under construction and there have been efforts to reinstate the historic Boat Mail train to Sri Lanka. History 1832–1852: Industrial railways The first proposals for railways in India were made in Madras in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in 1837. It was called the Red Hill Railway and used a rotary steam locomotive manufactured by William Avery. The railway was built by Sir Arthur Cotton and was mainly used for transporting granite stones for road-building work in Madras. In 1845, Cotton built the Godavari Dam Construction Railway at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry, used to supply stone for construction of a dam on the Godavari River. On 8 May 1845, the Madras Railway was incorporated, and the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) was incorporated the same year. On 1 August 1849, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) was incorporated by an Act of Parliament. A "guarantee system" providing free land and guaranteeing five-percent rates of return to private English companies building railways was finalised on 17 August 1849. In 1851, the Solani Aqueduct Railway was built in Roorkee; freight was hauled by a steam locomotive called Thomason, after a British officer. It was used for transporting construction materials for an aqueduct over the Solani river. In 1852, the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated. 1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April 1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotivesSahib, Sindh and Sultan; it carried 400 people and ran on a line of built and operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. This line was built in broad gauge, which became the standard for railways in the country. In May 1854, the Bombay–Thane line was extended to Kalyan by India's first railway bridges, the Thane viaducts, over Thane Creek. In Eastern India, the first passenger railway train ran from Howrah (near Calcutta) to Hoogly on 15 August 1854. The line was built and operated by EIR. In August 1855, the EIR Express and Fairy Queen steam locomotives started hauling trains. The first passenger train in South India ran from Royapuram and Veyasarapady to Wallajah Road on 1 July 1856 on a line built and operated by Madras Railway. On 24 February 1873, the first tramway, a horse-drawn tramway, opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street. On 9 May 1874 a horse-drawn tramway began operation in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. In 1880 Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated. GIPR started its first workshops in Byculla in 1854 and Madras Railway set up their first workshop at Perambur in 1856. The railway boom continued with the incorporation of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI) in 1855, Eastern Bengal Railway in 1858, and the East Coast State Railway in 1890. The Great South Indian Railway (GSIR) and the Carnatic Railway merged in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway. In 1897, lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies. In 1902, the Jodhpur Railway became the first to introduce electric lights as standard fixtures. In 1920, electric lighting of signals was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay. 1925–1951: Electrification and further expansion The first railway budget was presented in 1924. The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway was merged with the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) in the same year. In 1930, the route of the Grand Trunk Express was changed to Delhi–Madras. On 3 February 1925, India's first electric passenger train ran between Victoria Terminus (VT) and Kurla on 1500 V DC overhead traction with locomotives provided by the Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik companies. Later that year the VT–Bandra section was electrified with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road. Kurla–Kalyan and lines to Poona and Igatpuri were electrified in 1926 and the Bandra–Virar section was electrified by January 1928. On 1 June 1930, the Deccan Queen began running, hauled by a WCP-1 ( 20024, old No. EA/1 4006) with seven coaches, on the GIPR's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona. The Frontier Mail made its inaugural run between Bombay VT and Peshawar in 1928. In 1929, the Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore and the Punjab Limited Express began running between Bombay and Lahore. Technical advancements led to automatic colour-light signals become operational on GIPR's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla in 1928. This was extended to the Byculla–Kurla section in the following year. 1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments India's railways were re-organised into regional zones beginning in 1951 with the creation of the Southern Railway on 14 April and the Central Railway and Western Railways on 5 November. The post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making its senior-most member chairman. In the same year, the government of West Bengal entered into an agreement with Calcutta Tramways Co. to take over its administrative functions. On 14 April 1952, the Northern Railway, the Eastern Railway and the North-Eastern Railway were created. On 1 August 1955 the South-Eastern Railway was split from the Eastern Railway, and, the following year, divisional systems of administration were set up for the various regional zones. In 1958, the North-Eastern Railway split to form a new Northeast Frontier Railway. In 1952, fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in passenger accommodation and sleeping accommodation was introduced in coaches. In 1956 the first fully air-conditioned train was introduced between Howrah and Delhi. In 1966 the first containerised freight services began, between Bombay and Ahmedabad. In 1957 India Railways decided to adopt 25 kV AC electrification and chose the SNCF (French National Railway) as its technical consultant. The Main Line Electrification Project was established in the same year. Raj Kharswan–Dongoposi became the first section to be electrified with 25 kV AC traction, with the first train running on 11 August 1960. In 1966 electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed with the 25 kV AC system. In 1979 the Main Line Electrification Project was reconstituted into the Central Organisation for Railway Electrification (CORE). 1984–present: Rapid transit and later developments The Calcutta Metro became the first metro in the country with the 24 October 1984 line between Esplanade and Bhowanipore. In 1988 the first Shatabdi Express was introduced between New Delhi and Jhansi (later extended to Bhopal), and was the fastest train in India at the time. In 1993, air-conditioned third-tier coaches were introduced as well as a sleeper class separate from second class. In 1999, the South East Central Railway zone was established. On 6 July 2002, the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central, and West Central zones were created. On 5 April 2016, Gatimaan Express, then India's fastest train with a maximum speed of , made its first run from Delhi to Agra. India's first computerised ticketing and reservation was introduced in New Delhi in 1986. In 1990, the first self-printing ticket machine (SPTM) was introduced. In September 1996, the CONCERT computerised reservation system was fully deployed at New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. The project was completed nationwide on 18 April 1999. In 1998, coupon validating machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. Credit cards could be used to book tickets and reservations starting in 1999, and in February 2000, the Indian Railways launched its web site and began taking online train reservations and ticketing on 3 August 2002, which was extended to many cities in December. On 26 September 2013, the Tatkal system of ticketing extended to ordinary trains. On 16 January 1995, the first regularly scheduled services using the 2 × 25 kV system of traction started on Bina–Katni. On 5 February 2012, Western Railway switched completely to 25 kV AC traction, ending its use of 1.5 kV DC traction. On 11 April 2016, Central Railway completed switching to 25 kV AC traction, ending the use of DC traction on the country's main-line rail network. Indian Railways announced on 31 March 2017 that the entire rail network would be electrified by 2022. Historical railway length This table shows the length of the railway over time. Route km : The distance between two points on the railway irrespective of the number of lines connecting them, whether single line or multiple line. Running track km: The length of all running tracks excluding tracks in sidings, yards and crossings. Total track km: The length of all running tracks and tracks including tracks in sidings, yards and crossings. Rolling stock Locomotives Locomotives in India largely consist of electric and diesel locomotives. The world's first compressed natural gas (CNG) locomotives are also used. Steam locomotives are used only in heritage trains. In India, locomotives are classified according to their gauge, motive power, the work they are suited for and their power or model number. The class name, composed of four or five letters, encodes this information. The first letter denotes the track gauge; the second denotes their motive power, diesel or alternating current (electric); the third letter denotes the type of traffic for which they are suited (goods, passenger, multi or shunting). The fourth letter used to denote the chronological model number, but from 2002 it denotes the horsepower range for diesel locomotives. Electric locomotives are not covered by this scheme and not all diesels are covered; for these, the fourth letter denotes their chronological model number. A locomotive may have a fifth letter in its class name which denotes a technical variant, subclass or subtype, indicating a variation in the basic model or series, possibly different motors or a different manufacturer. With the modern scheme for classifying diesel locomotives the fifth letter further refines the horsepower indication in increments: 'A' for 100 hp, 'B' for 200 hp, 'C' for 300 hp, etc. Under this scheme, a 'WDM-3A', for example, refers to a wide-gauge diesel multi-use 3100 hp locomotive, while a 'WDM-3D' would be a 3400 hp locomotive and 'WDM-3F' would be 3600 hp locomotive. Diesel locomotives are fitted with auxiliary power units which save nearly 88% of fuel while idling. Goods wagons A new wagon numbering system was adopted by Indian Railways in 2003. Wagons are allocated 11 digits, making identification easier and allowing for computerisation of a wagon's information. The first two digits indicate the type of wagon, the third and fourth digits indicate the owning railway, the fifth and sixth digits indicate the year of manufacture, the seventh through tenth digits indicate the Individual Wagon Number, and the last digit is a check digit. IR's bulk requirement of wagons is met by wagon manufacturing units both in public and private sectors as well as other public sector units under the administrative control of Ministry of Railways. Passenger coaches On long-distance routes and also on some shorter routes, IR uses two primary types of coach design types. ICF coaches, in production from 1955 until January 2018, constitute the bulk of the current stock. These coaches, considered to have inadequate safety features, are slowly being phased out. , around 40,000 coaches are still in operation. These coaches are being replaced with LHB coaches. Introduced in mid '90s, these coaches are lighter, safer and are capable of speeds up to . IR has introduced new electric multiple unit (EMU) train sets for long-distance routes. One such, Train-18 is under operation and another, Train-20 is expected to run from 2020. These train sets are expected to replace locomotive-hauled trains on long-distance routes. On regional short-distance routes, IR runs Mainline electrical multiple unit (MEMU) or Diesel electrical multiple unit (DEMU) trains, depending on the traction available. These train sets are self-propelled with capability for faster acceleration or deceleration and are expected to reduce congestion on dense routes. Passenger locomotive-hauled trains, having frequent stops, are slowly being replaced with train sets across India. On suburban commuter routes around large urban centers, IR runs trains with normal electric multiple unit (EMU) coaches. These are popularly called "local trains" or simply "locals". EMUs are also used in metros. All train sets used in metros are air-conditioned. Kolkata trams almost always consist of a single motor coach. A new twin coach tram was introduced in Kolkata in 2019. Manufacturing The Chittaranjan Locomotive Works in Chittaranjan and Banaras Locomotive Works in Varanasi make electric locomotives. The Integral Coach Factory in Perambur, Chennai, makes integral coaches. These have a monocoque construction, and the floor is an integral unit with the undercarriage. The Rail Coach Factory in Kapurthala also makes coaches. The Titagarh Wagons builds freight wagons. The Rail Wheel Factory at Yelahanka, Bangalore, and the Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, in Chhapra, Bihar, manufactures wheels and axles. Diesel-Loco Modernisation Works, Patiala upgrades the diesel locomotives. Some electric locomotives have been supplied by BHEL, Jhansi and Palakkad, and locomotive components are manufactured in several other plants around the country. Network Tracks As of 31 March 2020, IR network spans of track length, while the route length is . Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from , though the maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 180 km/h (110 mph) during trial runs. Almost the entire broad-gauge network is equipped with long-welded, high-tensile strength 52 kg/60 kg 90 UTS rails and pre-stressed concrete (PSC) sleepers with elastic fastenings. broad gauge is the predominant gauge used by IR and spans of route (94.10% of total route network), It is the broadest gauge in use across the world for regular passenger movement. Broad gauge generated 100% of the freight output (net tonne-kilometres) and more than 99% of the passenger output (passenger kilometres) in the fiscal year 2019–20. The tracks and and narrow gauge tracks are present on fewer routes. All of these routes, except the heritage routes, are being converted to broad gauge. The metre gauge tracks were (4.21% of total route network) and narrow gauges tracks were (2.50% of total route network) Urban rail transit systems in India mostly use standard gauge tracks. These systems are operated by metro/tram rail corporations which are independent of Indian Railways. Trams in Kolkata, the only remaining tram service in the country, uses standard gauge tracks. Line 1 of the Kolkata Metro and Delhi Metro use the same broad gauge tracks as main-line railways. All other metro linesconstructed, under construction and futureuse standard gauge tracks. Metro trains operate in Kolkata, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kochi, Nagpur, Ahmedabad and Lucknow. Gurgaon has a Metro system operated by a private organisation. Metro tracks are being constructed or planned in all million-plus cities in the country. Electrification , IR has electrified 71% or of the total broad-gauge route. India uses 25 kV 50 Hz AC traction on all its electrified tracks. Railway electrification in India began with the first electric train, between Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and Kurla on the Harbour Line, on 3 February 1925 on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) at 1500 V DC. Heavy gradients in the Western Ghats necessitated the introduction of electric traction on the GIPR to Igatpuri on the North East line and Pune on the South East line. On 5 January 1928, 1500 V DC traction was introduced on the suburban section of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway between Colaba and Borivili, and between Madras Beach and Tambaram of the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway on 11 May 1931, to meet growing traffic needs. The 3000 V DC electrification of the Howrah-Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway was completed in 1958. The first 3000 V DC EMU service began on the Howrah-Sheoraphuli section on 14 December 1957. Research and trials in Europe, particularly on French Railways (SNCF), indicated that 25 kV AC was an economical electrification system. Indian Railways decided in 1957 to adopt 25 kV AC as its standard, with SNCF their consultant in the early stages. The first 25 kV AC section was Raj Kharswan–Dongoaposi on the South Eastern Railway in 1960. The first 25 kV AC EMUs, for Kolkata suburban service, began service in September 1962. For continuity, the Howrah–Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway and the Madras Beach–Tambaram section of the Southern Railway were converted to 25 kV AC by 1968. Because of limitations in the DC traction system, a decision was made to convert the electric traction system of the Mumbai suburban rail network of WR and CR from 1.5kV DC to 25 kV AC in 1996–97. The conversion from DC to AC traction was completed in 2012 by the Western Railway, and in 2016 by the Central Railway. Since then, the entire electrified mainline rail network in India uses 25 kV AC, and DC traction is used only for metros and trams. Indian Railways announced on 31 March 2017 that the country's entire rail network would be electrified by 2022. Though not a new concept, the electrification in India has now been committed to with an investment of to electrify the entire network and eliminate the cost of fuel for transportation, which will amount to a savings of overall. These savings will allow the government channel funds to invest in the modernisation of the railway infrastructure. Close to 30 billion units of electricity will be required for railway electrification on an annual basis by 2022, which will lead to opportunities for IPPs of conventional power. All metro routes, as well as the Kolkata tram, are electrified with DC traction. Many metro routes employ the third rail method for electric traction. Signaling and telecommunication IR uses a range of signalling technologies and methods to manage its train operations based on traffic density and safety requirements. , around of the route uses automatic block signalling for train operations – concentrated in high density routes, large cities and junctions. Remaining routes are based on absolute block signalling with trains manually controlled by signalmen from the signal boxes typically located at stations. Few low density routes still use manual block signalling methods with communication on track clearance based on physical exchange of tokens. In a few sections, intermediate block signalling is provided to further enhance line capacity with minimal investment. , 602 block sections have intermediate block signals on IR. IR primarily uses coloured signal lights, which replaced semaphores and disc-based signalling (dependent on position or colour). IR uses two-aspect, three-aspect and four (or multiple) aspect colour signalling across its network. Signals at most stations are interlocked using panel interlocking, route-relay interlocking or electronic interlocking methods, which eliminate human error. IR uses track circuiting, and block proving axle counters for train detection. , 5,886 stations across IR have interlocked stations and multi-aspect signalling. Around 99% of key routes (A, B, C and D) have track circuitry or block proving axle counters for automated train detection. IR has about 59,105 route kilometers of optical fiber cable network across India, that is used for train control, voice and data communication. Around of the route is covered by GSM-R based Mobile Train Radio Communication. In December 2017, IR announced that it will implement ETCS Level 2 system for signalling and control on key routes with an investment of . Currently IR uses Centralised Traffic Control (CTC) on the busy Ghaziabad – Kanpur route and real-time train monitoring systems on Mumbai and Kolkata suburban routes. International connections Rail links between India and neighbouring countries are not well developed. Bangladesh Bangladesh is connected by the biweekly Maitree Express, which runs from Kolkata to Dhaka, and the Bandhan Express, which began running commercial trips between Kolkata and Khulna in November 2017. Indian and Bangladeshi governments planned to start work by January 2015 on a new rail link to ease surface transport. India will build a railway linking Tripura's capital Agartala with Bangladesh's southeastern city of Akhaura, an important railway junction connected to Chittagong port, resource-rich Sylhet and Dhaka. An agreement to implement the railway project was signed between India's former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Bangladesh Premier Sheikh Hasina during her visit to India in January 2010. The total cost of the proposed project is estimated at 252 crore (2.5 billion). The Indian Railway Construction Company (IRCON) would lay the new railway tracks on both sides of the border. Of the rail line, of tracks fall in Indian territory. The Northeast Frontier Railways (NFR) is laying tracks to connect Tripura's southernmost border town, Sabroom, south of here. From Sabroom, the Chittagong international sea port is . Bhutan An railway link with Bhutan is being constructed from Hashimara in West Bengal to Toribari in Bhutan. Myanmar No rail link exists with Myanmar but a railway line is to be built from Jiribam (in Manipur) to Tamu through Imphal and Moreh. The construction of this missing link, as per the feasibility study conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs through RITES Ltd, is estimated to cost . Nepal Two rail links to Nepal exist: A passenger service between Jainagar and Bijalpura via Janakpur which is Run and Operated by Nepal Railways and freight services between Raxaul and Birganj. Pakistan Two trains were operated to Pakistan: the Samjhauta Express between Delhi and Lahore, and the Thar Express between Jodhpur and Karachi. Since 2019, both services have been shut down. Services Passenger service Station categories From December 2017, stations are categorised into the Non-Suburban Group NSG1 to NSG6, the Suburban Group SG1 to SG3, and the Halt Group HG1 to HG3 based on the earnings, passenger footfall and strategic importance. Before December 2017, stations were classified into A1, A, B, C, D, E and F categories, based only on the passenger earnings from the sales of platform tickets, thus limiting the ability of IR to better focus its investments in passenger amenities. Travel classes IR has several classes of travelwith or without air conditioning; a train may include just one or several of these. Slow passenger trains have only unreserved seating class whereas Rajdhani, Duronto, Shatabdi, Garib Rath and Yuva trains only have air-conditioned classes. The fares are different for each class, with unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The fare of Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains includes food served in the train, but for other trains food has to be bought separately. In September 2016, the IR introduced dynamic fares for all accommodation classes for Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains (except 1AC and EC classes) to shore up revenue. In long-distance trains a pantry car is usually included and the food is served at the berth or seat itself. Luxury trains such as Palace on Wheels have separate dining cars but fares are comparable to a five-star hotel. A standard passenger train has four unreserved (also called "general") coaches, two at the front and two at the end, of which one may be exclusively for women. The number of other coaches varies according to the demand and route. A luggage coach may be included at the front or end. In some mail trains, a separate mail coach is attached. Lavatories are communal and feature both the Indian style as well as the Western style. The following table lists the classes in operation. A train may not include all of these classes. At the rear of the train is a special compartment known as the guard's cabin. It is fitted with a transceiver and is where the guard usually gives the all-clear signal before the train departs. Train types Trains are sorted into categories which dictate the number of stops on a route, their priority on the network and their fare structure. Each express train is identified by a five-digit number. If the first digit is one or two, they are long-distance express trains. If the first digit is zero, the train is a special train which will operate for a limited period of time with a different fare structure. A first digit of five denotes a passenger train. The second digit indicates the zone operating the train. However, for high-speed trains, the second digit is either zero or two (the first remains one or two). The third digit denotes the division within the zone which is responsible for maintenance and cleanliness, and the last two digits are the train's serial number. The train numbering system was changed from four digits from December 2010, to accommodate an increasing number of trains. Trains traveling in opposite directions along the same route are usually labelled with consecutive numbers. However, there is considerable variation in train numbers; some zones, such as the Central Railway, have a less-systematic method of numbering trains. Trains are classified by average speed. A faster train has fewer stops (halts) than a slower one, and is usually used for long-distance travel. Most express trains have special names to identify them easily. The names of the trains usually denote the regions they connect; the routes they traverse; a famous person; or a tourist spot connected with the train. Tourism There are several train services which run for tourists: The Palace on Wheels is a luxury-train service, frequently hauled by a steam locomotive, to promote tourism in Rajasthan. The train has a seven-night, eight-day itinerary on a round trip from New Delhi via Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur and Chittaurgarh, Udaipur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bharatpur and Agra. The Royal Rajasthan on Wheels covers a number of tourist destinations in Rajasthan. The seven-day, eight-night tour is a round trip from New Delhi's Safdarjung station via Jodhpur, Udaipur and Chittaurgarh, Ranthambore National Park and Jaipur, Khajuraho, Varanasi and Sarnath, and Agra. The Maharajas' Express, a luxury train operated by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), runs on five routes to about 12 destinations across north-West and central India (centered around Rajasthan) from October to April. The Deccan Odyssey covers tourist destinations in Maharashtra and Goa. Its seven-night, eight-day tour begins in Mumbai and stops at Jaigad Fort, Ganapatipule and Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Tarkarli and Sawantwadi, Goa, Kolhapur and Pune (Day 5), Aurangabad and Ellora Caves, and Ajanta Caves and Nashik. The Golden Chariot runs on two tours: Pride of the South and Splendor of the South. The Golden Chariot is a luxury train service which connects tourist destinations in Karnataka, Goa, Kerala & Tamil Nadu. The Mahaparinirvan Express, an air-conditioned service also known as the Buddhist Circuit Train, is run by the IRCTC for Buddhist pilgrims. Its seven-night, eight-day tour begins in New Delhi and visits Bodh Gaya, Rajgir and Nalanda, Varanasi and Sarnath, Kushinagar and Lumbini, Sravasti and the Taj Mahal. The Fairy Queen, a tourist attraction as the world's oldest operating steam engine, hauls a luxury train from Delhi to Alwar. Ticketing India has some of the lowest train fares in the world. Basic passenger traffic is heavily subsidised by more-expensive higher-class fares. Until the late 1980s, Indian Railways ticket reservations were done manually. In 1987 the Railways started using a computerised ticketing system. The entire ticketing system went online in 1995 to provide up-to-date information on status and availability. The ticketing network is computerised to a large extent, with the exception of some remote places. Computerised tickets can be booked for any two points in the country, through the Internet and via mobile phones, though this method carries an additional surcharge. Discounted tickets are available for senior citizens (above 60 years) and some other categories of passengers including the disabled, students, athletes, persons affected by serious diseases, or persons appearing for competitive examinations. One compartment of the lowest class of accommodation is reserved for women in every passenger-carrying train. Some berths or seats in sleeper class and second class are also reserved for women. Season tickets permitting unlimited travel on specific sections or specific trains for a specific time period may also be available. Foreign tourists can buy an Indrail Pass, which is modelled on the Eurail Pass, permitting unlimited travel in India for a specific time period. For long-distance travel, reservation of a berth can be made up to 120 days before departure. Details such as name, age and concession (if eligible) are required and are recorded on the ticket. The ticket price usually includes the base fare, which depends on the classification of the train (example: super-fast surcharge if the train is classified as super-fast), the class in which one wishes to travel and the reservation charge for overnight journeys. If a seat is not available then the ticket is given a waitlist number; otherwise the ticket is confirmed and a berth number is printed on the ticket. A person receiving a wait-listed ticket may be able to obtain a confirmed ticket if there are sufficient cancellations. Some of the tickets are assigned to the Reservation against Cancellation (RAC), which is between the waiting list and the confirmed list. These allow the ticket holder to board the train and obtain an allotted seat decided by a ticket collector, after the ticket collector has ascertained that a seat is vacant. Reserved railway tickets can be booked through the website of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) and also through mobile phones via SMS. Tickets booked through this site are categorised into iTickets and eTickets. iTickets are booked by a passenger and then printed and delivered to the passenger. eTickets are printed by the passenger and carried while travelling. While travelling on an eTicket, one must carry an authorised valid photo identity card. Cancellation of eTickets is done online, without the requirement for the passenger to go to any counter. Unreserved tickets are available for purchase on the platform at any time before departure. An unreserved-ticket holder may only board the general-compartment class. All suburban networks issue unreserved tickets valid for a limited time. For frequent commuters, a season pass (monthly or quarterly) guarantees unlimited travel between two stops. Freight service In the freight segment, IR ferries various commodities and fuels in industrial, consumer, and agricultural segments across India. IR has historically subsidised the passenger segment with income from the freight business. As a result, freight services are unable to compete with other modes of transport on both cost and speed of delivery, leading to continuous erosion of market share. To counter this downward trend, IR has started new initiatives in freight segments including the upgrade of existing goods sheds, attracting private capital to build multi-commodity multi-modal logistics terminals, changing container sizes, operating time-tabled freight trains, and tweaking with the freight pricing/product mix. Also, end-to-end integrated transport solutions such as roll-on, roll-off (RORO) service, a road-rail system pioneered by Konkan Railway Corporation in 1999 to carry trucks on flatbed trailers, is now being extended to other routes across India. A potential game-changer for IR in the freight segment are the new dedicated freight corridors that are expected to be completed by 2020. When fully implemented, the new corridors, spanning around , could support hauling of trains up to 1.5 km in length with 32.5 ton axle-load at speeds of . They will also free-up capacity on dense passenger routes and allow IR to run more trains at higher speeds. Additional corridors are being planned to augment the freight infrastructure in the country. Urban rail Indian Metro India currently has 13 metro systems. The first modern rapid transit in India is the Kolkata Metro, which started operations in 1984 as the 17th Zone of Indian Railways. The Delhi Metro which started in 2002, is the largest metro system which connects to few other nearby cities in the National Capital Region. As of January 2021, India has of operational metro lines and 540 stations across 13 systems. A further 578.34 km of lines are under construction. Metro rail lines in India are composed of mainly standard gauge. Projects like the Kolkata Metro and Delhi Metro used broad gauge for their earliest lines but all new projects in India are on standard gauge as rolling stock is of standard gauge. Here is a list of operational Metro Systems in India Suburban rail The Mumbai Suburban Railway is India's first commuter rail system and transports 7.5 million passengers daily, the highest passenger-density in the world. The Kolkata Suburban Railway was established in Kolkata in 1854. The operational suburban rail systems in India are: the Mumbai Suburban Railway, the Kolkata Suburban Railway, the Chennai Suburban Railway, the Lucknow–Kanpur Suburban Railway, the Delhi Suburban Railway, the Pune Suburban Railway, the Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System, the Barabanki–Lucknow Suburban Railway and the Pernem–Karwar Suburban Railway. Other planned systems are Bengaluru Commuter Rail, Nagpur broad-gauge Metro, Ahmedabad Suburban Railway and Coimbatore Suburban Railway. List of Operational Suburban Railway Systems in India Regional rail Regional Rapid Transit systems in India are passenger rail services that operate beyond the limits of urban areas, and either connect similarly-sized cities, or metropolitan cities and surrounding towns/cities, outside at the outer rim of a suburban belt. The following list excludes Passenger Train services provided by Indian Railways. Here is a list of operational Suburban Railway Systems in India Monorail Monorail is generally considered a feeder system for the metro trains in India. The Mumbai Monorail, which started in 2014, was the first operational monorail network in India (excluding the Skybus Metro) since Patiala State Monorail Trainways closed in 1927. Other planned systems are: the Chennai Monorail, the Kolkata Monorail, the Allahabad Monorail, the Bengaluru Monorail, the Delhi Monorail, the Indore Monorail, the Kanpur Monorail, the Navi Mumbai Monorail, the Patna Monorail, the Pune Monorail, the Ahmedabad Monorail, the Aizawl Monorail, the Bhubaneswar Monorail, the Jodhpur Monorail, the Kota Monorail, the Nagpur Monorail and the Nashik Monorail. Light rail Like monorail, light rail is also considered a feeder for the metro systems. The planned systems are Kolkata Light Rail Transit and Delhi Light Rail Transit. Tram In addition to trains, trams were introduced in many cities in late 19th century, though almost all of these were phased out. The trams in Kolkata are currently the only tram system in the country. Private railways Though state-owned companies like Indian Railways and the various metro companies enjoy a near monopoly in India, a few private railways do exist. These private railway lines are used exclusively for freight. There are railway lines owned and operated by companies including plantations, sugar mills, collieries and other mines, dams, harbours and ports. Private railways are operated by the Mumbai Port Trust, the Chennai Port Trust, the Kolkata Port Trust, the Visakhapatnam Port Trust and the Bhilai Steel Plant. The Tata Group operate funicular railways at Bhira and at Bhivpuri Road (as well as the Kamshet–Shirawta Dam railway line). The Pipavav Rail Corporation holds a 33-year concession for building and operating a railway line from Pipavav to Surendranagar. The Kutch Railway Company, a joint venture of the Gujarat state government and private parties, is involved (alongside the Kandla Port Trust and the Gujarat Adani Port) to build the Gandhidham–Palanpur line. UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Indo-Saracenic structures There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on Indian Railways, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus and the Mountain Railways of India. The latter consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India: the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a narrow gauge railway in Lesser Himalayas in the state of West Bengal, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a rack railway in the Nilgiri Hills in the state of Tamil Nadu and the Kalka–Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge railway in the Siwalik Hills in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Future IR's Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) undertakes research, design and standardisation. The railway has undertaken several initiatives to upgrade its ageing infrastructure and improve its quality of service. The Indian government plans to invest to upgrade IR by 2020. Infrastructure modernisation projects include high-speed rail, with the first Ahmedabad-Mumbai train in operation for 2022; the redevelopment of 400 stations by monetizing of spare railway land under a plan; doubling tracks to reduce congestion and delays while improving safety; the refurbishing of 12- to 15-year-old coaches at the Carriage Rehabilitation Workshop in Bhopal to enhance passenger amenities and fire safety; use of Global Positioning System (GPS)-enabled tracking of trains to improve safety and service; Digital India-driven digitalisation of the railway to improve efficiency and reduce cost; rainwater harvesting, with 1885 systems installed by December 2016; and reforestation of railway land and along the tracks. All routes will be electrified to save on imported-fuel costs. Off-the-grid solar-powered trains are planned with the installation of one gigawatt of solar and 130 megawatts of wind power between 2017 and 2022; India introduced the world's first solar-powered train and 50 coaches with rooftop solar farms in June 2017. Initial assessments of this experiment have been positive. Rooftop solar electricity is planned at stations to reduce long-term fuel costs and protect the environment. and Sustainable LED lighting at all the stations was completed by March 2018 which saves Rs 500 million per annum in electricity bills. Locomotive factories have been modernised, including two new factories in Bihar: an electric locomotive factory in Madhepura and a diesel locomotive factory in Marhaura, and 2,285 bio-toilets were introduced from April to July 2014. A partnership with Alstom to supply 800 electric locomotives from 2018 to 2028 was announced. All the unmanned level crossings were eliminated by January 2019, and manned level crossings are being progressively replaced by overbridges and underbridges. Other safety projects include the extension of an automated fire alarm system, first introduced on Rajdhani Express trains in 2013, to all air-conditioned coaches; and 6,095 GPS-enabled Fog Pilot Assistance System railway signalling devices (replacing the practice of placing firecrackers on tracks to alert train drivers) installed in 2017 in four zones: Northern, North Central, North Eastern and North Western; and replacing ICF coaches with LHB coaches. See also Rail transport List of railway stations in India List of high-speed railway lines in India Dedicated freight corridors in India List of countries by rail transport network size Urban rail transit in India High-speed rail in India Other Air transport in India Aerial lift in India Bharatmala Expressways of India Indian Human Spaceflight Programme Transport in India UDAN, national airport transport connectivity scheme Water transport in India Notes References Further reading Aguiar, Marian. Tracking Modernity: India's Railway and the Culture of Mobility (University of Minnesota Press; 2011) 226 pages; draws on literature, film, and other realms to explore the role of the railway in the Indian imagination. excerpt and text search Bear, Linda. Lines of the Nation: Indian Railway Workers, Bureaucracy, and the Intimate Historical Self (2007) excerpt and text search Kerr, Ian J. Railways in Modern India (2001) excerpt and text search Kerr, Ian J. Engines of Change: The Railroads That Made India (2006) Kumar, Sudhir, and Shagun Mehrotra. Bankruptcy to Billions: How the Indian Railways Transformed Itself (2009) External links Indian Railways – official website Glossary

Palatine uvula

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The palatine uvula, usually referred to as simply the uvula, is a conic projection from the back edge of the middle of the soft palate, composed of connective tissue containing a number of racemose glands, and some muscular fibers. It also contains many serous glands, which produce thin saliva. Structure Muscle The muscular part of the uvula () shortens and broadens the uvula. This changes the contour of the posterior part of the soft palate. This change in contour allows the soft palate to adapt closely to the posterior pharyngeal wall to help close the nasopharynx during swallowing. Its muscles are controlled by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve. Variation A bifid or bifurcated uvula is a split or cleft uvula. Newborns with cleft palate often also have a split uvula. The bifid uvula results from incomplete fusion of the palatine shelves but it is considered only a slight form of clefting. Bifid uvulas have less muscle in them than a normal uvula, which may cause recurring problems with middle ear infections. While swallowing, the soft palate is pushed backwards, preventing food and drink from entering the nasal cavity. If the soft palate cannot touch the back of the throat while swallowing, food and drink can enter the nasal cavity. Splitting of the uvula occurs infrequently but is the most common form of mouth and nose area cleavage among newborns. Bifid uvula occurs in about 2% of the general population, although some populations may have a high incidence, such as Native Americans who have a 10% rate. Bifid uvula is a common symptom of the rare genetic syndrome Loeys–Dietz syndrome, which is associated with an increased risk of aortic aneurysm. Function During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move together to close off the nasopharynx, and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity. It has also been proposed that the abundant amount of thin saliva produced by the uvula serves to keep the throat well lubricated. It has a function in speech as well. In many languages, the uvula is used to articulate a range of consonant sounds, known as uvular consonants. The voiced uvular trill, written in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is one example; it is used in French, Arabic and Hebrew, among other languages. Due to the large amount of saliva produced from glands in the uvula that are absent in other mammals, it has been suggested that the uvula is an accessory speech organ. Stimulation of the uvula also causes the gag reflex to initiate. This is often a problem for people with uvula piercings, and a common method of inducing vomiting. Clinical significance Inflammation At times, the mucous membrane around the uvula may swell, causing the uvula to expand 3–5 times its normal size. This condition is known as uvulitis. When the uvula touches the throat or tongue, it can cause sensations like gagging or choking, although there is no foreign matter present. This can cause problems with breathing, talking, and eating. There are many theories about what causes the uvula to swell, including dehydration (e.g. from arid weather); excessive smoking or other inhaled irritants; snoring; allergic reaction; or a viral or bacterial infection. An aphthous ulcer which has formed on the uvula can also cause swelling and discomfort. If the swelling is caused by dehydration, drinking fluids may improve the condition. If the cause is a bacterial infection, gargling salt water may help. However, it can also be a sign of other problems. Some people with a history of recurring uvulitis carry an epinephrine autoinjector to counteract symptoms of an attack. A swollen uvula is not normally life-threatening and subsides in a short time, typically within a day. Snoring and sleep apnea The uvula can also contribute to snoring or heavy breathing during sleep; having an elongated uvula can cause vibrations that lead to snoring. In some cases this can lead to sleep apnea, which may be treated by removal of the uvula or part of it if necessary, an operation known as uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (commonly referred to as UPPP, or UP3). However, this operation can also cause sleep apnea if scar tissue forms and the airspace in the velopharynx is decreased. The success of UPPP as a treatment for sleep apnea is unknown, but some research has shown 40–60% effectiveness in reducing symptoms. Typically apnea subsides for the short term, but returns over the medium to long term, and sometimes is worse than it was before the UPPP. Velopharyngeal insufficiency In a small number of people, the uvula does not close properly against the back of the throat, causing a condition known as velopharyngeal insufficiency. This causes "nasal" (or more properly "hyper-nasal") speech, where extra air comes down the nose, and the speaker is unable to say certain consonants, such as pronouncing 'b' like 'm'. Nasal regurgitation During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move superiorly to close off the nasopharynx, preventing food from entering the nasal cavity. When this process fails, the result is called nasal regurgitation. It is common in people with VPI, the myositides, and neuromuscular disease. Regurgitation of fluids in this way may also occur if a particularly high volume of liquid is regurgitated, or during vigorous coughing, for example being caused by the accidental inhalation of water. Due to the action of coughing preventing the uvula from blocking the nasopharynx, liquid may be expelled back through the nose. Society and culture In some parts of Africa, including Ethiopia and Eritrea, the uvula or a section of it is ritually removed by a traditional healer. In this case, the uvula may be noticeably shortened. It is not thought to contribute to velopharyngeal inadequacy, except in cases where the tonsils have also been removed. History Etymology In Latin, ūvula means "little grape", the diminutive form of ūva "grape" (of unknown origin). A swollen uvula was called ūva. See also Uvula (disambiguation) Tonsil Epiglottis References External links - Uvulitis Palate Human throat Speech organs

Cheech & Chong

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Cheech & Chong are a comedy duo consisting of Cheech Marin and Tommy Chong. The duo found commercial and cultural success in the 1970s and 1980s with their stand-up routines, studio recordings, and feature films, which were based on the hippie and free love era, and especially drug and counterculture movements, most notably their love for cannabis. Career The duo met in Vancouver, British Columbia, in the late 1960s. Chong was a Canadian citizen, and Cheech had moved there from southern California to avoid the draft at the height of the Vietnam War. The pair performed stand-up shows, released many successful comedy record albums, and starred in a series of low-budget films. Some of their best-known comedy routines and songs include "Earache My Eye", "Basketball Jones", "Santa Claus and His Old Lady", and "Sister Mary Elephant". Perhaps their most famous line is "Dave's not here", from their self-titled debut album. Their early success culminated with the release of their first feature-length movie, Up in Smoke, in 1978. It became something of a cult classic, and was also successful enough at the box office (grossing over $44 million despite a low budget) to warrant two sequels: Cheech and Chong's Next Movie in 1980, and Nice Dreams in 1981. These were followed by the less successful Things Are Tough All Over (1982) and Still Smokin (1983). The pair attempted a departure from their stoner comedy with 1984's Cheech & Chong's The Corsican Brothers. To date, their most recent starring vehicle as a duo was 2014's Cheech & Chong's Animated Movie. Tommy Chong directed four of their films while co-writing and starring in all seven with Cheech Marin. They also appeared in smaller supporting roles in Graham Chapman's Yellowbeard and Martin Scorsese's After Hours. In 1985 the duo released their album Get Out of My Room, which included the novelty hit song "Born in East L.A." (based on Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A."). This song later served as the basis for 1987 film of the same title, in which Cheech Marin played the starring role. Immediately following the release of the album, Cheech Marin separated himself from the pair's drug-inspired act by working on a solo career. Reunion After their contentious parting in the 1980s, the duo spent years without working together. In 1992 the two worked together for the first time in several years, voicing characters in the animated film FernGully: The Last Rainforest. In 1997, Chong made an appearance on Marin's TV series Nash Bridges, in an episode titled "Wild Card," which contained a reference to their iconic "Dave" skit from their 1972 debut album. In 2000 both performers voiced characters in the animated television series South Park for the episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons", but their voices were recorded separately. Both Marin and Chong indicated in a 2003 episode of Biography that they were willing to reunite. The duo had plans to reunite for another film when Chong's California-based company, Chong's Glass, was raided by federal officials in February 2003, as part of a federal crackdown on "drug-related paraphernalia". In a plea bargain which allowed his son and wife to remain out of jail, Chong pleaded guilty to charges of conspiring to distribute drug paraphernalia in May, and in September 2003 was sentenced to nine months in federal prison, fined $20,000, and forced to forfeit $120,000 in assets. He was released in July 2004. His cellmate was Jordan Belfort. With Chong released, the duo planned to resume production on a reunion film. A variety of titles were rumored, including Grumpy Old Stoners. But they announced in September 2005 that the reunion film had been canceled. Beginning in September 2008, Cheech and Chong reunited for the Light Up America comedy tour which opened in Ottawa, making a radio program appearance on The Bob & Tom Show. In March 2009, they recorded two shows at the Majestic Theatre in San Antonio for a DVD release of the reunion tour. In 2011, both performers were guests stars on the animated sitcom The Simpsons, on the episode "A Midsummer's Nice Dream". The episode focuses on a fictitious separation of the duo, with Homer taking Chong's place. In August 2012, Cheech & Chong appeared at the 13th annual Gathering of the Juggalos in Cave-in-Rock, IL. In February 2014, Cheech and Chong appeared on an episode of Tom Green Live. In March 2014, they announced they were working on a new movie, with writer/director Jay Chandrasekhar. Additional notable media appearances In 1974, Cheech & Chong contributed background voices on the song Twisted, on Joni Mitchell’s album Court and Spark. In 2007, Brett Harvey's marijuana advocacy documentary The Union: The Business Behind Getting High starred Tommy Chong as a commentator about marijuana related issues and his drug paraphernalia charge in 2003. The film had many other notable names such as former Vancouver mayor Larry Campbell, Canadian marijuana seed retailer Marc Emery, Canadian baking marijuana icon "Watermelon Girl", and other marijuana advocates like Author & Former 'Pot TV' Manager ChrBennett and former High Times editor Steve Bloom. On November 5, 2008, Cheech and Chong reunited for a Funny or Die video titled "Cheech and Chong Get Out the Vote!" The video, which encouraged people to get out and vote, was released the day after the United States general election. On November 30, 2008, Cheech & Chong were honored during the roast special Cheech & Chong: Roasted on TBS hosted by Brad Garrett which included other guests, among them Chong's wife. The event was filmed at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas during The Comedy Festival. On April 17, 2009, while on the Sydney leg of their "Cheech and Chong Light Up Australia" Tour, they had to delay the start of their show as it became the target of a drug operation by the New South Wales Police. About 25 police and four drug dogs were involved, searching around 50 people, with six people caught in possession of small amounts of cannabis. On January 25, 2010, Cheech & Chong appeared on Lopez Tonight. During a singing segment they started to perform their song "Mexican Americans", but it turned into "Get It Legal", in reference to their current U.S. tour. On March 1, 2010, Cheech & Chong were the guest hosts of WWE Raw in Oklahoma City. On April 20, 2010 (4/20) Cheech and Chong's Hey, Watch This, the DVD filmed in San Antonio on March 14, 2009, was released. In September 2011, Cheech & Chong appeared in a viral video posted on YouTube which at first appeared to be a trailer for a (non-existent) upcoming movie titled Cheech & Chong's Magic Brownie Adventure, but which at the end revealed itself to be a commercial for Fiber One 100-calorie snack brownies. In 2012, Chong revealed to CNN's Don Lemon that he was battling prostate cancer. It was unknown how this would affect any future projects. On September 28, 2014, they were guests of Doug Benson on his podcast Getting Doug with High. The pair appeared together on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on April 23, 2018, in response to recent news that John Boehner had joined the board of a marijuana company. The pair expressed displeasure that marijuana was no longer rebellious, Cheech remarking that he could now buy weed "from a store in a strip mall" when before he could only buy it from "behind a store in a strip mall." They then joked that they would no longer be doing stoner comedy and would do comedy about things that were still illegal, such as unpasteurized dairy products, importing exotic reptiles, taping and distributing football games without the consent of the NFL, and burning leaves without a permit. Discography Albums Cheech and Chong (1971) US #28 - US: Gold Big Bambu (1972) US #2 - US: Gold Los Cochinos (1973) US #2 - US: Gold Cheech & Chong's Wedding Album (1974) US #5 - US: Gold AUS #18 Sleeping Beauty (1976) US #25, AUS #84 Up in Smoke (soundtrack) (1978) US #162, AUS #80 Let's Make a New Dope Deal (1980) US #173, Cheech & Chong's Greatest Hit (compilation, 1981) AUS #68 Get Out of My Room (1985) US #111, AUS #96 Where There's Smoke There's Cheech & Chong (compilation, 2002) Cheech & Chong's Animated Movie! Musical Soundtrack (soundtrack, 2013) Singles (x) "Santa Claus and His Old Lady" peaked at number 3 on the Christmas Singles chart. In years when the chart was published, songs that appeared on the chart were ineligible for the Hot 100. Filmography Primary films Up in Smoke (1978) Cheech and Chong's Next Movie (1980) Nice Dreams (1981) Things Are Tough All Over (1982) Still Smokin (1983) Cheech & Chong's The Corsican Brothers (1984) Get Out of My Room (1985) Cheech & Chong: Roasted (2008) Cheech & Chong's Animated Movie! (2013) Secondary films Cheech & Chong Perform / Cheech & Chong Perform Again?! (concert films, 1978) A pre-Up in Smoke live performance, split over two separate VHS releases. It Came from Hollywood (compilation, 1982) Yellowbeard (1983) Born in East L.A. (1987) A spin-off from Get Out of My Room. Often considered a Cheech & Chong film (and has been packaged on DVD as part of the series both in America and overseas), though Tommy Chong does not appear in the film (other than as a depiction of Jesus). Far Out Man (1990) a/k/a Tommy Chong (documentary, 2006) Cheech & Chong's Hey, Watch This! (concert film, 2010) Notable side projects After Hours (1985) Both Cheech and Chong appear. Rude Awakening (1989) Cheech only The Shrimp on the Barbie (1990) Cheech only, though marketed in Germany as a Cheech & Chong-related film under the title Cheech ohne Chong - Jetzt rauchts in Neuseeland (loosely translated as 'Cheech without Chong - Smoking in New Zealand'). FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992) Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices. The Cisco Kid (1994) Cheech only, though marketed in Germany as a Cheech & Chong-related film under the title Cheech ohne Chong - Jetzt rauchts in Wilden Westen (loosely translated as 'Cheech without Chong - Smoking in The Wild West'). A Million to Juan (1994) Only a small role by Cheech, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set. McHale's Navy (1997) Two small roles by Tommy Chong, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set. Evil Bong (2006) Tommy Chong only, though still included in the "Cheech & Chong's Smoke Box" DVD set, among others. Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil (2011) Both Cheech and Chong provide character voices. Unproduced films In 1980, there were plans to make a film called Riding High with Cheech & Chong. Ivan Reitman conceived Stripes as a Cheech and Chong vehicle. Cheech and Chong's manager thought the script was very funny; however, the comedy duo wanted complete creative control, so Reitman told the screenwriters to rewrite it for Bill Murray and Harold Ramis. Screenwriter Tom McLoughlin also pitched a sequel to the slasher film Friday the 13th in which Cheech and Chong, playing camp counselors, faced off against killer Jason Voorhees, as a comedy horror movie in the vein of Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. The hyenas Banzai and Shenzi in the 1994 animated film The Lion King were storyboarded as being characters modeled after Cheech and Chong. Due to the duo not getting along with each other at the time, and Whoopi Goldberg taking interest in the role of Shenzi, Chong was not cast, but Cheech played the part of Banzai. Mobile applications Cheech and Chong's The Fatty (2011) Cheech and Chong's Bud Farm (2020) Homies in Dreamland™ NFT Project On January 25th, 2022, the duo launched an NFT art collection titled Cheech & Chong: Homies in Dreamland™ with Easy Partners. The series featured art by Jermaine Rogers, along with 1-of-1 collaboration pieces with several artists: Billy Perkins Eva Crawford Killer Napkins Jules Muck FiiiDGT Mariana Martins Jaime Zacarias Joe Bradley Hood Van Gogh Nate Bear Carlos Donjuan KMNDZ Kyle Confehr Junk Yard Kahncept Sam Pierson It launched at 4:20 PM on 1/25/2022 and featured 10,420 NFT art pieces, priced at 0.1420 ETH each. The pieces depict fictional dream world creatures, ranging from foxes to cats to portraits of Cheech & Chong, among others. The "Homies in Dreamland" NFTs are Utility Tokens, with holders of the NFT selected at random for real life perks, which included video calls and personalized messages from Cheech & Chong, as well as limited edition merchandise, air dropped art pieces designed by Billy Perkins, and autographs. References External links Official Live Nation Tour website HoboTrashcan's One on One with Tommy Chong An in-depth interview about politics, Cheech and Chong and Tommy's wife and kids L.A. Weekly photographs of Cheech and Chong's "Light Up America" reunion show at the Roxy Theater, September 18, 2008 Submerge magazine interview with Cheech Marin and Tommy Chong, Jan. 2009 First to confirm "Up in Smoke 2" Chronicles of The Nerds Interview with Cheech Marin and Tommy Chong, Feb. 2010 review, Cheech & Chong's Hey Watch This by UnRated magazine American cannabis activists American comedy duos American novelty song performers American satirists Cannabis culture Epic Records artists Film duos Grammy Award winners

List of years in television

eng_Latn

This is a list of years in television. It lists some important events in the history of television, as well as the first broadcasts of many television shows, the launches of some television channels and networks, and the debuts of some web series. 1870s 1877: Bell Telephone Company is founded. 1920s 1922: Charles Francis Jenkins' first public demonstration of television principles. A set of static photographic pictures is transmitted from Washington, D.C. to the Navy station NOF in Anacostia by telephone wire, and then wirelessly back to Washington. Philo Farnsworth first describes an image dissector tube, which uses caesium to produce images electronically, but will not produce a working model until 1927. 1923: Charles Jenkins first demonstrates "true" television with moving images. This time 48-line moving silhouette images are transmitted at 16 frames per second from Washington to Anacostia Navy station. Vladimir Zworykin applies for a patent for an all-electronic television system, the first ancestor of the electric scanning television camera. The patent is not granted until 1938 after significant revisions and patent interference actions. 1924: John Logie Baird demonstrates a semi-mechanical television system with the transmission of moving silhouette images in England. Vladimir Zworykin files a patent application for the kinescope, a television picture receiver tube. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer is formed. 1925: John Logie Baird performs the first public demonstration of his "televisor" at the Selfridges department store on London's Oxford Street. Charles Francis Jenkins achieves the first synchronized transmission of a moving silhouette (shadowgraphs) and sound, using 48 lines, and a mechanical system. Vladimir Zworykin applies for a patent for color television. Zworykin first demonstrates his electric camera tube and receiver for Westinghouse corporation executives, transmitting the still image of an "X". John Baird achieves the first live television image with tone graduations (not silhouette or duotone images) in his laboratory. Baird brings office boy William Taynton in front of the camera to become the first face televised. 1926: John Logie Baird demonstrates the world's first television system to transmit live moving images with tone graduations, to 40 members of the Royal Institution. 1927: The BBC begins broadcasting as the British Broadcasting Corporation under the Royal Charter. 1928: John Logie Baird's Television Development Company demonstrates their model A, B, and C 'televisors' to the general public. 1929: John Logie Baird begins broadcasting 30-minute-long programmes for his mechanically scanned televisions. 1930s 1930: Baird installs a television at 10 Downing Street, London, the British Prime Minister's residence. On July 14, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and his family use it to watch the first ever television drama, The Man with the Flower in His Mouth. 1931: Allen B. DuMont perfects long-lasting reliable cathode ray tubes later used for television reception. TV reaches the Soviet Union and France. 1932: The BBC starts a regular public television broadcasting service in the UK. 1933: The first television revue, Looking In, is broadcast on the BBC. The musical revue featured the Paramount Astoria dancing girls. Broadcast live by the BBC using John Logie Baird's 30-line mechanical television system, part of this performance was recorded onto a 7" aluminum disc using a primitive home recording process called Silvatone. This footage, which runs to just under four minutes, is the oldest surviving recording of broadcast television. 1934: Philo Farnsworth demonstrates a non-mechanical television system. The agreement for joint experimental transmissions by the BBC and John Logie Baird's company comes to an end. First 30 Line Mechanical Television Test Transmissions commence in April in Brisbane Australia conducted by Thomas Elliott and Dr. Val McDowall. 1935: First regular scheduled TV broadcasts in Germany by the TV Station Paul Nipkow. The final transmissions of John Logie Baird's 30-line television system are broadcast by the BBC. First TV broadcasts in France on February 13 on Paris PTT Vision. 1936: The 1936 Summer Olympics becomes the first Olympic Games to be broadcast on television. 1937: The BBC Television Service broadcasts the world's first televised Shakespeare play, a thirty-minute version of Twelfth Night, and the first football match, Arsenal F.C. vs. Arsenal reserves. 1938: DuMont Laboratories manufactures and sells the first all-electronic television sets to the public. Baird gives the first public demonstration of color projection television. The BBC broadcasts the world's first ever television science fiction (R.U.R.), and television crime series (Telecrime); in one of the lengthiest experimental television broadcasts, the BBC broadcasts a 90-minute version of Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac, starring Leslie Banks, Constance Cummings, and James Mason. 1939: The BBC suspends its television service owing to the outbreak of the Second World War. The 1939 New York World's Fair was broadcast. Japan is the first Asian country to air television. 1940s 1940: The American Federal Communications Commission, (FCC), holds public hearings about television 1941: First television advertisements aired. The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement was for Bulova watches. 1942: FCC terminates all American television broadcasting because of the war; DuMont petitions FCC to resume broadcasting and receives approval. 1943: Hänsel und Gretel is the first complete opera to be broadcast on television, but only in New York; first (experimental) telecast of Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol. Many more telecasts of the story will follow in later years, but until film begins to be used on television, no two of the television versions of the story will have the same casts. An advertisement campaign about forest fires introduces Smokey Bear 1944: American Broadcasting Company, (ABC), is formed. 1945: National Broadcasting Company (NBC) begins the first regularly scheduled television network service in the United States. 1946: RCA demonstrates all-electronic color television system; the DuMont Television Network begins broadcasting. 1947: First broadcast of Howdy Doody, Kraft Television Theatre, A Diamond is Forever (De Beers) and Meet the Press; the World Series is broadcast live for the first time; the 1947 Tournament of Roses Parade becomes the first televised parade. 1948: First broadcast of The Ed Sullivan Show and Texaco Star Theater; the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade moves from radio to television 1949: First broadcast of The Lone Ranger, Crusader Rabbit and Mama; 1st Emmy Awards 1950s 1950: First broadcast of Come Dancing, Broadway Open House, Your Show of Shows and What's My Line?; Cuba is the first Caribbean country to receive TV; Brazil is the first South American country to receive TV; Nielsen Media Research begins to provide television ratings data; Jack Benny and Burns & Allen move from radio to TV; Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons begin airing on television after previously only being theatrical short films; Bob Hope appears in his first TV special. 1951: The first broadcast of live United States transcontinental television takes place in San Francisco, California from the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference. First broadcast of I Love Lucy, See It Now, Dragnet, the Hallmark Hall of Fame, Search for Tomorrow, Sua vida me pertence, Love of Life and The Roy Rogers Show; the Code of Practices for Television Broadcasters is first issued. 1952: First broadcast of Today (NBC), This Is Your Life, Adventures of Superman, Omnibus, and Flower Pot Men; Canada begins receiving TV; first appearance of Tony the Tiger (Kellogg's Frosted Flakes); Hockey Night in Canada and The Guiding Light move from radio to TV 1953: First broadcast of Panorama, Kōhaku Uta Gassen; the coronation of Elizabeth II is the first ceremony of its kind to be broadcast on television. The Academy Awards ceremony (the Oscars) is televised for the first time after previously being broadcast by radio, beginning in 1930. TV Guide is founded. The first "TV dinner" is made by C.A. Swanson & Sons. 1954: First broadcast of The Tonight Show, Father Knows Best, Marlboro Man, Disneyland, The Jolly Green Giant and Lassie; NTSC video standard for color television is introduced, and National Educational Television (NET) is launched. 1955: First broadcast of The Honeymooners, The Mickey Mouse Club, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Sunday Night at the London Palladium, The Benny Hill Show, The Sooty Show, The Adventures of Robin Hood, Gunsmoke and Captain Kangaroo; ITV launches in the UK; millions of viewers watch the grand opening of Disneyland in California. 1956: First broadcast of The Edge of Night, As the World Turns, The Price Is Right, The Tipps Family (PG Tips), Playhouse 90, the Eurovision Song Contest and Hancock's Half Hour 1957: First broadcast of Perry Mason, Have Gun — Will Travel, Leave It to Beaver, Senda prohibida, and Carosello; Hanna-Barbera is founded (as H-B Enterprises, Inc.) 1958: First broadcast of Blue Peter, Quatermass and the Pit, The Donna Reed Show, Moonlight Mask and The Huckleberry Hound Show; the quiz show scandals wipe out The $64,000 Question and Twenty-One. 1959: First broadcast of The Twilight Zone, Dennis the Menace, Telejornal, Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends, Think Small (Volkswagan), The Untouchables, Rawhide, the first ever Barbie commercial, and Bonanza (which runs for fourteen years); First appearances of the Trix Rabbit and Snap, Crackle and Pop (Rice Krispies); The second Grammy Awards ceremony is the first Grammy Awards to be televised. 1960s 1960: First broadcast of The Andy Griffith Show, The Flintstones, Coronation Street and Tales of the Riverbank; Rankin/Bass Productions, Inc. is founded (as Videocraft International, Ltd.). American presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon debate live on television. 1961: First broadcast of The Dick Van Dyke Show, The Yogi Bear Show, The Avengers, The Defenders, The Morecambe and Wise Show and Car 54, Where Are You?; First appearance of The Milky Bar Kid 1962: First broadcast of The Beverly Hillbillies, Steptoe and Son, The Jetsons, University Challenge, Elgar, That Was The Week That Was, The Late Late Show (Ireland) and Sábado Gigante; first airing of "Everyone Loves a Slinky"; first satellite television relayed by Telstar. 1963: First broadcast of Doctor Who, General Hospital, The Fugitive, Astro Boy, We Try Harder (Avis) and The Outer Limits; American Cable Systems is founded; Martin Luther King Jr. addresses his famous I Have a Dream speech to the world; The world watches in horror over the Assassination of John F. Kennedy. 1964: First broadcast of Gilligan's Island, The Munsters, Bewitched, The Man from U.N.C.L.E, The Addams Family, Top of the Pops, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, Match of the Day, Jeopardy!, Jonny Quest and the Up series; First appearance of Lucky the Leprechaun (Lucky Charms); The controversial political advertisement "Daisy" airs only once, but is later considered to be an important factor in Lyndon B. Johnson's landslide victory over Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election, and an important turning point in political and advertising history; Broadcast of U.S. president Lyndon Johnson signing the Civil Rights Act Of 1964; The Beatles appear on The Ed Sullivan Show. 1965: First broadcast of I Dream of Jeannie, Days of Our Lives, Get Smart, Thunderbirds, The Dean Martin Show, Hogan's Heroes, Lost in Space, Till Death Us Do Part, Kimba the White Lion, Peanuts, Des chiffres et des lettres, Tomorrow's World, The Magic Roundabout and The War Game; Tom and Jerry cartoons begin to be aired on television after previously only being theatrical short films; the first appearance of the Pillsbury Doughboy; Nigeria is the first African country to receive TV. 1966: First broadcast of Star Trek, Batman (the live-action TV series starring Adam West), Space Ghost, The Monkees, Dark Shadows, Happiness is a cigar called Hamlet, Ultra Series, Osomatsu-kun, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, That Girl, Cathy Come Home and Mission: Impossible; England win the World Cup Final, seen by tens of millions. 1967: First broadcast of The Carol Burnett Show, The Prisoner, The Flying Nun, News at Ten, Captain Birdseye, Speed Racer, Spider-Man, Princess Knight, The Phil Donahue Show and Ambassador Magma; PAL and SECAM colour standards introduced in Europe, with BBC2 making their first colour broadcasts. 1968: First broadcast of 60 Minutes, One Life to Live, Dad's Army, Julia, Columbo, Elvis, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, The Archie Show, The Banana Splits, Hawaii Five-O, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In and Adam-12; first appearance of the Keebler Elves and Cadbury's Milk Tray Man 1969: First broadcast of Sesame Street, Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!, The Pink Panther Show, Sazae-san, Monty Python's Flying Circus, On the Buses, The Brady Bunch, Marine Boy; completion of Fernsehturm Berlin; The Apollo 11 Moon landing is broadcast live worldwide. 1970s 1970: First broadcast of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Josie and the Pussycats, Ashita no Joe, The Partridge Family, The Odd Couple, The Adventures of Hutch the Honeybee, The Adventures of Rupert Bear and All My Children; PBS is launched. 1971: First broadcast of All in the Family, Kamen Rider, The Old Grey Whistle Test, Chespirito, The Two Ronnies, McDonaldland, Lupin the Third, Upstairs, Downstairs, La Linea, The Generation Game and Parkinson. DIC Enterprises is founded. Chesapeake Television Corporation is founded. 1972: First broadcast of M*A*S*H, Emmerdale, Mastermind, Kamiondžije, El Chavo, Rainbow, Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids, The New Scooby-Doo Movies, El Chapulín Colorado, The Bob Newhart Show, Mazinger Z, Science Ninja Team Gatchaman, Great Performances and Maude; First appearance of Little Mikey (Quaker's Life Cereal); HBO is launched. Warner Communications is founded. 1973: First broadcast of Boy on the Bike (Hovis), The Ascent of Man, Moonbase 3, The Wombles, Super Friends, The Young and the Restless, Cutie Honey, Super Friends, An American Family, Ein Herz und eine Seele, Schoolhouse Rock!, Speed Buggy, The Midnight Special, Star Trek: The Animated Series, Seventeen Moments of Spring, Tetley Tea Folk, Last of the Summer Wine and The World at War; First appearances of Quicky the Nesquik Bunny and the Duracell Bunny. 1974: First broadcast of Chico and the Man, Derrick, Happy Days, Little House on the Prairie, Mio Mao, Police Woman, Space Battleship Yamato, Heidi, Girl of the Alps, Land of the Lost, Porridge, Smash Martians, Rhoda, Good Times, The Rockford Files, and Tiswas; First appearance of the Kool-Aid Man; 1st Daytime Emmy Awards; Richard M. Nixon announces his resignation on live television. 1975: First broadcast of Starsky & Hutch, Baretta, Barney Miller, Fawlty Towers, Good Morning America, One Day at a Time, Saturday Night Live, Sneak Previews, Space: 1999, The Jeffersons, The Naked Civil Servant, Welcome Back, Kotter, Wheel of Fortune and Wonder Woman; Sony introduces the Betamax home video tape recorder. 1976: First broadcast of The Muppet Show, I, Claudius, Grlom u jagode, Honey Monster (Sugar Puffs), Loriot, SCTV, Austin City Limits, Andrex Puppy, Charlie's Angels, Family Feud, The Gong Show, Laverne and Shirley and Nuts in May; Cookie Jar Group is founded; completion of CN Tower; the first VHSs and videocassette recorders (VCRs) go on sale. 1977: First broadcast of Abigail's Party, CHiPs, Eight Is Enough, ¿Qué Pasa, USA?, Roots, Soap, It'll Be Alright on the Night, Yatterman, Lou Grant, Hungarian Folktales, Three's Company, Top Gear and Live from the Met; first appearance of Cadbury's Caramel Bunny. CBN Satellite Service is launched. 1978: First broadcast of An Ordinary Miracle, Abarembo Shogun, Battlestar Galactica, Dallas, Diff'rent Strokes, WKRP in Cincinnati, Galaxy Express 999, Space Pirate Captain Harlock, Once Upon a Time..., The Incredible Hulk, The Dating Game, Ski Sunday, Fantasy Island, Grange Hill, Matador, Mork & Mindy, Jabberjaw, Pennies from Heaven, Taxi, Future Boy Conan and Deeply Regretted By... 1979: First broadcast of Doraemon, Benson, Blue Remembered Hills, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, Hart to Hart, Knots Landing, Seibu Keisatsu, Life on Earth, Anne of Green Gables, Antiques Roadshow, Los Ricos También Lloran, Mobile Suit Gundam, Real People, Worzel Gummidge, The Dukes of Hazzard, The Facts of Life, BuzzBee the Honey Nut Cheerios Bee, The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show, The Rose of Versailles, You Can't Do That on Television, The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed, The Very Same Munchhausen and Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy; ESPN and Nickelodeon are launched. 1980s 1980: First broadcast of Astro Boy, Richie Rich, Berlin Alexanderplatz, The Bund, Magnum PI, Nightline, BBC Children in Need, Vruć vetar, The Kids of Degrassi Street, Strumpet City and Yes Minister; Cable News Network (CNN) and The Learning Channel (TLC) are launched. DISH Network is founded (as EchoStar). News Corporation is founded (as News Corp Limited). 1981: First broadcast of The Smurfs, Hill Street Blues, Urusei Yatsura, Dr. Slump, The People's Court, Wetten, dass..?, Dynasty, Greatest American Hero, Postman Pat, Danger Mouse, Spider-Man (1981 TV series), Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends, Elvira's Movie Macabre, Falcon Crest, Only Fools and Horses and Brideshead Revisited; MTV launched; hundreds of millions watch the Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer; First appearance of Absolut Bottle (Absolut Vodka) and "Pardon me, do you have any Grey Poupon?". A writers' strike disrupts U.S. television for three months. 1982: First broadcast of Cheers, Knight Rider, Family Ties, Countdown, Remington Steele, Brookside, The Mysterious Cities of Gold, Chiquilladas, Super Dimension Fortress Macross, The Snowman, Boys from the Blackstuff, Newhart and St. Elsewhere; Channel 4 (UK) and The Weather Channel launched. Adobe Systems Incorporated is founded. 1983: First broadcast of The A-Team, The Day After, V (original miniseries), 1984 (Apple Computers), Captain Tsubasa, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, Inspector Gadget, Fraggle Rock, Oshin, Auf Wiedersehen, Pet, Reading Rainbow, Press Your Luck, G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero, Alvin and the Chipmunks, Kinnikuman, Eddie Murphy Delirious, The Joy of Painting, An Englishman Abroad, J. R. Hartley (Yellow Pages), The Legend of the Condor Heroes, Blackadder and Terrahawks; Southwestern Bell Corporation is founded; Disney Channel is launched. 1984: First broadcast of Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends, Fist of the North Star, Airwolf, Blue Thunder, Murder, She Wrote, Miami Vice, Who's the Boss?, Top lista nadrealista, The Cosby Show, The Transformers, Voltron, Night Court, Tales from the Darkside, Where's the beef? (Wendy's), Muppet Babies, La piovra, Santa Barbara, Spitting Image, Heimat and The Jewel in the Crown; A&E and Canal+ launched. 1985: First broadcast of MacGyver, Growing Pains, ThunderCats, Neighbours, Mr. Belvedere, Moonlighting, Larry King Live, Edge of Darkness, The Max Headroom Show, EastEnders, Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears and The Golden Girls; the Discovery Channel is established; the first WrestleMania event is broadcast; millions watch the Live Aid concert from Wembley Stadium. 1986: First broadcast of L.A. Law, The Oprah Winfrey Show, Perfect Strangers, Double Dare, Head of the Class, Designing Women, Chester Cheetah (Cheetos), ALF, Malgudi Days, Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin, Casualty, Saint Seiya, The Scottish Widow (Scottish Widows), London's Burning, Takeshi's Castle, Dragon Ball, The Noid (Domino's Pizza), Vasko de Gama from Rupcha Village, Alternatywy 4, first My Pet Monster commercial, Pee-wee's Playhouse, The California Raisins, The Singing Detective and Pingu; the Fox Broadcasting Company is launched; television is introduced in Mayotte and Niue. 1987: First broadcast of Full House, Married... with Children, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, DuckTales, Hello Kitty's Furry Tale Theater, Headbangers Ball, Square One TV, Thirtysomething, ChuckleVision, Kimagure Orange Road, City Hunter, Degrassi Junior High, Ramayan, Fireman Sam, Inspector Morse, The Bold and the Beautiful, Star Trek: The Next Generation, The Tracey Ullman Show and 21 Jump Street (TV series); First airing of This is Your Brain on Drugs; The Travel Channel is launched. 1988: First broadcast of Roseanne, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Red Dwarf, In the Heat of the Night, Just Do It (Nike), Murphy Brown, Yo! MTV Raps, Count Duckula, A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, Garfield and Friends, Legend of the Galactic Heroes, Anpanman, Oishinbo, Unsolved Mysteries, America's Most Wanted, The Wonder Years and Mahabharat; TNT (Turner Network Television) is launched; the first LCD televisions go on sale; a writers' strike disrupts U.S. television for five months. 1989: First broadcast of The Simpsons, Seinfeld, Family Matters, The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!, The Legend of Zelda, Doogie Howser, M.D., Baywatch, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, Saved By The Bell, Degrassi High, American Gladiators, Wallace and Gromit, Hey Dude, Face (British Airways), America's Funniest Home Videos, Quantum Leap, COPS, The Laughing Salesman, Agatha Christie's Poirot, Shining Time Station, Coach and Inside Edition; CNBC and Eurosport launched. Doctor Who is cancelled after running for 26 years. 1990s 1990: First broadcast of Tiny Toon Adventures, The Adventures of Super Mario Bros. 3, Mr. Bean, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, MasterChef (original UK version), Twin Peaks, Law & Order, Are You Afraid of the Dark?, Beverly Hills, 90210, Wings, In Living Color, Chibi Maruko-chan, Kyatto Ninden Teyandee, Bobby's World, Mr. Shalash's Family, Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water, Art Attack, TaleSpin, and Northern Exposure. First appearance of the "I've Fallen and I Can't Get Up!" advertisement for Life Alert. Fox Kids is launched. 1991: First broadcast of Home Improvement, Dinosaurs, Darkwing Duck, Step By Step, Nummer 28, Papa and Nicole (Renault), The Julekalender, Æon Flux, the first three Nicktoons (Doug, Rugrats, and The Ren & Stimpy Show), Super Mario World, Magical Princess Minky Momo, and The Jerry Springer Show 1992: First broadcast of The Larry Sanders Show, Mad About You, Batman: The Animated Series, Barney & Friends, Martin, Nickelodeon Guts, The Real World, Cha Cha Cha, Crayon Shin-chan, YuYu Hakusho, Bananas in Pyjamas, Melrose Place, X-Men, The Animals of Farthing Wood, Absolutely Fabulous, Dateline NBC, Sailor Moon; Cartoon Network is launched, with Boomerang as one of its programming blocks. The Faith and Values Channel is launched. 1993: First broadcast of Late Show with David Letterman, Animaniacs, Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic the Hedgehog (a.k.a. "Sonic SatAM"), This Hour Has 22 Minutes, The X-Files, Beavis and Butt-Head, The Pink Panther (TV series), Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Got Milk?, WWF Monday Night Raw, Walker, Texas Ranger, Slam Dunk, Boy Meets World, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, VeggieTales, SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron, Bill Nye the Science Guy, Cracker, seaQuest DSV, The Nanny, Ricki Lake, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, and Frasier 1994: First broadcast of Friends, Party of Five, The Kingdom, Chicago Hope, Babylon 5, The National Lottery Draws, Dining Room Table (IKEA), Inside the Actors Studio, Space Ghost Coast to Coast, Spider-Man, The Tick, ER, Gargoyles, All That, and Gullah Gullah Island; Turner Classic Movies is launched; Discovery Civilization Network: The World History and Geography Channel is launched. several TV stations in the US switch their affiliates until 1996. TMN Moviepix and Starz are launched. Destination America is launched (as Discovery Travel & Living Network). Home & Garden Television (HGTV) is launched. DirecTV is founded. Adobe Flash is released (as FutureWave). 1995: First broadcast of Star Trek: Voyager, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Father Ted, NileCity 105,6, The Wayans Bros., Little Bear, Xena: Warrior Princess, The Late Late Show, WCW Monday Nitro, Road Rules, The Drew Carey Show, Budweiser Frogs, Mad TV, JAG, El y Ella, Sevcec; The programme Rox makes a move to the internet, becoming the first ever web series; The History Channel and Kids' WB are launched; The communications satellite EchoStar I is (literally) launched; first appearance of the M&M's Spokescandies and the "Holidays are Coming" Coca-Cola ad campaign; The O. J. Simpson murder trial is televised. 1996: First broadcast of The Crocodile Hunter, 3rd Rock from the Sun, 7th Heaven, Blue's Clues, Hey Arnold!, Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Spin City, Kenan and Kel, The Daily Show, E! True Hollywood Story, Judge Judy, Churchill Nodding Dog, Arthur, Our Friends in the North, Everybody Loves Raymond, Superman: The Animated Series, Beast Wars: Transformers, Detective Conan, and Dexter's Laboratory; Fox News is launched; the first high-definition television broadcasts; the first DVDs and DVD players go on sale. Animal Planet is launched. Discovery Kids Channel is launched. Adobe Flash Player is released. 1997: First broadcast of South Park, Pokémon, Berserk, King of the Hill, Cow and Chicken, Teletubbies, Franklin, Caillou, Stargate SG-1, Men in Black: The Series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Rachel Leigh Cook's Brain on Drugs, Todd MacFarlane's Spawn, Recess, Alles Kan Beter, Sasuke, Daria, and I'm Alan Partridge; first appearance of the Taco Bell Chihuahua and Priceless (Mastercard); Playhouse Disney is launched; Cartoon Network introduces Toonami; Netflix is founded; the first plasma televisions go on sale; 685 children across Japan are taken to hospitals from seizures caused by a Pokémon episode; millions watch the funeral of Princess Diana. 1998: First broadcast of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, The Wiggles, Oggy and the Cockroaches, Dawson's Creek, Will & Grace, Charmed, Cowboy Bebop, That '70s Show, Bob The Builder, Sex and the City, The Powerpuff Girls, Godzilla: The Series, Elmo's World, Khakis Swing (GAP Inc.), WCW Thunder, The Royle Family, and The King of Queens; Kingston Communications launches the first major video-on-demand service. 1999: First broadcast of Family Guy, The Sopranos, Crashbox, SpongeBob SquarePants, Ed, Edd n Eddy, Futurama, Batman Beyond, Sonic Underground, Digimon: Digital Monsters, One Piece, The West Wing, Whassup? (Budweiser), Spider-Man Unlimited, Courage the Cowardly Dog, Little Bill, WWF Smackdown, The Amanda Show, Happy Tree Friends, Big Brother (Netherlands), Walking with Prehistoric Life, Yo soy Betty, la fea, Surfer (Guinness), Freaks and Geeks, Trick, Angel and Dragon Tales; first appearance of the GEICO Gecko; DIY Network is launched; the first digital video recorders (DVRs) go on sale, one of them being TiVo. 2000s 2000: First broadcast of Malcolm in the Middle, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Curb Your Enthusiasm, MTV Cribs, Survivor, Jackass, Bear Fight (John West Foods), Da Ali G Show, Halifax Singing Staff, 106 & Park, Just for Laughs: Gags, Dora the Explorer, Clifford the Big Red Dog, Star Trek: Enterprise, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, Static Shock, Transformers: Robots in Disguise, Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Homestar Runner, and Gilmore Girls. Nickelodeon on CBS is launched. Boomerang is launched as its own channel, separate from Cartoon Network. Billy Mays shoots an infomercial for OxiClean. The Foundation for a Better Life is founded. 2001: First broadcast of 24, Scrubs, The Office (UK), Band of Brothers, Sangdo, Merchants of Joseon, The Secret Life of Us, Fear Factor, Invader Zim, Oswald, Degrassi: The Next Generation, Samurai Jack, Yu-Gi-Oh!, Lizzie McGuire, How It's Made, Smallville, Six Feet Under and The Fairly OddParents; The Walt Disney Company buys Fox Family Worldwide; Adult Swim, a nighttime programming block on Cartoon Network, is launched; The Faith and Values Channel relaunches as the Hallmark Channel; The world witnesses the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington. Regular programming is suspended in order to bring up to date coverage of events relating to the attacks. 2002: First broadcast of Naruto, American Idol, The Shield, City of Men, Kim Possible, Extreme Makeover, I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Madventures, Firefly, Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, 100 Greatest Britons, Winter Sonata, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex, Icons, Clone High, Spider-Man: The New Animated Series, George Lopez, Codename: Kids Next Door, Liberty's Kids, Endurance, The Wire, Transformers: Armada, What's New, Scooby-Doo? and Cyberchase. Discovery HD Theater, the first 24/7 high definition basic cable network, is launched. 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Frog, Monster, Citroën C4 Dancing Robot, Super Girl, Veronica Mars, Entourage, The X Factor, Hell's Kitchen (UK), The Apprentice, Danny Phantom, Overhaulin', The Biggest Loser, Atomic Betty and Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends; first appearance of the GEICO Cavemen; Allstate begins its "Are you in good hands?" advertising campaign; Dove launches the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty; Jetix is launched; Euro1080 launches the first high-definition television broadcast. 2005: First broadcast of Avatar: The Last Airbender, Sonic X, Time Warp Trio, It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia, Grey's Anatomy, Spiral, Noghtechin, Dancing with the Stars, My Name is Earl, The Closer, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, Krypto the Superdog, Johnny Test, My Gym Partner's a Monkey, Camp Lazlo, noitulovE (Guinness), Survivorman, So You Think You Can Dance, Catscratch, Bones, Hell's Kitchen (US), MasterChef (independent international versions), The Colbert Report, How It Should Have Ended, Robot Chicken, American Dad!, Erin Esurance, Everybody Hates Chris, The Office (U.S.), How I Met Your Mother, Criminal Minds, Zoey 101, Deal or No Deal, Go, Diego, Go!, Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island, Little Einsteins, Pocoyo, Carlton Draught: Big Ad, Supernatural, Prison Break, Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf, My Lovely Sam Soon, Sto Para Pente, Ben 10 and Puppy Bowl; PBS Kids Sprout is launched. The Doctor Who revival series begins, 16 years after the original show's cancellation in 1989. Toon Boom Harmony is released. YouTube is launched and its first video, Me at the zoo, is uploaded by co-founder Jawed Karim. 2006: First broadcast of Death Note, High School Musical, Türkisch für Anfänger, Planet Earth, Man vs. Wild, Jumong, Heroes, Psych, Dancing on Ice, Dexter, Torchwood, Friday Night Lights, Ugly Betty, Hannah Montana, The Upside Down Show, El Hormiguero, Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!, Curious George, WordGirl, Kappa Mikey, Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes, Top Chef, The IT Crowd, Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe, Code Geass and 30 Rock; the Netherlands is the first country to move to digital television; France 24 launched; HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc launched; First appearance of The Most Interesting Man in the World (Dos Equis). The WB and UPN shut down and merge to become The CW. BabyFirst is launched. Discovery Times is relaunched as Investigation Discovery (ID). AT&T U-verse is launched. YouTube is bought by Google for $1.65 billion. Amazon Unbox is launched. Cocomelon is launched (as ThatsMEonTV). Luxembourg becomes the first country to complete a wholesale switch from analog television to digital over-the-air (terrestrial television) broadcasting. 2007: First broadcast of Bakugan Battle Brawlers, The Big Bang Theory, Britain's Got Talent, The Sarah Jane Adventures, Total Drama, Gossip Girl, iCarly, Captain Disillusion, Nostalgia Critic, Zero Punctuation, Heartland, Shaun the Sheep, The Naked Brothers Band, the John Lewis Christmas advert, Burn Notice, The Golden Path, Pushing Daisies, Monkey and Al (PG Tips), Wizards of Waverly Place, Super Why!, Phineas and Ferb, Chowder, Transformers: Animated, Total Drama Presents: The Ridonculous Race, Back at the Barnyard, Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?, Golden Bride, The Killing, Chuck, Mad Men, Damages, and Storm Chasers; first appearance of Gorilla (Cadbury's Dairy Milk); a writers' strike shuts down U.S. scripted programming in November. Hulu is launched. CNN and YouTube sponsor U.S. presidential debates. 2008: First broadcast of Breaking Bad, The Mentalist, Sons of Anarchy, Star Wars: The Clone Wars, The Spectacular Spider-Man, The Secret Saturdays, Speed Racer: The Next Generation, Iron Man: Armored Adventures, The Penguins of Madagascar, The Garfield Show, Making Fiends (the TV series), The Suite Life on Deck, Imagination Movers, Wipeout, Martha Speaks, Ni Hao, Kai-Lan, Sid the Science Kid, True Blood, Simon's Cat, Fringe, Dogs 101, Time Warp, Underbelly, The Inbetweeners, Radio Arvyla, 19 Kids and Counting, The Yogscast, Extra Credits and Ben 10: Alien Force, and Hole in the Wall; First appearance of the Progressive Insurance mascot Flo; the launch of Discovery Channel's I Love the World ad campaign; the first 3D TV broadcasts; the historical miniseries John Adams premieres on HBO and wins a record-breaking thirteen Emmys. DIC Entertainment folds into Cookie Jar Group. Amazon Unbox is renamed to Amazon Instant Video on Demand. 2009: First broadcast of Modern Family, Cory in the House, Special Agent Oso, Zeke and Luther, Big Time Rush, The Fresh Beat Band, Aaron Stone, The Troop, The Super Hero Squad Show, Pawn Stars, American Ninja Warrior, Cake Boss, Tosh.0, Jersey Shore, Castle, Horrible Histories, Dinosaur Train, Cats 101, Compare the Meerkat, The Vampire Diaries, The Good Wife, Cougar Town, Archer, Toddlers and Tiaras, 16 and Pregnant, Late Night With Jimmy Fallon, The Middle, Glee, Parks and Recreation, Community, Misfits, Ancient Aliens, Monsters Inside Me, River Monsters, Annoying Orange, and Equals Three; Discovery Kids Channel is re-launched as The Hub through a joint venture between Hasbro and Discovery, Inc.; Toon Disney is rebranded as Disney XD; Nick Jr. and TeenNick are launched; Cartoon Network introduces "CN Real", a block of live-action reality shows including Destroy Build Destroy. 2010s 2010: First broadcast of Adventure Time, Regular Show, Sym-Bionic Titan, Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, Mad, Downton Abbey, Glass Home, Borgen, Sherlock, Solsidan, Pretty Little Liars, My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, Boardwalk Empire, JonTronShow, Vsauce, Parenthood, Louie, Conan, The Great British Bake Off, Octonauts, Mike & Molly, Treme, Mysteries at the Museum, My Strange Addiction, Luther, Zevo-3, Storage Wars, Through the Wormhole, How the Universe Works, The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, Young Justice, Transformers: Prime, Good Luck Charlie, Pair of Kings, The Jungle Book, The Walking Dead, Ben 10: Ultimate Alien and The Voice (Holland); first airing of "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like" (Old Spice); Tonight Show conflict between Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien; First release of The Slow Mo Guys and Epic Rap Battles of History; PewDiePie becomes active on YouTube. 2011: First broadcast of Game of Thrones, Black Mirror, Bob's Burgers, The Looney Tunes Show, Leyla ile Mecnun, Once Upon a Time, American Horror Story, The Killing, The Voice USA, Austin & Ally, Suits, Teen Wolf, Jake and the Never Land Pirates, My Babysitter's a Vampire, Impractical Jokers, Brain Games, Tanked, Finding Bigfoot, Call of the Wildman, My Cat from Hell, Too Cute, The Amazing World of Gumball, The Problem Solverz, ThunderCats, LEGO Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Last Man Standing, Shameless, Grimm, 2 Broke Girls, Game Theory (series), New Girl, Bubble Guppies, Homeland, Fish Hooks, Almost Naked Animals, A.N.T. Farm, Kickin' It, Victorious, and Dan Vs.; State Farm premieres its "State of..." advertising campaign, which includes the "State of Unrest" commercial (a.k.a. "Jake from State Farm"); Discovery HD Theater is re-launched as Velocity; Disney Junior is launched; Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN) is launched; millions watch Prince William marry Kate Middleton; IBM's Watson competes against former champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings on Jeopardy!; The Yogscast formally incorporates as a company; Twitch is launched; President Obama announces the death of Osama bin Laden on live television. 2012: First broadcast of Gravity Falls, Ultimate Spider-Man, Lab Rats, Dog with a Blog, Doc McStuffins, Marvin Marvin, Ben 10: Omniverse, The Legend of Korra, The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange, Game Grumps, Did You Know Gaming?, JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, Duck Dynasty, Outrageous Acts of Science, Satyamev Jayate, Girls, Scandal, Nashville, Državni posao, Motu Patlu, Call the Midwife, Mystery Diners, Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States, House of Lies, Veep, the Arrowverse, Catfish: The TV Show, Honest Trailers, The Mindy Project, Omar, Key & Peele, Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, Kitchen, Hotel Impossible, Here Comes Honey Boo Boo, and My 600-lb Life; Overhaulin' receives a revival series. First appearance of Stressmannetje (De Lijn); The Red Bull Stratos jump; The 2012 London Olympics becomes the most-watched event of the year. The first YouTube Rewind is released. 2013: First broadcast of Attack on Titan, Rick and Morty, Steven Universe, Wander Over Yonder, Uncle Grandpa, Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures, Sam & Cat, Incredible Crew, Teen Titans Go!, PAW Patrol, Sofia the First, Liv and Maddie, The Thundermans, The Haunted Hathaways, The Americans, Peaky Blinders, Avengers Assemble, Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., The Following, House of Cards, Bates Motel, Pakdam Pakdai, Gogglebox, Broadchurch, Hannibal, Vikings, Orange is the New Black, The Goldbergs and Brooklyn Nine-Nine; First appearance of Epic Split (Volvo Trucks) and Chicken (Mercedes Benz) 2014: First broadcast of True Detective, Black-ish, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, Fargo, BoJack Horseman, Gotham, Scorpion, Gomorrah, The 100, Outlander, Lucha Underground, Transparent, Broad City, Over the Garden Wall, Clarence, Sonic Boom, Star Wars Rebels, Blaze and the Monster Machines, Silicon Valley, The Leftovers, Jane the Virgin, Chrisley Knows Best, Girl Meets World, I Didn't Do It, and Henry Danger; CBS All Access is launched; Twitch is bought by Amazon. 2015: First broadcast of Better Call Saul, Star vs. the Forces of Evil, Game Shakers, Empire, Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug and Cat Noir, Narcos, Daredevil, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, Trivago Girl, Lucifer, Life in Pieces, Fresh Off the Boat, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, Love Island, Mr. Robot, Film Theory (series), Local 58, We Bare Bears, Guardians of the Galaxy, Schitt's Creek, Critical Role, Master of None, Deutschland 83, Lip Sync Battle, F is for Family, The Man in the High Castle and Superstore; Super Bowl XLIX breaks the record for most-watched program in the history of American television; Mayweather–Pacquiao boxing match is history's biggest pay-per-view fight; Sling TV is founded; Amazon Instant Video becomes Amazon Video; YouTube Red is launched; Steve Harvey hosts the Miss Universe 2015 pageant in Las Vegas and mistakenly names the first runner-up, Miss Colombia (Ariadna Gutiérrez) as the winner, announcing shortly after that he had read the results incorrectly and that Miss Philippines (Pia Wurtzbach) was the new Miss Universe; ten are killed during a helicopter crash during filming of reality series Dropped. 2016: First broadcast of The Haunted House, Stranger Things, My Hero Academia, The Night Of, The Loud House, Elena of Avalor, Bizaardvark, ‘’ [The Lion Guard] ‘’,Fleabag, War & Peace, Roots, Mann Mayal, Chhoti Anandi, Atlanta, This Is Us, The Good Place, Full Frontal with Samantha Bee, Scare PewDiePie, MatPat's Game Lab, Escape the Night, American Housewife, American Crime Story, Insecure, Degrassi: Next Class, Westworld, Tales of Arcadia, Victoria, Ben 10, The Crown, and Fuller House; Amazon Prime Video is launched worldwide (except for Mainland China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and Syria), expanding its reach beyond the United States; ABC Family is re-launched as Freeform; Beam is launched and is bought by Microsoft in the same year. The last known company in the world to manufacture VHS equipment (VCR/DVD combos), Funai of Japan, ceases production, citing shrinking demand and difficulties procuring parts. 2017: First broadcast of Money Heist, American Gods, Riverdale, Big Little Lies, Young Sheldon, Star Trek: Discovery, DuckTales (2017), Tangled: The Series (later known as Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure), Marvel's Spider-Man, Miss Kobayashi's Dragon Maid, Hanazuki: Full of Treasures, The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel, The End of the F***ing World, Big Mouth, Bill Nye Saves the World, Mind Field, The Handmaid's Tale, Big City Greens, GLOW, Counterpart, Legion and A Series of Unfortunate Events; At the 89th Academy Awards, the film Moonlight is announced the correct winner for Best Picture, after actors Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty announce La La Land, another acclaimed film, the winner by mistake on national television; Sprout is rebranded as Universal Kids; Beam is renamed to Mixer. Adobe announces the deprecation of Adobe Flash. 2018: First broadcast of Cobra Kai, Hilda, The Circle, Bluey, Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan, Barry, Killing Eve, Bodyguard, Pose, Succession, She-Ra and the Princesses of Power, Total DramaRama, Disenchantment, The Last O.G., Narcos: Mexico, A.P. Bio, Kidding, Lodge 49, Patriot Act with Hasan Minhaj, Carpool Karaoke, Cloak & Dagger, Final Space, Forever, Pop Team Epic, Homecoming, Manifest, Grown-ish, Splitting Up Together, and The Kids Are Alright; YouTube Red is rebranded as YouTube Premium; Velocity is rebranded as Motor Trend; millions watch Prince Harry marry Meghan Markle. 2019: First broadcast of Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, Love, Death & Robots, Chernobyl, The Mandalorian, Harley Quinn, Watchmen, His Dark Materials, Hazbin Hotel, Planet Slow Mo, The Masked Singer, The Boys, All Elite Wrestling: Dynamite, Russian Doll, The Dark Crystal: Age of Resistance, The Umbrella Academy, Euphoria, Ramy, The Casagrandes, What We Do in the Shadows, The Other Two, Amphibia, Jenny Xj9 Bloopers, Boy Girl Dog Cat Mouse Cheese, Undone, Black Monday, Hanna, Sex Education, When They See Us, The Promised Neverland, Dr. Stone, Carmen Sandiego, Good Omens, The Morning Show, Mixed-ish and Schooled; the second incarnation of Viacom and the second incarnation of CBS Corporation merge to form ViacomCBS Inc.; The Walt Disney Company launches its streaming service, Disney+; HBO Max is launched. 2020s 2020: First broadcast of Tiger King, Ted Lasso, Zoey's Extraordinary Playlist, Avenue 5, I May Destroy You, Stargirl, Dispatches from Elsewhere, The Owl House, The Great, Dash & Lily, Solar Opposites, Central Park, Close Enough and Utopia Falls; the COVID-19 pandemic shuts down production on many television programs; ABS-CBN franchise renewal controversy in the Philippines; Peacock is launched. 2021: First broadcast of Squid Game, Invincible, Girls5eva, Hacks, Reservation Dogs, Only Murders in the Building, Abbott Elementary, It's a Sin and the first of the Marvel Cinematic Universe Disney+ shows 2022: Upcoming premieres of Peacemaker, Halo, The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power, and The Last of Us See also List of years in film List of years in animation Table of years in radio Timeline of the BBC Timeline of the introduction of television in countries List of web television series List of years in American television List of years in Australian television List of years in Austrian television List of years in Belgian television List of years in Brazilian television List of years in British television List of years in Canadian television List of years in Croatian television List of years in Czech television List of years in Danish television List of years in Dutch television List of years in Estonian television List of years in French television List of years in German television List of years in Greek television List of years in Hong Kong television List of years in Indian television List of years in Indonesian television List of years in Irish television List of years in Israeli television List of years in Italian television List of years in Japanese television List of years in Mexican television List of years in New Zealand television List of years in Norwegian television List of years in Pakistani television List of years in Philippine television List of years in Polish television List of years in Portuguese television List of years in Scottish television List of years in Singapore television List of years in South African television List of years in South Korean television List of years in Spanish television List of years in Swedish television List of years in Thai television List of years in Turkish television References Culture-related timelines Years Timelines by year Lists of years by topic

Saint Patrick's Day

eng_Latn

Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (), is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (), the foremost patron saint of Ireland. Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century and is observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion (especially the Church of Ireland), the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Lutheran Church. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and celebrates the heritage and culture of the Irish in general. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, céilís, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Christians who belong to liturgical denominations also attend church services and historically the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol were lifted for the day, which has encouraged and propagated the holiday's tradition of alcohol consumption. Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador (for provincial government employees), and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. It is also widely celebrated in the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, Brazil, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand, especially amongst Irish diaspora. Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival. Modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. However, there has been criticism of Saint Patrick's Day celebrations for having become too commercialised and for fostering negative stereotypes of the Irish people. Saint Patrick Saint Patrick was a 5th-century Romano-British Christian missionary and Bishop in Ireland. Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration, which was allegedly written by Patrick himself. It is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano-British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church. According to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland. It says that he spent six years there working as a shepherd and that during this time he found God. The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, where a ship would be waiting to take him home. After making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest. According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity. The Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted thousands. Patrick's efforts were eventually turned into an allegory in which he drove "snakes" out of Ireland, despite the fact that snakes were not known to inhabit the region. Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick. Over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Ireland's foremost saint. Patrick is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 17 March. Celebration and traditions Today's Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have been greatly influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora, especially in North America. Until the late 20th century, Saint Patrick's Day was often a bigger celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, Irish traditional music sessions (céilithe), and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. There are also formal gatherings such as banquets and dances, although these were more common in the past. Saint Patrick's Day parades began in North America in the 18th century but did not spread to Ireland until the 20th century. The participants generally include marching bands, the military, fire brigades, cultural organisations, charitable organisations, voluntary associations, youth groups, fraternities, and so on. However, over time, many of the parades have become more akin to a carnival. More effort is made to use the Irish language, especially in Ireland, where 1 March to St Patrick's Day on 17 March is Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish language week"). Since 2010, famous landmarks have been lit up in green on Saint Patrick's Day as part of Tourism Ireland's "Global Greening Initiative" or "Going Green for St Patrick's Day". The Sydney Opera House and the Sky Tower in Auckland were the first landmarks to participate and since then over 300 landmarks in fifty countries across the globe have gone green for Saint Patricks day. Christians may also attend church services, and the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol are lifted for the day. Perhaps because of this, drinking alcohol – particularly Irish whiskey, beer, or cider – has become an integral part of the celebrations. The Saint Patrick's Day custom of "drowning the shamrock" or "wetting the shamrock" was historically popular. At the end of the celebrations, especially in Ireland. At the end of the celebrations, a shamrock is put into the bottom of a cup, which is then filled with whiskey, beer, or cider. It is then drunk as a toast to Saint Patrick, Ireland, or those present. The shamrock would either be swallowed with the drink or taken out and tossed over the shoulder for good luck. Irish Government Ministers travel abroad on official visits to various countries around the globe to celebrate Saint Patrick's Day and promote Ireland. The most prominent of these is the visit of the Irish Taoiseach (Irish Prime Minister) with the U.S. President which happens on or around Saint Patrick's Day. Traditionally the Taoiseach presents the U.S. President a Waterford Crystal bowl filled with shamrocks. This tradition began when in 1952, Irish Ambassador to the U.S. John Hearne sent a box of shamrocks to President Harry S. Truman. From then on it became an annual tradition of the Irish ambassador to the U.S. to present the Saint Patrick's Day shamrock to an official in the U.S. President's administration, although on some occasions the shamrock presentation was made by the Irish Taoiseach or Irish President to the U.S. President personally in Washington, such as when President Dwight D. Eisenhower met Taoiseach John A. Costello in 1956 and President Seán T. O'Kelly in 1959 or when President Ronald Reagan met Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald in 1986 and Taoiseach Charles J. Haughey in 1987. However it was only after the meeting between Taoiseach Albert Reynolds and President Bill Clinton in 1994 that the presenting of the shamrock ceremony became an annual event for the leaders of both countries for Saint Patrick's Day. The presenting of the Shamrock ceremony was cancelled in 2020 due to the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic. Wearing green On Saint Patrick's Day, it is customary to wear shamrocks, green clothing or green accessories. Saint Patrick is said to have used the shamrock, a three-leaved plant, to explain the Holy Trinity to the pagan Irish. This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had many triple deities, a fact that may have aided St Patrick in his evangelisation efforts. Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence that the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish. However, Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian contexticons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with a cross in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other". Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of the triskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity". The first association of the colour green with Ireland is from the 11th century pseudo-historical book Lebor Gabála Érenn (The Book of the Taking of Ireland), which forms part of the Mythological Cycle in Irish Mythology and describes the story of Goídel Glas who is credited as the eponymous ancestor of the Gaels and creator of the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx). In the story Goídel Glas, who was the son of Scota and Niul, was bitten by a snake and was saved from death by Moses placing his staff on the snakebite. As a reminder of the incident he would retain a green mark that would stay with him and he would lead his people to a land that would be free of snakes. This is emphasized in his name Goídel which was anglicised to the word Gaelic and Glas which is the Irish word for green. Another story from the Lebor Gabála Érenn written after the adventures of Goídel Glas refers to Íth climbing the tower (in reference to the Tower of Hercules) his father Breogán builds in Brigantia (modern day Corunna in Galicia, Spain) on a winters day and is so captivated by the sight of a beautiful green island in the distance that he must set sail immediately. This story also introduces three national personifications of Ireland, Banba, Fódla and Ériu. The colour green was further associated with Ireland from the 1640s, when the green harp flag was used by the Irish Catholic Confederation. James Connolly would later describe this flag, prior to the 1916 Easter Rising, as representing "the sacred emblem of Ireland's unconquered soul". Green ribbons and shamrocks have been worn on St Patrick's Day since at least the 1680s. The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick, an Irish fraternity founded in about 1750, adopted green as its colour. However, when the Order of St. Patrick—an Anglo-Irish chivalric order—was founded in 1783 it adopted blue as its colour, which led to blue being associated with St Patrick. During the 1790s, green would become associated with Irish nationalism, due to its use by the United Irishmen. This was a republican organisation—led mostly by Protestants but with many Catholic members—who launched a rebellion in 1798 against British rule. Ireland was described as "the Emerald Isle" for the first time in print in "When Erin First Rose" (1795), a poem by co-founder of the United Irishmen William Drennan, which stresses the historical importance of green to the Irish. The phrase "wearing of the green" comes from a song of the same name, which laments United Irishmen supporters being persecuted for wearing green. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have seen the re-emergence of Irish cultural symbols, such as the Irish Language, Irish mythology, Irish folklore, and the colour green, through the Gaelic Revival and the Irish Literary Revival which served to stir Irish nationalist sentiment. The influence of green was more prominently observable in the flags of the 1916 Easter Rising such as the Sunburst flag, the Starry Plough Banner, and the Proclamation Flag of the Irish Republic which was flown over the General Post Office, Dublin together with the Irish Tricolour. When Ireland did achieve its independence in 1922, the first act by the new Saorstát Éireann (Irish Free State) government was to order all the post boxes to be painted 'Saorstát green' (as it was described), under the slogan "Green paint for a green people"; in 1924, the government introduced a green Irish passport for Irish citizens, and it would remain this colour until the introduction of the burgundy coloured European Passports in 1985. Throughout these centuries, the colour green and its association with St Patrick's Day grew. The wearing of the 'St Patrick's Day Cross' was also a popular custom in Ireland until the early 20th century. These were a Celtic Christian cross made of paper that was "covered with silk or ribbon of different colours, and a bunch or rosette of green silk in the centre". Celebrations by region Ireland Saint Patrick's feast day, as a kind of national day, was already being celebrated by the Irish in Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. In later times, he became more and more widely seen as the patron of Ireland. Saint Patrick's feast day was finally placed on the universal liturgical calendar in the Catholic Church due to the influence of Waterford-born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding in the early 1600s. Saint Patrick's Day thus became a holy day of obligation for Roman Catholics in Ireland. It is also a feast day in the Church of Ireland, which is part of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The church calendar avoids the observance of saints' feasts during certain solemnities, moving the saint's day to a time outside those periods. St Patrick's Day is occasionally affected by this requirement, when 17 March falls during Holy Week. This happened in 1940, when Saint Patrick's Day was observed on 3 April to avoid it coinciding with Palm Sunday, and again in 2008, where it was officially observed on 15 March. St Patrick's Day will not fall within Holy Week again until 2160. However, the popular festivities may still be held on 17 March or on a weekend near to the feast day. In 1903, St Patrick's Day became an official public holiday in Ireland. This was thanks to the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act 1903, an act of the United Kingdom Parliament introduced by Irish Member of Parliament James O'Mara. O'Mara later introduced the law which required that public houses be shut on 17 March, a provision that was later deemed unnecessary and was repealed in the 1970s. The first St Patrick's Day parade in Ireland was held in Waterford in 1903. The week of St Patrick's Day 1903 had been declared Irish Language Week by the Gaelic League and in Waterford they opted to have a procession on Sunday 15 March. The procession comprised the Mayor and members of Waterford Corporation, the Trades Hall, the various trade unions and bands who included the 'Barrack St Band' and the 'Thomas Francis Meagher Band'. The parade began at the premises of the Gaelic League in George's St and finished in the Peoples Park, where the public were addressed by the Mayor and other dignitaries. On Tuesday 17 March, most Waterford businesses—including public houses—were closed and marching bands paraded as they had two days previously. The Waterford Trades Hall had been emphatic that the National Holiday be observed. On St Patrick's Day 1916, the Irish Volunteers—an Irish nationalist paramilitary organisation—held parades throughout Ireland. The authorities recorded 38 St Patrick's Day parades, involving 6,000 marchers, almost half of whom were said to be armed. The following month, the Irish Volunteers launched the Easter Rising against British rule. This marked the beginning of the Irish revolutionary period and led to the Irish War of Independence and Civil War. During this time, St Patrick's Day celebrations in Ireland were muted, although the day was sometimes chosen to hold large political rallies. The celebrations remained low-key after the creation of the Irish Free State; the only state-organized observance was a military procession and trooping of the colours, and an Irish-language mass attended by government ministers. In 1927, the Irish Free State government banned the selling of alcohol on St Patrick's Day, although it remained legal in Northern Ireland. The ban was not repealed until 1961. The first official, state-sponsored St Patrick's Day parade in Dublin took place in 1931. On three occasions, parades across the Republic of Ireland have been cancelled from taking place on St Patrick's Day, with all years involving health and safety reasons. In 2001, as a precaution to the foot-and-mouth outbreak, St Patrick's Day celebrations were postponed to May and in 2020 and 2021, as a consequence to the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic, the St Patrick's Day Parade was cancelled outright. Organisers of the St Patrick's Day Festival 2021 will instead host virtual events around Ireland on their SPF TV online channel. In Northern Ireland, the celebration of St Patrick's Day was affected by sectarian divisions. A majority of the population were Protestant Ulster unionists who saw themselves as British, while a substantial minority were Catholic Irish nationalists who saw themselves as Irish. Although it was a public holiday, Northern Ireland's unionist government did not officially observe St Patrick's Day. During the conflict known as the Troubles (late 1960s–late 1990s), public St Patrick's Day celebrations were rare and tended to be associated with the Catholic community. In 1976, loyalists detonated a car bomb outside a pub crowded with Catholics celebrating St Patrick's Day in Dungannon; four civilians were killed and many injured. However, some Protestant unionists attempted to 're-claim' the festival, and in 1985 the Orange Order held its own St Patrick's Day parade. Since the end of the conflict in 1998 there have been cross-community St Patrick's Day parades in towns throughout Northern Ireland, which have attracted thousands of spectators. In the mid-1990s the government of the Republic of Ireland began a campaign to use St Patrick's Day to showcase Ireland and its culture. The government set up a group called St Patrick's Festival, with the aims: The first St Patrick's Festival was held on 17 March 1996. In 1997, it became a three-day event, and by 2000 it was a four-day event. By 2006, the festival was five days long; more than 675,000 people attended the 2009 parade. Overall 2009's five-day festival saw almost 1 million visitors, who took part in festivities that included concerts, outdoor theatre performances, and fireworks. The Skyfest which ran from 2006 to 2012 formed the centrepiece of the St Patrick's festival. The topic of the 2004 St Patrick's Symposium was "Talking Irish", during which the nature of Irish identity, economic success, and the future were discussed. Since 1996, there has been a greater emphasis on celebrating and projecting a fluid and inclusive notion of "Irishness" rather than an identity based around traditional religious or ethnic allegiance. The week around St Patrick's Day usually involves Irish language speakers using more Irish during Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish Language Week"). Christian leaders in Ireland have expressed concern about the secularisation of St Patrick's Day. In The Word magazine's March 2007 issue, Fr Vincent Twomey wrote, "It is time to reclaim St Patrick's Day as a church festival". He questioned the need for "mindless alcohol-fuelled revelry" and concluded that "it is time to bring the piety and the fun together". As well as Dublin, many other cities, towns, and villages in Ireland hold their own parades and festivals, including Cork, Belfast, Derry, Galway, Kilkenny, Limerick, and Waterford. The biggest celebrations outside the cities are in Downpatrick, County Down, where Saint Patrick is said to be buried. The shortest St. Patrick's Day parade in the world formerly took place in Dripsey, County Cork. The parade lasted just 23.4 metres and traveled between the village's two pubs. The annual event began in 1999, but ceased after five years when one of the two pubs closed. Elsewhere in Europe England In England, the British Royals traditionally present bowls of shamrock to members of the Irish Guards, a regiment in the British Army, following Queen Alexandra introducing the tradition in 1901. Since 2012 the Duchess of Cambridge has presented the bowls of shamrock to the Irish Guards. While female royals are often tasked with presenting the bowls of shamrock, male royals have also undertaking the role, such as King George VI in 1950 to mark the 50th anniversary of the formation of the Irish Guards, and in 2016 the Duke of Cambridge in place of his wife. Fresh Shamrocks are presented to the Irish Guards, regardless of where they are stationed, and are flown in from Ireland. While some Saint Patrick's Day celebrations could be conducted openly in Britain pre 1960s, this would change following the commencement by the IRA's bombing campaign on mainland Britain and as a consequence this resulted in a suspicion of all things Irish and those who supported them which led to people of Irish descent wearing a sprig of shamrock on Saint Patrick's day in private or attending specific events. Today after many years following the Good Friday Agreement, people of Irish descent openly wear a sprig of shamrock to celebrate their Irishness. Christian denominations in Great Britain observing his feast day include The Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church. Birmingham holds the largest Saint Patrick's Day parade in Britain with a city centre parade over a two-mile (3 km) route through the city centre. The organisers describe it as the third biggest parade in the world after Dublin and New York. London, since 2002, has had an annual Saint Patrick's Day parade which takes place on weekends around the 17th, usually in Trafalgar Square. In 2008 the water in the Trafalgar Square fountains was dyed green. In 2020 the Parade was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Liverpool has the highest proportion of residents with Irish ancestry of any English city. This has led to a long-standing celebration on St Patrick's Day in terms of music, cultural events and the parade. Manchester hosts a two-week Irish festival in the weeks prior to Saint Patrick's Day. The festival includes an Irish Market based at the city's town hall which flies the Irish tricolour opposite the Union Flag, a large parade as well as a large number of cultural and learning events throughout the two-week period. Malta The first Saint Patrick's Day celebrations in Malta took place in the early 20th century by soldiers of the Royal Dublin Fusiliers who were stationed in Floriana. Celebrations were held in the Balzunetta area of the town, which contained a number of bars and was located close to the barracks. The Irish diaspora in Malta continued to celebrate the feast annually. Today, Saint Patrick's Day is mainly celebrated in Spinola Bay and Paceville areas of St Julian's, although other celebrations still occur at Floriana and other locations. Thousands of Maltese attend the celebrations, "which are more associated with drinking beer than traditional Irish culture." Norway Norway has had a St. Patrick's Day parade in Oslo since 2000, first organized by Irish expatriates living in Norway, and partially coordinated with the Irish embassy in Oslo. Russia The first Saint Patrick's Day parade in Russia took place in 1992. Since 1999, there has been a yearly "Saint Patrick's Day" festival in Moscow and other Russian cities. The official part of the Moscow parade is a military-style parade and is held in collaboration with the Moscow government and the Irish embassy in Moscow. The unofficial parade is held by volunteers and resembles a carnival. In 2014, Moscow Irish Week was celebrated from 12 to 23 March, which includes Saint Patrick's Day on 17 March. Over 70 events celebrating Irish culture in Moscow, St Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Voronezh, and Volgograd were sponsored by the Irish Embassy, the Moscow City Government, and other organisations. In 2017, the Russian Orthodox Church added the feast day of Saint Patrick to its liturgical calendar, to be celebrated on . Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a large Irish expatriate community. The community established the Sarajevo Irish Festival in 2015, which is held for three days around and including Saint Patrick's Day. The festival organizes an annual a parade, hosts Irish theatre companies, screens Irish films and organizes concerts of Irish folk musicians. The festival has hosted numerous Irish artists, filmmakers, theatre directors and musicians such as Conor Horgan, Ailis Ni Riain, Dermot Dunne, Mick Moloney, Chloë Agnew and others. Scotland The Scottish town of Coatbridge, where the majority of the town's population are of Irish descent, also has a Saint Patrick's Day Festival which includes celebrations and parades in the town centre. Glasgow has a considerably large Irish population; due, for the most part, to the Irish immigration during the 19th century. This immigration was the main cause in raising the population of Glasgow by over 100,000 people. Due to this large Irish population, there are many Irish-themed pubs and Irish interest groups who hold yearly celebrations on Saint Patrick's day in Glasgow. Glasgow has held a yearly Saint Patrick's Day parade and festival since 2007. Switzerland While Saint Patrick's Day in Switzerland is commonly celebrated on 17 March with festivities similar to those in neighbouring central European countries, it is not unusual for Swiss students to organise celebrations in their own living spaces on Saint Patrick's Eve. Most popular are usually those in Zurich's Kreis 4. Traditionally, guests also contribute with beverages and dress in green. Lithuania Although it is not a national holiday in Lithuania, the Vilnia River is dyed green every year on the Saint Patrick's Day in the capital Vilnius. Asia Japan Saint Patrick's parades are now held in many locations across Japan. The first parade, in Tokyo, was organised by The Irish Network Japan (INJ) in 1992. Korea The Irish Association of Korea has celebrated Saint Patrick's Day since 1976 in Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. The place of the parade and festival has been moved from Itaewon and Daehangno to Cheonggyecheon. Malaysia In Malaysia, the St Patrick's Society of Selangor, founded in 1925, organises a yearly St Patrick's Ball, described as the biggest Saint Patrick's Day celebration in Asia. Guinness Anchor Berhad also organises 36 parties across the country in places like the Klang Valley, Penang, Johor Bahru, Malacca, Ipoh, Kuantan, Kota Kinabalu, Miri and Kuching. Caribbean Montserrat The island of Montserrat is known as the "Emerald Island of the Caribbean" because of its founding by Irish refugees from Saint Kitts and Nevis. Montserrat is one of three places where Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday, along with Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The holiday in Montserrat also commemorates a failed slave uprising that occurred on 17 March 1768. International Space Station Astronauts on board the International Space Station have celebrated the festival in different ways. Irish-American Catherine Coleman played a hundred-year-old flute belonging to Matt Molloy and a tin whistle belonging to Paddy Moloney, both members of the Irish music group The Chieftains, while floating weightless in the space station on Saint Patrick's Day in 2011. Her performance was later included in a track called "The Chieftains in Orbit" on the group's album, Voice of Ages. Chris Hadfield took photographs of Ireland from Earth orbit, and a picture of himself wearing green clothing in the space station, and posted them online on Saint Patrick's Day in 2013. He also posted online a recording of himself singing "Danny Boy" in space. North America Canada One of the longest-running and largest Saint Patrick's Day () parades in North America occurs each year in Montreal, whose city flag includes a shamrock in its lower-right quadrant. The yearly celebration has been organised by the United Irish Societies of Montreal since 1929. The parade has been held yearly without interruption since 1824. St Patrick's Day itself, however, has been celebrated in Montreal since as far back as 1759 by Irish soldiers in the Montreal Garrison following the British conquest of New France. In Saint John, New Brunswick Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated as a week-long celebration. Shortly after the JP Collins Celtic Festival is an Irish festival celebrating Saint John's Irish heritage. The festival is named for a young Irish doctor James Patrick Collins who worked on Partridge Island (Saint John County) quarantine station tending to sick Irish immigrants before he died there himself. In Manitoba, the Irish Association of Manitoba runs a yearly three-day festival of music and culture based around St Patrick's Day. In 2004, the CelticFest Vancouver Society organised its first yearly festival in downtown Vancouver to celebrate the Celtic Nations and their cultures. This event, which includes a parade, occurs each year during the weekend nearest St Patrick's Day. In Quebec City, there was a parade from 1837 to 1926. The Quebec City St-Patrick Parade returned in 2010 after more than 84 years. For the occasion, a portion of the New York Police Department Pipes and Drums were present as special guests. There has been a parade held in Toronto since at least 1863. The Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team was known as the Toronto St. Patricks from 1919 to 1927, and wore green jerseys. In 1999, when the Maple Leafs played on St Patrick's Day, they wore green St Patrick's retro uniforms. Some groups, notably Guinness, have lobbied to make Saint Patrick's Day a national holiday. In March 2009, the Calgary Tower changed its top exterior lights to new green CFL bulbs just in time for St Patrick's Day. Part of an environmental non-profit organisation's campaign (Project Porchlight), the green represented environmental concerns. Approximately 210 lights were changed in time for Saint Patrick's Day, and resembled a Leprechaun's hat. After a week, white CFLs took their place. The change was estimated to save the Calgary Tower some $12,000 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 104 tonnes. Mexico The Saint Patrick's Battalion is honored in Mexico on Saint Patrick's Day. United States Saint Patrick's Day, while not a legal holiday in the United States, is nonetheless widely recognised and observed throughout the country as a celebration of Irish and Irish-American culture. Celebrations include prominent displays of the colour green, religious observances, numerous parades, and copious consumption of alcohol. The holiday has been celebrated in what is now the U.S since 1601. In 2020, for the first time in over 250 years, the parade in New York City, the largest in the world, was postponed due to concerns about the COVID-19 pandemic. South America Argentina In Buenos Aires, a party is held in the downtown street of Reconquista, where there are several Irish pubs; in 2006, there were 50,000 people in this street and the pubs nearby. Neither the Catholic Church nor the Irish community, the fifth largest in the world outside Ireland, take part in the organisation of the parties. Oceania Australia St Patrick's Day is not a national holiday in Australia, although it is celebrated each year across the country's states and territories. Festivals and parades are often held on weekends around 17 March in cities such as Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Melbourne. On occasion, festivals and parades are cancelled. For instance, Melbourne's 2006 and 2007 St Patrick's Day festivals and parades were cancelled due to sporting events (Commonwealth Games and Australian Grand Prix) being booked on and around the planned St Patrick's Day festivals and parades in the city. In Sydney the parade and family day was cancelled in 2016 due to financial problems. However, Brisbane's St Patrick's Day parade, which was cancelled at the outbreak of World War II and wasn't revived until 1990, was not called off in 2020 as precaution for the COVID-19 pandemic, in contrast to many other St Patrick's Day parades around the world. The first mention of St Patrick's Day being celebrated in Australia was in 1795, when Irish convicts and administrators, Catholic and Protestant, in the penal colony came together to celebrate the day as a national holiday, despite a ban against assemblies being in place at the time. This unified day of Irish nationalist observance would soon dissipate over time, with celebrations on St Patrick's Day becoming divisive between religions and social classes, representative more of Australianness than of Irishness and held intermittingly throughout the years. Historian Patrick O'Farrell credits the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin and Archbishop Daniel Mannix of Melbourne for re-igniting St Patrick's Day celebrations in Australia and reviving the sense of Irishness amongst those with Irish heritage. The organisers of the St Patrick's festivities in the past were, more often than not, the Catholic clergy which often courted controversy. Bishop Patrick Phelan of Sale described in 1921 how the authorities in Victoria had ordered that a Union Jack be flown at the front of the St Patrick's Day parade and following the refusal by Irishmen and Irish-Australians to do so, the authorities paid for an individual to carry the flag at the head of the parade. This individual was later assaulted by two men who were later fined in court. New Zealand From 1878 to 1955, St Patrick's Day was recognised as a public holiday in New Zealand, together with St George's Day (England) and St Andrew's Day (Scotland). Auckland attracted many Irish migrants in the 1850s and 1860s, and it was here where some of the earliest St Patrick's Day celebrations took place, which often entailed the hosting of community picnics. However, this rapidly evolved from the late 1860s onwards to include holding parades with pipe bands and marching children wearing green, sporting events, concerts, balls and other social events, where people displayed their Irishness with pride. While St Patrick's Day is no longer recognised as a public holiday, it continues to be celebrated across New Zealand with festivals and parades at weekends on or around 17 March. Criticism Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have been criticised, particularly for their association with public drunkenness and disorderly conduct. Some argue that the festivities have become too commercialised and tacky, and have strayed from their original purpose of honouring St Patrick and Irish heritage. Irish American journalist Niall O'Dowd has criticised attempts to recast Saint Patrick's Day as a celebration of multiculturalism rather than a celebration of Irishness. Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have also been criticised for fostering demeaning stereotypes of Ireland and Irish people. An example is the wearing of 'leprechaun outfits', which are based on derogatory 19th century caricatures of the Irish. In the run up to St Patrick's Day 2014, the Ancient Order of Hibernians successfully campaigned to stop major American retailers from selling novelty merchandise that promoted negative Irish stereotypes. Some have described Saint Patrick's Day celebrations outside Ireland as displays of "Plastic Paddyness"; where foreigners appropriate and misrepresent Irish culture, claim Irish identity, and enact Irish stereotypes. LGBT groups in the US were long banned from marching in Saint Patrick's Day parades in New York City and Boston, resulting in the landmark Supreme Court decision of Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston. In New York City, the ban was lifted in 2014, but LGBT groups still find that barriers to participation exist. In Boston, the ban on LGBT group participation was lifted in 2015. Sports events Traditionally the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship were held on Saint Patrick's Day in Croke Park, Dublin, but since 2020 these now take place in January. The Interprovincial Championship was previously held on 17 March but this was switched to games being played in Autumn. The Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup, Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup and Ulster Schools Senior Cup are held on Saint Patrick's Day. The Connacht Schools Rugby Senior Cup is held on the weekend before Saint Patrick's Day. Horse racing at the Cheltenham Festival attracts large numbers of Irish people, both residents of Britain and many who travel from Ireland, and usually coincides with Saint Patrick's Day. The Six Nations Championship is an annual international rugby Union tournament competed by England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland, and Wales and reaches its climax on or around Saint Patrick's Day. On St Patrick's Day 2018, Ireland defeated England 24–15 at Twickenham, London to claim the third Grand Slam in their history. The Saint Patrick's Day Test is an international rugby league tournament that is played between the US and Ireland. The competition was first started in 1995 and continued in 1996, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2011, and 2012. Ireland won the first two tests as well as the one in 2011, with the US winning the remaining 5. The game is usually held on or around 17 March to coincide with Saint Patrick's Day. The major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada that play during March often wear special third jerseys to acknowledge the holiday. Examples include the Buffalo Sabres (who have worn special Irish-themed practice jerseys), Toronto Maple Leafs (who wear Toronto St. Patricks throwbacks), New York Knicks, Toronto Raptors, and most Major League Baseball teams. The New Jersey Devils have worn their green-and-red throwback jerseys on or around Saint Patrick's Day in recent years. See also Gaelic calendar, also known as Irish calendar "It's a Great Day for the Irish" Order of St. Patrick Saint Patrick's Breastplate St. Patrick's Day Snowstorm of 1892 Saint Urho References External links Saint Patrick's Day History – slideshow by The Huffington Post Saint Patrick's Day on The History Channel Day 1783 establishments in Ireland 1903 establishments in Ireland Catholic holy days Catholic Church in the United States Festivals in Ireland Irish culture Irish folklore Irish-American culture Irish-Australian culture Irish-Canadian culture Irish-New Zealand culture March observances National days Observances in Australia Parades Public holidays in Canada Public holidays in Mexico Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland Patrick Public holidays in the United States Spring (season) events in the Republic of Ireland Anglican saints British flag flying days

Dead Marshes

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The Dead Marshes is a fictional place from J. R. R. Tolkien's universe, Middle-earth. Literature Once a part of the ancient battlefield of Dagorlad, the Dead Marshes lie north-west of the Morannon, the principal entrance to Mordor. The Battle of Dagorlad was fought there, at the end of the Second Age, when the Last Alliance met the forces of Mordor with many casualties on both sides amongst Elves, Men, and Orcs. Through the years, the marshland began to encroach upon parts of the battlefield, and engulfed the dead that lay there. The Marshes are also known as 'The Mere of Dead Faces'; they are described in The Passage of the Marshes in The Two Towers as "dreary and wearisome. Cold, clammy winter still held sway in this forsaken country. The only green was the scum of livid weed on the dark greasy milky surfaces of the sullen waters. Dead grasses and rotting reeds loomed up in the mists like ragged shadows of long forgotten summers." On their way to Mordor to destroy the One Ring, Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee are led through the marshes by Gollum. They see the aforementioned dead, Gollum stating, "Only shapes to see, perhaps, not to touch." Frodo is mesmerized by the candle-like lights that appear to float over the Marshes (called by Gollum "candles of corpses"); those who are hypnotised by these lights, and who therefore try to touch the bodies, are likely to drown in the waters and join the dead. In the book, Gollum reveals the dangers to Sam, who calls to the stiff and lifeless Frodo and breaks his trance before he can touch the waters. Not far away is another dismal swamp, the Nindalf or Wetwang, beside the Emyn Muil hills. Inspiration In a 1960 letter Tolkien said that "the Dead Marshes and the approaches to the Morannon owe something to Northern France after the Battle of the Somme." The medievalists Stuart D. Lee and Elizabeth Solopova compare Tolkien's account of the Dead Marshes to the monster Grendel's wilderness in the Old English poem Beowulf. Portrayal in adaptations Peter Jackson's flying Nazgûl background shots were filmed above the Kepler Mire, a massive string bog between the towns of Manapouri and Te Anau in the Southland Region of New Zealand. It can be viewed on the Mt York Road some 2 km east of the Highway 95 turn off. The close-up shots were filmed on the Weta Digital Wet-Set at Lower Hutt, NZ. References Middle-earth locations Fictional bodies of water

The Famous Five (novel series)

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The Famous Five is a series of children's adventure novels and short stories written by English author Enid Blyton. The first book, Five on a Treasure Island, was published in 1942. The novels feature the adventures of a group of young children – Julian, Dick, Anne, Georgina (George) and her dog Timmy. The vast majority of the stories take place in the children's school holidays. Each time they meet they get caught up in an adventure, often involving criminals or lost treasure. Sometimes the scene is set close to George's family home at Kirrin Cottage, such as the picturesque Kirrin Island, owned by George and her family in Kirrin Bay. George's own home and various other houses the children visit or stay in are hundreds of years old and often contain secret passages or smugglers' tunnels. In some books the children go camping in the countryside, on a hike or holiday together elsewhere. However, the settings are almost always rural and enable the children to discover the simple joys of cottages, islands, the English and Welsh countryside and sea shores, as well as an outdoor life of picnics, bicycle trips and swimming. Blyton intended to write only six or eight books in the series, but owing to their high sales and immense commercial success she went on to write twenty-one full-length Famous Five novels, as well as a number of other series in similar style following groups of children discovering crime on holiday. By the end of 1953, more than six million copies had been sold. Today, more than two million copies of the books are sold each year, making them one of the best-selling series for children ever written, with sales totalling over a hundred million. All the novels have been adapted for television, and several have been adapted as films in various countries. Blyton's publisher, Hodder & Stoughton, first used the term "The Famous Five" in 1951, after nine books in the series had been published. Before this, the series was referred to as The 'Fives' Books. Characters The Five is the oldest of the five, cousin to George and elder brother to Dick and Anne. He is tall, strong and intelligent as well as caring, responsible and kind. His cleverness and reliability are often noted by Aunt Fanny. He is the leader of the group and is very protective towards Anne and sometimes, to her frustration, towards George. Julian is the most mature of the group but, although well-meaning, his manner can at times come over as overbearing, pompous or priggish. At the start of the series, Julian is 12 years old. Over time, he reaches his goal of fully maturing into a young adult. has a cheeky sense of humour, but is also dependable and kind in nature. He is the same age as his cousin George, 1 year younger than his brother Julian and a year older than his sister Anne – eleven at the start of the series. Though inclined to tease his sister at times, Dick is, like Julian, very caring towards Anne and does his best to keep her cheered up when she gets upset. He had a heroic role in Five on a Treasure Island. He uses his wits and saves the five in many adventures but probably has the least clearly-drawn character of the four cousins. Georgina is a tomboy, demanding that people call her , and she cuts her hair very short and dresses like a boy. She is headstrong and courageous by nature and, like her father, scientist Quentin Kirrin, has a hot and fiery temper. Introduced to the other characters in the first book, she later attends a boarding school with Anne where the teachers too call her 'George'. Blyton eventually revealed that the character was based on herself. It is notable that the chief protagonist of the Malory Towers stories also possessed a fiery temper as a defining character trait. George has a loyal dog named Timmy who would do anything for her. She often gets cross when anyone calls her by her real name or makes fun of Timmy, and she loves it when somebody calls her George or mistakes her for a boy. In Five Get into a Fix, old Mrs Jones mistakes her for a boy: even though Julian had said to her that she was a girl, she later forgets this. George sometimes takes this to the point of asking that her name be prefixed with Master instead of Miss. Various references have been made to what meaning should be read into this – for instance "I remember reading in my first Famous Five book about a girl called Master George. What a puzzle and thrill. She claims to never tell lies as that is cowardly." is the youngest in the group, and generally takes care of the domestic duties during the Five's various camping holidays. As the youngest, she is more likely than the others to be frightened, and does not really enjoy the adventures as much as the others. She is ten years old in the first book of the series. She sometimes lets her tongue run away with her, but ultimately she is as brave and resourceful as the others. She likes doing the domestic things such as planning, organising and preparing meals, and keeping where they are staying clean and tidy, be it a cave, house, tent or caravan. In Smuggler's Top it is suggested she is claustrophobic, as she is frightened of enclosed spaces, which remind her of bad dreams. But the adventures invariably lead the five into tunnels, down wells, and into dungeons and other enclosed spaces, demonstrating how brave she really is. Alias Timmy is George's faithful dog. He is a large, brown mongrel with a long tail. George adopted him after finding him abandoned on the moors as a puppy. He is very friendly; he is clever, affectionate and loyal to the children and to George in particular; he provides physical protection for them many times. Timmy's presence is frequently given as the reason the children's parents allow them to wander unsupervised. George adores Timmy and thinks that he is the best dog in the world, and often becomes furious when people insult or threaten him. This is shown in 'Five On A Secret Trail' when she runs away from home with Timmy because he was being teased as he was forced to wear a cardboard collar. In the first book of the series, George's parents have forbidden her to keep Timmy, and she is forced to hide him with a fisher boy in the village. After the end of the Five's first adventure, her parents relent and she is allowed to keep him in the house and also take him with her to boarding school. It is a notable feature of the stories that Timmy's thoughts and feelings are frequently described. Close friends , the fisherboy, appears in most of the books set in Kirrin Cottage or at Kirrin Island. In the first book, after George's parents forbid her to keep the dog, Alf keeps Timmy for her. Timmy adores Alf. Alf also looks after George's boat. In later books Alf only looks after George's boat, as George's parents let Timmy stay in the house. Alf also appears as James of the same background. , the ragamuffin girl, clever but wild, joins the Five on several adventures near the end of the series. She is approximately the same age as the children and is a tomboy like George. Her parents were in the circus, but her mother died and her father was imprisoned for theft. She admires Dick and thinks the world of him. is the housekeeper at George's house. She is an extremely kind woman who is often present at Kirrin Cottage when Uncle Quentin and Aunt Fanny go off somewhere. All the four cousins are extremely attached to her. She is sometimes referred to as Joan. He appears in two books. He has the habit of imitating cars and has a pet monkey called Mischief. His father is also a scientist who is Uncle Quentin's friend. He's Jo's friend.. They meet in him in the 14th book "Five have plenty of fun" He works in the circus and has helped the five a lot. Family is George's mother, and aunt to Dick, Julian and Anne. She is married to Uncle Quentin, and is, through most of Blyton's Famous Five novels, the principal maternal figure in the lives of the children. She is a very kind and easy-going woman, and shows considerable patience with her husband over his short temper and absent-mindedness. is George's father, and a world-famous scientist, who is kidnapped or held hostage in several of the children's adventures. He possesses a quick temper and has little tolerance for the children on school holidays, but is nevertheless a loving and caring husband, father and uncle, and is extremely proud of his daughter. He is also inclined to be very absent-minded, as he finds it hard to switch off from his work and readjust to everyday life. Despite his fame as a scientist, his work does not earn him much money. In the first book of the series, it is established that he is brother to the father of Julian, Dick and Anne. is a very nice woman. In Five Go Off In a Caravan, she persuades the children's father to let them travel in the caravan. Critical discussion Blyton was a nature writer early in her career, and the books are strongly atmospheric, with a detailed but idealised presentation of the rural landscape. The books present children exploring this landscape without parental supervision as natural and normal. Pete Cash of the English Association has noted that the children "are allowed to go off on their own to an extent that today would contravene the Child Protection Act (1999) and interest Social Services." The books are written in a nostalgic style even for the time they were written, avoiding reference to specific political events or technological developments. Cash noted that the characters do not watch television apart from one appearance in 1947, or even make much use of radios, despite George's father's work presumably involving advanced technology. The books have been criticised for being repetitive, with repeated use of stock elements such as obnoxious, unfriendly people who turn out to be criminals and the discovery of a secret passageway. Blyton wrote rapidly and could finish a book in a week, which meant that unlike other book series of the period, such as Nancy Drew or The Hardy Boys, she was able to maintain control of her creations and write all the stories in a series herself. The treatment of girls in the books provides a contrast, with Anne, the youngest and most fragile character, a contrast to the brash and headstrong George. Floating timeline The seemingly perpetual youth of the Famous Five, who experience a world of apparently endless holidays while not ageing significantly, is known as a floating timeline. Floating timelines allow for an episodic series with no defined end-point, but at the expense of losing a sense of the characters growing up. J. K. Rowling commented of her Harry Potter series that she deliberately intended to avoid this in her writing: "in book four the hormones are going to kick in – I don't want him stuck in a state of permanent pre-pubescence like poor Julian in the Famous Five!" Bibliography Enid Blyton's "Famous Five" novel series Five on a Treasure Island (1942) Five Go Adventuring Again (1943) Five Run Away Together (1944) Five Go to Smuggler's Top (1945) Five Go Off in a Caravan (1946) Five on Kirrin Island Again (1947) Five Go Off to Camp (1948) Five Get into Trouble (1949) Five Fall into Adventure (1950) Five on a Hike Together (1951) Five Have a Wonderful Time (1952) Five Go Down to the Sea (1953) Five Go to Mystery Moor (1954) Five Have Plenty of Fun (1955) Five on a Secret Trail (1956) Five Go to Billycock Hill (1957) Five Get into a Fix (1958) Five on Finniston Farm (1960) Five Go to Demon's Rocks (1961) Five Have a Mystery to Solve (1962) Five Are Together Again (1963) Blyton also wrote a number of short stories featuring the characters, which were collected together in 1995 as Five Have a Puzzling Time, and Other Stories. Other book series Claude Voilier There are also books written originally in French by Claude Voilier (the Five have long been extremely popular in translation - by Voilier - in the French-speaking parts of Europe) and later translated into English. The Voilier titles are: Les Cinq sont les plus forts (1971; English title: The Famous Five and the Mystery of the Emeralds, English number: 2) Les Cinq au bal des espions (1971; English title: The Famous Five in Fancy Dress, English number: 7) Le Marquis appelle les Cinq (1972; English title: The Famous Five and the Stately Homes Gang, English number: 1) Les Cinq au Cap des tempêtes (1972; English title: The Famous Five and the Missing Cheetah, English number: 3) Les Cinq à la Télévision (1973; English title: The Famous Five Go on Television, English number: 4) Les Cinq et les pirates du ciel (1973; English title: The Famous Five and the Hijackers, English number: 13) Les Cinq contre le masque noir (1974; English title: The Famous Five Versus the Black Mask, English number: 6) Les Cinq et le galion d'or (1974; English title: The Famous Five and the Golden Galleon, English number: 5) Les Cinq font de la brocante (1975; English title: The Famous Five and the Inca God, English number: 9) Les Cinq se mettent en quatre (1975; English title: The Famous Five and the Pink Pearls, English number: 18) Les Cinq dans la cité secrète (1976; English title: The Famous Five and the Secret of the Caves, English number: 12) La fortune sourit aux Cinq (1976; English title: The Famous Five and the Cavalier's Treasure, English number: 10) Les Cinq et le rayon Z (1977; English title: The Famous Five and the Z-Rays, English number: 17) Les Cinq vendent la peau de l'ours (1977; English title: The Famous Five and the Blue Bear Mystery, English number: 8) Les Cinq aux rendez-vous du diable (1978; English title: The Famous Five in Deadly Danger, English number: 15) Du neuf pour les Cinq (1978; English title: The Famous Five and the Strange Legacy, English number: 11) Les Cinq et le trésor de Roquépine (1979; English title: The Famous Five and the Knights' Treasure, English Number: 16) Les Cinq et le diamant bleu (1979; reprinted in 1980 as Les Cinq et le rubis d'Akbar; (The Five and the Rubies Of Akbar)) Les Cinq jouent serré (1980; English title: The Famous Five and the Strange Scientist, English number: 14) Les Cinq en croisière (1980; never translated into English; "The Five on a Cruise") Les Cinq contre les fantômes (1981; never translated into English; "The Five Against the Ghosts") Les Cinq en Amazonie (1983; never translated into English; "The Five in Amazonia") Les Cinq et le trésor du pirate (1984; never translated into English; "The Five and the Pirate's Treasure") Les Cinq contre le loup-garou (1985; never translated into English; "The Five against the werewolf") The German "Geisterbände" In Germany, two books came out with a questionable author. The titles are: Fünf Freunde auf der verbotenen Insel ("Five Friends on the Forbidden Island") (1977) Fünf Freunde und der blaue Diamant ("Five Friends and the Blue Diamond") (1979) Fünf Freunde verfolgen die Strandräuber (1963) Fünf Freunde jagen die Entführer (1966) Although Enid Blyton is named as author on the cover, the books were most likely written by German author Brigitte Blobel, who is credited as the translator. The books were recalled after the first edition owing to copyright issues, and are now rare and high-priced collector's items. Film and television adaptations Films There exist two Children's Film Foundation films of the Famous Five books: Five on a Treasure Island, made in 1957, and Five Have a Mystery to Solve, produced in 1964. Two of the Famous Five stories by Enid Blyton have been filmed by Danish director Katrine Hedman. The cast consisted of Danish actors and were originally released in Danish. Ove Sprogøe stars as Uncle Quentin. The movies are: (Five and the Spies) (1969) and De 5 i fedtefadet (Famous Five Get in Trouble) (1970). All four of the films have been released on DVD in their respective countries. In 2012 the movie Fünf Freunde was released in Germany, with Marcus Harris in a small role. Now also Fünf Freunde 2, 3 and 4. Television 1978–79 series The Famous Five television series was produced by Southern Television and Portman Productions for ITV in the UK, in 26 episodes of thirty minutes (including time for advertisements). It starred Michele Gallagher as Georgina, Marcus Harris as Julian, Jennifer Thanisch as Anne, Gary Russell as Dick, Toddy Woodgate as Timmy, Michael Hinz as Uncle Quentin and Sue Best as Aunt Fanny. It also starred Ronald Fraser, John Carson, Patrick Troughton, James Villiers, Cyril Luckham and Brian Glover. The screenplays were written by Gloria Tors, Gail Renard, Richard Carpenter and Richard Sparks. The episodes were directed by Peter Duffell, Don Leaver, James Gatward and Mike Connor. The series was produced by Don Leaver and James Gatward. Most of the outdoor filming was done in the New Forest and parts of Dorset and Devon.The series was set in the present day, fifteen years after Blyton's last novel in the series. Of the original 21 novels, three were not adapted for this series; Five on a Treasure Island and Five Have a Mystery to Solve because the Children's Film Foundation still own the film and TV rights to the books, while Five Have Plenty of Fun did not fit in the production schedule. Due to the success of the series, Southern Television were keen to make another season of episodes, but the Enid Blyton estate forbade them to create original stories. The 1978 series was originally released on video by Portman Productions with reasonable regularity between 1983 and 1999, many of which are still easy to find second-hand, although the sound and picture quality is not always what it could be. A four-disc DVD collection, containing 23 of the 26 episodes produced for the 1978 series (and two episodes from the 1996 series) was released in region 4 (Australia and New Zealand) in 2005. The box and disc art identify it as a release of the 1996 series. (The distributor had licensed the 1996 series, but due to an administrative glitch was supplied with master tapes and artwork for the 1978 series.) The error was corrected in a later release. A seven-DVD set containing the entire series and extensive bonus material was released in October 2010 in Germany by Koch Media; although there was an option to choose either the original English or German dubbed versions, the English version had non-removable German subtitles across the bottom of the screen on every episode. The same company released the DVD set in the UK (without the non-removable subtitles) on 25 June 2012. A four DVD set containing all 26 episodes, without additional content, was released for region 4 (Australia and New Zealand) in late 2011, as Enid Blyton's The Famous Five: The Complete Collection. (The Finnish punk band Widows (of Helsinki) made three different cover versions of the theme song, the first in early 1979, as did the Irish indie outfit Fleur, in 1996.) 1995 series A later series, The Famous Five, initiated by Victor Glynn of Portman Zenith was aired first in 1995, a co-production between a number of companies including Tyne Tees Television, HTV, Zenith North and the German channel ZDF. Unlike the previous TV series, this set the stories in the 1950s, around when they were written. It dramatised all the original books. Of the juvenile actors the best known is probably Jemima Rooper, who played George. Julian was portrayed by Marco Williamson, Dick by Paul Child, and Anne by Laura Petela. In this series, because of the slang meaning of the word fanny, Aunt Fanny, played by Mary Waterhouse, was known as Aunt Frances. (In some but not all recent reprints of the book, the character has been re-christened Aunt Franny.) The 1995 series was released in its entirety on VHS video. A three-disc DVD collection, containing 13 of the 26 episodes of the 1995 series, was released in Australia and New Zealand in 2005, and is marked "Revised Edition" to avoid confusion with the previous release of the 1979 series with 1995 artwork. Other episodes have reportedly been released on DVD in Europe, but only the adaptation of Five on a Treasure Island was released on DVD in the UK. Famous 5: On the Case A new Famous Five animated TV series began airing in 2008. Famous 5: On the Case is set in modern times and features the children of the original Famous Five: Max (the son of Julian and Brandine), Dylan (son of Dick and Michelle), Jo (daughter of George and Ravi – a tomboy who, like her mother, prefers a shorter name to her given name Jyoti) and Allie (daughter of Anne and John). It has not been stated whether their dog is a descendant of Timmy. The new series was first announced in 2005, and is a co-production of Chorion (which currently owns all Famous Five rights) and Marathon, in association with France 3 and The Disney Channel. Disney confirmed their involvement in December 2006. Stories were developed by Douglas Tuber and Tim Maile, who have previously written for Lizzie McGuire. Chorion claims on its website that "these new programmes will remain faithful to the themes of mystery and adventure central to Enid Blyton's classic series of books." In total, there will be 130 episodes, each 22 minutes long. Other adaptations Audio dramas Hodder Headline produced in the late 1990s audio dramas in English, which were published on audio cassette and CD. All 21 episodes of the original books were dramatised. The 21 original stories by Enid Blyton have been released in the 70s as Fünf Freunde audio dramas in Germany as well. The speakers were the German dubbing artists for Gallagher, Thanisch, Russell and Harris, the leads of the first television series. For the sequels (not written by Blyton and decidedly more "modern" action-oriented stories) the speakers were replaced by younger ones, because it was felt that they sounded too mature. In addition to the original Blyton books, another 80+ stories have subsequently been released and published as radio plays and books in Germany. They are based on the original characters, but written by various German writers. Theatre A 1997 musical was made to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Enid Blyton's birth with the title The Famous Five and later released on DVD as The Famous Five – Smuggler's Gold – The Musical. Principal actors: Elizabeth Marsland, Lyndon Ogbourne, Matthew Johnson, Vicky Taylor, Jon Lee, Director: Roz Storey and also in the five A brand new musical adaptation was premièred at the Tabard Theatre on 8 December 2009 and played until 10 January 2010. Gamebooks Two sets of gamebooks in a Choose Your Own Adventure style have been published. These books involve reading small sections of print and being given two or more options to follow, with a different page number for each option. The first series of these, written by Stephen Thraves, featured stories loosely based on the original books. They were issued in plastic wallets with accessories such as maps, dice and codebooks. The gamebooks were titled as follows: The Wreckers' Tower Game, based on Five Go Down to the Sea The Haunted Railway Game, based on Five Go Off to Camp The Whispering Island Game, based on Five Have a Mystery to Solve The Sinister Lake Game, based on Five On a Hike Together The Wailing Lighthouse Game, based on Five Go to Demon's Rocks The Secret Airfield Game, based on Five Go to Billycock Hill The Shuddering Mountain Game, based on Five Get into a Fix The Missing Scientist Game, based on Five Have a Wonderful Time The second series, written by Mary Danby, was entitled "The Famous Five and You". These consisted of abridged versions of the original text, with additional text for the alternative story routes. The books in this series were based on the first six original Famous Five books: The Famous Five and You Search for Treasure! The Famous Five and You Find Adventure! The Famous Five and You Run Away! The Famous Five and You Search for Smugglers! The Famous Five and You Take Off! The Famous Five and You Underground! Comics A weekly comic strip based on the 1978 television series was published in Look-in magazine from 1978 to 1980. Six comic albums drawn by Bernard Dufossé and scripted by Serge Rosenzweig and Rafael Carlo Marcello were released in France between 1982 and 1986, under the title Le Club des Cinq. Most of comic books in the series are based on Famous Five books created by Claude Voilier. Books were released by Hachette Livre. The first three of these volumes have also been released in English, under the name Famous Five. The titles included "Famous Five and the Golden Galleon" (which featured a sunken ship that was laden with gold with the Five fending off villains seeking to make off with the gold, "Famous Five and the Treasure of the Templars", where it transpires that Kirrin Castle is actually a Templar Castle that houses their hidden treasure which the Five ultimately secure with the help of members of the order, and "Famous Five and the Inca God" which was set in an antiquities museum and dealt with the theft of an Incan fetish. Beginning in September 1985 a series of monthly Comic Magazine titles Enid Blyton's Adventure Magazine were published. Each issue published a full length illustrative comic book story adapted from Famous 5 Novels. The series came to end in the 1990s. Parodies The Comic Strip Presents... The Five inspired the parody Five Go Mad in Dorset (1982) and its 1983 sequel Five Go Mad on Mescalin, both produced by The Comic Strip, in which the characters express sympathies with Nazi Germany and opposition to the Welfare State, homosexuals, immigrants and Jews, in an extremely broad parody not so much of Blyton but of views perceived to be common in the 1950s. The parodies were deliberately set towards the end of the original Famous Five "era" (1942–63) so as to make the point that the books were already becoming outmoded while they were still being written. Both parodies made use of Famous Five set pieces, such as the surrender of the criminals at the end when Julian states "We're the Famous Five!", the arrival of the police just in the nick of time, and the appeal for "some of your home-made ices" at a village shop. Unlike the books, the four children in the Comic Strip parody are all siblings, and none is the child of Aunt Fanny and Uncle Quentin. The series was revived in 2012 with Five Go to Rehab, with the original cast reprising their roles, now well into middle-age. Reuniting for Dick's birthday after decades apart, the four and Toby lament how their lives took unexpected paths while Dick drags them on another bicycle adventure, which he had meticulously planned for fourteen years. In a reversal, George had married a series of wealthy men whom she cuckolded with, among others, one of her stepsons (her continuing penchant for bestiality with the latest Timmy is also implied); whereas Anne has become a strongly opinionated vegan spinster and is suspected by Dick of being a "dyke" – an accusation made against George by Toby in the original Five Go Mad in Dorset. George and Julian have been committed to an alcoholics' sanatorium, the latter owes a large debt to African gangsters, and Anne recently served a prison sentence for setting her nanny aflame. Robbie Coltrane reprised both of his roles. Five Go to Rehab utilises a form of a floating timeline; although the original films' events are said to have taken place thirty years in the past and "five years after the war", the reunion film appears to be set approximately contemporaneous to its filming. Others Parodies began early: in 1964, only the year after the last book was published, John Lennon in his work In His Own Write had the short story The Famous Five through Woenow Abbey. Amidst a plethora of deliberate misspellings, he lists ten members of the Five, and a dog named Cragesmure. Viz comic has parodied the series' style of writing and type of stories on a number of occasions. In the late eighties, Australian comedy team The D-Generation parodied The Famous Five on their breakfast radio show as a five-part serial entitled The Famous Five Get Their Teeth Kicked In. The parody was based on the first book Five on a Treasure Island. The fourth short story in Fearsome Tales for Fiendish Kids by Jamie Rix is named "The Chipper Chums Go Scrumping", which is about five children in 1952 on a picnic in Kent during the summer holidays. After their nap, the youngest wants an apple to eat so the children decide to steal from a nearby orchard, but they are caught by the owner, who is armed with a shotgun. It was later adapted for the Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids cartoon, which aired on CITV in 2000. A 2005 story in The Guardian also parodies the Famous Five. It argues that Anne, Dick, George and Julian are caricatures rather than characters, portraying Anne as having no life outside of domestic labour. It highlights what the writer, Lucy Mangan, considers to be the power struggle between Dick, George and Julian while Anne is sidelined. On 31 October 2009, the BBC programme The Impressions Show featured a sketch in which Ross Kemp meets The Famous Five. It was a parody of his Sky One show, Ross Kemp on Gangs. British comedian John Finnemore did a radio sketch in which Julian and George run into each other as adults and reminisce. It is revealed that Julian has gone on to a career as a smuggler and regularly has to deal with copycat groups of children trying to thwart his plans. George is a happily married mother, Dick has gone to live in a commune in America, and Anne has just been released from prison having murdered a man with a ginger beer bottle. Bert Fegg's Nasty Book for Boys and Girls features "The Famous Five Go Pillaging", – a short story which parodies the writing style of Enid Blyton; five children witness the collapse of Roman imperialism and their friends and family are slaughtered by 9000 invading Vikings. Website The Daily Mash reported a lost Blyton manuscript titled "Five Go Deporting Gypsies". A spoof series of five books written by Bruno Vincent was published in November 2016. The books are titled Five Give Up the Booze, Five Go Gluten Free, Five Go On A Strategy Away Day, Five Go Parenting and Five on Brexit Island. Vincent went on to write several more titles in the series: Five at the Office Christmas Party, Five Get Gran Online, Five Get On the Property Ladder, Five Go Bump in the Night, Five Escape Brexit Island, Five Get Beach Body Ready, Five Lose Dad in the Garden Centre, and Five Forget Mother's Day. In November 2017, Return to Kirrin was released, written by Neil and Suzy Howlett. Set in 1979, it involves the Five (now middle-aged) reuniting on Kirrin Island, to discuss Julian's plans to develop Kirrin into a theme resort. Julian has become a successful stockbroker, Dick is a well-meaning but inept and overweight policeman, Anne is a worrisome housewife, and George is a feminist community worker (with her flatulent bulldog Gary in tow). Adventures then ensue, involving a host of other original characters. References Notes Citations External links Famous Five Book Reviews & Articles Book series introduced in 1942 British children's novels Enid Blyton series Fictional amateur detectives Hodder & Stoughton books Literary characters introduced in 1942 Novels set in Dorset SAM Coupé games ZX Spectrum games

Galápagos Islands

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The Galápagos Islands (official name: , other Spanish name: , , ), part of the Republic of Ecuador, are an archipelago of volcanic islands. They are distributed on either side of the equator in the Pacific Ocean, surrounding the centre of the Western Hemisphere. Located west of continental Ecuador, the islands are known for their large number of endemic species that were studied by Charles Darwin during the second voyage of HMS Beagle. His observations and collections contributed to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection. The Galápagos Islands and their surrounding waters form the Galápagos Province of Ecuador, the Galápagos National Park, and the Galápagos Marine Reserve. The principal language on the islands is Spanish. The islands have a population of slightly over 25,000. The first recorded visit to the islands happened by chance in 1535, when Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the Bishop of Panamá, was surprised with this undiscovered land during a voyage to Peru to arbitrate in a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. De Berlanga eventually returned to the Spanish Empire and described the conditions of the islands and the animals that inhabited them. The group of islands was shown and named "Insulae de los Galopegos" (Islands of the Tortoises) in Abraham Ortelius's atlas published in 1570. The first crude map of the islands was made in 1684 by the buccaneer Ambrose Cowley, who named the individual islands after some of his fellow pirates or after British royalty and noblemen. These names were used in the authoritative navigation charts of the islands prepared during the Beagle survey under captain Robert FitzRoy, and in Darwin's popular book The Voyage of the Beagle. The newly independent Republic of Ecuador took the islands from Spanish ownership in 1832, and subsequently gave them official Spanish names. The older names remained in use in English-language publications, including Herman Melville's The Encantadas of 1854. Administratively, Galapagos constitutes one of the provinces of Ecuador, made up of three cantons that bear the names of its most populated islands, namely: San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz and Isabela. Geology Volcanism has been continuous on the Galápagos Islands for at least 20 million years, and perhaps even longer. The mantle plume beneath the east-ward moving Nazca Plate (51 km/myr) has given rise to a 3-kilometre-thick platform under the island chain and seamounts. Besides the Galápagos Archipelago, other key tectonic features in the region include the Northern Galápagos Volcanic Province between the archipelago and the Galápagos Spreading Center (GSC) 200 km to the north at the boundary of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate. This spreading center truncates into the East Pacific Rise on the west and is bounded by the Cocos Ridge and Carnegie Ridge in the east. Furthermore, the Galápagos Hotspot is at the northern boundary of the Pacific Large Low Shear Velocity Province while the Easter Hotspot is on the southern boundary. The Galápagos Archipelago is characterized by numerous contemporaneous volcanoes, some with plume magma sources, others from the asthenosphere, possibly due to the young and thin oceanic crust. The GSC caused structural weaknesses in this thin lithosphere leading to eruptions forming the Galápagos Platform. Fernandina and Isabela in particular are aligned along these weaknesses. Lacking a well-defined rift zone, the islands have a high rate of inflation prior to eruption. Sierra Negra on Isabela Island experienced a 240 cm uplift between 1992 and 1998, most recent eruption in 2005, while Fernandina on Fernandina Island indicated an uplift of 90 cm, most recent eruption in 2009. Alcedo on Isabela Island had an uplift of greater than 90 cm, most recent eruption in 1993. Additional characteristics of the Galápagos Archipelago are closer volcano spacing, smaller volcano sizes, and larger calderas. For instance, Isabela Island includes 6 major volcanoes, Ecuador, Wolf, Darwin, Alcedo, Sierra Negraa and Cerro Azul, with most recent eruptions ranging from 1813 to 2008. The neighboring islands of Santiago and Fernandina last erupted in 1906 and 2009, respectively. Overall, the 9 active volcanoes in the archipelago have erupted 24 times between 1961 and 2011. The shape of these volcanoes is tall and rounded as opposed wide and smooth in the Hawaiian Islands. The Galápagos's shape is due to the pattern of radial and circumferential fissure, radial on the flanks, but circumferential near the caldera summits. It is the circumferential fissures which give rise to stacks of short lava flows. The volcanoes at the west end of the archipelago are in general, taller, younger, have well developed calderas, and are mostly composed of tholeiitic basalt, while those on the east are shorter, older, lack calderas, and have a more diverse composition. The ages of the islands, from west to east are 0.05 Ma for Fernandina, 0.65 Ma for Isabela, 1.10 Ma for Santiago, 1.7 Ma for Santa Cruz, 2.90 Ma for Santa Fe, and 3.2 Ma for San Cristobal. The calderas on Sierra Negra and Alcedo have active fault systems. The Sierra Negra fault is associated with a sill 2 km below the caldera. The caldera on Fernandina experienced the largest basaltic volcano collapse in history, with the 1968 phreatomagmatic eruption. Fernandina has also been the most active volcano since 1790, with recent eruptions in 1991, 1995, 2005, and 2009, and the entire surface has been covered in numerous flows since 4.3 Ka. The western volcanoes have numerous tuff cones. Physical geography The islands are located in the eastern Pacific Ocean, off the west coast of South America. The closest land mass is that of mainland Ecuador, the country to which they belong, to the east. The islands are found at the coordinates 1°40'N–1°36'S, 89°16'–92°01'W. Straddling the equator, islands in the chain are located in both the northern and southern hemispheres, with Volcán Wolf and Volcán Ecuador on Isla Isabela being directly on the equator. Española Island, the southernmost islet of the archipelago, and Darwin Island, the northernmost one, are spread out over a distance of . The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) considers them wholly within the South Pacific Ocean, however. The Galápagos Archipelago consists of of land spread over of ocean. The largest of the islands, Isabela, measures and makes up close to three-quarters of the total land area of the Galápagos. Volcán Wolf on Isabela is the highest point, with an elevation of above sea level. The group consists of 18 main islands, 3 smaller islands, and 107 rocks and islets. The islands are located at the Galapagos Triple Junction. The archipelago is located on the Nazca Plate (a tectonic plate), which is moving east/southeast, diving under the South American Plate at a rate of about per year. It is also atop the Galápagos hotspot, a place where the Earth's crust is being melted from below by a mantle plume, creating volcanoes. The first islands formed here at least 8 million and possibly up to 90 million years ago. While the older islands have disappeared below the sea as they moved away from the mantle plume, the youngest islands, Isabela and Fernandina, are still being formed. In April 2009, lava from the volcanic island Fernandina started flowing both towards the island's shoreline and into the center caldera. In late June 2018, Sierra Negra, one of five volcanoes on Isabela and one of the most active in the Galapagos archipelago, began erupting for the first time since 2005. Lava flows made their way to the coastline, prompting the evacuation of about fifty nearby residents and restricting tourist access. Main islands The 18 main islands (each having a land area at least 1 km2) of the archipelago (with their English names) shown alphabetically: Baltra (South Seymour) Island – Baltra is a small flat island located near the centre of the Galápagos. It was created by geological uplift. The island is very arid, and vegetation consists of salt bushes, prickly pear cacti and palo santo trees. Until 1986, Baltra (Seymour) Airport was the only airport serving the Galápagos. Now, there are two airports which receive flights from the continent; the other is located on San Cristóbal Island. Private planes flying to Galápagos must fly to Baltra, as it is the only airport with facilities for planes overnight. On arriving in Baltra, all visitors are immediately transported by bus to one of two docks. The first dock is located in a small bay, where the boats cruising Galápagos await passengers. The second is a ferry dock, which connects Baltra to the island of Santa Cruz. During the 1940s, scientists decided to move 70 of Baltra's land iguanas to the neighboring North Seymour Island as part of an experiment. This move proved unexpectedly useful when the native iguanas became extinct on Baltra as a result of the island's military occupation in World War II. During the 1980s, iguanas from North Seymour were brought to the Charles Darwin Research Station as part of a breeding and repopulation project, and in the 1990s, land iguanas were reintroduced to Baltra. As of 1997, scientists counted 97 iguanas living on Baltra; 13 of which had hatched on the islands. Bartolomé (Bartholomew) Island – Bartolomé Island is a volcanic islet just off the east coast of Santiago Island in the Galápagos Islands group. it is one of the younger islands in the Galápagos archipelago. This island, and neighbouring Sulivan Bay on Santiago (James) island, are named after lifelong friend of Charles Darwin, Sir Bartholomew James Sulivan, who was a lieutenant aboard HMS Beagle. Today Sulivan Bay is often misspelled Sullivan Bay. This island is one of the few that are home to the Galápagos penguin which is the only wild penguin species to live on the equator. The green turtle is another animal that resides on the island. Darwin (Culpepper) Island – This island is named after Charles Darwin. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Here fur seals, frigates, marine iguanas, swallow-tailed gulls, sea lions, whales, marine turtles, and red-footed and Nazca boobies can be seen. Darwin's Arch, a natural rock arch which would at one time have been part of this larger structure, is located less than a kilometre from the main Darwin Island, and it is a landmark well known to the island's few visitors. It collapsed in May 2021. Española (Hood) Island – Its name was given in honor of Spain. It also is known as Hood, after Viscount Samuel Hood. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Española is the oldest island at around 3.5 million years, and the southernmost in the group. Due to its remote location, Española has a large number of endemic species. It has its own species of lava lizard, mockingbird, and Galápagos tortoise. Española's marine iguanas exhibit a distinctive red coloration change between the breeding season. Española is the only place where the waved albatross nests. Some of the birds have attempted to breed on Genovesa (Tower) Island, but unsuccessfully. Española's steep cliffs serve as the perfect runways for these birds, which take off for their ocean feeding grounds near the mainland of Ecuador and Peru. Española has two visitor sites. Gardner Bay is a swimming and snorkelling site, and offers a great beach. Punta Suarez has migrant, resident, and endemic wildlife, including brightly colored marine iguanas, Española lava lizards, hood mockingbirds, swallow-tailed gulls, blue-footed boobies, Nazca boobies, red-billed tropicbirds, Galápagos hawks, three species of Darwin's finches, and the waved albatross. Fernandina (Narborough) Island – The name was given in honor of King Ferdinand II of Aragon, who sponsored the voyage of Columbus. Fernandina has an area of and a maximum altitude of . This is the youngest and westernmost island. On 13 May 2005, a new, very eruptive process began on this island, when an ash and water vapor cloud rose to a height of and lava flows descended the slopes of the volcano on the way to the sea. Punta Espinosa is a narrow stretch of land where hundreds of marine iguanas gather, largely on black lava rocks. The famous flightless cormorants inhabit this island, as do Galápagos penguins, pelicans, Galápagos sea lions and Galápagos fur seals. Different types of lava flows can be compared, and the mangrove forests can be observed. Floreana (Charles or Santa María) Island – It was named after Juan José Flores, the first President of Ecuador, during whose administration the government of Ecuador took possession of the archipelago. It is also called Santa Maria, after one of the caravels of Columbus. It has an area of and a maximum elevation of . It is one of the islands with the most interesting human history, and one of the earliest to be inhabited. Flamingos and green sea turtles nest (December to May) on this island. The patapegada or Galápagos petrel, a sea bird which spends most of its life away from land, is found here. At Post Office Bay, where 19th-century whalers kept a wooden barrel that served as a post office, mail could be picked up and delivered to its destinations, mainly Europe and the United States, by ships on their way home. At the "Devil's Crown", an underwater volcanic cone and coral formations are found. Genovesa (Tower) Island – The name is derived from Genoa, Italy, the birthplace of Christopher Columbus. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . This island is formed by the remaining edge of a large caldera that is submerged. Its nickname of "the bird island" is clearly justified. At Darwin Bay, frigatebirds and swallow-tailed gulls, the only nocturnal species of gull in the world, can be seen. Red-footed boobies, noddy terns, lava gulls, tropic birds, doves, storm petrels and Darwin finches are also in sight. Prince Philip's Steps is a bird-watching plateau with Nazca and red-footed boobies. There is a large Palo Santo forest. Isabela (Albemarle) Island – This island was named in honor of Queen Isabella I of Castile. With an area of , it is the largest island of the Galápagos. Its highest point is Volcán Wolf, with an altitude of . The island's seahorse shape is the product of the merging of six large volcanoes into a single land mass. On this island, Galápagos penguins, flightless cormorants, marine iguanas, pelicans and Sally Lightfoot crabs abound. At the skirts and calderas of the volcanoes of Isabela, land iguanas and Galápagos tortoises can be observed, as well as Darwin finches, Galápagos hawks, Galápagos doves and very interesting lowland vegetation. The third-largest human settlement of the archipelago, Puerto Villamil, is located at the southeastern tip of the island. Marchena (Bindloe) Island – Named after Fray Antonio Marchena, it has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Galapagos hawks and sea lions inhabit this island, and it is home to the Marchena lava lizard, an endemic animal. North Seymour Island – Its name was given after an English nobleman, Lord Hugh Seymour. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . This island is home to a large population of blue-footed boobies and swallow-tailed gulls. It hosts one of the largest populations of frigate birds. It was formed from geological uplift. Pinzón (Duncan) Island – Named after the Pinzón brothers, captains of the Pinta and Niña caravels, it has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Pinta (Louis) Island – Named after the Pinta caravel, it has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Sea lions, Galápagos hawks, giant tortoises, marine iguanas, and dolphins can be seen here. Pinta Island was home to the last remaining Pinta tortoise, called Lonesome George. He was moved from Pinta Island to the Charles Darwin Research Station on Santa Cruz Island, where scientists attempted to breed from him. However, Lonesome George died in June 2012 without producing any offspring. Rábida (Jervis) Island – It bears the name of the convent of Rábida, where Columbus left his son during his voyage to the Americas. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . The high amount of iron contained in the lava at Rábida gives it a distinctive red colour. White-cheeked pintail ducks live in a saltwater lagoon close to the beach, where brown pelicans and boobies have built their nests. Until recently, flamingos were also found in the lagoon, but they have since moved on to other islands, likely due to a lack of food on Rábida. Nine species of finches have been reported in this island. San Cristóbal (Chatham) Island – It bears the name of the patron saint of seafarers, "St. Christopher". Its English name was given after William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. It has an area of and its highest point rises to . This is the first island in the Galápagos Archipelago Charles Darwin visited during his voyage on the Beagle. This islands hosts frigate birds, sea lions, giant tortoises, blue- and red-footed boobies, tropicbirds, marine iguanas, dolphins and swallow-tailed gulls. Its vegetation includes Calandrinia galapagos, Lecocarpus darwinii, and trees such as Lignum vitae. The largest freshwater lake in the archipelago, Laguna El Junco, is located in the highlands of San Cristóbal. The capital of the province of Galápagos is Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, which lies at the southern tip of the island, and is close to San Cristóbal Airport. Santa Cruz (Indefatigable) Island – Given the name of the Holy Cross in Spanish. It was originally named Norfolk Island by Cowley, but renamed after the British frigate HMS Indefatigable after her visit there in 1812. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Santa Cruz hosts the largest human population in the archipelago, the town of Puerto Ayora. The Charles Darwin Research Station and the headquarters of the Galápagos National Park Service are located here. The GNPS and CDRS operate a tortoise breeding centre here, where young tortoises are hatched, reared, and prepared to be reintroduced to their natural habitat. The Highlands of Santa Cruz offer exuberant flora, and are famous for the lava tunnels. Large tortoise populations are found here. Black Turtle Cove is a site surrounded by mangroves, which sea turtles, rays and small sharks sometimes use as a mating area. Cerro Dragón, known for its flamingo lagoon, is also located here, and along the trail one may see land iguanas foraging. Santa Fe (Barrington) Island – Named after a city in Spain, it has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Santa Fe hosts a forest of Opuntia cactus, which are the largest of the archipelago, and Palo Santo. Weathered cliffs provide a haven for swallow-tailed gulls, red-billed tropic birds and shearwater petrels. Santa Fe species of land iguanas are often seen, as well as lava lizards. Santiago (San Salvador, James) Island – Its name is equivalent to Saint James in English; it is also known as San Salvador, after the first island discovered by Columbus in the Caribbean Sea. This island has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Marine iguanas, sea lions, fur seals, land and sea turtles, flamingos, dolphins and sharks are found here. Pigs and goats, which were introduced by humans to the islands and have caused great harm to the endemic species, have been eradicated (pigs by 2002; goats by the end of 2006). Darwin finches and Galápagos hawks are usually seen, as well as a colony of fur seals. At Sulivan Bay, a recent (around 100 years ago) pahoehoe lava flow can be observed. Wolf (Wenman) Island – This island was named after the German geologist Theodor Wolf. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . Here, fur seals, frigatebirds, Nazca and red-footed boobies, marine iguanas, sharks, whales, dolphins and swallow-tailed gulls can be seen. The most famous resident is the vampire finch, which feeds partly on blood pecked from other birds, and is only found on this island. Minor islands Daphne Major – A small island directly north of Santa Cruz and directly west of Baltra, this very inaccessible island appears, though unnamed, on Ambrose Cowley's 1684 chart. It is important as the location of multidecade finch population studies by Peter and Rosemary Grant. South Plaza Island (Plaza Sur) – It is named in honor of a former president of Ecuador, General Leónidas Plaza. It has an area of and a maximum altitude of . The flora of South Plaza includes Opuntia cactus and Sesuvium plants, which form a reddish carpet on top of the lava formations. Iguanas (land, marine and some hybrids of both species) are abundant, and large numbers of birds can be observed from the cliffs at the southern part of the island, including tropic birds and swallow-tailed gulls. Nameless Island – A small islet used mostly for scuba diving. Roca Redonda – An islet approximately northwest of Isabela. Herman Melville devotes the third and fourth sketches of The Encantadas to describing this islet (which he calls "Rock Rodondo") and the view from it. Climate Although the islands are located on the equator, the Humboldt Current brings cold water to them, causing frequent drizzles during most of the year. The weather is periodically influenced by the El Niño events, which occur about every 3 to 7 years and are characterized by warm sea surface temperatures, a rise in sea level, greater wave action, and a depletion of nutrients in the water. During the season known as the garúa (June to November), the temperature by the sea is , a steady and cold wind blows from south and southeast, frequent drizzles (garúas) last most of the day, and dense fog conceals the islands. During the warm season (December to May), the average sea and air temperature rises to , there is no wind at all, there are sporadic, though strong, rains and the sun shines. Weather changes as altitude increases in the large islands. Temperature decreases gradually with altitude, while precipitation increases due to the condensation of moisture in clouds on the slopes. There is a large range in precipitation from one place to another, not only with altitude, but also depending on the location of the islands, and also with the seasons. The archipelago is mainly characterized by a mixture of a tropical savanna climate and a semi-arid climate. It also transits into a tropical rainforest climate in the northwest. The following table corresponding to the wet 1969 shows the variation of precipitation in different places of Santa Cruz Island: The precipitation also depends on the geographical location. During March 1969, the precipitation over Charles Darwin Station, on the southern coast of Santa Cruz was , while on Baltra Island, the precipitation during the same month was only . This is because Baltra is located behind Santa Cruz with respect to the prevailing southerly winds, so most of the moisture gets precipitated in the Santa Cruz highlands. There are significant changes in precipitation from one year to another, too. At Charles Darwin Station, the precipitation during March 1969 was , but during March 1970, it was only . On the larger islands, the pattern of generally wet highlands and drier lowlands impacts the flora. The vegetation in the highlands tends to be green and lush, with tropical woodland in places. The lowland areas tend to have arid and semi-arid vegetation, with many thorny shrubs and cacti, and almost bare volcanic rock elsewhere. Ecology Terrestrial Most of the Galápagos is covered in semi-desert vegetation, including shrublands, grasslands, and dry forest. A few of the islands have high-elevation areas with cooler temperatures and higher rainfall, which are home to humid-climate forests and shrublands, and montane grasslands (pampas) at the highest elevations. There are about 500 species of native vascular plants on the islands, including 90 species of ferns. About 180 vascular plant species are endemic. The islands are well known for their distinctive endemic species, including giant tortoises, finches, flightless cormorants, Galápagos lava lizards and marine iguanas, which evolved to adapt to islands' environments. History Pre-Columbian era Whether the Incas ever made it to the islands is disputed. In 1572, Spanish chronicler Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa claimed that Topa Inca Yupanqui, the second Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire had visited the archipelago, but there is little evidence for this, and many experts consider it a far-fetched legend, especially since the Incas were not seafaring people. According to a 1952 archaeological survey by Thor Heyerdahl and Arne Skjølsvold, potsherds and other artifacts from several sites on the islands suggest visitation by South American peoples in pre-Columbian era. The group located an Inca flute and shards from more than 130 pieces of ceramics, which were later identified as pre-Incan. However, no remains of graves, ceremonial vessels or constructions have ever been found, suggesting no permanent settlement occurred before the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. A 2016 reanalysis of Heyerdahl and Skjølsvold's archaeological sites rejected their conclusions. They found that at all locations, artifacts of Indian and European origin were interspersed without the distinct spatial or stratigraphic arrangement that would be expected from independent sequential deposition (indeed, Heyerdahl and Skjølsvold had reported the intermixing of European and American artifacts in their original report). Radiocarbon dates from the sites placed them in the historical (post-Spanish-arrival) era, and preliminary paleoenvironmental analysis showed no disturbance older than 500 years before present, suggesting the islands were probably not visited prior to their Spanish discovery in 1535. The authors suggested that native artifacts found by Heyerdahl and Skjølsvold had probably been brought as momentos or souvenirs at the time of Spanish occupation. Whatever their identity, the first visitors to the islands were likely unimpressed by the lack of fresh water on the islands. European voyages European discovery of the Galápagos Islands occurred when Spaniard Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the fourth Bishop of Panama, sailed to Peru to settle a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and his lieutenants. De Berlanga's vessel drifted off course when the winds diminished, and his party reached the islands on 10 March 1535. The Galápagos Islands first appeared on the maps of Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, in about 1570. The islands were named "Insulae de los Galopegos" (Islands of the Tortoises) in reference to the giant tortoises found there. The first English captain to visit the Galápagos Islands was Richard Hawkins, in 1593. Until the early 19th century, the archipelago was often used as a hideout by mostly English pirates who attacked a Spanish treasure fleet carrying gold and silver from South America to Spain. In 1793, James Colnett described the flora and fauna of Galápagos, and suggested the islands could be used as base for the whalers operating in the Pacific Ocean. He drew the first accurate navigation charts of the islands. Whalers and maritime fur traders killed and captured thousands of the Galápagos tortoises to extract their fat. The tortoises could be kept on board ship as a means of providing of fresh protein, as these animals could survive for several months on board without any food or water. The hunting of the tortoises was responsible for greatly diminishing, and in some cases eliminating, certain species. Along with whalers came the fur-seal hunters, who brought the population of this animal close to extinction. The first known permanent human resident on Galápagos was Patrick Watkins, an Irish sailor who was marooned on the Island Floreana from 1807 to 1809. According to later accounts, Watkins managed to survive by hunting, growing vegetables and trading with visiting whalers, before finally stealing an open boat and navigating to Guayaquil. In 1818 the Nantucket whaleship Globe, under Captain George Washington Gardner, discovered a "mother lode" of sperm whales some thousand miles west of the South American coast approximately at the equator. He returned to Nantucket in 1820 with more than 2000 barrels of sperm whale oil and the news of his discovery. This led to an influx of whaleships to exploit the new whaling ground and the Galápagos Islands became a frequent stop for the whalers both before and after visiting what came to be known as the Offshore Grounds. This led to the establishment in the Galápagos Islands of a kind of unofficial "post office" where whaleships stopped to pick up and drop off letters as well as for provisioning and repairing. In October 1820, the whaleship Essex, out of Nantucket, stopped at the Galápagos for these purposes on its way to the Offshore Grounds. On what was then known as Charles Island, while most of the crew were hunting tortoises one crewmember, English boatsteerer Thomas Chappel, for reasons still unclear, lit a fire which quickly burned out of control. Some of the tortoise hunters had a narrow escape and had to run a gauntlet of fire to get back to the ship. Soon almost the entire island was in flames. Crewmembers reported that after a day of sailing away they could still see the flames against the horizon. One crewmember who returned to the Galápagos several years afterward described the entire island as still a blackened wasteland. Ecuadorian Galápagos Scientific expeditions and first settlers Ecuador annexed the Galápagos Islands on 12 February 1832, naming them the Archipelago of Ecuador. This new name added to several names that had been, and are still, used to refer to the archipelago. The first governor of Galápagos, General José de Villamil, brought a group of convicts to populate the island of Floreana, and in October 1832, some artisans and farmers joined them. The voyage of the Beagle brought the survey ship HMS Beagle, under captain Robert FitzRoy, to the Galápagos on 15 September 1835 to survey approaches to harbours. The captain and others on board, including his companion, the young naturalist Charles Darwin, made observations on the geology and biology on Chatham, Charles, Albemarle and James islands before they left on 20 October to continue on their round-the-world expedition. Primarily a geologist at the time, Darwin was impressed by the quantity of volcanic craters they saw, later referring to the archipelago as "that land of craters". His study of several volcanic formations over the five weeks he stayed in the islands led to several important geological discoveries, including the first, correct explanation for how volcanic tuff is formed. Darwin noticed the mockingbirds differed between islands, though he thought the birds now known as Darwin's finches were unrelated to each other, and did not bother labelling them by island. Nicholas Lawson, acting Governor of Galápagos for the Republic of Equator, met them on Charles Island, and as they walked to the prison colony, Lawson told Darwin the tortoises differed from island to island. Towards the end of the voyage, Darwin speculated that the distribution of the mockingbirds and the tortoises might "undermine the stability of Species". When specimens of birds were analyzed on his return to England, it was found that many apparently different kinds of birds were species of finches, which were unique to islands. These facts were crucial in Darwin's development of his theory of natural selection explaining evolution, which was presented in On the Origin of Species. In April 1888 , a Navy-crewed research vessel assigned to the United States Fish Commission, briefly touched eight islands in the Galapagos group for specimens; this included Wreck Bay on Chatham Island (now San Cristóbal Island) on 4 April and Charles Island (now Floreana Island) on 8 April. José Valdizán and Manuel Julián Cobos tried a new colonization, beginning the exploitation of a type of lichen found in the islands (Roccella portentosa) used as a coloring agent. After the assassination of Valdizán by some of his workers, Cobos brought from the continent to San Cristóbal Island a group of more than a hundred workers, and tried his luck at planting sugar cane. He ruled his plantation with an iron hand, which led to his assassination in 1904. In 1897, Antonio Gil began another plantation on Isabela Island. Over the course of a whole year, from September 1904, an expedition of the Academy of Sciences of California, led by Rollo Beck, stayed in the Galápagos collecting scientific material on geology, entomology, ornithology, botany, zoology, and herpetology. Another expedition from that Academy was done in 1932 (Templeton Crocker Expedition) to collect insects, fish, shells, fossils, birds, and plants. From geopolitical hotspot to national park For a long time during the early 1900s and at least through 1929, a cash-strapped Ecuador had reached out for potential buyers of the islands to alleviate financial troubles at home. The US had repeatedly expressed its interest in buying the islands for military use as they were positioned strategically guarding the Panama Canal. Besides the United States, Japan, Germany and Chile also expressed interest in establishing bases in the islands at the turn of the century. Chile had previously acquired the Straits of Magellan and Easter Island for strategic reasons and lieutenant Gregorio Santa Cruz argued in 1903 that possessing an island in equatorial waters, like the Galápagos, would be of great benefit since the geopolitical situation of Chile was expected to drastically change when the Panama Canal opened. Another benefit would be to widen the security radius of Chile. Chile was alarmed by the United States plans to establish a Guantanamo-like base in the Galápagos Islands since it would mean that Chile's nitrate-rich northern provinces would be within the range of United States Navy. Ecuador's staunch resistance to a US purchase or bases in the islands can be credited to Chilean diplomacy, which in turn was informally backed on this issue by Great Britain and Germany. In the 1920s and 1930s, a small wave of European settlers arrived in the islands. There occurred a series of unsolved disappearances on the island of Floreana in the 1930s among the largely European expatriate residents at the time. The Galápagos Affair: Satan Came to Eden is a 2013 feature-length documentary film about the same. Ecuadorian laws provided all colonists with the possibility of receiving twenty hectares each of free land, the right to maintain their citizenship, freedom from taxation for the first ten years in Galápagos, and the right to hunt and fish freely on all uninhabited islands where they might settle. The first European colonists to arrive were Norwegians who settled briefly on Floreana, before moving on to San Cristobal and Santa Cruz. A few years later, other colonists from Europe, America and Ecuador started arriving on the islands, seeking a simpler life. Descendants of the Norwegian Kastdalen family and the German Angermeyer still live on the islands. During World War II, Ecuador authorized the United States to establish a naval base in Baltra Island, and radar stations in other strategic locations. Baltra was established as a United States Army Air Force base. Baltra was given the name of "Beta Base" along with "Alpha Base" in Nicaragua and "Gamma Base" in Salinas (continental Ecuador). The Crews stationed at Baltra and the aforementioned locations established a geographic triangle of protection in charge of patrolling the Pacific for enemy submarines, and also provided protection for the Panama Canal. After the war, the facilities were given to the government of Ecuador. Today, the island continues as an official Ecuadorian military base. The foundations and other remains of the US base can still be seen as one crosses the island. In 1946, a penal colony was established on Isabela Island, but it was suspended in 1959. The Galápagos became a national park in 1959, and tourism started in the 1960s, imposing several restrictions upon the human population already living on the island. However, opportunities in the tourism, fishing, and farming industries attracted a mass of poor fishermen and farmers from mainland Ecuador. In the 1990s and 2000s, violent confrontations between parts of the local population and the Galápagos National Park Service occurred, including capturing and killing giant tortoises and holding staff of the Galápagos National Park Service hostage to obtain higher annual sea cucumber quotas. Politics The islands are administered by a provincial government. It was made a province by presidential decree by President Guillermo Rodríguez Lara on 18 February 1973. The province is divided into cantons, each covering certain islands. The capital is Puerto Baquerizo Moreno. Demographics The largest ethnic group is composed of Ecuadorian Mestizos, the mixed descendants of Spanish colonists and indigenous Native Americans, who arrived mainly in the last century from the continental part of Ecuador. Some descendants of the early European and American colonists on the islands also still remain on the islands. In 1959, approximately 1,000 to 2,000 people called the islands their home. In 1972 a census in the archipelago recorded a population of 3,488. By the 1980s, this number had risen to more than 15,000 people, and in 2010 there were 25,124 people in the Galápagos. Five of the islands are inhabited: Baltra, Floreana, Isabela, San Cristóbal, and Santa Cruz. Travel Options for air travel to the Galápagos are limited to two islands: San Cristobal (San Cristóbal Airport) and Baltra (Seymour Airport). Private aircraft must use Baltra as it is the airport equipped with overnight plane accommodations. Seymour Airport on Baltra was recently renovated (2012–2013) to accommodate larger planes. Until 1969 the only way to visit was on a private or chartered vessel. There was no regular air service until Forrest Nelson's Hotel Galápagos began the first organized tours in April 1969. Soon other travel companies brought in tour ships and yachts, and local fishermen began converting their wooden boats for rudimentary cruising with guests. These vessels were the main source of overnight accommodations in the Galápagos. Today there are about 85 yachts and ships equipped for overnight guests. In 2006 the Baltra military governed island, was opened up to limited overnight camping. Baltra also requires permits by the military government for overnight stays on the beach. Other inhabited islands also allow camping on the beaches designated as "recreational" use to the locals. All of these camping permits are limited to number of people and nights, with most nights not to exceed three. Land based hotels are opening on the inhabited islands of San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, Floreana and Isabela. By 2012, more than half the visitors to Galápagos made their tours using day boats and these small hotels. Restaurants, easy access and economy make this an attractive travel option. There are only 116 visitor sites in the Galápagos: 54 land sites and 62 scuba-diving or snorkeling sites. Small groups are allowed to visit in 2- to 4-hour shifts only, to limit impact on the area. All groups are accompanied by licensed guides. Environmental protection policy Though the first protective legislation for the Galápagos was enacted in 1930 and supplemented in 1936, it was not until the late 1950s that positive action was taken to control what was happening to the native flora and fauna. In 1955, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature organized a fact-finding mission to the Galápagos. Two years later, in 1957, UNESCO, in cooperation with the government of Ecuador, sent another expedition to study the conservation situation and choose a site for a research station. In 1959, the centenary year of Charles Darwin's publication of The Origin of Species, the Ecuadorian government declared 97.5% of the archipelago's land area a national park, excepting areas already colonised. The Charles Darwin Foundation (CDF) was founded the same year. The core responsibility of CDF, an international nongovernmental organization (NGO) constituted in Belgium, is to conduct research and provide the research findings to the government for effective management of Galápagos. CDF's research efforts began with the establishment of the Charles Darwin Research Station on Santa Cruz Island in 1964. During the early years, conservation programs, such as eradication of introduced species and protection of native species, were carried out by research station personnel. Now much of that work is accomplished by the Galápagos National Park Service using the research findings and methodologies developed by CDF. In 1986, the 70,000 square kilometers (27,000 sq mi) of ocean surrounding the islands was declared a marine reserve, second in size only to Australia's Great Barrier Reef. In 1990, the archipelago became a whale sanctuary. UNESCO recognized the islands in 1978 as a World Heritage Site and in 1985, as a biosphere reserve. This was later extended in December 2001 to include the marine reserve. In July 2010, the World Heritage Committee agreed to remove the Galápagos Islands from its list of precious sites endangered by environmental threats or overuse. Noteworthy species include: Galápagos dove, Zenaida galapagoensis, two subspecies Galápagos flycatcher, Myiarchus magnirostris Galápagos land iguanas, Conolophus spp. Marine iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus, the only iguana feeding in the sea Galápagos tortoise (Galápagos giant tortoise), Chelonoidis nigra, known as galápago in Spanish, it gave the name to the islands Galápagos green turtle, Chelonia mydas agassisi, a subspecies of the green turtle Galápagos racer, Pseudalsophis biserialis, an endemic species of snake with two subspecies Sea cucumbers, the cause of environmental battles with fishermen over quotas of this expensive Asian delicacy Flightless cormorant, Phalacrocorax harrisi Great frigatebird and magnificent frigatebird Blue-footed booby, Sula nebouxii, popular among visitors for their large blue feet which they show off in courtship Galápagos penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus, the only living tropical penguin Waved albatross, Phoebastria irrorata, the only living tropical albatross Galápagos hawk, Buteo galapagoensis, the islands' main scavenger (at the top of the food chain) and "environmental police" Four endemic species of Galápagos mockingbirds, the first species Darwin noticed to vary from island to island Thirteen endemic species of tanagers, popularly called Darwin's finches. Among them is the sharp-beaked ground finch Geospiza difficilis septentrionalis which is sometimes called the "vampire finch" for its blood-sucking habits, and the tool-using woodpecker finch, Camarhynchus pallidus Galápagos sea lions, Zalophus wollebaeki, closely related to the California sea lion, but smaller Two endemic genera of cacti, each with a single species: Jasminocereus thouarsii, the candelabra cactus, and Brachycereus nesioticus, the lava cactus Environmental threats Introduced plants and animals, such as feral goats, cats, and cattle, brought accidentally or willingly to the islands by humans, represent the main threat to Galápagos. Quick to reproduce and with no natural predators, these alien species decimated the habitats of native species. The native animals, lacking natural predators on the islands, are defenseless to introduced predators. There are over 700 introduced plant species today. There are only 500 native and endemic species. This difference is creating a major problem for the islands and the natural species that inhabit them. These plants have invaded large areas and eliminated endemic species in the humid zones of San Cristobal, Floreana, Isabela and Santa Cruz. Some of the most harmful introduced plants are the guayaba or guava (Psidium guajava), avocado (Persea americana), cascarilla (Cinchona pubescens), balsa (Ochroma pyramidale), hill raspberry (Rubus niveus), various citrus (orange, grapefruit, lemon), floripondio, higuerilla (Ricinus communis) trees and the elephant grass, Pennisetum purpureum. Many species were introduced to the Galápagos by pirates. Thor Heyerdahl quoted documents that mention the Viceroy of Peru, knowing that British pirates ate the goats that they themselves had released in the islands, ordered dogs to be freed there to eliminate the goats. Also, when colonization of Floreana by José de Villamil failed, he ordered the goats, donkeys, cattle and other animals from the farms in Floreana be transferred to other islands for the purpose of later colonization. Non-native goats, pigs, dogs, rats, cats, mice, sheep, horses, donkeys, cows, poultry, ants, cockroaches, and some parasites inhabit the islands today. Dogs and cats attack the tame birds and destroy the nests of birds, land tortoises, and marine turtles. They sometimes kill small Galápagos tortoises and iguanas. Pigs are even more harmful, covering larger areas and destroying the nests of tortoises, turtles and iguanas, as well as eating the animals' native food. Pigs also knock down vegetation in their search for roots and insects. This problem abounds in Cerro Azul volcano and Isabela, and in Santiago, pigs may be the cause of the disappearance of the land iguanas that were so abundant when Darwin visited. The black rat (Rattus rattus) attacks small Galápagos tortoises when they leave the nest, so in Pinzón they stopped the reproduction for a period of more than 50 years; only adults were found on that island. Also, where the black rat is found, the endemic rat has disappeared. Cattle and donkeys eat all the available vegetation and compete with native species for scarce water. In 1959, fishermen introduced one male and two female goats to Pinta island; by 1973, the National Park service estimated the population of goats to be over 30,000 individuals. Goats were also introduced to Marchena in 1967 and to Rabida in 1971. A goat eradication program, however, cleared the goats from Pinta and Santiago and most of the goat population from Isabela, and, by 2006, all feral pigs, donkeys and non-sterile goats had been eliminated from Santiago and Isabela, the largest islands with the worst problems due to non-native mammals. Six species of small non-native vertebrates have established self-sufficient populations in Galápagos and may become invasive: Fowler's snouted tree frog Scinax quinquefasciatus, common house gecko Hemidactylus frenatus, mourning gecko Lepidodactylus lugubris, dwarf gecko Gonatodes caudiscutatus, Peters' leaf-toed gecko Phyllodactylus reissii, and smooth-billed ani Crotophaga ani. Domestic fowl Gallus gallus holds feral populations, which may have self-sufficient populations, but evidence is unclear. The fast-growing poultry industry on the inhabited islands has been cause for concern from local conservationists, who fear domestic birds could introduce disease into the endemic wild bird populations. The Galápagos marine sanctuary is under threat from a host of illegal fishing activities, in addition to other problems of development. The most pressing threat to the Marine Reserve comes from local, mainland and foreign fishing targeting marine life illegally within the Reserve, such as sharks (hammerheads and other species) for their fins, and the harvest of sea cucumbers out of season. Development threatens both land and sea species. The growth of both the tourism industry and local populations fuelled by high birth rates and illegal immigration threaten the wildlife of the Archipelago. The grounding of the oil tanker Jessica in 2001 and the subsequent oil spill brought this threat to world attention. In 2007, UNESCO put the Galápagos Islands on their List of World Heritage in Danger because of threats posed by invasive species, unbridled tourism and overfishing. On 29 July 2010, the World Heritage Committee decided to remove the Galápagos Islands from the list because the Committee found significant progress had been made by Ecuador in addressing these problems. On 28 January 2008, Galápagos National Park official Victor Carrion announced 53 sea lions (13 pups, 25 youngsters, 9 males and 6 females) were killed at the Galápagos Islands nature reserve on Pinta, with their heads caved in. In 2001, poachers killed 35 male sea lions. The Galápagos Islands were short-listed as a candidate to be one of the New7Wonders of Nature by the New7Wonders of Nature Foundation. As of February 2009, the archipelago was ranked first in Group B, the category for islands. The islands' biodiversity is under threat from several sources. The human population is growing at a rate of 8% per year (1995). Introduced species have caused damage, and in 1996 a US$5 million, five-year eradication plan commenced in an attempt to rid the islands of introduced species such as goats, rats, deer, and donkeys. Except for the rats, the project was essentially completed in 2006. Rats have only been eliminated from the smaller Galápagos Islands of Rábida and Pinzón. El Niño has adversely affected the marine ecosystem. In January 2001, an oil slick from a stranded tanker threatened the islands, but winds and shifting ocean currents helped disperse the oil before much damage was done. The devastating El Niño of 1982–83 saw almost six times as much rain as normal in the Galapagos and created a wildlife catastrophe. The 1997–98 El Niño adversely affected wildlife in the waters surrounding the islands, as the waters were warmer than normal. Corals and barnacles suffered, hammerhead sharks were driven away, and most of the island's seabirds failed to breed in 1997–98. The mortality rate of marine iguanas rose as the green algae they feed on was replaced by inedible red algae. During the 1982–83 El Niño, 70% of the marine iguanas starved to death because of this. See also List of birds of the Galápagos Islands List of animals in the Galápagos Islands Galápagos National Park Galápagos hotspot Galápagos Islands xeric scrub Galápagos Province Darwin's Arch Johanna Angermeyer, author of various books featuring the Galápagos Islands References Further reading Black, Juan (1973). Galápagos, Archipiélago del Ecuador. (Quito, Ecuador). Comprehensive monograph by a former officer of Galápagos National Park, financed by the World Wildlife Fund and the Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands Grant, K. Thalia and Estes, Gregory B. (2009). Darwin in Galapagos: Footsteps to a New World. Princeton University Press, Princeton. . Heyerdahl, Thor; & Skjolsvold, Arne (1956). Archaeological Evidence of Pre-Spanish Visits to the Galápagos Islands, Memoirs 12, Society for American Archaeology. Müller, Bodo; & Stolt, Matthias (2003). Galápagos Die verwunschenen Inseln. (BLV). . Quammen, David (1996). The Song of the Dodo. Touchstone, New York. Romero, Simon (4 October 2009). "To Protect Galápagos, Ecuador Limits a Two-Legged Species". The New York Times. Perry, Roger (1972). The Galapagos Islands. (Dodd, Mead & Company). Short history illustrated with photographs and a map by a former director of Charles Darwin Research Station. Wittmer, Margret (2013). Floreana: A Woman's Pilgrimage to the Galápagos. (Moyer Bell Limited). Memoir written by the matriarch of the first family to successfully inhabit Floreana, after settling there in 1932. 2013 paperback edition (originally published by the Travel Book Club in 1961) External links Galápagos geology, with general information on the Galápagos Islands Islands Biosphere reserves of Ecuador Surfing locations in Ecuador Ecoregions of Ecuador Pacific islands of Ecuador Seabird colonies States and territories established in 1973 World Heritage Sites in Ecuador Tourist attractions in Galápagos Province Articles containing video clips Tropical Eastern Pacific

Batman: The Animated Series

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Batman: The Animated Series is an American superhero animated television series based on the DC Comics superhero Batman. Developed by Bruce Timm, Paul Dini, and Mitch Brian, and produced by Warner Bros. Animation, it originally aired on Fox Kids from September 5, 1992, to September 15, 1995, with a total of 85 episodes. For the final 20 episodes, the series was given the on-screen title The Adventures of Batman & Robin, which was also used for reruns of earlier episodes. The series became the first in the continuity of the shared DC Animated Universe, spawning further animated TV series, feature films, comic books and video games with most of the same creative talent. The series was praised for its thematic complexity, film noir aesthetics, darker tone, artistic presentation, and modernization of its title character's crime-fighting origins. IGN.com listed Batman: The Animated Series as the best adaptation of Batman anywhere outside of comics, the best comic book television show of all time and the second-best animated series of all time (after The Simpsons). Wizard magazine also ranked it No. 2 of the greatest animated television shows of all time (again after The Simpsons). TV Guide ranked it the seventh-greatest cartoon of all time. The widespread acclaim led the series to win four Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Animated Program. A continuation of the series is in development in the form of an audio podcast drama, with the cast returning along with writer Alan Burnett. Overview The series took influence from Tim Burton's live-action films, Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992), and the acclaimed Superman theatrical cartoons produced by Fleischer Studios in the early 1940s. In designing the series, Bruce Timm and Eric Radomski emulated the Burton films' "otherworldly timelessness" (however the series is clearly set in the 20th century, but using various elements from different decades of that century), incorporating period features such as black-and-white title cards, police airships (although no such thing existed, Timm has stated that he found it to fit the show's style) and a "vintage" color scheme with film noir flourishes. The visual style of the series was based on the artwork of Radomski, and the gothic look of Gotham City was derived from his initial designs. In addition, Radomski issued a standing order to the animation department that all backgrounds be painted using light colors on black paper (as opposed to the industry standard of dark colors on white paper). The distinctive visual combination of "noir" imagery and Art Deco design was dubbed "Dark Deco" by the producers. The series initially took a variation of music written by Danny Elfman for the Burton films as its theme; later episodes of the series used a new theme with a similar style by Shirley Walker (Walker was occasionally Elfman's conductor for films). The score of the series was influenced by Elfman's work on the Burton films, as well as music of 1940s film noir. The series is more adult-oriented than many of the previous superhero cartoons, while still being considered kid-friendly appropriate for younger audiences. It depicts outright physical violence against antagonists, including realistic firearms (though only one character, Commissioner Gordon, was ever depicted as having been shot, in the episode "I Am the Night"). First-time producers Timm and Radomski reportedly encountered resistance from studio executives, but the success of Burton's first film allowed the embryonic series to survive long enough to produce a pilot episode, "On Leather Wings", which, according to Timm, "got a lot of people off our backs". During the series' production, producer Alan Burnett wrote a silent episode (without dialogue) entitled "Silent Night" to explore more of Batman's sexual life, but this was never produced. Burnett also intended to make an episode featuring a female vampire that would bite Batman to suck his blood, but plans never materialized. The series is also notable for its supporting cast—numerous known actors provided voices for a variety of recognizable villains, most notably Mark Hamill (previously famous for his role as Luke Skywalker in the original Star Wars trilogy) whose prominence as a voice actor was heightened through his "cheerfully deranged" portrayal of the Joker. The role was originally given to Tim Curry, but he developed bronchitis during the initial recording sessions. John Glover, who later voiced the Riddler, also auditioned for the Joker role. Hamill, who found himself to be the biggest fan of the Batman comics among the cast, credited the laughs he had honed on stage in Amadeus with landing him the role. The recording sessions, under the supervision of voice director Andrea Romano, were recorded with the actors together in one studio instead of taking separate recordings, as is typical. This method would later be employed for all subsequent series in the DC Animated Universe. Al Pacino was considered to voice Two-Face in the series, but he declined the offer. Richard Moll was instead cast in the role. Other actors included Ron Perlman as Clayface, Roddy McDowall as the Mad Hatter, David Warner as Ra's al Ghul, Michael York as Count Vertigo, Kate Mulgrew as Red Claw, George Murdock as Boss Biggis, Ed Asner as Roland Daggett and George Dzundza as the Ventriloquist. One of the series' best-known inventions is the Joker's assistant, Harley Quinn, who became so popular that DC Comics later added her to mainstream Batman comic book continuity. The Penguin underwent change for the series; his appearance was remodeled after the version seen in Batman Returns, which was in production simultaneously with the series' first season. New life was also given to lesser-known characters for the series such as the Clock King. In addition, dramatic changes were made to other villains such as Clayface and Mr. Freeze, who was changed from a gimmicky mad scientist to a tragic figure whose "frigid exterior [hid] a doomed love and vindictive fury". Characters The Joker's accomplice Harley Quinn, Gotham City police detective Renee Montoya, the vigilante Lock-Up, former actor Simon Trent, brainwashed comedian-turned-supervillain Condiment King, and ninja Kyodai Ken are original creations who became characters in the comics. Older villains that were lesser known from the comics, such as Count Vertigo, the Mirror Man and the Clock King, were modified for the series in both appearance and personality. Other original antagonists were created, such as Roland Daggett, Red Claw, Lloyd Ventrix, the Sewer King, Boss Biggis, Grant Walker, H.A.R.D.A.C., and Emile Dorian, but to little acclaim, and did not make any appearances outside the series, though Daggett was re-imagined as businessman John Daggett for The Dark Knight Rises. Aside from creating characters that crossed over into the main line of DC Comics, several of the series' reinterpretations were carried over as well. Mr. Freeze was revised in the comics to emulate the series' tragic story, the success of which actually compelled DC to bring the character back after "killing" him off some years earlier. Clayface was revised to be much more similar in appearance to his animated counterpart; and Two-Face's double-sided, black-and-white suit has become a common appearance for the character. Bruce Wayne / Batman At the age of eight, Bruce Wayne, the son of billionaire philanthropists, witnessed the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha, during a mugging on the street. The event left him traumatized and mentally scarred for the rest of his life. This left Bruce to be cared for by his family's butler, Alfred Pennyworth. Over the years, Bruce slowly turned the pain and trauma he sustained into a burning fuel for a lifelong obsession, as he underwent rigorous training in mental and physical conditioning, the martial arts, criminology, sciences, manhunting, forensics, detective work, interrogation methods and intimidation, for the next years of his life. Having observed the rampant crime and corruption across Gotham City, he chose to deal with the crime-wave in Gotham in his own way, by using his years of training and swore an oath to dedicate his entire life to fighting crime, in a bid to avenge the murder of his parents and to use his pain and suffering to drive him to do good, while being guided by his self-enforced moral code to never kill and to refrain from using firearms. Inspired by the presence of bats, his childhood fear, which used to be present around his home, Bruce chose to undertake the alias of The Batman, a feared, near-mythical and bat-masked vigilante. One of the most notable changes made in The Animated Series is the treatment of Batman's alter ego, Bruce Wayne. In nearly all other media, including the comics, television shows and films, Bruce deliberately plays up his image as a vacuous, self-absorbed and not-too-bright billionaire playboy. In The Animated Series, his character is assertive, outwardly intelligent, and actively involved in the management of Wayne Enterprises, without jeopardizing his secret identity. For example: in the episode "Eternal Youth", Bruce is shown angrily ordering one of his directors to cancel a deal with a timber company in the Amazon rainforest that had been made behind his back, threatening him with termination upon failure to comply. Kevin Conroy used different voices to distinguish between his portrayal of Bruce Wayne and Batman, a tactic used previously by Michael Keaton in Tim Burton's live-action films. Conroy based his dual-voice performance on the 1934 film adaptation of The Scarlet Pimpernel. Dick Grayson / Robin Dick Grayson's history in the show mirrors that in the comics: The episode "Robin's Reckoning" reveals that Grayson and his parents were acrobats in Haly's Circus. Following the tragic deaths of Grayson's mother and father at the hands of mobster Tony Zucco, Bruce Wayne adopts Dick and eventually takes him on as a protégé. The series also redefined the original Robin/Dick Grayson. While much of Dick's past remains the same, his Robin costume is modernized with short sleeves and long tights, exactly like Tim Drake's original Robin outfit but with a non-italicized "R" symbol. In addition, Dick is given a more serious and mature personality to match the tone of the series (although he does have comedic moments occasionally). The episode "Batgirl Returns" establishes that Dick and Barbara Gordon attend the same college and that they are friends, but neither one knows the secret identity of the other. Their relationship is one of the plot elements of the film Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero. Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Barbara Gordon is first seen in the two-parter "Heart of Steel", where she becomes convinced her father is an impostor. She makes her first appearance as her alter ego Batgirl in "Shadow of the Bat", after her father Commissioner Gordon is arrested under charges of corruption. Her Batgirl costume is exactly the same from The Adventures of Batman and the Bronze Age of Comics, sporting the same gray bodysuit, blue cape and cowl and yellow bat-symbol and utility belt, but with blue gloves and boots to mirror that of Batman's costume instead of yellow ones. She makes several appearances throughout the series, and attends the same university as Dick Grayson, though neither of them are aware of each other's crimefighting alter ego. In "Batgirl Returns", Barbara actually makes a cease fire deal with Catwoman, and they work together in solving the case of missing valuable cat statues while Batman is away. All of Barbara's/Batgirl's appearances are in episodes written by Brynne Stephens. The Joker Though the Joker's origin is never shown in the series (one of only two villains in the series who never got an origin episode, the other one being The Penguin), some of his past is seen in the feature film Batman: Mask of the Phantasm. In flashbacks, he is shown before his accident but does not speak or is referred to by name. His potential real name, Jack Napier (the same name of Jack Nicholson's version of the character from Tim Burton's 1989 film), is established in the episodes "Dreams in Darkness" when it is spoken by Dr. Bartholomew and in "Joker's Wild" where it is written in a dossier. The use of this origin was due to the show being heavily patterned after the success and influential tone of Tim Burton's film. However, when The New Batman Adventures began, during the era of Joel Schumacher's films, Joker's origin was retained but his identity was retconned as being merely one of many aliases as seen in the episode "Beware the Creeper", meaning his true identity is still unknown. This reflected the efforts of the writers to put the character back in line with his conflicting multiple origins from the comics. In Mask of the Phantasm, the man who would become the Joker started out as a chauffeur and hitman for mobsters Salvatore Valestra, Buzz Bronski and Chuckie Sol. On two occasions, he saw Bruce Wayne and the two exchanged glances years before they would clash as the Joker and Batman later. It is hinted in the rest of the series, presumably after the Valestra Mob had gone their separate ways, the man struck out on his own and formed a small gang. The man broke into the ACE Chemical Plant that marked the first time he encountered Batman, a fight which ended with him falling off a catwalk and into a drainage vat of chemicals. He was washed out into the bay and discovered the chemicals bleached his skin chalk white, dyed his hair green, stained his lips red, leaving them in a permanent rictus smile, and dyed his suit purple. This new, clown-like appearance snapped his already sadistic mind and drove him to eternal insanity. He reinvented himself as the Joker, Batman's greatest enemy and Gotham City's most dangerous costumed criminal. While the use of this origin was based on the Jack Nicholson version, Mark Hamill was given the note "Don't do Nicholson" before his audition. During production, Hamill asked the production team (consisting of Timm, Radomski, and Romano) if he could play one of the villains after a small appearance as Ferris Boyle in “Heart of Ice”. Even though Tim Curry had already recorded a few episodes, Hamill was given the part after Curry developed bronchitis and departed the series. Hamill, who found himself to be the biggest fan of the Batman comics among the cast, credited the laughs he had honed on stage in Amadeus with landing him the role. He worked to craft a multifaceted laugh for the Joker that could change to reflect the Joker's current mood, likening it to a musical instrument. When recording his lines with the other actors, Hamill would stand while the other actors would remain seated to invest himself in the role. Hamill's take on the Joker's laugh (and the role in general) is considered to be groundbreaking for the voice-acting industry, and led to Hamill having an enormously successful voice-acting career. Of the many influences for his performance, including Jay Leno and Howard Cosell, Hamill cited Claude Rains' performance in the 1933 film The Invisible Man. Other characters Other antagonists that appeared in the series included classic villains such as Poison Ivy, Catwoman, the Riddler, Two-Face, the Mad Hatter, Ra's al Ghul, Talia al Ghul, Man-Bat, the Penguin, the Scarecrow, Killer Croc, Bane, the Ventriloquist and his dummy Scarface, Hugo Strange and Tony Zucco. Friends and allies of Batman featured in the show not previously mentioned include Alfred Pennyworth, Harvey Bullock, the Gray Ghost (an original character created by the series to portray Bruce Wayne's childhood hero and crimefighting inspiration, voiced by Adam West, the actor who had played Batman in the 1960s Batman series), Lucius Fox, and Leslie Thompkins. Cast Protagonists Supporting protagonists Antagonists Supporting antagonists Episodes Animation In order to complete the first season's 65 episodes, Warner Bros. Animation outsourced the series to several different overseas animation houses: Spectrum Animation, Sunrise, Studio Junio and Tokyo Movie Shinsha in Japan, Dong Yang Animation, Koko Enterprises Ltd. and AKOM in South Korea, Jade Animation in Hong Kong, Blue Pencil in Spain and Network of Animation (NOA) in Canada. TMS also animated the first season's opening theme sequence. AKOM was eventually fired due to its inconsistent animation in many episodes such as "Cat Scratch Fever" and "Moon of the Wolf". The 20 episodes of the second season were animated largely by Dong Yang, with the exception of three done by Studio Junio ("A Bullet for Bullock", "Avatar" and "Baby-Doll") and one done by Jade Animation ("The Terrible Trio"). On the commentary track for "Heart of Ice" on the Batman: The Animated Series, Volume One DVD, producer Bruce Timm stated that Spectrum was responsible for airbrushing Mr. Freeze's helmet in every frame that featured him. Such attention to detail ultimately drove the studio to bankruptcy; most of their staff members are now working for Production I.G. Adaptations The show also featured numerous adaptations of various Batman comics stories. The following episodes were adaptations: The episode "Appointment in Crime Alley" is based on "There Is No Hope in Crime Alley" from Detective Comics #457 (March 1976) by writer Denny O'Neil and artist Dick Giordano. "Dreams in Darkness" is loosely based on "Batman: The Last Arkham" from Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1–4 by writer Alan Grant and artist Norm Breyfogle (June–September 1992). This episode adapted the comic book story with the inclusion of the Scarecrow instead of Victor Zsasz and Dr. Bartholomew instead of Jeremiah Arkham. "The Cape and Cowl Conspiracy" was an adaptation of "The Cape and Cowl Death Trap!" from Detective Comics #450 (August 1975), written by Elliot S. Maggin and drawn by artist Walt Simonson. Part 1 of "Robin's Reckoning" takes its cues from "Batman and "Robin the Boy Wonder"" in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940) by writer Bill Finger, artist Bob Kane and illustrator Jerry Robinson. The episode "The Laughing Fish" was based on three Batman comics, blended together; "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" from Batman No. 251 (September 1973) by Denny O'Neil with art by Neal Adams, followed by "The Laughing Fish" and "Sign of the Joker!" from Detective Comics #475–476 (February–March 1978), both by writer Steve Englehart with art by Marshall Rogers. During a spotlight podcast from Comic-Con 2007, Paul Dini explained that the reason why the episode combined those stories was that the show's creators could not adapt them separately, because their content and thematic elements would not have been cleared by the censors. "The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne" was based on the comic stories "The Dead Yet Live" and "I Am the Batman!" from Detective Comics #471–472 (August–September 1977) by Steve Englehart. "Moon of the Wolf" is based on the comic story of the same name by writer Len Wein with art by Neal Adams, from Batman No. 255 (April 1974). The episode "Terror in the Sky" is loosely based on "Man-Bat Over Vegas", originally presented in Detective Comics No. 429, by writer and artist Frank Robbins. The setting has been shifted from Las Vegas to Gotham Harbor, and in keeping with the family-friendly rating of the television show, the She-Bat is not a vampire in the adaptation. The final line of the episode, "the nightmare's finally over", is similar to one of the final lines from the original comic, "Now Fran's vampire nightmare is about over". The episode "Almost Got 'Im" appears to be influenced by a four-issue story arc in Batman #291–294 (1977), entitled "Where Were You on the Night Batman Was Killed?". All four stories were written by David Vern Reed and drawn by John Calnan under the direction of Batman editor Julius Schwartz. In each of the four issues, one of Catwoman, the Riddler, and the Joker all recount their claims to have killed Batman. However, the plot for "Almost Got 'Im" is quite different (six stories in the show, and four completely different ones in the comic book), with only the Joker as an overlapping antagonist. Two-Face's strategy in "Almost Got 'Im" (strapping down Batman to a giant coin and flipping the coin in the air) was taken from the comic World's Finest Comics No. 30 (September 1947) by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane. In a backup tale, both Batman and Robin were tied to a giant penny that was catapulted onto spikes by a lesser-known villain, the Penny Plunderer. "Off Balance" is a direct adaptation of "Batman: Into the Den of the Death-Dealers" from Detective Comics #411 (May 1971), written by writer Dennis O'Neil and drawn by artists Bob Brown and Dick Giordano. Famous for the first appearance of the mysterious character Talia. The two-part episode "The Demon's Quest" is a direct adaptation of "Daughter of the Demon" from Batman No. 232 (June 1971) and "The Demon Lives Again" Batman No. 244 (September 1972), written by Dennis O'Neil and drawn by artist Neal Adams. Famous for introducing one of Batman's deadlier foes; Ra's al Ghul, the father of Talia. The episode "Sideshow" is loosely based on "A Vow from the Grave" from Detective Comics No. 410 by writer Dennis O'Neil and artists Bob Brown and Dick Giordano. This episode adapted the comic book story with the inclusion of a separate Killer Croc story. "A Bullet for Bullock" is based on the comic of the same name from Detective Comics No. 651 (October 1992), by writer Chuck Dixon and artist Graham Nolan. The feature film Mask of the Phantasm is also an adaptation. The film's flashbacks were inspired by "Batman: Year One", whereas the character of Andrea Beaumont and the storyline itself were modified from Mike Barr's story "Batman: Year Two", which ran in Detective Comics #575–578 in the late 1980s; the villain in the comics was named the Reaper. In other media Sixteen minutes of animated segments in the video game The Adventures of Batman & Robin for the Sega CD are sometimes referred to as a "lost episode" of the series. These segments are intended to be interspersed between gameplay elements of an early-1990s video game and as such, the sound, color and story are not quite of the same quality of the actual television program. And because Sega did not have to follow the censorship rules of the show, the fights are also a little more violent. Many of the shows voice actors reprised their roles for the game, and are thus in the lost episode as well. Similar cutscenes appear throughout the video games Batman: Vengeance and Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu. Feature films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993) – based on The Animated Series; the film started production as a direct-to-video release, but was ultimately changed into a theatrical release. Although the film was not a financial success upon its initial release, it earned widespread acclaim and has since become a commercial success through its various home media releases. Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero (1998) – a direct-to-video release, which was produced as a tie-in to the 1997 film Batman & Robin. SubZeros release was delayed until the following year due to Batman & Robin failing to meet commercial and critical expectations. Comic adaptation and novelization The Animated Series was accompanied by a tie-in comic book, The Batman Adventures, which followed the art style and continuity of The Animated Series instead of other Batman comic books. The Batman Adventures, through several format changes to reflect the changing world of the series and its spin-offs, outlasted the series itself by nearly a decade, finally being cancelled in 2004 to make way for the tie-in comic of the then-new, unrelated Batman animated series; The Batman. The character of Harley Quinn's first official comic appearance occurred in issue No. 12 of the series. It has become highly sought after by collectors and fans of the character. There was also a short-lived series of tie-in novels, adapted from episodes of the series by science fiction author Geary Gravel. To achieve novel-length, Gravel combined several related episodes into a single storyline in each novel. The novels included: Shadows of the Past ("Appointment in Crime Alley", "Robin's Reckoning" two-parter) Dual to the Death ("Two-Face" two-parter, "Shadow of the Bat" two-parter) The Dragon and the Bat ("Night of the Ninja", "Day of the Samurai") Mask of the Phantasm (Batman: Mask of the Phantasm) DC announced in February 2020 that Paul Dini, Alan Burnett and artist Ty Templeton would be leading a new miniseries, Batman: The Adventures Continue, to be first published in April 2020, based on the animated series and following shortly after its conclusion, with Tim Drake still adjusting as the new Robin to Batman. Broadcasting Batman: The Animated Series premiered on the Fox Broadcasting Company's children's block Fox Kids on September 5, 1992, and aired in that block during weekday afternoons at 4:30 pm. In December, just three months after its debut, Fox also began airing episodes of the series on prime-time Sunday evenings (followed by the live-action sitcom Shaky Ground); however, the TV ratings fell short (as the show aired opposite the perennial favorite 60 Minutes), and the series was removed from this time slot in March 1993. After the series produced its 65th episode (the minimum number necessary for a TV series to be successfully syndicated), Fox Network executives ordered a second season of 20 more episodes that was later reduced to airing weekly on Saturday mornings. The second season featured Robin more prominently and, as a result, was retitled The Adventures of Batman & Robin in the title credits; this run of episodes had two new opening sequences and ending credits. In total, the series reached 85 episodes before finishing its original run on September 15, 1995. In 1997, following the end of Fox Kids' five-year exclusive broadcast contract, the series began airing in reruns on The WB Network's children's block Kids' WB. Later that year, The New Batman Adventures premiered on Kids' WB, airing alongside Superman: The Animated Series as part of an hour-long program titled The New Batman/Superman Adventures. Cartoon Network aired reruns of Batman: The Animated Series from March 2, 1998, to August 18, 2004. On July 3, 2000, the series was added to Cartoon Network's Toonami line-up. In 2005, reruns of the series were aired on Cartoon Network's sister channel Boomerang. The series later began airing on Toon Disney's Jetix line-up on September 30, 2007, again alongside Superman: The Animated Series (despite Warner Bros. being one of Disney's biggest competitors). The show aired on Teletoon Retro (a Canadian broadcasting channel), debuting on January 8, 2010. The first 65 episodes were confirmed, with the first being "The Cat and Claw, Part 1". The show was scheduled to air on a weekly basis, airing at 7:00 am, 6:00 pm, and midnight. All times are Eastern. The Hub started broadcasting the series on September 6, 2011. The channel aired a 10-episode marathon of the series on July 20, 2012, to coincide with the theatrical release of The Dark Knight Rises and even created an animated version of one of the film's trailers, featuring Kevin Conroy and Adrienne Barbeau re-dubbing Batman and Catwoman's dialogue from the trailer. Critical reception Batman: The Animated Series has been consistently ranked as one of the greatest animated television shows ever made. It has been critically acclaimed for its sophistication, mature tone, complex story, voice acting, orchestrated soundtrack, artistic ambition, and faithfulness to the source material. In 1992, Entertainment Weekly ranked the series as one of the top television series of the year. In his reference book, Batman: The Complete History, Les Daniels described The Animated Series as coming "as close as any artistic statement has to defining the look of Batman for the 1990s." Animation historian Charles Solomon gave the series a somewhat mixed assessment, commenting that "the dark, Art Deco-influenced backgrounds tended to eclipse the stiff animation and pedestrian storytelling" and concluding that the series "looked better in stills than it did on the screen." IGN listed The Animated Series as the best adaptation of Batman anywhere outside of comics, the best comic book cartoon of all time, and the second-best animated series of all time (after The Simpsons). Wizard magazine also ranked it No. 2 of the greatest animated television shows of all time (again after The Simpsons). TV Guide ranked Batman: The Animated Series the seventh-greatest cartoon of all time (out of 60). Influence Due to the success of Batman: The Animated Series, many crew members went on to design and produce Superman: The Animated Series for The WB Network. During this time they created The New Batman Adventures, which featured the same streamlined animation style as Superman: The Animated Series, as well as numerous character re-designs from the original series despite taking place in the same continuity. In 1999, a futuristic spin-off series titled Batman Beyond premiered on The WB, featuring a teenager named Terry McGinnis taking on the duties of Batman under the guidance of an elderly Bruce Wayne. Then in 2001, the Justice League animated series premiered on Cartoon Network, featuring Batman as one of the founding members of the League. This was continued in 2004 by Justice League Unlimited, featuring a greatly expanded League. Many DC cartoons unrelated to the larger DC animated universe, such as Teen Titans and The Batman, also featured character designs strongly influenced by those of Bruce Timm. The dramatic writing and stylized art of Batman: The Animated Series separates it from many traditional comic book-based cartoons. It can be considered the dramatic equivalent of more adult-oriented cartoon shows like The Simpsons. For this reason the show's popularity (along with that of its various spin-offs) endures among older audiences and comic book fans. The Lego minifigures of various Batman characters are more strongly based on the designs from Batman: The Animated Series than any other form of Batman media. More precisely, the Joker, Two-Face, Poison Ivy, Mr. Freeze and Harley Quinn's minifigures seem to have identical costumes and faces to the characters from the series. The dark atmosphere, mature themes, and even some of the voice cast from the series are employed in the Batman: Arkham video game series. Kevin Conroy, Mark Hamill, Arleen Sorkin, Robert Costanzo reprising their roles, while actors like Adrienne Barbeau and Loren Lester lent their voice to other characters. Furthermore, the first two games are co-written by series veteran Paul Dini. Also, Batman's design and costume in The Animated Series are featured as an alternate skin in Batman: Arkham City. These skins are available as downloadable content; they were also available in pre-orders at GameStop and a valid membership to Power-Up Rewards. There are also Animated-inspired alternate skins for Catwoman, Nightwing and Robin. Actor Robert Pattinson, who portrays Batman in The Batman (2022), has cited Batman: Mask of the Phantasm as an example of Batman media that effectively captured the character's psyche in a fashion he hoped his interpretation would emulate. Accolades Music Batman: The Animated Series featured a strong musical score written by several different composers throughout the course of the series. The main theme of the show, which was heard during the opening and ending credits of each episode, was composed by Danny Elfman. At first, Elfman turned down Bruce Timm's offer to compose the theme for the show and so Timm hired Shirley Walker to do so. However, Elfman later changed his mind and composed a variation of his 1989 Batman film theme for the series. Walker's unused theme went on to become the main theme for the second season of the show, when the name was changed to The Adventures of Batman & Robin. In 1996, Walker won her first Daytime Emmy Award for her music direction of the episode "A Bullet for Bullock" (scored by Harvey R. Cohen). She would then go on to win another Daytime Emmy Award in the category of music-composition for Batman Beyond in 2001. Although at least twenty-four different composers worked on the series, Walker, Lolita Ritmanis, and Michael McCuistion are regarded as the main contributors. After the series finished up in 1995, the three then went on to score Superman: The Animated Series (which also featured a theme by Walker) in 1996, The New Batman Adventures in 1997 and Batman Beyond in 1999. Television composer Kristopher Carter scored alongside Walker, Ritmanis, and McCuistion throughout the many DCAU series and later filled in for Walker after her death in 2006. Soundtracks On December 16, 2008, La La Land Records announced the release of a soundtrack companion to Batman: The Animated Series on a two-disc CD set, which featured 11 episode scores (including those of "On Leather Wings", the "Two-Face" two-parter, "Joker's Favor" and "Perchance to Dream"). The release was limited to a pressing of 3,000 copies, which sold quickly. About one month after its release, the soundtrack set had sold over 2,500 copies. According to a spokesperson of La La Land Records, the sold out status of the soundtrack "can only help as the label hopes to convince Warner Bros. to release more Batman: The Animated Series soundtracks." The soundtrack received largely positive reviews. On March 24, 2009, La La Land Records released the complete score for the animated film Batman: Mask of the Phantasm. It was a limited edition of 3,000 units and has since sold out. The 2008 soundtrack was re-released in July 2012, minus "Gotham City Overture" (a suite featuring Walker's themes from the series, some of which do not appear elsewhere on the album) and "Music of the Bat 101" (a bonus track with Walker herself demonstrating the show's main music). The re-release is a limited edition of 5,000 units by La La Land Records. On July 19, 2012, La La Land Records also released a four-disc CD set with a further 21 episode scores (including those of "Heart of Ice", the "Feat of Clay" two-parter, "Almost Got 'Im" and "The Laughing Fish"), titled Batman: The Animated Series – Original Soundtrack from the Warner Bros. Television Series, Volume Two. Volume 2 is a limited-edition release of 3,500 units by La La Land Records. On October 7, 2014, La La Land Records released a four-disc set with another 24 episode scores (including those of the "Robin's Reckoning" two-parter, "Mudslide", "I Am the Night" and "The Man Who Killed Batman"), titled Batman: The Animated Series – Original Soundtrack from the Warner Bros. Television Series, Volume Three. Volume 3 is a limited-edition release of 3,000 units by La La Land Records. On March 29, 2016, La La Land Records released the complete soundtrack for the animated film Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman. It was a limited edition of 2,000 units. On July 26, 2016, La La Land Records released Batman: The Animated Series – Original Soundtrack from the Warner Bros. Television Series, Volume Four, which contains the remaining material from the first 65 episodes. The final nine episode scores from the first season are featured (including those of "Fear of Victory", "His Silicon Soul" and "Joker's Wild"), as well as never-before-released cues from scores featured on earlier volumes. Volume 4 is a limited-edition release of 3,000 units by La La Land Records. La La Land Records is also planning to cover the later incarnations of the series (The Adventures of Batman & Robin and The New Batman Adventures) in the future, provided that sales of existing volumes are strong enough and that there is strong fan encouragement. A Superman: The Animated Series soundtrack has also been released as of January 2014, and a Justice League volume was released on July 26, 2016. Justice League Unlimited and a second volume of Superman: The Animated Series will only be released if Justice League and the first Superman: The Animated Series volume sell well. On July 22, 2014, WaterTower Music released six digital albums on download and streaming platforms (covering La La Land's first and second volumes, including "Gotham City Overture" and "Music of the Bat 101") for the series in honor of the 75th anniversary of Batman. Asterisked tracks contain thematic material by Shirley Walker; double-asterisked tracks contain Danny Elfman's Batman theme. Volume 1 track listing Gotham City Overture 14:01 (not included on the re-release) Batman: The Animated Series – Main Title (Danny Elfman) 1:02 "On Leather Wings" (Shirley Walker): Sub-Main Title / Batwing / Bat Attack 1:51 Batman Drives to Gotham 1:00 Batman Investigates / Batman Uses Infrared / Police Rush Building 1:48 Batman Escapes / Batman Flies 1:48 Bats / Evidence Goes Up in Smoke / The Formula / Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Bat 3:01 Gotham from the Air / Ride 'Em Batman / Epilogue 2:16 "The Last Laugh" (Shirley Walker): Sub-Main Title 1:35 The Submarine / Joker Loots Gotham 2:35 Alfred Loses It 0:58 Bat Boat / Batman Catches the Big Fish / Batman Fights the Bad Guys 2:18 Cliff-Hanger Under Water / Batman A.K.A. Houdini 1:56 Batman the Terminator 2:01 Batman vs. Joker / Batman vs. Joker Part 2** 3:47 "It's Never Too Late" (Lolita Ritmanis): Sub-Main Title / Stromwell's Flashback 2:01 Batman on Top of Church / Stromwell Arrives at Pete's / Thugs Exit 1:20 Stromwell Confronts Thorne 1:15 It's Party Time / Batman Carries Stromwell 0:48 Stromwell Sees Joey 1:41 Stromwell Tricks Batman / Thorne's Men Move In / Thorne Chases Stromwell 3:22 Stromwell's Flashback #2 1:45 Batman Cracks Heads / Thorne Removed 1:20 "Pretty Poison" (Shirley Walker, Lolita Ritmanis and Michael McCuistion): Ground Breaking Ceremony / Penitentiary Time Lapses 1:11 Batman Catches a Chopper / The Chopper Crashes / Rooftop Chase 1:58 Batman Sneaks Around 1:09 A Little Plant Muzak / The Carnivorous Plant 0:59 Batman vs. Poison Ivy / Poison Ivy in Prison 3:52 "Christmas with the Joker" (Shirley Walker, Lolita Ritmanis and Michael McCuistion): 14 Seconds Opening / Jingle Bells / The Joker Blasts Off 1:03 Down the Mountain / Sidewalk Red Herring 0:51 'Pukey Christmas Music / Christmas with the Joker / Game Show Music 2:18 The Train Crashes 1:19 Observatory Cannon / Cannon Out of Control / Robin Blows Up Cannon 1:11 More Game Show Music / Drive to the Toy Company 1:39 Nutcracker Suite Medley 1:24 Pie in Batman's Face / Dangling Hostages Saved / Deck the Halls 1:40 Batman: The Animated Series – Alternate Main Title (Shirley Walker) 1:09 "Two-Face, Part I" (Shirley Walker): Harvey's Nightmare / Dent's Soap Box 2:24 Batman Tracks Dent 2:07 Split Personality / Harvey / Harv 4:21 "Two-Face, Part II" (Shirley Walker): Part One Recap 0:33 Sub-Main Title / The Heist 1:49 Bruce Wayne's Nightmare / Two-Face Remembers 2:47 Batcycle / What About Grace? 1:58 My Name Is Two-Face 1:52 The Great Equalizer / Where There's Love 4:03 "Joker's Favor" (Shirley Walker): Sub-Main Title / Cussing Out the Joker / I Had a Bad Day 3:18 Joker's Hide-Out 1:19 Charlie's Neighborhood / Joker Finds Charlie 1:18 Charlie Arrives in Gotham / Joker Collects His Favor 0:42 Harley's Party Source 0:44 Crashing the Party 1:33 Batman Saves the Commissioner / Batman's After the Joker / Charlie Gets the Joker 3:38 "Vendetta" (Michael McCuistion): Sub-Main Title / Conway Is Abducted 0:43 A Clue / The Crocodile's Lair 1:27 Another Clue 1:19 Croc's Cave / Killer Croc 2:52 Batman Chases Croc / Sewer Fight 2:54 Bullock Gets the Croc 1:09 "Perchance to Dream" (Shirley Walker): Sub-Main Title / The Dream Begins 0:52 It's Impossible / Bruce Sees Batman / Bruce Watches Batman at Work 2:14 My Life Is a Dream 2:48 Climbing the Church Tower / Belltower Fight 2:45 Your Own Private Wonderland / Back to Reality 2:48 "Birds of a Feather" (Shirley Walker): Birds of a Feather 1:54 That Fine Roman Nose / Penguin vs. Muggers 2:32 Penguin Takes Veronica 0:40 The Drop / Rubber Duckie Ride 1:50 The Penguin's Opera / High Society 2:19 Batman: The Animated Series – End Credit (Danny Elfman) 0:34 Music of the Bat 101 (Bonus Track) 6:45 (not included on the re-release) Volume 2 track listing Batman: The Animated Series Main Title (Danny Elfman) 1:05 Beware the Gray Ghost – Carl Swander Johnson: Beware the Gray Ghost 0:54 Simon Trent 1:47 Trent Meets Batman / Trent Runs 1:33 He Runs But He Can't Hide 0:36 Trent Helps Batman 0:55 Lethal Toys / The Ghost Saves Batman 1:25 Toy Car Chase 0:43 Gray Ghost's Shrine / Mistaken Identity 0:46 Twisted Ted / Up in Smoke 1:36 Bruce's Hero 0:31 Beware the Gray Ghost – Bonus Track: Gray Ghost Suite 1:24 The Cat and the Claw, Part I – Harvey R. Cohen, Wayne Coster, Shirley Walker: The Catwoman (S. Walker) 4:51 Riding the Truck* (W. Coster) 1:01 Multigon International (W. Coster) 0:18 Introducing Red Claw (H. Cohen) / A Word with the Boss (W. Coster) 0:55 Catwoman at Multigon H.Q. (S. Walker) / Cats in the Office (S. Walker) (Features "Ode to Joy" by L. Beethoven) 1:31 Batman Rescues Catwoman* (H. Cohen) / Lovers or Enemies (W. Coster) 3:33 Who Will Save You? 0:30 The Cat and the Claw, Part II – Harvey R. Cohen The Cat and the Claw 0:44 The Train* 1:59 Bruce Wayne's Chaperone / A Bumpy Ride 1:57 Alley Cat* / Catwoman Strikes* 3:30 Bat Draft* 2:14 The Fallen Resort* 0:57 More Than You'll Ever Know* 0:46 The Cat and the Claw – Bonus Tracks: String Quartet (W. Coster) 1:01 Ode to Joy (Composed by L. Beethoven; Arranged by Shirley Walker) 0:10 Introducing Red Claw (Alternate) (H. Cohen) 0:39 Ode to Joy Alternates (Composed by L. Beethoven; Arranged by Shirley Walker) 0:28 Nothing to Fear – Shirley Walker Nothing to Fear 0:43 Machine Gun / The Scarecrow Arrives 1:42 The Vault** / Sprinklers 3:22 Scarecrow's Hideout 0:22 Scarecrow's Backstory 0:35 Batman's Flashback / Batman and Alfred 0:46 Scarecrow Invades the Museum / Scarecrow's Attempt at Escape** 2:13 Dirigible Flight / Fear Strikes Again / Escape and Explosion 3:22 Scarecrow Discovered / Scarecrow is Captured / Scarecrow on a Skewer 1:54 Heart of Ice – Todd Hayen, Shirley Walker Heart of Ice 0:38 The Iceman Cometh Again / Cold as Ice* 3:30 Top Secret 0:57 The Swift Hand of Vengeance 1:55 Ice Assault / Frigid Frenzy / Alfred's Cold Remedy 2:34 Arkham Asylum 0:59 Heart of Ice – Bonus Tracks: Newsbreak (Expanded) 0:44 Benefit Classic 1:15 Office Muzak 2:25 The Iceman Cometh Again (Alternate) 2:53 Batman: The Animated Series End Credits (Extended) (Danny Elfman) 0:46 Batman: The Animated Series Main Title (Piano Version)(Danny Elfman and Shirley Walker) 1:03 Appointment in Crime Alley – Stuart Balcomb Sub Main Title 0:31 Batman Drives to Crime Alley / Where Are We Going to Go? 2:23 I'm Not Afraid Here* 1:12 Searching for Leslie / Leslie's Held Captive 0:49 The Billboard 0:52 Baby Picture* 1:59 Chasing the Trolley / Trolley Rescue* 1:28 Batman Sees the Newsstand Clock* / Leslie Sweats / Batman Swings During Speech 1:09 Good People in Crime Alley* 0:38 Mad as a Hatter – Harvey R. Cohen Mad as a Hatter 1:00 Poor Jervis / Frabjous Day* 2:00 A Walk in the Park* 0:38 Ejection* / The Plunger* 1:15 The Mock Turtle Song 0:34 Until Tomorrow* / Will You, Won't You* 1:03 All's Fair in Love and War* / Mad Hatter's Friends* / Storybook Land* 3:04 Off with His Head* / The Maze* / Batman Comes to Tea* 4:15 Mad as a Hatter – Bonus Track: Dining with Jervis 1:18 The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne – Lolita Ritmanis The Strange Secret* / Batman Intervenes 2:21 Tragic Past* 1:23 The Strange Doctor / The Joker's Phone Message* / Strange Has Left the Building 0:58 The Diabolical Plan* 3:07 Bruce Makes Another Tape 0:45 Strange Tries to Run / Flying the Unfriendly Skies* /Running on Empty* / Batman Makes the Catch / Robin is Revealed 3:00 I've Got Batman in My Basement – Shirley Walker, Carlos Rodriguez The Heist 2:17 Sherman Tracks Vulture / Birdseed / Penguin Revealed 1:36 Batman Gets Gassed 2:11 Batmobile Goes Bats / Sherman and the Batmobile* (Carlos Rodriguez) 2:09 The Vulture Flies / It's a Matter of Life and Death 0:43 Vulture Attack / Penguin Pays a Visit 1:04 It's Them or Us / Polite Penguin 1:49 Penguin the Bully / Batman vs. Penguin 2:20 Front Page Penguin 0:41 Feat of Clay, Part I – Jeff Atmajian, Shirley Walker, Carl Swander Johnson Feat of Clay* (J. Atmajian) 1:09 Mr. Fox's Resignation (S. Walker) 3:32 Matt's Make-Up (S. Walker) 1:31 Matt Finds the Formula (C. S. Johnson) 0:35 Creation of Clayface (J. Atmajian) 0:45 Bell Goes for a Ride*/** (C. S. Johnson) 1:56 Bruce Looks for Answers (J. Atmajian) 0:49 Teddy Discovers Clayface (S. Walker) 0:43 Feat of Clay, Part II – Shirley Walker Sub Main Title 0:36 Arrival at Imperial Pictures 0:19 Man of Many Faces 2:11 Suffocation for Fox / Foiled by Batman 1:08 Batman Confronts Clayface / The Matt Hagen Films 3:09 Batman Confrontation with Clayface / Clayface Dies 4:48 The Morgue 0:50 Batman: The Animated Series End Credits (Alternate Beginning) (Danny Elfman) 0:48 Batman: The Animated Series Main Title (MIDI Version)(Danny Elfman and Shirley Walker) 1:04 Almost Got 'Im – Stuart Balcomb Almost Got 'Im 1:24 Pumpkin Patch* / Batman's Scorn* 1:11 A Bad Penny* 1:12 Penguin's Setup* / Birds of a Feather* 2:42 Laugh O Meter / Catwoman to the Rescue* / Catwoman KO'd 1:10 Shadow Secrets* / Cat Food for Thought* / Maybe Some Day 2:08 Almost Got 'Im – Bonus Tracks: Club Source #2 0:59 Club Source #4 0:57 Joker Talk Show Source* (Extended) 0:49 Joker Bumper* 0:15 Just for Laughs 1:40 If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Rich? – Carlos Rodriguez If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Rich?*/ Silent Radio 0:45 The Wasteland*/ Rescue Attempt* / Riddler Escapes* 4:18 Minotaur's Myth* / The Griffin /Griffin Fight / Hand of Fate 3:05 Hijacked Hand* / The Minotaur / Destroy Them / Deadbolts* 3:06 If You're So Smart, Why Aren't You Rich? – Bonus Tracks: If You're So Smart Source (Shirley Walker) 2:11 Riddle of the Minotaur Source 0:13 Griffin Theme 0:09 Question Mark Motif 0:08 Hand of Fate Motif 0:09 Wasteland Motif 0:07 Musical Puzzle 0:12 The Demon's Quest, Part I – Michael McCuistion The Demon's Quest* 1:47 Sad News / Strike One 1:06 Calcutta / Alley Fight* 1:48 Black Cat / Sweet Dreams, Kitty* 2:03 After You 0:33 Power Trooper* / The Demon's Guard / They Call Him Ra's* 2:45 Strike Three – You're Out 0:44 The Lazarus Pit* / Revitalized Demon* 2:04 The Demon's Quest, Part II – Harvey R. Cohen Recap* 0:52 The Demon's Quest, Part II* 1:26 Parted Lovers / Goodbye Beloved* 1:29 Orpheus / Lets Do It* / Caravan* 1:47 Pay for This Trespass 1:13 Lower the Bombs / Crazy / To the Tower 1:10 To Remember Me, Beloved* / Countdown* 1:44 He'll Ruin Everything* 3:35 Prisoner of Love* 0:57 The Laughing Fish – Shirley Walker The Laughing Fish / Joker's Insane Scheme 3:15 Friendly Fish Truck / Missile Fish / Francis Gets Happy (Extended) / I Know You're Watching 1:13 Jackson's Cat 0:57 Oceanside Aquarium / Sharkey's Appetite 2:13 Catch of the Day / How Do You Spell Relief? 1:57 Batman Rides the Shark / Jumping Joker Sees Jaws / Is the Joker Gone? 3:30 The Laughing Fish – Bonus Tracks: "Joker's Fish Song" (Features "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star" Arranged by Nerida Tyson-Chew) 1:03 Joker's Door Chime #1 0:11 Joker's Door Chime #2 0:12 Batman: The Animated Series End Credits (Alternate Ending) (Danny Elfman) 0:44 Batman: The Animated Series Main Title (with Sound Effects) (Danny Elfman) 1:04 Shadow of the Bat, Part I – Shirley Walker Shadow of the Bat / Thorne on the Roof 2:01 Gordon's Arrest 1:02 We'll See About This / The Evidence Room 1:07 Two-Face's Hideout / The Batgirl / Batgirl Takes Action / Batgirl Gets Trashed 2:37 Bad Company / A Different Disguise / Matches Malone 3:56 Shadow of the Bat, Part II – Harvey R. Cohen Recap* 1:19 Shadow of the Bat, Part II / Casing Gil's Apartment* 1:21 Robin and Batgirl Follow* / Matches Gives the Signal / Bad Guys Escape 2:58 Water in the Tunnel / Water, Water Everywhere* / Saving Robin / Batgirl Up the Rope* 1:47 Blasted Out of Jail / Batgirl Finds Out 1:00 Subway Escape* 1:44 Rescue of the Commish* / Batgirl's a Real Drag / Batgirl Sees the Statue* 3:16 Welcome to Gotham 0:32 Shadow of the Bat – Bonus Tracks: Recap (Alternate) 1:20 Matches Gives the Signal (No Bass) / Bad Guys Escape (No Bass) 1:41 Harley and Ivy – Peter Davison, Michael McCuistion, Lolita Ritmanis, Shirley Walker <li value="17">Harley and Ivy* (M. McCuistion, L. Ritmanis) 2:57 Harley is on Her Own (S. Walker, L. Ritmanis) / The Girls Escape (S. Walker) 3:18 Toxic Dump (P. Davison) / Crime Spree (S. Walker) 1:10 Batman Finds a Clue* (P. Davison) / Tie Me Up, Tie Me Down (S. Walker) / Locked in Chains (P. Davison) / Batman Escapes Bondage* (P. Davison) 1:43 The Joker's Flower (S. Walker, L. Ritmanis) / Batman Rescues Mr. J* (M. McCuistion) / No More Women (S. Walker) 2:04 Read My Lips – Shirley Walker <li value="22">Read My Lips / Scarface's Boys 2:14 What a Dummy 1:17 Drapes for the Bat / Lumber Slumber / No Apples 2:50 A Prima Notion 1:14 Platinum Vault / Hang in There 1:24 Dummy Up / Here We Go Again 3:24 Fire from Olympus – Shirley Walker <li value="28">Fire from Olympus 2:17 Max on High 1:16 Lightning Demonstration 0:39 Sneaking Batman In / Fire in the Sky 2:39 Batman Enters Olympus / Snake Fight 1:51 Olympus Battle 4:59 (Alternate Beginning and Ending) 1:57 Volume 3 track listing Batman: The Animated Series Main Title – Danny Elfman 1:03 Robin's Reckoning, Part I – Carlos Rodriguez: <li value="2">Robin's Reckoning/Yahoo!/Robin's Catch/Interrogation 2:50 Boy Wonder 0:55 Extortion/The Flying Graysons 1:49 Goodbye/Master Dick 1:03 Crap Shoot*/Stromwell's Mansion 0:59 The Bonding*/Never Again 1:00 Robin's Reckoning, Part II – Peter Tomashek: <li value="8">Circus Memory 1:24 Fencing Memory 0:53 Dick Eavesdrops/Stealthy Dick 0:59 Dick on the Street 2:44 Dick Finds Zucco/Into the River/Out of the River 1:56 Redial (William T. Stromberg)/Batman Drops In 0:56 Amusement Park Fight/Robin Gets Zucco/Robin Does Right 3:40 Sunrise 0:34 Robin's Reckoning: Bonus Track – Carlos Rodriguez: <li value="16">Circus Fanfare/The Flying Graysons (alternate) 1:05 P.O.V. – Shirley Walker: <li value="17">Gotham's Finest/Bad Guys Escape 1:42 Bullock's P.O.V. 3:37 Wilkes’ P.O.V. 1:35 Montoya's P.O.V. 1:40 Suspended Cops 0:44 Renee Finds Batman/Batman Fights the Mob**/Montoya Cleans Up 5:07 Epilogue 0:27 The Clock King – Carlos Rodriguez: <li value="24">The Clock King*/Gone with the Wind/Fugate Loses It 1:25 Political Graffiti*/Fugate Catches Train* 1:36 Back Alley Batman/Clock Creep Hits Bank/Adieu, Batman* 1:43 Time Is Running Out/Batman the Safe-Cracker 1:11 Timing Is Everything*Batman Saves the Mayor* 2:36 Tyger, Tyger – Todd Hayen: <li value="29">Tyger, Tyger*/Introducing Tygrus 2:31 Tygrus Exercises 1:07 Dorian's Island 1:23 The Catwoman/You Made Her a Monster 0:43 Tygrus Notices Catwoman/Her Fate Is in Your Hands 1:59 Run Thru the Jungle/Bat vs. Cat/Fight on the Bridge/Batman and Tygrus Fall 2:18 Selina Convinces Tygrus/Not His Enemy 2:24 Tyger Burning Bright 1:40 See No Evil – Shirley Walker: <li value="37">See No Evil/Memoirs of an Invisible Con/Footprints 6:09 Kimberly's School/Stay Away/Abandoned 2:59 Mojo's Pearls/Hold On... Batman 5:03 Safe and Sound 0:37 Cat Scratch Fever – Harvey R. Cohen: <li value="1">Cat Scratch Fever/Cat Catchers/Animal Testing 3:08 Dagget Labs*/Selina Is Bitten* 0:57 The Toxin Takes Effect* 2:13 Let the Hunt Begin/The Chase Continues*/Toboggan Run 1:39 On the Ice*/Under the Ice 1:43 Bad Guys Take a Dip* 0:34 Isis’ Return 0:47 The Forgotten – Shirley Walker: <li value="8">Down Into the City 0:37 Bruce Becomes Homeless/Bruce Is Blackjacked 2:42 The Oven 0:47 The Dream Sequence/Dan Protects Salvo/Alfred Finds Bruce's Car 2:27 Bruce's Family Flashback 0:34 Sweatbox Breakout/Trapped in the Canyon 1:21 Mining for Batman 2:52 Master Bruce 0:29 Be a Clown – Michael McCuistion: <li value="16">Gotham Acres/Crooks Interrupt Mayor's Speech/Joker the Costume Freak* 1:59 Jekko the Magnificent/You, You, You 1:15 Pure Dynamite/Dynamite Birthday Cake* 1:51 Jordan the Stowaway 0:39 It's Not a Game, Jordan/The Old Ace Up the Sleeve/The Crystal Ball 1:43 Batman in Straightjacket/The Show Continues* 2:20 Rollercoaster Fight 1:01 Jordan & Mayor Reunited 0:16 Be a Clown: Bonus Tracks – Michael McCuistion: <li value="24">Organ Source 1:24 Water Tank Source 1:02 Carousel Source 1:48 Circus Source (unused) 1:45 Dreams in Darkness – Todd Hayen: <li value="28">Dreams in Darkness/Batman Guesses Wrong/Batman Cracks Up 2:55 Batman's Fate*/Threshold of Fear 2:18 Batman Tries to Escape/Mass Madness* 0:32 Batman's Delusions* 3:46 Batman Conquers Fear*/Safe at Home 2:09 The Underdwellers – Lars Clutterham & Stuart Balcomb: <li value="33">Let's Play Chicken (L. Clutterham) 1:10 It Was a Leprechaun (L. Clutterham) 0:48 The Underdwellers (S. Balcomb) 1:42 Blinded by the Light*/Batman Saves Frog* (S. Balcomb) 3:18 The Sewer King (S. Balcomb) 1:14 Batman Sounds Alarm (L. Clutterham) 1:27 Be Our Guest/Endangered Species? Not/Hanging Out to Dry/Batman Dethrones King (L. Clutterham) 2:14 The Light, the Light (S. Balcomb) 0:34 Terror in the Sky – Shirley Walker <li value="41">Terror in the Sky/The Man-Bat 1:44 Carpet Inspection/Batman Operates/Francine Is in the Trash 1:01 Man-Bat Out of the Sky/Man-Bat Chases Batman 2:34 Batman Looks Thru Files/March Confesses 1:18 Francine, Come Home 0:49 Woman-Bat Wrecks the Plane/Langstrom Out the Door 2:59 Detransformation 2:21 Batman: The Animated Series Main Title Demo (Two Pianos)- Shirley Walker and Danny Elfman 1:04 Night of the Ninja – Mark Koval: <li value="2">Night of the Ninja 2:10 Karate School/Flashback/Ninja Assault* 3:36 Just in Time 0:56 Bruce Catches Kyodai 1:13 Kidnapped/Watertower 0:39 Master Crime Fighter 1:39 Ninja Meets His Match*/Thanks for Your Help 3:18 Day of the Samurai – Carlos Rodriguez: <li value="9">Day of the Samurai/Ninja's Arrival 1:54 Kyodai Ken Is Revealed/Bruce's Sketch 0:42 Bruce Meditates/Once Upon a Time, Alfred/Uramachi District/Batman Gives Chase 3:48 Kyodai Ken Finds Scroll/The Big Sleep/Kyodai Studies Scroll 1:37 Alfred's All Tied Up/Batman Does as He Will/Batman Examines Dummy 2:02 Batman Confronts Kyodai* 2:32 Most Ingenious, Sir/The Essence of Samurai 0:54 Prophecy of Doom – Shirley Walker: <li value="16">Prophecy of Doom 1:19 Abandon Ship/Grave Danger 1:34 Elevator Cliffhanger/Elevator Escape 1:47 The Great Fall/Spiritual Crisis 2:33 Nostromos Sees the Light/Guilty as Charged 4:24 Prophecy of Doom: Bonus Track – Shirley Walker: <li value="21">Nostromos Source 1:01 Eternal Youth – Lolita Ritmanis: <li value="22">Eternal Youth 1:47 Wild Weekend/Detective Batman/Batcave Greenery 1:19 Alfred and Maggie Go Back/Batman's Chemistry/Behind the Curtain 1:40 Bat Gliding*/Petrified People 1:47 Ivy the Eco-Terrorist 1:54 What's It All About...? 0:48 Eternal Youth: Bonus Tracks – Lolita Ritmanis: <li value="28">Video Source 2:03 Spa Source 1:51 What Is Reality? – Richard Bronskill: <li value="30">What Is Reality?/Police Station 1:18 The Riddler's File/Robin Opens the Box 0:58 Hard Copy* 1:16 Riddler and the Commissioner*/Batman's Fire Out*/Batman in Computer Land* 1:27 Batman's Riddler* 0:56 Batman and Pegasus*/And So On, and So On 3:07 Trapped* 0:38 Mudslide – Shirley Walker <li value="37">Mudslide/Clayface Slips By 1:17 Your Goose Is Cooked/You Used to Be Neater 3:44 Movie Source 1:15 MP-40/Clayface Escapes 1:26 He's Melting/Breaking Up Is Hard to Do 1:27 Inside Addition 4:14 I Am the Night – Michael McCuistion: <li value="1">I Am the Night 0:37 Roses/Stakeout/Roses on the Pavement/Brass Knuckles 1:56 Battering Ram/The Jazzman Was Ready*/Catching the Jazzman/Commissioner Is Shot 2:23 Emergency 0:27 Batman Pays a Visit 0:38 Batman's Rage/Jazzman in Prison 1:25 Robin Sees Batman/Jazzman in the Laundry/Jazzman's Escape 0:58 Batman Unmasks/This Is My Hunt*/Batman Saves Gordon* 2:25 Batman Talks with Kid* 1:15 Heart of Steel, Part I – Richard Bronskill & Tamara Kline: <li value="10">Sub-Main Title/The Briefcase (R. Bronskill) 1:03 Briefcase on the Prowl (T. Kline) 1:53 The Escape* (R. Bronskill) 3:15 Cybertron Industries/HARDAC/Next Duplicant/Another Gordon (T. Kline) 1:52 Teddy Bear/Randa's Compact/Compact Goes to Work (R. Bronskill) 1:18 Randa Finds the Batcave/HARDAC Has Control (T. Kline) 1:22 Heart of Steel, Part II – Carl Johnson: <li value="16">Heart of Steel, Part II* 0:58 Another Mayor/Another Bullock 2:41 A Very Exclusive Club* 1:49 Trash Can Robot 1:36 A Watchful Eye/Flying Over Cybertron*/Robots Run Amok*/Randa Is Terminated 3:24 Let's Go Home* 0:39 Heart of Steel: Bonus Tracks – Tamara Kline, Richard Bronskill & Carl Johnson: <li value="22">Futuristic Muzak (T. Kline) 0:45 Sub-Main Title/The Briefcase (alternate)/Randa's Compact (alternate) (R. Bronskill) 1:31 Let's Go Home (alternate)* (C. Johnson) 0:40 Blind as a Bat – Steve Chesne & James Stemple: <li value="25">The Raven (S. Chesne) 1:34 Raven Runs Amok* (J. Stemple) 0:52 The Vision Thing (S. Chesne) 0:52 Sight, or No Sight/Tooling Up*/Quoth the Batman, "Nevermore"*/** (J. Stemple) 4:29 Batwing Disabled/Disabled Batman (S. Chesne) 4:05 Cornered*/Good News* (J. Stemple) 1:01 Paging the Crime Doctor – Shirley Walker: <li value="31">Paging the Crime Doctor 3:44 Leslie Remembers/Matt Finds Leslie/Old Friends/Abducted 2:00 Signs of a Struggle/The Disorderly Orderly/Playing with Sharp Objects/Laser Blazer 4:08 Rooftop Escape/About My Father 3:28 The Man Who Killed Batman – Shirley Walker: <li value="35">The Man Who Killed Batman 1:23 Sid Wanted In/Sid the Squid 2:27 Squid, Squid, Squid/Locked Up 1:46 Sid Meets the Joker/The Diamond Exchange/No Punchline 2:13 Batman's Funeral (includes "Amazing Grace," trad.) 3:33 Pine Box/A Lot of Respect 1:43 <li value="41">Batman: The Animated Series End Credits – Danny Elfman 0:45 Home video VHS United Kingdom United States Chinese dubbed Spanish dubbed DVD {{anchor|Home media|Video|DVD}} Region 1 Warner Home Video (via DC Comics Entertainment and Warner Bros. Family Entertainment) has released Batman: The Animated Series on DVD in Region 1 in three volume box sets. A fourth volume containing all 24 episodes of The New Batman Adventures was also released and these episodes now also begin with the original Season 1 opening sequence, and also end with the standard final credits. Warner Home Video later released Batman: The Complete Animated Series, which features all episodes from both the original series and The New Batman Adventures, on DVD in Region 1. The set includes all features from the four individual volumes, plus a bonus 17th disc with a new special feature and a 40-page collector's book containing artwork. The DVD was originally on sale for a limited time only and went out of print in January 2009. Warner Home Video released a second printing of the DVD in May 2009, but then withdrew it three months later. Region 2 Volumes 1 and 2 were released on DVD in the UK on October 10, 2005 (Volume 1), and August 21, 2006 (Volume 2). These DVD volumes were exclusive to the retail chain HMV in the United Kingdom, a complete series 25th-anniversary collection was released in the UK on October 30, 2017, containing all four volumes. Volumes 3 and 4 were previously unreleased in the UK before the 25th-anniversary box set release.On June 14, 2008, Volume 1 was re-released in the UK as a non-HMV exclusive, though both the artwork and the extras remain the same as the original HMV exclusive release. Volume 2 was released in the same way on March 3, 2009. Region 3 In Hong Kong, the show was packaged into four different DVD volume sets just as it was done in Region 1. Volumes 1 and 2 were both released on February 28, 2005, while Volume 3 was released July 7, 2005, and Volume 4 was released February 17, 2006. Region 4 In Australia, Volume 1 was released on October 19, 2005. Volumes and the box set are available at websites like eBay.com, Amazon.com and Quicksales.com. All four volumes are available on the Australian iTunes Store, and were released individually on DVD on November 9, 2016, by Village Roadshow. Blu-ray During the series's 25th anniversary panel at the New York Comic Con on October 8, 2017, it was announced that the complete series and all 24 episodes of [[The New Batman Adventures]] would be released on Blu-ray later in 2018 (due to the financial success of the Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Blu-ray release in 2017). The Blu-ray release came out in fall 2018. The numbered, limited-edition box sets also included a code for a free digital SD and HD copy of the complete series, three collectible Funko Pocket Pops of Batman, the Joker and Harley Quinn, seven exclusive lenticular cards of original animation artwork, as well as Blu-ray copies of both spin-off animated films Mask of the Phantasm and SubZero. Streaming The series debuted on DC Universe in September 2018 in high definition. It moved to HBO Max on January 1, 2021. Video games Several video games based on the animated continuity were released during the 16-bit game-machine era, using [[The Adventures of Batman & Robin (video game)|The Adventures of Batman & Robin]] second season branding. Konami developed a game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), while Sega released versions of the game for the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Mega-CD and Game Gear. The SNES, Genesis/Mega Drive and Game Gear versions were side-scrolling action games, while the Mega-CD version featured a 3-D driving adventure. All of the games had art true to the series, while Sega's versions featured art elements directly from the show's creators. The CD version has over 20 minutes of original animated footage comparable to the most well-crafted episodes, with the principal voice actors reprising their roles. There was also a game made for the Game Boy based on the series and created around the same time. Developed and published by Konami, this game was distinctive upon the fact that it still used the earlier [[Batman: The Animated Series (video game)|Batman: The Animated Series]] moniker instead of The Adventures of Batman & Robin second season title given to the other games. Though not directly related, the [[Batman: Arkham]] video game series features some of the voice cast from The Animated Series returning to their roles, including Kevin Conroy as Batman and Mark Hamill as the Joker, along with Arleen Sorkin as Harley Quinn in [[Batman: Arkham Asylum]] and Robert Costanzo as Harvey Bullock in [[Batman: Arkham Origins]], while actors like Loren Lester lent their voice to other characters. Additionally, the first two games were written by Animated Series writer Paul Dini. Many of the characters' costumes from the series also appear as downloadable skins in the games. In [[Lego DC Super-Villains]], a downloadable content level was released, based on the [[Batman: Mask of the Phantasm]] film, and contained some characters from the show, including the Batman: The Animated Series version of Batman, The Joker, Harley Quinn, Two-Face, Andrea Beaumont as The Phantasm, Mad Hatter (DC Comics), Man-Bat, and Captain Clown. Cancelled spin-off Due to the success of the show, Fox approached Bruce Timm to make a spin-off centered on Catwoman, but the project was abandoned shortly thereafter. See also [[Gotham Girls]] [[List of Batman: The Animated Series episodes]] aired from September 5, 1992 [[List of The New Batman Adventures episodes]] aired from September 13, 1997 References Bibliography {{anchor|Further reading|Books}} Dini, P. and Kidd, C. [[Batman Animated]], Perennial Currents, 1998. External links Official website Official DC comics Site [https://web.archive.org/web/19970126204639/http://www.foxkids.com/batmnrob.htm The Adventures of Batman & Robin] at Fox Kids (Archive) ''Batman: The Animated Series'' at The World's Finest ''Batman: The Animated Series'' at Legions of Gotham ''Batman: The Animated Series'' at DCAU Wiki ''Batman: The Animated Series'' at Big Cartoon DataBase ''The Animated Batman'' "Batmanimation" The home for all things animated Batman ''Batman: The Animated Series'' in Filmaffinity Homage to the Animated Series through the Riddler character, Flash games and animations Animated Batman television series 1990s American animated television series 1990s American crime television series 1992 American television series debuts 1995 American television series endings Neo-noir television series Emmy Award-winning programs English-language television shows Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Fox Kids original programming Kids' WB original shows Television series by Warner Bros. Animation Works by Len Wein Toonami Television shows adapted into video games Animated thriller television series Television shows based on comics Animated television shows based on DC Comics American children's animated action television series American children's animated adventure television series American children's animated superhero television series American children's animated science fiction television series American children's animated drama television series

List of capitals of India

eng_Latn

This is a list of locations which have served as the capital city of India. The current capital city is New Delhi, which replaced Calcutta in 1911. Early period Rajgir : Initial capital of the Magadha Empire from 6th century BCE to 460 BCE, called Girivraj at the time. Pataliputra: Capital of the following: Nanda Dynasty Maurya Empire Gupta Empire Pala Empire Begram and Mathura: Summer and winter capitals respectively of the Kushan Empire Dharanikota near Amaravati and Pratishthānapura: Capitals of Satavahana Empire Srikakulam, Krishna district: Capital of Satavahana dynasty Kandapura: Capital of Ananda Gotrika Rajahmahendravaram: Capital of Eastern Chalukya Kingdom, Reddi Kingdom Vangipuram or Peddavegi: Capital of Salankayana dynasty and Eastern Chalukya Kingdom Vijayapuri South or Nagarjunakonda: Capital of Andhra Ikshvakus Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam): Capital of Eastern Ganga dynasty Kannauj: Capital of Harshavardhana's short-lived empire; also of Pratiharas. Manyakheta, Avanti: Capitals of Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Pratihara Empire respectively. Gadhipur: center of administration of the Gupta dynasty. Capital under Jamwal kings Gaadhi and Vishwamitra. Karur: Capital of Cheras Dharapuram: Capital of Kongu Nadu Puhar: Capital of Early Cholas. Madurai: Capital of Pandyas Gauḍa: Capital of Pala dynasty along with Pataliputra Sigal: First capital of the Sakas 70bce-400 Taxila: Second capital of the Sakas 70bce-400 Mathura: Third capital of the Sakas 70bce-400 Sagala: Capital of the Indo-Greeks Bhinmal: Capital of Gurjara Empire Jaunpur: Capital of Sharqī dynasty (1394–1479). Medieval period Daulatabad: In 1327, Indian, under Muhammad bin Tughluq (r. 1325-1351), forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi here, for two years, before it was abandoned due to lack of water. Ghor: Capital of Ghurid Sultanate Badaun: Capital of Iltutmish empire. Agra: Capital of Sikandar Lodhi at the time of the Lodhi dynasty. Sultan Sikandar Lodī (1488–1517) was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in 1506. Vijayanagara: Capital of Vijayanagara Empire from 1571 until 1585, when it was abandoned, ostensibly due to lack of water. Kanchipuram Capital of Pallavas Thanjavur: Capital of Cholas Allahabad: The city was a provincial capital in the Mughal Empire and was the headquarters of Jahangir from 1599 to 1604. Murshidabad: In 1704, nawab Murshid Quli Khan changed the seat of government from Dhaka to Murshidabad, renaming it after himself. Pune: In 1730, Pune became the capital of the Marathas of the Maratha Empire.At this time Maratha Empire was at its peak, and became the only non-mughal capital. Munger: Mir Qasim Ali, the Nawab of Bengal (from 1760 to 1764). In 1763, Quasim shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger. Patna: Sher Shah Suri's capital for a brief period of 5 years Hanamkonda and Warangal: Capital of Kakatiya Dynasty Addanki: Capital of Reddy Kingdom Modern period In 1858, Allahabad (now Prayagraj) became the capital of India for a day when it also served as the capital of North-Western Provinces. During the British Raj, until 1911, Calcutta was the capital of India. By the latter half of the 19th century, Shimla had become the summer capital. King George V proclaimed the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi at the climax of the 1911 Imperial Durbar on 12 December 1911. The buildings housing the Viceroy, government, and parliament were inaugurated in early 1931. Portuguese India Cochin (1505–1510) Old Goa (1510–1843) Nova Goa (1843–1961) Dutch India Pulicat (1610–1690; 1781–1795) Nagapatnam (1690–1781) Sadras (1818–1825) French India Pondicherry References Lists of cities in India India India history-related lists History of Kolkata History of Bengal Lists of capitals

Power Rangers

eng_Latn

Power Rangers is an American entertainment and merchandising franchise built around a live-action superhero television series, based on the Japanese tokusatsu franchise Super Sentai. Produced first by Saban Entertainment, second by BVS Entertainment, later by Saban Brands, and today by SCG Power Rangers LLC and its parent company, Hasbro, the Power Rangers television series takes much of its footage from the Super Sentai television series, produced by Toei Company. The first Power Rangers entry, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, debuted on August 28, 1993, and helped launch the Fox Kids programming block of the 1990s, during which it catapulted into popular culture along with a line of action figures and other toys by Bandai. By 2001, the media franchise had generated over $6 billion in toy sales. Despite initial criticism that its action violence targeted child audiences, the franchise has been commercially successful. As of 2021, Power Rangers consists of 28 television seasons of 21 different themed series and three theatrical films released in 1995, 1997, and 2017. In 2010, Haim Saban, creator of the series, regained ownership of the franchise. It was previously owned for seven years by The Walt Disney Company. In 2018, Hasbro was named the new master toy licensee. Shortly afterwards, Saban Brands and Hasbro announced that the latter would acquire the franchise and the rest of the former's entertainment assets in a $522 million deal, with the first products from Hasbro becoming available in early 2019. Premise Since Power Rangers derives most of its footage from the Super Sentai series, it features many hallmarks that distinguish it from other superhero series. Each series revolves around a team of youths recruited and trained by a mentor to morph into the eponymous Power Rangers, able to use special powers and pilot immense assault machines, called Zords, to overcome the periodic antagonists. In the original series Mighty Morphin, the wizard Zordon recruits "teenagers with attitude" against Rita Repulsa. When "morphed," the rangers become powerful superheroes wearing color-coded skin-tight spandex suits and helmets with opaque visors; identical except in individual rangers' color, helmet design, and minor styling such as incorporating a skirt. Morphed Rangers generally possess enhanced strength, durability, agility and combat prowess. Some possess superhuman or psychic abilities such as super-speed, element manipulation, extra-sensory perception or invisibility. In addition, each individual ranger has a unique weapon, as well as common weaponry used for ground fighting. When enemies grow to incredible size (as nearly all do), Rangers use individual Zords that combine into a larger Megazord. Rangers teams operate in teams of three to five, with more Rangers joining the team later. Each team of Rangers, with a few exceptions, obeys a general set of conventions, outlined at the beginning of Mighty Morphin and implied by mentors throughout many of the other series: Power Rangers may not use their Ranger powers for personal gain or for escalating a fight (unless the enemy does so), nor may the Power Rangers disclose their identities to the general public. The penalty for disobeying these rules is the loss of their power. As in Super Sentai, the color palette of each Power Rangers team changes every series. Only Red and Blue appear in every Ranger team, while a Yellow Ranger has been present in every season except Power Rangers Dino Charge and Power Rangers Dino Fury. Other colors and designations also appear throughout the series. A Rangers' color designation also influences their wardrobe throughout the series: civilian clothing often matches Ranger color. History Adapting the Super Sentai series The idea of adapting Sentai series for America emerged in the late 1970s after the agreement between Toei Company and Marvel Comics to exchange concepts to adapt them to their respective audiences. Toei, with Marvel Productions, created the Japanese Spider-Man television series, and produced three Super Sentai series, which had great success in Japan. Marvel and Stan Lee tried sell the Sun Vulcan series to American television stations including HBO, but found no buyers and the agreement ended. Several years later, another idea to adapt Super Sentai began in the 80s when Haim Saban made a business trip to Japan, in which, during his stay at the hotel, the only thing that was being transmitted on his television was the Japanese series Super Sentai. At that time, Saban was fascinated by the concept of 5 people masked in spandex suits fighting monsters, so in 1985, he produced the pilot episode of Bio-Man, an American adaptation of Choudenshi Bioman, which was rejected by several of the largest American television stations. His idea only took off in 1992, as Saban came to Fox Kids, whose president Margaret Loesch had previously helmed Marvel Productions and thus was familiar with Super Sentai. Production of Power Rangers episodes involves extensive localization of and revision of original Super Sentai source material to incorporate American culture and conform to American television standards. Rather than making an English dub or translation of the Japanese footage, Power Rangers programs consist of scenes featuring English-speaking actors spliced with scenes featuring either Japanese actors dubbed into English or the action scenes from the Super Sentai Series featuring the Rangers fighting monsters or the giant robot (Zord and Megazord) battles with English dubbing. In some series, original fight scenes are filmed to incorporate characters or items unique to the Power Rangers production. Like many of Saban Entertainment previous ventures in localizing Japanese television for a Western audience, the plot, character names, and other names usually differ greatly from the source footage, though a few seasons have stayed close to the story of the original Super Sentai season. The American arm of Bandai, who co-produced the Sentai shows and manufactured its toys, worked with the adaptation of the Japanese names. A brainstorming among executives led to "Power Rangers", and for the specific show that would be made, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, evoking the transformation sequences. The meeting also brought up the term "Zord" for the giant robots, to invoke both the sword that the Megazord carried, and the dinosaurs that were the team's theme. Along with adapting the villains from the Super Sentai counterparts, most Power Rangers series also feature villains with no Sentai counterpart. Generally, the primary antagonist of a Power Rangers series (for example, Lord Zedd, Divatox, etc.) are not adapted from the Sentai. Exceptions to this includes Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Lightspeed Rescue and a few others which only use villains adapted from the Japanese shows. The series that began the franchise, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (an American adaptation of the 1992 Japanese Super Sentai Series, Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger), began broadcasting as part of the Fox Kids block of programing that aired on the FOX network. It lasted for three seasons (from 1993 to 1996). Hasbro announced National Power Rangers Day to be celebrated annually on August 28. Broadcast history Saban Entertainment distributed Power Rangers from 1993 until the end of 2001, and Fox broadcast the series until the fall of 2002. The Walt Disney Company purchased the franchise as part of a buyout of Fox Family Worldwide that took place in 2001. Fox Family Worldwide subsequently became ABC Family Worldwide Inc. This buyout also saw Saban Entertainment becoming BVS Entertainment in 2002, from News Corporation, Fox's parent company, and Haim Saban. The show continued to air on Fox Kids until its replacement by the 4Kids Entertainment-produced "FoxBox. From September 2002, the series had aired on various Disney-owned networks, including the ABC Kids program block, ABC Family, Toon Disney, and Jetix-branded outlets worldwide. When Wild Force ended, Disney moved production of the franchise from Los Angeles to New Zealand. This resulted in the closure of MMPR Productions and the dismissal of many members of the production. Jetix blocks would air in the United States on ABC Family and Toon Disney. On February 12, 2009, Toon Disney was replaced with Disney XD, with Power Rangers being removed from the new channel's lineup. Several ABC affiliate broadcasting groups, including Hearst Television, declined to air the series due to the lack of FCC-compliant educational and informational content. 2008's Power Rangers Jungle Fury was originally set to be the final season, but due to obligations with Bandai, Disney produced one more season: Power Rangers RPM. An article in The New Zealand Herald published on March 7, 2009, identified RPM as the last season of the Power Rangers run. Production manager Sally Campbell stated in an interview, "...at this stage we will not be shooting another season." A September 1, 2009, revision to Disney A to Z: The Official Encyclopedia by Disney's head archivist Dave Smith states that "production of new episodes [of Power Rangers] ceased in 2009". Production of Power Rangers ceased and the series by BVS Entertainment, RPM, ended on December 26, 2009. On October 1, 2009, Bandai released a press release that Disney would re-broadcast Mighty Morphin Power Rangers starting in January 2010 on ABC Kids in lieu of a new series using footage from the 2009 Super Sentai television series. A new toy line accompanied the series and appeared in stores in the later part of 2009. On May 12, 2010, Haim Saban bought back the Power Rangers franchise from Disney for $43 million and announced plans to produce a new season of the television series. The eighteenth season, Samurai, began airing on Nickelodeon on February 7, 2011, with the previous episodes beginning rebroadcast on Nicktoons later that year. It was also announced that Saban plans to make a new Power Rangers movie. On July 2, 2012, it was announced that Saban Brands would launch a Saturday morning cartoon block on The CW, called Vortexx, on August 25, 2012, that would air Power Rangers Lost Galaxy. The series was removed before the season even finished, ending up doing so on the Vortexx website. The block itself ended in fall 2014. To commemorate the series' 20th anniversary, Nickelodeon began airing Power Rangers Megaforce on February 2, 2013. On October 1, 2013, Saban Brands announced that it had extended agreements for the franchise with Nickelodeon and Bandai America Incorporated through 2016. The 90s Are All That aired Mighty Morphin Power Rangers as part of Mighty Morphin Weekend in 2013. In January 2016, Saban and Nickelodeon extended their broadcast partnership through 2018. In February 2018, it was announced that Power Rangers would continue airing on Nickelodeon through 2021. In late April 2021, actor Chance Perez announced in an interview that the second season of Dino Fury (and the twenty-ninth season overall) would premiere on Netflix in 2022; making it the first season of the show to air exclusively online through a streaming service. Meanwhile, new episodes of the series moved to the streamer on June 15, 2021. Television series The first six seasons (beginning with Mighty Morphin Power Rangers and ending with In Space) followed an overarching, evolving storyline. The second season began the annual tradition of the Rangers acquiring new Zords to battle enemies while the core suits from the first season were used, except for that of the White Ranger. With the fourth season, Zeo, Power Rangers began following the Super Sentai series' practice of annual Ranger suit changes. Although the seventh season, Lost Galaxy, had ties with the preceding season, it was otherwise the first season to follow a self-contained story, as would later seasons of the show up until the seventeenth, RPM. The season also began the tradition of team-up episodes featuring Rangers, villains, and other characters from past seasons. Beginning with the eighteenth season, Samurai, the show returned to a multi-season format similar to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, with self-contained storylines told across two seasons each. During its second season, and the twenty-seventh season overall, Beast Morphers would later reveal itself to be a direct sequel to RPM. Feature films Power Rangers has been adapted into three theatrical motion pictures. The first two are distributed by 20th Century Fox, while the third film was released in 2017 by Lionsgate. In May 2014, Saban Brands and Lionsgate announced that they are planning to produce a new Power Rangers feature film. The movie, titled simply Power Rangers, was released on March 24, 2017 to mixed reviews and a low performance at the box office. A fourth Power Rangers film is currently in development by Paramount Pictures, Entertainment One and Netflix. On July 11, 2019, during a Reddit AMA, Dacre Montgomery revealed that the studio had plans to produce a second reboot, without him and the rest of the cast and the director returning. On December 13, 2019, it was reported that Jonathan Entwistle is in early talks to direct the reboot, with Patrick Burleigh being set to write the screenplay. The plot will reportedly involve time travel and will be set in the 1990s. Distribution Power Rangers has long had success in international markets and continues to air in many countries. As of 2006, Power Rangers aired at least 65 times a week in more than 40 worldwide markets. Many markets carry or have carried the series on their respective Fox or later Jetix/Disney XD channels or have syndicated the program on regional children's channels or blocks, either dubbed into the local language or broadcast in the original English. Since the 2010 acquisition by Saban Brands, international television distribution rights for Power Rangers have been managed by MarVista Entertainment until early-2019. Broadcast in East Asian territories has been treated differently from in other international markets due to the prevalence and familiarity of 'the Super Sentai brand originating in Japan. Power Rangers was briefly banned in Malaysia for supposedly encouraging the use of drugs because it contained the word "Morphin'" in its title, which could be associated with morphine. The show eventually aired without the offending word. In Japan, many Power Rangers television seasons and movies were dubbed into Japanese for television and video with the voice actors often pulled from past Super Sentai casts, leading to the English-dubbed action sequences being "re-dubbed" or "restored" back to Japanese as well. Power Rangers Mystic Force is the latest season to be broadcast in Japan on Toei Channel in January 2014, with the Magiranger cast voicing their counterparts. After broadcast of Power Rangers ended in South Korea with Wild Force, Bandai of Korea started airing dubbed Super Sentai series under the 파워레인저 (Power Ranger) brand on JEI TV. Some seasons of Super Sentai broadcast in South Korea have similarly named titles as their American counterparts, such as Power Ranger Dino Thunder for Abaranger in 2007 and Power Ranger S.P.D. in place of Dekaranger. Home media On VHS, Power Rangers video cassettes had been sold in the United States by early 1994. , 33 Power Rangers DVD collections have been released in the United States: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, 1995; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, 1997; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie/Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, 1995, 1997; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment (DVD compilation set of both movies.) The Best of the Power Rangers: The Ultimate Rangers, 2003; Buena Vista Home Entertainment (DVD compilation of episodes from five different seasons of Power Rangers. The episodes include "Forever Red" and "White Light" [Tommy's reintroduction as the White Power Ranger]) Power Rangers Ninja Storm Volumes 1–5, 2003; Buena Vista Home Entertainment Power Rangers Dino Thunder Volumes 1–5, 2004; Buena Vista Home Entertainment Power Rangers S.P.D. Volumes 1–5, 2005; Buena Vista Home Entertainment Power Rangers Mystic Force Volumes 1–3 and 'Dark Wish', 2006; Buena Vista Home Entertainment Power Rangers Operation Overdrive Volumes 1–5, 2007; Buena Vista Home Entertainment (The release of an entire season for the first time in the US.) Power Rangers Jungle Fury Volumes 1 & 2, 2008; Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (Volumes 3–5 are only available in the UK.) Power Rangers RPM Volumes 1 & 2, 2009; Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment Power Rangers RPM 'Bandai Demo DVD', 2009; Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (A promo DVD given away at Disney Stores. Contains the episode In or Out). Power Rangers Samurai Volumes 1–5, 2012; Lionsgate Home Entertainment Power Rangers Samurai "Monster Bash" and 2 MMPR Halloween episodes; Lionsgate Home Entertainment Power Rangers Samurai "Christmas Together, Samurai Forever" and 2 MMPR Christmas episodes; Lionsgate Home Entertainment Power Rangers Super Samurai Volumes 1–4 plus The Complete Series; Lionsgate Home Entertainment Internationally, additional DVD releases have occurred (such as Lightspeed Rescue, Time Force and Wild Force in Germany) and as free DVDs attached to the Jetix magazine, published in the UK. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1, Season 2, and Season 3, Power Rangers Zeo, Power Rangers Turbo, and Power Rangers in Space have been released in Germany as well in both English and German, with Power Rangers Lost Galaxy only in German. Additionally, Ninja Storm, Dino Thunder, S.P.D., Mystic Force, and Operation Overdrive saw complete boxset releases in the UK. In France, Mighty Morphin Season 1 and Season 2 have been released in their entirety in 5 episode DVD volumes, and the first 25 episodes of Season 3 were released in May 2008. In Italy, Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Dino Thunder and S.P.D. have appeared in their entirety. Zeo and S.P.D. were made available as commercial DVDs, while Mighty Morphin and Dino Thunder were issued as bi-weekly volumes at newsstands. The iTunes Store previously made Power Rangers episodes available: part of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, all of Power Rangers S.P.D., and the first 26 episodes of Power Rangers Mystic Force. Subsequent seasons and episodes of the program also made their appearances in the iTunes Store, but , Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie is the only Power Rangers film available. In 2012, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 volumes 1 & 2 were released on iTunes to coincide with the DVD releases. As of February 2013, all 3 seasons of MMPR were released on iTunes. On June 15, 2011, all episodes of Power Rangers from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers re-version were made available for instant streaming on Netflix. In 2015, Power Rangers became available on the iTunes Store. In 2021, all episodes of Power Rangers (excluding Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (season 1) and Power Rangers Beast Morphers) were removed from Netflix. On March 12, 2012, Shout! Factory announced a home video distribution deal with Saban, which includes the first 17 series of Power Rangers. Shout! Factory released the first seven seasons on DVD in August 2012, seasons 8–12 in November 2013, a 20-year collection in December 2013, and seasons 13–17 in April 2014. On March 22, 2012 Lionsgate Home Entertainment reached a home media distribution deal with Saban to release Power Rangers Samurai to DVD and Blu-ray. Toys On February 15, 2018, Saban Brands announced that their 25-year partnership with Bandai would end in 2019. The next day, it was confirmed that Hasbro would be the new "global master toy licensee" for the franchise starting in April 2019, with a future option for Hasbro to buy the entire franchise. Video games Comics Power Rangers has had several series of comics over the years. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Hamilton Comics, 1994–1995. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Marvel Comics, 1995–1996. Power Rangers Zeo, Image Comics, 1996. Power Rangers Turbo, Saban Powerhouse, 1997. Power Rangers Ninja Storm, Disney Adventures, 2003. Power Rangers Ninja Storm, Tokyopop, 2003–2004. Power Rangers Ninja Storm, Jetix Magazine, 2003. Power Rangers Dino Thunder, Tokyopop, 2004. Power Rangers Dino Thunder, Jetix Magazine, 2004. Power Rangers S.P.D., Jetix Magazine, 2005. Power Rangers Operation Overdrive, Jetix Magazine, 2007. Power Rangers Super Samurai, Papercutz, 2012. Power Rangers Megaforce, Papercutz, 2013. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Papercutz, 2014. In 2015, Boom Studios won the Power Rangers comics license, which brought a lot of award-winning publications. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, BOOM! Studios, 2016–present. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Pink, BOOM! Studios, 2016–2017. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Annuals, BOOM! Studios, 2016–present. Power Rangers: Aftershock, BOOM! Studios, 2017. Go Go Power Rangers, BOOM! Studios, 2017–present. Justice League/Power Rangers. BOOM! Studios/DC Comics, 2017. Books In November 2018, Insight Editions released Power Rangers: The Ultimate Visual History, detailing the various toys and television seasons over the franchise's 25-year run. See also Big Bad Beetleborgs Kamen Rider: Dragon Knight List of Power Rangers cast members Masked Rider Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation Super Sentai Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills VR Troopers List of the highest-grossing media franchises Notes References External links at Fox Kids Power Rangers at Bandai Mass media franchises introduced in 1993 Works by Saban Capital Group 1993 American television series debuts 2000s American television series 2010s American television series 2020s American television series ABC Kids (TV programming block) Action figures American children's action television series American Broadcasting Company original programming American television series based on Japanese television series Bandai brands Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Japan in non-Japanese culture Jetix original programming 2010s Nickelodeon original programming Superheroes Television franchises 1990s toys 2000s toys 2010s toys 2020s toys Television shows adapted into films Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into video games Television shows adapted into plays Hasbro brands Fox Kids original programming

Tottenham Court Road tube station

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Tottenham Court Road is a London Underground station in St Giles in the West End of London. It is served by the Central line and the branch of the Northern line. The station will also be served by the Elizabeth line when the core section opens. On the Central line it is between and , and on the Northern line it is between and . The station is located at St Giles Circus, the junction of Tottenham Court Road, Oxford Street, New Oxford Street and Charing Cross Road and is in Travelcard Zone 1. History Central London Railway The station opened as part of the Central London Railway (CLR) on 30 July 1900. From that date until 24 September 1933, the next station eastbound on the Central line was the now-defunct ; the next stop in that direction is now . The platforms are under Oxford Street west of St Giles' Circus, and were originally connected to the ticket hall via lifts at the east end of the platforms. The original station building is in Oxford Street and was designed in common with other CLR stations by Harry Bell Measures. Much modified, it now forms part of the station entrance, and some elements of the original facade survive above the canopy. Apart from those very limited original features of the entrance, the station building otherwise together with a whole row of other elegant old buildings were demolished in 2009. Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead Railway The Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR, now part of the Northern line) arrived here on 22 June 1907 but used the name Oxford Street until an interchange (linking the eastbound Central line with the southbound Northern line via the ends of the platform) was opened on 3 September 1908 from when the present name was used for both lines. The next station north on the Northern line was originally called Tottenham Court Road, but was renamed to at this time. The original ticket office was directly beneath St Giles circus and was accessed from stairs on three street corners around the Circus. Its original lift shafts and emergency stairs are still extant. A set of emergency stairs can be used as access down to the ends of the Northern line platform. The lift shafts are used for offices and station facilities. Early Improvements Like a number of other central area stations, Tottenham Court Road underwent improvements during the 1920s to replace the original sets of lifts with escalators. Works commenced in 1923; a new subsurface ticket hall, under St Giles Circus, was constructed and the escalators came into service on 28 September 1926 (upper set) and 1 February 1926 (lower set). A shaft for three escalators was driven from the ticket hall under the junction down to the east end of the Central line platforms ending at an intermediate circulation space. A further pair of escalators descend from this level to the north end of the Northern line platforms. The lifts were removed and the redundant shafts were used as ventilation ducts. In 1938 a chiller plant began operating at the station. This was decommissioned in 1949. Passenger congestion entering and leaving the Northern line platforms was partially eased by the addition of a short single escalator at the centre of the platform leading up to a passageway linking to the intermediate circulation area. However, this was in itself a cause of congestion, as traffic trying to leave the station from the Northern line found itself in the path of traffic entering and travelling to the Central line. In 1984 the entire station was redecorated, losing the distinctive Leslie Green-designed platform tiling pattern of the Yerkes tube lines (which included the CCE&HR), and the plain white platform tiles of the CLR. The 1980s design includes panels of tessellated and hand cut smalti mural mosaic by Eduardo Paolozzi (whose signature appears at several places within the station), and is a distinct and noticeable feature of the station. The mosaic's frenetic design is intended to reflect the station's position adjacent to Tottenham Court Road's large concentration of hi-fi and electronics shops. During the expansion works for the expansion of the station for Crossrail sections of the mosaic were restored, moved or replaced while other section were destroyed, some sections of which have been removed to be conserved at the University of Edinburgh. Upgrade and expansion The station had four entrances to the sub-surface ticket hall from the north-east, south-west and north-west corners of the junction and from a subway beneath the Centre Point building which starts on Andrew Borde Street. The entrances were frequently congested leading to occasions during peak periods of the day when they were briefly closed to prevent overcrowding in the station. In the aftermath of the King's Cross fire in 1987, London Underground was recommended to investigate "passenger flow and congestion in stations and take remedial action". A Parliamentary bill was tabled in 1991 to permit London Underground to improve and expand the frequently congested station, however this was not proceeded with. In 2000, London Underground consulted on an station upgrade including a new larger ticket hall, new escalators and step free access, which would have taken 4 years to construct. The station was eventually reconstructed and upgraded in the mid 2010s as part of the Crossrail project, with the £500m station upgrade taking 8 years. The works involved building a much larger ticket hall under the forecourt of Centre Point, new sets of escalators to reach the central section of the Northern line platforms from the ticket hall, step-free access to the platforms, as well as escalators down to the eastern end of the future Crossrail station. The subway to Andrew Borde Street was replaced as part of this development. To enable this expansion to occur, both the Astoria theatres and the original Central line entrance were demolished. As part of the expansion of the ticket hall, Art on the Underground commissioned an artwork by Daniel Buren, a French conceptual artist. This piece, 'Diamonds and Circles' permanent works 'in situ', was Buren's first permanent public commission in the UK. The artwork comprises colourful diamond and circle shapes, which contrast with Buren's trademark stripes in black and white, fixed to internal glass walls throughout the ticket hall. The piece was completed in 2017. From 2 April until 28 November 2011, the Northern line platforms were closed for structural upgrade works and Northern line trains ran non-stop through the station. From 5 January until 7 December 2015, the Central line platforms were closed, meaning Central line trains did not stop at the station. On 12 January 2015, the first part of the new ticket hall opened for the first time. The station which previously required commuters going through the Central line level concourse to get to the Northern line, via a one-way system, now has escalators directly to Northern line level followed by stairs to the platforms. The escalators are among the longest in the tube, and take a minute top to bottom. Current developments Crossrail In addition to the eastern ticket hall expansion, a new western entrance and ticket hall was built under Dean Street as part of the Crossrail project, leading to both the Crossrail platforms and to the parallel Central line platforms. The Crossrail station 'box' was constructed as part of the Underground ticket hall works, and completed in an un-fitted form by 12 January 2015. Similar to the situation with Thameslink platforms at St Pancras, the line developers are responsible for the fitting-out works which create the actual station infrastructure. The enlarged ticket hall, which was undertaken by a joint venture of Taylor Woodrow Construction and BAM Nuttall, was completed in 2017. Construction Gallery Future developments Crossrail 2 The proposed Chelsea-Hackney line, now known as Crossrail 2, if built, will have a station at Tottenham Court Road, and the development plans include facilities to take account of this. This would be the only planned interchange between Crossrail 1 and Crossrail 2. A massive boost in capacity to the existing station will be needed to host both lines. The station was safeguarded as part of the route in 1991 and 2007. Redevelopment of the station will include space for platforms on the line. In popular culture The station was used for a sequence in the 1981 film An American Werewolf in London. A scene in the 2008 film The Bank Job is set in the station, though it was shot at Aldwych tube station. A scene in the musical We Will Rock You is set in the station; the musical played across the street at the Dominion Theatre from 2002 to 2014. Gallery Connections London Buses routes 1, 8, 14, 19, 24, 29, 38, 55, 73, 98, 176, 390 and night routes N1, N5, N8, N19, N20, N29, N38, N41, N55, N68, N73, N98, N171, N207, N253 and N279 serve the station. Reduced bus services operate on Sundays. References External links Central line station building in 1914 City of Westminster, Draft Planning Brief – Crossrail: Tottenham Court Road Station (Eastern Ticket Hall), May 2005, Retrieved 31 January 2008 Photos of Paolozzi's mosaics in the station Conservation of the TCR Station Mosaics Images from An American Werewolf in London prior to installation of Paolozzi mosaics Rebuilding work and schedule (Transport for London) Restoration and rebuild of Central Line Paolozzi mosaics by mosaic artist Gary Drostle Central line stations Northern line stations London Underground Night Tube stations Proposed Chelsea-Hackney Line stations Tube stations in the City of Westminster Former Central London Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1900 Former Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907 Railway stations served by Crossrail Buildings and structures on Tottenham Court Road Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom

The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring

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The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring is a 2001 epic fantasy adventure film directed by Peter Jackson, based on the 1954 novel The Fellowship of the Ring, the first volume of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The film is the first installment in the Lord of the Rings trilogy. It was produced by Barrie M. Osborne, Jackson, Fran Walsh and Tim Sanders, and written by Walsh, Philippa Boyens and Jackson. The film features an ensemble cast including Elijah Wood, Ian McKellen, Liv Tyler, Viggo Mortensen, Sean Astin, Cate Blanchett, John Rhys-Davies, Billy Boyd, Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom, Christopher Lee, Hugo Weaving, Sean Bean, Ian Holm, and Andy Serkis. It was followed in 2002 by The Two Towers and in 2003 by The Return of the King. Set in Middle-earth, the story tells of the Dark Lord Sauron, who seeks the One Ring, which contains part of his soul, in order to return to power. The Ring has found its way to the young hobbit Frodo Baggins. The fate of Middle-earth hangs in the balance as Frodo and eight companions (who form the Fellowship of the Ring) begin their journey to Mount Doom in the land of Mordor, the only place where the Ring can be destroyed. The Fellowship of the Ring was cofinanced and distributed by American studio New Line Cinema, but filmed and edited entirely in Jackson's native New Zealand, concurrently with the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 10 December 2001 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London and was theatrically released worldwide on 19 December 2001. The film was acclaimed by critics and fans alike, who considered it to be a landmark in filmmaking and an achievement in the fantasy film genre. It received praise for its visual effects, performances, Jackson's direction, screenplay, and faithfulness to the source material. It grossed $880 million worldwide in its initial release, making it the second highest-grossing film of 2001 and the fifth highest-grossing film of all time at the time of its release. Following subsequent reissues, it has as of 2021 grossed over $897 million. The Fellowship of the Ring, like its successors, is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. The film received numerous accolades; at the 74th Academy Awards, it was nominated for thirteen awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Supporting Actor for McKellen, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Film Editing, Best Original Song for "May It Be" and Best Sound, winning four: Best Cinematography, Best Makeup, Best Original Score and Best Visual Effects. In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot In the Second Age of Middle-earth, the lords of Elves, Dwarves, and Men are given Rings of Power. Unbeknownst to them, the Dark Lord Sauron forges the One Ring in Mount Doom, instilling into it a great part of his power, in order to dominate the other Rings so he might conquer Middle-earth. A final alliance of Men and Elves battles Sauron's forces in Mordor. Isildur of Gondor severs Sauron's finger and the Ring with it, thereby vanquishing Sauron and returning him to spirit form. With Sauron's first defeat, the Third Age of Middle-earth begins. The Ring's influence corrupts Isildur, who takes it for himself and is later killed by Orcs. The Ring is lost in a river for 2,500 years until it is found by Gollum, who owns it for over four and a half centuries. The ring abandons Gollum and it is subsequently found by a hobbit named Bilbo Baggins, who is unaware of its history. Sixty years later, Bilbo celebrates his 111th birthday in the Shire, reuniting with his old friend, the wizard Gandalf the Grey. Bilbo departs the Shire for one last adventure, and he leaves his inheritance, including the Ring, to his nephew Frodo. Gandalf investigates the Ring, discovers its true nature, and learns that Gollum was captured and tortured by Sauron's Orcs, revealing two words during his interrogation: "Shire" and "Baggins." Gandalf returns and warns Frodo to leave the Shire. As Frodo departs with his friend, gardener Samwise Gamgee, Gandalf rides to Isengard to meet with the wizard Saruman, but discovers his alliance with Sauron, who has dispatched his nine undead Nazgûl servants to find Frodo. Frodo and Sam are joined by fellow hobbits Merry and Pippin, and they evade the Nazgûl before arriving in Bree, where they are meant to meet Gandalf. However, Gandalf never arrives, having been taken prisoner by Saruman. The hobbits are then aided by a Ranger named Strider, who promises to escort them to Rivendell; however, they are ambushed by the Nazgûl on Weathertop, and their leader, the Witch-King, stabs Frodo with a Morgul blade. Arwen, an Elf and Strider's beloved, locates Strider and rescues Frodo, summoning flood-waters that sweep the Nazgûl away. She takes him to Rivendell, where he is healed by the Elves. Frodo meets with Gandalf, who escaped Isengard on a Great Eagle. That night, Strider reunites with Arwen, and they affirm their love for each other. Facing the threat of both Sauron and Saruman, Arwen's father, Lord Elrond, decides against keeping the Ring in Rivendell. He holds a council of Elves, Men, and Dwarves, also attended by Frodo and Gandalf, that decides the Ring must be destroyed in the fires of Mount Doom. Frodo volunteers to take the Ring, accompanied by Gandalf, Sam, Merry, Pippin, Elf Legolas, Dwarf Gimli, Boromir of Gondor, and Strider—who is actually Aragorn, Isildur's heir and the rightful King of Gondor. Bilbo, now living in Rivendell, gives Frodo his sword Sting, and a chainmail shirt made of mithril. The Fellowship of the Ring sets off over the mountain Caradhras, but Saruman summons a storm that forces them to travel through the Mines of Moria. After finding the Dwarves of Moria dead, the Fellowship is attacked by Orcs and a cave troll. They hold them off but are confronted by Durin's Bane: a Balrog residing within the mines. While the others escape, Gandalf fends off the Balrog and casts it into a vast chasm, but the Balrog drags Gandalf down into the darkness with him. The devastated Fellowship reaches Lothlórien, ruled by the Elf-queen Galadriel, who privately informs Frodo that only he can complete the quest and that one of his friends in the Fellowship will try to take the Ring. Meanwhile, Saruman creates an army of Uruk-hai in Isengard to find and kill the Fellowship. The Fellowship travels by river to Parth Galen. Frodo wanders off and is confronted by Boromir, who tries to take the Ring as Lady Galadriel had predicted. Uruk-hai scouts then ambush the Fellowship, mortally wounding Boromir as he fails to stop them from taking Merry and Pippin as prisoners. Aragorn arrives and comforts Boromir as he dies, promising to help the people of Gondor in the coming conflict. Fearing the Ring will corrupt his friends, Frodo decides to travel to Mordor alone, but allows Sam to come along, recalling his promise to Gandalf to look after him. As Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli set out to rescue Merry and Pippin, Frodo and Sam make their way down the mountain pass of Emyn Muil, journeying on to Mordor. Cast Before filming began on 11 October 1999, the principal actors trained for six weeks in sword fighting (with Bob Anderson), riding and boating. Jackson hoped such activities would allow the cast to bond so chemistry would be evident on screen as well as getting them used to life in Wellington. They were also trained to pronounce Tolkien's verses properly. After the shoot, the nine cast members playing the Fellowship got a tattoo, the Elvish symbol for the number nine, with the exception of John Rhys-Davies, whose stunt double got the tattoo instead. The film is noted for having an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include: Elijah Wood as Frodo Baggins: A young hobbit who inherits the One Ring from his uncle Bilbo. Wood was the first actor to be cast on 7 July 1999. Wood was a fan of the book, and he sent in an audition dressed as Frodo, reading lines from the novel. Wood was selected from 150 actors who auditioned. Jake Gyllenhaal unsuccessfully auditioned for the role. Ian McKellen as Gandalf the Grey: An Istari wizard and mentor to Frodo. Sean Connery was approached for the role, but did not understand the plot, while Patrick Stewart turned it down as he disliked the script. Patrick McGoohan was also offered the role, but turned it down due to health issues. Christopher Plummer also turned down the role. Sam Neill was also offered the role but declined due to his scheduling conflict with Jurassic Park III. Before being cast, McKellen had to sort his schedule with 20th Century Fox as there was a two-month overlap with X-Men. He enjoyed playing Gandalf the Grey more than his transformed state in the next two films, and based his accent on Tolkien. Unlike his on-screen character, McKellen did not spend much time with the actors playing the Hobbits; instead he worked with their scale doubles. Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn "Strider" Elessar II: A Dúnedain ranger and heir to Gondor's throne. Daniel Day-Lewis was offered the part at the beginning of pre-production, but turned it down. Nicolas Cage also received an offer, declining because of "family obligations", while Vin Diesel, a fan of the book, auditioned for Aragorn. Stuart Townsend was cast in the role, before being replaced during filming when Jackson realised he was too young. Russell Crowe was considered as a replacement, but he turned it down because he does not want to be typecast and believed to be a similar role in Gladiator. Day-Lewis was offered the role for a second time, but declined again. Executive Producer Mark Ordesky saw Mortensen in a play. Mortensen's son, a fan of the book, convinced him to take the role. Mortensen read the book on the plane, received a crash course lesson in fencing from Bob Anderson and began filming the scenes on Weathertop. Mortensen became a hit with the crew by patching up his costume and carrying his "hero" sword around with him off-camera. Sean Astin as Samwise Gamgee: Better known as Sam, a hobbit gardener and Frodo's best friend. Astin, who had recently become a father, bonded with the 18-year-old Wood in a protective manner, which mirrored Sam's relationship with Frodo. Sean Bean as Boromir: A son of the Stewards of Gondor who journeys with the Fellowship towards Mordor. Bruce Willis, a fan of the book, expressed interest in the role, while Liam Neeson was sent the script, but passed. Billy Boyd as Peregrin Took: Better known as Pippin, a hobbit who travels with the Fellowship on their journey to Mordor. Dominic Monaghan as Meriadoc Brandybuck: Better known as Merry, a distant cousin of Frodo. Monaghan was cast as Merry after auditioning for Frodo. John Rhys-Davies as Gimli: A dwarf warrior who accompanies the Fellowship to Mordor after they set out from Rivendell. Billy Connolly, who was considered for the part of Gimli, would later portray Dáin II Ironfoot in Peter Jackson's The Hobbit film trilogy. Rhys-Davies wore heavy prosthetics to play Gimli, which limited his vision, and eventually he developed eczema around his eyes. Rhys-Davies also played Gimli's father Glóin during the scene where the fellowship is forged. Orlando Bloom as Legolas Greenleaf: A prince of the elves' Woodland Realm and a skilled archer. Bloom initially auditioned for Faramir, who appears in the second film, a role which went to David Wenham. Liv Tyler as Arwen Undómiel: An elf of Rivendell and Aragorn's lover. The filmmakers approached Tyler after seeing her performance in Plunkett & Macleane, and New Line Cinema leaped at the opportunity of having one Hollywood star in the film. Actress Helena Bonham Carter had expressed interest in the role. Tyler came to shoot on short occasions, unlike the rest of the actors. She was one of the last actors to be cast, on 25 August 1999. Cate Blanchett as Galadriel: The elven co-ruler of Lothlórien alongside her husband Celeborn. Lucy Lawless was considered for the role. Christopher Lee as Saruman the White: The fallen head of the Istari Order who succumbs to Sauron's will through his use of the palantír. Lee was a major fan of the book, and read it once a year. He had also met J. R. R. Tolkien. He originally auditioned for Gandalf, but was judged too old. Hugo Weaving as Elrond: The Elven-Lord of Rivendell who leads the Council of Elrond, which ultimately decides to destroy the Ring. David Bowie expressed interest in the role, but Jackson stated, "To have a famous, beloved character and a famous star colliding is slightly uncomfortable." Ian Holm as Bilbo Baggins: Frodo's uncle who gives him the Ring after he decides to retire to Rivendell. Holm previously played Frodo in a 1981 radio adaption of The Lord of the Rings, and was cast as Bilbo after Jackson remembered his performance. Sylvester McCoy, who would later play Radagast the Brown Wizard in The Hobbit, was contacted about playing the role, and was kept in place as a potential Bilbo for six months before Jackson went with Holm. Andy Serkis as Gollum : A wretched hobbit-like creature whose mind was poisoned by the Ring after bearing it for centuries. This character appears briefly in the prologue. In Mordor, one can only hear his voice shouting and in Moria, only his eyes and his nose appear. Serkis was working on the 1999 six-episode Oliver Twist miniseries when his agent told him that Jackson wanted to approach him to play Gollum. Despite ultimately accepting the role, Serkis was initially doubtful about taking the part as one of his Oliver Twist fellow actors opined that it wasn't a good idea if his face wasn't going to appear onscreen, aside that Jackson was unsure if Gollum could be portrayed with motion-capture performance as they wished. The cast also includes: Sala Baker as Sauron the Deceiver: The Dark Lord of Mordor and the One Ring's true master who manifests as an Eye after the destruction of his physical form. Marton Csokas as Celeborn the Wise: The Elven-Lord of Lothlórien and Galadriel's husband. Lawrence Makoare as Lurtz: The commander of Saruman's Uruk-Hai forces. Craig Parker as Haldir: The leader of the Galadhrim warriors guarding the border of Lothlórien. Mark Ferguson as Ereinion Gil-galad: The last Elven-King of Noldor. Peter McKenzie as Elendil the Tall: The last High King of Arnor and Gondor. Harry Sinclair as Isildur: Elendil's son and Aragorn's ancestor who originally defeated Sauron. Comparison with the source material Jackson, Walsh and Boyens made numerous changes to the story, for purposes of pacing and character development. Jackson said his main desire was to make a film focused primarily on Frodo and the Ring, the "backbone" of the story. The prologue condenses Tolkien's backstory, in which The Last Alliance's seven-year siege of the Barad-dûr is a single battle, where Sauron is shown to explode, though Tolkien only said his spirit flees. Some events from the book are condensed or omitted at the beginning of the film. The time between Gandalf leaving the Ring to Frodo and returning to reveal its inscription, which is 17 years in the book, is compressed for timing reasons. The tone of the Moria sequence was altered. In the book, following the defeat on the Caradhras road, Gandalf advocates the Moria road against the resistance of the rest of the Fellowship (save Gimli), suggesting "there is a hope that Moria is still free...there is even a chance that Dwarves are there," though no one seems to think this likely. Frodo proposes they take a company vote, but the discovery of Wargs on their trail forces them to accept Gandalf's proposal. They only realize the Dwarves are all dead once they reach Balin's tomb. The filmmakers chose instead for Gandalf to resist the Moria plan as a foreshadowing device. Gandalf says to Gimli he would prefer not to enter Moria, and Saruman is shown to be aware of Gandalf's hesitance, revealing an illustration of the Balrog in one of his books. The corpses of the dwarves are instantly shown as the Fellowship enter Moria. One detail that many critics commented upon is the fact that, in the novel, Pippin tosses a mere pebble into the well in Moria ("They then hear what sounds like a hammer tapping in the distance"), whereas in the film, he knocks an entire skeleton in ("Next, the skeleton ... falls down the well, also dragging down a chain and bucket. The noise is incredible."). Production Development Director Peter Jackson began working with Christian Rivers to storyboard the series in August 1997, as well as getting Richard Taylor and Weta Workshop to begin creating his interpretation of Middle-earth. Jackson told them to make Middle-earth as plausible and believable as possible, and to think of it in a historical manner. In November, Alan Lee and John Howe became the film trilogy's primary conceptual designers, having had previous experience as illustrators for the book and various other tie-ins. Lee worked for the Art Department creating places such as Rivendell, Isengard, Moria, and Lothlórien, giving Art Nouveau and geometry influences to the Elves and Dwarves respectively. Though Howe contributed with Bag End and the Argonath, he focused on the design of the characters' armour, having studied it his entire life. Weta and the Art Department continued to design, with Grant Major turning the Art Department's designs into architecture, and Dan Hennah scouting locations. On 1 April 1999, Ngila Dickson joined the crew as costume designer. She and 40 seamstresses would create 19,000 costumes, 40 per version for the actor and their doubles, wearing them out for an impression of age. Filming locations Filming took place in various locations across New Zealand. A list of filming locations, sorted by appearance order in the film: Special effects The Fellowship of the Ring makes extensive use of digital, practical and make-up special effects. One notable illusion used in almost every scene involved setting a proper scale so that the characters all appear to be the correct height. For example, Elijah Wood is tall in real life, but his character, Frodo Baggins, is barely four feet in height. A variety of techniques were used to depict the hobbits and Gimli the Dwarf as being of diminutive stature. Fortunately, John-Rhys Davies – who played Gimli – happens to be the correct height in proportion to the hobbit actors, so did not need to be filmed separately as a third height variation. Large- and small-scale doubles were used in certain scenes, while entire duplicates of certain sets (including Bag End in Hobbiton) were built at two different scales, so that the characters would appear to be the appropriate size. At one point in the film, Frodo runs along a corridor in Bag End, followed by Gandalf. Elijah Wood and Ian McKellen were filmed in separate versions of the same corridor, built at two different scales, and a fast camera pan conceals the edit between the two. Forced perspective was also employed, so that it would look as though the short hobbits were interacting with taller Men and Elves. Even the simple use of kneeling down, to the filmmakers' surprise, turned out to be an effective method in creating the illusion. For the battle between the Last Alliance and Sauron's forces that begins the film, an elaborate CGI animation system, called MASSIVE, was developed by Stephen Regelous; it allowed thousands of individual animated characters, or "agents" in the program, to act independently. This lent the illusion of realism to the battle sequences. The "Making of" Lord of the Rings DVD reports some interesting initial problems: for instance, in the first execution of a battle between groups of characters, the wrong groups attacked each other. In another early demo, some of the warriors at the edge of the field could be seen running away. They were initially moving in the wrong direction, and had been programmed to keep running until they encountered an enemy. The digital creatures were important due to Jackson's requirement of biological plausibility. Their surface texture was scanned from large maquettes before numerous digital details of their skeletons and muscles were added. In the case of the Balrog, Gray Horsfield created a system that copied recorded imagery of fire. Score James Horner turned down the offer to compose the score. The musical score for The Lord of the Rings films was composed by Howard Shore. It was performed by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Voices, The London Oratory School Schola, and the Maori Samoan Choir, and featured several vocal soloists. Shore wrote almost four hours of finalized music for the film (of which just over three hours are used as underscore), featuring a number of non-orchestral instruments, and a large number (49–62) of leitmotives. Two original songs, "Aníron" and the end title theme "May It Be", were composed and sung by Enya, who allowed her label, Reprise Records, to release the soundtrack to The Fellowship of the Ring and its two sequels. In addition to these, Shore composed "In Dreams", which was sung by Edward Ross of the London Oratory School Schola. Release A special behind-the-scenes trailer was released in 2000. The trilogy teaser was shown before Thirteen Days and the teaser trailer before Pearl Harbor. The final trailer was with the television premiere of Angel and before Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. Both trailers appeared as easter eggs on the Rush Hour 2 and Little Nicky DVD and on the VHS. The world premiere of The Fellowship of the Ring was held at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 10 December 2001. It was released on Wednesday, 19 December 2001 internationally in most major territories on 10,000 screens. It opened in New Zealand on 20 December. Home media The Fellowship of the Ring was released on VHS and DVD on 6 August 2002. At the time, the film was the best-selling DVD release with 14.5 million copies being sold. This record was dethroned by Finding Nemo the following year. Theatrical and extended release On 12 November 2002, an extended edition was released on VHS and DVD, with 30 minutes of new material, added special effects and music, plus 19 minutes of fan-club credits, totaling to 228 minutes. The DVD set included four commentaries and over three hours of supplementary material. On 29 August 2006, a limited edition of The Fellowship of the Ring was released on DVD. The set included both the film's theatrical and extended editions on a double-sided disc along with all-new bonus material. Blu-ray edition The theatrical Blu-ray version of The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States on 6 April 2010. There were two separate sets: one with digital copies and one without. The individual Blu-ray disc of The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 14 September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy. The extended Blu-ray editions were released in the US on 28 June 2011. This version has a runtime of 238 minutes (the extended editions include the names of all fan club members at the time of their release; the additional 9 minutes in the Blu-ray version are because of expanded member rolls, not any additional story material). The Fellowship of the Ring was released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office On its opening day, it grossed $18.2 million in the United States and Canada from 3,359 cinemas and $11.5 million in 13 countries, including $3 million from 466 screens in the United Kingdom. It grossed $75.1 million in its first five days in the United States and Canada, including $47.2 million on its opening weekend, placing it at number one at the US box office, setting a December opening record. It also opened at number one in 29 international markets and remained there for a second week in all but the Netherlands. It set a record opening day gross in Australia with $2.09 million from 405 screens, beating the record $1.3 million set by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. It had a record opening weekend in Germany with 1.5 million admissions and in Spain with a gross of $5.3 million from 395 screens. It also grossed a record $2.5 million in 15 days in New Zealand. In its first 15 days it had grossed $183.5 million internationally and $178.7 million in the United States and Canada for a worldwide total of $362.2 million. In its initial release, it went on to gross $313.4 million in the United States and Canada and $547.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $860.5 million. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 54 million tickets in the US and Canada in its initial theatrical run. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $315.7 million in the United States and Canada and $581.9 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $897.7 million. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 236 reviews, with an average rating of 8.20/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Full of eye-popping special effects, and featuring a pitch-perfect cast, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring brings J.R.R. Tolkien's classic to vivid life." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 92 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. The Fellowship of the Ring was released to universal critical acclaim. Colin Kennedy for Empire gave the film five stars out of five, writing "Brooking no argument, history should quickly regard Peter Jackson’s The Fellowship of the Ring as the first instalment of the best fantasy epic in motion picture history... Putting formula blockbusters to shame, Fellowship is impeccably cast and constructed with both care and passion: this is a labour of love that never feels laboured. Emotional range and character depth ultimately take us beyond genre limitations..." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars and stating that while it is not "a true visualization of Tolkien's Middle-earth", it is "a work for, and of, our times. It will be embraced, I suspect, by many Tolkien fans and take on aspects of a cult. It is a candidate for many Oscars. It is an awesome production in its daring and breadth, and there are small touches that are just right". USA Today also gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, "this movie version of a beloved book should please devotees as well as the uninitiated". In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell wrote, "The playful spookiness of Mr. Jackson's direction provides a lively, light touch, a gesture that doesn't normally come to mind when Tolkien's name is mentioned". Lisa Schwarzbaum for Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A grade and wrote "The cast take to their roles with becoming modesty, certainly, but Jackson also makes it easy for them: His Fellowship flows, never lingering for the sake of admiring its own beauty ... Every detail of which engrossed me. I may have never turned a page of Tolkien, but I know enchantment when I see it". In his review for the BBC, Nev Pierce gave the film four stars out of five, describing it as "Funny, scary, and totally involving", and wrote that Jackson turned "the book's least screen-worthy volume into a gripping and powerful adventure movie". In his review for The Guardian, Xan Brooks wrote "Rather than a stand-alone holiday blockbuster, The Fellowship of the Ring offers an epic act one", and commented that the ending was "closer in spirit to an art-house film than a popcorn holiday romp". In his review for the New York Post, Lou Lumenick gave the film four stars out of four, praising Jackson's direction, the casting, the sets, and the score, and describing the film as "the three most exciting hours we've seen on a movie screen in years" and "easily one of the year's best movies". In her review for The Washington Post, Rita Kempley gave the film five stars out of five, and praised the cast, in particular, "Mortensen, as Strider, is a revelation, not to mention downright gorgeous. And McKellen, carrying the burden of thousands of years' worth of the fight against evil, is positively Merlinesque". Time magazine's Richard Corliss praised Jackson's work: "His movie achieves what the best fairy tales do: the creation of an alternate world, plausible and persuasive, where the young — and not only the young — can lose themselves. And perhaps, in identifying with the little Hobbit that could, find their better selves". In his review for The Village Voice, J. Hoberman wrote, "Peter Jackson's adaptation is certainly successful on its own terms". Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers wrote, "It's emotion that makes Fellowship stick hard in the memory... Jackson deserves to revel in his success. He's made a three-hour film that leaves you wanting more". A mixed review was written by Peter Bradshaw. Writing for The Guardian, he lauded the art direction and the visual look of the film, but he also commented "there is a strange paucity of plot complication, an absence of anything unfolding, all the more disconcerting because of the clotted and indigestible mythic back story that we have to wade through before anything happens at all". Overall, Bradshaw found the tone of the film too serious and self-important, and wrote "signing up to the movie's whole hobbity-elvish universe requires a leap of faith... It's a leap I didn't feel much like making - and, with two more movie episodes like this on the way, the credibility gap looks wider than ever." Jonathan Rosenbaum was also less positive about The Fellowship of the Ring: in his review for the Chicago Reader, he granted that the film was "full of scenic splendors with a fine sense of scale", but he commented that its narrative thrust seemed "relatively pro forma", and that he found the battle scenes boring. Accolades In 2002, the film won four Academy Awards from thirteen nominations. The winning categories were for Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Makeup, and Best Original Score. It was also nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Ian McKellen), Best Art Direction, Best Director, Best Film Editing, Best Original Song (Enya, Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan for "May It Be"), Best Picture, Best Sound (Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Gethin Creagh and Hammond Peek), Best Costume Design and Best Adapted Screenplay. The film won the 2002 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. It also won Empire readers' Best Film award, as well as five BAFTAs, including Best Film, the David Lean Award for Best Direction, the Audience Award (voted for by the public), Best Special Effects, and Best Make-up. The film was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight between Gandalf and Saruman. In June 2008, AFI revealed its "10 Top 10"—the ten best films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The Fellowship of the Ring was acknowledged as the second best film in the fantasy genre. The film was also listed as the 50th best film in the 2007 list AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition). References External links 2001 fantasy films 2001 films American films American epic films American fantasy adventure films New Zealand films New Zealand epic films New Zealand fantasy adventure films 2000s English-language films 1 Films shot in New Zealand High fantasy films Rotoscoped films New Line Cinema films WingNut Films films BAFTA winners (films) Best Film BAFTA Award winners Films that won the Academy Award for Best Makeup Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation winning works Nebula Award for Best Script-winning works Films scored by Howard Shore Films directed by Peter Jackson Films with screenplays by Fran Walsh Films with screenplays by Peter Jackson Films with screenplays by Philippa Boyens Films produced by Barrie M. Osborne Films produced by Fran Walsh Films produced by Peter Jackson Films about dwarfs United States National Film Registry films

The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers

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The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers is a 2002 epic fantasy adventure film directed by Peter Jackson, based on the second volume of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The film is the second instalment in the Lord of the Rings trilogy and was produced by Barrie M. Osborne, Fran Walsh and Jackson, from a screenplay by Walsh, Philippa Boyens, Stephen Sinclair and Jackson. The film features an ensemble cast including Elijah Wood, Ian McKellen, Liv Tyler, Viggo Mortensen, Sean Astin, Cate Blanchett, John Rhys-Davies, Bernard Hill, Christopher Lee, Billy Boyd, Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom, Hugo Weaving, Miranda Otto, David Wenham, Brad Dourif, Karl Urban and Andy Serkis. It was preceded by The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and followed by The Return of the King (2003). Continuing the plot of The Fellowship of the Ring, the film intercuts three storylines. Frodo and Sam continue their journey towards Mordor to destroy the One Ring, meeting and joined by Gollum, the ring's former keeper. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli come to the war-torn nation of Rohan and are reunited with the resurrected Gandalf, before fighting against the legions of the treacherous wizard Saruman at the Battle of Helm's Deep. Merry and Pippin escape capture, meet Treebeard the Ent, and help to plan an attack on Isengard, fortress of Saruman. The Two Towers was financed and distributed by American studio New Line Cinema, but filmed and edited entirely in Jackson's native New Zealand, concurrently with the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 5 December 2002 at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City and was theatrically released on 18 December 2002 in the United States, and on 19 December 2002 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by both critics and audiences, who considered it to be a landmark in filmmaking and an achievement in the fantasy film genre. It received praise for its direction, action sequences, performances, and CGI, particularly for Gollum. It grossed $936 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing film of 2002 and the third highest-grossing film of all time at the time of its release. Following subsequent reissues, it has, as of 2021, grossed over $947 million. The Two Towers, like the other films in the trilogy, is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. The film received numerous accolades; at the 75th Academy Awards, it was nominated for six awards, including Best Picture, winning for Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. Plot Awakening from a dream of Gandalf fighting the Balrog in Moria, Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee find themselves lost in the Emyn Muil near Mordor and discover they are being tracked by Gollum, a former bearer of the One Ring. Capturing Gollum, Frodo takes pity and allows him to guide them, reminding Sam that they will need Gollum's help to infiltrate Mordor. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli pursue a band of Uruk-hai to save their companions Merry and Pippin, entering the kingdom of Rohan. The Uruk-hai are ambushed by a group of Rohirrim, allowing the Hobbits to escape into Fangorn Forest. Meeting Aragorn's group, the Rohirrim's leader Éomer explains that he and his men have been exiled by Rohan's king, Théoden, who is under the control of Saruman and his servant Gríma Wormtongue. Éomer believes Merry and Pippin were killed during the raid but leaves the group two horses. Searching for the Hobbits in Fangorn, Aragorn's group encounters Gandalf, who after his fight against the Balrog was resurrected as Gandalf the White to help save Middle-earth. Gandalf leads the trio to Rohan's capital, Edoras, where Gandalf frees Théoden from Saruman's control. Aragorn stops Théoden from executing Wormtongue, who flees. Learning of Saruman's plans to destroy Rohan with his Uruk-hai army, Théoden evacuates his citizens to the fortress of The Hornburg at Helm's Deep. Gandalf departs to find Éomer and his followers, hoping they will fight for their restored king. Aragorn befriends Théoden's niece, Éowyn, who becomes infatuated with him. When the refugees travelling to Helm's Deep are attacked by Saruman's Warg-riding Orcs, Aragorn falls from a cliff and is presumed dead. He is found by his horse Brego and rides to Helm's Deep, witnessing Saruman's army marching to the fortress. In Rivendell, Arwen is told by her father Elrond that Aragorn will not return. He reminds her that if she remains in Middle-earth, she will outlive Aragorn by thousands of years, and she reluctantly departs for Valinor. Elrond is contacted by Galadriel of Lothlórien, who convinces him that the Elves should honour their alliance to men, and they dispatch an army of Elves to Helm's Deep. In Fangorn, Merry and Pippin meet Treebeard, an Ent. Convincing Treebeard that they are allies, they are brought to an Ent Council, where the Ents decide not to take part in the coming war. Pippin asks Treebeard to take them in the direction of Isengard, where they witness the deforestation caused by Saruman's war effort. Enraged, Treebeard and the Ents storm Isengard, trapping Saruman in his tower. Aragorn arrives at Helm's Deep, bringing word that Saruman's army is close and Théoden must prepare for battle despite being vastly outnumbered. The army of Elves from Lothlórien arrives, as does Saruman's army, and a battle ensues. The Uruk-hai breach the outer wall with explosives and during the ensuing charge kill the Elves' commander, Haldir. The defenders retreat into the keep, where Aragorn convinces Théoden to meet the Uruk-hai in one last charge. At dawn, as the defenders are overwhelmed, Gandalf and Éomer arrive with the Rohirrim, turning the tide of the battle. The surviving Uruk-hai flee into Fangorn Forest and are killed by the Ents. Gandalf warns that Sauron will retaliate. Gollum leads Frodo and Sam through the Dead Marshes to the Black Gate, but recommends they enter Mordor by another route. Frodo and Sam are captured by Rangers of Ithilien led by Faramir, brother of the late Boromir. Frodo helps Faramir catch Gollum to save him from being killed by the Rangers. Learning of the One Ring, Faramir takes his captives to Gondor to bring the ring to his father Denethor. Passing through the besieged city of Osgiliath, Frodo tries to explain to Faramir the true nature of the ring, and Sam explains that Boromir was driven mad by its power. A Nazgûl nearly captures Frodo, who falls under the ring's power, fortunately Sam saves him and reminds him that they are fighting for the good still left in Middle-earth. Impressed by Frodo's resolve, Faramir releases them. Gollum decides to betray Frodo and reclaim the Ring by leading the group to "Her" upon arriving at Cirith Ungol. Cast Like the other films in the series, The Two Towers has an ensemble cast, and the cast and their respective characters include: Elijah Wood as Frodo Baggins: A young hobbit sent on a quest to destroy the One Ring, the burden of which is becoming heavier. Ian McKellen as Gandalf the White: An Istari wizard who fell fighting a Balrog and has now returned, more powerful than ever, to finish his task. Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn Elessar: The heir-in-exile to Gondor's throne who has come to Rohan's defence. Sean Astin as Samwise Gamgee: Better known as Sam, Frodo's loyal hobbit gardener and companion. Andy Serkis as Gollum : A wretched hobbit-like creature originally known as Sméagol Trahald, who owned the Ring for five centuries and now guides Frodo on his quest. Billy Boyd as Peregrin Took: Better known as Pippin, a hobbit mistakenly captured by the Uruk-hai. Dominic Monaghan as Meriadoc Brandybuck: Better known as Merry, a distant cousin of Frodo's who is mistakenly captured along with Pippin by the Uruk-hai. John Rhys-Davies as Gimli: A dwarf warrior and one of Aragorn's companions. Also voices Treebeard: The leader of the ents, who is roused to anger after seeing that Saruman had decimated a large part of Fangorn Forest. Orlando Bloom as Legolas Greenleaf: An elven archer and one of Aragorn's companions. Bernard Hill as Théoden: The King of Rohan, who is under Saruman's spell until Gandalf heals him so he can lead his people once more. Kevin Conway was offered the role but he declined. Christopher Lee as Saruman the White: An Istari wizard waging war upon Rohan and devastating Fangorn Forest, who allied himself with Sauron in the previous film. Hugo Weaving as Elrond: The Elven-Lord of Rivendell who expresses doubt over his daughter's love for Aragorn. Miranda Otto as Éowyn: Théoden's niece, who is in love with Aragorn. Uma Thurman was offered the role but turned it down and later regretted it. David Wenham as Faramir: A prince of the Stewards of Gondor and captain of the Ithilien Rangers, who captures Frodo, Sam and Gollum. Brad Dourif as Gríma Wormtongue: An agent of Saruman at Edoras, who renders Théoden incapable of decisions, and desires Éowyn. Karl Urban as Éomer: Théoden's nephew and previous Chief Marshal of the Riddermark who was exiled by Gríma. Liv Tyler as Arwen Undómiel: An elven princess of Rivendell and Aragorn's true love. Cate Blanchett as Galadriel: The Elven-Queen of Lothlórien, who discusses Middle-earth's future with Elrond. Sean Bean as Boromir: Faramir's older brother and a fallen member of the Fellowship who appears in flashbacks since his death, more prominently in the film's extended edition. Craig Parker as Haldir: The leader of the Lórien Elves sent by Elrond and Galadriel to defend Helm's Deep. John Leigh as Háma: The loyal doorwarden of the Golden Hall and a majordomo of Théoden. Bruce Hopkins as Gamling: Théoden's chief lieutenant and a skilled member of the Royal Guard of Rohan. John Bach as Madril: Faramir's closest aide, who informs him of battle preparations. Nathaniel Lees as Ugluk: The leader of the band of Uruk-hai who kidnapped Merry and Pippin. The following appear only in the Extended Edition John Noble as Denethor: The Steward of Gondor and Boromir and Faramir's father. In the Battle of Helm's Deep, Peter Jackson has a cameo appearance as one of the men on top of the gate, throwing a spear at the attacking Uruk-hai. His children and Elijah Wood's sister cameo as young refugees in the caves behind the Hornburg, and Alan Lee and Dan Hennah also cameo as soldiers preparing for the battle. The son of a producer's friend, Hamish Duncan, appears as a reluctant young Rohirrim warrior. Daniel Falconer has a cameo as an Elvish archer at the battle. Comparison to the source material The screenwriters did not originally script The Two Towers as its own film: instead, parts of it were the conclusion to The Fellowship of the Ring, the first of two planned films under Miramax. However, as the two films became a trilogy under New Line, Jackson, Walsh and Boyens shuffled their scripts. The Two Towers was the most difficult of the Rings films to make, having neither a clear beginning nor end to focus the script. Nonetheless, they had a clear decision with making the Battle of Helm's Deep the climax, a decision affecting the whole story's moods and style. The most notable difference between the book and the film is the structure. Tolkien's The Two Towers is split into two parts; one follows the war in Rohan, while the other focuses on the journey of Frodo and Sam. The film omits the book's opening, Boromir's death, which was used as a linear climax at the end of The Fellowship of the Ring. Also, the film climaxes with the Battle of Helm's Deep, while the book ends with the Fellowship going to Isengard and Frodo's confrontation with Shelob, scenes which were left for the film adaptation of The Return of the King. This was done partly to fit more closely the timeline indicated by the book. One notable change in plotting is that in the film Théoden is possessed by Saruman, whereas in the book he is simply depressed and deluded by Wormtongue. Afterwards, in the film, Théoden is still unsure of what to do, and flees to Helm's Deep. In the book he rides out to war, only ending up besieged when he considers helping Erkenbrand. Erkenbrand does not exist in the films: his character is combined with Éomer as the Rohirrim general who arrives with Gandalf at the film's end. Éomer himself is present during the entire battle in the book. On the way to Helm's Deep, the refugees from Edoras are attacked by Wargs. The scene is possibly inspired by one in the book cut from The Fellowship of the Ring where it is the Fellowship who battle them. Here, a new subplot is created where Aragorn falls over a cliff, and is assumed to be dead; Jackson added it to create tension. This scene also resonates with a new subplot regarding Arwen, where she decides to leave Middle-earth after losing hope in the long-term possibilities of her love. In the book, Arwen's role is primarily recorded in the Appendices, and she is never depicted as considering such an act. A larger change was originally planned: Arwen and Elrond would visit Galadriel, and Arwen would accompany an army of Elves to Helm's Deep to fight alongside Aragorn. During shooting, the script changed, both from writers coming up with better ideas to portray the romance between Aragorn and Arwen, as well as poor fan reaction. The new scene of Arwen leaving for the West was created, and the conversation scene remains, edited to be a flashback to a conversation between them in Rivendell, on the evening before the Fellowship's departure. A conversation between Elrond and Galadriel in Lothlórien was edited to be a telepathic one. Nonetheless, one major change (already filmed) remained that could not be reversed: the Elven warriors fighting at Helm's Deep, although Jackson and Boyens found this romantic and stirring and a reference to how, in the Appendices of The Return of the King, Galadriel and the Elves of Lothlórien, and Thranduil of Mirkwood were first attacked by an army out of Dol Guldur in Mirkwood, and then later counter-attacked and assaulted the fortress itself. Another change is the fact Treebeard does not immediately decide to go to war. This adds to the tension, and Boyens describes it as making Merry and Pippin "more than luggage". Here, the Hobbits show Treebeard what Saruman has done to the forest, prompting his decision to act. Another structural change is that the Hobbits meet Gandalf the White early on, explaining why the Hobbits do not react to his return when they meet him again following Isengard's destruction. This was explained in the book by Gandalf arriving at Isengard in the middle of the night to talk to Treebeard. The filmmakers' decision to leave Shelob for the third film meant that Faramir had to become an obstacle for Frodo and Sam. In the book, Faramir (like Aragorn) quickly recognises the Ring as a danger and a temptation, and does not hesitate long before letting Frodo and Sam go. In the film, Faramir first decides that the Ring shall go to Gondor and his father Denethor, as a way to prove his worth. In the film, Faramir takes Frodo, Sam and the Ring to the Battle of Osgiliath—they do not go there in the book. Jackson winks to readers with Sam's line, "By all rights we shouldn't even be here, but we are." After seeing how strongly the Ring affects Frodo during the Nazgûl attack, Faramir changes his mind and lets them go. These changes reshape the book's contrast between Faramir and Boromir, who in The Fellowship of the Ring attempted to take the Ring for himself. On the other hand, (which can be seen only in the film's extended version), it is actually their father who wants the Ring and urges Boromir to get it, while Faramir only wants to prove himself to his father. Boyens contends these plot changes were needed to keep the Ring menacing. Wenham commented on the DVD documentaries that he had not read the book prior to reading the script, so the film's version of Faramir was the Faramir he knew. When he later read the book and noticed the major difference, he approached the writers about it, and they explained to him that if he did say "I wouldn't pick that thing up even if it lay by the wayside", it would basically strip the One Ring of all corruptive power. The meaning of the title itself, 'The Two Towers', was changed. While Tolkien considered several possible sets of towers he eventually created a final cover illustration and wrote a note included at the end of The Fellowship of the Ring which identified them as Minas Morgul and Orthanc. Jackson's film names them as Orthanc and Barad-dûr, symbolic of an evil alliance out to destroy Men that forms the film's plot point. The film depicted Saruman openly presenting himself outright as Sauron's servant, whereas this association was not explicitly stated in the novel (and indeed analysis by Gandalf and Aragorn in the chapter "The White Rider" stated that there was a rivalry instead, as Saruman was afraid of the prospect of being at war with Sauron, if Rohan and Gondor fell). Production Production design When Alan Lee joined the project in late 1997, Helm's Deep was the first structure he was tasked to design. At 1:35 scale, it was one of the first miniatures built for the film, and was part of the 45-minute video that sold the project to New Line. It was primarily drawn from an illustration Lee had once done for the book, though the curved wall featured in the film was proposed by fellow illustrator and designer John Howe. Used in the film for wide shots, Jackson also used this miniature to plan the battle, using 40,000 toy soldiers. Helm's Deep, a pivotal part of the film's narrative, was built at Dry Creek Quarry with its gate, a ramp, and a wall, which included a removable section as well as the tower on a second level. A 1:4-scale miniature of Helm's Deep that ran 50 feet wide was used for forced perspective shots, as well as the major explosion sequence. The film explores the armies of Middle-earth. John Howe was the basic designer of the evil forces of Middle Earth, with the Uruk-hai being the first army approved by Jackson. Howe also designed a special crossbow for the Uruk-Hai characters, which was significant because it did not require external tools to rearm. This design was the realization of a 16th-century manuscript. Also created were 100 Elven suits of armour, for which emphasis was placed on Autumnal colours due to the theme of Elves leaving Middle-earth. Two hundred and fifty suits were also made for the Rohirrim. The designs for Rohan were based on Germanic and Anglo-Saxon patterns, with most of the weapons designed by John Howe and forged by Peter Lyon. Each sword took 3 to 6 days to make. The exterior of the Rohirrim's capital of Edoras, including its thatched roofs, took six months to build on Mount Sunday. The interior of the buildings doubled as offices and lunch halls. The interior of the Hall of Edoras was filmed at Stone Street Studios with tapestries designed by Lee, and Théoden's wooden throne was partly created by his daughter. Hill endured heavy make-up for the possession scene where his skin was pulled back and released for increased wrinkles. Dourif shaved off his eyebrows and put potato flakes as dandruff in his hair for unnerving effect. Through Frodo and Sam's story, the film also provides a look at Mordor and Gondor. Barad-dûr is fully seen in a tracking shot, a design which Howe called a mockery of Gothic Cathedrals. He and Lee created the Black Gate (though a typo in the script made the miniature into two) and Osgiliath, a ruined city reflecting London during the Blitz or Berlin in 1945. The set on a backlot was based around a bridge and reused some of Moria. Principal photography The Two Towers shared principal photography with The Fellowship of the Ring and The Return of the King. The trilogy was filmed between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000. The scenes which take place in Rohan were shot earlier in the production, during which time Viggo Mortensen, Orlando Bloom and John Rhys-Davies' stunt double Brett Beattie sustained many injuries. Mortensen broke two toes when he kicked an Orc helmet while filming the scene in which he, Legolas, and Gimli find the remains of the Uruk-hai and believing Merry and Pippin to be dead (a shot which is included in the film). Furthermore, during filming Bloom fell off his horse and cracked three ribs, and Beattie dislocated his knee. These injuries led to the actors suffering two days of pain during the running sequence in the first act of the film, leading Jackson to jokingly refer to them as "The Walking Wounded." The filming of the Battle of Helm's Deep took approximately three months, with most of the nighttime shots handled by John Mahaffie. Some injuries were sustained during the filming of the sequence, including Mortensen chipping his tooth, and Bernard Hill's ear getting slashed. The sequence also features 500 extras, who insulted each other in Māori, and improvised scenes such as the Uruk-hai stamping their spears before the beginning of the battle. However, there was alleged annoyance among the film's crew for the strength of the gates, which were claimed to be too reinforced during the Battering Ram scene. Mortensen greatly respected the stunt team, and head butted them often as a sign of that respect. Wood and Astin were joined by Serkis on 13 April 2000. Special effects As with The Fellowship of the Ring, Jim Rygiel served as the visual effects supervisor for The Two Towers, while newcomer Joe Letteri joined the visual effects team to supervise Andy Serkis's motion capture performance in the creation of the character Gollum. During the production of The Two Towers Weta Digital doubled their staff of 260. In total, they would produce 73 minutes of digital effects with 799 shots. The film would feature their first challenge in creating a battle scene, as well as creating two digital characters who needed to act rather than be a set piece, unlike the previous film's Cave Troll and Balrog. Gollum Weta began animating Gollum in late 1998 to convince New Line they could achieve the effect. Andy Serkis "played" Gollum by providing his voice and movements on set, as well as performing within the motion capture suit later on. His scenes were filmed twice, with and without him. Originally, Gollum was set to solely be a CGI character, but Jackson was so impressed by Serkis' audition tape that they used him on set as well. Gollum's CGI model was also redesigned during 2001 when Serkis was cast as Sméagol, Gollum's former self, so as to give the impression Andy Serkis as Sméagol transforms into the CGI Gollum. The original model can still be glimpsed briefly in the first film. Over Christmas 2001, the crew proceeded to reanimate all the previous shots accordingly within two months. Another problem was that the crew realized that the cast performed better in the takes which physically included Serkis. In the end, the CGI Gollum was rotoscoped and animated on top of these scenes. Serkis' motion capture was generally used to animate Gollum's body, except for some difficult shots such as him crawling upside down. Gollum's face was animated manually, often using recordings of Serkis as a guide. Gino Acevedo supervised realistic skin tones, which took four hours per frame to render. While the novel alludes to a division within his mind, the film depicts him as having a split personality. The two personas—the childlike Sméagol and the evil Gollum—are established during a scene in which they argue over remaining loyal to Frodo. The two personalities talk to each other, as established by contrasting camera angles and by Serkis altering his voice and physicality for each persona. Treebeard Treebeard took between 28 and 48 hours per frame to render. For scenes where he interacts with Merry and Pippin, a 14-foot-tall puppet was built on a wheel. Weta took urethane moulds of tree bark and applied them to the sculpt of Treebeard to create his wooden skin. Dominic Monaghan and Billy Boyd sat on bicycle seats concealed into Treebeard's hands to avoid discomfort and were left alone on set sitting in the puppet's hands during breaks. The puppet was shot against bluescreen. Score The musical score for The Two Towers was composed, orchestrated, and conducted by Howard Shore, who also composed the music for the other two films in the series. While the scores for its predecessor and sequel won the Academy Award for Best Score, the soundtrack for The Two Towers was not nominated. Initially there was confusion over the score's eligibility due to a new rule applying to sequels, but the academy did declare it eligible. The score features The London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices, The London Oratory School Schola and several vocal and instrumental soloists, including soprano Isabel Bayrakdarian, and Irish fiddler and violinist Dermot Crehan, who also performed on the Hardanger fiddle, which is used in this film in conjunction with the various Rohan themes. The funeral song Éowyn sings during her cousin Théodred's entombment in the extended edition is styled to be a traditional song of the Rohirrim, and has lyrics in their language, Rohirric (represented by Old English). The song does not appear in the book, and the tune is a variation upon a theme of the rímur Icelandic folk tradition; it can be heard as part of track 7 in the 1999 recording of a musical version of the Edda by Sequentia. The soundtrack was recorded at Abbey Road Studios. The soundtrack has a picture of Peter Jackson (barefoot), the composer, and two producers crossing Abbey Road, referencing The Beatles' album of the same name. Release Home media VHS and DVD The Two Towers was released on VHS and DVD on 26 August 2003 in the United States. The date was originally intended to be a simultaneous worldwide release, but due to a bank holiday weekend in the United Kingdom, some British outlets began selling DVDs as much as four days earlier, much to the ire of the UK distributor, Entertainment in Video, which had threatened to withhold advance supplies of subsequent DVD releases. As with Fellowship, an extended edition of Two Towers was released on VHS and DVD on 18 November 2003 with 45 minutes of new material, added special effects and music, plus 11 minutes of fan-club credits. The runtime expanded to 235 minutes. The 4-disc DVD set included four commentaries along with hours of supplementary material. In August 2006, a limited edition was released on DVD, and included both theatrical and extended editions on a double-sided disc along with all-new bonus material. Blu-ray The theatrical Blu-ray version of The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States in April 2010. The individual disc of Two Towers was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, minus digital copy. The extended Blu-ray editions were released in the US and Canada in June 2011. Two Towers was released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other installments, including both theatrical and extended cuts. Reception Box office The Two Towers opened in theatres on 18 December 2002. It earned $62,007,528 in its opening weekend in the US and Canada, and went on to $339,789,881 in North America and $596,899,854 internationally for a worldwide total of $936,689,735 against a budget of $94 million. It was the highest-grossing film of 2002 worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates over 57 million sold tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. Through re-releases in 2003, 2011, 2017, 2019, 2020 and 2021, the film has grossed an additional $2,761,484 in the United States and Canada, and $8,043,876 overseas for a combined total of $10,805,360. This brings overall earnings to $342,551,365 domestic and $604,943,730 international for a worldwide total of $947,495,095. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Two Towers holds an approval rating of 95% based on 255 reviews, with an average rating of 8.50/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "The Two Towers balances spectacular action with emotional storytelling, leaving audiences both wholly satisfied and eager for the final chapter." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, has assigned the film a score of 87 out of 100 based on 39 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, a grade up from the "A-" earned by the previous film. Like its predecessor, The Two Towers was released to universal critical acclaim. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, describing it as "one of the most spectacular swashbucklers ever made", and stating "It is not faithful to the spirit of Tolkien and misplaces much of the charm and whimsy of the books, but it stands on its own as a visionary thriller". Nev Pierce for the BBC gave the film four stars out of five, and wrote that while it lacked "the first film's wow-factor", it surpassed The Fellowship of the Ring "in terms of wit, action and narrative drive". Pierce described Gollum as "the first believable CG character" and the Battle of Helm's Deep as "one of the finest, most expansive combat sequences ever filmed". Writing for The Observer, Philip French described The Two Towers as a "stunning visual epic". French commended the battle scenes and the visual style of the film, relating it to the paintings of "Caspar David Friedrich, the Pre-Raphaelites, Art Nouveau illustrations for children's books, and the apocalyptic biblical landscapes ... of the Victorian visionary John Martin". He concluded the review looking forward to the release of the final chapter, writing "This is likely to be happier, more decisive and infinitely more satisfying than anything that will happen to our world in the next 12 months." Joe Morgenstern for The Wall Street Journal lauded the narrative construction of The Two Towers: "Elaborate preparations are required for the payoff in this installment -- the massing of troops plus much individual struggle as splintered groups of the Fellowship make their separate ways toward the defining battle of Helm's Deep ... Yet these preparations count as payoffs too ... Seldom has a popular entertainment set its stage so carefully or evocatively, with such lavish respect for its audience." Morgenstern also highlighted the digital effects and the battle scenes, and said of the series "The Lord of the Rings continues to stake its singular claim on movie history; it's a gift of epic proportions." In his review for the Evening Standard, Alexander Walker wrote that the Battle of Helm's Deep was "probably the greatest battlepiece composed for the screen since Eisenstein's Ivan the Terrible", and that with The Two Towers the trilogy had achieved "a majestic proportion, chivalric and quixotic, earthly and magical, an experience that reaches beyond the dimensions of the cinema screen and somehow reflects the global unease of the world in the first years of the 21st century". In his review for Newsweek, David Ansen commended Jackson's direction of the battle scenes, writing "Few people can stage a battle -- and the eyepopping siege of Helms Deep is one of the most spectacular you'll ever see -- with such sweep and clarity that the carnage doesn't seem an oppressive end in itself". Ansen also praised the complexity of the character of Gollum, commenting "While everyone else in Tolkien's myth falls neatly into the camps of Good and Evil, the self-lacerating Gollum is at war with himself. In an epic drenched in medievalism, he's the dangerously ambiguous voice of the modern." Caroline Westbrook, for Empire, gave the film five stars out of five, and wrote "It may lack the first-view-thrill and natural dramatic shape of Fellowship, but this is both funnier and darker than the first film, and certainly more action-packed. An essential component of what is now destined to be among the best film franchises of all time." Westbrook lauded Jackson's ability to temper the spectacular scenes "with some heartstring-tugging moments - peasants despondent as they are forced to abandon their villages, Aragorn and Arwen's troubled relationship, and, of course, the return of Gandalf (Sir Ian McKellen, superb as ever), one of the film's most powerful, memorable images that may well leave Ring devotees a little misty-eyed." A less enthusiastic review was written in The Guardian by Peter Bradshaw, who had already written a mixed review of The Fellowship of the Ring. Bradshaw gave The Two Towers three stars out of five, appreciating it as "a very watchable, distinctive, if over-extended FX spectacle". However, he commented that the film could not be taken as "a serious evocation of good and evil", and dismissed the subject as "lots and lots of interminable nerdish nonsense". The Battle of Helm's Deep has been named by CNN as one of the greatest screen battles of all time, while Gollum was named as the third favourite computer-generated film character by Entertainment Weekly in 2007. Accolades Academy Awards Winner: Best Visual Effects (Jim Rygiel, Joe Letteri, Randall William Cook and Alex Funke) and Best Sound Editing (Ethan Van der Ryn and Michael Hopkins). Nominee: Best Picture (Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, Stephen Sinclair and Peter Jackson, producers), Best Art Direction (Art Direction: Grant Major; Set Decoration: Dan Hennah and Alan Lee), Best Film Editing (Michael J. Horton) and Best Sound (Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Michael Hedges and Hammond Peek). British Academy Film Awards: Best Costume Design, Best Special Visual Effects, Orange Film of the Year (voted on by the public) Empire Awards: Best Picture Grammy Awards: Best Score (Howard Shore) Hugo Awards (World Science Fiction Society): Best Dramatic Presentation — Long Form 2003 MTV Movie Awards: Best virtual performance (Gollum) Saturn Awards: Best Fantasy Film, Best Costume (Ngila Dickson), Best Supporting Actor (Andy Serkis) American Film Institute Recognition AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes: "My precious." – #85 References External links 2002 fantasy films 2002 films Fantasy war films American films American epic films American fantasy adventure films American sequel films BAFTA winners (films) New Zealand films New Zealand epic films New Zealand fantasy adventure films New Zealand sequel films 2 Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films shot in New Zealand Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form winning works Films using motion capture Nebula Award for Best Script-winning works New Line Cinema films WingNut Films films High fantasy films Rotoscoped films Films scored by Howard Shore Films with screenplays by Peter Jackson Films with screenplays by Fran Walsh Films with screenplays by Philippa Boyens Films with screenplays by Stephen Sinclair Resurrection in film Siege films Films directed by Peter Jackson Films produced by Barrie M. Osborne Films produced by Fran Walsh Films produced by Peter Jackson Films about dwarfs 2000s English-language films

Center of mass

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In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space (sometimes referred to as the balance point) is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero. This is the point to which a force may be applied to cause a linear acceleration without an angular acceleration. Calculations in mechanics are often simplified when formulated with respect to the center of mass. It is a hypothetical point where the entire mass of an object may be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion. In other words, the center of mass is the particle equivalent of a given object for application of Newton's laws of motion. In the case of a single rigid body, the center of mass is fixed in relation to the body, and if the body has uniform density, it will be located at the centroid. The center of mass may be located outside the physical body, as is sometimes the case for hollow or open-shaped objects, such as a horseshoe. In the case of a distribution of separate bodies, such as the planets of the Solar System, the center of mass may not correspond to the position of any individual member of the system. The center of mass is a useful reference point for calculations in mechanics that involve masses distributed in space, such as the linear and angular momentum of planetary bodies and rigid body dynamics. In orbital mechanics, the equations of motion of planets are formulated as point masses located at the centers of mass. The center of mass frame is an inertial frame in which the center of mass of a system is at rest with respect to the origin of the coordinate system. History The concept of center of gravity or weight was studied extensively by the ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to a uniform field, thus arriving at the mathematical properties of what we now call the center of mass. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point—their center of mass. In his work On Floating Bodies, Archimedes demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes. Other ancient mathematicians who contributed to the theory of the center of mass include Hero of Alexandria and Pappus of Alexandria. In the Renaissance and Early Modern periods, work by Guido Ubaldi, Francesco Maurolico, Federico Commandino, Evangelista Torricelli, Simon Stevin, Luca Valerio, Jean-Charles de la Faille, Paul Guldin, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, Louis Carré, Pierre Varignon, and Alexis Clairaut expanded the concept further. Newton's second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law. Definition The center of mass is the unique point at the center of a distribution of mass in space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero. In analogy to statistics, the center of mass is the mean location of a distribution of mass in space. A system of particles In the case of a system of particles , each with mass that are located in space with coordinates , the coordinates R of the center of mass satisfy the condition Solving this equation for R yields the formula where is the total mass of all of the particles. A continuous volume If the mass distribution is continuous with the density ρ(r) within a solid Q, then the integral of the weighted position coordinates of the points in this volume relative to the center of mass R over the volume V is zero, that is Solve this equation for the coordinates R to obtain where M is the total mass in the volume. If a continuous mass distribution has uniform density, which means ρ is constant, then the center of mass is the same as the centroid of the volume. Barycentric coordinates The coordinates R of the center of mass of a two-particle system, P1 and P2, with masses m1 and m2 is given by Let the percentage of the total mass divided between these two particles vary from 100% P1 and 0% P2 through 50% P1 and 50% P2 to 0% P1 and 100% P2, then the center of mass R moves along the line from P1 to P2. The percentages of mass at each point can be viewed as projective coordinates of the point R on this line, and are termed barycentric coordinates. Another way of interpreting the process here is the mechanical balancing of moments about an arbitrary point. The numerator gives the total moment that is then balanced by an equivalent total force at the center of mass. This can be generalized to three points and four points to define projective coordinates in the plane, and in space, respectively. Systems with periodic boundary conditions For particles in a system with periodic boundary conditions two particles can be neighbours even though they are on opposite sides of the system. This occurs often in molecular dynamics simulations, for example, in which clusters form at random locations and sometimes neighbouring atoms cross the periodic boundary. When a cluster straddles the periodic boundary, a naive calculation of the center of mass will be incorrect. A generalized method for calculating the center of mass for periodic systems is to treat each coordinate, x and y and/or z, as if it were on a circle instead of a line. The calculation takes every particle's x coordinate and maps it to an angle, where xmax is the system size in the x direction and . From this angle, two new points can be generated, which can be weighted by the mass of the particle for the center of mass or given a value of 1 for the geometric center: In the plane, these coordinates lie on a circle of radius 1. From the collection of and values from all the particles, the averages and are calculated. where is the sum of the masses of all of the particles. These values are mapped back into a new angle, , from which the x coordinate of the center of mass can be obtained: The process can be repeated for all dimensions of the system to determine the complete center of mass. The utility of the algorithm is that it allows the mathematics to determine where the "best" center of mass is, instead of guessing or using cluster analysis to "unfold" a cluster straddling the periodic boundaries. If both average values are zero, , then is undefined. This is a correct result, because it only occurs when all particles are exactly evenly spaced. In that condition, their x coordinates are mathematically identical in a periodic system. Center of gravity A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field can be considered to be uniform, the mass-center and the center-of-gravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational field between closer-to (stronger) and further-from (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the center-of-gravity and the mass-center. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque. It is useful to note that the mass-center is a fixed property for a given rigid body (e.g. with no slosh or articulation), whereas the center-of-gravity may, in addition, depend upon its orientation in a non-uniform gravitational field. In the latter case, the center-of-gravity will always be located somewhat closer to the main attractive body as compared to the mass-center, and thus will change its position in the body of interest as its orientation is changed. In the study of the dynamics of aircraft, vehicles and vessels, forces and moments need to be resolved relative to the mass center. That is true independent of whether gravity itself is a consideration. Referring to the mass-center as the center-of-gravity is something of a colloquialism, but it is in common usage and when gravity gradient effects are negligible, center-of-gravity and mass-center are the same and are used interchangeably. In physics the benefits of using the center of mass to model a mass distribution can be seen by considering the resultant of the gravity forces on a continuous body. Consider a body Q of volume V with density ρ(r) at each point r in the volume. In a parallel gravity field the force f at each point r is given by, where dm is the mass at the point r, g is the acceleration of gravity, and is a unit vector defining the vertical direction. Choose a reference point R in the volume and compute the resultant force and torque at this point, and If the reference point R is chosen so that it is the center of mass, then which means the resultant torque T = 0. Because the resultant torque is zero the body will move as though it is a particle with its mass concentrated at the center of mass. By selecting the center of gravity as the reference point for a rigid body, the gravity forces will not cause the body to rotate, which means the weight of the body can be considered to be concentrated at the center of mass. Linear and angular momentum The linear and angular momentum of a collection of particles can be simplified by measuring the position and velocity of the particles relative to the center of mass. Let the system of particles Pi, i = 1, ..., n of masses mi be located at the coordinates ri with velocities vi. Select a reference point R and compute the relative position and velocity vectors, The total linear momentum and angular momentum of the system are and If R is chosen as the center of mass these equations simplify to where m is the total mass of all the particles, p is the linear momentum, and L is the angular momentum. The law of conservation of momentum predicts that for any system not subjected to external forces the momentum of the system will remain constant, which means the center of mass will move with constant velocity. This applies for all systems with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is true for any internal forces that cancel in accordance with Newton's Third Law. Locating the center of mass The experimental determination of a body's centre of mass makes use of gravity forces on the body and is based on the fact that the centre of mass is the same as the centre of gravity in the parallel gravity field near the earth's surface. The center of mass of a body with an axis of symmetry and constant density must lie on this axis. Thus, the center of mass of a circular cylinder of constant density has its center of mass on the axis of the cylinder. In the same way, the center of mass of a spherically symmetric body of constant density is at the center of the sphere. In general, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry. In two dimensions An experimental method for locating the center of mass is to suspend the object from two locations and to drop plumb lines from the suspension points. The intersection of the two lines is the center of mass. The shape of an object might already be mathematically determined, but it may be too complex to use a known formula. In this case, one can subdivide the complex shape into simpler, more elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find. If the total mass and center of mass can be determined for each area, then the center of mass of the whole is the weighted average of the centers. This method can even work for objects with holes, which can be accounted for as negative masses. A direct development of the planimeter known as an integraph, or integerometer, can be used to establish the position of the centroid or center of mass of an irregular two-dimensional shape. This method can be applied to a shape with an irregular, smooth or complex boundary where other methods are too difficult. It was regularly used by ship builders to compare with the required displacement and center of buoyancy of a ship, and ensure it would not capsize. In three dimensions An experimental method to locate the three-dimensional coordinates of the center of mass begins by supporting the object at three points and measuring the forces, F1, F2, and F3 that resist the weight of the object, ( is the unit vector in the vertical direction). Let r1, r2, and r3 be the position coordinates of the support points, then the coordinates R of the center of mass satisfy the condition that the resultant torque is zero, or This equation yields the coordinates of the center of mass R* in the horizontal plane as, The center of mass lies on the vertical line L, given by The three-dimensional coordinates of the center of mass are determined by performing this experiment twice with the object positioned so that these forces are measured for two different horizontal planes through the object. The center of mass will be the intersection of the two lines L1 and L2 obtained from the two experiments. Applications Engineering designs Automotive applications Engineers try to design a sports car so that its center of mass is lowered to make the car handle better, which is to say, maintain traction while executing relatively sharp turns. The characteristic low profile of the U.S. military Humvee was designed in part to allow it to tilt farther than taller vehicles without rolling over, by ensuring its low center of mass stays over the space bounded by the four wheels even at angles far from the horizontal. Aeronautics The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is stable enough to be safe to fly, the center of mass must fall within specified limits. If the center of mass is ahead of the forward limit, the aircraft will be less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. If the center of mass is behind the aft limit, the aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and possibly unstable enough so as to be impossible to fly. The moment arm of the elevator will also be reduced, which makes it more difficult to recover from a stalled condition. For helicopters in hover, the center of mass is always directly below the rotorhead. In forward flight, the center of mass will move forward to balance the negative pitch torque produced by applying cyclic control to propel the helicopter forward; consequently a cruising helicopter flies "nose-down" in level flight. Astronomy The center of mass plays an important role in astronomy and astrophysics, where it is commonly referred to as the barycenter. The barycenter is the point between two objects where they balance each other; it is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies orbit each other. When a moon orbits a planet, or a planet orbits a star, both bodies are actually orbiting a point that lies away from the center of the primary (larger) body. For example, the Moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the center of the Earth and the Moon, approximately 1,710 km (1,062 miles) below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This is the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. If the masses are more similar, e.g., Pluto and Charon, the barycenter will fall outside both bodies. Rigging and safety Knowing the location of the center of gravity when rigging is crucial, possibly resulting in severe injury or death if assumed incorrectly. A center of gravity that is at or above the lift point will most likely result in a tip-over incident. In general, the further the center of gravity below the pick point, the more safe the lift. There are other things to consider, such as shifting loads, strength of the load and mass, distance between pick points, and number of pick points. Specifically, when selecting lift points, it's very important to place the center of gravity at the center and well below the lift points. Body motion In kinesiology and biomechanics, the center of mass is an important parameter that assists people in understanding their human locomotion. Typically, a human's center of mass is detected with one of two methods: the reaction board method is a static analysis that involves the person lying down on that instrument, and use of their static equilibrium equation to find their center of mass; the segmentation method relies on a mathematical solution based on the physical principle that the summation of the torques of individual body sections, relative to a specified axis, must equal the torque of the whole system that constitutes the body, measured relative to the same axis. See also Barycenter Buoyancy Center of mass (relativistic) Center of percussion Center of pressure (fluid mechanics) Center of pressure (terrestrial locomotion) Centroid Circumcenter of mass Expected value Mass point geometry Metacentric height Roll center Weight distribution Notes References External links Motion of the Center of Mass shows that the motion of the center of mass of an object in free fall is the same as the motion of a point object. The Solar System's barycenter, simulations showing the effect each planet contributes to the Solar System's barycenter. Classical mechanics Mass Mass

Serial ATA

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Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial AT Attachment) is a computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives. Serial ATA succeeded the earlier Parallel ATA (PATA) standard to become the predominant interface for storage devices. Serial ATA industry compatibility specifications originate from the Serial ATA International Organization (SATA-IO) which are then promulgated by the INCITS Technical Committee T13, AT Attachment (INCITS T13). History SATA was announced in 2000 in order to provide several advantages over the earlier PATA interface such as reduced cable size and cost (seven conductors instead of 40 or 80), native hot swapping, faster data transfer through higher signaling rates, and more efficient transfer through an (optional) I/O queuing protocol. Revision 1.0 of the specification was released in January 2003. Serial ATA industry compatibility specifications originate from the Serial ATA International Organization (SATA-IO). The SATA-IO group collaboratively creates, reviews, ratifies, and publishes the interoperability specifications, the test cases and plugfests. As with many other industry compatibility standards, the SATA content ownership is transferred to other industry bodies: primarily INCITS T13 and an INCITS T10 subcommittee (SCSI), a subgroup of T10 responsible for Serial Attached SCSI (SAS). The remainder of this article strives to use the SATA-IO terminology and specifications. Before SATA's introduction in 2000, PATA was simply known as ATA. The "AT Attachment" (ATA) name originated after the 1984 release of the IBM Personal Computer AT, more commonly known as the IBM AT. The IBM AT's controller interface became a de facto industry interface for the inclusion of hard disks. "AT" was IBM's abbreviation for "Advanced Technology"; thus, many companies and organizations indicate SATA is an abbreviation of "Serial Advanced Technology Attachment". However, the ATA specifications simply use the name "AT Attachment", to avoid possible trademark issues with IBM. SATA host adapters and devices communicate via a high-speed serial cable over two pairs of conductors. In contrast, parallel ATA (the redesignation for the legacy ATA specifications) uses a 16-bit wide data bus with many additional support and control signals, all operating at a much lower frequency. To ensure backward compatibility with legacy ATA software and applications, SATA uses the same basic ATA and ATAPI command sets as legacy ATA devices. The world's first SATA hard disk drive is the Seagate Barracuda SATA V, which was released in Jan 2003. SATA has replaced parallel ATA in consumer desktop and laptop computers; SATA's market share in the desktop PC market was 99% in 2008. PATA has mostly been replaced by SATA for any use; with PATA in declining use in industrial and embedded applications that use CompactFlash (CF) storage, which was designed around the legacy PATA standard. A 2008 standard, CFast, to replace CompactFlash is based on SATA. Features Hot plug The Serial ATA spec requires SATA device hot plugging; that is, devices that meet the specification are capable of insertion or removal of a device into or from a backplane connector (combined signal and power) that has power on. After insertion, the device initializes and then operates normally. Depending upon the operating system, the host may also initialize, resulting in a hot swap. The powered host and device do not need to be in an idle state for safe insertion and removal, although unwritten data may be lost when power is removed. Unlike PATA, both SATA and eSATA support hot plugging by design. However, this feature requires proper support at the host, device (drive), and operating-system levels. In general, SATA devices fulfill the device-side hot-plugging requirements, and most SATA host adapters support this function. For eSATA, hot plugging is supported in AHCI mode only. IDE mode does not support hot plugging. Advanced Host Controller Interface Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) is an open host controller interface published and used by Intel, which has become a de facto standard. It allows the use of advanced features of SATA such as hotplug and native command queuing (NCQ). If AHCI is not enabled by the motherboard and chipset, SATA controllers typically operate in "IDE emulation" mode, which does not allow access to device features not supported by the ATA (also called IDE) standard. Windows device drivers that are labeled as SATA are often running in IDE emulation mode unless they explicitly state that they are AHCI mode, in RAID mode, or a mode provided by a proprietary driver and command set that allowed access to SATA's advanced features before AHCI became popular. Modern versions of Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, Linux with version 2.6.19 onward, as well as Solaris and OpenSolaris, include support for AHCI, but earlier operating systems such as Windows XP do not. Even in those instances, a proprietary driver may have been created for a specific chipset, such as Intel's. Revisions SATA revisions are typically designated with a dash followed by Roman numerals, e.g. "SATA-III", to avoid confusion with the speed, which is always displayed in Arabic numerals, e.g. "SATA 6 Gbit/s". The speeds given are the raw interface rate in Gbit/s including line code overhead, and the usable data rate in MB/s without overhead. SATA revision 1.0 (1.5 Gbit/s, 150 MB/s, Serial ATA-150) Revision 1.0a was released on January 7, 2003. First-generation SATA interfaces, now known as SATA 1.5 Gbit/s, communicate at a rate of 1.5 Gbit/s, and do not support Native Command Queuing (NCQ). Taking 8b/10b encoding overhead into account, they have an actual uncoded transfer rate of 1.2 Gbit/s (150 MB/s). The theoretical burst throughput of SATA 1.5 Gbit/s is similar to that of PATA/133, but newer SATA devices offer enhancements such as NCQ, which improve performance in a multitasking environment. During the initial period after SATA 1.5 Gbit/s finalization, adapter and drive manufacturers used a "bridge chip" to convert existing PATA designs for use with the SATA interface. Bridged drives have a SATA connector, may include either or both kinds of power connectors, and, in general, perform identically to their native-SATA equivalents. However, most bridged drives lack support for some SATA-specific features such as NCQ. Native SATA products quickly took over the bridged products with the introduction of the second generation of SATA drives. , the fastest 10,000 rpm SATA hard disk drives could transfer data at maximum (not average) rates of up to 157 MB/s, which is beyond the capabilities of the older PATA/133 specification and also exceeds the capabilities of SATA 1.5 Gbit/s. SATA revision 2.0 (3 Gbit/s, 300 MB/s, Serial ATA-300) SATA revision 2.0 was released in April 2004, introducing Native Command Queuing (NCQ). It is backward compatible with SATA 1.5 Gbit/s. Second-generation SATA interfaces run with a native transfer rate of 3.0 Gbit/s that, when accounted for the 8b/10b encoding scheme, equals to the maximum uncoded transfer rate of 2.4 Gbit/s (300 MB/s). The theoretical burst throughput of the SATA revision 2.0, which is also known as the SATA 3 Gbit/s, doubles the throughput of SATA revision 1.0. All SATA data cables meeting the SATA spec are rated for 3.0 Gbit/s and handle modern mechanical drives without any loss of sustained and burst data transfer performance. However, high-performance flash-based drives can exceed the SATA 3 Gbit/s transfer rate; this is addressed with the SATA 6 Gbit/s interoperability standard. SATA revision 2.5 Announced in August 2005, SATA revision 2.5 consolidated the specification to a single document. SATA revision 2.6 Announced in February 2007, SATA revision 2.6 introduced the following features: Slimline connector. Micro connector (initially for 1.8” HDD). Mini Internal Multilane cable and connector. Mini External Multilane cable and connector. NCQ Priority. NCQ Unload. Enhancements to the BIST Activate FIS. Enhancements for robust reception of the Signature FIS. SATA revision 3.0 (6 Gbit/s, 600 MB/s, Serial ATA-600) Serial ATA International Organization (SATA-IO) presented the draft specification of SATA 6 Gbit/s physical layer in July 2008, and ratified its physical layer specification on August 18, 2008. The full 3.0 standard was released on May 27, 2009. Third-generation SATA interfaces run with a native transfer rate of 6.0 Gbit/s; taking 8b/10b encoding into account, the maximum uncoded transfer rate is 4.8 Gbit/s (600 MB/s). The theoretical burst throughput of SATA 6.0 Gbit/s is double that of SATA revision 2.0. It is backward compatible with SATA 3 Gbit/s and SATA 1.5 Gbit/s. The SATA 3.0 specification contains the following changes: 6 Gbit/s for scalable performance. Continued compatibility with SAS, including SAS 6 Gbit/s, as per "a SAS domain may support attachment to and control of unmodified SATA devices connected directly into the SAS domain using the Serial ATA Tunneled Protocol (STP)" from the SATA Revision 3.0 Gold specification. Isochronous Native Command Queuing (NCQ) streaming command to enable isochronous quality of service data transfers for streaming digital content applications. An NCQ management feature that helps optimize performance by enabling host processing and management of outstanding NCQ commands. Improved power management capabilities. A small low insertion force (LIF) connector for more compact 1.8-inch storage devices. A 7 mm optical disk drive profile for the slimline SATA connector (in addition to the existing 12.7 mm and 9.5 mm profiles). Alignment with the INCITS ATA8-ACS standard. In general, the enhancements are aimed at improving quality of service for video streaming and high-priority interrupts. In addition, the standard continues to support distances up to one meter. The newer speeds may require higher power consumption for supporting chips, though improved process technologies and power management techniques may mitigate this. The later specification can use existing SATA cables and connectors, though it was reported in 2008 that some OEMs were expected to upgrade host connectors for the higher speeds. SATA revision 3.1 Released in July 2011, SATA revision 3.1 introduced or changed the following features: mSATA, SATA for solid-state drives in mobile computing devices, a PCI Express Mini Card-like connector that is electrically SATA. Zero-power optical disk drive, idle SATA optical drive draws no power. Queued TRIM Command, improves solid-state drive performance. Required Link Power Management, reduces overall system power demand of several SATA devices. Hardware Control Features, enable host identification of device capabilities. Universal Storage Module (USM), a new standard for cableless plug-in (slot) powered storage for consumer electronics devices. SATA revision 3.2 Released in August 2013, SATA revision 3.2 introduced the following features: The SATA Express specification defines an interface that combines both SATA and PCI Express buses, making it possible for both types of storage devices to coexist. By employing PCI Express, a much higher theoretical throughput of 1969 MB/s is possible. The SATA M.2 standard is a small form factor implementation of the SATA Express interface, with the addition of an internal USB 3.0 port; see the M.2 (NGFF) section below for a more detailed summary. microSSD introduces a ball grid array electrical interface for miniaturized, embedded SATA storage. USM Slim reduces thickness of Universal Storage Module (USM) from to . DevSleep enables lower power consumption for always-on devices while they are in low-power modes such as InstantGo (which used to be known as Connected Standby). Hybrid Information provides higher performance for solid-state hybrid drives. SATA revision 3.3 Released in February 2016, SATA revision 3.3 introduced the following features: Shingled magnetic recording (SMR) support that provides a 25 percent or greater increase in hard disk drive capacity by overlapping tracks on the media. Power Disable feature (see PWDIS pin) allows for remote power cycling of SATA drives and a Rebuild Assist function that speeds up the rebuild process to help ease maintenance in the data center. Transmitter Emphasis Specification increases interoperability and reliability between host and devices in electrically demanding environments. An activity indicator and staggered spin-up can be controlled by the same pin, adding flexibility and providing users with more choices. The new Power Disable feature (similar to the SAS Power Disable feature) uses Pin 3 of the SATA power connector. Some legacy power supplies that provide 3.3 V power on Pin 3 would force drives with Power Disable feature to get stuck in a hard reset condition preventing them from spinning up. The problem can usually be eliminated by using a simple “Molex to SATA” power adaptor to supply power to these drives. SATA revision 3.4 Released in June 2018, SATA revision 3.4 introduced the following features that enable monitoring of device conditions and execution of housekeeping tasks, both with minimal impact on performance: Durable/Ordered Write Notification: enables writing selected critical cache data to the media, minimizing impact on normal operations. Device Temperature Monitoring: allows for active monitoring of SATA device temperature and other conditions without impacting normal operation by utilizing the SFF-8609 standard for out-of-band (OOB) communications. Device Sleep Signal Timing: provides additional definition to enhance compatibility between manufacturers’ implementations. SATA revision 3.5 Released in July 2020, SATA revision 3.5 Introduces features that enable increased performance benefits and promote greater integration of SATA devices and products with other industry I/O standards: Device Transmit Emphasis for Gen 3 PHY: aligns SATA with other characteristics of other I/O measurement solutions to help SATA-IO members with testing and integration. Defined Ordered NCQ Commands: allows the host to specify the processing relationships among queued commands and sets the order in which commands are processed in the queue. Command Duration Limit Features: reduces latency by allowing the host to define quality of service categories, giving the host more granularity in controlling command properties. The feature helps align SATA with the "Fast Fail" requirements established by the Open Compute Project (OCP) and specified in the INCITS T13 Technical Committee standard. Cables, connectors, and ports Connectors and cables present the most visible differences between SATA and parallel ATA drives. Unlike PATA, the same connectors are used on SATA hard disks (for desktop and server computers) and disks (for portable or small computers). Standard SATA connectors for both data and power have a conductor pitch of . Low insertion force is required to mate a SATA connector. A smaller mini-SATA or mSATA connector is used by smaller devices such as 1.8-inch SATA drives, some DVD and Blu-ray drives, and mini SSDs. A special eSATA connector is specified for external devices, and an optionally implemented provision for clips to hold internal connectors firmly in place. SATA drives may be plugged into SAS controllers and communicate on the same physical cable as native SAS disks, but SATA controllers cannot handle SAS disks. Female SATA ports (on motherboards for example) are for use with SATA data cables that have locks or clips to prevent accidental unplugging. Some SATA cables have right- or left-angled connectors to ease connection to circuit boards. Data connector The SATA standard defines a data cable with seven conductors (three grounds and four active data lines in two pairs) and 8 mm wide wafer connectors on each end. SATA cables can have lengths up to , and connect one motherboard socket to one hard drive. PATA ribbon cables, in comparison, connect one motherboard socket to one or two hard drives, carry either 40 or 80 wires, and are limited to in length by the PATA specification; however, cables up to are readily available. Thus, SATA connectors and cables are easier to fit in closed spaces and reduce obstructions to air cooling. Although they are more susceptible to accidental unplugging and breakage than PATA, users can purchase cables that have a locking feature, whereby a small (usually metal) spring holds the plug in the socket. SATA connectors may be straight, right-angled, or left-angled. Angled connectors allow lower-profile connections. Right-angled (also called 90-degree) connectors lead the cable immediately away from the drive, on the circuit-board side. Left-angled (also called 270-degree) connectors lead the cable across the drive towards its top. One of the problems associated with the transmission of data at high speed over electrical connections is described as noise, which is due to electrical coupling between data circuits and other circuits. As a result, the data circuits can both affect other circuits and be affected by them. Designers use a number of techniques to reduce the undesirable effects of such unintentional coupling. One such technique used in SATA links is differential signaling. This is an enhancement over PATA, which uses single-ended signaling. The use of fully shielded, dual coax conductors, with multiple ground connections, for each differential pair improves isolation between the channels and reduces the chances of lost data in difficult electrical environments. Power connectors Standard connector SATA specifies a different power connector than the four-pin Molex connector used on Parallel ATA (PATA) devices (and earlier small storage devices, going back to ST-506 hard disk drives and even to floppy disk drives that predated the IBM PC). It is a wafer-type connector, like the SATA data connector, but much wider (fifteen pins versus seven) to avoid confusion between the two. Some early SATA drives included the four-pin Molex power connector together with the new fifteen-pin connector, but most SATA drives now have only the latter. The new SATA power connector contains many more pins for several reasons: 3.3 V is supplied along with the traditional 5 V and 12 V supplies. However, very few drives actually use it, so they may be powered from a four-pin Molex connector with an adapter. Pin 3 in SATA revision 3.3 has been redefined as PWDIS and is used to enter and exit the POWER DISABLE mode for compatibility with SAS specification. If Pin 3 is driven HIGH (2.1–3.6 V max), power to the drive circuitry is disabled. Drives with this feature do not power up in systems designed to SATA revision 3.1 or earlier. This is because Pin 3 driven HIGH prevents the drive from powering up. To reduce resistance and increase current capability, each voltage is supplied by three pins in parallel, though one pin in each group is intended for precharging (see below). Each pin should be able to carry 1.5 A. Five parallel pins provide a low-resistance ground connection. Two ground pins and one pin for each supplied voltage support hot-plug precharging. Ground pins 4 and 12 in a hot-swap cable are the longest, so they make contact first when the connectors are mated. Drive power connector pins 3, 7, and 13 are longer than the others, so they make contact next. The drive uses them to charge its internal bypass capacitors through current-limiting resistances. Finally, the remaining power pins make contact, bypassing the resistances and providing a low-resistance source of each voltage. This two-step mating process avoids glitches to other loads and possible arcing or erosion of the SATA power-connector contacts. Pin 11 can function for staggered spinup, activity indication, both, or nothing. It is an open-collector signal, which may be pulled down by the connector or the drive. If pulled down at the connector (as it is on most cable-style SATA power connectors), the drive spins up as soon as power is applied. If left floating, the drive waits until it is spoken to. This prevents many drives from spinning up simultaneously, which might draw too much power. The pin is also pulled low by the drive to indicate drive activity. This may be used to give feedback to the user through an LED. Passive adapters are available that convert a four-pin Molex connector to a SATA power connector, providing the 5 V and 12 V lines available on the Molex connector, but not 3.3 V. There are also four-pin Molex-to-SATA power adapters that include electronics to additionally provide the 3.3 V power supply. However, most drives do not require the 3.3 V power line. Slimline connector SATA 2.6 is the first revision that defined the slimline connector, intended for smaller form-factors such as notebook optical drives. Pin 1 of the slimline power connector, denoting device presence, is shorter than the others to allow hot-swapping. The slimline signal connector is identical and compatible with the standard version, while the power connector is reduced to six pins so it supplies only +5 V, and not +12 V or +3.3 V. Low-cost adapters exist to convert from standard SATA to slimline SATA. Micro connector The micro SATA connector (sometimes called uSATA or μSATA) originated with SATA 2.6, and is intended for hard disk drives. There is also a micro data connector, similar in appearance but slightly thinner than the standard data connector. Additional pins SATA drives, in particular mechanical ones, come with an extra 4 or more pin interface which isn't uniformly standardised but nevertheless serves similar purpose defined by each drive manufacturer. As IDE drives used those extra pins for setting up Master and Slave drives, on SATA drives, those pins are generally used to select different Power modes for use in USB-SATA bridges or enables additional features like Spread Spectrum Clocking, SATA Speed Limit or Factory Mode for Diagnostics and Recovery, by the use of a jumper. eSATA Standardized in 2004, eSATA (e standing for external) provides a variant of SATA meant for external connectivity. It uses a more robust connector, longer shielded cables, and stricter (but backward-compatible) electrical standards. The protocol and logical signaling (link/transport layers and above) are identical to internal SATA. The differences are: Minimum transmit amplitude increased: Range is 500–600 mV instead of 400–600 mV. Minimum receive amplitude decreased: Range is 240–600 mV instead of 325–600 mV. Maximum cable length increased to from . The eSATA cable and connector is similar to the SATA 1.0a cable and connector, with these exceptions: The eSATA connector is mechanically different to prevent unshielded internal cables from being used externally. The eSATA connector discards the "L"-shaped key and changes the position and size of the guides. The eSATA insertion depth is deeper: 6.6 mm instead of 5 mm. The contact positions are also changed. The eSATA cable has an extra shield to reduce EMI to FCC and CE requirements. Internal cables do not need the extra shield to satisfy EMI requirements because they are inside a shielded case. The eSATA connector uses metal springs for shield contact and mechanical retention. The eSATA connector has a design-life of 5,000 matings; the ordinary SATA connector is only specified for 50. Aimed at the consumer market, eSATA enters an external storage market served also by the USB and FireWire interfaces. The SATA interface has certain advantages. Most external hard-disk-drive cases with FireWire or USB interfaces use either PATA or SATA drives and "bridges" to translate between the drives' interfaces and the enclosures' external ports; this bridging incurs some inefficiency. Some single disks can transfer 157 MB/s during real use, about four times the maximum transfer rate of USB 2.0 or FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394a) and almost twice as fast as the maximum transfer rate of FireWire 800. The S3200 FireWire 1394b specification reaches around 400 MB/s (3.2 Gbit/s), and USB 3.0 has a nominal speed of 5 Gbit/s. Some low-level drive features, such as S.M.A.R.T., may not operate through some USB or FireWire or USB+FireWire bridges; eSATA does not suffer from these issues provided that the controller manufacturer (and its drivers) presents eSATA drives as ATA devices, rather than as SCSI devices, as has been common with Silicon Image, JMicron, and NVIDIA nForce drivers for Windows Vista. In those cases SATA drives do not have low-level features accessible. The eSATA version of SATA 6G operates at 6.0 Gbit/s (the term "SATA III" is avoided by the SATA-IO organization to prevent confusion with SATA II 3.0 Gbit/s, which was colloquially referred to as "SATA 3G" [bit/s] or "SATA 300" [MB/s] since the 1.5 Gbit/s SATA I and 1.5 Gbit/s SATA II were referred to as both "SATA 1.5G" [bit/s] or "SATA 150" [MB/s]). Therefore, eSATA connections operate with negligible differences between them. Once an interface can transfer data as fast as a drive can handle them, increasing the interface speed does not improve data transfer. There are some disadvantages, however, to the eSATA interface: Devices built before the eSATA interface became popular lack external SATA connectors. For small form-factor devices (such as external disks), a PC-hosted USB or FireWire link can usually supply sufficient power to operate the device. However, eSATA connectors cannot supply power, and require a power supply for the external device. The related eSATAp (but mechanically incompatible, sometimes called eSATA/USB) connector adds power to an external SATA connection, so that an additional power supply is not needed. As of mid 2017 few new computers have dedicated external SATA (eSATA) connectors, with USB3 dominating and USB3 Type C, often with the Thunderbolt alternate mode, starting to replace the earlier USB connectors. Still sometimes present are single ports supporting both USB3 and eSATA. Desktop computers without a built-in eSATA interface can install an eSATA host bus adapter (HBA); if the motherboard supports SATA, an externally available eSATA connector can be added. Notebook computers with the now rare Cardbus or ExpressCard could add an eSATA HBA. With passive adapters, the maximum cable length is reduced to due to the absence of compliant eSATA signal-levels. eSATAp eSATAp stands for powered eSATA. It is also known as Power over eSATA, Power eSATA, eSATA/USB Combo, or eSATA USB Hybrid Port (EUHP). An eSATAp port combines the four pins of the USB 2.0 (or earlier) port, the seven pins of the eSATA port, and optionally two 12 V power pins. Both SATA traffic and device power are integrated in a single cable, as is the case with USB but not eSATA. The 5 V power is provided through two USB pins, while the 12 V power may optionally be provided. Typically desktop, but not notebook, computers provide 12 V power, so can power devices requiring this voltage, typically 3.5-inch disk and CD/DVD drives, in addition to 5 V devices such as 2.5-inch drives. Both USB and eSATA devices can be used with an eSATAp port, when plugged in with a USB or eSATA cable, respectively. An eSATA device cannot be powered via an eSATAp cable, but a special cable can make both SATA or eSATA and power connectors available from an eSATAp port. An eSATAp connector can be built into a computer with internal SATA and USB, by fitting a bracket with connections for internal SATA, USB, and power connectors and an externally accessible eSATAp port. Though eSATAp connectors have been built into several devices, manufacturers do not refer to an official standard. Pre-standard implementations Prior to the final eSATA 3 Gbit/s specification, a number of products were designed for external connection of SATA drives. Some of these use the internal SATA connector, or even connectors designed for other interface specifications, such as FireWire. These products are not eSATA compliant. The final eSATA specification features a specific connector designed for rough handling, similar to the regular SATA connector, but with reinforcements in both the male and female sides, inspired by the USB connector. eSATA resists inadvertent unplugging, and can withstand yanking or wiggling, which could break a male SATA connector (the hard-drive or host adapter, usually fitted inside the computer). With an eSATA connector, considerably more force is needed to damage the connector—and if it does break, it is likely to be the female side, on the cable itself, which is relatively easy to replace. Prior to the final eSATA 6 Gbit/s specification many add-on cards and some motherboards advertised eSATA 6 Gbit/s support because they had 6 Gbit/s SATA 3.0 controllers for internal-only solutions. Those implementations are non-standard, and eSATA 6 Gbit/s requirements were ratified in the July 18, 2011 SATA 3.1 specification. Some products might not be fully eSATA 6 Gbit/s compliant. Mini-SATA (mSATA) Mini-SATA (abbreviated as mSATA), which is distinct from the micro connector, was announced by the Serial ATA International Organization on September 21, 2009. Applications include netbooks, laptops and other devices that require a solid-state drive in a small footprint. The physical dimensions of the mSATA connector are identical to those of the PCI Express Mini Card interface, but the interfaces are electrically incompatible; the data signals (TX±/RX± SATA, PETn0 PETp0 PERn0 PERp0 PCI Express) need a connection to the SATA host controller instead of the PCI Express host controller. The M.2 specification has superseded both mSATA and mini-PCIe. SFF-8784 connector Slim 2.5-inch SATA devices, in height, use the twenty-pin SFF-8784 edge connector to save space. By combining the data signals and power lines into a slim connector that effectively enables direct connection to the device's printed circuit board (PCB) without additional space-consuming connectors, SFF-8784 allows further internal layout compaction for portable devices such as ultrabooks. Pins 1 to 10 are on the connector's bottom side, while pins 11 to 20 are on the top side. SATA Express SATA Express, initially standardized in the SATA 3.2 specification, is an interface that supports either SATA or PCI Express storage devices. The host connector is backward compatible with the standard 3.5-inch SATA data connector, allowing up to two legacy SATA devices to connect. At the same time, the host connector provides up to two PCI Express 3.0 lanes as a pure PCI Express connection to the storage device, allowing bandwidths of up to 2 GB/s. Instead of the otherwise usual approach of doubling the native speed of the SATA interface, PCI Express was selected for achieving data transfer speeds greater than 6 Gbit/s. It was concluded that doubling the native SATA speed would take too much time, too many changes would be required to the SATA standard, and would result in a much greater power consumption when compared to the existing PCI Express bus. In addition to supporting legacy Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI), SATA Express also makes it possible for NVM Express (NVMe) to be used as the logical device interface for connected PCI Express storage devices. As M.2 form factor, described below, achieved much larger popularity, SATA Express is considered as a failed standard and dedicated ports quickly disappeared from motherboards. M.2 (NGFF) M.2, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a specification for computer expansion cards and associated connectors. It replaces the mSATA standard, which uses the PCI Express Mini Card physical layout. Having a smaller and more flexible physical specification, together with more advanced features, the M.2 is more suitable for solid-state storage applications in general, especially when used in small devices such as ultrabooks or tablets. The M.2 standard is designed as a revision and improvement to the mSATA standard, so that larger printed circuit boards (PCBs) can be manufactured. While mSATA took advantage of the existing PCI Express Mini Card form factor and connector, M.2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card space, while minimizing the footprint. Supported host controller interfaces and internally provided ports are a superset to those defined by the SATA Express interface. Essentially, the M.2 standard is a small form factor implementation of the SATA Express interface, with the addition of an internal USB 3.0 port. U.2 (SFF-8639) U.2, formerly known as SFF-8639. Like M.2, it carries a PCI Express electrical signal, however U.2 uses a PCIe 3.0 ×4 link providing a higher bandwidth of 32 Gbit/s in each direction. In order to provide maximum backward compatibility the U.2 connector also supports SATA and multi-path SAS. Protocol The SATA specification defines three distinct protocol layers: physical, link, and transport. Physical layer The physical layer defines SATA's electrical and physical characteristics (such as cable dimensions and parasitics, driver voltage level and receiver operating range), as well as the physical coding subsystem (bit-level encoding, device detection on the wire, and link initialization). Physical transmission uses differential signaling. The SATA PHY contains a transmit pair and receive pair. When the SATA-link is not in use (example: no device attached), the transmitter allows the transmit pins to float to their common-mode voltage level. When the SATA-link is either active or in the link-initialization phase, the transmitter drives the transmit pins at the specified differential voltage (1.5 V in SATA/I). SATA physical coding uses a line encoding system known as 8b/10b encoding. This scheme serves multiple functions required to sustain a differential serial link. First, the stream contains necessary synchronization information that allows the SATA host/drive to extract clocking. The 8b/10b encoded sequence embeds periodic edge transitions to allow the receiver to achieve bit-alignment without the use of a separately transmitted reference clock waveform. The sequence also maintains a neutral (DC-balanced) bitstream, which lets transmit drivers and receiver inputs be AC-coupled. Generally, the actual SATA signalling is half-duplex, meaning that it can only read or write data at any one time. Also, SATA uses some of the special characters defined in 8b/10b. In particular, the PHY layer uses the comma (K28.5) character to maintain symbol-alignment. A specific four-symbol sequence, the ALIGN primitive, is used for clock rate-matching between the two devices on the link. Other special symbols communicate flow control information produced and consumed in the higher layers (link and transport). Separate point-to-point AC-coupled low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) links are used for physical transmission between host and drive. The PHY layer is responsible for detecting the other SATA/device on a cable, and link initialization. During the link-initialization process, the PHY is responsible for locally generating special out-of-band signals by switching the transmitter between electrical-idle and specific 10b-characters in a defined pattern, negotiating a mutually supported signalling rate (1.5, 3.0, or 6.0 Gbit/s), and finally synchronizing to the far-end device's PHY-layer data stream. During this time, no data is sent from the link-layer. Once link-initialization has completed, the link-layer takes over data-transmission, with the PHY providing only the 8b/10b conversion before bit transmission. Link layer After the PHY-layer has established a link, the link layer is responsible for transmission and reception of Frame Information Structures (FISs) over the SATA link. FISs are packets containing control information or payload data. Each packet contains a header (identifying its type), and payload whose contents are dependent on the type. The link layer also manages flow control over the link. Transport layer Layer number three in the serial ATA specification is the transport layer. This layer has the responsibility of acting on the frames and transmitting/receiving the frames in an appropriate sequence. The transport layer handles the assembly and disassembly of FIS structures, which includes, for example, extracting content from register FISs into the task-file and informing the command layer. In an abstract fashion, the transport layer is responsible for creating and encoding FIS structures requested by the command layer, and removing those structures when the frames are received. When DMA data is to be transmitted and is received from the higher command layer, the transport layer appends the FIS control header to the payload, and informs the link layer to prepare for transmission. The same procedure is performed when data is received, but in reverse order. The link layer signals to the transport layer that there is incoming data available. Once the data is processed by the link layer, the transport layer inspects the FIS header and removes it before forwarding the data to the command layer. Topology SATA uses a point-to-point architecture. The physical connection between a controller and a storage device is not shared among other controllers and storage devices. SATA defines multipliers, which allows a single SATA controller port to drive up to fifteen storage devices. The multiplier performs the function of a hub; the controller and each storage device is connected to the hub. This is conceptually similar to SAS expanders. PC systems have SATA controllers built into the motherboard, typically featuring two to eight ports. Additional ports can be installed through add-in SATA host adapters (available in variety of bus-interfaces: USB, PCI, PCIe). Backward and forward compatibility SATA and PATA At the hardware interface level, SATA and PATA (Parallel AT Attachment) devices are completely incompatible: they cannot be interconnected without an adapter. At the application level, SATA devices can be specified to look and act like PATA devices. Many motherboards offer a "Legacy Mode" option, which makes SATA drives appear to the OS like PATA drives on a standard controller. This Legacy Mode eases OS installation by not requiring that a specific driver be loaded during setup, but sacrifices support for some (vendor specific) features of SATA. Legacy Mode often if not always disables some of the boards' PATA or SATA ports, since the standard PATA controller interface supports only four drives. (Often, which ports are disabled is configurable.) The common heritage of the ATA command set has enabled the proliferation of low-cost PATA to SATA bridge chips. Bridge chips were widely used on PATA drives (before the completion of native SATA drives) as well in standalone converters. When attached to a PATA drive, a device-side converter allows the PATA drive to function as a SATA drive. Host-side converters allow a motherboard PATA port to connect to a SATA drive. The market has produced powered enclosures for both PATA and SATA drives that interface to the PC through USB, Firewire or eSATA, with the restrictions noted above. PCI cards with a SATA connector exist that allow SATA drives to connect to legacy systems without SATA connectors. SATA 1.5 Gbit/s and SATA 3 Gbit/s The designers of SATA standard as an overall goal aimed for backward and forward compatibility with future revisions of the SATA standard. To prevent interoperability problems that could occur when next generation SATA drives are installed on motherboards with standard legacy SATA 1.5 Gbit/s host controllers, many manufacturers have made it easy to switch those newer drives to the previous standard's mode. Examples of such provisions include: Seagate/Maxtor has added a user-accessible jumper-switch, known as the "force 150", to enable the drive switch between forced 1.5 Gbit/s and 1.5/3 Gbit/s negotiated operation. Western Digital uses a jumper setting called OPT1 enabled to force 1.5 Gbit/s data transfer speed (OPT1 is enabled by putting the jumper on pins 5 and 6). Samsung drives can be forced to 1.5 Gbit/s mode using software that may be downloaded from the manufacturer's website. Configuring some Samsung drives in this manner requires the temporary use of a SATA-2 (SATA 3.0 Gbit/s) controller while programming the drive. The "force 150" switch (or equivalent) is also useful for attaching SATA 3 Gbit/s hard drives to SATA controllers on PCI cards, since many of these controllers (such as the Silicon Image chips) run at 3 Gbit/s, even though the PCI bus cannot reach 1.5 Gbit/s speeds. This can cause data corruption in operating systems that do not specifically test for this condition and limit the disk transfer speed. SATA 3 Gbit/s and SATA 6 Gbit/s SATA 3 Gbit/s and SATA 6 Gbit/s are compatible with each other. Most devices that are only SATA 3 Gbit/s can connect with devices that are SATA 6 Gbit/s, and vice versa, though SATA 3 Gbit/s devices only connect with SATA 6 Gbit/s devices at the slower 3 Gbit/s speed. SATA 1.5 Gbit/s and SATA 6 Gbit/s SATA 1.5 Gbit/s and SATA 6 Gbit/s are compatible with each other. Most devices that are only SATA 1.5 Gbit/s can connect with devices that are SATA 6 Gbit/s, and vice versa, though SATA 1.5 Gbit/s devices only connect with SATA 6 Gbit/s devices at the slower 1.5 Gbit/s speed. Comparison to other interfaces SATA and SCSI Parallel SCSI uses a more complex bus than SATA, usually resulting in higher manufacturing costs. SCSI buses also allow connection of several drives on one shared channel, whereas SATA allows one drive per channel, unless using a port multiplier. Serial Attached SCSI uses the same physical interconnects as SATA, and most SAS HBAs also support 3 and 6 Gbit/s SATA devices (an HBA requires support for Serial ATA Tunneling Protocol). SATA 3 Gbit/s theoretically offers a maximum bandwidth of 300 MB/s per device, which is only slightly lower than the rated speed for SCSI Ultra 320 with a maximum of 320 MB/s total for all devices on a bus. SCSI drives provide greater sustained throughput than multiple SATA drives connected via a simple (i.e., command-based) port multiplier because of disconnect-reconnect and aggregating performance. In general, SATA devices link compatibly to SAS enclosures and adapters, whereas SCSI devices cannot be directly connected to a SATA bus. SCSI, SAS, and fibre-channel (FC) drives are more expensive than SATA, so they are used in servers and disk arrays where the better performance justifies the additional cost. Inexpensive ATA and SATA drives evolved in the home-computer market, hence there is a view that they are less reliable. As those two worlds overlapped, the subject of reliability became somewhat controversial. Note that, in general, the failure rate of a disk drive is related to the quality of its heads, platters and supporting manufacturing processes, not to its interface. Use of serial ATA in the business market increased from 22% in 2006 to 28% in 2008. Comparison with other buses SCSI-3 devices with SCA-2 connectors are designed for hot swapping. Many server and RAID systems provide hardware support for transparent hot swapping. The designers of the SCSI standard prior to SCA-2 connectors did not target hot swapping, but in practice, most RAID implementations support hot swapping of hard disks. See also FATA (hard disk drive) libATA List of device bit rates Notes References External links Serial ATA International Organization (SATA-IO) EETimes Serial ATA and the evolution in data storage technology, Mohamed A. Salem "SATA-1" specification, as a zipped pdf; Serial ATA: High Speed Serialized AT Attachment, Revision 1.0a, 7-January-2003. Errata and Engineering Change Notices to above "SATA-1" specification, as a zip of pdfs 515 kB – on eSATA Serial ATA server and storage use cases How to Install and Troubleshoot SATA Hard Drives Serial ATA and the 7 Deadly Sins of Parallel ATA Everything You Need to Know About Serial ATA USB 3.0 vs. eSATA: Is faster better? Universal ATA driver for Windows NT3.51/NT4/2000/XP/2003/Vista/7/ReactOS: With PATA/SATA/AHCI support a universal, free and open-source ATA driver with PATA/SATA support Computer-related introductions in 2003 Computer connectors Serial buses

The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King

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The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a 2003 epic fantasy adventure film directed by Peter Jackson, based on the third volume of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The film is the final entry in the Lord of the Rings trilogy and was produced by Barrie M. Osborne, Jackson and Fran Walsh, from a screenplay by Walsh, Philippa Boyens and Jackson. Continuing the plot of The Two Towers, Frodo, Sam and Gollum are making their final way toward Mount Doom in Mordor in order to destroy the One Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, while Gandalf, Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli and the rest are joining forces together against Sauron and his legions in Minas Tirith. It was preceded by The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and The Two Towers (2002). The film features an ensemble cast including Elijah Wood, Ian McKellen, Liv Tyler, Viggo Mortensen, Sean Astin, Cate Blanchett, John Rhys-Davies, Bernard Hill, Billy Boyd, Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom, Hugo Weaving, Miranda Otto, David Wenham, Karl Urban, John Noble, Andy Serkis, Ian Holm, and Sean Bean. The Return of the King was financed and distributed by American studio New Line Cinema, but filmed and edited entirely in Jackson's native New Zealand, concurrently with the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at the Embassy Theatre in Wellington and was theatrically released on 17 December 2003 in the United States, and on 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by both critics and audiences, who considered it to be a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay, musical score, costume design and emotional depth. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, making it the highest-grossing film of 2003 and the second highest-grossing film of all time at the time of its release, as well as the highest-grossing film released by New Line Cinema. Like the other two entries in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, The Return of the King is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. The film received numerous accolades; at the 76th Academy Awards, it won all 11 Oscars for which it was nominated, including Best Picture, tying the film with Ben-Hur and Titanic as the movie with the most Oscar wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all won Best Visual Effects, after the original Star Wars Trilogy. Plot The hobbit Sméagol is fishing with his cousin Déagol, who discovers the One Ring in the river. Sméagol's mind is ensnared by the Ring, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into the Misty Mountains and becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during the War of the Ring, Gandalf leads Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and King Théoden of Rohan to Isengard, where they reunite with Merry and Pippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman's palantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebrate their victory at Helm's Deep. Pippin looks into the palantír, seeing Sauron and a burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attack Gondor's capital Minas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's steward Denethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heir Boromir had saved his life; on Gandalf's instruction, he triggers the lighting of the beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, and Sam continue their journey towards Mordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness the Witch-king of Angmar, lord of the nine Nazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army of Orcs. Gollum conspires to frame Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; influenced by the growing power of the Ring, Frodo is taken in by the deception, and orders Sam to go home. Gollum then tricks Frodo into venturing into the lair of the giant spider Shelob. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyzes, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam, who, mourning Frodo's apparent death, takes the Ring. Sam realizes his mistake when a group of Orcs takes Frodo captive, but manages to rescue Frodo as the Orcs fight among themselves. Now inside Mordor, the hobbits continue towards Mount Doom, their destination. As King Théoden gathers his army, Elrond tells Aragorn that Arwen is dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives Aragorn Andúril, reforged from the shards of King Elendil's sword Narsil, and urges him to commit to claiming Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Joined by Legolas and Gimli, Aragorn travels the Paths of the Dead, and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Meanwhile, Faramir, who was earlier overwhelmed and driven back to Minas Tirith by the Witch-king, is gravely wounded in a suicide charge; believing his son to be dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the huge Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on a pyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze and in agony, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite initial success against Orcs in the ensuing battle, they are decimated by the Oliphaunt-riding Haradrim and the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his niece Éowyn slays the Witch-king with Merry's help. Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn then arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces and win the battle. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo, now extremely weak, and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces march to meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, who survived his earlier fall, attacks them, but Frodo still manages to enter the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger, but Gollum manages to bite off his finger and reclaim it. They struggle together and both fall off the ledge. Frodo manages to cling on, and is pulled up by Sam, but Gollum falls and dies; the Ring, which fell with him, disintegrates in the lava. Mount Doom erupts as Sauron meets his demise, while Aragorn's army emerges victorious as its enemies flee. Gandalf rescues the hobbits with the help of eagles, and the surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen. The Hobbits return home to the Shire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. A few years later, Frodo departs Middle-earth for the Undying Lands with his uncle Bilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam the Red Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Sam returns to the Shire, where he embraces Rosie and their children. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy, The Return of the King has an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include: Elijah Wood as Frodo Baggins: A young hobbit who continues his quest to destroy the Ring, which continues to torture him. Ian McKellen as Gandalf the White: An Istari wizard who travels to aid the Men of Gondor, acting as a general at the Siege of Gondor. Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn Elessar: A Dúnedain ranger who must finally face his destiny as King of Gondor. Sean Astin as Samwise Gamgee: Better known as Sam, Frodo's loyal hobbit gardener and companion. Andy Serkis as Sméagol Trahald / Gollum: A wretched and treacherous creature who was once one of the river-folk (an extinct race of hobbits) and now guides Frodo and Sam into Mordor. The first scene in the film portrays him in his former life as Sméagol, his murder of his relative Déagol for possession of the Ring, as well as his degeneration into Gollum. Billy Boyd as Peregrin Took: Better known as Pippin, a hobbit who looks into the palantír and later becomes an esquire of Gondor. Dominic Monaghan as Meriadoc Brandybuck: Better known as Merry, a cousin of Frodo's who becomes an esquire of Rohan. John Rhys-Davies as Gimli: A dwarf warrior and companion to Aragorn along with Legolas. Rhys-Davies also voices Treebeard: The ent leader. Orlando Bloom as Legolas Greenleaf: An elven prince of Mirkwood and skilled archer who aids Aragorn in his quest to reclaim the throne. Bernard Hill as Théoden: The King of Rohan who, after triumphing at Helm's Deep, is preparing his troops for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Miranda Otto as Éowyn: Théoden's niece, who wishes to prove herself in battle and starts to fall in love with Aragorn, who does not return her love. In the extended cut of the film, she finds love with Faramir when they are both residing in the Houses of Healing. David Wenham as Faramir: A son of the Stewards of Gondor and head of the Gondorian Rangers defending Osgiliath, who seeks his father's love in vain. Karl Urban as Éomer: Éowyn's brother, who serves as Chief Marshal of the Riders of Rohan and heir to his uncle's throne. Hugo Weaving as Elrond: The Elven-King of Rivendell who must convince Aragorn to take up the throne. Liv Tyler as Arwen Undómiel: Elrond's daughter and Aragorn's true love, who gives up her immortal life for Aragorn. Cate Blanchett as Galadriel: The Elven-Queen of Lothlórien who is aware the time of the elves is at an end. John Noble as Denethor: The Steward of Gondor and father of Faramir and Boromir, whose grief over Boromir's death and despair over Mordor's superior numbers drive him into madness during the Siege of Gondor. Ian Holm as Bilbo Baggins: Frodo's elderly uncle, who has rapidly aged after giving away the Ring. Sean Bean as Boromir: Faramir's brother and a fallen companion of Aragorn, who appears in a flashback of his death at the end of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring and in the extended cut when his father has a hallucination. Marton Csokas as Celeborn the Wise: The Elven-King of Lothlórien. Lawrence Makoare as Witch-King: The lord of the Nazgûl, who leads Mordor's assault on Minas Tirith. Makoare also plays Gothmog: An Orc commander, who is voiced by Craig Parker. Thomas Robins as Déagol Nahald: Sméagol's cousin, who is killed when Sméagol finds the One Ring in the river they are fishing in. The following appear only in the Extended Edition Christopher Lee as Saruman the White: An Istari wizard, formerly the head of the Istari Order and its White Council, who is now trapped by Treebeard until he is killed by his own servant, Gríma. Brad Dourif as Gríma Wormtongue: Saruman's sycophantic, treacherous servant, who is shot by Legolas after stabbing his own master. Bruce Spence as The Mouth of Sauron: Sauron's ambassador at the Black Gate. There are cameos from Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo, Rick Porras and Andrew Lesnie on the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob. Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene, Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, while Christian Rivers played a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded. Royd Tolkien cameos as a Ranger in Osgiliath, while in the Extended Edition Howard Shore appears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers of The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game are featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor. At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched by Alan Lee, an idea suggested by Ian McKellen. Comparison with the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions of The Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, leaving only a few events from the novel omitted from the film; there are, however, some events in the film significantly altered from the novels. There are some events seen only in the film and there are certain details in the film not found in the books. The film version of The Return of the King contains major scenes that occurred in the middle portion of the novel The Two Towers but were not included in the film version, such as the attack by Shelob and the palantír subplot, owing to Jackson's realigning events of the film to fit the timeline as described in the book's Appendices, rather than the main prose. However, the plot of the second half of Book III is either completely omitted (chapter "The Road to Isengard") or only shown in one scene (chapter "The Voice of Saruman"). Saruman's murder by Gríma (seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of the Scouring of the Shire. In the film, Grima is killed by Legolas, while in the book, he is killed by Hobbits. In the film, Saruman drops the palantír when he is fatally attacked, whereas in the book Gríma throws it at the Fellowship, unaware of its value. In the film, all journeys of the companions from Isengard to Minas Tirith are compressed and simplified, as the entire company travels from Isengard to Edoras and arrives there simultaneously to recuperate after the Battle of Helm's Deep. Pippin's looking into the palantír happens in Edoras, and he and Gandalf leave for Minas Tirith from there, but in the book, this takes place at Dol Baran with the appearance of a Nazgûl on a winged steed, and they stay at Edoras only one night. In contrast to the film, Aragorn and Théoden march from Dol Baran to Helm's Deep to take a night's rest. It is in the Hornburg where Aragorn looks into the palantír (as opposed to the film's Extended Edition, in which he does so much later in Minas Tirith after the Battle of the Pelennor Fields) and decides to take the Paths of the Dead. In the film, Aragorn and Theóden depart not before their encampment at Dunharrow, but in the book, Aragorn and the Dúnedain (which are absent in the film) ride from Helm's Deep over the fields to Edoras and then to Dunharrow and the Dimholt, whereas in the book, Théoden takes slower mountain paths and arrives in Dunharrow after Aragorn and his companions have already left. Théoden is seen to set out directly from Dunharrow to Minas Tirith, omitting his brief return to Edoras from Dunharrow to muster all remaining forces there, as told in the book. The sequence of the Paths of the Dead adds a conversation between Aragorn and the King of the Dead (in the book the Dead don't speak at all) and a scene where the companions must flee an avalanche of skulls, but leaves out the encounter with Baldor's skeleton. In contrast to the book, the viewer doesn't get told what happened in Lebennin between Aragorn and the Corsairs of Umbar. The film version (Extended Edition) doesn't correspond with the map of Gondor, as the company sees a near river with Corsair ships immediately after leaving the Haunted Mountain. In the book, the River Anduin lies several hundred miles farther east, requiring a much longer journey with the Army of the Dead following behind, bringing terror to the towns they pass along the way. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. Denethor, the Steward of Gondor, was a more tragic character in the book. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven him to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film, and major captains and generals (including Imrahil of the Tower Guard and the Knights of Dol Amroth) are not present. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of the palantír which drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The Rammas Echor which encircles the Pelennor Fields isn't shown in the film, and the fields themselves are empty grassland in the films, instead of being rich farmland dotted with small villages in the book. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields is also altered: though Faramir goes on a suicide mission, the conflict is a simplification of the siege of Osgiliath. With generals such as Forlong and Imrahil absent, Gandalf commands the defence of Minas Tirith owing to Denethor's despair. While Denethor gives command to Gandalf in the book, in this film Gandalf forcibly takes control after Denethor tells his men to flee rather than fight. The Orcs and Trolls also never get into the city in the book. The Witch-king enters and stands off against Gandalf before the Rohirrim arrive, but in the film Orcs invade the city after Grond breaks the Gate. The confrontation takes place while Gandalf journeys to save Faramir, during which Gandalf has his staff broken in the film (but not in the book). A subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitive Drúedain during their journey to the besieged Gondor is excised from the film. The Red Arrow brought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to have Miranda Otto playing a man. When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin with a description of the Undying Lands, which is a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film depicts the Army of the Dead fighting in the Battle, whereas in the book they are released from service prior to this, after helping Aragorn defeat the Corsairs of Umbar at the port city of Pelargir in Lebennin; Aragorn's reinforcements are merely more Gondorians, and the Dúnedain, Aragorn's people (the rangers of the North). An unstoppable and invulnerable force, the Dead wipe out Sauron's forces. The film also cuts out several supporting characters, such as Halbarad, a friend of Aragorn's, who helps lead the Dúnedain, Beregond, a member of the Citadel Guard of Gondor, whom Pippin befriends, and Elladan and Elrohir, the twin sons of Elrond who deliver Aragorn's banner and accompany him to the Pelennor Fields. Elladan and Elrohir are replaced by Elrond in the film, instead delivering Andúril in Dunharrow, and then returning to Rivendell. In the books Aragorn isn't doubtful about his destiny, but had already decided to claim the throne of Gondor from the beginning of the Quest; thus, it was he who had the shards of Narsil forged to Andúril in Rivendell, carrying it from there on the whole journey. The film also altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech ("To death!") before the initial charge in the film are spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in the Houses of Healing: The Warden, the talk of Athelas, the comical conversation with the herb-master, the woman Ioreth and her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realizing of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. In the film, Aragorn leads the entire remaining force of Rohan and Gondor's men to the Black Gate without incident. In the book, tactics are discussed, forces divide and fight smaller skirmishes in Anórien and Ithilien before the army (only a fraction of the full remaining strength of the nations of men) reach the Morannon. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is also largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is only briefly referenced in the Extended Edition with a scene where the two hold hands. Sam and Frodo's major rift in their friendship, due to Gollum's machinations, never takes place in the book, but was added by the writers in believing that it added drama and more complexity to the character of Frodo. Frodo enters Shelob's lair alone in the film, whereas in the book he and Sam entered together. This was done to make the scene more horrific with Frodo being alone, and Sam's rescue at the last minute more dramatic. Frodo's ordeal in the Tower of Cirith Ungol and subsequent rescue by Sam are also changed; in the book, Frodo is stripped, beaten, and cruelly interrogated by the Orcs, while in the film, he is tied up but only briefly threatened by an Orc moments before Sam's arrival. The reunion of Frodo and Sam in the film is also shorter and less emotional than in the book; rather than comforting the physically injured and severely traumatized Frodo as in the book, Sam, after killing the Orc that was threatening Frodo but had not struck him, briefly accepts his apology for having doubted him and returns the Ring to him before suggesting that they find some Orc clothing for Frodo to wear. In the film, Sam also does not experience "delusions of grandeur" about what he could do if he took the Ring for himself, like he does in the book. Sam instead overcomes a very brief moment of temptation which, instead of stemming from thoughts of how he could use the Ring for himself, seems to come from his concern for Frodo and wish to reduce the Ring's harm to his friend by sharing the burden. Also, in the film viewers do not know that Sam has the Ring until he gives it back to Frodo, whereas in the book the reader knows that Sam has the Ring. When Sam and Frodo are diverted into the Orc march in Mordor and are about to collapse, in the film's Extended Edition they start a fake combat between each other and thus provoke some chaos during which they manage to escape, instead of slipping off during a congestion caused by several armies trying to get through the narrow Isenmouthe, as told in the novel. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was also rewritten for the film, as the writers felt Tolkien's original idea (Gollum simply slips and falls off) was anti-climactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team eventually realized that it looked more like Frodo murdering Gollum. As a result, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring and both slip over the edge by accident. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text of The Return of the King, and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs of Moria, the attacks on Lothlórien and the Woodland Realm of Thranduil by the forces of Dol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and the Lonely Mountain by a force of Easterlings. These events are hinted at in a comment by Legolas (also in the book) that the other peoples of Middle Earth are unlikely to ride to war in Gondor because war has already arrived in their own lands. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl (while Frodo putting on the One Ring distracted the Nazgûl, who raced away to Mount Doom in the book before a confrontation could occur), and Aragorn kills the Mouth of Sauron in the extended edition of the film but not in the book. There was an even larger change planned: Sauron himself would come out in physical form to battle Aragorn, who would only be saved by the destruction of the Ring. Jackson eventually realized it ignored the point of Aragorn's true bravery in distracting Sauron's army against overwhelming odds, and a computer generated Troll was placed over footage of Sauron in the finished film. In the book, after the destruction of the Ring the spirit of Sauron rises like a black cloud from the ruin of Barad-dûr before being blown away by the wind, but in the film the Eye of Sauron erupts in flame and then explodes as Barad-dûr collapses. As in all of Jackson's Middle-earth adaptions, the eagles do not speak. During the Battle for Minas Tirith, the White Tree of Gondor is shown to bear one white blossom, thus blooming by itself at Aragorn's coronation. Thereby the film ignores the book's story where Gandalf and Aragorn find a seedling of the White Tree up in the mountains and plant it in the courtyard in place of the still-dead tree. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or significantly altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at the Field of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding, Galadriel and Celeborn being present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to the Shire with stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was always seen by the screenwriters as anti-climactic. Since Saruman is killed long before, after the battle at Helm's Deep in the film, he is unable to exact revenge on Frodo and the hobbits by ruining the Shire as depicted in the books. In the film, the Shire is virtually unchanged when they return, and their friends and neighbours seem unaware of the climactic events that have taken place outside of their borders. Thus, the esteem earned by Merry and Pippin at the Battle of Bywater and the work to restore the Shire using Galadriel's gift don't appear in the film. At the end of the book, Frodo and Sam leave the Shire alone, meet Galadriel, Elrond and Bilbo along the way at the Woody End, and meet Gandalf at the Grey Havens, with Merry and Pippin arriving just in time to say their farewells and accompany Sam back to Bag End. In the film, however, all of the Hobbits travel with Gandalf to the Havens to find the Elves waiting there, including Celeborn, who remains in Middle-earth in the book. When Sam returns to the Shire, he isn't shown to live in Bag End (where he dwells with Rose in the book), but in a different Hobbit-hole of his own. Production The Lord of the Rings series was the first time whose three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excluding pick up shoots). Jackson found The Return of the King the easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story. The Return of the King was originally the second of two planned films under Miramax from January 1997 to August 1998, and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with The Two Towers''' Battle of Helm's Deep. Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Middle-earth as envisioned by Jackson was primarily designed by Alan Lee and John Howe, former Tolkien illustrators, and created by Weta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures, as well as the Art Department which built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, while Grant Major and Dan Hennah organized the planning and building respectively. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilization. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outside Wellington, from the Helm's Deep set. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by the Baptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired by Siena. There was also the Citadel, the exterior of which was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, using forced perspective. It contains the withered White Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebanese olive trees. The interior was within a three-story former factory in Wellington, and colourwise is influenced by Charlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from the Númenóreans of the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration, while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medieval Mediterranean Basin look. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having a wisdom tooth pulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city. Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as "boring", it was redesigned with more tipping angles. The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999, with the body based on a tunnelweb spider and the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being an arachnophobe himself. Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set.The Return of the King also brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride the mûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state, while their underground city is influenced by Petra. The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence from Kiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single dead mûmak. Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence from J. M. W. Turner paintings. Principal photographyThe Return of the King was shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods in Queenstown interrupted the focus on The Fellowship of the Ring. Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last. Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes from The Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at a Matamata farm, while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington, shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Sean Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels. Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in April at the Rangipo Desert, a former minefield. New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed at Mount Ruapehu for the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, including Putangirua Pinnacles. In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word "weed" as they smoked pipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed in Twizel with 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use of computer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in the Battle of Helm's Deep in the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recapture Osgiliath, as were scenes in the city itself. At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was the bluescreened reaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day. The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under second unit director Geoff Murphy on 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom, and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were "pathetic" compared to the Uruk-hai of the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new "über Orcs" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Christian Rivers also redesigned the Witch-king and all of his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with a mûmak, and Howard Shore also appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras. The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, although John Rhys-Davies burned his final Gimli prosthetic. Viggo Mortensen headbutted the stunt team goodbye. Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realizes Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house. For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-production began in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film that Annie Collins had been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds. Jackson reunited with longtime collaborator Jamie Selkirk to edit the final film. Like The Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film, for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir. The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging of Narsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain. Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene. Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at the Copenhagen premiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly. They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson's Hobbit films. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003. Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according to Elijah Wood, his response was "yup, it's good, pretty good". Visual effectsThe Return of the King contains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films, Jim Rygiel served as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began with Alan Lee and Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of the Pelennor Fields in November 2002. Jackson and Christian Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000. Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for the MASSIVE digital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate, and redoing a shot of two mûmakil Éomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking a mûmak required numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated. For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the company Next Limit Technologies and their software RealFlow was required to simulate the lava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect.The Return of the King also has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb, John Noble threw a size double named Fon onto a prostrate Billy Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m in diameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter. The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. A Tasmanian devil was used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while the mûmakil is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances. The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music was composed by Howard Shore, who previously composed the first two parts of the trilogy. Shore watched the assembly cut of the film, and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule. The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at the Council of Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring and at Osgiliath in The Two Towers Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features the London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices, the London Oratory School Schola and featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets (and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choir with additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist "bands" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it. One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn. Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro, Sissel Kyrkjebø and James Galway also contribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings "Asea Aranion", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, "Into the West", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh. Annie Lennox (formerly of Eurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker named Cameron Duncan who had befriended Peter Jackson. Release After two years of attention and acclaim since the release of The Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington's Embassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was released on VHS and DVD on 25 May 2004. The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, but Return of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy.The Return of the King followed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material, plus 10 minutes of fan-club credits. However, this set took longer to produce than the others because the cast and crew, no longer based in New Zealand for the trilogy, were spread all over the world working on other projects. The set was finally released on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US. The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD, Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has a DTS-ES soundtrack. The DVD also features two humorous Easter Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another where Vince Vaughn and Ben Stiller attempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition of The Return of the King was released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is a two-sided DVD containing both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatrical Blu-ray release was released in the United States in April 2010. The individual Blu-ray disc of The Return of the King was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy. The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011. It has a runtime of 263 minutes.The Return of the King was released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The film earned $377,027,325 in the United States and Canada and $763,654,686 in other countries for a worldwide total of $1,140,682,011. In the weekend of February 20-22 of 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark, making it the second film in history to do so, after Titanic. Worldwide, it is the 24th highest-grossing film of all time when not adjusted for inflation, the highest-grossing film of 2003, the second highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released by New Line Cinema. It held the record as Time Warners highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 in 2011. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing 2003 film, and the highest-grossing entry in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34,450,834. This record was first surpassed by Spider-Man 2 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening. The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total of The Fellowship of the Ring — which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase over The Two Towers — which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. It went on to make an opening weekend of $72,629,713 ($124.1 million with weekday previews). Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed by I Am Legend). The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed by Meet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing 2003 film and the highest-grossing film of the series. On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countries and it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the 5-day weekend as a whole. It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico. It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast that The Return of the King would surpass The Two Towers in total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes. The Return of the King has helped The Lord of the Rings franchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the original Star Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Through re-releases in 2005, 2011, 2017, 2020 and 2021, the film has grossed an additional $818,580 in the United States and Canada, and $4,530,321 overseas for a combined total of $5,348,901. This brings overall earnings to $377,845,905 domestic and $768,185,005 international for a worldwide total of $1,146,030,912. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimated that the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Return of the King holds an approval rating of 93% based on 275 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful, The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the King is a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale. Like its two predecessors, The Return of the King was released to universal critical acclaim. Alan Morrison of Empire gave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film "the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history" and praised how Peter Jackson had "kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page." Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films "who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll." Elvis Mitchell for The New York Times lauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describing The Return of the King as a "a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is "such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films." Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it "more as a whole than in its parts", and that The Return of the King certified The Lord of the Rings as "a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity". In his review for The Times, James Christopher praised The Return of the King as "everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more", and described The Lord of the Rings as "the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid". Nev Pierce for the BBC gave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined "the 'ooh' factor of Fellowship with the zippy action of Towers". Pierce described The Return of the King as "Majestic, moving, and immense", and "an astonishing piece of storytelling." Philip French, reviewing it for The Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to "the swirling battle paintings of Albrecht Altdorfer" and "Claude Lorraine's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets." French wrote about the whole trilogy "Jackson's Lord of the Rings is indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic." In her review for Entertainment Weekly, Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film an A grade, and wrote "The conclusion of Peter Jackson’s masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it’s conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series "I can’t think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor." Richard Corliss of Time named The Return of the King the best film of the year and described the whole trilogy as "The film event of the millennium". Joe Morgenstern, for The Wall Street Journal, wrote "Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture." Peter Bradshaw, who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy, gave The Return of the King four stars out of five in his review for The Guardian, commenting "I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic". Bradshaw wrote of the film "Technically it really is superb", and commented "Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... Maybe Kurosawa's battles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian". The most common criticism of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King was its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length. Joel Siegel of Good Morning America said in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): "If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history." Retrospectively, the CNN criticized the Army of the Dead's appearance, rapidly ending the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, while still ranking the battle among the greatest screen battles ever. A negative review was written for the Evening Standard by Antonia Quirke, who criticized Jackson's direction, saying that there was "not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm". Quirke also criticized Viggo Mortensen in the title role, writing "Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film." In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth on Empires 100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible. In 2007, Total Film named The Return of the King the third best film of the past decade (Total Films publication time), behind The Matrix and Fight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score, Best Original Song, Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Make-up, Best Sound Mixing and Best Film Editing. At the 76th Academy Awards in 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it holds the record for highest Academy Award totals along with Titanic and Ben-Hur, and also holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars. It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by the National Board of Review, until the release of The Shape of Water'' in 2017. The film also won four Golden Globes (including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director), five BAFTAs, two MTV Movie Awards, two Grammy Awards, nine Saturn Awards, the New York Film Critics Circle award for Best Picture, the Nebula Award for Best Script, and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also The Hobbit (film series) The Hobbit (1977 film) The Lord of the Rings (1978 film) The Return of the King (1980 film) List of films considered the best List of Academy Award records References Notes Citations External links The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at the TCM Movie Database 2003 fantasy films 2003 films 2000s English-language films American films American epic films American fantasy adventure films Fantasy war films American sequel films Best Drama Picture Golden Globe winners BAFTA winners (films) Best Film BAFTA Award winners Best Picture Academy Award winners American dark fantasy films Films scored by Howard Shore Films shot in New Zealand Siege films Films that won the Academy Award for Best Makeup Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award Films whose director won the Best Director Golden Globe Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award High fantasy films Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form winning works 3 Nebula Award for Best Script-winning works New Line Cinema films WingNut Films films New Zealand films New Zealand drama films New Zealand epic films New Zealand fantasy adventure films New Zealand sequel films Films using motion capture Rotoscoped films Films with screenplays by Fran Walsh Films with screenplays by Peter Jackson Films with screenplays by Philippa Boyens Films directed by Peter Jackson Films produced by Barrie M. Osborne Films produced by Fran Walsh Films produced by Peter Jackson Films about dwarfs

Timeline of computer viruses and worms

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This timeline of computer viruses and worms presents a chronological timeline of noteworthy computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan horses, similar malware, related research and events. 1960s John von Neumann's article on the "Theory of self-reproducing automata" is published in 1966. The article is based on lectures given by von Neumann at the University of Illinois about the "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata" in 1949. 1970s 1970 The first story written about a computer virus is The Scarred Man by Gregory Benford. 1971 The Creeper system, an experimental self-replicating program, is written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies to test John von Neumann's theory. Creeper infected DEC PDP-10 computers running the TENEX operating system. Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message "I'm the creeper, catch me if you can!" was displayed. The Reaper program was later created to delete Creeper. At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, a graduate student named Alan Davis (working for Prof. Donald Gillies) created a process on a PDP-11 that (a) checked to see if an identical copy of itself was currently running as an active process, and if not, created a copy of itself and started it running; (b) checked to see if any disk space (which all users shared) was available, and if so, created a file the size of that space; and (c) looped back to step (a). As a result, the process stole all available disk space. When users tried to save files, the operating system advised them that the disk was full and that they needed to delete some existing files. Of course, if they did delete a file, this process would immediately snatch up the available space. When users called in a system administrator (A. Ian Stocks) to fix the problem, he examined the active processes, discovered the offending process, and deleted it. Of course, before he left the room, the still existing process would create another copy of itself, and the problem wouldn't go away. The only way to make the computer work again was to reboot. 1972 The science fiction novel, When HARLIE Was One, by David Gerrold, contains one of the first fictional representations of a computer virus, as well as one of the first uses of the word "virus" to denote a program that infects a computer. 1973 In fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimer's character summarizes the problem by stating that "...there's a clear pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process, spreading from one...area to the next." To which the replies are stated: "Perhaps there are superficial similarities to disease" and, "I must confess I find it difficult to believe in a disease of machinery." (Crichton's earlier work, the 1969 novel The Andromeda Strain and 1971 film were about an extraterrestrial biological virus-like disease that threatened the human race.) 1974 The Rabbit (or Wabbit) virus, more a fork bomb than a virus, is written. The Rabbit virus makes multiple copies of itself on a single computer (and was named "Rabbit" for the speed at which it did so) until it clogs the system, reducing system performance, before finally reaching a threshold and crashing the computer. 1975 April: ANIMAL is written by John Walker for the UNIVAC 1108. ANIMAL asked several questions of the user in an attempt to guess the type of animal the user was thinking of, while the related program PERVADE would create a copy of itself and ANIMAL in every directory to which the current user had access. It spread across the multi-user UNIVACs when users with overlapping permissions discovered the game, and to other computers when tapes were shared. The program was carefully written to avoid damaging existing file or directory structures, and to avoid copying itself if permissions did not exist or if harm would result. Its spread was halted by an OS upgrade that changed the format of the file status tables PERVADE used. Though non-malicious, "Pervading Animal" represents the first Trojan "in the wild". The novel The Shockwave Rider by John Brunner is published, coining the word "worm" to describe a program that propagates itself through a computer network. 1977 "The Adolescence of P-1" novel, describes a worm program which propagates through modem-based networks, eventually developing its own strategy-developing AI, which deals with cross-hardware and cross-os issues, eventually infecting hardware manufactures and defence organizations. Quite prescient compared to its '70s peers. 1980s 1982 A program called Elk Cloner, written for Apple II systems, was created by high school student Richard Skrenta, originally as a prank. The Apple II was particularly vulnerable due to the storage of its operating system on a floppy disk. Elk Cloner's design combined with public ignorance about what malware was and how to protect against it led to Elk Cloner being responsible for the first large-scale computer virus outbreak in history. 1983 November: The term "virus" is re-coined by Frederick B. Cohen in describing self-replicating computer programs. In 1984 Cohen uses the phrase "computer virus" (suggested by his teacher Leonard Adleman) to describe the operation of such programs in terms of "infection". He defines a "virus" as "a program that can 'infect' other programs by modifying them to include a possibly evolved copy of itself." Cohen demonstrates a virus-like program on a VAX11/750 system at Lehigh University. The program could install itself in, or infect, other system objects. 1984 August: Ken Thompson publishes his seminal paper, Reflections on Trusting Trust, in which he describes how he modified a C compiler so that when used to compile a specific version of the Unix operating system, it inserts a backdoor into the login command, and when used to compile a new copy of itself, it inserts the backdoor insertion code, even if neither the backdoor nor the backdoor insertion code is present in the source code of this new copy. 1986 January: The Brain boot sector virus is released. Brain is considered the first IBM PC compatible virus, and the program responsible for the first IBM PC compatible virus epidemic. The virus is also known as Lahore, Pakistani, Pakistani Brain, and Pakistani flu as it was created in Lahore, Pakistan by 19-year-old Pakistani programmer, Basit Farooq Alvi, and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi. December: Ralf Burger presented the Virdem model of programs at a meeting of the underground Chaos Computer Club in Germany. The Virdem model represented the first programs that could replicate themselves via addition of their code to executable DOS files in COM format. 1987 Appearance of the Vienna virus, which was subsequently neutralized – the first time this had happened on the IBM platform. Appearance of Lehigh virus (discovered at its namesake university), boot sector viruses such as Yale from the US, Stoned from New Zealand, Ping Pong from Italy, and appearance of the first self-encrypting file virus, Cascade. Lehigh was stopped on campus before it spread to the "wild" (to computers beyond the university), and as a result, has never been found elsewhere. A subsequent infection of Cascade in the offices of IBM Belgium led to IBM responding with its own antivirus product development. Prior to this, antivirus solutions developed at IBM were intended for staff use only. October: The Jerusalem virus, part of the (at that time unknown) Suriv family, is detected in the city of Jerusalem. The virus destroys all executable files on infected machines upon every occurrence of Friday the 13th (except Friday 13 November 1987 making its first trigger date May 13, 1988). Jerusalem caused a worldwide epidemic in 1988. November: The SCA virus, a boot sector virus for Amiga computers, appears. It immediately creates a pandemic virus-writer storm. A short time later, SCA releases another, considerably more destructive virus, the Byte Bandit. December: Christmas Tree EXEC was the first widely disruptive replicating network program, which paralyzed several international computer networks in December 1987. It was written in Rexx on the VM/CMS operating system and originated in what was then West Germany. It re-emerged in 1990. 1988 March 1: The Ping-Pong virus (also called Boot, Bouncing Ball, Bouncing Dot, Italian, Italian-A or VeraCruz), an MS-DOS boot sector virus, is discovered at the University of Turin in Italy. June: The CyberAIDS and Festering Hate Apple ProDOS viruses spreads from underground pirate BBS systems and starts infecting mainstream networks. Festering Hate was the last iteration of the CyberAIDS series extending back to 1985 and 1986. Unlike the few Apple viruses that had come before which were essentially annoying, but did no damage, the Festering Hate series of viruses was extremely destructive, spreading to all system files it could find on the host computer (hard drive, floppy, and system memory) and then destroying everything when it could no longer find any uninfected files. November 2: The Morris worm, created by Robert Tappan Morris, infects DEC VAX and Sun machines running BSD UNIX that are connected to the Internet, and becomes the first worm to spread extensively "in the wild", and one of the first well-known programs exploiting buffer overrun vulnerabilities. December: The Father Christmas worm attacks DEC VAX machines running VMS that are connected to the DECnet Internet (an international scientific research network using DECnet protocols), affecting NASA and other research centers. Its purpose was to deliver a Christmas greeting to all affected users. 1989 October: Ghostball, the first multipartite virus, is discovered by Friðrik Skúlason. It infects both executable .COM files and boot sectors on MS-DOS systems. December: Several thousand floppy disks containing the AIDS Trojan, the first known ransomware, are mailed to subscribers of PC Business World magazine and a WHO AIDS conference mailing list. This DOS Trojan lies dormant for 90 boot cycles, then encrypts all filenames on the system, displaying a notice asking for $189 to be sent to a post office box in Panama in order to receive a decryption program. 1990s 1990 Mark Washburn, working on an analysis of the Vienna and Cascade viruses with Ralf Burger, develops the first family of polymorphic viruses, the Chameleon family. Chameleon series debuted with the release of 1260. June: The Form computer virus is isolated in Switzerland. It would remain in the wild for almost 20 years and reappear afterward; during the 1990s it tended to be the most common virus in the wild with 20 to more than 50 percent of reported infections. 1992 March: The Michelangelo virus was expected to create a digital apocalypse on March 6, with millions of computers having their information wiped, according to mass media hysteria surrounding the virus. Later assessments of the damage showed the aftermath to be minimal. John McAfee had been quoted by the media as saying that five million computers would be affected. He later said that pressed by the interviewer to come up with a number, he had estimated a range from five thousand to five million, but the media naturally went with just the higher number. 1993 "Leandro" or "Leandro & Kelly" and "Freddy Krueger" spread quickly due to popularity of BBS and shareware distribution. 1994 April: OneHalf is a DOS-based polymorphic computer virus. September: ReBoot first airs, containing another memorable fictional, sentient computer virus, Megabyte. 1995 The first Macro virus, called "Concept", is created. It attacked Microsoft Word documents. 1996 "Ply" – DOS 16-bit based complicated polymorphic virus appeared with a built-in permutation engine. Boza, the first virus designed specifically for Windows 95 files arrives. Laroux, the first Excel macro virus appears. Staog, the first Linux virus attacks Linux machines 1998 June 2: The first version of the CIH virus appears. It is the first known virus able to erase flash ROM BIOS content. 1999 January 20: The Happy99 worm first appeared. It invisibly attaches itself to emails, displays fireworks to hide the changes being made, and wishes the user a happy New Year. It modifies system files related to Outlook Express and Internet Explorer (IE) on Windows 95 and Windows 98. March 26: The Melissa worm was released, targeting Microsoft Word and Outlook-based systems, and creating considerable network traffic. June 6: The ExploreZip worm, which destroys Microsoft Office documents, was first detected. September: the CTX virus is isolated December 30: The Kak worm is a JavaScript computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a bug in Outlook Express. 2000s 2000 May 5: The ILOVEYOU worm (also known as the Love Letter, VBS, or Love Bug worm), a computer worm written in VBScript and using social engineering techniques, infected millions of Windows computers worldwide within a few hours of its release. June 28: The Pikachu virus is believed to be the first computer virus geared at children. It contains the character "Pikachu" from the Pokémon series. The operating systems affected by this worm are Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME. 2001 February 11: The Anna Kournikova virus hits e-mail servers hard by sending e-mail to contacts in the Microsoft Outlook addressbook. Its creator, Jan de Wit, was sentenced to 150 hours of community service. March 13: Magistr, also called Disembowler, is discovered. It is a complex email worm for Windows systems with multiple payloads that trigger months apart from each other. It targets members of the Law profession by searching the files on a user's computer for various keywords relating to court proceedings, activating if such are found. May 8: The Sadmind worm spreads by exploiting holes in both Sun Solaris and Microsoft IIS. July: The Sircam worm is released, spreading through Microsoft systems via e-mail and unprotected network shares. July 13: The Code Red worm attacking the Index Server ISAPI Extension in Microsoft Internet Information Services is released. August 4: A complete re-write of the Code Red worm, Code Red II begins aggressively spreading onto Microsoft systems, primarily in China. September 18: The Nimda worm is discovered and spreads through a variety of means including vulnerabilities in Microsoft Windows and backdoors left by Code Red II and Sadmind worm. October 26: The Klez worm is first identified. It exploits a vulnerability in Microsoft Internet Explorer and Microsoft Outlook and Outlook Express. 2002 February 11: The Simile virus is a metamorphic computer virus written in assembly. Beast is a Windows-based backdoor Trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool). It is capable of infecting almost all versions of Windows. Written in Delphi and released first by its author Tataye in 2002, its most current version was released on October 3, 2004. March 7: Mylife is a computer worm that spread itself by sending malicious emails to all the contacts in Microsoft Outlook. 2003 January 24: The SQL Slammer worm, aka Sapphire worm, Helkern and other names, attacks vulnerabilities in Microsoft SQL Server and MSDE becomes the fastest spreading worm of all time (measured by doubling time at the peak rate of growth), causing massive Internet access disruptions worldwide just fifteen minutes after infecting its first victim. April 2: Graybird is a trojan horse also known as Backdoor.Graybird. June 13: ProRat is a Turkish-made Microsoft Windows based backdoor trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool). August 12: The Blaster worm, aka the Lovesan worm, rapidly spreads by exploiting a vulnerability in system services present on Windows computers. August 18: The Welchia (Nachi) worm is discovered. The worm tries to remove the Blaster worm and patch Windows. August 19: The Sobig worm (technically the SobigF worm) spreads rapidly through Microsoft systems via mail and network shares. September 18: Swen is a computer worm written in C++. October 24: The Sober worm is first seen on Microsoft systems and maintains its presence until 2005 with many new variants. The simultaneous attacks on network weak points by the Blaster and Sobig worms cause massive damage. November 10: Agobot is a computer worm that can spread itself by exploiting vulnerabilities on Microsoft Windows. Some of the vulnerabilities are MS03-026 and MS05-039. November 20: Bolgimo is a computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a buffer overflow vulnerability at Microsoft Windows DCOM RPC Interface. 2004 January 18: Bagle is a mass-mailing worm affecting all versions of Microsoft Windows. There were 2 variants of Bagle worm, BagleA and Bagle.B. BagleB was discovered on February 17, 2004. January 26: The MyDoom worm emerges, and currently holds the record for the fastest-spreading mass mailer worm. The worm was most notable for performing a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack on www.sco.com, which belonged to The SCO Group. February 16: The Netsky worm is discovered. The worm spreads by email and by copying itself to folders on the local hard drive as well as on mapped network drives if available. Many variants of the Netsky worm appeared. March 19: The Witty worm is a record-breaking worm in many regards. It exploited holes in several Internet Security Systems (ISS) products. It was the fastest computer issue to be categorized as a worm, and it was the first internet worm to carry a destructive payload. It spread rapidly using a pre-populated list of ground-zero hosts. May 1: The Sasser worm emerges by exploiting a vulnerability in the Microsoft Windows LSASS service and causes problems in networks, while removing MyDoom and Bagle variants, even interrupting business. June 15: Caribe or Cabir is a computer worm that is designed to infect mobile phones that run Symbian OS. It is the first computer worm that can infect mobile phones. It spread itself through Bluetooth. More information can be found on F-Secure and Symantec. August 16: Nuclear RAT (short for Nuclear Remote Administration Tool) is a backdoor trojan that infects Windows NT family systems (Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 2003). August 20: Vundo, or the Vundo Trojan (also known as Virtumonde or Virtumondo and sometimes referred to as MS Juan) is a trojan known to cause popups and advertising for rogue antispyware programs, and sporadically other misbehavior including performance degradation and denial of service with some websites including Google and Facebook. October 12: Bifrost, also known as Bifrose, is a backdoor trojan which can infect Windows 95 through Vista. Bifrost uses the typical server, server builder, and client backdoor program configuration to allow a remote attack. December: Santy, the first known "webworm" is launched. It exploited a vulnerability in phpBB and used Google to find new targets. It infected around 40000 sites before Google filtered the search query used by the worm, preventing it from spreading. 2005 August 2005: Zotob is a computer worm which exploits security vulnerabilities in Microsoft operating systems like Windows 2000, including the MS05-039 plug-and-play vulnerability. This worm has been known to spread on Microsoft-ds or TCP port 445. October 2005: The copy protection rootkit deliberately and surreptitiously included on music CDs sold by Sony BMG is exposed. The rootkit creates vulnerabilities on affected computers, making them susceptible to infection by worms and viruses. Late 2005: The Zlob Trojan, is a Trojan horse program that masquerades as a required video codec in the form of the Microsoft Windows ActiveX component. It was first detected in late 2005. 2006 January 20: The Nyxem worm was discovered. It spread by mass-mailing. Its payload, which activates on the third of every month, starting on February 3, attempts to disable security-related and file-sharing software, and destroy files of certain types, such as Microsoft Office files. February 16: Discovery of the first-ever malware for Mac OS X, a low-threat trojan-horse known as OSX/Leap-A or OSX/Oompa-A, is announced. Late March: Brontok variant N was found in late March. Brontok was a mass-email worm and the origin for the worm was from Indonesia. June: Starbucks is a virus that infects StarOffice and OpenOffice. Late September: Stration or Warezov worm first discovered. Development of Stuxnet is presumed to have been started between 2005 and 2006. 2007 January 17: Storm Worm identified as a fast-spreading email spamming threat to Microsoft systems. It begins gathering infected computers into the Storm botnet. By around June 30, it had infected 1.7 million computers, and it had compromised between 1 and 10 million computers by September. Thought to have originated from Russia, it disguises itself as a news email containing a film about bogus news stories asking you to download the attachment which it claims is a film. July: Zeus is a trojan that targets Microsoft Windows to steal banking information by keystroke logging. 2008 February 17: Mocmex is a trojan, which was found in a digital photo frame in February 2008. It was the first serious computer virus on a digital photo frame. The virus was traced back to a group in China. March 3: Torpig, also known as Sinowal and Mebroot, is a Trojan horse that affects Windows, turning off anti-virus applications. It allows others to access the computer, modifies data, steals confidential information (such as user passwords and other sensitive data) and installs more malware on the victim's computer. May 6: Rustock.C, a hitherto-rumored spambot-type malware with advanced rootkit capabilities, was announced to have been detected on Microsoft systems and analyzed, having been in the wild and undetected since October 2007 at the very least. July 6: Bohmini.A is a configurable remote access tool or trojan that exploits security flaws in Adobe Flash 9.0.115 with Internet Explorer 7.0 and Firefox 2.0 under Windows XP SP2. July 31: The Koobface computer worm targets users of Facebook and Myspace. New variants constantly appear. November 21: Computer worm Conficker infects anywhere from 9 to 15 million Microsoft server systems running everything from Windows 2000 to the Windows 7 Beta. The French Navy, UK Ministry of Defence (including Royal Navy warships and submarines), Sheffield Hospital network, German Bundeswehr and Norwegian Police were all affected. Microsoft sets a bounty of US$250,000 for information leading to the capture of the worm's author(s). Five main variants of the Conficker worm are known and have been dubbed Conficker A, B, C, D and E. They were discovered 21 November 2008, 29 December 2008, 20 February 2009, 4 March 2009 and 7 April 2009, respectively. On December 16, 2008, Microsoft releases KB958644 patching the server service vulnerability responsible for the spread of Conficker. 2009 July 4: The July 2009 cyber attacks occur and the emergence of the W32.Dozer attack the United States and South Korea. July 15: Symantec discovered Daprosy Worm, a trojan worm is intended to steal online-game passwords in internet cafes. It could intercept all keystrokes and send them to its author, making it potentially a very dangerous worm to infect B2B (business-to-business) systems. August 24: Source code for MegaPanzer is released by its author under GPLv3. and appears to have been apparently detected in the wild. November 27: The virus Kenzero is a virus that spreads online from peer-to-peer networks (P2P) taking browsing history. 2010s 2010 January: The Waledac botnet sent spam emails. In February 2010, an international group of security researchers and Microsoft took Waledac down. January: The Psyb0t worm is discovered. It is thought to be unique in that it can infect routers and high-speed modems. February 18: Microsoft announced that a BSoD problem on some Windows machines which was triggered by a batch of Patch Tuesday updates was caused by the Alureon Trojan. June 17: Stuxnet, a Windows Trojan, was detected. It is the first worm to attack SCADA systems. There are suggestions that it was designed to target Iranian nuclear facilities. It uses a valid certificate from Realtek. September 9: The virus, called "here you have" or "VBMania", is a simple Trojan horse that arrives in the inbox with the odd-but-suggestive subject line "here you have". The body reads "This is The Document I told you about, you can find it Here" or "This is The Free Download Sex Movies, you can find it Here". 2011 SpyEye and Zeus merged code is seen. New variants attack mobile phone banking information. Anti-Spyware 2011, a Trojan horse that attacks Windows 9x, 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7, posing as an anti-spyware program. It disables security-related processes of anti-virus programs, while also blocking access to the Internet, which prevents updates. Summer 2011: The Morto worm attempts to propagate itself to additional computers via the Microsoft Windows Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). Morto spreads by forcing infected systems to scan for Windows servers allowing RDP login. Once Morto finds an RDP-accessible system, it attempts to log into a domain or local system account named 'Administrator' using several common passwords. A detailed overview of how the worm works – along with the password dictionary Morto uses – was done by Imperva. July 13: the ZeroAccess rootkit (also known as Sirefef or max++) was discovered. September 1: Duqu is a worm thought to be related to the Stuxnet worm. The Laboratory of Cryptography and System Security (CrySyS Lab) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics in Hungary discovered the threat, analysed the malware, and wrote a 60-page report naming the threat Duqu. Duqu gets its name from the prefix "~DQ" it gives to the names of files it creates. 2012 May: Flame – also known as Flamer, sKyWIper, and Skywiper – a modular computer malware that attacks computers running Microsoft Windows. Used for targeted cyber espionage in Middle Eastern countries. Its discovery was announced on 28 May 2012 by MAHER Center of Iranian National Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT), Kaspersky Lab and CrySyS Lab of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. CrySyS stated in their report that "sKyWIper is certainly the most sophisticated malware we encountered during our practice; arguably, it is the most complex malware ever found". August 16: Shamoon is a computer virus designed to target computers running Microsoft Windows in the energy sector. Symantec, Kaspersky Lab, and Seculert announced its discovery on August 16, 2012. September 20: NGRBot is a worm that uses the IRC network for file transfer, sending and receiving commands between zombie network machines and the attacker's IRC server, and monitoring and controlling network connectivity and intercept. It employs a user-mode rootkit technique to hide and steal its victim's information. This family of bot is also designed to infect HTML pages with inline frames (iframes), causing redirections, blocking victims from getting updates from security/antimalware products, and killing those services. The bot is designed to connect via a predefined IRC channel and communicate with a remote botnet. 2013 September: The CryptoLocker Trojan horse is discovered. CryptoLocker encrypts the files on a user's hard drive, then prompts them to pay a ransom to the developer to receive the decryption key. In the following months, several copycat ransomware Trojans were also discovered. December: The Gameover ZeuS Trojan is discovered. This type of virus steals one's login details on popular Web sites that involve monetary transactions. It works by detecting a login page, then proceeds to inject malicious code into the page, keystroke logging the computer user's details. December: Linux.Darlloz targets the Internet of things and infects routers, security cameras, set-top boxes by exploiting a PHP vulnerability. 2014 November: The Regin Trojan horse is discovered. Regin is a dropper, primarily spread via spoofed Web pages. Once installed, it quietly downloads additional malware, making it difficult for signature-based anti-virus programs to detect. It is believed to have been created by the United States and United Kingdom as a tool for espionage and mass surveillance. 2015 The BASHLITE malware is leaked leading to a massive spike in DDoS attacks. Linux.Wifatch is revealed to the general public. It is found to attempt to secure devices from other more malicious malware. 2016 January: A trojan named "MEMZ" is created. The creator, Leurak, explained that the trojan was intended merely as a joke. The trojan alerts the user to the fact that it is a trojan and warns them that if they proceed, the computer may no longer be usable. It contains complex payloads that corrupt the system, displaying artifacts on the screen as it runs. Once run, the application cannot be closed without causing further damage to the computer, which will stop functioning properly regardless. When the computer is restarted, in place of the bootsplash is a message that reads "Your computer has been trashed by the MEMZ Trojan. Now enjoy the Nyan cat…", which follows with an animation of the Nyan Cat. February: Ransomware Locky with its over 60 derivatives spread throughout Europe and infected several million computers. At the height of the spread over five thousand computers per hour were infected in Germany alone. Although ransomware was not a new thing at the time, insufficient cyber security as well as a lack of standards in IT was responsible for the high number of infections. Unfortunately, even up to date antivirus and internet security software was unable to protect systems from early versions of Locky. February: Tiny Banker Trojan (Tinba) makes headlines. Since its discovery, it has been found to have infected more than two dozen major banking institutions in the United States, including TD Bank, Chase, HSBC, Wells Fargo, PNC and Bank of America. Tiny Banker Trojan uses HTTP injection to force the user's computer to believe that it is on the bank's website. This spoof page will look and function just as the real one. The user then enters their information to log on, at which point Tinba can launch the bank webpage's "incorrect login information" return, and redirect the user to the real website. This is to trick the user into thinking they had entered the wrong information and proceed as normal, although now Tinba has captured the credentials and sent them to its host. September: Mirai creates headlines by launching some of the most powerful and disruptive DDoS attacks seen to date by infecting the Internet of Things. Mirai ends up being used in the DDoS attack on 20 September 2016 on the Krebs on Security site which reached 620 Gbit/s. Ars Technica also reported a 1 Tbit/s attack on French web host OVH. On 21 October 2016 multiple major DDoS attacks in DNS services of DNS service provider Dyn occurred using Mirai malware installed on a large number of IoT devices, resulting in the inaccessibility of several high-profile websites such as GitHub, Twitter, Reddit, Netflix, Airbnb and many others. The attribution of the attack to the Mirai botnet was originally reported by BackConnect Inc., a security firm. 2017 May: The WannaCry ransomware attack spreads globally. Exploits revealed in the NSA hacking toolkit leak of late 2016 were used to enable the propagation of the malware. Shortly after the news of the infections broke online, a UK cybersecurity researcher in collaboration with others found and activated a "kill switch" hidden within the ransomware, effectively halting the initial wave of its global propagation. The next day, researchers announced that they had found new variants of the malware without the kill switch. June: The Petya (malware) attack spreads globally affecting Windows systems. Researchers at Symantec reveal that this ransomware uses the EternalBlue exploit, similar to the one used in the WannaCry ransomware attack. September: The Xafecopy Trojan attacks 47 countries, affecting only Android operating systems. Kaspersky Lab identified it as a malware from the Ubsod family, stealing money through click based WAP billing systems. September: A new variety of Remote Access Trojan (RAT), Kedi RAT, is distributed in a Spear Phishing Campaign. The attack targeted Citrix users. The Trojan was able to evade usual system scanners. Kedi Trojan had all the characteristics of a common Remote Access Trojan and it could communicate to its Command and Control center via Gmail using common HTML, HTTP protocols. 2018 February: Thanatos, a ransomware, becomes the first ransomware program to accept ransom payment in Bitcoin Cash. 2019 November: Titanium is an advanced backdoor malware, developed by the PLATINUM APT. 2020s 2021 July: Journalists and researchers report the discovery of spyware, called Pegasus, developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect iOS and Android smartphones often – based on 0-day exploits – without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time. The investigation suggests it was used on many targets worldwide and revealed its use for e.g. governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others. See also Helpful worm History of computer viruses Timeline of computer security hacker history Timeline of computing 2020–present References External links A short history of hacks, worms, and cyberterror by Mari Keefe, Computerworld, April 2009 5th Utility Ltd list of the 10 worst computer viruses of all time viruses Malware Trojan horses

The Open Championship

eng_Latn

The Open Championship, often referred to as The Open or the British Open, is the oldest golf tournament in the world, and one of the most prestigious. Founded in 1860, it was originally held annually at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland. Later the venue rotated between a select group of coastal links golf courses in the United Kingdom. It is organised by the R&A. The Open is one of the four men's major golf tournaments, the others being the Masters Tournament, the PGA Championship and the U.S. Open. Since the PGA Championship moved to May in 2019, the Open has been chronologically the fourth and final major tournament of the year. It is held in mid-July. It is called The Open, because it is in theory "open" to all, i.e. professional and amateur golfers. In practice, the current event is a professional tournament in which a small number of the world's leading amateurs also play, by invitation or qualification. The success of the tournament has led to many other open golf tournaments to be introduced around the world. The current champion is Collin Morikawa, who won the 149th Open at Royal St George’s Golf Club in Sandwich, England with a score of 265. History Early tournament years (1860–1870) The first Open Championship was played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club in Ayrshire, Scotland, over three rounds of the twelve-hole links course. In the mid-19th century golf was played mainly by well-off gentlemen, as hand-crafted clubs and balls were expensive. Professionals made a living from playing for bets, caddying, ball and club making, and instruction. Allan Robertson was the most famous of these pros, and was regarded as the undisputed best golfer between 1843 and his death in 1859. James Ogilvie Fairlie of Prestwick Golf Club decided to form a competition in 1860, "to be played for by professional golfers", and to decide who would succeed Robertson as the "Champion Golfer". Blackheath (England), Perth, Bruntsfield (Edinburgh), Musselburgh and St Andrews golf clubs were invited to send up to three of their best players known as a "respectable caddie" to represent each of the clubs. The winner received the Challenge Belt, made from red leather with a silver buckle and worth £25, which came about thanks to being donated by the Earl of Eglinton, a man with a keen interest in medieval pageantry (belts were the type of trophy that might have been competed for in archery or jousting). The first rule of the new golf competition was "The party winning the belt shall always leave the belt with the treasurer of the club until he produces a guarantee to the satisfaction of the above committee that the belt shall be safely kept and laid on the table at the next meeting to compete for it until it becomes the property of the winner by being won three times in succession". Eight golfers contested the event, with Willie Park, Sr. winning the championship by 2 shots from Old Tom Morris, and he was declared "The Champion Golfer of the Year". A year later, it became "open" to amateurs as well as professionals. Ten professionals and eight amateurs contested the event, with Old Tom Morris winning the championship by 4 shots from Willie Park, Sr. A prize fund (£10) was introduced in 1863 split between 2nd, 3rd and 4th (the winner only received the Challenge Belt). From 1864 onwards a cash prize was also paid to the winner. Before this the only financial incentive was scheduling Prestwick's own domestic tournament the same week, this allowed professionals to earn a few days' work caddying for the wealthier gentlemen. Willie Park, Sr. went on to win two more tournaments, and Old Tom Morris three more, before Young Tom Morris won three consecutive titles between 1868 and 1870. The rules stated that he was allowed to keep the belt for achieving this feat. Because no trophy was available, the tournament was not held in 1871. The introduction of course rotation and the Claret Jug (1872–1889) On 11 September 1872 agreement was reached between Prestwick, the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers and The Royal and Ancient Golf Club. They decided that each of the three clubs would contribute £10 towards the cost of a new trophy, which was to be a silver claret jug, known officially as The Golf Champion Trophy, and hosting of the Open would be rotated between the three clubs. These decisions were taken too late for the trophy to be presented to the 1872 Open champion, who was once again Young Tom Morris. Instead, he was awarded with a medal inscribed 'The Golf Champion Trophy', although he is the first to be engraved on the Claret Jug as the 1872 winner. Medals have been given to, and kept by the winner ever since. Young Tom Morris died in 1875, aged 24. The tournament continued to be dominated and won by Scottish professionals, to be rotated between the three Scottish golf courses, and played over 36 holes in a single day until 1889. English hosts and winners, and the Great Triumvirate (1890–1914) In the 1890s, the tournament was won four times by three Englishman (two of whom were amateurs). In 1892 the tournament was played for the first time at the newly built Muirfield, which replaced Musselburgh as the host venue used by the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. A few years later St George's and Royal Liverpool in England were added to the rotation. From 1892 the tournament was increased in duration to four 18-hole rounds over two days (Prestwick had been extended to an 18-hole course by then). Between 1898 and 1925 the tournament either had a cut after 36 holes, or a qualifying event, and the largest field was 226 in 1911. The large field meant sometimes the tournament was spread across up to four days. In 1907 Arnaud Massy from France became the first non-British winner. Royal Cinque Ports in England became the 6th different Open host course in 1909. The pre-war period is most famous for the Great Triumvirate of Harry Vardon (Jersey), John Henry Taylor (England), and James Braid (Scotland). The trio combined to win The Open Championship 16 times in the 21 tournaments held between 1894 and 1914; Vardon won six times (a record that still stands today) with Braid and Taylor winning five apiece. In the five tournaments in this span the Triumvirate did not win, one or more of them finished runner-up. These rivalries enormously increased the public's interest in golf, but the first world war meant another Open was not held until 1920, and none of the trio won another Open. American success with Walter Hagen and Bobby Jones, and the last Open at Prestwick (1920–1939) In 1920 the Open returned, and The Royal and Ancient Golf Club became the sole organiser of the Open Championship. In 1926 they standardised the format of the tournament to spread over three days (18 holes on day 1 and 2, and 36 on day 3), and include both qualifying and a cut. In 1921 eleven U.S.-based players travelled to Scotland financed by a popular subscription called the "British Open Championship Fund", after a campaign by the American magazine Golf Illustrated. Five of these players were actually British born, and had emigrated to America to take advantage of the high demand for club professionals as the popularity of golf grew. A match was played between the Americans and a team of British professionals, which is seen as a forerunner of the Ryder Cup. When the Open was held two weeks later, one of these visitors, Jock Hutchison, a naturalised American citizen, won in St Andrews, the town of his birth. In 1922 Walter Hagen won the first of his four Opens, and become the first American-born winner. The period between 1923 and 1933 saw an American-based player win every year (two were British-born), and included three wins by amateur Bobby Jones, and one by Gene Sarazen, who had already won top tournaments in the United States. English players won every year between 1934 and 1939, including two wins by Henry Cotton (he would go on to win a third in 1948). After overcrowding issues at the 1925 Open at Prestwick, it was decided it was no longer suitable for the growing size of the event, being too short, having too many blind shots, and it could not cope with the volume of spectators. The Open's original venue was replaced on the rota with Carnoustie, which hosted for the first time in 1931. Troon hosted for the first time in 1923, and Royal Lytham & St Annes was also added, hosting for the first time in 1926. Prince's hosted its one and only Open in 1932. Bobby Locke, Peter Thomson, and Ben Hogan's Triple Crown (1946–1958) The Open returned after the war to St Andrews, with a victory for American Sam Snead. Bobby Locke became the first South African winner, winning three times in four years between 1949 and 1952, and later winning a fourth title in 1957. Having already won the Masters and the U.S. Open earlier in the year, Ben Hogan won in his one and only Open appearance in 1953 to win the "Triple Crown". His achievement was so well regarded he returned to New York City to a ticker-tape parade. Peter Thomson became the first Australian winner, winning four times in five years between 1954 and 1958, and later winning a fifth title in 1965. After flooding prevented Royal Cinque Ports from hosting, both in 1938 and 1949, it was removed from the rota. The Open was played outside of England and Scotland for the first time in 1951 at Royal Portrush, Northern Ireland. The period saw fewer American entrants, as the PGA Tour had grown to be quite lucrative, and the PGA Championship was often played at the same or similar time paying triple the prize money. A larger golf ball was also used in America, which meant they had to adjust for the Open. Player, Palmer, Nicklaus – The Big Three (1959–1974) In 1959, Gary Player, a young South African, won the first of his three Opens. Only four Americans had entered, but in 1960 Arnold Palmer travelled to Scotland after winning the Masters and U.S. Open, in an attempt to emulate Hogan's 1953 feat of winning all three tournaments in a single year. Although he finished second to Kel Nagle, he returned and won the Open in 1961 and 1962. Palmer was hugely popular in America, and his victories are likely to have been the first time many Americans would have seen the Open on television. This, along with the growth of trans-Atlantic jet travel, inspired many more Americans to travel in the future. The period is primarily defined by the competition between Player, Palmer, and Jack Nicklaus. Nicklaus won three times (1966, 1970, 1978) and had a record seven runner-ups. American Lee Trevino also made his mark winning his two Opens back to back in 1971 and 1972, the latter denying Nicklaus a calendar year Grand Slam. The only British champion in this period was Tony Jacklin, and it is also notable for having the first winner from Argentina, Roberto De Vicenzo. Tom Watson, Ballesteros, Faldo, and Norman (1975–1993) By 1975, the concept of the modern majors had been firmly established, and the PGA Championship had been moved to August since 1969, so no longer clashed with the Open. This meant the Open had a feel similar to the current tournament, with the leaders after 36 holes going off last (1957 onwards), all players having to use the "bigger ball" (1974 onwards), play spread over four days (1966 onwards, although the days were Wednesday to Saturday until 1980), and a field containing all the world's best players. American Tom Watson won in 1975. Turnberry hosted for the first time in 1977, and Watson won the Open for the second time, after one of the most celebrated contests in golf history, when his duel with Jack Nicklaus went to the final shot before Watson emerged as the champion. He would go on to win again in 1980, 1982 and 1983, to win 5 times overall, a record only bettered by Harry Vardon, and he became regarded as one of the greatest links golf players of all time. In 1976, 19-year-old Spaniard Seve Ballesteros gained attention in the golfing world when he finished second. He would go on to win three Opens (1979, 1984, 1988), and was the first continental European to win since Arnaud Massy in 1907. Other multiple winners in this period were Englishman Nick Faldo with three (1987, 1990, 1992), and Australian Greg Norman with two (1986, 1993). Tiger Woods and the modern era (1994 onwards) Every year between 1994 and 2004 had a first-time winner. In 1999, the Open at Carnoustie was famously difficult, and Frenchman Jean van de Velde had a three-shot lead teeing off on the final hole. He ended up triple bogeying after finding the Barry Burn, and Scotman Paul Lawrie, ranked 241st in the world, ended up winning in a playoff. He was 10 strokes behind the leader going into the final round, a record for all majors. He was not the only unheralded champion during this span, as 396th-ranked Ben Curtis and 56th-ranked Todd Hamilton won in 2003 and 2004, respectively. In 2000, Tiger Woods, having just won the U.S. Open, became champion by a post-war record 8 strokes to become the youngest player to win the career Grand Slam at age 24. After winning the 2002 Masters and U.S. Open, he became the latest American to try to emulate Ben Hogan and win the Open in the same year. His bid came to a halt on Saturday with the worst round of his career up to that time, an 81 (+10) in cold, gusty rain. He went on to win again back-to-back in 2005 and 2006 to bring his total to three wins. Other multiple winners in this era are South African Ernie Els (2002, 2012) and Irishman Pádraig Harrington (2007, 2008). In 2009, 59-year-old Tom Watson led the tournament through 71 holes and needed just a par on the last hole to become the oldest ever winner of a major championship, and also match Harry Vardon's six Opens. Watson bogeyed, setting up a four-hole playoff, which he lost to Stewart Cink. In 2015, Jordan Spieth became another American to arrive having already won the year's Masters and U.S. Open tournaments. He finished tied for fourth as Zach Johnson became champion. Spieth would go on to win the 2017 Open at Royal Birkdale. American Phil Mickelson won his first Open, and fifth major, in 2013. In 2016, he was involved in an epic duel with Sweden's Henrik Stenson, which many people compared to the 1977 Duel in the Sun between Jack Nicklaus and Tom Watson. Stenson emerged the winner, and the first Scandinavian winner of a male professional major championship, with a record Open (and major) score of 264 (−20), three shots ahead of Mickelson, and 14 shots ahead of third place. Jack Nicklaus shared his thoughts on the final round, saying: "Phil Mickelson played one of the best rounds I have ever seen played in the Open and Henrik Stenson just played better—he played one of the greatest rounds I have ever seen". Francesco Molinari won the 2018 Open at Carnoustie by two shots, to become the first Italian major winner. Shane Lowry won the 2019 Open when the tournament returned to Royal Portrush Golf Club, to become the second champion from the Republic of Ireland. In 2020, the Open Championship was cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the first time the championship had been cancelled since World War II. The R&A also confirmed that Royal St George's, which would have hosted the championship in 2020, would be the host venue in 2021, effectively retaining the Old Course at St Andrews as the venue for the 150th Open. Traditions Links golf course The Open is always played on a coastal links golf course. Links golf is often described as the "purest" form of golf and keeps a connection with the way the game originated in Scotland in the 15th century. The terrain is open, often without any trees, and will generally be undulating with a sandy base. The golf courses are often primarily shaped by nature, rather than 'built'. Weather, particularly wind, plays an important role, and although there will be a prevailing onshore breeze, changes in the wind direction and strength over the course of the tournament can mean each round of golf has to be played slightly differently. The courses are also famous for deep pot bunkers, and gorse bushes that make up the "rough". A golfer playing on a links course will often adapt his game so the flight of the ball is lower and so is less impacted by the wind, but this will make distance control more difficult. Also due to the windy conditions the speed of the greens are often slower than a golfer might be used to on the PGA Tour, to avoid the ball being moved by a gust. Old Course at St Andrews The Old Course at St Andrews is regarded as the oldest golf course in the world, and winning the Open there is often regarded as one of the pinnacles of golf. Given the special status of the Old Course, the Open is generally played there once every five years in the modern era, much more frequently than the other courses used for the Open. Previous champions will often choose St Andrews as their final Open tournament. It has become traditional to come down the 18th fairway to huge applause from the amphitheatre crowds, and to pose for final pictures on the Swilken Bridge with the picturesque clubhouse and town in the background. Trophy presentation The Open trophy is the Claret Jug, which has been presented to the champion since 1873. The original trophy permanently resides on display in the R&A's Clubhouse at St Andrews. Therefore, the trophy that is presented at each Open is a replica which is retained by the winner for a year. It used to be the responsibility of the winner to get their name engraved on the trophy, but 1967 winner Roberto De Vicenzo returned the trophy without having done so. Subsequently, the winner's name is already engraved on it when presented, which often results in television commentators speculating as to when it is safe for the engraver to start. The winner of the Open is announced as "The Champion Golfer of the Year", a title which has been used since the first Open in 1860. He will nearly always pose for photos with the trophy sitting on one of the distinctive pot bunkers. Name The first event was held as an invitational tournament, but the next year Prestwick Golf Club declared that "the belt... on all future occasions, shall be open to all the world". In its early years it was often referred to as The Championship but with the advent of the Amateur Championship in 1885, it became more common to refer to it as The Open Championship or simply The Open. The tournament inspired other national bodies to introduce open golf tournaments of their own, such as the U.S. Open, and later many others. To distinguish it from their own national open, it became common in many countries to refer to the tournament as the "British Open". The R&A (the tournament's organiser) continued to refer to it as The Open Championship. During the interwar years, a period with many U.S.-based winners, the term British Open would occasionally be used during the trophy presentation and in British newspapers. In 2017, a representative of the R&A openly stated that it is a priority to "eradicate the term British Open" and have a single identity and brand of "The Open" in all countries. Tournament partners, such as the PGA Tour, now refer to it without "British" in the title, media rightsholders are contractually required to refer to the event as The Open Championship, and the official website has released a statement titled "Why it's called 'The Open' and not the 'British Open'" stating that "The Open is the correct name for the Championship. It is also the most appropriate". The R&A's stance has attracted criticism from some commentators. The R&A also run The Senior Open, the over 50s equivalent of the Open, which was officially known as the "Senior British Open" from its inception in 1987 until 2007, when "British" was dropped from the name. The Women's Open, seen by some as the women's equivalent to the Open (although unlike the Open it is not always held on a links course, and was not run by the R&A until 2017) was officially known as the "Women's British Open" from its inception in 1976 until 2020, when the word "British" was dropped from the name as part of a sponsorship deal with AIG. Status The Open is recognised as one of the four major championships in golf, and is an official event on the PGA Tour, European Tour, and the Japan Golf Tour. The Open began in 1860, and for many years it was not the most-followed event in golf, as challenge matches between top golfers were more keenly followed and drew larger crowds. The Great Triumvirate dominated the Open between 1894 and 1914 and were primarily responsible for the formation of the PGA in 1901 which had a big impact in promoting interest in professional golf (and therefore The Open) and increasing playing standards. Between the World Wars, the first wins by Americans were widely celebrated when they broke the dominance previously held by British players. After World War II, although the profile of the tournament remained high in the UK and Commonwealth countries, the low prize money compared to the US events and the cost of travel meant fewer Americans participated. High-profile visits and wins by Ben Hogan and Arnold Palmer, the growth of cheaper and faster transatlantic flights, and the introduction of television coverage recovered its prestige. When the modern concept of the majors was cemented, the Open was included as one of those four. Thus, the Open is now one of the four majors in golf, along with the U.S. Open, PGA Championship, and Masters Tournament. The term "major" is a universally-acknowledged unofficial term used by players, the media, and golf followers to define the most important tournaments, and performance in them is often used to define the careers of the best golfers. There is often discussion amongst the golfing community as to whether the Open, U.S. Open, or the Masters Tournament is the most prestigious major, but opinion varies (often linked to nationality). The PGA Championship is usually seen as the least prestigious of the four. In terms of official recognition, the tournament has been an event on the European Tour since its formation in 1972. In 1995, prize money won in the Open was included in the PGA Tour official money list for the first time, a change that caused an increase in the number of American entries. In addition all previous PGA Tour seasons have been retroactively adjusted to include the Open in official money and win statistics. Currently the Open, along with the other three majors and The Players Championship, are the top-tier tournaments in the FedEx cup, offering more points than any other non-playoff event. The Open is also an official event on the Japan Golf Tour. Structure Qualifying Qualifying was introduced in 1907, and for much of its history, all players had to go through the qualification process. In the modern era, the majority of players get an exemption from qualification which is awarded for previous performance in the Open, performance in high-profile global tournaments (such as other majors), performance in top golf tours, or a high position in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR). Five amateurs are also exempt from qualifying by winning various global amateur titles provided they maintain their amateur status prior to The Open. Another way of qualifying is to finish in a high position in the Open Qualifying Series of global events, which are about twelve tour events across the globe, run by various local golfing organisations. Any male professional golfer, male amateur golfer whose playing handicap does not exceed 0.4 (i.e. scratch) or has been within World Amateur Golf Ranking listing 1–2,000 during the current calendar year, and any female golfer who finished in the top 5 and ties in the latest edition of any of the five women's majors is eligible to enter local qualifying. If they perform well they will go on to Final Qualifying, which is four simultaneous 36-hole one-day events held across the UK, with 12 players qualifying for the Open. If there are any spots left, then alternates are made up from the highest ranked players in the OWGR who are not already qualified, which brings the total field up to 156 players. In 2018, the OWGR gave the Open a strength of field rating of 902 (the maximum possible is 1000 if the top 200 players in the world were all in a tournament). This was only bettered by the PGA Championship, a tournament which actively targets a high strength of field rating. Format Field: 156 players Basic Format: 72 hole stroke play. Play 18 holes a day over four days, weather permitting. Date of Tournament: Starts on the day before the third Friday in July. Tournament Days: Thursday to Sunday. Tee off times: Each player has one morning and one afternoon tee time in first two days in groups of three, which are mostly randomised (with some organiser discretion). Groupings of two on the last two days with last place going off first and leaders going out last. Cut: After 36 holes, only top 70 and ties play the final 36 holes. Playoff: If there is a tie for the lead after 72 holes, a three-hole aggregate playoff is held; followed by sudden death if the lead is still tied. Prizes Up until 2016, the purse was always stated, and paid, in pounds sterling (£), but was changed in 2017 to US dollars ($) in recognition of the fact that it is the most widely adopted currency for prize money in golf. Champion's prizes and benefits The champion receives trophies, the winner's prize money, and several exemptions from world golf tours and tournaments. He is also likely to receive a winner's bonus from his sponsors. The prizes and privileges on offer for the champion included: The Golf Champion Trophy (commonly known as the Claret Jug). The winner keeps the trophy until the next Open, at which point it must be returned, and a replica is provided as a replacement. The winner's gold medal (originally awarded in 1872 when the Claret Jug was not yet ready, and since awarded to all champions). If the winner is a professional, then the winner's share (18%) of the purse. Guaranteed entry to all future Open Championships until the age of 60, and entry to the next ten Opens, even if over the age of 60. Entry to the next five editions of the Masters Tournament, PGA Championship, and U.S. Open. Five year membership to the PGA Tour and the European Tour. Entry to the next edition of the WGC Invitational, and WGC-HSBC Champions. Entry to the next five editions of The Players Championship, and the five invitational tournaments (Genesis Invitational, Fort Worth Invitational, the Arnold Palmer Invitational, the RBC Heritage, and the Memorial Tournament) on the PGA Tour. Automatic invitations to three of the five senior majors once they turn 50; they receive a one-year invitation to the U.S. Senior Open and a lifetime invitation to the Senior PGA Championship and Senior Open Championship. FedEx Cup, Race to Dubai, Ryder Cup/Presidents Cup, and Official World Golf Ranking points. From 1860 to 1870, the winner received the challenge belt. When this was awarded to Young Tom Morris permanently for winning three consecutive tournaments, it was replaced by the gold medal (1872 onwards), and the claret jug (1873 onwards). Other prizes and benefits, based upon finishing position There are several benefits from being placed highly in the Open. These are: The runners up each receive a silver salver. If the player is a professional, then a share of the purse. There is a distribution curve for those who make the cut, with 1st place getting 18%, 2nd 10.4%, 3rd 6.7%, 4th 5.2%, and 5th 4.2%. The percentage continues to fall by placing with 21st getting 1% and 37th 0.5%. Professionals who miss the cut received between US$7,375 and US$4,950. The top 10 players, including ties, get entry to the next edition of The Open Championship. The top 4 players, including ties, get entry to the next edition of the Masters Tournament. FedEx Cup, Race to Dubai, Ryder Cup/Presidents Cup, and Official World Golf Ranking points. Amateur medals Since 1949 the leading amateur completing the final round receives a silver medal. Since 1972, any other amateur who competes in the final round receives a bronze medal. Amateurs do not receive prize money. Professional Golfers' Association (of Great Britain and Ireland) awards The Professional Golfers' Association (of Great Britain and Ireland) also mark the achievements of their own members in The Open. Ryle Memorial Medal – awarded since 1901 to the winner if he is a PGA member. Braid Taylor Memorial Medal – awarded since 1966 to the highest finishing PGA member. Tooting Bec Cup – awarded since 1924 to the PGA member who records the lowest single round during the championship. The Braid Taylor Memorial Medal and the Tooting Bec Cup are restricted to members born in, or with a parent or parents born in, the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland. Courses The Open Championship has always been held on a coastal links golf course in Scotland, England or Northern Ireland. The hosting pattern has been: 1860–1870: Prestwick Golf Club the sole host. 1872–1892: Three year rotation between Prestwick, St Andrews, and Musselburgh (replaced by Muirfield in 1892) golf clubs. 1893–1907: Five year rotation between Prestwick, Royal St George's, St Andrews, Muirfield, and Royal Liverpool Golf Clubs. 1908–1939: Six year rotation, initially between Prestwick, Royal Cinque Ports, St Andrews, Royal St George's, Muirfield, and Royal Liverpool Golf Clubs, so alternating between Scotland and England. A few changes were made to the rota of 6 courses after World War I. 1946–1972: Alternating between Scottish and English golf clubs continues, but without a fixed rota. Exceptions were St Andrews hosting pre- and post-World War II, and Northern Ireland hosting in 1951. Since 1973: Usually three Scottish and two English courses hosting in a five-year period, mostly alternating between the two countries, with St Andrews hosting about every five years. Northern Ireland returned in 2019. Overview A total of 14 courses have hosted the Open, with ten currently active as part of the rotation, and four have been retired from the rotation (shown in italics). The year the golf course was originally built is shown in parenthesis. Prestwick Golf Club (1851): Prestwick is The Open's original venue, and hosted 24 Opens in all, including the first 12. Old Tom Morris designed the original 12 hole course, but it was subsequently redesigned and expanded to be an 18-hole course in 1882. Serious overcrowding problems at Prestwick in 1925 meant that the course was never again used for the Open, and was replaced by Carnoustie Golf Links as the third Scottish course. Old Course at St Andrews (1552): Considered the oldest golf course in the world, and referred to as "the home of golf". Famous features include the "Hell Bunker" (14th) and the Road Hole (17th). Due to its special status it usually hosts the open every five years in the modern era. It is designed to be played in wind, so can result in low scores in benign conditions. Musselburgh Links (c1672): A 9-hole course that hosted six Opens as it was used by the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, one of the organisers of The Open between 1872 and 1920. When the Honourable Company built their own course in 1891 (Muirfield), it took over hosting duties. Musselburgh was unhappy with this and organised another rival 'Open' competition prior to the Muirfield event, one with greater prize money. Muirfield (1891): Built by the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers to replace Musselburgh on the rota. Known for the circular arrangement the course has, which means the wind direction on each hole changes, and can make it tricky to navigate. Briefly removed from the rota in 2016–17 due to not having any female members. Royal St George's Golf Club (1887): Often simply referred to as Sandwich. The first venue to host in England, and the only venue on the current rota in Southern England. It went 32 years without hosting between 1949 and 1981, but returned following the rebuilding of three holes, tee changes to another two holes, and improved road links. Known for having the deepest bunker on the rota (4th hole). Royal Liverpool Golf Club (1869): Often simply referred to as Hoylake. Royal Liverpool went 39 years without hosting between 1967 and 2006, but returned following changes to tees, bunkers, and greens. In 2006, Tiger Woods won by using his driver just once. Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club (1892): Hosted the 1909 and 1920 Opens, and was scheduled to host in 1938 and 1949 but both had to be moved to Royal St George's Golf Club due to abnormally high tides flooding the course. It was removed from the rota but is still used for qualifying. Royal Troon Golf Club (1878): First used in 1923 instead of Muirfield when "some doubts exists as to the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers being desirous of their course being used for the event". Redesigned, lengthened, and strengthened by James Braid shortly before it held its first Open. Famous features include the "Postage Stamp" 8th hole, and the 601 yards 6th. Royal Lytham & St Annes Golf Club (1886): A relatively short course, but has 167 bunkers which demand accuracy. Slightly inland as some coastal homes have been built since the course first opened. Carnoustie Golf Links (1835): Replaced Prestwick after it was no longer suitable for the Open. It went through modifications prior to the 1999 Open. Thought of as being the toughest of the Open venues, especially the last three holes, and is well remembered for Jean van de Velde triple bogeying on the 18th when he only needed a double bogey to win. Prince's Golf Club (1906): Only hosted once in 1932. Has been redesigned in 1950 due to war damage. Royal Portrush Golf Club (1888): The only venue to host the Open outside England and Scotland when it hosted in 1951. With the Troubles in Northern Ireland significantly diminished since the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, and after the successful hosting of the Irish Open it returned as host in 2019. The course underwent significant changes before the 2019 Open, including replacing the 17th and 18th holes, which also provided the space for spectators and corporate hospitality that a modern major requires. Royal Birkdale Golf Club (1894): Extensively redesigned by Fred Hawtree and JH Taylor to create the current layout in 1922, it is known for its sand dunes towering the fairways. Often ranked as England's best Open venue. Turnberry (1906): Made its Open debut in 1977, when Tom Watson and Jack Nicklaus famously played the Duel in the Sun. Known to be one of the most picturesque Open venues, it was bought by Donald Trump in 2014, who has spent substantial amounts renovating the course. On 11 January 2021, in the aftermath of the 2021 United States Capitol attack the week prior, the R&A announced that it will not stage a championship at Turnberry "in the foreseeable future". Hosting record of each course References: Future venues Records Oldest winner: Old Tom Morris (), 1867. Youngest winner: Young Tom Morris (), 1868. Most victories: 6, Harry Vardon (1896, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1911, 1914). Most consecutive victories: 4, Young Tom Morris (1868, 1869, 1870, 1872 – there was no championship in 1871). Lowest score after 36 holes: 129, Louis Oosthuizen (64-65), 2021 Lowest score after 54 holes: 197, Shane Lowry (67-67-63), 2019 Lowest final score (72 holes): 264, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63), 2016. Lowest final score (72 holes) in relation to par: −20, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63=264), 2016. Greatest victory margin: 13 strokes, Old Tom Morris, 1862. This remained a record for all majors until 2000, when Woods won the U.S. Open by 15 strokes at Pebble Beach. Old Tom's 13-stroke margin was achieved over 36 holes. Lowest round: 62, Branden Grace, 3rd round, 2017; a record for all majors. Lowest round in relation to par: −9, Paul Broadhurst, 3rd round, 1990; Rory McIlroy, 1st round, 2010. Wire-to-wire winners (after 72 holes with no ties after rounds): Ted Ray in 1912, Bobby Jones in 1927, Gene Sarazen in 1932, Henry Cotton in 1934, Tom Weiskopf in 1973, Tiger Woods in 2005, and Rory McIlroy in 2014. Most runner-up finishes: 7, Jack Nicklaus (1964, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1979) Champions Nationalities assigned above match those used in the official Open records. Source: The 148th Open 2019 Media Guide Silver Medal winners Since 1949, the silver medal is awarded to the leading amateur, provided that the player completes all 72 holes. In the earlier years wealthy individuals would often maintain their amateur status, and hence could win multiple times, such as Frank Stranahan who won it four times in the first five years (and was also the low amateur in 1947). In the modern era players often turn professional soon after winning the silver medal, and hence never have a chance for multiple wins. Tiger Woods and Rory McIlroy are the only silver medal winners who have gone on to win the Open. 1949 – Frank Stranahan 1950 – Frank Stranahan (2) 1951 – Frank Stranahan (3) 1952 – Jackie Jones 1953 – Frank Stranahan (4) 1954 – Peter Toogood 1955 – Joe Conrad 1956 – Joe Carr 1957 – Dickson Smith 1958 – Joe Carr (2) 1959 – Reid Jack 1960 – Guy Wolstenholme 1961 – Ronnie White 1962 – Charlie Green 1963 – none 1964 – none 1965 – Michael Burgess 1966 – Ronnie Shade 1967 – none 1968 – Michael Bonallack 1969 – Peter Tupling 1970 – Steve Melnyk 1971 – Michael Bonallack (2) 1972 – none 1973 – Danny Edwards 1974 – none 1975 – none 1976 – none 1977 – none 1978 – Peter McEvoy 1979 – Peter McEvoy (2) 1980 – Jay Sigel 1981 – Hal Sutton 1982 – Malcolm Lewis 1983 – none 1984 – none 1985 – José María Olazábal 1986 – none 1987 – Paul Mayo 1988 – Paul Broadhurst 1989 – Russell Claydon 1990 – none 1991 – Jim Payne 1992 – Daren Lee 1993 – Iain Pyman 1994 – Warren Bennett 1995 – Steve Webster 1996 – Tiger Woods 1997 – Barclay Howard 1998 – Justin Rose 1999 – none 2000 – none 2001 – David Dixon 2002 – none 2003 – none 2004 – Stuart Wilson 2005 – Lloyd Saltman 2006 – Marius Thorp 2007 – Rory McIlroy 2008 – Chris Wood 2009 – Matteo Manassero 2010 – Jin Jeong 2011 – Tom Lewis 2012 – none 2013 – Matt Fitzpatrick 2014 – none 2015 – Jordan Niebrugge 2016 – none 2017 – Alfie Plant 2018 – Sam Locke 2019 – none 2020 – no tournament 2021 – Matti Schmid Broadcasting The distribution of The Open is provided by a partnership between R&A Productions, European Tour Productions (both run by IMG) and CTV Outside Broadcasting. The broadcasters with onsite production are Sky (UK), NBC (USA), BBC (UK), and TV Asahi (Japan). Many non-British broadcasters referred to the Open as the "British" Open in their coverage until 2010, when The R&A introduced use of contractual terms in their media contracts, similar to the Masters, and now rights holders are obliged to refer to the tournament as "The Open". On 7 November 2018, the parent company of the U.S. rights holder, NBC, completed a takeover of the U.K. rights holder, Sky. This means the media rights in the two primary markets are owned by the same company, albeit produced separately by two different subsidiaries. There are over 170 cameras on site during the tournament, including cameras in the face of the Open's pot bunkers. United Kingdom Television rights history Ref: Current broadcast hours for live coverage Ref: The BBC first started to broadcast the Open in 1955, with Peter Alliss involved since 1961, and having the role of lead commentator since 1978. With the growth of pay television, and the increasing value of sporting rights, the BBC's golf portfolio began to reduce. The loss of the rights to the Scottish Open, and BMW PGA Championship in 2012 left the BBC's only golf coverage as the Open, and the final two days of the Masters (which it shared with Sky). With so little golf, the BBC was accused of neglecting investment in production and was criticised about its 'quality of coverage and innovation' compared to Sky, which held the rights to most golf events. The tournament is considered a Category B event under the Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events, which allows its rights to be held by a pay television broadcaster as long as sufficient secondary coverage is provided by a free-to-air broadcaster. Many were hoping that a deal similar to the Masters would be reached, where Sky had coverage of all four days, and the BBC also provided live weekend coverage, but Sky were not keen on this and won the full rights in 2015. Some were angered about the demise of golf on terrestrial television, and the impact that could have on the interest in golf in the U.K., whilst others were pleased about the perceived improved coverage that Sky would give. Despite Peter Alliss promising on air that the BBC would cover the 2016 event, the BBC reached a deal for Sky to take the coverage. The BBC still covers the tournament, showing highlights from 8pm–10pm on tournament days and radio coverage on Radio 5 Live. The deal with Sky required the broadcaster to restrict its advertisement breaks to 4 minutes every hour, similar to the Masters. Sky also offers complete coverage online through NOW to non-subscribers, which is £7.99 for one day, or £12.99 for a weeks access. United States Television rights history Ref: Current broadcast hours for live coverage (East Coast) Ref: ABC began broadcasting the Open in 1962, with taped highlights on Wide World of Sports. In the pre-digital age the coverage had to be converted from the U.K.'s PAL colour encoding system, to the U.S.'s NTSC, which meant picture quality could be impacted, especially in the early years. The coverage expanded over the years, and as is common in America, there was a different early round rights holder, which was ESPN until 2003 when TNT took over. Co-owned ESPN became responsible for ABC's sports coverage in 2006; it won the rights to cover all four days of the championship in 2010, and concurrently moved coverage to its channels. The Open became the first golf major to be covered exclusively on pay television in America, as ESPN left only highlights for its partner broadcast network. After losing the rights to the U.S. Open in 2015, NBC bid aggressively to win the rights to the Open, and become a broadcaster of a golf major again. NBC also had a track record of broadcasting European sporting events successfully in the morning U.S. time with the Premier League, Formula One, and "Breakfast at Wimbledon", and was able to place early round coverage on its subsidiary Golf Channel. NBC won the rights from 2017 to 2028. ESPN also sold them the rights for 2016. The 2019 edition of the Open Championship had a total of 49 hours of coverage in the United States, with 29 hours being on Thursday and Friday, and 20 hours being on Saturday and Sunday; the Golf Channel cable network had a total of 34 hours of coverage, with 29 hours on Thursday and Friday, and 5 hours on Saturday and Sunday. The NBC broadcast network had a total of 15 hours of coverage on the weekend, with 8 hours Saturday, and 7 hours Sunday. The 49 total hours of coverage on Golf Channel and NBC is down 30 minutes from 2018; the difference is that NBC's Sunday coverage is down 30 minutes, from 7.5 hours in 2018, to 7 hours in 2019. TheOpen.com The Open provides limited coverage for free on its website including highlights, featured groups, featured holes, and radio coverage. The Open's local rights holders usually provide these feeds as part of their broadcast package. Rest of the World The Open produces a 'world feed' for use by international broadcasters if they require. The other large golf markets in a similar time zone as the U.K. are the rest of Europe (where Sky, the U.K. broadcast company often has a presence), and South Africa where it is covered by SuperSport. Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand and increasingly China are markets with high media interest in golf and the Open, but the time zone means the prime coverage is shown in the early hours of the morning. Ref: Notes References External links Coverage on European Tour.com Coverage on the PGA Tour's official site Coverage on PGA.com Men's major golf championships Golf tournaments in England Golf tournaments in Northern Ireland Golf tournaments in Scotland July sporting events 1860 establishments in Scotland Recurring sporting events established in 1860 National championships in the United Kingdom Annual sporting events in the United Kingdom

Orion Nebula

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The Orion Nebula (also known as Messier 42, M42, or NGC 1976) is a diffuse nebula situated in the Milky Way, being south of Orion's Belt in the constellation of Orion. It is one of the brightest nebulae and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. It is away and is the closest region of massive star formation to Earth. The M42 nebula is estimated to be 24 light-years across. It has a mass of about 2,000 times that of the Sun. Older texts frequently refer to the Orion Nebula as the Great Nebula in Orion or the Great Orion Nebula. The Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky and is among the most intensely studied celestial features. The nebula has revealed much about the process of how stars and planetary systems are formed from collapsing clouds of gas and dust. Astronomers have directly observed protoplanetary disks and brown dwarfs within the nebula, intense and turbulent motions of the gas, and the photo-ionizing effects of massive nearby stars in the nebula. Physical characteristics The Orion Nebula is visible with the naked eye even from areas affected by some light pollution. It is seen as the middle "star" in the "sword" of Orion, which are the three stars located south of Orion's Belt. The star appears fuzzy to sharp-eyed observers, and the nebulosity is obvious through binoculars or a small telescope. The peak surface brightness of the central region is about 17 Mag/arcsec2 (about 14 milli nits) and the outer bluish glow has a peak surface brightness of 21.3 Mag/arcsec2 (about 0.27 millinits). (In the photos shown here the brightness, or luminance, is enhanced by a large factor.) The Orion Nebula contains a very young open cluster, known as the Trapezium due to the asterism of its primary four stars. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good seeing, giving a total of six stars. The stars of the Trapezium, along with many other stars, are still in their early years. The Trapezium is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula Cluster, an association of about 2,800 stars within a diameter of 20 light years. Two million years ago this cluster may have been the home of the runaway stars AE Aurigae, 53 Arietis, and Mu Columbae, which are currently moving away from the nebula at speeds greater than . Coloration Observers have long noted a distinctive greenish tint to the nebula, in addition to regions of red and of blue-violet. The red hue is a result of the Hα recombination line radiation at a wavelength of 656.3 nm. The blue-violet coloration is the reflected radiation from the massive O-class stars at the core of the nebula. The green hue was a puzzle for astronomers in the early part of the 20th century because none of the known spectral lines at that time could explain it. There was some speculation that the lines were caused by a new element, and the name nebulium was coined for this mysterious material. With better understanding of atomic physics, however, it was later determined that the green spectrum was caused by a low-probability electron transition in doubly ionized oxygen, a so-called "forbidden transition". This radiation was impossible to reproduce in the laboratory at the time, because it depended on the quiescent and nearly collision-free environment found in the high vacuum of deep space. History There has been speculation that the Mayans of Central America may have described the nebula within their "Three Hearthstones" creation myth; if so, the three would correspond to two stars at the base of Orion, Rigel and Saiph, and another, Alnitak at the tip of the "belt" of the imagined hunter, the vertices of a nearly perfect equilateral triangle with Orion's Sword (including the Orion Nebula) in the middle of the triangle seen as the smudge of smoke from copal incense in a modern myth, or, in (the translation it suggests of) an ancient one, the literal or figurative embers of a fiery creation. Neither Ptolemy's Almagest nor Al Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars noted this nebula, even though they both listed patches of nebulosity elsewhere in the night sky; nor did Galileo mention it, even though he also made telescopic observations surrounding it in 1610 and 1617. This has led to some speculation that a flare-up of the illuminating stars may have increased the brightness of the nebula. The first discovery of the diffuse nebulous nature of the Orion Nebula is generally credited to French astronomer Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, on November 26, 1610 when he made a record of observing it with a refracting telescope purchased by his patron Guillaume du Vair. The first published observation of the nebula was by the Jesuit mathematician and astronomer Johann Baptist Cysat of Lucerne in his 1619 monograph on the comets (describing observations of the nebula that may date back to 1611). He made comparisons between it and a bright comet seen in 1618 and described how the nebula appeared through his telescope as: His description of the center stars as different from a comet's head in that they were a "rectangle" may have been an early description of the Trapezium Cluster. (The first detection of three of the four stars of this cluster is credited to Galileo Galilei in a February 4, 1617 although he did not notice the surrounding nebula – possibly due to the narrow field of vision of his early telescope.) The nebula was independently "discovered" (though visible to the naked eye) by several other prominent astronomers in the following years, including by Giovanni Battista Hodierna (whose sketch was the first published in De systemate orbis cometici, deque admirandis coeli characteribus). Charles Messier observed the nebula on March 4, 1769, and he also noted three of the stars in Trapezium. Messier published the first edition of his catalog of deep sky objects in 1774 (completed in 1771). As the Orion Nebula was the 42nd object in his list, it became identified as M42. In 1865 English amateur astronomer William Huggins used his visual spectroscopy method to examine the nebula showing it, like other nebulae he had examined, was made up of "luminous gas". On September 30, 1880 Henry Draper used the new dry plate photographic process with an 11-inch (28 cm) refracting telescope to make a 51-minute exposure of the Orion Nebula, the first instance of astrophotography of a nebula in history. Another set of photographs of the nebula in 1883 saw a breakthrough in astronomical photography when amateur astronomer Andrew Ainslie Common used the dry plate process to record several images in exposures up to 60 minutes with a 36-inch (91 cm) reflecting telescope that he constructed in the backyard of his home in Ealing, west London. These images for the first time showed stars and nebula detail too faint to be seen by the human eye. In 1902, Vogel and Eberhard discovered differing velocities within the nebula, and by 1914 astronomers at Marseilles had used the interferometer to detect rotation and irregular motions. Campbell and Moore confirmed these results using the spectrograph, demonstrating turbulence within the nebula. In 1931, Robert J. Trumpler noted that the fainter stars near the Trapezium formed a cluster, and he was the first to name them the Trapezium cluster. Based on their magnitudes and spectral types, he derived a distance estimate of 1,800 light years. This was three times farther than the commonly accepted distance estimate of the period but was much closer to the modern value. In 1993, the Hubble Space Telescope first observed the Orion Nebula. Since then, the nebula has been a frequent target for HST studies. The images have been used to build a detailed model of the nebula in three dimensions. Protoplanetary disks have been observed around most of the newly formed stars in the nebula, and the destructive effects of high levels of ultraviolet energy from the most massive stars have been studied. In 2005, the Advanced Camera for Surveys instrument of the Hubble Space Telescope finished capturing the most detailed image of the nebula yet taken. The image was taken through 104 orbits of the telescope, capturing over 3,000 stars down to the 23rd magnitude, including infant brown dwarfs and possible brown dwarf binary stars. A year later, scientists working with the HST announced the first ever masses of a pair of eclipsing binary brown dwarfs, 2MASS J05352184–0546085. The pair are located in the Orion Nebula and have approximate masses of and respectively, with an orbital period of 9.8 days. Surprisingly, the more massive of the two also turned out to be the less luminous. Structure The entirety of the Orion Nebula extends across a 1° region of the sky, and includes neutral clouds of gas and dust, associations of stars, ionized volumes of gas, and reflection nebulae. The Nebula is part of a much larger nebula that is known as the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex. The Orion Molecular Cloud Complex extends throughout the constellation of Orion and includes Barnard's Loop, the Horsehead Nebula, M43, M78, and the Flame Nebula. Stars are forming throughout the entire Cloud Complex, but most of the young stars are concentrated in dense clusters like the one illuminating the Orion Nebula. The current astronomical model for the nebula consists of an ionized (H II) region, roughly centered on Theta1 Orionis C, which lies on the side of an elongated molecular cloud in a cavity formed by the massive young stars. (Theta1 Orionis C emits 3-4 times as much photoionizing light as the next brightest star, Theta2 Orionis A.) The H II region has a temperature ranging up to 10,000 K, but this temperature falls dramatically near the edge of the nebula. The nebulous emission comes primarily from photoionized gas on the back surface of the cavity. The H II region is surrounded by an irregular, concave bay of more neutral, high-density cloud, with clumps of neutral gas lying outside the bay area. This in turn lies on the perimeter of the Orion Molecular Cloud. The gas in the molecular cloud displays a range of velocities and turbulence, particularly around the core region. Relative movements are up to 10 km/s (22,000 mi/h), with local variations of up to 50 km/s and possibly more. Observers have given names to various features in the Orion Nebula. The dark lane that extends from the north toward the bright region is called the "Fish's Mouth". The illuminated regions to both sides are called the "Wings". Other features include "The Sword", "The Thrust", and "The Sail". Star formation The Orion Nebula is an example of a stellar nursery where new stars are being born. Observations of the nebula have revealed approximately 700 stars in various stages of formation within the nebula. In 1979 observations with the Lallemand electronic camera at the Pic-du-Midi Observatory showed six unresolved high-ionization sources near the Trapezium Cluster. These sources were interpreted as partly ionized globules (PIGs). The idea was that these objects are being ionized from the outside by M42. Later observations with the Very Large Array showed solar-system-sized condensations associated with these sources. Here the idea appeared that these objects might be low-mass stars surrounded by an evaporating protostellar accretion disk. In 1993 observations with the Hubble Space Telescope have yielded the major confirmation of protoplanetary disks within the Orion Nebula, which have been dubbed proplyds. HST has revealed more than 150 of these within the nebula, and they are considered to be systems in the earliest stages of solar system formation. The sheer numbers of them have been used as evidence that the formation of star systems is fairly common in the universe. Stars form when clumps of hydrogen and other gases in an H II region contract under their own gravity. As the gas collapses, the central clump grows stronger and the gas heats to extreme temperatures by converting gravitational potential energy to thermal energy. If the temperature gets high enough, nuclear fusion will ignite and form a protostar. The protostar is 'born' when it begins to emit enough radiative energy to balance out its gravity and halt gravitational collapse. Typically, a cloud of material remains a substantial distance from the star before the fusion reaction ignites. This remnant cloud is the protostar's protoplanetary disk, where planets may form. Recent infrared observations show that dust grains in these protoplanetary disks are growing, beginning on the path towards forming planetesimals. Once the protostar enters into its main sequence phase, it is classified as a star. Even though most planetary disks can form planets, observations show that intense stellar radiation should have destroyed any proplyds that formed near the Trapezium group, if the group is as old as the low mass stars in the cluster. Since proplyds are found very close to the Trapezium group, it can be argued that those stars are much younger than the rest of the cluster members. Stellar wind and effects Once formed, the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a stellar wind. Massive stars and young stars have much stronger stellar winds than the Sun. The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula, which then shapes the gas clouds. The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds, creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud. There are three different kinds of shocks in the Orion Nebula. Many are featured in Herbig–Haro objects: Bow shocks are stationary and are formed when two particle streams collide with each other. They are present near the hottest stars in the nebula where the stellar wind speed is estimated to be thousands of kilometers per second and in the outer parts of the nebula where the speeds are tens of kilometers per second. Bow shocks can also form at the front end of stellar jets when the jet hits interstellar particles. Jet-driven shocks are formed from jets of material sprouting off newborn T Tauri stars. These narrow streams are traveling at hundreds of kilometers per second, and become shocks when they encounter relatively stationary gases. Warped shocks appear bow-like to an observer. They are produced when a jet-driven shock encounters gas moving in a cross-current. The interaction of the stellar wind with the surrounding cloud also forms "waves" which are believed to be due to the hydrodynamical Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. The dynamic gas motions in M42 are complex, but are trending out through the opening in the bay and toward the Earth. The large neutral area behind the ionized region is currently contracting under its own gravity. There are also supersonic "bullets" of gas piercing the hydrogen clouds of the Orion Nebula. Each bullet is ten times the diameter of Pluto's orbit and tipped with iron atoms glowing in the infrared. They were probably formed one thousand years earlier from an unknown violent event. Evolution Interstellar clouds like the Orion Nebula are found throughout galaxies such as the Milky Way. They begin as gravitationally bound blobs of cold, neutral hydrogen, intermixed with traces of other elements. The cloud can contain hundreds of thousands of solar masses and extend for hundreds of light years. The tiny force of gravity that could compel the cloud to collapse is counterbalanced by the very faint pressure of the gas in the cloud. Whether due to collisions with a spiral arm, or through the shock wave emitted from supernovae, the atoms are precipitated into heavier molecules and the result is a molecular cloud. This presages the formation of stars within the cloud, usually thought to be within a period of 10–30 million years, as regions pass the Jeans mass and the destabilized volumes collapse into disks. The disk concentrates at the core to form a star, which may be surrounded by a protoplanetary disk. This is the current stage of evolution of the nebula, with additional stars still forming from the collapsing molecular cloud. The youngest and brightest stars we now see in the Orion Nebula are thought to be less than 300,000 years old, and the brightest may be only 10,000 years in age. Some of these collapsing stars can be particularly massive, and can emit large quantities of ionizing ultraviolet radiation. An example of this is seen with the Trapezium cluster. Over time the ultraviolet light from the massive stars at the center of the nebula will push away the surrounding gas and dust in a process called photo evaporation. This process is responsible for creating the interior cavity of the nebula, allowing the stars at the core to be viewed from Earth. The largest of these stars have short life spans and will evolve to become supernovae. Within about 100,000 years, most of the gas and dust will be ejected. The remains will form a young open cluster, a cluster of bright, young stars surrounded by wispy filaments from the former cloud. See also Barnard's Loop Kleinmann–Low Nebula Flame Nebula (NGC 2024) Horsehead Nebula Hubble 3D (2010), an IMAX film with an elaborate CGI fly-through of the Orion Nebula List of diffuse nebulae List of Messier objects M43, which is part of the Orion Nebula M78, a reflection nebula New General Catalogue Orion correlation theory Orion Molecular Cloud Complex Orion OB1 Association Notes 1,270 × tan( 66′ / 2 ) = 12 ly. radius From temperate zones in the Northern Hemisphere, the nebula appears below the Belt of Orion; from temperate zones in the Southern Hemisphere the nebula appears above the Belt. C. Robert O'Dell commented about this Wikipedia article, "The only egregious error is the last sentence in the Stellar Formation section. It should actually read 'Even though most planetary disks can form planets, observations show that intense stellar radiation should have destroyed any proplyds that formed near the Trapezium group, if the group is as old as the low mass stars in the cluster. Since proplyds are found very close to the Trapezium group, it can be argued that those stars are much younger than the rest of the cluster members.'" References External links Orion Nebula photographs taken by Andrew Ainslie Common in 1883, part of the London Science Museum's collection "Animated tour of the Orion Nebula" , University of South Wales Orion Nebula observed by Chandra/HST Orion Nebula observed by Gemini Observatory Orion Nebula at ESA/Hubble Messier 42, SEDS Messier pages and specifically NGC 1976. January 2006 Hubble Space Telescope image of the Orion Nebula January 2006 Hubble Space Telescope image of the Trapezium cluster Orion Nebula M42, Hubble Images Remarkable new views captured of Orion Nebula, SpaceFlight Now, 2001. NightSkyInfo.com – The Great Orion Nebula Astronomy Picture of the Day Spitzer's Orion 2010 April 10 Planetary Systems Now Forming in Orion 2009 December 22 Great Orion Nebulae 2008 October 23 ESO: Hidden Secrets of Orion’s Clouds incl. Photos and animations Messier objects H II regions NGC objects Orion Molecular Cloud Complex Orion (constellation) Orion–Cygnus Arm Diffuse nebulae 16101126 Astronomical objects known since antiquity Articles containing video clips Star-forming regions

AFL–CIO

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The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL–CIO) is the largest federation of unions in the United States. It is made up of 56 national and international unions, together representing more than 12 million active and retired workers. The AFL–CIO engages in substantial political spending and activism, typically in support of liberal or progressive policies. The AFL–CIO was formed in 1955 when the AFL and the CIO merged after a long estrangement. Union membership in the USA peaked in 1979, when the AFL–CIO's affiliated unions had nearly twenty million members. From 1955 until 2005, the AFL–CIO's member unions represented nearly all unionized workers in the United States. Several large unions split away from AFL–CIO and formed the rival Change to Win Federation in 2005, although a number of those unions have since re-affiliated, and many locals of Change to Win are either part of or work with their local central labor councils. The largest unions currently in the AFL–CIO are the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) with approximately 1.7 million members, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), with approximately 1.4 million members, and United Food and Commercial Workers with 1.2 million members. Membership The AFL–CIO is a federation of international labor unions. As a voluntary federation, the AFL–CIO has little authority over the affairs of its member unions except in extremely limited cases (such as the ability to expel a member union for corruption and enforce resolution of disagreements over jurisdiction or organizing). As of September 2020, the AFL–CIO had 56 member unions representing 12.1 million members. Political activities The AFL–CIO was a major component of the New Deal Coalition that dominated politics into the mid-1960s. Although it has lost membership, finances, and political clout since 1970, it remains a major player on the liberal side of national politics, with a great deal of activity in lobbying, grassroots organizing, coordinating with other liberal organizations, fund-raising, and recruiting and supporting candidates around the country. In recent years the AFL–CIO has concentrated its political efforts on lobbying in Washington and the state capitals, and on "GOTV" (get-out-the-vote) campaigns in major elections. For example, in the 2010 midterm elections, it sent 28.6 million pieces of mail. Members received a "slate card" with a list of union endorsements matched to the member's congressional district, along with a "personalized" letter from President Obama emphasizing the importance of voting. In addition, 100,000 volunteers went door-to-door to promote endorsed candidates to 13 million union voters in 32 states. Governance The AFL–CIO is governed by its members, who meet in a quadrennial convention. Each member union elects delegates, based on proportional representation. The AFL–CIO's state federations, central and local labor councils, constitutional departments, and constituent groups are also entitled to delegates. The delegates elect officers and vice presidents, debate and approve policy, and set dues. Annual meetings From 1951 to 1996, the Executive Council held its winter meeting in the resort town of Bal Harbour, Florida. The meeting at the Bal Harbour Sheraton has been the object of frequent criticism, including over a labor dispute at the hotel itself. Citing image concerns, the council changed the meeting site to Los Angeles. However, the meeting was moved back to Bal Harbour several years later. The 2012 meeting was held in Orlando, Florida. State and local bodies The AFL–CIO constitution permits international unions to pay state federation and CLC dues directly, rather than have each local or state federation pay them. This relieves each union's state and local affiliates of the administrative duty of assessing, collecting and paying the dues. International unions assess the AFL–CIO dues themselves, and collect them on top of their own dues-generating mechanisms or simply pay them out of the dues the international collects. But not all international unions pay their required state federation and CLC dues. Constitutional departments One of the most well-known departments was the Industrial Union Department (IUD). It had been constitutionally mandated by the new AFL–CIO constitution created by the merger of the AFL and CIO in 1955, as CIO unions felt that the AFL's commitment to industrial unionism was not strong enough to permit the department to survive without a constitutional mandate. For many years, the IUD was a de facto organizing department in the AFL–CIO. For example, it provided money to the near-destitute American Federation of Teachers (AFT) as it attempted to organize the United Federation of Teachers in 1961. The organizing money enabled the AFT to win the election and establish its first large collective bargaining affiliate. For many years, the IUD remained rather militant on a number of issues. There are six AFL–CIO constitutionally mandated departments: Building and Construction Trades Department, AFL-CIO Maritime Trades Department, AFL-CIO Metal Trades Department, AFL-CIO Department for Professional Employees, AFL-CIO Transportation Trades Department, AFL-CIO Union Label Department, AFL-CIO Constituency groups Constituency groups are nonprofit organizations chartered and funded by the AFL–CIO as voter registration and mobilization bodies. These groups conduct research, host training and educational conferences, issue research reports and publications, lobby for legislation and build coalitions with local groups. Each constituency group has the right to sit in on AFL–CIO executive council meetings, and to exercise representational and voting rights at AFL–CIO conventions. The AFL–CIO's seven constituency groups include the A. Philip Randolph Institute, the AFL–CIO Union Veterans Council, the Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance, the Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, the Coalition of Labor Union Women, the Labor Council for Latin American Advancement and Pride at Work. Allied organizations The Working for America Institute started out as a department of the AFL–CIO. Established in 1958, it was previously known as the Human Resources Development Institute (HRDI). John Sweeney renamed the department and spun it off as an independent organization in 1998 to act as a lobbying group to promote economic development, develop new economic policies, and lobby Congress on economic policy. The American Center for International Labor Solidarity started out as the Free Trade Union Committee (FTUC), which internationally promoted free labor-unions. Other organizations that are allied with the AFL–CIO include: Alliance for Retired Americans Solidarity Center American Rights at Work International Labor Communications Association Jobs with Justice Labor Heritage Foundation Labor and Working-Class History Association National Day Laborer Organizing Network United Students Against Sweatshops Working America Working for America Institute Ohio Organizing Collaborative Programs Programs are organizations established and controlled by the AFL–CIO to serve certain organizational goals. Programs of the AFL–CIO include the AFL–CIO Building Investment Trust, the AFL-CIO Employees Federal Credit Union, the AFL–CIO Housing Investment Trust, the National Labor College and Union Privilege. International policy The AFL–CIO is affiliated to the Brussels-based International Trade Union Confederation, formed November 1, 2006. The new body incorporated the member organizations of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, of which the AFL–CIO had long been part. The AFL–CIO had had a very active foreign policy in building and strengthening free trade unions. During the Cold War, it vigorously opposed Communist unions in Latin America and Europe. In opposing Communism, it helped split the CGT in France and helped create the anti-Communist Force Ouvrière. According to the cybersecurity firm Area 1, hackers working for the People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force compromised the networks of the AFL–CIO in order to gain information on negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Partnership. History Civil rights The AFL–CIO has a long relationship with civil rights struggles. One of the major points of contention between the AFL and the CIO, particularly in the era immediately after the CIO split off, was the CIO's willingness to include black workers (excluded by the AFL in its focus on craft unionism.) Later, blacks would also criticize the CIO for abandoning their interests, particularly after the merger with the AFL. King hoped for a coalition between civil rights and labor that would improve the situation for the entire working class by ending racial discrimination. However, King also criticized the AFL–CIO for its tolerance of unions that excluded black workers. "I would be lacking in honesty," he told the delegates of the 1965 Illinois AFL–CIO Convention during his keynote address, "if I did not point out that the labor movement of thirty years ago did more in that period for civil rights than labor is doing today...Our combined strength is potentially enormous, but we have not used a fraction of it for our own good or the needs of society as a whole." King and the AFL–CIO diverged further in 1967, when King announced his opposition to the Vietnam War, which the AFL–CIO strongly supported. The AFL–CIO endorsed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the 21st Century, the AFL–CIO has been criticized by campaigners against police violence for its affiliation with the International Union of Police Associations (IUPA). On May 31, 2020, the AFL–CIO offices in Washington, D.C. were set on fire during the George Floyd protests taking place in the city. In response, AFL–CIO president Richard Trumka condemned both the murder of George Floyd and the destruction of the offices, but did not address demands to end the organization's affiliation with the IUPA. New Unity Partnership In 2003, the AFL–CIO began an intense internal debate over the future of the labor movement in the United States with the creation of the New Unity Partnership (NUP), a loose coalition of some of the AFL–CIO's largest unions. This debate intensified in 2004, after the defeat of labor-backed candidate John Kerry in the November 2004 U.S. presidential election. The NUP's program for reform of the federation included reduction of the central bureaucracy, more money spent on organizing new members rather than on electoral politics, and a restructuring of unions and locals, eliminating some smaller locals and focusing more along the lines of industrial unionism. In 2005, the NUP dissolved and the Change to Win Federation (CtW) formed, threatening to secede from the AFL–CIO if its demands for major reorganization were not met. As the AFL–CIO prepared for its 50th anniversary convention in late July, three of the federations' four largest unions announced their withdrawal from the federation: the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), the International Brotherhood of Teamsters ("The Teamsters"), and the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union (UFCW). UNITE HERE disaffiliated in mid-September 2005, the United Farm Workers left in January 2006, and the Laborers' International Union of North America disaffiliated on June 1, 2006. Two unions later left CtW and rejoined the AFL–CIO. After a bitter internal leadership dispute that involved allegations of embezzlement and accusations that SEIU was attempting to raid the union, a substantial number of UNITE HERE members formed their own union (Workers United) while the remainder of UNITE HERE reaffiliated with the AFL–CIO on September 17, 2009. The Laborers' International Union of North America said on August 13, 2010, that it would also leave Change to Win and rejoin the AFL–CIO in October 2010. ILWU disaffiliation In August 2013, the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) disaffiliated from the AFL–CIO. The ILWU said that members of other AFL–CIO unions were crossing its picket lines, and the AFL–CIO had done nothing to stop it. The ILWU also cited the AFL–CIO's willingness to compromise on key policies such as labor law reform, immigration reform, and health care reform. The longshoremen's union said it would become an independent union. Presidents George Meany (1955–1979) Lane Kirkland (1979–1995) Thomas R. Donahue (1995) John J. Sweeney (1995–2009) Richard Trumka (2009–2021) Liz Shuler (2021–present) See also Change to Win Federation Directly Affiliated Local Union (DALU) Labor federation competition in the U.S. Labor movement Labor unions in the United States List of unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO List of U.S. trade unions Industrial Workers of the World Union organizer References Further reading Amber, Michelle. "SEIU Agrees to Pay Nearly $4 Million to Settle Dispute With AFL-CIO Over Dues." Daily Labor Report. March 2, 2006. Arnesen, Eric, ed. Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History (2006), 3 vol; 2064pp; 650 articles by experts Gilroy, Tom. "Labor to Stress Get-Out-the-Vote Among Members in Fall Elections." Labor Relations Week. October 21, 1998. Greenhouse, Steven. "For Chairwoman of Breakaway Labor Coalition, Deep Roots in the Movement." New York Times. October 10, 2005. Lichtenstein, Nelson. "Two Roads Forward for Labor: The AFL-CIO's New Agenda." Dissent 61.1 (2014): 54–58. Online Lichtenstein, Nelson. State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (2nd ed. 2013) Minchin, Timothy J. Labor under Fire: A History of the AFL-CIO since 1979 (U of North Carolina Press, 2017). xvi, 414 pp. Mort, Jo-Ann, ed. Not Your Father's Union Movement: Inside the AFL-CIO (2002) Rosenfeld, Jake. What Unions No Longer Do. (Harvard University Press, 2014) Tillman, Ray M. and Michael S. Cummings. The Transformation of U.S. Unions: Voices, Visions, and Strategies from the Grassroots (1999) Yates, Michael D. Why Unions Matter (2009) Constitution Constitution of the AFL-CIO, as amended at the Twenty-Fifth Constitutional Convention, July 25-28, 2005. Accessed January 15, 2007. Archives In 2013, the AFL-CIO named the University of Maryland Libraries as their official repository, succeeding the closed National Labor College.  The archival and library holdings were transferred in 2013, dating from the establishment of the AFL (1881), and offer almost complete records from the founding of the AFL-CIO (1955).  Among the estimated 40 million documents are AFL-CIO Department records, trade department records, international union records, union programs, union organizations with allied or affiliate relationships with the AFL-CIO, and personal papers of union leaders. Extensive photo documentation of labor union activities from the 1940s to the present are in the photographic negative and digital collections.  Additionally, collections of graphic images, over 10,000 audio tapes, several hundred films and videotapes, and over 2,000 artifacts are available for public research and study. AFL-CIO Region 9 Records. circa 1955-2000. 14.00 cubic feet (14 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Preliminary Guide to the AFL-CIO King County Labor Council of Washington Provisional Trades Section Records. 1935-1971. .42 cubic foot (1 box). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. AFL-CIO, Washington State Labor Council Records. 1919-2010. 187.18 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Washington State Federation of Labor Records. 1901-1967. 45.44 cubic feet (including 2 microfilm reels, 1 package, and 1 vertical file). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Antonia Bohan 1995 AFL-CIO Convention Delegate Collection. 1995-1996. 0.39 cubic feet (1 box and 1 oversized folder). At University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections. Contains material collected by Bohan as a Service Employees International Union delegate to the AFL-CIO convention that elected John Sweeney president in 1995. Jackie Boschok Papers. 1979-2011. 16.32 cubic feet (22 boxes). At University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections. Contains records from AFL-CIO National Community Services Documents, AFL-CIO Resources, and AFL-CIO Working Women Working Together Conference Records. Phil Lelli Papers. 1933-2004. 10.45 cubic feet (11 boxes and 1 vertical file). At University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections. Contains "Principles of Autonomy & Jurisdictional Intergrity within the AFL-CIO". George Meany Memorial AFL-CIO Archive. Approximately 40 million documents. At University of Maryland Libraries, Special Collections and University Archives. Contains material that will help researchers better understand pivotal social movements in this country, including those to gain rights for women, children and minorities. AFL and AFL-CIO International Affairs Department, AFL Advisors to the United Nations Economic and Social Council records, at the University of Maryland libraries. Contains correspondence between AFL advisors and the United Nations Economic and Social Council. AFL-CIO Merger Oral History Project collection, at the University of Maryland Libraries. Contains staff oral histories that explores the history of the 1955 merger: its challenges and successes. External links AFL-CIO at OpenSecrets.org One Hat for Labor? by David Moberg, The Nation, April 29, 2009. Labor's Cold War by Tim Shorrock. The Nation'', May 19, 2003. AFL-CIO Organization and Field Services Department, International and National Union Charter Files at the University of Maryland Libraries 1955 establishments in the United States 1955 in economics 527 organizations National federations of trade unions National trade union centers of the United States Organizations based in Washington, D.C. Organizations established in 1955 Trade Union Confederation of the Americas

Social Security Trust Fund

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The Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Fund (collectively, the Social Security Trust Fund or Trust Funds) are trust funds that provide for payment of Social Security (Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance; OASDI) benefits administered by the United States Social Security Administration. The Social Security Administration collects payroll taxes and uses the money collected to pay Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance benefits by way of trust funds. When the program runs a surplus, the excess funds increase the value of the Trust Fund. As of 2021, the Trust Fund contained (or alternatively, was owed) $2.908 trillion The Trust Fund is required by law to be invested in non-marketable securities issued and guaranteed by the "full faith and credit" of the federal government. These securities earn a market rate of interest. Excess funds are used by the government for non-Social Security purposes, creating the obligations to the Social Security Administration and thus program recipients. However, Congress could cut these obligations by altering the law. Trust Fund obligations are considered "intra-governmental" debt, a component of the "public" or "national" debt. As of June 2015, the intragovernmental debt was $5.1 trillion of the $18.2 trillion national debt. According to the Social Security Trustees, who oversee the program and report on its financial condition, program costs are expected to exceed non-interest income from 2010 onward. However, due to interest (earned at a 3.6% rate in 2014) the program will run an overall surplus that adds to the fund through the end of 2019. Under current law, the securities in the Trust Fund represent a legal obligation the government must honor when program revenues are no longer sufficient to fully fund benefit payments. However, when the Trust Fund is used to cover program deficits in a given year, the Trust Fund balance is reduced. One projection scenario estimates that, by 2034, the Trust Fund could be exhausted. Thereafter, payroll taxes are projected to only cover approximately 76% of program obligations. There have been various proposals to address this shortfall, including: reducing government expenditures, such as by raising the retirement age; tax increases; and, borrowing. Structure The "Social Security Trust Fund" comprises two separate funds that hold federal government debt obligations related to what are traditionally thought of as Social Security benefits. The larger of these funds is the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust special interest-bearing federal government securities bought with surplus OASI payroll tax revenues. The second, smaller fund is the Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust more of the special interest-bearing federal government securities, bought with surplus DI payroll tax revenues. The trust funds are "off-budget" and treated separately in certain ways from other federal spending, and other trust funds of the federal government. From the U.S. Code: EXCLUSION OF SOCIAL SECURITY FROM ALL BUDGETS , title XIII, Sec. 13301(a), Nov. 5, 1990, , provided that: Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the receipts and disbursements of the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and the Federal Disability Insurance Trust Fund shall not be counted as new budget authority, outlays, receipts, or deficit or surplus for purposes of - (1) the budget of the United States Government as submitted by the President, (2) the congressional budget, or (3) the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985. The trust funds run surpluses in that the amount paid in by current workers is more than the amount paid out to current beneficiaries. These surpluses are invested in special U.S. government securities, which are deposited into the trust funds. If the trust funds begin running deficits, meaning more in benefits are paid out than contributions paid in, the Social Security Administration is empowered to redeem the securities and use those funds to cover the deficit. Governance The Board of Trustees of the Trust Funds is composed of 6 members: Secretary of the Treasury (the Managing Trustee), Secretary of Labor, Secretary of Health and Human Services, Commissioner of Social Security, and 2 members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for a term of four years. The Board of Trustees holds the trust funds. The Managing Trustee is responsible for investing the funds, which has been delegated to the Bureau of the Fiscal Service. History The Social Security system is primarily a pay-as-you-go system, meaning that payments to current retirees come from current payments into the system. The program was initially established in 1935 in response to the Great Depression. The first to file for Social Security was Ida Mae Fuller in 1940. Miss Fuller paid $24.75 in taxes during her three years working under the social security program, and drew an aggregate of $22,889 in benefits before passing at age 100. This represents a ratio of $925 in benefits for every dollar she paid into the program. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter and the 95th Congress increased the FICA tax to fund Social Security, phased in gradually into the 1980s. In the early 1980s, financial projections of the Social Security Administration indicated near-term revenue from payroll taxes would not be sufficient to fully fund near-term benefits (thus raising the possibility of benefit cuts). The federal government appointed the National Commission on Social Security Reform, headed by Alan Greenspan (who had not yet been named Chairman of the Federal Reserve), to investigate what additional changes to federal law were necessary to shore up the fiscal health of the Social Security program. The Greenspan Commission projected that the system would be solvent for the entirety of its 75-year forecast period with certain recommendations. The changes to federal law enacted in 1983 and signed by President Reagan and pursuant to the recommendations of the Greenspan Commission advanced the time frame for previously scheduled payroll tax increases (though it raised slightly the payroll tax for the self-employed to equal the employer-employee rate), changed certain benefit calculations, and raised the retirement age to 67 by the year 2027. As of the end of calendar year 2010, the accumulated surplus in the Social Security Trust Fund stood at just over $2.6 trillion. Social Security benefits are paid from a combination of social security payroll taxes paid by current workers and interest income earned by the Social Security Trust Fund. According to the projections of the Social Security Administration, the Trust Fund will continue to show net growth until 2022 because the interest generated by its bonds and the revenue from payroll taxes exceeds the amount needed to pay benefits. After 2022, without increases in Social Security taxes or cuts in benefits, the Fund is projected to decrease each year until being fully exhausted in 2034. At this point, if legislative action is not taken, the benefits would be reduced. In an annually issued report released in August 2021, the U.S. Treasury Department announced that the Old-Age and Survivors Trust Fund was projected to be able to pay scheduled benefits until 2033 while the Disability Insurance Trust Fund was projected to be able to pay its benefits through 2057, 1 year and 8 years earlier respectively than the previous report found. Recent activity and financial status The 2015 Trustees Report Press Release (which covered 2014 statistics) stated: "Income including interest to the combined OASDI Trust Funds amounted to $884 billion in 2014. ($756 billion in net contributions, $30 billion from taxation of benefits, $98 billion in interest, and less than $1 billion in reimbursements from the General Fund of the Treasury—almost exclusively resulting from the 2012 payroll tax legislation) Total expenditures from the combined OASDI Trust Funds amounted to $859 billion in 2014. Non-interest income fell below program costs in 2010 for the first time since 1983. Program costs are projected to exceed non-interest income throughout the remainder of the 75-year period. The asset reserves of the combined OASDI Trust Funds increased by $25 billion in 2014 to a total of $2.79 trillion. During 2014, an estimated 166 million people had earnings covered by Social Security and paid payroll taxes. Social Security paid benefits of $848 billion in calendar year 2014. There were about 59 million beneficiaries at the end of the calendar year. The cost of $6.1 billion to administer the program in 2014 was 0.7 percent of total expenditures. The combined Trust Fund asset reserves earned interest at an effective annual rate of 3.6 percent in 2014." Some basic equations for understanding the fund balance include: Fund ending balance for a given year = Fund starting balance + program revenues + interest - program payouts Program annual surplus (or deficit if negative) = program revenues + interest - program expenses Program annual cash surplus (or deficit if negative) = program revenues - program expenses "Program revenues" has several components, including payroll tax contributions, taxation of benefits, and an accounting entry to reflect recent payroll tax cuts during 2011 and 2012, to make the fund "whole" as if these tax cuts had not occurred. These all add to the program revenues. During 2016, the initial balance as of January 1 was $2,780 billion. An additional $710 billion in payroll tax revenue and $87 billion in interest added to the Fund during 2016, while expenses of $776 billion were removed from the Fund, for a December 31, 2016 balance of $2,801 billion (i.e., $2,780 + $710 + $87 - $776 = $2,801). Recent attention Under George W. Bush On February 2, 2005, President George W. Bush made Social Security a prominent theme of his State of the Union Address. One consequence was increased public attention to the nature of the Social Security Trust Fund. Unlike a typical private pension plan, the Social Security Trust Fund does not hold any marketable assets to secure workers' paid-in contributions. Instead, it holds non-negotiable United States Treasury bonds and U.S. securities backed "by the full faith and credit of the U.S. government". The trust funds have been invested primarily in non-marketable Treasury debt, first, because the Social Security Act prohibits "prefunding" by investment in equities or corporate bonds and, second, because of a general desire to avoid large swings in the Treasuries market that would otherwise result if Social Security invested large sums of payroll tax receipts in marketable government bonds or redeemed these marketable government bonds to pay benefits. The Office of Management and Budget has described the distinction as follows: Other public officials have argued that the trust funds do have financial or moral value, similar to the value of any other Treasury bill, note or bond. This confidence stems largely from the "full faith and credit" guarantee. "If one believes that the trust fund assets are worthless," argued former Representative Bill Archer, then similar reasoning implies that "Americans who have bought EE savings bonds should go home and burn them because they're worthless because the money has already been spent." At a Senate hearing in July 2001, Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan was asked whether the trust fund investments are "real" or merely an accounting device. He responded, "The crucial question: Are they ultimate claims on real resources? And the answer is yes." Like other U.S. government debt obligations, the government bonds held by the trust funds are guaranteed by the "full faith and credit" of the U.S. government. To escape paying either principal or interest on the "special" bonds held by the trust funds, the government would have to default on these obligations. This cannot be done by executive order or by the Social Security Administration. Congress would have to pass legislation to repudiate these particular government bonds. This action by Congress could involve some political risk and, because it involves the financial security of older Americans, seems unlikely. An alternative to repudiating these bonds would be for Congress to simply cap Social Security spending at a level below that which would require the bonds to be redeemed. Again, this would be politically risky, but would not require a "default" on the bonds. From the point of view of the Social Security trust funds, the holdings of "special" government bonds are an investment that returned 5.5% to the trust funds in 2005. The trust funds cannot resell these "special" government bonds on the secondary bond market, although the interest rate is determined based on market interest rates. Instead, the "specials" can be sold back to the government at face value, which is an advantage when interest rates are rising. The week after his State of the Union speech, Bush downplayed the importance of the Trust Fund: Some in our country think that Social Security is a trust fund – in other words, there's a pile of money being accumulated. That's just simply not true. The money – payroll taxes going into the Social Security are spent. They're spent on benefits and they're spent on government programs. There is no trust. These comments were criticized as "lay[ing] the groundwork for defaulting on almost two trillion dollars' worth of US Treasury bonds". However, even right-leaning politicians have been inconsistent with the language they use when referencing Social Security. For example, Bush has referred to the system going "broke" in 2042. That date arises from the anticipated depletion of the Trust Fund, so Bush's language "seem[s] to suggest that there's something there that goes away in 2042." Specifically, in 2042 and for many decades thereafter, the Social Security system can continue to pay benefits, but benefit payments will be constrained by the revenue base from the 12.4% FICA (Social Security payroll) tax on wages. According to the Social Security trustees, continuing payroll tax revenues at the rate of 12.4% will enable Social Security to pay about 74% of promised benefits during the 2040s, with this ratio falling to about 70% by the end of the forecast period in 2080. Under Barack Obama In 2011 and 2012, the federal government temporarily extended the reduction in the employees' share of payroll taxes from 6.2% to 4.2% of compensation. The resulting shortfall was appropriated from the general Government funds. This increased public debt, but did not advance the year of depletion of the Trust Fund. Under Joe Biden Joe Biden's campaign platform proposed new payroll taxes for those making $400,000 or more per year (but after taking office, his tax proposal included only Medicare tax changes). An economic perspective Overview The Trust Fund represents a legal obligation of the federal government to program beneficiaries. Under current law, when the program goes into an annual cash deficit, the government has to seek alternate funding beyond the payroll taxes dedicated to the program to cover the shortfall. This reduces the trust fund balance to the extent this occurs. The program deficits are expected to exhaust the fund by 2034. Thereafter, since Social Security is only authorized to pay beneficiaries what it collects in payroll taxes dedicated to the program, program payouts will fall by an estimated 21%. The trust fund is expected to peak in 2021 at approximately $3.0 trillion. If the parts of the budget outside of Social Security are in deficit, which the Congressional Budget Office and multiple budget expert panels assume for the foreseeable future, there are several implications: Additional debt must be issued to investors to obtain the funding necessary to pay this obligation. This will increase "debt held by the public" while simultaneously reducing the "intragovernmental debt" represented by the trust fund. CBO reported in 2015 that: "Continued growth in the debt might lead investors to doubt the government's willingness or ability to pay its obligations, which would require the government to pay much higher interest rates on its borrowing." Other parts of the budget may be modified, with higher taxes and lower expenditures in other areas to fund Social Security. Debate regarding whether the proper debt-to-GDP ratio for evaluating U.S. credit risk is the "debt held by the public" or "total debt" (i.e., debt held by the public plus intragovernmental debt) will be rendered moot, as the amounts will converge substantially. On the other hand, if other parts of the budget are in surplus and program recipients can be paid from the general fund, then no additional debt need be issued. However, this scenario is highly unlikely. Commentary Some commentators believe that whether the trust fund is a fact or fiction comes down to whether the trust fund contributes to national savings or not. If $1 added to the fund increases national savings, or replaces borrowing from other lenders, by $1, the trust fund is real. If $1 added to the fund does not replace other borrowing or otherwise increase national savings, the trust fund is not "real". Some economic research argues that the trust funds have led to only a small to modest increase in national savings and that the bulk of the trust fund has been "spent". Others suggest a more significant savings effect. References Further reading Mamta Murthi, J. Michael Orszag, and Peter R. Orszag, "The Charge Ratio on individual accounts: Lessons from the UK Experience," Birkbeck College Working Paper 99–2. March 1999 Eric M. Patashnik. 2000. Putting Trust in the US Budget: Federal Trust Funds and the Politics of Commitment. Cambridge University Press. External links Social Security: The Trust Fund Congressional Research Service Social Security Trust Fund Cash Flows and Reserves Social Security Bulletin Trust fund Public pension funds in the United States

Colorado River (Texas)

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The Colorado River is an approximately long river in the U.S. state of Texas. It is the 18th longest river in the United States and the longest river with both its source and its mouth within Texas. Its drainage basin and some of its usually dry tributaries extend into New Mexico. It flows generally southeast from Dawson County through Ballinger, Marble Falls, Austin, Bastrop, Smithville, La Grange, Columbus, Wharton, and Bay City, before emptying into the Gulf of Mexico at Matagorda Bay. Course The Colorado River originates south of Lubbock, on the Llano Estacado near Lamesa. It flows generally southeast out of the Llano Estacado and through the Texas Hill Country, then through several reservoirs including Lake J.B. Thomas, E.V. Spence Reservoir, and O.H. Ivie Lake. The river flows through several more reservoirs before reaching Austin, including Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake Lyndon B. Johnson (commonly referred to as Lake LBJ), and Lake Travis. The Llano River joins the Colorado at Lake LBJ near Kingsland, and the Pedernales River joins at Lake Travis near Briarcliff. After passing through Austin, the Colorado River continues flowing southeast until emptying into Matagorda Bay on the Gulf of Mexico, near Matagorda. History The Colorado River, which means 'red' or 'reddish' river in Spanish, was frequently confused by Spanish explorers with the Brazos River to the north. The European discoverer of these two neighboring rivers called the present Colorado River the , and called the present Brazos the Colorado River. The two names would later be reversed. The upper Colorado River was controlled by Comanches from the early 18th century to the late 19th century. In 1757, Spanish Texas attempted to establish an outlying Catholic mission (Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá) on the San Saba River, near its confluence with the Colorado River. Nearly defenseless and viewed by the Comanche tribe as a territorial invasion, the mission was sacked in 1758 by about 2,000 Comanches and their allies. The Comanche were not effectively challenged on the upper Colorado River for nearly a century. River modifications The river is an important source of water for farming, cities, and electrical power production. Major man-made reservoirs on the river include Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake LBJ, Lake Marble Falls, Lake Travis, Lake Austin, and Lady Bird Lake in Austin. Collectively, these lakes are known as the Highland Lakes. In addition to power plants operating on each of the major lakes, waters of the Colorado are used for cooling the South Texas Nuclear Project near Bay City. The Colorado River Municipal Water District owns and operates three reservoirs upstream of the Highland Lakes: Lake J. B. Thomas near Snyder, E.V. Spence Reservoir near Robert Lee, and O.H. Ivie Lake near Ballinger. Flood control and use of the Colorado River is managed by two agencies established by the Texas Legislature: the Upper Colorado River Authority and the Lower Colorado River Authority. There are 11 major reservoirs along the Colorado River. Major tributaries The Colorado River is joined by five significant tributaries: the Concho River, Pecan Bayou, the Llano River, the San Saba River and the Pedernales River. Beals Creek is also a tributary fed by arroyos such as the Sulphur Springs Draw, the Johnson Draw, and the McKenzie, Seminole, Monument, Mustang, and Midland draws. Gallery See also List of crossings of the Colorado River (Texas) List of tributaries of the Colorado River (Texas) Matagorda Bay — the river's mouth Texas Hill Country List of rivers of Texas Colorado City, Texas Notes External links Upper Colorado River Authority Lower Colorado River Authority Rivers of Texas Drainage basins of the Gulf of Mexico Llano Estacado Texas Hill Country Rivers of Dawson County, Texas Rivers of Matagorda County, Texas Rivers of Borden County, Texas Rivers of Scurry County, Texas Rivers of Mitchell County, Texas Rivers of Coke County, Texas Rivers of Runnels County, Texas Rivers of Coleman County, Texas Rivers of Concho County, Texas Rivers of McCulloch County, Texas Rivers of Brown County, Texas Rivers of San Saba County, Texas Rivers of Mills County, Texas Rivers of Lampasas County, Texas Rivers of Burnet County, Texas Rivers of Travis County, Texas Rivers of Bastrop County, Texas Rivers of Fayette County, Texas Rivers of Colorado County, Texas Rivers of Wharton County, Texas

1904 Summer Olympics

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The 1904 Summer Olympics (officially the Games of the III Olympiad and also known as St. Louis 1904) were an international multi-sport event held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from August 29 to September 3, 1904, as part of an extended sports program lasting from July 1 to November 23, 1904, located at what is now known as Francis Field on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis. This was the first time that the Olympic Games were held outside Europe. Tensions caused by the Russo–Japanese War and difficulties in traveling to St. Louis resulted in very few top-class athletes from outside the US and Canada taking part in the 1904 Games. Only 62 of the 651 athletes who competed came from outside North America, and only between 12 and 15 nations were represented in all. Some events subsequently combined the US national championship with the Olympic championship. The current three-medal format of gold, silver and bronze for first, second and third place was introduced at the 1904 Olympics. Background Chicago, Illinois, won the bid to host the 1904 Summer Olympics, but the organizers of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis would not accept another international event in the same timeframe. The exposition organization began to plan for its own sports activities, informing the Chicago OCOG that its own international sports events intended to eclipse the Olympic Games unless they were moved to St. Louis. Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic movement, stepped in and awarded the Games to St. Louis. The Games Highlights Boxing, dumbbells, freestyle wrestling and the decathlon made their debuts. The swimming events were held in a temporary pond near Skinker and Wydown Boulevards, where "lifesaving demonstrations" of unsinkable lifeboats for ocean liners took place. One of the most remarkable athletes was the American gymnast George Eyser, who won six medals even though his left leg was made of wood, and Frank Kugler won four medals in freestyle wrestling, weightlifting and tug of war, making him the only competitor to win a medal in three different sports at the same Olympic Games. Chicago runner James Lightbody won the steeplechase and the 800 m and then set a world record in the 1500 m. Harry Hillman won both the 200 m and 400 m hurdles and also the flat 400 m. Sprinter Archie Hahn was champion in the 60 m, 100 m and 200 m. In this last race, he set an Olympic record in 21.6, a record that stood for 28 years. In the discus, after American Martin Sheridan had thrown exactly the same distance as his compatriot, Ralph Rose (39.28 m), the judges gave them both an extra throw to decide the winner. Sheridan won the decider and claimed the gold medal. Ray Ewry again won all three standing jumps. The team representing Great Britain was awarded a total of two medals, both won by Irish athletes. The top non-USA athlete was Emil Rausch of Germany, who won three swimming events. Zoltán Halmay of Hungary and Charles Daniels of the United States each won two swimming gold medals. Galt Football Club from Canada won the gold medal in football. The organizers of the World's Fair held "Anthropology Days" on August 12 and 13. Since the 1889 Paris Exposition, human zoos, as a key feature of world's fairs, functioned as demonstrations of anthropological notions of race, progress, and civilization. These goals were followed also at the 1904 World's Fair. Fourteen hundred indigenous people from Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, East Asia, Africa, the Middle East, South America and North America were displayed in anthropological exhibits that showed them in their natural habitats. Another 1600 indigenous people displayed their culture in other areas of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (LPE), including on the fairgrounds and at the Model School, where American Indian boarding schools students demonstrated their successful assimilation. The sporting event itself took place with the participation of about 100 paid indigenous men (no women participated in Anthropology Days, though some, notably the Fort Shaw Indian School girls basketball team, did compete in other athletic events at the LPE). Contests included "baseball throwing, shot put, running, broad jumping, weight lifting, pole climbing, and tugs-of-war before a crowd of approximately ten thousand". According to theorist Susan Brownell, world's fairs – with their inclusion of human zoos – and the Olympics were a logical fit at this time, as they "were both linked to an underlying cultural logic that gave them a natural affinity". Also, one of the original intentions of Anthropology Days was to create publicity for the official Olympic events. Sports The 1904 Summer Olympic program featured 16 sports encompassing 95 events in 18 disciplines. Swimming, diving and water polo are considered three disciplines of the same sport, aquatics. In July 2021 the IOC accepted the recommendation of Olympic historian Bill Mallon regarding which sports and events should be considered as Olympic. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. New sports Boxing made its Olympic debut at the St. Louis Games. The sport has since featured at every Summer Olympics, except for the 1912 Stockholm Games. While wrestling made a return, it was exclusively the newly-debuted freestyle wrestling as opposed to Greco-Roman style of the 1896 Summer Olympics. Later editions would have both styles of wrestling in their programs. Demonstration sports Basketball, hurling, American football and baseball were featured as demonstration sports. Gaelic football was also an unofficial demonstration sport at the 1904 Olympics. There was a demonstration bout of women's boxing. Water polo is also mentioned in the games reports for the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the time it was not considered to be a demonstration sport, but, as of 2020, the IOC does not include it in its records. Venues Five sports venues were used for the 1904 Summer Olympics. The venues included Glen Echo Country Club, the first golf course constructed west of the Mississippi River, which had opened in 1901. Three Olympic sports were hosted at Forest Park, the site of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition which was being held concurrently with the Olympics: the Life Saving Exhibition Lake at Forest Park was used for the diving, swimming, and water polo events. Creve Coeur Lake became the first park of St. Louis County in 1945. The Lake has hosted rowing regattas since 1882 and still hosts them as of 2010. Francis Olympic Field and Gymnasium are still in use on the Washington University in St. Louis campus as of 2021. An ornamental gate commemorating the 1904 Games was constructed outside the stadium immediately after the Exposition. A swimming pool was added to the gymnasium in 1985. Forest Park, constructed in 1876, is still in use as of 2021 and attracts over 12 million visitors annually. Glen Echo Country Club remains in use as a golf course today as of 2021. Participating nations Athletes from twelve nations competed in St. Louis. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of known competitors for each nation. Due to the difficulty of getting to St. Louis in 1904, and European tensions caused by the Russo-Japanese War, only 62 athletes from outside North America participated in the Olympics. Disputed Some sources also list athletes from the following nations as having competed at these Games. (1) Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count These are all nations to win medals at the 1904 Games. Notes on medalists The nationalities of some medalists were disputed, as many American athletes were recent immigrants to the United States who had not yet been granted US citizenship. In July 2021 IOC accepted the recommendation of Olympic historian Bill Mallon and adjusted data at Olympics database on all following cases. In 2009, historians from the International Society of Olympic Historians discovered that cyclist Frank Bizzoni, believed to be an American, was still an Italian citizen when he competed in 1904: he was granted US citizenship in 1917. Two Norwegian-American wrestlers, Charles Ericksen and Bernhoff Hansen won gold medals. In 2012, Norwegian historians found documentation showing that Ericksen did not receive American citizenship until March 22, 1905, and that Hansen probably never received American citizenship. The historians have therefore petitioned the IOC to have the athletes registered as Norwegians. In May 2013, it was reported that the Norwegian Olympic Committee had filed a formal application for changing the nationality of the wrestlers in the IOC's medal database. Francis Gailey competed in 1904 as an Australian. He immigrated to America in 1906, sailing to San Francisco in the SS Sonoma, and worked as a banker in California, living for a time in Ontario, Canada, where he married Mary Adams, and finally settled in 1918 in southern California, managing orange-grove plantations. Multi-medalist Frank Kugler of Germany, a member of the St. Louis Southwest Turnverein team, was granted US citizenship in 1913. Gustav Tiefenthaler was born in Switzerland, but the family moved to the United States when he was young. He represented the South Broadway AC in St. Louis. At the Olympics, Tiefenthaler wrestled one bout and lost, but earned a bronze medal. French-American Albert Corey won silver medal in marathon, and silver medal in team race as part of a mixed team (together with four undisputed Americans). Austrian gymnast Julius Lenhart won gold and silver medals in individual events and gold medal in team competition as a part of Mixed team. The IOC counted one gold, one silver, and two bronze medals won by the American fencer Albertson Van Zo Post for Cuba instead of the United States: the IOC also shows Charles Tatham as Cuban for individual fencing events and American for the team event, but he was an American. See also References External links The Olympic Games 1904, Charles J.P. Lucas Spalding's Athletic Almanac for 1905 Photos of the 1904 Olympics from the Missouri History Museum Olympic Games in the United States Summer Olympics by year Sports competitions in St. Louis St. Louis World's Fair Summer Olympics Summer Olympics Summer Olympics, 1904 Summer Olympics 1900s in St. Louis Olympic Games in Missouri Sports competitions in Missouri 1904 in sports in Missouri

List of winners of the Boston Marathon

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The Boston Marathon, one of the six World Marathon Majors, is a race which has been held in the Greater Boston area in Massachusetts since 1897. It is the oldest annual marathon in the world. The event is held on Patriots' Day, the third Monday of April. Various factors meant that until 1957 the course varied in length, due to which the marathon recognizes several course records that are slower than previous records due to being run on longer courses. The first Boston Marathon included only 15 runners, all of whom were men, and was won by John McDermott. The race was cancelled for the first time in its history in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The winners have represented 27 different countries: Americans have won the marathon the most, doing so on 108 occasions; Kenyans have won 34 times; and Canadians 21 times. Ernst van Dyk is the most successful individual athlete, having won the men's wheelchair division ten times. The current course records are held by Geoffrey Mutai, Buzunesh Deba, Marcel Hug and Manuela Schär. Clarence DeMar won the men's open race seven times, more than any other runner, achieving his first victory in 1911 and his last in 1930. Women were only officially allowed to run the race beginning in 1972, though female runners had unofficially participated beginning in 1966 despite breaching the rules of the Amateur Athletic Union. The first six victories in the women's open division, between 1966 and 1971, were officially recognized in 1996. Bobbi Gibb was the first woman to finish the race in 1966, while Nina Kuscsik was the first official winner in 1972. Catherine Ndereba's four victories between 2000 and 2005 are the most in the women's open division. The Boston Marathon became the first major marathon to include a wheelchair division, in 1975, which was won by Robert Hall, though the first person to complete the race in a wheelchair had been Eugene Roberts in 1970. The first female wheelchair finisher, Sharon Rahn, came in 1977. Ernst van Dyk's ten wins in the men's wheelchair division are the most of any athlete at Boston, while Jean Driscoll leads the women's wheelchair division with seven wins, and holds the overall record for the most consecutive victories, also seven. A handcyclist division was recognized for the first time in 2017, though handcyclists had been taking part prior to that. Tom Davis has won all three men's handcyclist races since it was officially recognized, while the women's race has had a different winner each year. The course was designed to replicate the original marathon in Greece; a hilly point-to-point race, and as such has not been the venue for many world records. Suh Yun-bok set the only World Athletics-ratified men's open division world record in 1947, in a time of 2:25:39. Two apparent world record times set between 1951 and 1956 by Keizo Yamada and Antti Viskari were later struck when the course was found to be over short. In 1975, Liane Winter took advantage of a following wind to set a world record in the women's open race of 2:42:24, and eight years later, Joan Benoit beat a world record that had only been set the day before at the London Marathon, finishing in 2:22:43. Since 1990, the Boston Marathon has been ineligible for world records, as the start and finish are too far away from each other, and the race is a net downhill. In 2011, Geoffrey Mutai won the race in 2:03:02, which was the world's fastest time for the marathon, beating the official world record by 57 seconds. Winners Key Men's open division Women's open division Men's wheelchair division Women's wheelchair division Men's handcycle division Women's handcycle division Victories by nationality Notes and references Notes Citations Boston

30 St Mary Axe

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30 St Mary Axe (previously known as the Swiss Re Building and informally known as the Gherkin) is a commercial skyscraper in London's primary financial district, the City of London. It was completed in December 2003 and opened in April 2004. With 41 floors, it is tall and stands on the sites of the former Baltic Exchange and Chamber of Shipping, which were extensively damaged in 1992 in the Baltic Exchange bombing by a device placed by the Provisional IRA in St Mary Axe, a narrow street leading north from Leadenhall Street. After plans to build the 92-storey Millennium Tower were dropped, 30 St Mary Axe was designed by Norman Foster and the Arup Group. It was erected by Skanska; construction started in 2001. The building has become a recognisable landmark of London, and it is one of the city's most widely recognised examples of contemporary architecture. It won the 2003 Emporis Skyscraper Award. Site and early plans The building stands on the site of the former Baltic Exchange (24–28 St Mary Axe), which was the headquarters of a global marketplace for shipping freight contracts and soft commodities, and the Chamber of Shipping (30–32 St Mary Axe). The tower's topmost panoramic dome, known as the "lens", recalls the iconic glass dome that covered part of the ground floor of the Baltic Exchange and much of which is now displayed at the National Maritime Museum. The Gherkin nickname was applied to the current building at least as early 1999, referring to the plan's highly unorthodox layout and appearance. On 10 April 1992, the Provisional IRA detonated a bomb close to the Baltic Exchange, causing extensive damage to the historic building and neighbouring structures. The United Kingdom government's statutory adviser on the historic environment, English Heritage, and the City of London's governing body, the City of London Corporation, were keen that any redevelopment must restore the Baltic Exchange's old façade onto St Mary Axe. The Exchange Hall was a celebrated fixture of the shipping market. English Heritage then discovered that the damage was far more severe than initially thought, and they stopped insisting on full restoration, albeit over the objections of architectural conservationists. The Baltic Exchange and the Chamber of Shipping sold the land to Trafalgar House in 1995. Most of the remaining structures on the Baltic Exchange site were then carefully dismantled, and the interior of Exchange Hall and the façade were preserved, hoping for a reconstruction of the building in the future. The salvaged material was eventually sold for £800,000 and moved to Tallinn, Estonia, where it awaits reconstruction as the centrepiece of the city's commercial sector. In 1996, Trafalgar House submitted plans for the London Millennium Tower, a building with more than of office space, apartments, shops, restaurants and gardens. This plan was dropped after objections that it was totally out-of-scale in the City of London, and anticipated disruption to flight paths for both London City and London Heathrow airports; the revised plan for a lower tower was accepted. Planning process John Prescott, the Deputy Prime Minister, granted planning permission on 23 August 2000 to construct a building on the site, which would be much larger than the old Exchange. The site needed development, was not on any of the "sight lines" (planning guidance requires that new buildings do not obstruct or detract from the view of St Paul's Cathedral dome when viewed from a number of locations around London), and had housed the Baltic Exchange. The plan for the site was to reconstruct the Baltic Exchange. GMW Architects proposed a new rectangular building surrounding a restored exchange: it would have the type of large floor plan that banks liked. Eventually, the planners realised that the exchange was not recoverable, forcing them to relax their building constraints; they hinted that an "architecturally significant" building might obtain a favourable reception from City authorities. This gave the architect a free hand in the design. The building was designed according to the client's needs, rather than for the needs of a large, capital-efficient, money-making building. The new building's low-level plan satisfied the planning authority's desire to maintain London's traditional streetscape, with its narrow streets. The massing of the tower was not too imposing. Like Barclays' former city headquarters in Lombard Street, the idea was that the passer-by in neighbouring streets would be nearly oblivious to the tower's existence until directly underneath it. Design and construction The building was constructed by Skanska, completed in December 2003 and opened on 28 April 2004. The primary occupant of the building is Swiss Re, a global reinsurance company, which had the building commissioned as the head office for its UK operation. The tower is thus sometimes known as the Swiss Re Building, although this name has never been official and has more recently fallen out of favour, since the company's main headquarters is in Zurich and the Gherkin name has become more popular. The building uses energy-saving methods which allow it to use only half the power that a similar tower would typically consume. Gaps in each floor create six shafts that serve as a natural ventilation system for the entire building, even though required firebreaks on every sixth floor interrupt the "chimney". The shafts create a giant double glazing effect; air is sandwiched between two layers of glazing and insulates the office space inside. Architects promote double glazing in residential houses, which avoids the inefficient convection of heat across the relatively narrow gap between the panes, but the tower exploits this effect. The shafts pull warm air out of the building during the summer and warm the building in the winter using passive solar heating. The shafts also allow sunlight to pass through the building, making the work environment more pleasing, and keeping the lighting costs down. The primary methods for controlling wind-excited sways are to increase the stiffness, or increase damping with tuned/active mass dampers. To a design by Arup, its fully triangulated perimeter structure makes the building rigid enough without any extra reinforcements. Despite its overall curved glass shape, there is only one piece of curved glass on the building, the lens-shaped cap at the apex. On the building's top level (the 40th floor), there is a bar for tenants and their guests, with a panoramic view of London. A restaurant operates on the 39th floor, and private dining rooms on the 38th. Most buildings have extensive lift equipment on the roof of the building, but this was not possible for the Gherkin, since a bar had been planned for the 40th floor. The architects dealt with this by having the main lift only reach the 34th floor, with a separate push-from-below lift to the 39th floor. There is a marble stairwell and a disabled persons' lift, which leads the visitor up to the bar in the dome. The building is visible over long distances: From the north, for instance, it can be seen from the M11 motorway, some away, while to the west it can be seen from the statue of George III in Windsor Great Park. After completion In April 2005, a glass panel two thirds up the tower fell to the plaza beneath. The plaza was sealed off, but the building remained open. A temporary covered walkway, extending across the plaza to the building's reception, was erected to protect visitors. Engineers examined the other 744 glass panels on the building. The cost of repair was covered by main contractor Skanska and curtain-wall supplier Schmidlin (now called Schmidlin-TSK AG). The open-floor ventilation system did not operate as designed due to tenants adding glass partitions to increase security. Since its completion, the building has won a number of awards for architecture. In October 2004, the architect was awarded the 2004 Stirling Prize. For the first time in the prize's history, the judges were unanimous. In December 2005, a survey of the world's largest firms of architects published in 2006 BD World Architecture 200 voted the tower as the most admired new building in the world. However, Ken Shuttleworth, who worked for Foster + Partners on the design of the building, said in 2011 that he believed the style was now out-moded: "I was looking at the glass all around and [thought], 'Why on earth did we do that?' Now we would do things differently". The building appeared in recent films such as Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince, A Good Year, Basic Instinct 2, and Match Point and, rechristened the Spirit of London, became the spaceship centrepiece of Keith Mansfield's 2008 novel Johnny Mackintosh and the Spirit of London. In September 2006, the building was put up for sale with a price tag of £600 million. Potential buyers included British Land, Land Securities, Prudential, ING, and the Abu Dhabi royal family. On 21 February 2007, IVG Immobilien AG and UK investment firm Evans Randall completed their joint purchase of the building for £630 million, making it Britain's most expensive office building. Swiss Re made a gain of more than £300 million from the sale. The new owners are seeking compensation from four of their former managers on the deal, in which about £620 million was paid for a building with a build cost of about £200 million, giving the previous owners a clear £300 million profit. Since February 2010, Sky News has broadcast its flagship business programme, Jeff Randall Live, from a studio in the building. The top two floors of the tower have been available since at least 2015 for private hire for events. Deloitte announced in April 2014 that the building was again being put up for sale, with an expected price of £550 million. The current owners could not afford to make loan repayments, citing differences in the value of the multi-currency loan and the British pound, high interest rates and general financing structure. In November 2014, the Gherkin was purchased for £700 million by the Safra Group, controlled by the Brazilian billionaire Joseph Safra. See also Landmarks of London Diagrid List of tallest buildings and structures in London Mathematics and architecture Phallic architecture, a list of similarly shaped buildings that includes 30 St Mary Axe References External links Norman Foster's site about the project Skyscrapers in the City of London Office buildings completed in 2003 High-tech architecture Lattice shell structures Foster and Partners buildings Ove Arup buildings and structures Neo-futurism architecture 2003 in London Skyscraper office buildings in London