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Saarland (, also , ; ; Rhine Franconian: Saarlond) is a Bundesland (state) of Germany. It has an area of and 1,014,000 people living in it (2011). Saarland lies in the south-west of Germany, near the French border near Metz. The capital is Saarbrücken. History In 1920, the Treaty of Versailles made Saarland from parts of the Prussian Rhine Province () and the Rhine Palatinate (). The area was put under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. After a plebiscite (vote) in 1935, Germany got the land back. After World War II the Saarland came under French administration. The Saar Protectorate was allowed its own government for most things in 1947 but not independence. Germany got the Saarland back in 1957 and it became a Bundesland. Geography In the south is France, in the north-west Luxembourg and in the north and east is Rhineland-Palatinate. Saarland is divided in 6 districts: Merzig-Wadern (the largest district) Neunkirchen Saarbrücken Saarlouis Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate) Sankt Wendel City and towns Saarbrücken (city) Neunkirchen Saarlouis Homburg Merzig Related pages Saargebiet Saar (protectorate) References

1974 (MCMLXXIV) was . Events February 7 – Grenada becomes independent from the United Kingdom. March 3 – a Turkish Airlines DC-10 crashes outside Paris, France, killing all 346 people on board; the cause of the crash was a design flaw in the plane's rear cargo door. February 22 – Bangladesh is recognized by Pakistan April 25 – Portuguese Revolution or the Carnation Revolution. – A half-century of fascist rule was ended. May 18 – India tests nuclear weapons. July 15- Christine Chubbock, a TV host in Sarasota, Florida commits suicide during the taping of her show live on air. August 8 – United States President Richard Nixon announces his resignation (Watergate scandal). December 8 – Greek voters reject a proposal to restore the Greek monarchy. December 19 – Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh becomes the fifth President of Ireland, in a state inauguration in Dublin Castle December 24-December 25 – Darwin, Australia almost completely destroyed by Cyclone Tracy Births January 16 – Kate Moss, English model January 21 – Linda Rosing, Swedish model January 28 – Magglio Ordóñez, Venezuelan baseball player January 30 – Christian Bale, Welsh actor February 8 – Seth Green, American actor February 8 – Kimbo Slice American mixed martial artist February 13 – Robbie Williams, English singer February 15 – Omarosa Manigault Newman, American television personality February 22 – Chris Moyles, English disc jockey March 6 – Anthony Carelli, American wrestler March 13 – Linda Bengtzing, Swedish singer March 24 – Alyson Hannigan, American actress May 17 – Andrea Corr, Irish lead-singer of the music group The Corrs May 23 – Ken Jennings, Jeopardy! champion June 1 – Alanis Morissette, Canadian singer July 28 – Justin Lee Collins, English television presenter August 17 – Tomomi Kahala, Japanese singer August 25 – Mario Jeckle, German computer scientist (d. 2004) September 6 – Tim Henman, English tennis player September 14 – Nas, American rapper October 28 – Joaquin Phoenix, American actor November 2 – Nelly, American rapper November 11 – Leonardo DiCaprio, American actor November 15 – Chad Kroeger, Canadian singer and guitarist December 3 – Albena Denkova, Bulgarian ice dancer December 6 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist December 10 – Meg White, American singer and drummer (The White Stripes) December 13 – Sara Cox, English television presenter Deaths January 6 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (b. 1896) January 31 – Samuel Goldwyn, movie producer (b. 1879) April 24 – Bud Abbott, American actor and comedian (b. 1895) July 1 – Juan Perón, President of Argentina (b. 1895) July 24 – James Chadwick, English physicist (b. 1891) August 26 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (b. 1902) Oskar Schindler, lucrative business man (b. 1908) Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics – Sir Martin Ryle, Antony Hewish Chemistry – Paul J Flory Medicine – Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, George E Palade Literature – Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson Peace – Séan MacBride, Eisaku Sato Economics – Gunnar Myrdal, Friedrich von Hayek Movies released Blazing Saddles Chinatown Earthquake The Texas Chainsaw Massacre The Towering inferno The Longest Yard Young Frankenstein Hit songs "(You're) Having My Baby" Paul Anka & Odia Coates "I Honestly Love You" – Olivia Newton-John "Seasons in the Sun" – Terry Jacks "Already Gone" – The Eagles "Another Saturday Night" – Cat Stevens "Band on the Run" – Paul McCartney & Wings "Beach Baby" – First Class "Best Of My Love" – The Eagles "Billy, Don't Be a Hero" – Bo Donaldson and the Heywoods "Can't Get Enough" – Bad Company "Caroline Says" – Lou Reed "China Grove" – The Doobie Brothers "Devil Gate Drive" – Suzi Quatro "Diamond Dogs" – David Bowie "Dirty Old Man" – The Three Degrees "Don't You Worry 'Bout a Thing" – Stevie Wonder "Down Down" – Status Quo "Honey, Honey" – ABBA "I Know What I Like In Your Wardrobe" – Genesis "It's Only Rock And Roll" – The Rolling Stones "Jessica" – Allman Brothers Band "Jet" – Paul McCartney and Wings "Jungle Boogie" – Kool and the Gang "Junior's Farm" – Paul McCartney & Wings "Killer Queen" – Queen "Kung Fu Fighting" – Carl Douglas "Listen To The Music" – The Doobie Brothers "Long Train Running" – The Doobie Brothers "Love's Theme" – Love Unlimited Orchestra "Machine Gun" – The Commodores "Magic" – Pilot "Midnight At The Oasis" – Maria Muldaur "Midnight Rider" – Gregg Allman "Money" – Pink Floyd "Oh Very Young" – Cat Stevens "Phil Spector's Christmas Single" – Various Artists "Queen Of Clubs" – KC and the Sunshine Band "Rebel Rebel" – David Bowie "Rock And Roll Suicide" – David Bowie "Samba Pa Ti" – Santana "Shang-A-Lang" – Bay City Rollers "Smokin' In The Boys Room" – Brownsville Station "So Long" – ABBA "Sugar Baby Love" – The Rubettes "Summer Breeze" – The Isley Brothers "Sweet Home Alabama" – Lynyrd Skynyrd "The Bump" – Kenny "The Love I Lost" – Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes "The Man Who Sold The World" – Lulu "This Town's Ain't Big Enough For The Both Of Us" – Sparks "Tiny Dancer" – Elton John "Walk On" – Neil Young "Waterloo" – ABBA "Whatever Gets You Through The Night" – John Lennon "Wild Horses" – The Rolling Stones "You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet" – Bachman-Turner Overdrive "You're The First The Last My Everything" – Barry White

Mars may mean: Mars, the planet Mars (mythology), the Roman god Mars (TV series), a Taiwanese drama which has had Alan Kuo in it Mars, Pennsylvania, United States, a place in the U.S. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Mars, Ardèche, southern France, a commune in the Ardèche département Mars, Gard, southern France, one of the Communes of the Gard department Mars, Loire, central France, one of the Communes of the Loire department Mars, Incorporated, makes M&M's People Bruno Mars (born 1985), American singer-songwriter and music producer

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun. Jupiter may also mean: Jupiter (mythology), supreme Roman deity Jupiter, Florida, United States PGM-19 Jupiter missile, a kind of missile removed from Turkey after the Cuban Missile Crisis "Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity", the fourth movement in Gustav Holst's The Planets suite Jupiter, disc 1 of Stadium Arcadium by the Red Hot Chili Peppers Jupiter (company), a Japanese games company that made games such as Pokémon Pinball

Venus is a planet in the Solar System. It may also mean: Venus (mythology), the Roman goddess Venus, Florida, United States, a town Venus, Texas, United States, a town Venus, Romania, a resort Art Venus figurines, figurines that show women Venus of Tan-Tan, a very old venus figurine Venus de Milo, an ancient Greek statue Venus of Willendorf, an 11.1 cm (4 3/8 inches) high statuette of a female figure Venus (Bananarama song), on the list of "Weird Al" Yankovic polka medleys Venus (Frankie Avalon song), on the list of Hot 100 number-one singles during 1958–1969 (U.S.) Venus (Shocking Blue song), on the list of Hot 100 number-one singles of the 1980s (U.S.) People Venus Williams, American tennis player

Saturn is a planet in the Solar System. It might also mean: Saturn (mythology), the Roman god Saturn Corporation, an automobile company owned by General Motors Saturn Award, honors the top works in science fiction, fantasy, and horror in movie, television, and home video Saturn Moscow Oblast, a Russian football team from the Moscow suburb of Ramenskoye Sega Saturn, a 32-bit video game console made by Sega People Perry Saturn (born 1966), retired American professional wrestler who is best known for wrestling with WWF and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW)

Uranus is one of the planets in the Solar System. It might also refer to: Uranos, a god in Greek mythology Uranus (movie) is a film from 1990 starring Gérard Depardieu

Neptune is a planet in the Solar System. It might also mean: Neptune (god), the Roman god of the sea Neptune (ship), a prison ship in the Second Fleet of ships to Australia Neptune, New Jersey, United States Windows Neptune, a Microsoft Windows computer operating system that didn't get made

Pluto is a dwarf planet in Earth's solar system. Pluto can also mean: Pluto (mythology), the Roman god Pluto (Disney) is the name of the dog of Mickey Mouse

Iceland (; ) is an island country in the North Atlantic, between Greenland and Norway, formerly a possession of Denmark. It is culturally considered to be part of Europe. Iceland is 301 kilometers east of Greenland and 1001 kilometers west of Norway. There are about 329,100 people who live in Iceland. Iceland has an area of 103,000 km². History The first people who lived on Iceland are thought to have been Irish monks. They came to Iceland around the year 800. In the 9th century, Norsemen went to live in Iceland. The first Norseman who lived in Iceland was Flóki Vilgerðarson. He was also the one who gave Iceland its name. Ingólfur Arnarsons was the first permanent settler on the island. This chieftain from Norway went to live in South West Iceland and founded the city of Reykjavík. In 930, the Icelandic rulers wrote a constitution. They created the Althing, a kind of parliament in a place called Þingvellir. Therefore, Iceland is the oldest existing republic. In 985, Erik the Red was sent away from the island because he had killed someone. He sailed to the west and discovered Greenland. Eric's son Leif Ericson discovered America in the year 1000. He called it Vinland. The voyages of Eric, Leif and others were written down in the sagas (long stories). In 1262, Iceland became part of Norway. This lasted for 400 years. In 1662, it became part of Denmark. In the 19th century, many Icelandic's wanted to be independent from Denmark. In 1918, Iceland got many powers of its own, but the king of Denmark was still king of Iceland. When Germany took over Denmark on April 9 1940, the Althing decided that Icelandic’s should rule the country themselves, but they did not declare independence yet. British and later American soldiers occupied Iceland to prevent it from being attacked by the Germans. In 1944, Iceland finally became fully independent. After World War II, Iceland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but not of the European Union. Between 1958 and 1976, there were three debates between Iceland and the United Kingdom about the rights to catch codfish. They were called the Cod Wars. In 1980, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was elected president of Iceland. She was the first woman ever to be elected president of a country. In 2016, Guðni Th. Jóhannesson become president of Iceland. Politics Iceland has a multi-party system. Since the 2013 election, the center-right Independence Party and Progressive Party are the biggest political parties in Iceland. Other powerful parties in Iceland include the center-left Social Democratic Alliance and Left-Green Movement. See also: List of political parties in Iceland. Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. Iceland has a president (Guðni Th. Jóhannesson) and a prime minister (Katrín Jakobsdóttir). The parliament, Althing, has 63 members and each member can only be in there for four years. The president is elected by Icelanders, and is in government for four years. The president can be elected an unlimited amount of times. Iceland has no standing army. The United States Air Force had a base near Reykjanesbær, but they left in 2006. Since 2008, NATO nations have occasionally had their air force patrol Iceland. This was requested by the Icelandic government. Divisions Iceland is divided into 8 regions, 6 constituencies and 74 municipalities (since 2013). The regions are mainly used for statistics. The constituencies are used for selecting politicians who will represent them in parliament. Lastly, the municipalities give services to the people that live there. These services include education, waste management, public transportation, and so on. Before 2003, the constituencies were the same as regions, but this was changed because it meant that a vote in Reykjavik meant less than one in a rural area. Even though this was addressed, the problem still exists. Economy Fishing and fish processing is the main economic activity in Iceland. Despite effort to diversify, particularly into the travel industry, seafood exports continue to account for nearly three-quarters of merchandise exports and approximately half of all foreign exchange earnings. Geothermal Energy produces the vast majority of Electrical Power consumed on Iceland, due chiefly to the island's position atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and exhibits plentiful hot water reservoirs and geysers. This has the effect of drastically reducing the price of electricity in Iceland, and has attracted several energy-intensive industries. Aluminum Smelting (The reduction of Aluminum ores to Aluminum metal) is the largest energy-intensive manufacturing sector in Iceland, and the country produced over 800,000 Metric Tonnes per Year in 2013, making it the 10th largest producer of Aluminum metal worldwide. Geography Iceland is very geologically active and combined with large amounts of rain and snow caused by the warm waters of the gulf stream current which flow toward it, many interesting and unusual geographic features have developed which make it different from any other island so close to the Arctic Circle. Some of these features are Iceland's numerous mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, rivers, small lakes, waterfalls, glaciers, and geysers. The word geyser is, in fact, derived from Geysir, the name of a particularly famous geyser on the southern side of the island. Glaciers cover approximately 11% of the island and the largest, Vatnajökull, is up to 1 km thick and, by far, the largest glacier in Europe. Iceland, though considered to be a European country, sits partly in North America since it straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates. The ridge runs directly through the populated Reykjavik and Thingvellir historic areas, and the tectonic activity of these plates separating is the source of the abundant geothermal energy in the region. Towns and cities Reykjavík is the capital city of Iceland. Reykjavík is also the most important port in Iceland. Other important towns in Iceland are Akureyri, Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, Keflavík, Seyðisfjörður and Vestmannaeyjar. People The people in Iceland are mostly of Scandinavian origin. The language they speak is Icelandic. The language has not changed much in 1,000 years, so Icelanders are still able to read the sagas about the Vikings without many problems. Most people in Iceland are Christian. Most of them are Lutheran. Icelandic people are considered to be the happiest people on Earth. Iceland has the highest birth rate in Europe, highest divorce rate and the highest percentage of women working outside their home. Names There are no real surnames on Iceland. Children get the first name of their father (sometimes mother) with -s+son if it's a boy, and -s+dóttir if it's a girl. For example, a man named Jón Stefánsson has a son named Fjalar. Fjalar's last name will not be Stefánsson like his father's, it will become Fjalar Jónsson. The same goes for women. Jón Stefánsson's daughter Kata would not have the last name Stefánsson, she would have the name Jónsdóttir. In most countries people use to call other people by their surname, but in Iceland people call other people by their first name. So when people talk about Halldór Ásgrímsson they do not call him Ásgrímsson, but Halldór. Notes References Other websites European Union candidate states Nordic countries 1944 establishments in Europe

1965 (MCMLXV) was . Events January 30 – state funeral of Sir Winston Churchill in London February 18 – The Gambia becomes independent from the United Kingdom March 7 – Bloody Sunday: Alabama State Troopers attack civil rights demonstrators as they attempt to march to the state capitol of Montgomery April 9 – Charlie Brown and the Peanuts Gang appear on the cover of Time May 25 – Muhammad Ali knocks out Sonny Liston in the first round of their championship boxing rematch June 15 - Victoria, Australia, coldest day on record -11.7°C at Omeo July 16 – The Mont Blanc tunnel opens August 9 – Singapore proclaims its independence from the Malaysian Federation. September 9 – Hurricane Betsy is in Louisiana October 3 – Fidel Castro announces that Che Guevara resigned and left Cuba November 5 – Martial law is announced in Rhodesia December 20 – World Food Programme is made a permanent agency of the United Nations The Left Banke forms Pete Best attempts suicide Births January 8 – John Catliff, Canadian footballer February 21 - Steve Lee, Sound effects wrangler and film historian February 1 – Brandon Lee, Chinese-American actor (d. 1993) March 1 – Booker Huffman, American professional wrestler March 23 - Jonathan Dow, British actor April 16 – Jon Cryer, American actor April 20 - Susan Cookson, British actress May 7 – Owen Hart, Canadian professional wrestler (died 1999) June 1 – Nigel Short, English chess player July 31 – J. K. Rowling, writer August 25 – Mia Zapata, singer August 28 – Shania Twain, singer September 2 – Lennox Lewis, British boxer October 5 – Patrick Roy, Canadian retired ice hockey player November 20 – Ben Stiller, actor December 31 – Nicholas Sparks, American author Deaths January 4 – T. S. Eliot, poet January 24 – Winston Churchill, British politician February 2 – Nat Cole, jazz singer February 21 – Malcolm X, leader of the Black Muslim Movement February 23 – Stan Laurel, British comedian March 18 – King Farouk I of Egypt April 18 – Guillermo González Camarena, Mexican inventor (b. 1917) May 1 – Spike Jones, American musician and bandleader (b. 1911) June 5 – Eleanor Farjeon, English author of children's literature (b. 1881) July 1 – Wally Hammond, English cricketer (b. 1903) July 7 – Moshe Sharett, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1894) August 13 – Hayato Ikeda, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899) August 27 – Le Corbusier, Swiss architect (b. 1887) September 16 – Fred Quimby, American animated film producer (b. 1886) October 1 – Gareth Hughes, Welsh actor (b. 1894) November 24 – Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (b. 1895) November 25 – Dame Myra Hess, English pianist (b. 1890) December 5 – Joseph Erlanger, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874) Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics shared by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, and Richard P. Feynman for work in the development of quantum electrodynamics Nobel Prize in Chemistry won by Robert B. Woodward, American chemist (for his synthetic work with natural products) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine shared by François Jacob, André Lwoff, and Jacques Monod Nobel Prize in Literature won by Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov, Russian novelist Nobel Peace Prize won by UNICEF Movies released The Agony and the Ectasy Alphaville, Golden Bear winner Cat Ballou Darling Doctor Zhivago, starring Omar Sharif, Julie Christie, Geraldine Chaplin, Rod Steiger, and Alec Guinness For a Few Dollars More Girl Happy The Great Race The Greatest Story Ever Told Help!, starring The Beatles The Ipcress File Juliet of the Spirits The Knack...And How to Get It, Cannes Grand Prize The Legend of Blood Mountain Rekopis znaleziony w Saragossie Report Ship of Fools The Shop on Main Street The Sons of Katie Elder The Sound of Music The Spy Who Came in from the Cold Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines A Thousand Clowns Thunderball Zorba the Greek New books The Autobiography of Malcolm X – Alex Haley & Malcolm X The British Museum Is Falling Down – David Lodge Dune – Frank Herbert Georgy Girl – Margaret Forster The Green Berets – Robin Moore Hotel – Arthur Hailey The Looking-Glass War – John le Carré The Magus – John Fowles The Man with the Golden Gun – Ian Fleming Markings – Dag Hammarskjöld Morning's at Seven – Eric Malpass The Painted Bird – Jerzy Kosinski The Source – James A. Michener Those Who Love – Irving Stone The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch – Philip K. Dick Up the Down Staircase – Bel Kaufman Hit songs "Nowhere to Run" – Martha Reeve and the Vandellas References

1969 (MCMLXIX) was . Events January 12 – Led Zeppelin's first album is released. January 20 – Richard Nixon becomes President of the United States, after Lyndon Johnson. February 3 – Yasser Arafat becomes Palestinian Liberation Organization leader at the Palestinian National Congress. April 9 – Around 300 students take over Harvard University, because they do not like the Vietnam War being fought. May 10 – Battle of Hamburger Hill in Vietnam. May 20 – National Guard helicopters spray skin-stinging powder on Vietnam War protesters in California. May 31 – John Lennon and Yoko Ono record "Give Peace a Chance" at their "Bed-In" in Montreal. June 8 – Nixon announces that 25,000 US troops will start to leave Vietnam before September. July 8 – As promised, some US troops begin to leave Vietnam. July 16–24 – The Apollo 11 mission makes Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin the first people on the Moon. August 9 – The Manson Family murders the actress Sharon Tate and members of her family. August 15 – The Woodstock music festival starts in Upstate New York. August 17 – Hurricane Camille hits Mississippi, killing 248 people. August 31 – Boxer Rocky Marciano dies in a plane crash on the day before his 46th birthday. September 1 – King Idris I of Libya is removed from power in a coup. September 7 – Monty Python's Flying Circus airs for the first time on British television. October 15 – Hundreds of thousands of people across the US protest against the Vietnam War by not going to work. October 21 – Willy Brandt becomes the first SPD-Chancellor of Germany November 9 – A group of American Indians takes over Alcatraz Island and holds it for 19 months. November 10 - Sesame Street first aired. November 13 – Up to 500,000 anti-war protesters march and protest in Washington DC. December 1 – The United States holds the first "draft lottery", to pick who is going to be sent to fight in Vietnam. Births January 2 – Christy Turlington, American model January 3 – Michael Schumacher, German Formula one driver January 5 – Marilyn Manson, American singer January 14 – Dave Grohl, American musician January 16 – Roy Jones, Jr., American professional boxer January 18 – Dave Bautista, American professional wrestler February 1 – Brian Krause, American actor February 11 – Jennifer Aniston, American actress March 6 – Greg Scott, English television presenter April 25 – Renée Zellweger, American actress May 14 – Cate Blanchett, Australian actress May 25 – Stacy London, American fashion consultant June 14 – Steffi Graf, German tennis player June 15 – Oliver Kahn, German football player June 27 – Colleen Fitzpatrick, American singer and actress July 17 - Kazuki Kitamura, Japanese actor July 20 – Josh Holloway, American actor July 24 – Jennifer Lopez, American singer and actress July 27 – Triple H, American professional wrestler August 6 – Elliott Smith, American singer and musician (d. 2003) August 18 – Edward Norton, American actor August 19 – Matthew Perry, American actor August 28 – Jack Black, American actor, comedian, and musician October 24 - Adela Noriega, Mexican television actress November 10 – Jens Lehmann, German football player December 4 – Jay-Z, American rapper December 9 – Bixente Lizarazu, French footballer December 19 – Kristy Swanson, American actress December 28 – Linus Torvalds, Finnish computer scientist Buckethead, American musician Deaths January 1 – Barton MacLane, American actor (b. 1902) January 31 – Meher Baba, Indian mystic (b. 1894) February 26 – Levi Eshkol, 3rd Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1895) March 28 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of the United States (b. 1890) June 2 – Leo Gorcey, American actor (b. 1917) June 22 – Judy Garland, American actress and singer (b. 1922) August 9 – Sharon Tate, American actress (b. 1943) August 31 – Rocky Marciano, American boxer (b. 1923) September 2 – Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam (b. 1890) October 21 – Jack Kerouac, American writer and poet (b. 1922) Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics – Murray Gell-Mann, American physicist (for his work on the theory of elementary particles) Chemistry – Derek H R Barton, Odd Hassel Medicine – Max Delbrück, Alfred D Hershey, Salvador E Luria Literature – Samuel Beckett, Irish writer Peace – International Labour Organization Economics – Ragnar Frisch, Jan Tinbergen Movies released Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice Cactus Flower Easy Rider Midnight Cowboy Shart The Wild Bunch Hit songs "Aquarius"/"Let The Sunshine In" – Fifth Dimension "The Ballad of John and Yoko" – The Beatles "But You Know I Love You" – Kenny Rogers and The First Edition "The Boxer" – Simon and Garfunkel "In The Ghetto" – Elvis Presley "Cloud Nine" – The Temptations "Come Together" – The Beatles "Get Back" – The Beatles "Good Times Bad Times" – Led Zeppelin "Honky Tonk Women" – Rolling Stones "I'd Wait A Million Years" – The Grass Roots "Listen to the Band" – The Monkees "Pinball Wizard" – The Who "Proud Mary" – Creedence Clearwater Revival "Raindrops Keep Fallin' On My Head" – B.J. Thomas "Something" – The Beatles "Suspicious Minds" – Elvis Presley "Touch Me" – The Doors "Whole Lotta Love" – Led Zeppelin New Books Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle – Vladimir Nabokov The Andromeda Strain – Michael Crichton The Edible Woman – Margaret Atwood The Godfather – Mario Puzo The Green Man – Kingsley Amis Other websites

Saarbrücken (; ; Rhine Franconian: Saarbrigge [zaːˈbʁɪɡə]; ) is a German city and a district in the state of Saarland. The city is also the capital of the Saarland. Saarbrücken has 180,000 inhabitants and is on the river Saar. References Other websites Saarbrücken (district) States of the Holy Roman Empire German state capitals

Saarlouis is a town in the Saarland, Germany. It has 38,400 inhabitants and is on the Saar. From 1936 to 1945 it was called Saarlautern. Ford Motor Company has a plant here; it produces the Focus, C-Max and Kuga. References Other websites Saarlouis (district)

Brandenburg (Low Sorbian: Bramborska, Low German: Brannenborg) is a state (Bundesland) in Germany. It has been a state since 1990. It is 29,056 km² in area. It has about 2.6 million inhabitants. Until 1945 it was the biggest province in Prussia, with 38,278 km² and 3 million inhabitants. From 1949 to 1952 it was a state in the German Democratic Republic. In 1952 it became divided into three Bezirke (Potsdam, Frankfurt and Cottbus). The capital of Brandenburg is Potsdam. Berlin is in the middle of Brandenburg. But it is not part of Brandenburg. It is a city state. History 1373 Karl IV bought Brandenburg for his sons from the Wittelsbacher 1539 Protestant Reformation 1618 United with Prussia 1815 Brandenburg became a province in Prussia 1945 Brandenburg lost 32% to Poland 1949 State in East Germany 1952 Divided into three Bezirke (Districts) 1990 State of the reunited Germany Administration Brandenburg is divided into fourteen Kreise (districts): Prignitz Ostprignitz-Ruppin Oberhavel Uckermark Havelland Barnim Märkisch-Oderland Potsdam-Mittelmark Teltow-Fläming Oder-Spree Dahme-Spreewald Elbe-Elster Oberspreewald-Lausitz Spree-Neiße Also Brandenburg has four Kreisfreie Städte (district-free city): Brandenburg Cottbus Frankfurt an der Oder Potsdam List of Minister-Presidents 1945 - 1949: Karl Steinhoff 1949 - 1952: Rudi Jahn 1990 - 2002: Manfred Stolpe (SPD) 2002 - 2013: Matthias Platzeck (SPD) since 2013: Dietmar Woidke (SPD) Cities and counties Brandenburg is divided into fourteen (rural) counties (Landkreise), and four urban districts (kreisfreie Städte), Brandenburg an der Havel Cottbus Frankfurt (Oder) Potsdam

Russian might mean: Anything related to the country Russia Russians, the people of Russia Russian language Russian Empire Russian dressing, a sauce put on salads

Russian (Russian: , transliteration: russkiy yaz'ik) is a Slavic language. It is the main language spoken in Russia. It is also spoken in by many people in other parts of the former Soviet Union, such as in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Turkmenistan and Estonia. Russian, like other Slavic languages, is an Indo-European language. Russian is one of the three main East Slavic languages; the others are Ukrainian and Belarusian. More people speak Russian than any other Slavic language. Written Russian does not use the Latin alphabet that English and the West Slavic languages do - some people do however, learn to write it in Latin letters. It mostly uses the Cyrillic alphabet, whose letters, like those of Latin, came from Greek, but are different from them. The other East Slavic languages and some of the South Slavic languages use the Cyrillic alphabet as well. Russian is an official language of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations, along with English, Spanish, French, Arabic, and Chinese. Standard Russian Standard Russian is also called modern literary Russian (Современный русский литературный язык). It first appeared at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter the Great was then working to make the state more modern. Standard Russian grew out of the dialect of Russian that was spoken by people in and around Moscow. In some ways, Standard Russian was also like the Russian used in government offices in earlier centuries. Mikhail Lomonosov wrote the first book on Russian grammar in 1755. The Russian Academy of Sciences published the first full dictionary of Russian in 1783. The grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of Russian became stable and were standardized at the end of the 18th century and during the 19th century. That was called the "Golden Age" of Russian literature because it was a good period for the subject, which became very famous across the world. All of Russia began to use Russian as the language of literature, education, and official communication. Until the 20th century, only the upper classes and people in cities spoke the literary language. Russians from the countryside continued to speak their local dialects. In the 20th century, all children were required to go to school. Many people had radios and televisions, which helped to spread Standard Russian. By the mid-20th century, Russian dialects had mostly disappeared. Standard Russian replaced them almost completely especially to talk to people from different oblasts. Names In Russian, a person's name has three parts: the first name, the second name and the family name. Parents choose the first name for their child. Some common Russian names for boys are Ivan, Vladimir, Mikhail and Nikolai. Some common Russian names for girls are Anna, Anastasia, Svetlana and Yekaterina. The second name is the patronymic (Russian: otchestvo) and comes from one's father's first name. For example, a boy whose father is Ivan would havae as patronymic is Ivanovich. If a boy's father is Nikolai, his patronymic is Nikolaevich. If a girl's father is Ivan, her patronymic is Ivanovna. If her father is Nikolai, her patronymic is Nikolaevna. The patronymic of a boy ends with -ovich or -evich. The patronymic of a girl ends with -ovna or -evna. Boys have the same family name as their fathers. Girls use their father's family name but an -a is added to the end of the name. A man whose family name is Romanov would have a son with the family name Romanov and a daughter with the family name Romanova. If a man's name is Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov and has a son, Aleksei, and a daughter, Anastasia, the son's full name is Aleksei Nikolaevich Romanov, and the daughter's full name is Anastasia Nikolaevna Romanova. There are also many people in Russia whose family names are not Russian. Some of the family names have only one form, which is the same for both sons and daughters. Some examples are Glushko (a Ukrainian name), Rubinstein (a German/Jewish name) or Shevardnadze (a Georgian name). Grammar Case Like Latin, Greek, and German, Russian has a case system. In Russian, it applies to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and participles with a set of word endings (sounds/letters attached to the ends of words) that show the grammatical roles of words in a sentence. Because the grammatical roles are shown by the endings, word order is freer in than in English. There are six cases in Russian. The nominative case, the form listed in the dictionary, is used for the subject of the sentence. The genitive case often shows ownership. The accusative case is used for a direct object, the dative case for an indirect object. The instrumental case is used for the tool or instrument with which something is done. The prepositional case is used after certain prepositions, such as "in" and "on", but other prepositions may require the use of other cases. Each case has other uses than those listed. Gender and number In Russian, nouns have one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neutral. This is the same for languages like French, Spanish, etc. Masculine nouns usually end in consonants, neutral nouns usually end in -o or -e, and feminine nouns usually end in -a or -я. The plural acts like a fourth gender because gender does not change plural words. Adjectives In Russian, an adjective must agree with the word that it describes in gender, case and number. In the nominative case, adjectives that describe feminine words usually end in -ая or -яя. Those that describe masculine words usually end in -ый, -ий or -ой. Those that describe neuter words usually end in -ое or -ее. Those that describe plural words usually end in -ые or -ие. The endings change depending on case. References Other websites Languages of Russia Languages of Azerbaijan

1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was . Events January 14 – The Sex Pistols played their final show (until a 1996 reunion) at San Francisco's Winterland March 1 - The Princesses series by Universal Studios. April 22 – The Blues Brothers make their first appearance on Saturday Night Live. The duo of Jake & Elwood Blues (John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd) are introduced by Paul Shaffer (as Don Kirschner) and perform "Hey Bartender" April 26 – Ringo Starr's, Ringo, a musical version of The Prince and the Pauper airs on American television. Starr's fellow former Beatle George Harrison provides the narration May 8 – Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler are the first humans on the Mount Everest without oxygen tanks July 25 – First human birth from in vitro fertilization August 6 – Pope Paul VI dies at the age of 80. Albino Luciani become the new pope, Pope John Paul I August 17 – Double Eagle II becomes the first balloon to cross the Atlantic Ocean. August 26 – The first Canada Jam Festival is held in Ontario, featuring sets by the Doobie Brothers, the Commodores, Kansas, Dave Mason, and the Atlanta Rhythm Section September 28 – Pope John Paul I dies after 34 days in office October 1 – Vietnam attacks Cambodia October 16 – Karol Wojtyła elected pope, and calls himself Pope John Paul II November 18 – Jim Jones and his followers commit suicide November 27 – San Francisco politician Dan White assassinates Harvey Milk and George Moscone December 21 - John Wayne Gacy is arrested for the killings of 33 boys and young men. Garfield, a comic strip, debuts Space Invaders is created by the Taito Corporation Births January 13 – Tinga, Brazilian footballer January 28 – Gianluigi Buffon, Italian footballer January 30 – Daniel Lindström, Swedish singer February 7 – Ashton Kutcher, American actor March 11 – Didier Drogba, Ivorian footballer March 21 – Kevin Federline, American doofus April 4 - Sam Moran, Australian musician (The Wiggles) April 6 – Myleene Klass, English musician April 30 – Tom Fulp, Newgrounds creater May 22 – Katie Price, English model and singer June 9 – Matthew Bellamy, English singer June 9 – Miroslav Klose, Polish footballer June 11 – Joshua Jackson, Canadian actor June 19 – Dirk Nowitzki, June 21 – Frank Lampard, English footballer June 29 – Nicole Scherzinger, American singer and actress July 19 – Chiara Zanni, Canadian actress August 22 – Jeff Stinco, Canadian Musician- Simple Plan August 23 – Kobe Bryant, NBA star (d. 2020) September 25 – Rafał Wiechecki, Polish politician September 28 – Bushido, German singer September 30 – Candice Michelle, American model and wrestler October 2 – Ayumi Hamasaki, Japanese singer October 6 – Carolina Gynning, Swedish model October 5 – Gerald Asamoah, German footballer October 7 – Alesha Dixon, English singer October 26 - CM Punk, American professional wrestler November 25 – Ringo Shiina, Japanese singer December 2 – Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer December 2 – Chris Wolstenholme, English musician December 18 – Katie Holmes, American actress Alison Balsom, English musician Miri Ben-Ari, Israeli violinist Deaths January 14 – Kurt Gödel, Czech mathematician (b. 1906) March 21 – Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, 5th President of Ireland (b. 1911) May 14 – Robert Menzies, 12th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894) May 17 – Armin T. Wegner, German writer (b. 1886) August 6 – Pope Paul IV, heart attack (b. 1897) September 7 - Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (b. 1946) September 28 – Pope John Paul I (b. 1912) November 19 – Jim Jones, American cult leader (b. 1931) Movies released Convoy F.I.S.T. The Deer Hunter Grease Halloween Jaws II Midnight Express The Last Waltz The Lord of the Rings, animated movie by Ralph Bakshi Superman, starring Marlon Brando and Christopher Reeve Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics – Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, Arno Allan Penzias, Robert Woodrow Wilson Chemistry – Peter D Mitchell Medicine – Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Hamilton O Smith Literature -Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polnish writer and journalist Peace – Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat and Menachem Begin Economics – Herbert Simon References

1982 (MCMLXXXII) was . Events January 15 – K.C. and the Sunshine Band's Harry Wayne Casey is seriously injured in an automobile accident in Miami, Florida. January 17 – Tommy Tucker, writer of "Hi Heel Sneakers", dies of carbon tetrachloride poisoning sustained while he was finishing floors in his home. January 20 – Ozzy Osbourne bites the head off of a live bat thrown at him during a performance. Osbourne is hospitalized with rabies. January 21 – B.B. King donates his personal record collection, which includes nearly 7,000 rare blues records, to the University of Mississippi's Center for the Study of Southern Culture. February 13 – A 300-pound gravestone from the grave of Lynyrd Skynyrd singer Ronnie Van Zant is stolen from an Orange Park, Florida cemetery. Police found the gravestone two weeks later in a dry river bed. February 20 – Pat Benatar marries her guitarist, Neil Giraldo on the Hawaiian island of Maui. March 4 – Frank Zappa's son Dweezil and daughter Moon Unit form Fred Zeppelin. March 5 – Comedian and Blues Brother John Belushi is found dead of an apparent drug overdose in the Chateau Marmont Hotel in Los Angeles, California. March 18 – Teddy Pendergrass is severely injured in a car accident in Philadelphia. Pendergrass' injuries result in him being paralyzed from the waist down. March 19 – Ozzy Osbourne's lead guitarist, Randy Rhoads is killed in a freak accident in Leesburg, Florida when the plane he's riding in buzzes Osbourne's tour bus and crashes into a house. The plane's pilot and a female passenger are also killed. March 28 – In Los Angeles, California, David Crosby is arrested for possession of Quaaludes and drug paraphernalia, driving under the influence of cocaine and carrying a concealed weapon. March 29 – Stevie Wonder and Paul McCartney release their single "Ebony and Ivory". March 31 – The Doobie Brothers announce that they are breaking up. April 2 – The Falklands War begins. April 15 – Billy Joel is seriously injured in a motorcycle accident in Long Island, New York. Joel spends over a month in the hospital undergoing physical therapy for his hand. April – Amy Grant marries Gary Chapman. April 26 – Rod Stewart is mugged in Los Angeles, California. Stewart loses his $50,000 Porsche to the mugger, but was not hurt. June 20 – The Falklands War ends. August 17 – The first mass production of compact discs begins in Langenhagen near Hanover, Germany. September 7 – The musical Cats begins its 18-year run on Broadway. September 30 – The TV show Cheers premieres. November 5 – First broadcast of The Tube was shown on Channel 4 in the UK. November 13 – Vietnam Veterans Memorial dedicated. Births February 14 – Marián Gáborík, Slovak professional ice hockey player April 10 - Chyler Leigh, American actress, singer and model June 21 – Prince William, Duke of Cambridge August 6 - David Knazovicky November 20 - Nathan Vetterlein, American YouTube personality Deaths January 10 – Paul Lynde, comedian February 12- Victor Jory, Canadian actor (born 1902) March 5 – John Belushi, actor March 29 – Carl Orff, German composer August 12 – Henry Fonda, actor September 5 – Douglas Bader, RAF Fighter pilot November 10 – Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union August 27 – Sri Anandamayi Ma,Hindu spiritual teacher and Guru from Bengal Movies released 48 Hrs. Annie The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas Blade Runner Come Back to the Five and Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean Class of 1984 Conan the Barbarian Das Boot Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid Death Wish II E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Fanny and Alexander Fast Times at Ridgemont High First Blood Frances Friday the 13th, Part 3 Gandhi Grease 2 Halloween III: Season of the Witch Megaforce Missing My Favorite Year An Officer and a Gentleman Parasite Poltergeist Porky's Richard Pryor Live on Sunset Strip The Road Warrior Rocky III, starring Sylvester Stallone The Secret of NIMH Sophie's Choice Star Trek: The Wrath of Khan Time Stands Still Tootsie Tron The Verdict Veronika Voss Victor/Victoria The World According to Garp Yol Hit songs "867-5309 Jenny" – Tommy Tutone "Always On My Mind" – Willie Nelson "Believer" – Ozzy Osbourne "Body Language" – Queen "The Day Before You Came" – ABBA "Don't Talk To Strangers" – Rick Springfield "Electric Eye" – Judas Priest "Even the Nights are Better" – Air Supply "Eye In The Sky" – Alan Parsons Project "Flying High Again" – Ozzy Osbourne "Freeze Frame" – J. Geils Band "Gloria" – Laura Branigan "Gypsy" – Fleetwood Mac "Head Over Heels" – ABBA "Heart Attack" – Olivia Newton-John "Heat Of The Moment" – Asia "Hold Me" – Fleetwood Mac "Hungry Like The Wolf" – Duran Duran "Hurts So Good" – John Cougar "I'm Afraid of Me" – Culture Club "Invisible Sun" – The Police "Love Will Turn You Around" – Kenny Rogers "Make A Move On Me" – Olivia Newton-John "The Message" – Grandmaster Flash "Open Arms" – Journey "Our Lips Are Sealed" – The Go-Gos "Over The Mountain" – Ozzy Osbourne "Planet Rock" – Afrika Bambaataa "Pressure" – Billy Joel "Quiero Ser" – Menudo "Rock The Casbah" – The Clash "Rosanna" – Toto "Shake It Up" – The Cars "Since You're Gone" – The Cars "Spirits In The Material World" – The Police "Still They Ride" – Journey "Sube A Mi Motora" – Menudo "Time (Clock of the Heart)" – Culture Club "TV Party" – Black Flag "Twilight Zone" – Golden Earring "Vacation" – The Go-Gos "Valley Girl" – Frank Zappa "We Got The Beat" – The Go-Gos "White Boy" – Culture Club "You Can't Hurry Love" – Phil Collins "You Should Hear How She Talks About You" – Melissa Manchester "You've Got Another Thing Comin'" – Judas Priest New books Jumanji by Chris Van Allsburg Nobel Prizes Physics – Kenneth G. Wilson, American physicist Chemistry – Aaron Klug Physiology or Medicine – Sune K Bergström, Bengt I Samuelsson, John R Vane Literature – Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian novelist and journalist Peace – Alva Myrdal and Alfonso García Robles Economics – George Stigler References

Professor (commonly abbreviated as prof.) is an academic rank at most universities and colleges. The word professor comes from Latin. It means a "person who professes", being usually an expert in arts or sciences. A professor is a teacher of the highest rank. Professors are often active in research. In many institutions, the job title 'professor' is synonymous with that of an instructor. Description A professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the title professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, but a higher percentage achieve it. In these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees (typically Ph.D. degrees) or equivalent qualifications, though some have masters degrees. Most professors teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a title given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature and ongoing research. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary. However, they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, and so on. The term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered non-tenured professors. In Australia, the title associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer and below full professor. Beyond holding the proper academic title, universities in many countries also give notable artists, athletes and foreign dignitaries the title honorary professor, even if these persons do not have the academic qualifications typically necessary for professorship and they do not take up professorial duties. However, such "professors" usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution. In general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Adjunct An adjunct professor, also called an adjunct lecturer or adjunct instructor is a non-tenure position in the U.S. and Canada. They usually rank below a full professor. They are usually hired on a contract basis. They are often hired as part-time instructors especially at universities and colleges with tightening budgets. The position of an adjunct can often lead to a full-time professorship. It is also an opportunity for professionals to teach part-time. Salary A professor's salary can vary by education, school, subject taught and country. A professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution (e.g., department chair, dean, head of graduate studies, etc.) earns additional income. In the United States, in 2014, a tenured Law professor made an average of $143,509 a year. By comparison, those teaching history, English, the Arts or Theology make about half that amount. But both are far above the median income for a person in the US. Average by country Related pages Reader (academic rank) Lecturer Academic tenure Teacher Visiting scholar References Other websites What is a professor?; YouTube Education occupations

Slope might mean: An area of ground that tends evenly upward or downward The degree to which a surface tends upward or downward In mathematics, the ratio of the vertical and horizontal distances between two points on a line Basic English 850 words

California, officially the State of California, is a state in the western part of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is the third biggest US state by land area (after Alaska and Texas) with 163,696 square mi (423,970 km2). It has more people than any other state with over 39 million people as of 2019. It also has more people than Canada. Its largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. The capital is Sacramento. The states around its borders are Arizona to the southeast, Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. California is the US state with the largest economy. California's Silicon Valley is home to some of the world's most valuable technology companies, including Apple, Alphabet Inc., and Facebook. What is now California was first settled by Native Californian tribes. Before that, it was explored by Europeans in the 16th and 17th century. It became the 31st state of the United States in 1850. 39% of Hispanics live in the state. California hosts a large Mexican American population. Hispanics are expected to number 23.7 million in 2050. Many celebrities and rich people live in California. Los Angeles attracts tourists from all over the world due to its celebrity culture. Many movies and television shows are filmed in Los Angeles. Geography The geography of California varies depending on region. Southwestern California has small mountain ranges and the cities of San Diego and Los Angeles. Southeastern California has the Mojave Desert and Death Valley, the lowest place in the United States. The eastern part of the state has the highest point in the United States outside of Alaska: Mount Whitney, in the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The cities of Sacramento, Bakersfield, and Fresno are in the Central Valley. The valley has the Sierra Nevada to the east and the Pacific Coast Ranges to the west. It is California's single most productive agricultural region and one of the most productive in the world. It produces more than half the fruit, vegetables, and nuts grown in the United States. More than seven million acres (28,000 km2) of the valley are irrigated by an extensive system of reservoirs and canals. The west-central part of the state has some small mountains and the cities of San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. Northern California has the Cascade Range, the Klamath Mountains, and the Modoc Plateau. Far northern California does not have many people, but the San Francisco region and the Sacramento region are often thought of as part of northern California.() Climate Flora and fauna California is home to many animals such as racoons, the California condor and the mountain lion. California’s official flower is the California poppy. California was once home to the Grizzly bear and the jaguar. Culture The state is a leader in three businesses: farming, movie-making, and high technology, mostly software and websites. Aerospace used to be a large industry there, but it has been downsized in the last 20 years. California is very diverse. Today it has high numbers of Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans and Armenian Americans. There are many earthquakes in California. They happen when two tectonic plates (parts of the Earth's crust) shift underground. Californians need to be prepared for earthquakes and often store extra food, water, flashlights, and first aid supplies in case of such an emergency. California has more people than any other state in the United States. If California was a separate country, it would have the sixth largest economy in the world. California is probably the state with the most ethnic groups. It also has many different geographic features – mountains, deserts, and coasts. It is often called The Golden State. The state flower is the golden poppy. The post office uses "CA" as a shorthand for California, and the Associated Press uses "Calif." or "Cali." California has a large population of Mexican Americans. Mexican Americans have influenced Californian cuisine and Californian culture. California also has a large Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Indian and Chinese population. White people are becoming less country in the state but there is still many Russians, Spaniards, Germans, English people, Scottish people, French people, Portuguese, Italians, Dutch people, Irish people and French in the state. Other ethnic groups in California are Serbians, Persians, Bulgarians and Romani people. California is popular among celebrities. Celebrities such as Kim Kardashian, Dwayne Johnson, Kylie Jenner and Jennifer Aniston are from California. California is influenced by Spanish culture, Asian culture and Mexican culture. California is famous for In-N-Out Burger. Protestantism and Catholicism are the most practice religions in California. A smaller population are Jews, Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. Marijuana became legal in 2016. Californian cuisine is influenced by Spanish cuisine, Mexican cuisine and Asian cuisine. Mexican food is very popular in California. California is popular for it’s tourism. Hollywood and Disneyland are popular tourist destinations in California. Most tourists in Los Angeles come from Mexico, China, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, France, Germany, Scandinavia, Middle East, and most recently, India, Spain, Italy and Southeast Asia. Politics In 2019, Gavin Newsom became the governor of California. Before him, the governor was Jerry Brown. On November 4, 1992, Dianne Feinstein became one of California's United States senators. On January 3, 2017, Kamala Harris became the other one. In the 2020 presidential election, California U.S. Senator Harris was elected as the first woman and person of color to be Vice President of the United States. In January 2021, Alex Padilla became the next U.S. Senator, replacing Harris, and became the first Hispanic U.S. Senator from the state. California was more conservative during the 1960s and 1980s when its former governor, Ronald Reagan, ran for president as a Republican. Today, California is more liberal and less conservative. History The people in Coastal California were Native Americans. The original Californians were a diverse population, separated by language into as many as 135 distinct dialects. Tribes included the Karok, Maidu, Cahuilleno, Mojave, Yokuts, Pomo, Paiute, and Modoc. In the past, the area that was called "California" was not just today's California. This area covered the Mexican lands south of it, as well as Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona and Wyoming. The Spanish called the part of the land that later became part of the United States Alta California (Upper California) when it was split from what became Baja California (Lower California). In these early times, the borders of the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific coast were not well known, so the old maps wrongly showed California to be an island. The name comes from Las sergas de Espladián (Adventures of Spladian), a 16th-century book by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, where there is an island paradise called California. The first European who visited parts of the coast, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, came from Portugal in 1542. The first European who saw the entire coast was Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, and he decided that the British owned it. But starting in the late 1700s, Spanish religious leaders of the Roman Catholic Church ("missionaries") got large gifts of land in the area north of Baja California, from the Spanish king and queen. These religious people set up small towns and villages, the famous California Missions. When Mexico was no longer controlled by Spain, the Mexican government took over the villages, and they soon became empty. In 1846, as the Mexican-American War was starting, some Americans in California hoped to create a California Republic. These men flew a "Bear flag" that had a golden bear with a star on it. This Republic ended suddenly, however, when Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into San Francisco Bay. He said that California was now part of the United States. After the war with Mexico ended, California was split between the two countries. The Mexican portion became the Mexican states of Baja California Norte (north) and Baja California Sur (south). ("Baja" means "lower" in Spanish.) The western part of the part given to the United States became today's state of California. In 1848, there were about 4,000 Spanish-speaking people in today's California on the American side. (Today the state has a total of nearly 40,000,000 people.) In 1849, gold was suddenly found and the number of people went up very fast as the Gold Rush took hold. Slavery also spread there as people hoping to find gold brought African slaves and either forced them to work in gold mines or hired them out for other work. In 1850, California became a state in the Union (the United States). During the American Civil War (1861-1865), many people in California, especially in the southern part of California, thought the South was right and slavery should be protected. Some people in Southern California even wanted Southern California to leave the rest of the state and join the Confederate States of America. However, this did not happen. California joined the war to and helped the North (the Union) and sent many troops east to fight the Confederacy. At first, travel between the far west and the east coast of the United States was dangerous and took a lot of time. Going by land was very difficult, because there were no roads and no trains, and many Native Americans were attacking American people heading West in wagons. The only other way was to travel by boat around the Cape Horn, at the southern end of South America. This took months, since the trip was thousands of miles long and the Panama Canal had not yet been built either. But in 1869, the connection got better quickly, because the first railroad across the continent was finished. Meanwhile, more people in California were learning that the land there was very good to grow fruit and other crops. Oranges were grown in many parts of California. This was the beginning of the huge farming business that California has today. Economy The economy of the State of California is the largest in the United States. It has a gross state product (GSP) of US$3.0 trillion as of 2020. It has many sectors. The most dominant are finance, business services, government and manufacturing. If California were a sovereign nation, according to 2019 statistics, it would rank as the world's fifth largest economy, lying between Germany and India. Over 10% of the Fortune 1000 companies were based in California in 2018. Present day In 1900, there were only a million people in California and 105,000 in Los Angeles. Today, California has more people than any other U.S. state. Starting in 1965, the variety of people became much greater as many different people from around the world came to the United States and often decided to live in California. California is thought to be a very liberal state, but there are still a lot of people who are Republicans and view Ronald Reagan as a hero. Technology is very advanced and many new cultural trends begin there. Engineering and computers play a big part in the state's life. For over a hundred years, film has been one of the most important businesses in California. By the 1950s, television had also become an important business in California. Many Latinos especially Mexicans and Salvadorans live in the state. References Other websites 1850 establishments in the United States

Propaganda is a form of communication to distribute information. It is always biased. The information is designed to make people feel a certain way or to believe a certain thing. The information is often political. It is hard to tell whether the information is true or false. Very often, the information is confusing and unfair. Propaganda does tend to make disputes last longer, and be more difficult to resolve. It can take the form of posters, TV advertisements, and radio announcements. The word 'propaganda' comes from Latin. At first, it meant 'ideas to be spread around'. But in the First World War, it came to mean political ideas that are supposed to be misleading. Propaganda is like advertising in some ways. For example, it uses the mass media to spread its ideas. But advertising is usually trying to sell something, whereas propaganda is about ideas. It is often political, and used by states or political parties, not private companies. Uses Propaganda is often used during wars. There it can be very useful. Sometimes it keeps the people of a country happy telling them that their country is fighting well and telling them how important it is that the enemy is defeated. Sometimes it tries to make people hate the enemy. The information could tell people that the enemy is evil or make them seem not human. Sometimes a government gives propaganda to the enemy telling them that the war is going badly for them and that they should stop fighting. When a country is not at war, propaganda can still be used. The government may use propaganda to change what people think about a political situation. A group may try to change the way people act towards an issue. Propaganda under some countries, like dictatorships, is used along with censorship. While propaganda tries to give people false ideas, censorship forces the ones who disagree with propaganda to keep quiet. Then the propaganda can say everything, because nobody can question it in public. Propaganda is also used to win people by tricking them. Some people say that cults use propaganda to get people to join them. Examples of propaganda: British propaganda against Germany in the First World War. German propaganda against Poland to start the Second World War, see Attack on Sender Gleiwitz Propaganda through mass media (print, radio and movies) was used by the Soviet Union from beginning to end. Some great artists, like Sergei Eisenstein and El Lissitzky, helped them do it. Many others, such as Solzhenitsyn, did not. History Propaganda has been used in every known civilisation. It was used by Rameses II on his monuments in Ancient Egypt; it was used by Ancient Greek orators; it was used by Julius Caesar, and all Roman Emperors. The word itself is formed from propagate, meaning to multiply. Propaganda was carried much further by the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide of the Catholic Church. This committee, founded in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV, had action branches in most European countries. These were the local branches of the Inquisition, which sought out heretics. With torture and the threat of death by burning at the stake, they forced heretics to recant (to publicly withdraw their previous beliefs). The objective was to remove all challenges to the supremacy of the Church in matters of belief. The 1578 handbook for inquisitors noted "Punishment does not take place primarily and for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit". References Politics Communication Psychology

Topology is an area of Mathematics, which studies how spaces are organized and how they are structured in terms of position. It also studies how spaces are connected. It is divided into algebraic topology, differential topology and geometric topology. Topology has been called rubber-sheet geometry. In a topology of two dimensions there is no difference between a circle and a square. A circle made out of a rubber band can be stretched into a square. There is a difference between a circle and a figure eight. A figure eight cannot be stretched into a circle without tearing. The spaces studied in topology are called topological spaces. They vary from familiar manifolds to some very exotic constructions. Natural Origin In many problems, we often divide a large space into smaller areas. For instance, a house is divided into rooms, a nation into states, a type of quantity into numbers, and so on. Each of these smaller areas (room, state, number) is next to other small areas (other rooms/states/numbers). The places where the areas meet are connections. If we write down on paper a list of spaces, and the connections between them, we have written down a description of a space -- a topological space. All topological spaces have the same properties such as connections, and are made of the same structure (a list of smaller areas). This makes it easier to study how spaces behave. It also makes it easier to write algorithms. For instance, to program a robot to navigate a house, we simply give it a list of rooms, the connections between each room (doors), and an algorithm that can work out which rooms to go through to reach any other room. For more examples of this type of problem, look at Graph theory. We can go further by creating subdivisions of subdivisions of space. For instance, a nation divided into states, divided into counties, divided into city boundaries, and so on. All this kind of information can be described using topology. Related pages Knot theory

1933 (MCMXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events January 28 – Choudhary Rahmat Ali chose the name Pakistan in his pamphlet for a Muslim state in northwest India January 30 – Adolf Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg February 17 – Newsweek magazine is published for the first time in the United States March 3 Earthquake in Japan kills 3.000 people Ching Yun University was established March 10 – Earthquake in Long Beach, California March 20 – Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp, is completed April 2 – In a cricket test match against New Zealand, England batsman Wally Hammond scores a record 336 runs. May 8 – Mahatma Gandhi begins a 21-day fast in protest for India July 6 – The first Major League Baseball All-Star Game is played at Comiskey Park in Chicago July 8 – The first rugby union test match is played between the Wallabies of Australia and the Springboks of South Africa at Newlands in Cape Town August 2 – Opening of the Stalin White Sea–Baltic Sea Canal, connecting the White Sea with Lake Onega and the Baltic September 26 – Hurricane in Tampico, Mexico kills 1.000 people October 7 – Air France is formed December 5 – Prohibition ends in the United States The Toyota company starts in Japan Births January 25 – Corazon Aquino, 11th President of the Philippines (d. 2009) February 18 – Yoko Ono, singer, artist, wife of John Lennon March 10 - Elizabeth Azcona Cranwell, Argentine poet (d. 2004) March 13 - Pee Wee Gaskins, American serial killer (d. 1991) April 7 – Wayne Rogers, actor May 3 James Brown, African-American soul musician (I Feel Good) (d. 2006) Steven Weinberg, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate June 6 – Heinrich Rohrer, Swiss physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) June 11 – Gene Wilder, American actor (d. 2016) July 2 – Kenny Wharram, Canadian ice hockey player July 16 – John Baddeley, British diplomat July 17 – Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici, 9th Prime Minister of Malta August 18 – Roman Polanski, movie director August 25 – Tom Skerritt, actor September 29 – Samora Machel, President of Mozambique (d. 1986) October 10 – Jay Sebring, hairstylist November 3 – Amartya Sen, Indian economist, Nobel Prize laureate November 12 – Jalal Talabani, President of Iraq (d. 2017) December 11 – Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. December 23 – Akihito, Emperor of Japan Deaths January 5 – Calvin Coolidge, 30th President of the United States (b. 1872) January 31 – John Galsworthy, English writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1867) February 12 – Henri Duparc, French composer (b. 1848) March 1 – Uładzimir Žyłka, Belarusian poet (b. 1900) April 17 – Harriet Brooks, Canadian physicist (b. 1876) May 2 – Leonard Huxley, English writer (b. 1860) July 3 – Hipólito Yrigoyen, 18th President of Argentina (b. 1852) August 15 – Christie Fuller, Australia singer September 8 – Faisal I of Iraq, king of Iraq October 16 – Ismael Montes, 26th President of Bolivia (b. 1861) November 3 – Émile Roux, French physician (b. 1853) December 16 – Robert W. Chambers, American writer (b. 1865) Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics won by Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, English physicist Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Thomas Hunt Morgan, American biologist Nobel Prize in Literature won by Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin, Russian writer Nobel Peace Prize won by Sir Norman Angell, British lecturer, writer, and Member of Parliament for the Labour Party Movies released 42nd Street Alice in Wonderland Duck Soup Gold Diggers of 1933 King Kong Little Women, starring Kathrine Hepburn The Private Life of Henry VIII, starring Charles Laughton The Prizefighter and the Lady, starring Max Baer, Myrna Loy, Primo Carnera and Jack Dempsey Queen Christina, starring Greta Garbo Secret of the Blue Room, starring Paul Lukas, Gloria Stuart and Lionel Atwill Secrets, starring Mary Pickford She Done Him Wrong, starring Cary Grant amd Mae West The Son of Kong, starring Robert Armstrong and Helen Mack Sons of the Desert, starring Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy State Fair, starring Janet Gaynor, Will Rogers and Lew Ayres Hit songs "Did You Ever See A Dream Walking?" by Eddy Duchin "Just An Echo In the Valley" by Bing Crosby; also version by Rudy Vallee "Lazy Bones" by Ted Lewis Band; also version by Don Redman's band "Let's All Sing Like the Birdies Sing" by Ben Bernie "Night and Day" by Eddy Duchin "Shadow Waltz" by Bing Crosby "Stormy Weather" by Ethel Waters "You're Getting To Be A Habit With Me" by Bing Crosby with Guy Lombardo's Royal Canadians References

Los Angeles (L.A.), officially the City of Los Angeles, is a city in Southern California, in the United States. There are 3,847,400 people living in the city, and over 18 million people in the L.A. region. The city has an area of . Los Angeles is the city with the second biggest population in the United States after New York, overtaking Chicago in the 1970s. It is also the biggest city of California. Due to being built on a fault line, which runs through the downtown, it has few skyscrapers and tall structures and is one of the most spread out cities in the world. Greater Los Angeles is home to many movie stars and many of the biggest rock bands in the history of the United States. Los Angeles is surrounded by East Los Angeles, Huntington Park, Maywood, Walnut Park, Commerce, Bell, Glendale, South Pasadena, Monterey Park, South Gate, Cudahy, West Hollywood, Alhambra, Bell Gardena and Westmont. Los Angeles has Spanish and Mexican influences due to being a former colony of Mexico and Spain. Los Angeles is a diverse city with many ethnic groups such as Mexican, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Salvadoran, Iranian and Armenian. Mexican and Spanish architecture can be seen in Los Angeles. Many celebrities live in Los Angeles. Los Angeles is known to be the entertainment capital of the world. Many movies, television shows and fashion shows are set in Los Angeles. Los Angeles has the second largest Hispanic and Latino population in the United States, only behind New York City. Many are of Mexican and Central American descent. Los Angeles is one of the most expensive cities to live in. History The area comprising present-day Los Angeles County was first settled by small groups of Native Americans for centuries before the first European contact in 1769 when Gaspar de Portola and a group of missionaries camped on what is now the banks of the Los Angeles River. The name Los Angeles comes from the Spanish language,and it means "The Angels". The name is an abbreviation from the original name of the place. The original name is "El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río Porciúncula" (in English, "The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels of the River Porciúncula"), giving it both one of the longest and shortest (referring to its shortening of "LA") place names in the world. Los Angeles was founded in 1781 while the area was within the borders of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area had earlier been explored by two Franciscan priests named Junipero Serra and Juan Crespi and following the Mexican War of Independence the region passed into the hands of Mexico which subsequently ceded control of California to the U.S. in 1848. On April 4, 1850 California became a State of the USA. Los Angeles began half a century of rapid growth after railroads arrived in the city in the 1870s. Los Angeles was home to the Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984. It will host the Olympic Games in 2028. Three times the city broke out in riots, in 1943, in 1965, and in 1992, all due to racism. In 1994, an earthquake killed 72 people and damaged many buildings. Geography Los Angeles is a very large city, and the edges of the city are very far from the center, going from the beaches to the mountains. The Santa Monica Mountains run through the city, separating it into the San Fernando Valley to the north and the Los Angeles Basin to the south. The Los Angeles River also runs through the city some . Los Angeles moves about one-quarter of an inch (6.3 millimeters) to the east every year. It is caused by the city's tectonic plates and rough ground geography and since Los Angeles is at a close distance with the San Andreas Fault. This brings Los Angeles and San Francisco 2.5 inches closer together each year. Climate The climate in Los Angeles is a Mediterranean climate. The weather is usually warm and dry during the summer, and it is mild and more rainy in the winter. The weather is different depending on how far away from the ocean you are, so places near the beach usually do not get as hot in the summer. It is very rare for temperatures to go below freezing. The city receives about 15 inches (386 mm) of rain each year, although the amount can change a lot from year to year. Sights L.A. has many famous sights. There are many very long beaches, such as Venice Beach. Many visitors go to Hollywood, home to the Hollywood Walk of Fame the Mann's (Grauman's) Chinese Theater, a large cinema and L.A. Live, an entertainment complex. Los Angeles also has many fine museums such as the L.A. County Museum of Art, California Science Center and the Getty Museum. Another sight is the Los Angeles City Zoo. Los Angeles is the only major city in the world with an active population of wild mountain lions. Industries Los Angeles is known for its large movie and television industry. Much of this is located in Hollywood. Some military aircraft are also made there, as well as spacecraft. The music industry is also concentrated in the area. The city is also a banking center. The San Pedro area has a busy port. Neighborhoods Los Angeles has dozens of neighborhoods and named areas, including: Hollywood, home of many well-known movie studios. Downtown Los Angeles, the financial centre of the city. Home to Los Angeles' and California's two tallest buildings, the Wilshire Grand Center and the U.S. Bank Tower Elysian Park, home of Dodger Stadium and previously Chavez Ravine. Venice Beach. Santa Monica, beachfront district. Inglewood, home of SoFi Stadium and The Forum. Brentwood, a very wealthy area in West Los Angeles. South L.A. the center of LA's African-American jazz scene Leimert Park, home to LA’s historic African-American museums. Crenshaw, a well-known district in South Los Angeles. University Park, home to the University of Southern California. Westwood, home to the University of California. Boyle Heights, where many Mexican Americans reside. Exposition Park, home to the University of Southern California, the Coliseum, Banc of California Stadium and the California Science Center are located San Fernando Valley, a large suburban area. San Pedro, where the Port of Los Angeles is located in the city. Politics As of December 2019, the mayor of Los Angeles is Eric Garcetti. Cityscape Music Los Angeles has a rich history and culture of popular music. Many of the most notable recording artists in the history of the United States either started or flourished in Los Angeles or Greater Los Angeles. The surf music scene is largely associated with Los Angeles and suburbs like Malibu. Motown Records moved from Detroit, Michigan to Los Angeles in the 1970s. The West Coast Hip-hop scene and genres such as G-funk are largely centered in Greater Los Angeles. Notable bands include: The Beach Boys The Doors The Mamas & the Papas Metallica Red Hot Chili Peppers Eagles Guns 'n' Roses The Byrds Love Spirit Rage Against the Machine Buffalo Springfield Beck The Offspring Tool No Doubt System of a Down Linkin Park X N.W.A. Jane's Addiction Sublime (nearby Long Beach) Steppenwolf Incubus Sugar Ray The Wallflowers Black Flag Media KCBS CBS KABC American Broadcasting Company KTLA The CW KTTV Fox Broadcasting Company KCOP My13 References County seats in California Olympic cities 1781 establishments in North America 18th-century establishments in California

A census is a way of getting information about every member of a population. It is usually used for a population of people, but can be used to mean a population of animals. Both the United States and United Kingdom have a census every 10 years, or decade. But in Australia, Canada, Japan and New Zealand they have it every 5 years. A census produces a large database and sometimes new information technology, such as the use of punched cards for data, has been invented to handle it. The word comes from the Roman Republic when it meant a list of citizens. Notes Related pages Statistics United States Census Other websites Statistics Bureau of Japan - Official website Social sciences Animals Demography

A star is a very large ball of bright glowing hot matter in space. That matter is called plasma. Stars are held together by gravity. They give out heat and light because they are very hot. The Sun is a star at the centre of the solar system. The amount of material in a star (its mass) is so huge that it starts a nuclear reaction going. The reaction changes hydrogen to helium and gives off heat. Stars like the Sun are hot because this nuclear reaction happens inside them. The reaction is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion makes light and heat and makes bigger chemical elements. In the Sun (but not all stars) the change which takes place is the production of helium, with minute (very small) amounts of heavier elements. Stars have a lot of hydrogen. Nuclear fusion changes hydrogen into helium. Fusion makes a lot of energy. The energy makes the star very hot. The energy produced by stars moves (radiates) away from them. Much of the energy leaves as light. The rest leaves as other kinds of electromagnetic radiation. When a star like the Sun gets old, it will expand in size and become a red giant star. That will happen in about a billion years' time (109 years). Earth's Sun The star nearest to Earth is the Sun. The energy from the Sun supports almost all life on Earth by providing light for plants. Plants turn the light into energy in a process called photosynthesis. The energy from the Sun also causes weather and humidity on Earth. We can see other stars in the night sky when the Sun goes down. Like the Sun, they are made mostly of hydrogen and a little bit of helium plus other elements. Astronomers often compare those other stars to the Sun. For example, their mass is given in solar masses. A small star may be 0.2 solar masses, a big one 4.0 solar masses. Planets The Earth and other planets move around (orbit) the Sun. The Sun and all things that orbit the Sun are called the Solar System. Many other stars have planets orbiting them: those planets are called exoplanets. If you were on an exoplanet, our Sun would look like a star in the sky, but you could not see the Earth because it would be too far away. Numbers, distances Proxima Centauri is the star that is closest to our Sun. It is 39.9 trillion kilometres away. This is 4.2 light years away. This means that light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth. Astronomers think there is a very large number of stars in the Universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). That is, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars, which is many times more than the few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy). Most stars are very old. They are usually thought to be between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. The oldest stars are 13.7 billion years old. That is as old as the Universe. Some young stars are only a few million years old. Young stars are mostly brighter than old ones. Stars are different sizes. The smallest stars are neutron stars, which are actually dead stars. They are no bigger than a city. A neutron star has a large amount of mass in a very small space. Hypergiant stars are the largest stars in the Universe. They have a diameter over 1,500 times bigger than the Sun. If the Sun was a hypergiant star, it would reach out to as far as Jupiter. The star Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star. Although these stars are very large, they also have low density. Some stars look brighter than other stars. This difference is measured in terms of apparent magnitude. There are two reasons why stars have different apparent magnitude. If a star is very close to us it will appear much brighter. This is just like a candle. A candle that is close to us appears brighter. The other reason a star can appear brighter is that it is hotter than another cooler star. Stars give off light but also give off a solar wind and neutrinos. These are very small particles of matter. Stars are made of mass and mass makes gravity. Gravity makes planets orbit stars. This is why the Earth orbits the Sun. The gravity of two stars can make them go around each other. Stars that orbit each other are called binary stars. Scientists think there are many binary stars. There are even groups of three or more stars that orbit each other. Proxima Centauri is a small star that orbits other stars. Stars are not spread evenly across all of space. They are grouped into galaxies. A galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars. History of seeing stars Stars have been important to people all over the world for all of history. Stars have been part of religious practices. Long ago, people believed that stars could never die. Astronomers organized stars into groups called constellations. They used the constellations to help them see the motion of the planets and to guess the position of the Sun. The motion of the Sun and the stars was used to make calendars. The calendars were used by farmers to decide when to plant crops and when to harvest them. The life of stars Stars are made in nebulae. These are areas that have more gas than normal space. The gas in a nebula is pulled together by gravity. The Orion nebula is an example of a place where gas is coming together to form stars. Stars spend most of their lives combining (fusing) hydrogen with hydrogen to make energy. When hydrogen is fused it makes helium and it makes a lot of energy. To fuse hydrogen into helium it must be very hot and the pressure must be very high. Fusion happens at the center of stars, called "the core". The smallest stars (red dwarfs) fuse their hydrogen slowly and live for 100 billion years. Red dwarfs live longer than any other type of star. At the end of their lives, they become dimmer and dimmer. Red dwarfs do not explode. When very heavy stars die, they explode. This explosion is called a supernova. When a supernova happens in a nebula, the explosion pushes the gas in the nebula together. This makes the gas in the nebula very dense (thick) . Gravity and exploding stars both help to bring the gas together to make new stars in nebulas. Most stars use up the hydrogen at their core. When they do, their core becomes smaller and becomes hotter. It becomes so hot it pushes away the outer part of the star. The outer part expands and it makes a red giant star. Astro-physicists think that in about 5 billion years, the Sun will be a red giant. Our Sun will be so large it will eat the Earth. After our Sun stops using hydrogen to make energy, it will use helium in its very hot core. It will be hotter than when it was fusing hydrogen. Heavy stars will also make elements heavier than helium. As a star makes heavier and heavier elements, it makes less and less energy. Iron is a heavy element made in heavy stars. Our star is an average star. Average stars will push away their outer gases. The gas it pushes away makes a cloud called a planetary nebula. The core part of the star will remain. It will be a ball as big as the Earth and called a white dwarf. It will fade into a black dwarf over a very long time. Later in large stars, heavier elements are made by fusion. Finally the star makes a supernova explosion. Most things happen in the universe so slowly we do not notice. But supernova explosions happen in only 100 seconds. When a supernova explodes its flash is as bright as a 100 billion stars. The dying star is so bright it can be seen during the day. Supernova means "new star" because people used to think it was the beginning of a new star. Today we know that a supernova is the death of an old star. The gas of the star is pushed away by the explosion. It forms a giant cloud of gas called a planetary nebula. The crab nebula is a good example. All that remains is a neutron star. If the star was very heavy, the star will make a black hole. Gravity in a black hole is extremely strong. It is so strong that even light cannot escape from a black hole. The heaviest elements are made in the explosion of a supernova. After billions of years of floating in space, the gas and dust come together to make new stars and new planets. Much of the gas and dust in space comes from supernovae. Our Sun, the Earth, and all living things are made from star dust. Colors Astronomers have known for centuries that stars have different colors. When looking at an electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet waves are the shortest, and infrared are the longest. The visible spectrum has wavelengths between these two extremes. Modern instruments can measure very precisely the color of a star. This allows astronomers to determine that star's temperature, because a hotter star's black-body radiation has shorter wavelengths. The hottest stars are blue and violet, then white, then yellow, and the coolest are red. Knowing the color and absolute magnitude, astronomers can place the star on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and estimate its habitable zone and other facts about it. For example, our Sun is white, and the Earth is the perfect distance away for life. If our Sun was a hotter, blue star, however, Earth would have to be much farther away or else it would be too hot to have water and sustain life. References Other websites View the stars above your location Astrophysics

This article lists the 50 states of the United States. It also lists their populations, the date they became a state or agreed to the United States Declaration of Independence, their total area, land area, water area, and the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives. Washington D.C., (Washington, District of Columbia) is a federal district and capital of the United States and is not considered a state. The United States also has sovereignty over 14 other territories. These are not included in this list. Map of the U.S States Click on any state to learn more about that state. List of states Other websites Notes References

DUI may mean: Driving under the influence, the act of driving a motor vehicle (car, truck, etc.) while under the effects of alcohol. Data Use Identifier Data Use Institute Davis Unified Ignition Diving Unlimited International Inc Documento Unico de Importación Duke University Improv

Drunk driving (Drink driving in the UK and Australia) is the act of driving a motor vehicle (car, truck, etc.) while under the effects of alcohol. Drunk driving is illegal in most areas of the world. In some places, driving a motorless vehicle such as a bicycle while drunk is also illegal. Most areas that make laws (jurisdictions) started with DWI (driving while intoxicated) laws, banning just alcohol. Later, most changed them to DUI (driving under the influence) laws, adding other drugs to those banned while driving. The most common blood alcohol content (BAC) limit in the United States is 0.08% for the legal meaning of drunk. Only three states still use the more lax, original standard of 0.10%. Many jurisdictions add extra penalties (more jail time and/or a longer DUI program) in cases where the driver's BAC is over 0.20%. United States laws The first place in the United States to adopt laws against drunk driving was the state of New York in 1910, with California (1911) and others doing the same later. Early laws simply banned driving while drunk, with no mention of what BAC was banned (which means how drunk the person is). The state of Georgia was one of the last states to make laws against drunk driving. One of the years with the most alcohol related crashes was 1982. The year 1982 had 26,173 alcohol related deaths due to drunk driving. In the US, most of the laws were greatly tightened in the early 1980s, largely due to pressure from groups like Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) and Young Adults Educating Responsible Drinking. References Types of crime

The Creative Commons is a non-profit organisation that tries to make creative work available for others to use and share. Aim Their website allows copyright holders to give some of their rights to any other people. They still keep some other rights. They do this through licenses and contracts. Some of these make the work public domain or open content. They do this because copyright law can stop people sharing information. The project has different free licenses. A person who has copyright can choose which one they want to use when they publish their work. They also provide RDF/XML metadata. These say what the licenses are and make it easier to automatically sort out and find work that has these licenses. They also provide a 'Founder's Copyright' contract. This aims to give the same effects as the original US Copyright did. History Creative Commons was officially started in 2001. Lawrence Lessig is the founder and chairman of Creative Commons. Lessig started it as a way of reaching the goals of his Supreme Court case, Eldred v. Ashcroft. Localisation The iCommons (International Commons) is one of the Creative Commons projects. They improve the wording of the licenses and make them usable in other countries. The first ones dealt with US law only. As of February 4, 2004, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom have joined this project. Projects that use Creative Commons licenses include LOCA Records, Magnatune, Opsound, Opcopy, Wikitravel, iRATE radio and the fiction of Cory Doctorow. References Other websites Article on the Creative Commons License on the English Wikipedia The creativecommons.org website A short Flash animation talking about Creative Commons International Commons: Creative Commons initiatives outside the United States. Non-profit organizations of California 2001 establishments in California Companies based in San Francisco

HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a type of markup language. It is used to make webpages. Webpages can include writing, links, pictures, and even sound and video. HTML tells web browsers what webpages should look like. HTML also adds meta information to webpages. Meta information is information about about a webpage e.g., the name of the person who created the page. Web browsers usually do not show meta information. HTML is often used with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript. CSS is used to change the way HTML looks. JavaScript tells websites how to behave. It can also change HTML and CSS. HTML is made by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). There are many versions of HTML. As of September 2018, the current standard of HTML is called HTML 5 and is specifically at version 5.2. Tags HTML uses "elements" to let the browser know how a webpage is made of. Elements are shown as "tags" in the code, written with angle brackets: . Tags usually come in pairs: an opening tag defines the start of a block of content and a closing tag defines the end of that block of content. There are many kinds of tags, and each one has a different purpose. See Basic HTML Tags below for tag examples. Some tags only work in certain browsers. For example, the <menuitem> tag, which is used to make something appear when the person presses the right button of the mouse, only works on the Mozilla Firefox browser. Other browsers simply ignore this tag and display the writing normally. Many web page creators avoid using these "non-standard" tags because they want their pages to look the same with all browsers. Example Here is an example page in HTML with "Hello world!".<!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Hi!</title> </head> <body> <p>Hello world!</p> </body> </html>The text between and describes the web page, and the text between and is the page content. defines the browser page title. Example HTML tags Here are some example HTML tags: Other websites elementtutorials – for learning code for free and building projects HTML Dog is a site that helps new writers write good, simple HTML and make it look good with CSS. w3schools – a site of web technology tutorials infobing – Best Tech Information html css MDN HTML page – another page for HTML learning Real time html editor - Edit HTML Code Directly in browser with realtime preview HTML Programing Language- For learning HTML with tutorial Designing in Figma – Learning Designing in Figma Notes References Markup languages Internet Web design

A leg is something used to support things; to hold them up. Birds and humans have two legs. Some objects, for example tables and chairs, also have legs to hold them up. Animals normally have 2 or 4 legs (vertebrates, which are animals with a backbone), or 6, 8, or 12 (arthropods, for example insects and spiders). Centipedes and millipedes have a lot more legs, but not exactly a hundred or a thousand as their names make people who do not know them think. Humans have 2 legs, complete with feet. Biped is an animal with two legs and quadruped is an animal with four legs. People also use the word "leg" in idioms, for example: you do not have a leg to stand on (that means "you have no support; you have no chance in this discussion") to leg it (to run) to pull someone's leg (to play a little joke on someone for fun by trying to make them believe something that is not true) Basic English 850 words Limbs and extremities

One method is by the three-sector hypothesis: Primary sector extracts natural materials and provides raw materials for secondary industry. s. Sd transmission of Introduction India is the fastest growing large economy in the world, with an enormous population, favourable demographics and high catch-up potential due to low initial GDP per head. As per the World Bank data, in 2017, India became the sixth largest economy with a GDP of USD 2.59 trillion, relegating France to the seventh position. India is likely to surpass the United Kingdom in the world's largest economy rankings in 2019, according to a report by global consultancy firm PwC. According to World Economic Outlook report of IMF, India's economy is expected to grow by 7.5 per cent in the 2019-20 fiscal year, keeping an upward trajectory as the rest of the world slumps. According to report "India's economy is poised to pick up in 2019, benefiting from lower oil prices and a slower pace of monetary tightening than previously expected, as inflation pressures ease," the report said. As per Central Statistics Office (CSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI), the growth in GDP during 2018-19 is estimated at 7.2 percent as compared to the growth rate of 6.7 per cent in 2017-18. Economic Sectors Economic activities result in the production of goods and services while sectors are the group of economic activities classified on the basis of some criteria. The Indian economy can be classified into various sectors on the basis of ownership, working conditions and the nature of the activities. All economic activity was in the primary sector during early civilisation. After the surplus production of food, people’s need for other products increased which led to the development of the secondary sector. The growth of secondary sector spread its influence during the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century. A support system was needed to facilitate the industrial activity. Certain sectors like transport and finance played an important role in supporting the industrial activity. Primary Sector In Primary sector of economy, activities are undertaken by directly using natural resources. Agriculture, Mining, Fishing, Forestry, Dairy etc. are some examples of this sector. It is called so because it forms the base for all other products. Since most of the natural products we get are from agriculture, dairy, forestry, fishing, it is also called Agriculture and allied sector. People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work. Secondary Sector It includes the industries where finished products are made from natural materials produced in the primary sector. Industrial production, cotton fabric, sugar cane production etc. activities comes under this sector. Hence its the part of a country's economy that manufactures goods, rather than producing raw materials Since this sector is associated with different kinds of industries, it is also called industrial sector. People engaged in secondary activities are called blue collar workers. Examples of manufacturing sector: Small workshops producing pots, artisan production. Mills producing textiles, Factories producing steel, chemicals, plastic, car. Food production such as brewing plants, and food processing. Oil refinery. Core Industries Eight Core Industries are Electricity, steel, refinery products, crude oil, coal, cement, natural gas and fertilizers. The Index of Eight Core Industries is a monthly production index, which is also considered as a lead indicator of the monthly industrial performance. The Index of Eight Core Industries is compiled based on the monthly production information received from the Source Agencies. Tertiary Sector/Service Sector This sector’s activities help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors. By itself, economic activities in tertiary sector do not produce a goods but they are an aid or a support for the production. Goods transported by trucks or trains, banking, insurance, finance etc. come under the sector. It provides the value addition to a product same as secondary sector. This sector jobs are called white collar jobs. Pink Collar Worker Pink-collar worker is one who is employed in a job that is traditionally considered to be women's work. The term pink-collar worker was used to distinguish female-orientated jobs from the blue-collar worker, a worker in manual labor, and the white-collar worker, a professional or educated worker in office positions. A pink collar worker need not require as much professional training as white-collar professions. They do not get equal pay or prestige. A pink collar worker is usually a woman. Men rarely work in pink collar jobs. Some examples of pink collar occupations are baby sitter, florist, day care worker, nurses etc. Lately, the pink collar worker is educated or trained. Pink collar workers are educated through training seminars or classes and they have to continue to strive for advancement in their careers. Today, women have more opportunities in traditionally male white-collar jobs and men work in traditionally female pink-collar jobs. Sunrise Industry Sunrise industry is a term used for a sector that is just in its infancy but shows promise of a rapid boom. The industry is typically characterized by high growth rates, high degree of innovation and generally has plenty of public awareness about the sector and investors get attracted to its long-term growth prospects. On the other hand Sunrise industry rapid emergence may threaten a competing industry sector that is already in decline. Because of its dim long-term prospects, such an industry is referred to as a sunset industry. Existing Indian sectors that can be termed as Sunrise sectors and likely to hold us in good stead in the future in terms of employment generation and business growth are: Information Technology Telecom Sector Healthcare Infrastructure Sector Retail Sector Food Processing Industries Fisheries Why did India shift from primary sector to services sector and not secondary sector? The natural economic movement of a country goes from agrarian economy to an industrial economy to a service economy but India has leapfrogged from an agrarian economy to a service economy. One remarkable feature of India’s recent growth is diversification into services, with the services sector dominating GDP. India’s success in software and IT-enables serviced (ITeS) exports, has made it a significant services exporter with its share in world services exports rising from 0.6 per cent in 1990 to 3.3 per cent in 2013. Well educated and immense human resources, Fluency in English and availability of cheap labour are other reasons for rapid growth of service sector in the country. On the other hand low growth in Secondary sector can be attributed to: The license Raj Restrictions on foreign investment Lack of measures to promote private industry Power Deficit Stringent Labour laws Lack of skilled labour Delays in Land Acquisition and environmental clearances Import of cheap manufactured goods etc. Though India ranks low in terms of per capita income, its share of services in GDP is approaching the global average. Interestingly, however, the contribution of services to employment was significantly lower than the world average. The manufacturing sector tends to be labour intensive, hence renewed emphasis on the manufacturing through programmes like ‘Make in India’ will serve to correct this anomaly and raise employment in proportion with growth in GDP. Quaternary Activities These are specialized tertiary activities in the ‘Knowledge Sector’ which demands a separate classification. The quaternary sector is the intellectual aspect of the economy. It is the process which enables entrepreneurs to innovate and improve the quality of services offered in the economy. Personnel working in office buildings, elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices, theatres, accounting and brokerage firms all belong to this category of services. Like other tertiary functions, quaternary activities can also be outsourced. Quinary Activities The quinary sector is the part of the economy where the top-level decisions are made. This includes the government which passes legislation. It also comprises the top decision-makers in industry, commerce and also the education sector. These are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas; data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies. Profession under this category often referred as 'gold collar' professions, they represent another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc. Organised Sector In this sector, employment terms are fixed and regular, and the employees get assured work and social security. It can also be defined as a sector, which is registered with the government and a number of acts apply to the enterprises. Schools and hospitals are covered under the organised sector. Workers in the organised sector enjoy security of employment. They are expected to work only a fixed number of hours. If they work more, they have to be paid overtime by the employer. Unorganised Sector An unorganised worker is a home-based worker or a self-employed worker or a wage worker in the unorganized sector and includes a worker in the organized sector who is not covered by any of the Acts pertaining to welfare Schemes as mentioned in Schedule-II of Unorganized Workers Social Security Act, 2008. In this sector wage-paid labour is largely non-unionised due to casual and seasonal nature of employment and scattered location of enterprises. The sector is marked by low incomes, unstable and irregular employment, and lack of protection either from legislation or trade unions. The unorganised sector uses mainly labour intensive and indigenous technology. The workers in unorganised sector, are so scattered that the implementation of the Legislation is very inadequate and ineffective. There are hardly any unions in this sector to act as watch-dogs. But the contributions made by the unorganised sector to the national income, is very substantial as compared to that of the organised sector. It adds more than 60% to the national income while the contribution of the organised sector is almost half of that depending on the industry. The Public Sector In the sector, government owns most of the assets and it is the part of the economy concerned with providing various governmental services. The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits. Governments raise money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rendered by it. Classification of Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) CPSEs are classified into 3 categories- Maharatna, Navratna and Miniratna. Presently, there are 7 Maharatna, 16 Navratna and 71 Miniratna CPSEs. Maharatna Scheme was introduced for Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs), with effect from 19th May, 2010, in order to empower mega CPSEs to expand their operations and emerge as global giants. Presently there are seven ‘Maharatna’ CPSEs, viz. (i) Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, (ii) Coal India Limited, (iii) GAIL (India) Limited, (iv) Indian Oil Corporation Limited, (v) NTPC Limited, (vi) Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Limited and (vii)Steel Authority of India Limited. CPSEs fulfilling the following criteria are eligible to be considered for grant of Maharatna status: Having Navratna status. Listed on Indian stock exchange with minimum prescribed public shareholding under SEBI regulations. Average annual turnover of more than Rs. 25,000 crore, during the last 3 years. Average annual net worth of more than Rs. 15,000 crore, during the last 3 years. Average annual net profit after tax of more than Rs. 5,000 crore, during the last 3 years. Should have significant global presence/international operations. Criteria for grant of Navratna status The Miniratna Category – I and Schedule ‘A’ CPSEs, which have obtained ‘excellent’ or ‘very good’ rating under the Memorandum of Understanding system in three of the last five years, and have composite score of 60 or above in the six selected performance parameters, namely, net profit to net worth, manpower cost to total cost of production/services, profit before depreciation, interest and taxes to capital employed, profit before interest and taxes to turnover, earning per share and inter-sectoral performance. 'Miniratna' Scheme: In October 1997, the Government had also decided to grant enhanced autonomy and delegation of financial powers to some other profit making companies subject to certain eligibility conditions and guidelines to make them efficient and competitive. These companies called ‘Miniratnas’, are in two Category-II. The eligibility conditions and criteria are: Category –I CPSEs should have made profit in the last three years continuously, the pre-tax profit should have been Rs. 30 crore or more in at least one of the three years and should have a positive net worth. Category-II CPSEs should have made profit for the last three years continuously and should have a positive net worth. These CPSEs shall be eligible for the enhanced delegated powers provided they have not defaulted in the repayment of loans/interest payment on any loans due to the Government. The Private Sector In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or companies. It is sometimes referred as the citizen sector, which is run by private individuals or groups, usually as a means of enterprise for profit, and is not controlled but regulate by the State. Activities in the private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits. To get such services we have to pay money to these individuals and companies. PPP (Public Private Partnership) PPP is an arrangement between government and private sector for the provision of public assets and/or public services. In this type of partnership investments being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specified period of time. As PPP involves full retention of responsibility by the government for providing the services it doesn’t amount to privatization. There is a well defined allocation of risk between the private sector and the public entity. Private entity is chosen on the basis of open competitive bidding and receives performance linked payments. PPP route can be alternative in developing countries where governments faced various constraints on borrowing money for important projects. It can also give required expertise in planning or executing large projects. Sector-wise Contribution of GDP in India Services sector is the largest sector of India. Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices for Services sector is estimated at 92.26 lakh crore INR in 2018-19. Services sector accounts for 54.40% of total India's GVA of 169.61 lakh crore Indian rupees. With GVA of Rs. 50.43 lakh crore, Industry sector contributes 29.73%. While Agriculture and allied sector shares 15.87%. It is worth mentioning that agriculture sector has maximum share by working force at near 53% while services and secondary sectors shares are near 29% and 18% respectively. Economics

Yellow is a colour. It is the color of the color of amber. Yellow is the color of: The color amber. The outer skin of a lemon. The flower of the dandelion. The peel of a banana. The middle light of a stoplight. Most of the time, your Urine. Meaning of yellow Yellow can represent light and the sun's rays as well as lightning. The phrase "yellow" used to be used as a sign of cowardice. In China, yellow is the color of royalty. Emperors used to wear yellow. On road signs in the USA, yellow means "warning". Inkjet printers use yellow ink as one of their three basic colors, along with cyan ink and magenta ink. Tones of yellow colour comparison chart Yellow Mist (web colour Light Yellow) (Banana) (Hex: #FFFFE0) (RGB: 255, 255, 224) Old Lace (web colour) (Hex: #FDF5E6) (RGB: 253, 245, 230) Linen (web colour) (Hex: #FAF0E6) (RGB: 250, 240, 230) Antique White (web colour) (Hex: #FAEBD7) (RGB: 250, 235, 215) Blanched Almond (web colour) (Hex: #FFEBCD) (RGB: 255, 235, 205) Light Goldenrod Yellow (web colour) (Hex: #FAFAD2) (RGB: 250, 250, 210) Lemon Chiffon (web colour) (Lemon Cream) (Hex: #FFFACD) (RGB: 255, 250, 205) Cornsilk (web colour) (Hex: #FFF8DC) (RGB: 255, 248, 220) Beige (web colour) (Hex: #F5F5DC) (RGB: 245, 245, 220) Cream (Hex: #FFFDD0) (RGB: 255, 253, 208) Papaya Whip (web colour) (Hex: #FFEFD5) (RGB: 255, 239, 213) Banana Mania (Crayola) (Hex: #FBE7B2) (RGB: 251, 231, 128) Moccasin (web colour) (Hex: #FFE4B5) (RGB: 255, 228, 182) Peach-Yellow (Hex: #FADFAD) (RGB: 250, 223, 173) Wheat (web colour) (Hex: #F5DEB3) (RGB: 245, 222, 179) Navajo White (web colour) (Hex: #FFDEAD) (RGB: 255, 222, 173) <li style = "background-color: #f0e68c;"> Light Khaki (X11 "Khaki") (Hex: #F0E68C) (RGB: 240, 230, 140)<li> Pale Spring Bud (Crayola "Spring Green") (Hex: #ECEBBD) (RGB: 236, 235, 189) Pale Goldenrod (web colour) (Hex: #EEE8AA) (RGB: 238, 232, 170) Pale Canary Yellow (Crayola Canary) (Hex: #FFFF99) (RGB: 255, 255, 153) Buff (HexF0DC82) (RGB: 240, 220, 130) Flax (Hex: #EEDC82) (RGB: 238, 220, 130) <li style = "background-color: #ebc2af;"> Zinnwaldite (Hex: #EBC2AF) (RGB: 235, 194, 175)<li> <li style = "background-color: #edc9af;"> Desert Sand (Crayola) (Hex: #EDC9AF) (RGB: 237, 201, 175)<li> Peach Puff (web color) (Hex: #FFDAB9) (RGB: 255, 218, 185) Peach (Hex: #FFE5B4) (RGB: 255, 229, 180) Deep Peach (Crayola Peach) (Hex: #FFCBA4) (RGB: 255, 203, 164) Peach-Orange (Pale Salmon) (Hex: #FFCC99) (RGB: 255, 204, 153) Bright Apricot (Crayola Apricot) (Hex: #FDD5B1) (RGB: 253, 213, 177) Apricot (Hex: #FBCEB1) (RGB: 251, 206, 177) <li style = "background-color: #eedd62;"> Light Mustard (Hex: #EEDD62) (RGB: 255, 119, 255)<li> Dandelion (Crayola) (Hex: #FED85D) (RGB: 254, 216, 93) Mustard (Hex: #FFDB58) (RGB: 255, 219, 88) Energy Yellow (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #F8DD5C) (RGB: 248, 221, 92) Medium Goldenrod (Crayola Goldenrod) (Hex: #FCD667) (RGB: 252, 214, 103) <li style = "background-color: #f8de7e;"> Mellow Yellow (Hex: #F8DE7E) (RGB: 248, 222, 126)<li> Light Goldenrod (web colour) (Hex: #FFEC8B) (RGB: 255, 236, 139) Maize (Corn) (Hex: #FBEC5D) (RGB: 251, 236, 93) <li style = "background-color: #ffff66;"> Ultra Yellow (Unmellow Yellow) (Crayola) (Hex: #FFFF66) (RGB: 255, 255, 102)<li> <li style = "background-color: #fefe22;"> Laser Lemon (Crayola) (Hex: #FEFE22) (RGB: 254, 254, 34)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffff00;"> Yellow (Electric Yellow) (Hex: #FFFF00) (RGB: 255, 255, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #FDFD02;"> Daisy Yellow (Hex: #FDFD02) (RGB: 255, 253, 2)<li> <li style = "background-color: #fff700;"> Lemon Yellow (Lemon) Hex: #FFF700) (RGB: 255, 247, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffef00;"> Process Yellow (Pigment Yellow) (Printer's Yellow) (Canary Yellow) (Hex: #FFEF00) (RGB: 255, 239, 0)<li> Medium Yellow (Crayola Yellow) (Hex: #FFE302) (RGB: 255, 227, 2) <li style = "background-color: #ffdf00;"> Golden Yellow (Hex: #FFDF00) (RGB: 255, 223, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffd800;"> School Bus Yellow (Hex: #FFD800) (RGB: 255, 216, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffd700;"> Golden (web color Gold) (Hex: #FFD700) (RGB: 255, 215, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffcc00;"> Tangerine Yellow (Hex: #FFCC00) (RGB: 255, 204, 0)<li> <li style = "background-color: #ffc901;"> Supernova (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #FFC901) (RGB: 255, 201, 1)<li> Golden Poppy (Hex: #FCC200) (RGB: 252, 194, 0) Amber (Hex: #FFBF00) (RGB: 255, 191, 0) Selective Yellow (Hex: #FFBA00) (RGB: 255, 186, 0) <li style = "background-color: #ffcc33;"> Sunglow (Crayola) (Hex: #FFCC33) (RGB: 255, 204, 51)<li> Saffron (Hex: #F4C430) (RGB: 244, 196, 48) Macaroni and Cheese (Crayola) (Hex: #FFB79B) (RGB: 255, 185, 123) <li style = "background-color: #f4a460;"> Sandy Brown (web color) (Hex: #F4A460) (RGB: 244, 164, 96) <li> Atomic Tangerine (Crayola) (Hex: #FF9966) (RGB: 255, 153, 102) Gamboge (Hex: #EF9B0F) (RGB: 239, 155, 15) Light Buff (Hex: #ECD9B0) (RGB: 236, 217, 176) Pale Gold (Crayola Gold) (Hex: #E6BE8A) (RGB: 230, 190, 138) Brass (Hex: #C3A368) (RGB: 195, 163, 104) California Gold (Hex: #A98F64) (RGB: 169, 143, 100) Vegas Gold (Hex: #C5B356) (RGB: 197, 179, 88) Old Gold (Hex: #CFB53B) (RGB: 207, 181, 59) Metallic Gold (Hex: #D4AF37) (RGB: 212, 175, 55) Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #DAA520) (RGB: 218, 165, 32) Banana Yellow (Yellow Ochre) (Human Feces) (Hex: #CCCC33) (RGB: 204, 204, 51) Satin Sheen Gold (Hex: #CBA135) (RGB: 203, 16, 53) Buddha Gold (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #C1A004) (RGB: 193, 160, 4) <li style = "background-color: #cd853f;"> Peru (web color) (Hex: #CD853F) (RGB: 205, 133, 63)<li> <li style = "background-color: #cc7722;"> Ochre (Hex: #CC7722) (RGB: 204, 119, 34)<li> Dark Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #b8860B) (RGB: 184, 134, 11) Bronze Yellow (Hex: #737000) (RGB: 115, 112, 0) Dark Mustard (Hex: #7C7C40) (RGB: 124, 124, 64) Sandy Taupe (Hex: #967117) (RGB: 150, 113, 23) <li style = "background-color: #c19a6b;"> Fallow (Hex: #C19A6B) (RGB: 193, 154, 107)<li> <li style = "background-color: #c3b091;"> Khaki (HTML/CSS) (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 195, 176, 145)<li> <li style = "background-color: #cdb891;"> Ecru (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 205, 184, 145)<li> <li style = "background-color: #bdb76b;"> Dark Khaki (X11 "Dark Khaki") (Hex: #BDB76B) (RGB: 189, 183, 107)<li> Citrine (Hex: #E4D00A) (RGB: 228, 208, 10) Pear (Hex: #D1E231) (RGB: 209, 226, 49) <li style = "background-color: #ecf245;"> Starship (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E3DD39) (RGB: 227, 221, 57)<li> Chartreuse Yellow (Hex: #DFFF00) (RGB: 223, 255, 0) Neon Yellow (Hex: #FFFFE0) (RGB: 207, 255, 4) Electric Lime (Crayola) (Hex: #CCFF00) (RGB: 204, 255, 0) Lime (Hex: #BFFF00) (RGB: 191, 255, 0) Green-Yellow (web color) (Hex: #ADFF2F) (RGB: 173, 255, 47) Spring Bud (Hex: #A7FC00) (RGB: 167, 252, 0) <li style = "background-color: #9acd32;"> Yellow-Green (web color) (Hex: #9ACD32) (RGB: 154, 205, 50)<li> Citrus (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #A1C50A) (RGB: 161, 197, 10) June Bud (Hex: #BDDA57) (RGB: 189, 218, 87) Medium Spring Bud (Hex: #C9DC89) (RGB: 202, 220, 137) Pale Green-Yellow (Crayola Green-Yellow) (Hex: #F1E788) (RGB: 242, 231, 136) Lime Pulp (Hex: #D1E189) (RGB: 209, 225, 137) Olivine (Hex: #9AB973) (RGB: 154, 185, 115) Pistachio (Hex: #93C572) (RGB: 147, 197, 146) Swamp Green (Hex: #ACB78E) (RGB: 172, 183, 142) Camouflage Green (Hex: #78866B) (RGB: 120, 134, 107) Olive (web color) (Dark Yellow) (Hex: #808000) (RGB: 128, 128, 0) Olive Drab (web color) (Hex: #6B8E23) (RGB: 107, 142, 135) Dark Olive Green (web color) (Hex: #556B2F) (RGB: 85, 107, 47) Shadow (Crayola) (Hex: #837050) (RGB: 131, 112, 80) <li style = "background-color: #734a12; color: #ffffff"> Raw Umber (Hex: #734A12) (RGB: 115, 74, 18)<li> Olivetone (Xona color list) (Hex: #716E10) (RGB: 113, 110, 16) Bisque (web colour) (Hex: #3D2B1F) (RGB: 61, 43, 31) Black Olive (Olive RAL 6015) (Hex: #3B3C36) (RGB: 59, 60, 54) Related pages List of colors Amber Gold Basic English 850 words

Plymouth Argyle Football Club, is an English football club. The club is nicknamed The Pilgrims. The team usually plays in green, white and black. Club Information The club is called The Pilgrims because the people that left Plymouth for America were the first people to be called Pilgrims. The ship on the badge is called The Mayflower. The first pilgrims travelled on the Mayflower. The club's stadium is called Home Park. It was ruined by German aeroplanes in World War II. Home Park was repaired after the war. In 2001 and 2002, Home Park was made into a better stadium. Some parts of the stadium were not used while the work was being done. The stadium is now fully open. The club was made in 1886, but it was called Argyle Athletic Club. The club changed its name to Plymouth Argyle Football Club in 1903. Plymouth Argyle has never won a match by more than 7 goals. They have beaten Hartlepool United and Millwall 8-1. On 3 January 2004, they beat Chesterfield 7-0. The club lost 9-0 to Stoke City in 1960. Luke McCormick is a goalkeeper. He played seven games in a row for Plymouth Argyle without letting the other teams score a single goal. In the 1990s, Peter Shilton, Neil Warnock, and John Gregory all managed the club. The club won Division Three in 2001/02, won Division Two in 2003/04 and now plays in the newly named Championship, the second tier of English football. When the club won Division Three they scored 102 points. No other team had ever scored that many points. Name 1886-? Argyle F.C. ?-present Plymouth Argyle F.C. 100th season 2003/04 is the club`s 100th season since becoming Plymouth Argyle in 1903. The club has set up many events, while the team has won many awards. A list of things that happened in the 2003/04 season: 22 October 2003: Plymouth Argyle beat Sheffield Wednesday 3-1 at Hillsborough (Sheffield Wednesday's ground) to become the top team in Division Two. 24 October 2003: Plymouth Argyle were given an award for their 5-1 win against Port Vale. 1 November 2003: Paul Sturrock won the Division Two manager of the month award for October. 6 November 2003: David Friio won the Division Two player of the month award for October. 23 December 2003: Paul Sturrock agreed to stay as the club's manager until 2008. 26 December 2003: Paul Wotton scored Plymouth Argyle's 5000th goal in league matches. Plymouth Argyle beat A.F.C. Bournemouth 2-0 on that day. Plymouth Argyle became the first big side in England to score 50 goals in that season. 2 January 2004: Paul Sturrock won the Division Two manager of the month award for December. 3 January 2004: David Friio scored three goals in one match. 6 January 2004: Paul Sturrock was named as the best manager in England. 17 January 2004: Two men who used to play for Plymouth Argyle, Billy Rafferty and Paul Mariner went back to Plymouth to celebrate with fans. Plymouth Argyle beat Rushden & Diamonds 3-0. 5 February 2004: Graham Coughlan won the Division Two player of the month award for January. 19 February 2004: The club's first shop in Plymouth city centre was opened. 4 March 2004: Paul Sturrock became manager of Southampton Club Honours Third Division South Champions 1930, 1952 Runners-up 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1927 Third Division (Old Format) Champions 1959 Runners-up 1975, 1986 Division Three Champions 2002 Division Two Champions 2004 League position Former position Current Plymouth Argyle Squad 1 Romain Larrieu Goalkeeper (on loan to Gillingham) 2 Anthony Barness Defender 4 Lilian Nalis Midfielder 5 Krisztián Timár Defender (on loan from Ferencvaros) 6 Hasney Aljofree Defender (on loan to Oldham) 7 David Norris Midfielder 8 Ákos Buzsáky Midfielder 9 Sylvan Ebanks-Blake Midfielder 10 Barry Hayles Striker 11 Nick Chadwick Striker 13 Mathias Doumbe Defender 14 Tony Capaldi Midfielder 15 Paul Wotton Midfielder 16 Péter Halmosi Midfielder (on loan from Debrecen) 17 Kevin Gallen Striker (on loan from QPR) 18 Gary Sawyer Defender 19 Marcel Seip Defender 20 Lee Hodges Midfielder 21 Cherno Samba Striker 22 Paul Connolly Defender 23 Luke McCormick Goalkeeper 24 Josh Clapham Goalkeeper 25 Ryan Dickson Midfielder (on loan to Torquay) 26 Scott Sinclair Midfielder (on loan from Chelsea) 27 Reuben Reid Midfielder (on loan to Torquay) 28 Scott Laird Defender 29 Luke Summerfield Midfielder 30 Dan Gosling Midfielder 31 Anthony Mason Striker 32 Bojan Djordjic Midfielder 33 Rory Fallon Striker 34 Ashley Barnes Striker The other workers at Plymouth Argyle Manager - Paul Mariner Assistant Manager - Gary Penrice Coach - Tim Breacker Youth Coach - Stuart Gibson Physiopherapist - John Carver 2nd Physiopherapist- Tom Hunter Chief Scout - John James Chairman - Paul Stapleton Vice Chair - Robert Dennerly Directors - Phillip Gill, Damon Lenszner, Tony Wrathall Chief Executive - Michael Dunsford Community Officer - Geoff Crudgington Commercial Manager - Andy Budge Club Shop Manager - Rachel Fry Club Photographer - Dave Rowntree Official Webmaster - Steven Hill Previous Argyle Managers These are the team managers of Plymouth Argyle and the dates they took over. Frank Brettell (August 1 1903) Bob Jack (August 1 1905) Bill Fullerton (August 1 1906) Bob Jack (August 1 1910) Jack Tresardern (April 1 1938) Jimmy Rae (September 1 1948) Jack Rowley (February 1 1955) Neil Dougall (March 1 1961) Ellis Stuttard (November 1 1961) Andy Beattie (October 1 1963) Malcolm Allison (May 1 1964) Derek Ufton (May 1 1965) Billy Bingham (February 1 1968) Ellis Stuttard (March 1 1970) Tony Waiters (October 11 1972) Mike Kelly (May 1 1977) Lennie Lawrence (Caretaker) (February 14 1978) Malcolm Allison (March 16 1978) Bobby Saxton (January 5 1979) Bobby Moncur (June 1 1981) Johnny Hore (October 1 1983) Dave Smith (November 1 1984) Ken Brown (July 6 1988) John Gregory (Caretaker) (February 6 1990) David Kemp (March 1 1990) Peter Shilton (March 2 1992) Steve McCall (Caretaker) (January 2 1995) Neil Warnock (June 22 1995) Mick Jones (February 3 1997) Kevin Hodges (June 21 1998) Kevin Summerfield (Caretaker) (October 4 2000) Paul Sturrock (October 31 2000) Kevin Summerfield (Caretaker) (March 4 2004) Bobby Williamson (April 20 2004) Jocky Scott (John Alexander Scott) (Caretaker) (September 6 2005) Tony Pulis (September 23 2005) Former players Bruce Grobbelaar John Hope Peddie Jack Leslie Paul Mariner Billy Rafferty Peter Shilton Tommy Tynan References Other websites Club official website PASOTI (Plymouth Argyle Supporters On The Internet, the main fans' site) Useful site with audio/visual round ups of games as well as many good links Club forum which also has some club news English football clubs Plymouth, Devon 1886 establishments in England

Football is a word which could mean one of several sports. The best-known type of football is association football. This is called "soccer" in North America, South Africa, and Australia to avoid confusion with other types of football that are commonly played there. The name football comes from the two words 'foot' and 'ball'. It is named football because the players of the game walk and often run (on their feet) while playing, as opposed to (for example) polo where the players ride horses. Football is played using a ball, also called a 'football', that is usually shaped like a sphere or an ellipsoid. The ball is often kicked with the foot, but depending on the game, it can also be hit using other parts of the body (in association football) and handling the ball is a part of some other sports known as 'football'. Players can use any part of their body except their arms and hands. Goalies can use every part of their body to keep the ball out of the goal. Some elements of football have been seen in many countries, dating back to the second and third century AD in China. The modern games of both rugby football and association football comes from 19th-century England. Kicking a ball, in Europe, was described in Britannia (now western scottish lowlands), in Germania (now Deutchland) and Gallia (now France and northern-central Italy). An evolution goes back to the Middle Ages in Paris. Association football (founded in Richmond, London at the end of 1800) spread to many other parts of Europe, and was brought to the rest of the world with colonization. Today, it is the most popular sport in the world and many people watch it on television, especially the FIFA World Cup that happens every four years. Every year there is a Football Club Competition called as Champions League. All the qualified big teams take part. At the end, we have one winner who takes the prestigious UEFA trophy. All big players play for their own teams. Some big players who take part every year are Mbappe, Ronaldo, Messi, Dybala, Neymar and many more. Types of football Association football (soccer) American football Rugby league football Rugby union football Gridiron football College football Touch rugby - Called "touch football" in Australia. Canadian football Gaelic football Australian Rules Football References

Poland is a country in Central Europe. Its official name is Republic of Poland. It is on the east of Germany (along Oder and Lusatian Neisse). The Czech Republic and Slovakia are to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad to the north. The total land area of Poland is about 312,679 km2 (120,728 mi2), slightly larger than Oman. This makes Poland the 77th largest country in the world with over 38.5 million people. Most Polish people live in large cities, including the capital, Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa), Łódź, Cracow (Polish: Kraków), the second capital of Poland (first was Gniezno), Szczecin, Gdańsk, Wrocław and Poznań. The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919. However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. Although the government collapsed, the Polish people fought on by forming the largest and most effective resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe. It is most notable for disrupting German supply lines to the Eastern Front of WWII, providing military intelligence to the British, and for saving more Jewish lives in the Holocaust than any other Allied organization or government. After the war, Poland regained "independence" and became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc. The new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin and was under the control of the Soviet Union. In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. History Early history The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire. Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from. Piast and Jagiellon dynasties Poland began to form a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century, Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320 when Władysław I became the King of United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles, and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants. Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland. After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Second Republic of Poland In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830 and 1863). Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar. During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War. World War II On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move. Polish People's Republic to Third Polish Republic After these events, Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality, the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. Most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989. In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004. Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years. Geography Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west. The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes, and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea. The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated, and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland. Poland has many lakes. In Europe, only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains. South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by the broad ice-age river valleys. The Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew. Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras. Administrative divisions Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships (województwa, singular - województwo). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km2 (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km2 (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks. The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into powiaty (singular powiat), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries. Literature Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature. Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote Pan Tadeusz epic in 1834. Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prizes as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980). Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His Solaris novel was made twice into a feature film. People In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia. Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken. In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise from the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of the Polish economy and the increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine). A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States. Famous people Fryderyk Chopin, a music composer. Joseph Conrad, born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, an acclaimed author who however wrote in English. Nicolaus Copernicus, an astronomer who showed that the Earth moves around the Sun. Maria Skłodowska-Curie discovered radium and polonium. Franciszek Kamieński, discovered mycorrhiza. Tadeusz Kościuszko, an army commander who fought for USA's and Poland's independence. Robert Kubica, a F1 driver. Stanisław Lem, a science fiction writer. Adam Małysz, a ski-jumper. Adam Mickiewicz, a poet Pope John Paul II (earlier Karol Wojtyła). Before he became Pope, he was a Bishop in Kraków. Agnieszka Radwańska, female tennis player Władysław Reymont, a novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, a novelist Kamil Stoch, a ski jumper Wisława Szymborska, a writer Andrzej Wajda, a film director Lech Wałęsa, leader of "Solidarność" ("Solidarity"), he helped defeat the communist government in Poland and USSR influence in Central and Eastern Europe Robert Lewandowski, a football player Czesław Miłosz, a poet Jan Matejko, a painter Urban demographics The lists below show the population count of Poland's largest cities based on 2005 estimates. Related pages List of rivers of Poland Poland at the Olympics Poland national football team References Other websites Tourist information portal Poland.gov.pl - Polish national portal Ministry of Foreign Affairs Poland at the World Factbook Background Note: Poland WorldFlicks in Poland: photos and interesting places on Google Maps European Union member states 1989 establishments in Europe

England is a country in Europe. It is a country with over sixty cities in it. It is in a union with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. All four countries are in the British Isles and are part of the United Kingdom (UK). Over 55 million people live in England (2015 estimate). This is 84% of the population of the UK. The capital city of England is London, which is also the biggest city in the country. Other large cities in England are Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds. The English flag is a red cross on a white background. This cross is the cross of Saint George, who is the patron saint of England. Some other symbols used for England are a red rose and three lions. Geography England is the largest part of the island of Great Britain, and it is also the largest constituent country of the United Kingdom. Scotland and Wales are also part of Great Britain (and the UK), Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. To the east and south, and part of the west, England is bordered by sea. France is to the south, separated by the English Channel. The Channel Tunnel, (Chunnel) under the English Channel, connects England to northern France (and the rest of mainland Europe). Ireland is a large island to the west, divided into Northern Ireland which is part of the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland. London is the largest city and the capital. The longest river in England is the River Severn. Other large rivers are the Thames (which runs through London), the Trent and the Humber. In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain, Somerset Levels, South Coast Plain and The Fens. The United Kingdom is reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It has met Kyoto Protocol target of a 12.5% reduction from 1990 levels and intends to meet the legally binding target of a 20% cut in emissions by 2010. In 2019, the British Parliament became the first national government in the world to officially declare a climate emergency. History England was named after a Germanic tribe called the "Angles", who settled in Central, Northern, and Eastern England in the 5th and 6th centuries. A related tribe called the "Saxons" settled in the south of England. That is why that period of English history is called "Anglo-Saxon". For most of this time, England did not exist as a united country. The Anglo-Saxons lived in many small kingdoms, which slowly united. The countries of England, Scotland and Wales correspond to boundaries of the earlier Roman Britain. It also corresponds with language differences, since the German tribes did not reach those areas, at least in any large numbers. The English language is derived from German languages of the time, whereas the native British languages of the time were Celtic languages. The English kingdoms fought both the Scots, who were also uniting into one kingdom, and Danish invaders. The Danes formed their own large region in the Northeast of England called Danelaw. Many villages and towns in this area (particularly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire) have Danish names, and use some Danish-based words. At one time Wessex (in the West of England) was the only English kingdom left. After many battles, King Alfred the Great of Wessex became king of the whole of England. The old kingdoms (Mercia, Northumbria, etc.) became provinces, called "Earldoms" and each governed by an Earl. By AD 927 Alfred's grandson Athelstan was the king of all of England not controlled by the Danes. War with the Danes continued and from 1016 to 1042. The king of Denmark (Knut or Canute), died in 1035, and then his sons ruled England. When King Edward the Confessor died, Harold Godwinson (the Earl of Wessex) became king. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (today part of northern France), said that Harold had promised to make William the king. He invaded England and fought King Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. William won, and became king of England. The kings of England spoke French for the next 300 years. England took over the country of Wales in the 13th century. There were many wars, often against France and Scotland. For several centuries the religion of England was Roman Catholicism. The bishops (church leaders) of England and all their churches obeyed the Pope and the church in Rome. During the Protestant Reformation many did not agree with this. In the 1530s, the Pope told King Henry VIII that he could not divorce his wife. King Henry VIII created the Church of England (a "Protestant" church) partly so that he could divorce his wife. He made Protestantism the official church in England. For the next 200 years, there was struggle over whether the King (or Queen) of England should be "Roman Catholic" or "Protestant". Queen Elizabeth I was Henry's second daughter. She was a powerful queen who ruled for more than 40 years. When Queen Elizabeth I died, she had no children, and in 1603 James VI of Scotland (the son of Mary, Queen of Scots) became King James I of England. He called his two countries "Great Britain", but they were still separate countries with their own parliaments and laws, even though they were in personal union. They shared the same monarch. James' son, Charles I and the English Parliament fought each other in the English Civil War (Scotland and Ireland were involved as well, but the story is complicated!). Oliver Cromwell became leader of the Parliamentary Army (the "Roundheads") and defeated the Royalist Army (the "Cavaliers"). King Charles was beheaded in 1649 and Oliver Cromwell became dictator ("Lord Protector"). When Cromwell died, his son Richard was not strong enough to rule, and Charles II, the son of Charles I, was invited to come to England and be king in 1660. When King Charles II died, his brother James II was the next king. A lot of people did not like James because he was Roman Catholic. William of Orange was invited to invade England. He was the ruler of part of the Netherlands and husband of Mary, the daughter of King James. Many people welcomed William because he was a Protestant. James left the country without a fight and Parliament asked William and Mary to become King and Queen together. When Mary II of England died, William ruled alone. Queen Mary's sister Anne became the next queen. While she was queen, England and Scotland were officially joined as one country. This was called the Acts of Union 1707. It also merged their separate parliaments. The parliament in London now included Scottish Members of Parliament ("MPs"), and was called the Parliament of Great Britain. After this, the history of England becomes the history of Great Britain and United Kingdom. The United Kingdom was formed in 1800, when the Irish Parliament merged with the British one. later on, many in Ireland fought against this merger. The result was the separation of the Republic of Ireland. This is not the whole island of Ireland. The rest of the island, Northern Ireland, is now the only part of Ireland still in the UK. England is the only country of UK not to have its own government, Parliament or Assembly, but is governed by Parliament of the United Kingdom. Seats in Parliament are decided by the number of electors in the various parts of the UK. Achievements England has been central to many aspects of the modern world. Global exploration and trade, the British Empire, modern science, modern agriculture, railways, the Industrial Revolution, the development of modern representative democracy... In all these developments England was deeply involved. In some of them, such as the Industrial Revolution, England was the place that modern developments first occurred. The Royal Society is a society for science and scientists. It was founded in 1660 by Charles II. It is the oldest society of its kind still in existence. Language The English language is a West Germanic language spoken in many countries around the world. With around 380 million native speakers, it is the second most spoken language in the world, as a native language. As many as a billion people speak it as a second language. English is an influence on, and has been influenced by, many different languages. William Shakespeare was an English playwright. He wrote plays in the late 16th century. Some of his plays were Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth. In the 19th century, Jane Austen and Charles Dickens were novelists. Twentieth century writers include the science fiction novelist H.G. Wells and J.R.R. Tolkien. The children's fantasy Harry Potter series was written by J.K. Rowling. Aldous Huxley was also from the United Kingdom. English language literature is written by authors from many countries. Eight people from the United Kingdom have won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Climate All of Great Britain has an oceanic climate. There can be a temperature difference of 510°c between the north and the south (the north is generally colder), and there is often snow in the north before there is in the south. The prevailing wind for most of the year is from the Atlantic, to the west of England. Therefore, there is more rain on the western side of the country. The east is colder and drier than the west. The country usually has a mild climate because the Gulf Stream to the western side is warm water. The climate is warmer than it was 200 years ago, and now ice and snow are rare in the southern part of the country. Occasionally, air from the Arctic Circle comes down the eastern side of the country and the temperature can drop below 0oC. Politics As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. It has a monarch (meaning a king or queen is the head of that country). The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is officially the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. The English people are represented by members of Parliament, not ruled by monarchs. After the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the monarchy was disbanded. Although the monarchy was restored after his death, the Crown slowly became the secondary power, and Parliament the first. Members of Parliament (called MPs) were elected, but until the early twentieth century, only men who owned property could vote. In the nineteenth century, more people were given suffrage. But in 1928, all men and women got the vote: this is called universal suffrage. Parliament is in Westminster in London, but it has power over the whole of the United Kingdom. Almost all members of Parliament belong to political parties. The biggest parties are the Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liberal Democrats and Green Party. Members of the same party agree to act and vote more or less together. A party with more than half the seats (a majority) forms the government; the leader of the party becomes the Prime Minister, who then appoints other ministers. Because the government has a majority in Parliament, it can normally control what laws are passed. Economy England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £28,100 or $36,000. Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount. The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy, which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there. London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world. Manchester is the largest financial and professional services sector outside London and is the mid tier private equity capital of Europe as well as one of the growing technology hubs of Europe. Education State primary schools and secondary schools exist. These consist of academy schools, grammar schools, foundation schools, faith schools, free schools, studio schools, university technical colleges and city technology colleges. The most common specialist schools are performing arts schools, science schools, maths schools, business schools and technology schools. Independent public or prep schools also exist. Eton College and Harrow School are the best known independent schools. The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988, to give pupils a broad and balanced curriculum. The school curriculum aims to promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils. Its purpose is to prepare them for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life. Learning generally covers English literature, English language, maths, science, art and design, citizenship, religious education, geography, history, computing, design and technology, drama, ancient and modern foreign languages, business studies, food technology, music and physical education. Many prominent people who have reached the top in their fields have been products of English higher education. There have been universities in England since the Middle Ages. Ancient universities started in this time and in the Renaissance. The two oldest and most prestigious universities are Oxford University and Cambridge University. Imperial College, University College London and Manchester University are also highly rated by independent lists. There are now about a hundred universities. Transport Road traffic in the United Kingdom drives on the left hand side of the road (unlike the Americas and most of Europe), and the driver steers from the right hand side of the vehicle. The road network on the island of Great Britain is extensive, with most local and rural roads having evolved from Roman and Medieval times. The system of rail transport was invented in England, so it has the oldest railway network in the world. It was built mostly during the Victorian era. The British Rail network is part privatised, with privately owned train operating companies providing service along particular lines or regions, whilst the tracks, signals and stations are owned by a Government controlled company called Network Rail. The system of underground railways in London, known as the Tube, has been copied by many other cities around the globe. England is home to the largest airport and is one of the most important international hubs in the world. Media The BBC is an organisation in the United Kingdom. It broadcasts in the United Kingdom and other countries on television, radio and the Internet. The BBC also sells its programmes to other broadcasting companies around world. The organisation is run by a group of twelve governors who have been given the job by the Queen, on the advice of government ministers. The BBC is established under a royal charter, which allows the BBC to broadcast. English culture See English literature, English Heritage, Aldeburgh Festival, The Royal Society English culture can be compared with Northern European countries, in the way that it is considered a bad thing to show off, as opposed to the US, where this is more acceptable. Humour, tradition and good manners are characteristics commonly associated with being English. Sport The English football team won the World Cup in 1966. They came close in Italy 1990, closely losing in the semi-final against West Germany on penalties. In the 2006 World Cup they got to the quarter finals, then lost to Portugal after penalty kicks. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, they came close again only to be knocked out in the semi-final, losing 2-1 to Croatia. English people invented: Football Rugby football Cricket Billiards and snooker Lawn tennis Rounders Rowing Darts Hockey Origin partly in England: Real tennis People from England There are many well known English people. Here are just a few of them: Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400), poet William Shakespeare (1564–1616), playwright, poet Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723), architect Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), mathematician and physicist King Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England John Wesley, founder of the Methodist Church Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851), landscape and marine artist John Constable (1776–1837), landscape painter Jane Austen (1775–1817), novelist, Pride and Prejudice William Wordsworth (1770–1850), poet Michael Faraday (1791–1867), discoverer of electromagnetism Charles Dickens (1812–1870), writer Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859), engineer Charles Darwin (1809–1882), biologist, natural selection and The Origin of Species J.J. Thomson (1856–1940), physicist Howard Carter (1874–1939), archaeologist (Egypt) Sir Winston Churchill (1874–1965), twice Prime Minister, led country during World War II J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973), author and scholar, The Lord of the Rings Francis Crick (1916–2004), co-discovery of the structure of DNA Sir Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web The Beatles, musical group: (19621970) Led Zeppelin, rock band The Rolling Stones, rock band Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997) Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), Prime Minister 1979–1990 Sir Stanley Matthews (1915–2000), footballer, 1956 Ballon d'Or winner Bobby Moore (1941–1993), footballer, captain of the England team that won the 1966 FIFA World Cup. Sir Bobby Charlton, footballer, 1966 Ballon d'Or winner Ronnie O'Sullivan, snooker player Mo Farah, athlete Lewis Hamilton, Formula 1 driver and world champion 2008, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 Amy Winehouse (1983–2011), singer J.K. Rowling, author Stephen Hawking (1942-2018), theoretical physicist Divisions England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties, which are also known as geographic counties. The counties of England are areas used for different purposes, which include administrative, geographical, cultural and political demarcation. The original county structure has its origins in the Middle Ages. The historic counties of Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmorland, Huntingdonshire and Middlesex are the five defunct ceremonial counties which were historically counties. With their abolition as ceremonial counties, Yorkshire is divided for that purpose into the East Riding of Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and West Yorkshire, Cumberland and Westmorland were combined with a former exclave of Lancashire to form Cumbria, Huntingdonshire merged into Cambridgeshire, and the vast majority of Middlesex became part of Greater London. There is no well-established series of official symbols or flags covering all the counties. From 1889 the newly-created county councils could apply to the College of Arms for coats of arms. A recent series of flags, with varying levels of official adoption, have been established in many of the counties by competition or public poll. County days are a recent innovation in some areas. There are seventeen first-class county cricket teams that are based on historical English counties. Twelve of the 51 cities in England are in metropolitan counties and their city councils are single-tier metropolitan district councils. Outside the metropolitan counties eleven cities are unitary authorities, and fifteen have ordinary district councils, which are subordinate to their local county council. Related pages Shire References Other websites The website for tourism in England The British Government website

Wales (;  [ˈkəm.rɨ] (come-ree) is a country on the island of Great Britain. It is one of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom. It is west of England, and east of the Irish Sea and Ireland. Wales is one of the six Celtic nations. The native people of Wales, the Welsh, have their own culture and traditions. They have their own Celtic language, Welsh. Although not all Welsh people can speak Welsh, it is a real living language for about 20% of Welsh people. Nearly all Welsh people can speak English. Some of them speak only English. The Welsh language has official status in Wales. Three million people live in Wales. Most of them live in the southern and eastern parts of the country. In this area is the capital and largest city of Wales, Cardiff, and the next largest city, Swansea. History People have lived in Wales for at least 29,000 years. The Romans first entered Wales in 43 AD, and took it around 77 AD. The word 'Wales' The English words Wales and Welsh come from the old Germanic word Walh (plural: Walha). Walh itself came from a Celtic tribe, called the Volcae by the Romans. That was eventually used for the name of all Celts and later to all people who lived in the Roman empire. The Anglo-Saxons who lived in England and who spoke Old English called the people living in Wales Wælisc and the land itself Wēalas. Other names that come from these origins Wallonia, Wallachia, and Vlachs. In the past, the words Wales and Welsh were used to mean anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with the Celtic Britons. That included Cornwall, Walworth, and Walton, as well as things associated with non-Germanic Europeans like walnuts. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru which is the Welsh name for Wales. These words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen" Conquest by Edward I and brief independence under Owain Glyndŵr After Llywelyn ap Gruffudd died in 1282, Edward I of England finished his conquest of Wales, which made it a part of England. Owain Glyndŵr was a Welsh leader who fought against English rule in the early 15th century. However, after he was defeated by the English, the whole of Wales was taken over by England, with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. Laws in Wales Acts and annexation by England In the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 were passed in England while Henry VIII was king there. These added Wales to England. They also said that people who spoke Welsh instead of English could not hold public office. Industrial Revolution Wales is on ancient rocks which were once in the roots of great mountain systems. In the last three centuries the products of those rocks have transformed what was once an agricultural landscape. Rocks were smelted to release copper and iron, key products needed by the industrial revolution. Coal itself is moved by canals and later by rail to England. Social justice was needed for the workers who came into Wales to do this work. At the start of the industrial revolution, the mining and metal industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial country. The new jobs in South Wales caused a quick rise in the number of people living in Wales. This is the reason why two-thirds of the population live in South Wales, mainly in the capital Cardiff (Caerdydd), as well as Swansea (Abertawe), Newport (Casnewydd), and in the nearby valleys. Now that the coal industry has become a lot smaller, Wales' economy depends mostly on the public sector, light and service industries and tourism. In 2010, the Gross Value Added of Wales was £45.5 billion - £15,145 per head, 74.0% of the average for the UK, and the lowest GVA per head in Britain. Return of Welsh identity and devolution of Government It took until the 19th Century for Welsh-centric politics to return to Wales. Liberalism in Wales, which was introduced in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was overtaken by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. However, Welsh pride got stronger, and in 1925 Plaid Cymru was made, which was the first political party to campaign for Welsh independence. In 1962, the Welsh Language Society was made to encourage the Welsh language, which had nearly disappeared during the take over by England. A big change was made in 1998, when the first Government of Wales for the country since its addition to the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act (1998). This created an Assembly for Wales, known in Welsh as the senedd. The Senedd has responsibility for a range of laws which have been devolved from the main UK government in Westminster. This means the members of the Assembly can change certain laws in Wales to be different to the rest of the UK. Geography Wales has a coastline which is 1680 miles long, and the country itself is 20,779 km2 large. The highest mountains in Wales are in Gwynedd, in the north-west, and include Snowdon (), which is the highest peak in Wales at 1085 m (3,560 ft). There are three National Parks in Wales: Snowdonia (), Brecon Beacons (), and Pembrokeshire Coast (). Politics Local government Wales is divided into 22 council areas. These areas are responsible for local government services, such as education, social work, environment and roads services. The list to the right of the map shows counties, unless they are marked *, meaning they are cities, or † for County Boroughs. Welsh-language forms are given in parentheses. Welsh identity Welsh people are very proud of their country. The first people in Wales to call themselves 'Welsh' were the Celts. The Celts lived in Wales after the Romans left in the 5th century. The national emblems of Wales are leeks and daffodils.  Although Wales is very close to the rest of Great Britain, and despite most people speaking English, the country has always had a distinct culture. It is officially bilingual in English and Welsh. Over 560,000 people in Wales speak the Welsh language. In some parts of the north and west of the country, particularly in small, rural communities, the majority of people speak Welsh. From the late 19th century, Wales became famous as the "land of song", and for its Eisteddfod culture festival. At many international sport events, for example the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby World Cup, and the Commonwealth Games, Wales competes on its own, as a separate country. However, at most international events, such at the Olympics, Wales competes with the rest of the Great Britain, and sometimes as the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland included. Rugby Union is strongly associated with Wales as a national sport. Famous Welsh people Richard Burton (Actor) Dylan Thomas (Poet) Geraint Thomas (Tour de France Winner) Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian fantasy and science fiction writer and poet Tom Jones (singer) Greaser Gang Catherine Zeta-Jones (actress) Shirley Bassey (musician) Charlotte Church (musician) Gareth Bale (footballer) Marina and the Diamonds (musician) Owain Glyndŵr (fighter) Griff Rhys-Jones (comedian, actor, presenter) Andrew Chase (sculpture artist) Roald Dahl (writer) Iwan Rheon (actor) Laura Ashley (fashion) Jeff Banks (fashion) Rhod Gilbert (comedian) Ruth Jones (comedian, actress) Paul Whitehouse (comedian, actor) Rob Brydon (comedian, actor) Siân Williams (news reporter) Mattew Tuck (musician) Taron Egerton (singer, actor) Transport Roads The main road on the coast of South Wales is the M4 motorway. It links Wales to southern England, and London. It also connects the Welsh cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea. The A55 road is the main road along the north Wales coast, and connects Holyhead and Bangor with Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to north-west England, including Chester. The main road between North and South Wales is the A470 road, which goes from the capital Cardiff to Llandudno. Airports Cardiff International Airport is the only large airport in Wales. It has flights to Europe, Africa and North America and is about southwest of Cardiff, in the Vale of Glamorgan. Flights between places in Wales run between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff, and are operated by the Isle of Man airline called Manx2 Other internal flights operate to northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Railway Cardiff Central is Wales' busiest railway station. The area around Cardiff also has its own rail network. Trains from north to south Wales go through the English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury on the Welsh Marches Line. Most trains in Wales are powered by diesel. However, the South Wales Main Line which is used by trains going from London Paddington to Cardiff and Swansea, is electric. Sea Wales has four ferry ports. Regular ferries to Ireland go from Holyhead, Pembroke and Fishguard. The Swansea to Cork ferry which was stopped in 2006, but then opened again in March 2010, and closed again in 2012. Related pages Local Government Act 1972 Powys Kingdom of England Welsh language Welsh people References Notes

Scotland (, ) is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Scotland is the northern third of Great Britain (an island in the North Atlantic Ocean). Many other islands in the British Isles are also part of Scotland. To the south of Scotland is England, the North Sea is to the east, the Atlantic Ocean is to the west and the Irish Sea is to the south-west. The capital city of Scotland is Edinburgh on the east coast, but the biggest city is Glasgow on the west coast. Other cities in Scotland are Aberdeen, Dundee, Inverness, Perth and Stirling. About five million people live in Scotland. Most of the population lives in the Central Belt, an area between the Scottish Highlands and the Scottish Lowlands. Unlike most of Great Britain, most of Scotland was not part of the Roman Empire (only the southern half of Scotland -then named Caledonia- was under roman control for a century) and did not become part of Anglo-Saxon England. In the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Scotland was an independent kingdom. The Kingdom of Scotland started in the 9th century AD. The kingdom started to share a king with the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1603. In that year, the king of Scotland inherited the two kingdoms of Elizabeth I, and James VI of Scotland became the first king of the whole British Isles. In 1707, the parliament of Scotland joined with the parliament of England to become the Parliament of Great Britain. This formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain. This kingdom joined with the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801 to make the modern United Kingdom. Throughout its history Scotland has had its own legal system (Scots law), church (the Church of Scotland), schools, and culture. Since 1999, Scotland has had its own parliament, the Scottish Parliament. It was devolved from the British parliament. The Scottish people have representation in both parliaments. The Scottish Government and the British Government both govern Scotland. On 18 September 2014, a referendum on independence from the United Kingdom took place. A majority (55%) voted to stay in the United Kingdom. The Flag of Scotland is blue with a white diagonal cross (a saltire). This is the cross of Saint Andrew, who is the patron saint of Scotland. Other symbols used for Scotland are the thistle and the unicorn. An image of a red lion "rampant" (standing on its back legs) on a gold background with a red border is the traditional coat of arms of the Scots monarchy. Geography The mainland of Scotland makes up ⅓ of the size of the Great Britain, and is to the northwest of mainland Europe. The size of the land of Scotland is 78,772km² (30,414 sq mi). Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 mi) across. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland is only 30 kilometres (20 mi) from the southern part of Kintyre, Norway is 305 kilometres (190 mi) to the east and the Faroe Islands are 270 kilometres (168 mi) to the north. Scotland's land also includes several islands, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides off the west coast and the archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland to the north of the mainland. Compared to the other areas of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, Scotland is sparsely populated, most especially the north-western half of it. The main geographical feature that dictates this is the Highland Boundary Fault which roughly splits the country in half from the southwest to the northeast. To the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault are the more mountainous Scottish Highlands and islands, and this half of the country contains less than 5% of the total population. To the south and east of the Highland Boundary Fault is the Scottish Lowlands, which contain the vast majority (about 75%) of the Scottish population, and 3 of the 4 biggest cities (Glasgow which is 1st, Edinburgh which is 2nd, and Dundee which is 4th). Below the lowlands are the Southern Uplands which are hilly, but not as hilly at the Highlands. They are less densely populated than the lowlands, but still a lot more dense than the highlands and islands. Located within the central part of the lowlands is the "Central Belt", a rectangle of land roughly 88 kilometres (55 miles) from West to East and 48 kilometres (30 miles) North to South. About half of the population of Scotland lives within these roughly 4,530 square kilometres (or 1,750 square miles), which is a little more than 2% of the total land area of Scotland. This is the area between Scotland’s two largest cities - Glasgow, at the Central Belt’s Western end, and Edinburgh, at the Central Belt’s Eastern end. This area is geographically bound by two bays of water – the Firth of Clyde to the West and the Firth of Forth to the East. It is the most fertile Earth in Scotland, which is why it is so population-dense, compared to the rest of the country. The tallest mountain in Scotland is Ben Nevis, which is also the tallest mountain in the British Isles. History The history of Scotland begins when humans first began to live in Scotland after the end of the last ice age. Of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age civilization that existed in the country, many fossils remain, but no written records were left behind. These people did not have writing. St Kilda, Heart of Neolithic Orkney and Skara Brae are all World Heritage Sites, as are the Antonine Wall and New Lanark on the mainland. Because of where Scotland is in the world and its strong reliance on trade routes by sea, the nation held close links in the south and east with the Baltic countries, and through Ireland with France and Europe. The sea was very important for trade reasons. Following the Acts of Union and Industrial Revolution, Scotland grew to be one of the largest commercial, intellectual and industrial states in Europe. Caledonians, Picts, and Romans The written history of Scotland begins when the Roman Empire came to the British Isles. The Romans gave Great Britain its name in or . The Romans overcame and controlled what is now England, Wales, and southern Scotland. To the north of the River Forth was Caledonia, land not fully owned by the Romans). The Romans, built cities like Edinburgh when they built the Antonine wall. The Romans had military camps and forts in much of Scotland. In Classical Antiquity, the Romans named the people in Caledonia in . During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, the people of Caledonia were the Picts. The Roman army left Great Britain in the 5th century, and by the time Roman military had fought many wars with the Picts. They Romans also fought the Scoti and the Saxons. Both the Scoti and the Saxons came to the land. Scoti, Picts, and Saxons In the Early Middle Ages, the Picts lived in a part of the land with the name Pictland. The Scoti came from Ireland and started the kingdom of Dál Riata. Parts of south-western Scotland and northern Ireland were part of Dál Riata. People there spoke old Goidelic languages. The Saxons came from Continental Europe. In the British Isles they have the name Anglo-Saxons. South-eastern Scotland became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Their language was Old English. In Pictland, the Picts started the Kingdom of Alba in the 9th-century. The kingdom began in the land between the River Spey and the River Forth. The Pictish language went extinct, and people in the 10th-century kingdom of Alba spoke the Goidelic language, Scots Gaelic. In time, the kingdom grew. The lands of Moray and Angus became part of the kingdom. The northern parts of Northumbria, south of the River Forth, became part of the kingdom. People began to build large towns in the 10th century. Norse Most of the Scottish islands were ruled by the Norse (and then by Norwegians and Danes) for over four hundred years. The Kingdom of the Isles was a Norse kingdom in the western, coastal parts of Scotland. They spoke the Old Norse language. The Norse lands include the Hebrides to the west and Orkney and Shetland to the north. The Isle of Man was also a part of the Kingdom of the Isles. The islands still have a culture of their own. Wars of Independence The Wars of Scottish Independence were many military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The First War (1296–1328) began with the Edward I of England's invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Scotland by Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland was an independent kingdom. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the invention of the longbow as an important weapon in medieval warfare. A series of deaths in the line of succession in the 1280s, followed by King Alexander III's death in 1286 left the Scottish crown in crisis. His granddaughter, Margaret, the "Maid of Norway", a four-year-old girl, was the heir. Edward I of England, as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession. In 1290 Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in Orkney on her voyage from Norway to Scotland before she was made Queen, or her wedding could take place. Because there was no clear heir to the throne anymore, the Scottish people decided to ask Edward I of England to choose their king. The strongest candidate was called Robert Bruce. Robert Bruce had castles all around the country, and had a private army. But Edward wanted to invade Scotland, so he chose the weaker candidate, who was John Balliol. He had the strongest claim to the throne, and became king on 30 November 1292. Robert Bruce decided to accept this decision (his grandson and namesake later took the throne as Robert I). Over the next few years, Edward I kept trying to undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland. In 1295, John, on the recommendation of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France. This was the beginning of the Auld Alliance. In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland. He removed King John from power, and put him in jail. The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised an army from the southern and northern parts of the country to fight the English. Under their joint leadership, an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm. Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were put in his place. In 1305 Wallace was captured by the English, who executed him for treason. Wallace claimed he did not commit treason as he was not loyal to England. In February 1306 Robert Bruce murdered John Comyn, a leading rival, in a church. Bruce went on to take the crown, but Edward's army overran the country yet again after defeating Bruce's small army at the Battle of Methven. Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V, his support slowly strengthened; and by 1314, with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and the Earl of Moray, only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling were still under English control. Edward I died in Carlisle in 1307. His heir, Edward II, moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and again take control. Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing temporary independence. In 1320, a letter to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the Declaration of Arbroath) went part of the way towards convincing Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and cancel the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's independence could be recognised by other European countries. In 1326, the first full Parliament of Scotland met. The parliament was made from an earlier council of nobility and clergy around 1235, but in 1326 representatives of the burghs—the burgh commissioners—joined them to form the Three Estates. In 1328, Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton which declared Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce. Four years after Robert's death in 1329, England invaded Scotland yet again, looking to put the "Rightful King"—Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol—to the Scottish throne, starting the Second War of Independence. In the face of tough Scottish resistance, led by Sir Andrew Murray, attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed. Edward III lost interest in Balliol after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France. In 1341 David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France. Balliol finally resigned his empty claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364. Union of the Crowns In 1603, Elizabeth I, queen of England and of Ireland, died. The king of Scotland was the queen's heir apparent, and James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) became king of England and king of Ireland. James VI and I (from Scotland's House of Stuart) went to England to control the government, and none of Scotland's kings came to Scotland for more than one hundred years. United Kingdom In 1707, Scotland and England were joined in the Act of Union to make one big Kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain. When Ireland joined in 1801, the United Kingdom was created. Scotland was an important part of the colonialism and imperialism of the British Empire. Scots colonists emigrated throughout the empire, and a large diaspora of Scots lives throughout the world as a result. The Scottish Enlightenment was an important part of the Age of Enlightenment. Philosophers like David Hume and Adam Smith led the Scottish Enlightenment. Soldiers fought some of the wars caused by Jacobitism in Scotland. The Jacobites wanted the Roman Catholic House of Stuart, and not the Protestant House of Hanover to be kings of Britain and of Ireland. The last land battle in Great Britain was the Battle of Culloden in 1745. At that time the government's British Army stopped the Catholic rebellion led by Charles Edward Stuart. Scots-speakers and English-speakers moved many Gaelic speakers off lands in the Scottish Highlands, and many emigrated to the British Empire and the United States. In the 19th century, George IV visited Scotland. After that, Scotland and Scottish culture became more popular. Tourism to Scotland started in the 19th century. In a referendum in 1997, a majority of voters in Scotland chose to have political devolution. The Scottish Parliament, Scottish Government, and the office of first minister of Scotland was set up in 1999. One first minister of Scotland, Alex Salmond, led the Scottish National Party's Scottish Government from 2007. in 2014, the Scottish independence referendum ended in a majority (55%) voting against independence from the United Kingdom. Nicola Sturgeon became first minister on 20 November 2014. Language The official languages of Scotland are English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic. English is spoken by most people in Scotland, while only a small number, mostly in the Western Isles, speaks Scottish Gaelic. Scottish Gaelic began declining in the late Middle Ages when Scottish kings and nobles preferred English. Sports Football Football is the most popular sport in Scotland. Three of the big cities, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee, have two or three big football teams, and most cities have at least one team. The two most famous teams in Scotland are known as the "Old Firm". These are Celtic and Rangers. These two Glasgow clubs have a lot of history, and are fierce rivals, often causing fights, riots and even murders between the fans. Rangers are world record holders, having won the most amount of league titles of any football team, currently 55. Scotland were the winners of the Homeless World Cup in 2007 and are the current champions after they won in August 2011. They defeated Mexico 4–3 in Paris, France. Other football clubs The other main clubs in Scotland are Aberdeen, Hearts, Hibs and Dundee United. These teams are in the Premier League right now, and usually take the most places in the top six of the league. Some other Scottish clubs include Gretna, who won three titles in a row, moving from the Third Division, to the SPL in only three seasons. Gretna ran out of money, and they were shut down. Also, Raith Rovers, who famously played UEFA Cup Winners, Bayern München. Raith Rovers were knocked out by Bayern München, but managed to lead 1-0 at half time. Queen of the south also reached the Europa league, after reaching the 2008 Scottish cup final. they lost 3 -2 to Rangers. Scottish Premier League The top division of Scottish Football is called the "Scottish Premier League" (or SPL), and is currently sponsored by the Clydesdale Bank, a large Scottish Bank. In 2013, its name was changed to "Scottish Premiership". Rugby In 1925, 1984 and 1990, Scotland were winners of the Five Nations' Gran Slam, having beaten all four other teams - England, Wales, Ireland and France. Golf Golf is a popular sport in Scotland. It is unique, as Scotland is the birthplace of golf, and there are many public golf courses where people can play for small fees. Everywhere else in the world, golf is a game for the rich. Sandy Lyle was the first Scottish golfer to win a major title in modern times. Colin Montgomery is one of the best players never to have won a major championship after finishing second five times. Motorsports Scotland is also involved with motorsports. Former F1 driver David Coulthard is a thirteen time Grand Prix winner. Jackie Stewart is a 3-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best drivers ever. Jim Clark was a 2-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best ever with Fangio, Schumacher and Senna. Colin McRae was also the 1995 World Rally Champion. Elephant Polo Scotland were the world champions of the unusual sport of Elephant Polo in 2004. Elephant Polo, registered as an Olympic sport with the Nepal Olympic Committee, was invented by Scotsman Nathan Mochan in 1983. Tennis Andy Murray, originally from Scotland, is currently the United Kingdom's best tennis player, having won singles titles at the US Open, and Wimbledon, where his 2013 win ended a 77-year wait for a British man to win the competition. He also won Olympic Gold in the men's singles at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. His brother, Jamie Murray, is a successful doubles player. Traditional music Traditional Scottish musical instruments include: the bagpipe, accordion, the fiddle, the harp and tin whistle. Related pages United Kingdom References Other websites The official online website of Scotland Website of the Scottish Government Website of the Scottish Parliament Visit Scotland - by Scotland's national tourist board Scotland pictures- Scotland in photos Scotland -Citizendium

Northern Ireland (, Ulster ) is a constituent country of the United Kingdom, which is on the island of Ireland. The whole island of Ireland used to be a kingdom, called the Kingdom of Ireland but after the Act of Union in the year 1800, it became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This stayed until 1922, after a civil war, when Ireland was divided into the Republic of Ireland, the sovereign state that takes up the southern part of the island, and Northern Ireland, which stayed as part of the UK. About 1.8 million people live in Northern Ireland, which has the capital and largest city is Belfast. The historic administrative roles of its 6 counties have since 1972 been replaced by 26 unitary authorities Counties of Northern Ireland. Sometimes people use other names for Northern Ireland. Some call it Ulster, even though some parts of Ulster are actually in the Republic of Ireland. Others call it "the North" or "the Six Counties", because they do not want to recognize that a part of the island of Ireland is not fully independent and the north of it is actually in the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland is the smallest part of the United Kingdom at 5,345 sq mi. The only official flag in Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom. The Ulster Banner, however, is still used as the flag of Northern Ireland by loyalists and unionists, and to represent Northern Ireland internationally in some sporting competitions. Languages English is spoken by almost everyone in Northern Ireland. Another important language is Irish (sometimes called "Irish Gaelic") and a language known as Ulster Scots, which comes from Eastern Ulster and Lowland Scotland. The Irish language became less widely spoken in the 20th century, but a revival has led to increased usage, especially in Belfast, the Glens of Antrim and counties Tyrone and Fermanagh. This revival has been driven largely through the creation of Irish-language schools. The Irish language is spoken by some nationalists (whether Catholic or Protestant) people. Ulster Scots is almost exclusive to areas of North Antrim and the Ards Peninsula. Some languages like Chinese, Urdu or Polish are becoming more common in Northern Ireland as people from other countries move to Northern Ireland. Religion Christianity is the largest religion in Northern Ireland, with over 80% of the population identifying themselves with a Christian denomination at the 2011 census. Almost 42% of these people identify as Protestant, 41% as Roman Catholic, and just over 17% as nothing or another religion. The largest Protestant churches are the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Church of Ireland and the Methodist Church in Ireland. Belfast Agreement Since the Belfast Agreement (sometimes called the Good Friday Agreement) of Friday, 10 April 1998, there has been mainly peace between the two communities in Northern Ireland, the Protestants and Catholics. This agreement was agreed by most of the people in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, as well as the Irish and British governments. It allows for the self-government of Northern Ireland and greater north–south co-operation and co-operation between Britain and the Republic of Ireland. Additionally, it makes clear the right of the people of Northern Ireland to decide their constitutional future and select whether they are British citizens, Irish citizens or both. Sport The most popular sports in Northern Ireland are association football, gaelic football and rugby union. Athletics, boxing, cricket, golf, hockey, hurling, snooker and motor sports are also common. Most sports are organised on an all-Ireland basis, and in international competitions, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland compete together as Ireland (e.g. Ireland national rugby union team, Ireland national cricket team). The main exception is football. Football in Northern Ireland is governed by the Irish Football Association (IFA). In international competitions Northern Ireland has its own team - the Northern Ireland national football team. The Northern Ireland team has qualified for three FIFA World Cups (in 1958, 1982 and 1986). Perhaps the most famous player from Northern Ireland was George Best. Track and field athletes from Northern Ireland can choose to compete either with athletes from Great Britain (as the team "Great Britain & Northern Ireland"), or with athletes from the rest of Ireland (as "Ireland"). Belfast is home to the Ulster Rugby team (which competes in the Pro 12 league and Heineken Cup), and the Belfast Giants ice-hockey team. Railways Trains are run by NI Railways which run from Belfast to Portrush, Londonderry, Bangor, Larne, Portadown and Newry. The Enterprise is run by both NI Railways and Irish Rail and links Belfast to Dublin. References Notes

Great Britain is an island in the north-west Atlantic Ocean, one of the British Isles. It is the biggest European island, off the coast of Continental Europe. To the west of Great Britain is Ireland, across the Irish Sea. Across the English Channel to the south of Great Britain is France. Across the North Sea to the east is Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Norway. Together with many other smaller islands, Great Britain and Ireland have the name British Isles. The island is part of the United Kingdom, a sovereign state which shares the name Britain with the island. Three of the United Kingdom's countries are mostly on Great Britain: England, Scotland, and Wales. The largest city on Great Britain is London. London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and also the capital of England. Most of Great Britain is part of England. The northern third of the island is part of Scotland. In the south-west of Great Britain is Wales. The United Kingdom had the name Great Britain between the Acts of Union 1707 and the Act of Union 1800. Northern Ireland is not on the island of Great Britain, but it is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (The island of Ireland contains nearly all of the Republic of Ireland, which is a sovereign state, as well as nearly all of Northern Ireland.) Great Britain is not the official name of a present-day state. Some people call the United Kingdom Great Britain and people from other parts of the United Kingdom may not like it when people make this mistake. Political definition Great Britain is the largest island of the United Kingdom. Politically, Great Britain means England, Scotland, and Wales in combination, but not Northern Ireland. Islands such as the Isle of Wight, the Isles of Scilly, Anglesey, the Hebrides, and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland are all part of the United Kingdom. In geography they are not part of Great Britain. For political uses and law, these islands are part of Great Britain because they are parts of the two old kingdoms: Scotland and England (including Wales). Great Britain does not include the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, which are self-governing crown dependencies. History The writings of the Roman cartographer Ptolemy used the name "Great Britain" for the island in the 2nd century AD. He used the name "Megale Britannia" or "Great Britain" () to show the difference between this larger island and Ireland. For Ireland, Ptolemy used the name "Mikra Britannia" or "Little Britain" (). In the later Middle Ages, the kings of England were also the kings of Ireland. However, the two kingdoms were separate, even though they had the same king. In 1603, the two kingdoms in Great Britain (Scotland and England) also started to share the same king. In 1604, James VI and I was the first king to be named "King of Great Britain". He was the king of Scotland when England's queen, Elizabeth I, died. From Elizabeth, James inherited the kingdoms of England and Ireland, whereby Great Britain (and the British Isles started) to share one king. People started to use the Union Jack flag in the time of King James, who had ordered ships to use it in 1607. The flag joined the flag of Scotland and the flag of England together in one flag. However, the three kingdoms were separate. The political union that joined the kingdoms of England and Scotland happened because of the Acts of Union 1707. These acts of parliament merged the two nations' parliaments (the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England), and joined the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Great Britain, or the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The whole island became one kingdom in this way on 1 May 1707, while Anne as queen. The Union Jack changed to its present design, which now has another saltire. The Parliament of Ireland and the Parliament of Great Britain also merged with one another because of the Act of Union 1800. In 1801, Great Britain and Ireland started to be one kingdom: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This happened on 1 January 1801, while George III was king. The Irish Free State left the United Kingdom in 1922, and in 1927, the UK's name changed to be the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. More reading References

This is a list of English football teams and the leagues they play in. A-Z order Lists of football teams Lists about England

These are the Scottish football (soccer) teams and the leagues they played in for the 2005/06 season. Scottish Premier League Aberdeen F.C. It was founded in 1903. They play at the Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen. In the 1980s Sir Alex Ferguson was the manager of Aberdeen F.C. and they won the European Cup Winners Cup in 1983. Celtic F.C. They were started in 1888. They play at Celtic Park in Glasgow. They are rivals with Rangers F.C.. Celtic were the first British team to win the European Champion Clubs' Cup. Celtic did this in 1967. The final of the European Champion Clubs' Cup was in Lisboniure6f4y68uy746ghuthguyfu43678hgdjhdfuiy8974yrtouihdshfjhy Dundee United F.C. Dunfermline Athletic F.C. Falkirk F.C. Inverness Caledonian Thistle F.C. Heart of Midlothian F.C. Hibernian F.C. Hibernian Football Club were founded in 1875. They play in the Scottish capital of Edinburugh at Easter Road Stadium. Hibernian or, "The Hibees" play in green and white shirts with white shorts and stokings. A traditionally Catholic team, they play in the Scottish Premiere League, or SPL. "Glory glory to The Hibees, Glory glory to the Hibees, And The Hibs go marching on!" Kilmarnock F.C. Motherwell F.C. Rangers F.C. Rangers Football Club were formed in 1873 and are the most successful football team in world football history reaching an unprecedented fifty one league titles in the 2004/2005 season. Rangers achieved European success in 1972; they won the European Cup Winners Cup. Overall they have won over a hundred major trophies throughout their history. Ranger's play their rivals Celtic F.C. in the famous "Old Firm Derby". Rangers home ground is Ibrox Stadium which is in Glasgow, Scotland. St Mirren F.C. Scottish Division One Airdrie United F.C. Clyde F.C. Dundee F.C. In June 1893, Dundee Football Club was formed by an amalgamation of two city teams, Our Boys and East End. Dundee have played at Dens Park Stadium since 19th August 1899. Dundee became the Champions of Scotland on 28th April 1962 for the first and only time to date. Dundee have also won the Scottish Cup once, in 1910. Gretna F.C. Hamilton Livingston Partick Thistle Ross County St. Johnstone Queen of the South Scottish Division Two Alloa Ayr United Brechin Cowdenbeath Forfar Athletic Morton Peterhead Raith Rovers Stirling Stranraer Scottish Division Three Albion Rovers Arbroath Berwick Rangers Dumbarton East Fife East Stirling Elgin City Montrose Stenhousmuir Queens Park F.C. Highland Football League Brora Rangers F.C. Buckie Thistle F.C. Clachnacuddin F.C. Cove Rangers F.C. Deveronvale F.C. Forres Mechanics F.C. Fort William F.C. Fraserburgh F.C. Huntly F.C. Inverurie Loco Works F.C. Keith F.C. Lossiemouth F.C. Nairn County F.C. Rothes F.C. Wick Academy F.C. East of Scotland League Annan Athletic F.C. Civil Service Strollers F.C. Coldstream F.C. Craigroyston F.C. Dalbeattie Star F.C. Easthouses Lily F.C. Edinburgh Athletic F.C. Edinburgh City F.C. Edinburgh University F.C. Eyemouth United F.C. Gala Fairydean F.C. Hawick Royal Albert F.C. Heriot-Watt University F.C. Kelso United F.C. Lothian Thistle F.C. Ormiston F.C. Peebles Rovers F.C. Preston Athletic F.C. Selkirk F.C. Spartans F.C. Threave Rovers F.C. Tollcross United F.C. Vale of Leithen F.C. Whitehill Welfare F.C. South of Scotland League Abbey Vale F.C. Annan Athletic F.C. Crichton F.C. Creetown F.C. Dalbeattie Star F.C. Dumfries F.C. Girvan F.C. Gretna F.C.|Gretna Reserves Mid-Annandale F.C. Newton Stewart F.C. Nithsdale Wanderers F.C. Saint Cuthbert Wanderers F.C. Stranraer Athletic F.C. Tarff Rovers F.C. Threave Rovers F.C. Wigtown and Bladnoch F.C. Scottish Junior Football Association, Western Region Annbank United F.C. Ardeer Thistle F.C. Ardrossan Winton Rovers F.C. Arthurlie F.C. Ashfield F.C. Auchinleck Talbot F.C. Beith Juniors F.C. Bellshill Athletic F.C. Benburb F.C. Blantyre Victoria F.C. Cambuslang Rangers F.C. Carluke Rovers F.C. Clydebank F.C. Coltness United F.C. Craigmark Burntonians F.C. Cumbernauld United F.C. Cumnock Juniors F.C. Dalry Thistle F.C. Darvel F.C. Dunipace F.C. East Kilbride Thistle F.C. Forth Wanderers F.C. Glasgow Perthshire F.C. Glenafton Athletic F.C. Greenock F.C. Hurlford United F.C. Irvine Meadow XI Irvine Victoria F.C. Johnstone Burgh F.C. Kello Rovers F.C. Kilbirnie Ladeside F.C. Kilsyth Rangers F.C. Kilwinning Rangers F.C. Kirkintilloch Rob Roy F.C. Lanark United F.C. Largs Thistle F.C. Larkhall Thistle F.C. Lesmahagow F.C. Lugar Boswell Thistle F.C. Maryhill F.C. Maybole F.C. Muirkirk F.C. Neilston F.C. Petershill F.C. Pollok F.C. Port Glasgow F.C. Renfrew F.C. Royal Albert F.C. Rutherglen Glencairn F.C. St Anthony's F.C. St Roch's F.C. Saltcoats Victoria F.C. Shettleston F.C. Shotts Bon Accord F.C. Stonehouse Violet F.C. Thorniewood United F.C. Troon F.C. Vale of Clyde F.C. Vale of Leven F.C. Whitletts Victoria F.C. Wishaw F.C. Yoker Athletic F.C. Scottish Junior Football Association, Eastern Region Armadale Thistle F.C. Arniston Rangers F.C. Bathgate Thistle F.C. Blackburn United F.C. Bo'ness United F.C. Bonnyrigg Rose F.C. Broxburn Athletic F.C. Camelon F.C. Crossgates Primrose F.C. Dalkeith Thistle F.C. Dunbar United F.C. Dundee North End F.C. Dundonald Bluebell F.C. Edinburgh United F.C. Fauldhouse United F.C. Glenrothes F.C. Haddington Athletic F.C. Harthill Royal F.C. Hill o' Beath Hawthorn F.C. Kelty Hearts F.C. Kirkcaldy YMCA F.C. Linlithgow Rose F.C. (Winners of the Scottish Junior Cup in 2001) Livingston United F.C. Lochgelly Albert F.C. Lochee United F.C. Lochore Welfare F.C. Musselburgh Athletic F.C. Newburgh F.C. Newtongrange Star F.C. Oakley United F.C. Penicuik Athletic F.C. Pumpherston F.C. Rosyth Recreation F.C. Saint Andrews United F.C. Sauchie F.C. Steelend Victoria F.C. Stoneyburn United F.C. Tayport F.C. Thornton Hibs F.C. Tranent F.C. West Calder United F.C. Whitburn F.C. North Caledonian Football League Alness United F.C. Balintore F.C. Bonar Bridge F.C. Bunillidh Thistle F.C. Dornoch F.C. Golspie Sutherland F.C. Halkirk United F.C. Invergordon F.C. Tain St. Duthus F.C. Thurso F.C. Clubs that do not exist any more Airdrieonians F.C. Clydebank F.C. Dumbarton Harp F.C. Third Lanark F.C. Dundee Wanderers F.C

These are some French football (soccer) teams. Lists of football teams

1967 (MCMLXVII) was . Events February 1 - The Loud House franchise by Mel Brooks. February 2 – The American Basketball Association is formed. February 15 – Chicago, a musical group forms March 13 – Indira Gandhi becomes prime minister of India. April 28 – Montreal hosts Expo '67. May 1 – Elvis Presley married Priscilla Beaulieu. June 5 – June 10 – The Six-Day War November 30 – Pakistan Peoples Party is founded by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto December 3 – Dr. Christiaan Barnard transplanted the first heart. The Summer of Love Blue Öyster Cult forms. Jethro Tull forms. Births February 10 – Laura Dern, American actress February 20 – Kurt Cobain, rock musician (d. 1994) March 17 – Debi Derryberry, American actress May 7 – Martin Bryant, Australian criminal June 19 – Mia Sara, American actress June 20 – Nicole Kidman, American-Australian actress July 23 - Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor (d. 2014) October 16 – Davina McCall, English television presenter October 28 – Julia Roberts, American actress November 7 – David Guetta, French DJ November 16 – Lisa Bonet, American actress November 22 – Boris Becker, tennis player November 28 – Anna Nicole Smith, American actress (d. 2007) December 3 - Nicolae Guță, Romanian manele singer December 17 – Gigi D'Agostino, Italian musician and DJ December 19 – Criss Angel, American illusionist Deaths January 3 – Jack Ruby, killer of Lee Harvey Oswald January 4 – Donald Campbell, waterspeed/landspeed record seeker. April 19 – Konrad Adenauer, German statesman July 8 – Fatimah Jinnah, Pakistani Mother of the Nation. October 9 – Che Guevara, Argentinian Marxist revolutionary (b. 1928) December 10 – Otis Redding, American singer Nobel Prizes Nobel Prize in Physics – Hans Albrecht Bethe, American physicist Chemistry – Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter Medicine – Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wald Literature – Miguel Angel Asturias, Guatemalan writer Peace – not awarded Movies released Bonnie and Clyde The Dirty Dozen Fearless Vampire Killers Guess Who's Coming to Dinner The Graduate To Sir With Love In the Heat of the Night Popular songs All You Need is Love – The Beatles Daydream Believer – The Monkees Groovin' – The Young Rascals Happy Together – The Turtles Hello Goodbye – The Beatles I'm A Believer – The Monkees Incense And Peppermints – Strawberry Alarm Clock The Letter – The Box Tops Light My Fire – The Doors Ode to Billy Joe – Bobbie Gentry Ooh Baby – Bo Diddley Penny Lane – The Beatles Respect – Aretha Franklin Ruby Tuesday – The Rolling Stones To Sir With Love – Lulu Windy – The Association New Books 003½: The Adventures of James Bond Junior – R.D. Mascott (Arthur Calder-Marshall) The Arrangement – Elia Kazan The Chosen – Chaim Potok Christy – Catherine Marshall The Confessions of Nat Turner – William Styron The Crows of Pearblossom – Aldous Huxley Death of a President – William Manchester Down These Mean Streets – Piri Thomas The Eighth Day – Thornton Wilder The Exhibitionist – Henry Sutton The Gabriel Hounds – Mary Stewart Go to the Widow-Maker – James Jones Ice – Anna Kavan I Heard the Owl Call My Name – Margaret Craven Jerusalem the Golden – Margaret Drabble Killing Time – Thomas Berger Miramar – Naguib Mahfouz One Hundred Years of Solitude – Gabriel García Márquez Rosemary's Baby- Ira Levin The Silent Cry- Oe Kenzaburo Topaz – Leon Uris Where Eagles Dare – Alistair MacLean Wild Season – Allan W. Eckert

These are the German football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2013/14 season (1st to third league). The highest German league is the Bundesliga (First Division). Below it is the second Bundesliga (Second Division). The Third Division is called 3. Liga. The Fourth Division, called Regionalliga is split into a northern, a southern and a western part. The northern part is called Regionalliga Nord, the southern part Regionalliga Süd and the western part Regionalliga West. 1. Bundesliga (2013/14) Bayer 04 Leverkusen Borussia Dortmund Hertha BSC Berlin promoted FC Bayern Munich Hamburger SV Hannover 96 FC Augsburg FC Schalke 04 SC Freiburg VfB Stuttgart VfL Wolfsburg Eintracht Frankfurt SV Hoffenheim Borussia Mönchengladbach Eintracht Braunschweig promoted 1. FC Nürnberg 1. FSV Mainz 05 1899 Hoffenheim 2. Bundesliga (2013/14) VfR Aalen VfL Bochum Dynamo Dresden 1. FC Köln SV Sandhausen Energie Cottbus Erzgebirge Aue Fortuna Düsseldorf FSV Frankfurt SpVgg Greuther Fürth Arminia Bielefeld promoted FC Ingolstadt 04 Karlsruher SC promoted 1. FC Kaiserslautern 1860 Munich SC Paderborn 07 FC St. Pauli Union Berlin 3. Liga (2013/14) Stuttgarter Kickers Hansa Rostock VfB Stuttgart II SV Wacker Burghausen Chemnitzer FC SV Darmstadt 98 FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt 1. FC Heidenheim 1846 Hallescher FC Preußen Münster RB Leipzig SV Elversberg VfL Osnabrück SSV Jahn Regensburg 1. FC Saarbrücken MSV Duisburg Borussia Dortmund II SpVgg Unterhaching SV Wehen Wiesbaden Regionalliga Süd (Fourth Division) SSV Reutlingen TSV 1860 München II KSV Hessen Kassel Karlsruher SC II SC Pfullendorf Darmstadt 98 SC Freiburg II SpVgg Greuther Fürth II SV Wehen Wiesbaden II SSV Ulm 1846 1. FC Nürnberg II VfR Aalen Bayern Alzenau SG Sonnenhof Großaspach Eintracht Frankfurt II SpVgg Weiden 1. FC Eintracht Bamberg Stuttgarter Kickers II Regionalliga West (Fourth Division) SV Elversberg 1. FC Saarbrücken Fortuna Düsseldorf II SC Verl Rot-Weiss Essen Borussia Mönchengladbach II Preußen Münster 1. FSV Mainz 05 II Bayer Leverkusen II FC Schalke 04 II 1. FC Kaiserslautern II 1. FC Köln II VfL Bochum II Wormatia Worms Bonner SC Sportfreunde Lotte Eintracht Trier Waldhof Mannheim Regionalliga Nord (Fourth Division) 1. FC Magdeburg VfB Lübeck FC St. Pauli II VfL Wolfsburg II SV Babelsberg 03 Hamburger SV II Hallescher FC Goslarer SC 08 Hertha BSC Berlin II Chemnitzer FC FC Hansa Rostock II ZFC Meuselwitz VFC Plauen BFC Türkiyemspor 1978 SV Wilhelmshaven Tennis Borussia Berlin Hannover 96 II FC Oberneuland Bayernliga (Fifth Division) SpVgg Bayreuth TSV Grossbardorf FC Memmingen TSV Aindling 1. FC Bad Kötzting SpVgg Bayern Hof SV Memmelsdorf FC Ismaning SpVgg Ansbach 09 TSG Thannhausen SV Schalding-Heining TSV Buchbach VfL Frohnlach FSV Erlangen-Bruck FC Ingolstadt 04 II SpVgg Unterhaching II SV Seligenporten TSV 1896 Rain am Lech Oberliga Baden-Württemberg (Fifth Division) SGV Freiberg FC 1908 Villingen TSV Crailsheim Stuttgarter Kickers II 1899 Hoffenheim II Bahlinger SC 1. FC Normannia Schwäbisch Gmünd FC Nöttingen SV Spielberg FC Astoria Walldorf VfL Kirchheim ASV Durlach TSG Balingen TSG Weinheim Kehler FV FV Illertissen SV Bonlanden FC Denzlingen Oberliga Südwest (Fifth Division) FV Hassia Bingen FK Pirmasens FC 08 Homburg SC 1919 Hauenstein SpVgg EGC Wirges Borussia Neunkirchen TuS Mechtersheim TuS Mayen SV Rot-Weiß Hasborn SC Idar-Oberstein SV Roßbach/Wied Sportfreunde Köllerbach SV Niederauerbach SV Elversberg II SG 06 Betzdorf SV Alemannia Waldalgesheim Sportfreunde 1919 Eisbachtal SV Auersmacher Oberliga Hessen (Fifth Division) SC Waldgirmes KSV Klein-Karben 1890 VfB 1905 Marburg Viktoria Aschaffenburg FSV Frankfurt II TSG 1887 Wörsdorf FSV 1926 Fernwald RSV Würges KSV 1964 Baunatal 1. FC Germania 08 Ober-Roden Rot-Weiss Frankfurt SVA Bad Hersfeld Eintracht Stadtallendorf OSC 1897 Vellmar Kickers Offenbach II Viktoria Urberach 1. FC Eschborn Hünfelder SV 1. FC Schwalmstadt Oberliga NOFV-Süd (Fifth Division) FC Carl Zeiss Jena II FSV Zwickau SC Borea Dresden FSV Budissa Bautzen Germania Halberstadt VfB Pößneck VfB Auerbach VfL Halle 96 RasenBallsport Leipzig 1. FC Gera 03 FC Erzgebirge Aue II SV SCHOTT Jena FC Red-White Erfurt II Dynamo Dresden II 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig FC Sachsen Leipzig Oberliga NOFV-Nord (Fifth Division) Germania Schöneiche Lichtenrader BC 25 Torgelower SV Greif FC Energie Cottbus II Lichterfelder FC TSG Neustrelitz Ludwigsfelder FC Berlin Ankaraspor Kulübü 07 Berliner FC Dynamo Malchower SV 90 FSV Optik Rathenow Greifwalder SV 04 FSV Bentwisch Reinickendorfer Füchse Brandenburger SC Süd 05 SV Falkensee/Finkenkrug NRW-Liga (Fifth Division) Sportfreunde Siegen Schwarz-Weiss Essen Westfalia Herne SV Schermbeck MSV Duisburg II Hammer SpVgg Germania Dattenfeld Alemannia Aachen II SSG Bergisch Gladbach 09 VfB Speldorf 1. FC Kleve Arminia Bielefeld II TSG 1881 Sprockhövel SC Wiedenbrück VfB 1948/64 Hüls SG Wattenscheid 09 Rot-Weiss Essen II Fortuna Köln SSVg Velbert Lists of football teams

These are some Italian football teams that are or have been in the past years in the main professional division (Serie A). Juventus F.C. from Turin A.C. Milan from Milan F.C. Internazionale Milano from Milan Torino F.C. 1906 from Turin Brescia Calcio from Brescia Bologna F.C. 1909 from Bologna Genoa C.F.C. from Genoa A.S. Roma from Rome S.S. Lazio from Rome S.S.C. Napoli from Napoli A.C.F. Fiorentina from Florence Hellas Verona F.C. from Verona U.C. Sampdoria from Genoa Parma F.C. from Parma Udinese Calcio from Udine Atalanta B.C. from Bergamo Chievo Verona from Verona Perugia Calcio from Perugia A.C. Siena from Siena Lists of football teams Italy-related lists

These are the Spanish football (soccer) teams and the leagues they played in for the 2014/15 season. La Liga BBVAB Racing Santander Barcelona Celta de Vigo Córdoba Deportivo La Coruña Eibar Elche Espanyol Getafe Granada Levante Málaga Rayo Vallecano Real Madrid Real Sociedad Sevilla Valencia Villarreal Spanish Segunda Deportivo Alavés Albacet Alcorcón Barcelona B Betis Girona Las Palmas Leganés Llagostera Lugo Mallorca Mirandés Numancia Osasuna Ponferradina Espandigolio Recreativo Sabadell Sporting de Gijón Tenerife Valladolid Zaragoza Lists of football teams

The Welsh League is a football league in Wales. Some large Welsh clubs play in England's Football League. These are the Welsh football (soccer) teams that played in the Welsh League for the 2003/04 season: Aberystwyth Town F.C. Afan Lido F.C. Bangor City F.C. Barry Town F.C. Caernarfon Town F.C. Caersws F.C. Carmarthen Town F.C. Connah's Quay Nomads F.C. Cwmbran Town F.C. Haverfordwest County F.C. NEWI Cefn Druids F.C. Newtown F.C. Port Talbot Town F.C. Porthmadog F.C. Rhyl F.C. Total Network Solutions F.C. Welshpool Town F.C. Lists of football teams

Arsenal Football Club is an English football club based in London that currently plays in the English Premier League. History The club was founded in 1886 and was originally called Dial Square F.C. named after a sundial on the side of a factory. The team plays in a traditional red and white kit. They played at Highbury in North London from 1913 - 2006, but now they play at the Emirates Stadium. The current captain of the side is Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang. Their biggest rivals are Tottenham Hotspur, and the two play against each other in what is called the North London Derby. Arsenal have won the First Division and Premier League 13 times and the FA Cup 10 times. They are the only British club to have been the subject of a feature film. The Evelina approach was the main reason Arsenal were able to achieve this, first implemented by manager Arsene Wenger. Arsenal are also the team who have gone the longest in the Premier League without being relegated. They were last relegated during WW1 over 90 years ago. 1996–2018: The Wenger years Arsenal changed a lot under the management of Arsène Wenger, who was appointed in 1996. Attacking football, an overhaul of dietary and fitness practices, and efficiency with money have defined his reign. Buying key players from Wenger's homeland, like Patrick Vieira and Thierry Henry, Arsenal won a second League and Cup double in 1997–98 and a third in 2001–02. In addition, the club reached the final of the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, won in both the 2003 and 2005 FA Cups, and won the Premier League in 2003–04 without losing a single match, which earned the side the nickname "The Invincibles". This latter feat came within a run of 49 league matches unbeaten from 7 May 2003 to 24 October 2004, a national record. Arsenal finished in either first or second place in the league in eight of Wenger's first nine seasons at the club, although on no occasion were they able to retain the title. The club had never gotten beyond the quarter-finals of the Champions League until 2005–06; in that season they became the first club from London in the competition's fifty-year history to reach the final, in which they were beaten 2–1 by Barcelona. In July 2006, they moved into the Emirates Stadium, after 93 years at Highbury. The club had not gained a trophy since the 2005 FA Cup until, led by then club-record signing Mesut Özil, Arsenal beat Hull City in the 2014 FA Cup Final, coming back from 2–0 to win the match 3–2. A year later, Arsenal completed another victorious FA Cup campaign, and became the most successful club in the tournament's history by winning their 13th FA Cup in 2016–17. However, in that same season, Arsenal finished in the fifth position in the league, the first time they had finished outside the top four since Wenger arrived in 1996. After another average league season the following year, Wenger departed Arsenal on 13 May 2018. Since 2018: Post-Wenger era After transforming the club's operating model to occur with Arsene Wenger leaving, Basque-Spaniard Unai Emery was named as the club's new head coach on 23 May 2018. In Emery's first season, Arsenal finished fifth in the Premier League and as runner-up in the Europa League. On 29 November 2019, Emery was sacked and former player and assistant first team coach Freddie Ljungberg was appointed as interim head-coach. On 20 December 2019, Arsenal appointed former midfielder and club captain Mikel Arteta as the new head coach. Arsenal finished the league season in eighth, their lowest finish since 1994–95, but beat Chelsea 2–1 to earn a record-extending 14th FA Cup title. After the season, Arteta's title was changed from head coach to manager. On 18 April 2021, Arsenal were announced as a founding club of the breakaway European competition The Super League; they withdrew from the competition two days later amid near-universal criticism. Arsenal finished the season in 8th place once again, and with no European competition next season for the first time in 26 years. Managing The current manager of Arsenal is Mikel Arteta. The assistant manager is Fredrik Ljungberg. Their new Emirates Stadium was opened on the 27th of October 2006, by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Arsenal also has a women's team called Arsenal Ladies F.C.. The ladies team is the only team in women's football history to have ever won four trophies in one season. The most famous, and successful, Arsenal manager before Wenger is thought to be Herbert Chapman. Chapman won the First Division with Arsenal twice and the FA Cup once. Name 1886-? Dial Square ?-1891 Royal Arsenal 1891-1914 Woolwich Arsenal 1914-present Arsenal F.C. League titles Premier League: 3 1997-98, 2001-02, 2003-04,2004-05, 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09, 2009-2010 First Division: 10 1930-31, 1932-33, 1933-34, 1934-35, 1937-38, 1947-48, 1952-53, 1970-71, 1988-89, 1990-91 League position Former position Related pages List of Arsenal F.C. players References Arsenal F.C. Premier League clubs 1886 establishments in England

Aston Villa Football Club (nicknamed Villa), is an English football club based in Birmingham. They have played at Villa Park, in Aston, since 1897. They were one of the teams that started the English Football League in 1888. They were also one of the teams that started the Premier League in 1992. They are one of five English clubs to have won the European Cup. They won this in 1982. They have also won the Football League First Division seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the League Cup five times, and the European Super Cup once. Villa have a large rivalry with nearby team Birmigham City. This is called the Second City Derby, and they have been playing against each other since 1879. The team's main home colours are claret and light blue. Their badge is a yellow lion. The club is owned by the NWSE group (owned by Egyptian Nassef Sawiris) and American Wes Edens. Captain and vice-captain of Aston Villa The captain is Tyrone Mings and the vice-captain is John McGinn. Club honours Aston Villa have won European and domestic league trophies. The club's last English trophy was in 1996 when they won the League Cup, and most recently they won the 2001 UEFA Intertoto Cup. Domestic League Titles First Division / Premier League: 7 Champions: 1893–94, 1895–96, 1896–97, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1909–10, 1980–81 Second Division / First Division / Championship: 2 Champions: 1937–38, 1959–60 Play-off Winners: 2018–19 Third Division / Second Division / League One: 1 Champions: 1971–72 Cups FA Cup: 7 Winners: 1886–87, 1894–95, 1896–97, 1904–05, 1912–13, 1919–20, 1956–57 League Cup / EFL Cup: 5 Winners: 1960–61, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1993–94, 1995–96 FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield: 1 Winners: 1981 Sheriff of London Charity Shield: 2 Winners: 1899, 1901 European European Cup / UEFA Champions League: 1 Winners: 1981–82 European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup: 1 Winners: 1982 Intertoto Cup: 1 Winners: 2001 League position Former position Managers References Other websites Official Aston Villa website list of media articles concerning Aston Villa Aston Villa Fan site Aston Villa: From the Fans' Perspective Heroes and Villains Fanzine - Aston Villa fansite made for the fans, by the fans Premier League clubs 1874 establishments in England

Birmingham City Football Club, is an English football club. The club play in the Championship, their current manager is Gary Monk. Their home ground is St.Andrews Name 1875-1888 Small Heath Alliance F.C. 1888-1905 Heath F.C. 1905-1945 Birmingham F.C. 1945-present Birmingham City F.C. League position Former position References Other websites BCFC Fanzine English football clubs Birmingham 1875 establishments in England

Blackburn Rovers F.C. is an English football club. They play at Ewood Park, which is in Blackburn, Lancashire. The manager of the club is Tony Mowbray. History Blackburn Rovers won the FA Premier League once in the 1994/1995 season. However, in 1999, they were relegated. League title English Premier League: 1 1994-95 First Division: 2 1911-12, 1913-14 Second Division: 1 1938-39 Third Division: 1 1974-75 League position Former position Other websites Blackburn Rovers ; premierleague English football clubs 1875 establishments in England

Bolton Wanderers F.C. is an English football club. It is based 15 miles north of Manchester. The club plays in the English football league 1, the third tier league in England. Their home is the University of Bolton Stadium. It holds around 28,723 people. Their manager is Ian Evett. At home they play in a white shirt, navy blue shorts & white socks. Away they play in a navy blue shirt, white shorts and navy blue socks. Name 1874-1877 Christ Church F.C. 1877-present Bolton Wanderers F.C. League position Former position Premier League clubs 1874 establishments in England

Charlton Athletic Football Club, is an English football club. The club plays in the Football League One. League position Former position English football clubs 1905 establishments in England

Chelsea F.C. is an English football club that plays in the English Premier League. Their home stadium is Stamford Bridge in Fulham, London. Chelsea is considered to be one of the most successful clubs of England, having won many trophies, including 6 Premier League, 2 UEFA Champions League, 2 UEFA Europa League, 5 League Cup, 8 FA Cup, 1 UEFA Super Cup and 2 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup titles. Their all-time highest goalscorer is Frank Lampard and their most successful goalkeeper (on the basis of clean sheets and titles statistics) is Petr Čech. Chelsea is owned by the Russian billionaire businessman Roman Abramovich. There was a supposed breakaway European Super League that Chelsea were apart of but this quickly collapsed as many English teams pulled out due to fan disagreement. Chelsea were the first of the English teams to pull out after Chelsea fans protested outside of the stadium before their match against Brighton. History Chelsea started in 1905 and played the second division of the league. They won their first trophy in 1955, when they became Champions of the First Division. They won the FA Cup in 1970, 1997, 2000 and 2007. They won the League Cup in 1965, 1998, 2005 and 2007. In 1970s Chelsea failed to maintain their position of the first division, due to the financial difficulties. In 1990s they challenged the title of Premier League. They came close but did not win it until 2005 and 2006. In 2003 the Russian billionaire, Roman Abramovich, purchased Chelsea and invested lots of capital to employ new football players. He also hired Luiz Felipe Scolari as the manager of the club. Abramovich also employed Peter Kenyon as the chief executive to be responsible for the commercial strategies of the club. This made Chelsea stronger, and they won the Premier League in consecutive years. A third straight FA Premier League title slipped through Chelsea's fingertips after their failure to defeat Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, meaning that Manchester United had won their ninth league title in fifteen tries. On September 20, 2007, the very successful manager José Mourinho left the club by "mutual consent". This exit came just days after a shockingly poor performance which saw them barely scrape out a 1-1 draw in a Champions League tie against Norwegian side Rosenborg B.K.. Following Mourinho's exit, Chelsea made Director of Football Avram Grant, the former manager of Israel from 2002 to 2006, the new manager of the club, until May 2008. Grant took over with Chelsea trailing in the Premier League "title race" behind Manchester United and Arsenal, and managed to keep Chelsea in the hunt for the league until the last game of the season. He got Chelsea into the Champions League Final for the first time as well as the Carling Cup Final, but he was sacked at the end of the season, along with assistant Henk ten Cate. Grant was sacked from the job after he lost in the final in a 5-6 penalty shootout loss to Manchester United and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari, the then-Portugal coach, in August. However, after a poor run of results Scolari was sacked on February 9, 2009. Guus Hiddink took over the club until the rest of the season. In early June they played in the FA Cup final against Everton, where Chelsea won 2-1, after Frank Lampard and Didier Drogba scored goals. In that final, Louis Saha of Everton scored the fastest goal in FA Cup history, in 25 seconds. A week later, the former Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti was named as the new manager of Chelsea. Antonio Conte was their manager until July 2018 and helped them win the 2016/17 league title. Frank Lampard, former Chelsea player, became Chelsea F.C.'s successor manager. He was sacked in mid-season of 2020/21 following series of poor performances. Thomas Tuchel replaced him, and successfully took Chelsea to the finals of UEFA Champions League 2020/21, played against Manchester City, held in Istanbul, Turkey. Chelsea won the final 1-0, with the winning goal scored by Kai Havertz. League position Former position First-Team Squad Notable players Frank Lampard John Terry Didier Drogba Petr Čech Michael Ballack Michael Essien Andriy Shevchenko Joe Cole Florent Malouda Ashley Cole Eden Hazard Peter Bonetti Wayne Bridge Claude Makélélé William Gallas Jimmy Greaves Peter Osgood Dennis Wise Ruud Gullit Mark Hughes Gianfranco Zola Celestine Babayaro Tore André Flo Marcel Desailly Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink Damien Duff Shaun Wright-Phillips References 1905 establishments in England Premier League clubs Football clubs in London

Everton Football Club are an English football club from the city of Liverpool. The club currently competes in the Premier League and have played more seasons in the top league of English football than any other team. Everton were founded in 1878. They have a long rivalry with Liverpool, mostly because both clubs have their home grounds in the same city. When they play each other, the match is known as the Merseyside derby. In the 1890s Everton played at Anfield, which later became Liverpool's stadium. However, the owner of the stadium increased the rent by a lot, so the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton were then moved to a new stadium called Goodison Park. History Everton started out in 1878 with the name St Domingo's FC. At first it was only for people who went to St Domingo's church, but so many people were interested they let people from the local area join as well. A year later the club was renamed Everton Football Club, after the area. Everton's first ever match was against a team called St Peter's in 1879. Everton won 6-0. Everton entered the FA Cup in the 1886/87 season. They were beaten 1-0 by Rangers in the first round. As football became more and more popular around England, the clubs realised they needed an organised league. In 1888 the Football League was founded. Everton were one of the 12 founding members. Preston North End won the first two leagues and Everton won the third in 1891. They won their second ever trophy, the FA Cup, in 1905 but did not win another until 1916. It was not until 1927 that Everton had their first period of long success. In 1925 they signed Dixie Dean and in 1927 he scored 60 goals in 39 games, setting a new world record and taking Everton to another league title. Everton were relegated to the second division in 1930/1931. Within a year they were promoted again, and remained in the first division until they were relegated again in 1950/51 (which resulted in three seasons in the second tier). This makes them the English football team with the second most consecutive seasons in the top league of English football, behind Arsenal who have been in the top flight continuously since 1919/20. Everton's second successful period came after 1961 when Harry Catterick was appointed manager. With Catterick in charge Everton won two league titles and four cups between 1961 and 1970. This success did not last however, and after three years of low league finishes Catterick quit his job. The club finished in mid-table positions for the rest of the 1970s with a line of unsuccessful managers. In 1981 the club appointed Howard Kendall to be the new manager. He turned Everton around and eventually became the most successful manager in the clubs history, winning two league titles and three cups between 1981 and 1987. This era also brought Everton's one and only European title, the Cup Winners Cup in 1985. They won the final 3-1 against Rapid Vienna of Austria. The semi final saw Everton beat German champions Bayern Munich 3-1, a match voted the greatest of all time at Goodison Park. In 1985 several Liverpool and Juventus fans died when the crowd started fighting at a stadium in Heysel, Belgium. UEFA decided that Liverpool fans were mainly to blame. Because of this all English clubs were not allowed to play against European teams until 1991. This denied Everton the chance to defend their European title and the team gradually broke up. Many of their best players left to other European clubs. The club did not do very well in the early 90s. They nearly got relegated twice and went through lots of money problems. However they still became one of the first members of the new English Premier League when it started in 1992. They were quite successful under manager Joe Royle, who took over in 1994. In his second season in charge he kept Everton clear of relegation and won the FA cup, the club's first trophy in seven years. The club had steady improvement under Royle, finishing 6th and 7th in the 1996 and 1997 seasons. After two seasons however the club's performance went downhill and Kendall was sacked after barely avoiding relegation in the 1998-99 season. Former player Walter Smith took over for three seasons, but failed to perform well. He spent a lot of money on players but didn't lead the team to good league positions. David Moyes took over in 2002 and has been one of the club's most successful managers to date. Under his management Wayne Rooney was brought into the first team and he was quickly sold to Manchester United for £28 million, a club record fee. Moyes later broke the transfer record again in 2008 with the signing of Marouane Fellaini. Moyes led Everton to a 4th place finish in the 2004–05 season, their best finish ever. Since 2006 Everton have enjoyed regular top 10 finishes and reached the last 16 of the UEFA Cup in 2007 and were runner-ups in the 2009 FA Cup final. From the 2006-07 season until the 2012–13 season, which was the last season that Moyes was in charge, Everton placed in the top 8 positions. At the end of the 2012–13 season Moyes left the club for Manchester United. He had managed Everton for 11 years. Moyes was replaced by Roberto Martínez. Martinez led Everton to the semi-finals of the EFL Cup and the FA Cup in 2015–16. However, he was sacked with two games left in the season due to poor performances. He was replaced in the summer of 2016 by Ronald Koeman. In his first season at the club, he guided them to the group stages of the Europa League, after finishing 7th in the previous Premier League season. He was sacked the following season after leaving the club in the relegation zone. Kit Everton usually wear Royal blue shirts with white shorts and white socks. They wore many different kit colours in their first few years. At first, they wore white shorts and white shirts with blue stripes. However, many players who moved to Everton still wore the shirts of their old team, so things were confusing. To solve this the club introduced an all black kit to the club, as black dye was cheap and easily available. However many fans thought this was boring and morbid so a red band was added across the chest. It was not until the 1901/02 season that the colours of royal blue and white were first introduced. This kit has stayed, with a few small changes, almost exactly the same from then until the present day. In 1986, a white hoop was added to the chest, but the fans did not like this at all and it was quickly changed back again. Sponsors & Manufacturers Everton's current shirt sponsor is Cazoo. They are a British online car retailer based in London, England . Previous shirt sponsors included: Chang Beer (2004-17), Kejian (2002-04), mobile network operator One2one (1997-2002), Printer company Danka (1995-97), and electronics company NEC (1985-95). Everton were the first Premier League team to take off shirt sponsors from their child shirts because they did not like advertising alcohol to children. Everton's current kit manufacturers are Umbro. They have been the club's kit manufacturer three times previously (1974–83, 1986–2000, and 2004–09). Other previous manufacturers are Le Coq Sportif (1983–86, 2009–12), Puma (2000–04) and Nike (2012–14). Nicknames & Traditions Everton take their name from the district of Everton in Liverpool where it was originally formed. Everton's nickname is the Toffees, or sometimes the Toffeemen. This comes from one of two toffee shops that were located in Everton village at the time the club was founded. Both Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House and Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop claim to have started off the nickname. At first Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House was very popular with fans because it was near to their stadium in the Everton district. Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop sold sweets called 'Everton mints', which proved even more popular. Faced with going out of business, Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House got a licence to throw free toffees to the crowd inside the ground before the match. This tradition continues even today. A teenage girl is chosen from the crowd to throw mints to the crowd before the match. At other times in their history Everton have also been known as 'The Black Watch', 'The Blues' and, in the 1980s, 'The School of Science'. Like many Premier League football clubs, Everton's players walk out onto the pitch to a particular song at the beginning of every match. With Everton it is the theme tune to a 1960s television series called Z-Cars. Z-Cars was about police working in a made up town, which many people believed was based on real life Liverpool. Stadium When Everton were first created, they played at Anfield. The owner of the stadium put the rent up by so much the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton then moved to their new stadium called Goodison Park, which was opened in 1892. They still play there today. Everton are currently planning a new stadium called Bramley-Moore Dock Stadium, which is located at the Bramley-Moore Dock. It will have a capacity of 52,000, and will be completed in 2023 or 2024. Players Current squad Out on loan Notable former players William 'Dixie' Dean Peter Reid Gary Lineker Tony Hibbert Joseph Yobo Mikel Arteta Phil Neville Tim Howard Tim Cahill Wayne Rooney Duncan Ferguson Alan Ball Phil Jagielka League positions Former positions References Other websites Official site Everton Former Players' Foundation Everton FC - Premierleague.com List of Everton links including unofficial websites Premier League clubs Liverpool, Merseyside 1878 establishments in England

Fulham Football Club is an English football club from London that currently plays in the EFL Championship in the 2021–22 season. It plays in a white shirt and black shorts for home games. For away games, it played in red shirts and white shorts in 2013/14, but has played in colours such as green, yellow or black. The team's away kit in 2014 is navy with orange sleeves. Shahid Khan owns the club. He is from the United States, and also owns the Jacksonville Jaguars, a famous NFL team. History The club was made in 1879 as Fulham St. Andrews. Lots of famous players used to play for Fulham, like Johnny Haynes (1950s), Bobby Moore (1970s), George Best (1970s) and Edwin van der Sar (2000s). Fulham have won one international tournament; the Intertoto Cup in 2003. They also were runner-up of the 2009-10 UEFA Europe League. They lost to Atletico Madrid in the final. When Mohamed Al-Fayed bought Fulham in 1997, it was in the 3rd division of English football (Football League One). He put lots of money into the club, and he made good choices about the club. The club won promotion two times, which means that in 2001 it was now in the top division of English Football, the Premier League. Name 1879-1888 Fulham St Andrew's Church Sunday School 1888-present Fulham F.C. Stadium Fulham's stadium is called Craven Cottage. It was built 100 years ago. It has a pretty building in one corner of the pitch, this is the "Cottage". The fans of Fulham like to call it "The Cottage", and it can have 27,000 people sitting in it. From 2002 to 2004, Fulham had to play at Loftus Road, which is the ground of Queens Park Rangers, near the BBC headquarters. This was because the club needed to renovate Craven Cottage because of new rules. The rules said that nobody can stand at football games, so the club had to install new seats. Some people who live near to Craven Cottage do not like having a big club near to them. They made it hard for the club to be allowed to make the changes. This is why the changes took a long time, even though it was easy work for the builders. Because of the "Cottage", the club and its supporters are called "The Cottagers". Now The club plays in the Premier League, the top football league in England. The club is managed by Scott Parker in the 2020/21 season. League position by season Former position Other websites Fulham Website News about Fulham from the BBC (BBC) Pictures of Craven Cottage The outside of Craven Cottage Premier League clubs 1879 establishments in England

Liverpool Football Club () (originally, Everton Athletics in 1892) is a professional association football club based in Liverpool, Merseyside, England. They play in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has won 6 European Cups, an English club record, 3 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 League titles (including 1 Premier League), 7 FA Cups, a record 8 EFL Cups, title and 1 FIFA Club World Cup title. Liverpool is the honorest English club with 48 official trophies in total. Liverpool's anthem is "You'll Never Walk Alone". History Liverpool won their first League championship in 1901, and their second in 1906. Liverpool played their first FA Cup final in 1914, losing 1–0 to Burnley. The most recent FA Cup victory by Liverpool was achieved in 2005-06 season, increasing their tally to 7 FA Cups. The last domestic cup trophy Liverpool won was the EFL Cup in February 2012, after beating Cardiff City, increasing Liverpool’s tally to 8 League Cup. Liverpool have also won the Champions League six times, the most of any British side. Liverpool’s 5th UCL success was in Istanbul in 2005. The game was won after Liverpool tied 3–3 with A.C. Milan, after being down 3–0 at half-time. The Reds then won the penalty shootout, partly due to goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek's saves. Liverpool F.C.‘s 6th and most recent UCL success was in 2019 when they beat fellow Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur 2-0 in Madrid. Liverpool F.C. have won England's top-flight football league 19 times. Liverpool F.C.’s most recent trophy was won during the 2019-20 Premier League season, handing the club their first domestic title after thirty years, the last time being in the English First Division season of 1989-90. In other domestic competitions, Liverpool have won 15 Charity/Community Shields. Intentionally; Liverpool F.C. have won 4 UEFA Super Cup, 3 UEFA Cups & were crowned FIFA Club World Cup Champions in 2019 naming the Reds Champions of the World for the first time in club history. Liverpool has had two tragedies in their history. The first was the Heysel Stadium disaster of 1985, which led to the death of 39 Juventus fans and the second was the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, which lead to the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans. Honours League First Division/Premier League Winners (19): 1900–01, 1905–06, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1946–47, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90, 2019-20 Second Division Winners (4): 1893–94, 1895–96, 1904–05, 1961–62 European European Cup/UEFA Champions League Winners (6): 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1983–84, 2004–05, 2018–19 UEFA Cup Winners (3): 1972–73, 1975–76, 2000–01 European Super Cup/UEFA Super Cup Winners (4): 1977, 2001, 2005, 2019 Club World Cup Winners (1): 2019 Domestic Cups FA Cup Winners (7): 1964–65, 1973–74, 1985–86, 1988–89, 1991–92, 2000–01, 2005–06 Football League Cup Winners (8): 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1994–95, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2011–12 (record) FA Charity / Community Shield Winners (15): 1964*, 1965*, 1966, 1974*, 1976, 1977*, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1986*, 1988, 1989, 1990*, 2001, 2006 (* shared) Sheriff of London Charity Shield: Winners (1): 1906 League positions Former League Positions First-team squad Out on loan Club captains Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 45 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C. Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club. Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003–04 season. The present captain is Jordan Henderson, who in the 2015–16 season replaced Gerrard who moved to LA Galaxy. References Premier League clubs Liverpool, Merseyside 1892 establishments in England

Manchester City Football Club is an English football club. The club is coached by Pep Guardiola and the team is currently playing in the English Premier League. The club plays in the Premier League and is owned by a royal family from Abu Dhabi. As of 1 September 2008 they are the richest club in the Premier League. They won the 2011–12 Premier League championship, their first in the top flight since the 1967–68 season. After finishing second in 2012–13, they won the Premier League championship again in 2013–14. Their current stadium is the Etihad Stadium (noncommercial name: City of Manchester Stadium). The stadium is part-owned by Manchester City Council, and could only be built on the understanding that Manchester City would take a tenancy after the 2006 Commonwealth Games, which the club agreed to do. The owner of Manchester City Sheik Mansour bought 200 million pounds. Name 1880-1887 St Mark's (West Gorton) 1887–1894 Ardwick F.C. 1894–present Manchester City F.C. Players Current squad Out on loan The following players have previously made a league or cup appearance for Manchester City and are currently on loan at other teams: Other players with first-team appearances Retired numbers Player of the Year Source: References 1880 establishments in the United Kingdom Premier League clubs Sport in Manchester

Manchester United Football Club (F.C.) is a football club that plays in the Premier League. They play their home games at Old Trafford which is in Greater Manchester. Matt Busby led the club to lots of success by using the youth players until the Munich air disaster in 1958, where many United footballers and staff died. Sir Alex Ferguson led the club to many titles, including the treble (Premier League, FA Cup, and Champions League), from 1986 to 2013, when he retired. The club has 3 UEFA Champions League titles, 20 league titles, 12 FA Cups, and a FIFA Club World Cup. History Manchester United are the most successful club in England and have won 20 league titles, which is more than any other team. They have also won 12 FA Cups and 3 European Cups. The club started as Newton Heath L&YR F.C. in 1878. All of the team worked at Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath. After nearly closing in 1902, John Henry Davies took over and changed the club's name to Manchester United F.C.. Manchester United made Matt Busby their manager after World War II. Matt Busby used the youth team to get new players, and this was very successful. The club won the Football League in 1956 and 1957. The success was stopped by the Munich air disaster in 1958, when eight of the club's players died. It was thought that the club might close, but it did not. They won the Football League in 1965 and 1967, and the European Cup in 1968. Sir Alex Ferguson era In 1986, manager Ron Atkinson was sacked by the club because they were in danger of being relegated. They brought in Sir Alex Ferguson. He did not win anything for the first couple of years. The team won their first trophy under Ferguson, the 1990 FA Cup, against Crystal Palace in the replay after a 3-3 draw. The next season, United won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup. In 1993, Manchester United won the very first Premier League. In 1999, Manchester United won the treble, made of the Premier League, FA Cup, and UEFA Champions League. Manchester United won the league 7 times again until Sir Alex Ferguson retired after the 2012–13 season. From the 2006–07 season to the 2008–09 season, Man United won the league 3 times in a row. The club also won its third UEFA Champions League in 2008 against Chelsea F.C., and almost won the next season as well but lost to FC Barcelona in the final. They won their first FIFA Club World Cup in December 2008. Recent history 2013 - 2018 David Moyes was made manager in 2013. In April 2014, he was sacked by the club and club legend Ryan Giggs became player-manager (when a player is also the manager at the same time). They finished in 7th place. In 2014, Louis Van Gaal took over. He led United to a 4th-place finish. In 2015, after winning 3-0 against Sunderland, Man United reached 1st place for the first time in over two years. However, after losing 0-3 to Arsenal, they dropped to 3rd place. Van Gaal was sacked at the end of the season and José Mourinho replaced him. He then led the club to a League Cup and Europa League victory in the 2016–17 season. Mourinho was sacked in December 2018 because of poor results and replaced by Ole Gunnar Solskjaer. 2018 - Present Since Mourinho was fired in the middle of the season, United brought in a temporary manager for the rest of the season. A former player, Ole Gunnar Solksjaer moved from his position at Molde to manage Manchester United. Under Solksjaer, United won 14 of their remaining 19 games that season. This good run meant they qualified for UEFA Champions League that season. United made Solksjaer their permanent manager in March 2019. Honours Domestic League First Division (until 1992) and Premier League: 20 1907–08, 1910–11, 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13 Second Division: 2 1935–36, 1974–75 Cups FA Cup: 12 1908–09, 1947–48, 1962–63, 1976–77, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04, 2015-16 League Cup: 5 1991–92, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2016/17 FA Charity/Community Shield: 20 (16 outright, 4 shared) 1908, 1911, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965*, 1967*, 1977*, 1983, 1990*, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013 (* shared) European European Cup/UEFA Champions League: 3 1967–68, 1998–99, 2007–08 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1 1990–91 UEFA Super Cup: 1 1991 UEFA Europa League 2017 Worldwide WORLD CLUB CHAMPIONSHIP 1999 FIFA Club World Cup: 1 2008 Doubles and Trebles Doubles:League and FA Cup: 2 1993–94, 1995–96 League and League Cup: 1 2008–09 European Double (League and European Cup): 1 2007–08 "The Treble" (League, FA Cup and European Cup): 1''' 1998–99 League position *Bold indicates a place of third or higher. Former position Grounds The Old Trafford became the club's home ground in 1909, and the stadium was constructed to a capacity of 77,000. In the Second World War, bombings damaged the stadium. While the stadium was being fixed, they played "home" games at Manchester City's Maine Road. The stadium was converted to an all-seater stadium in 1993 for safety reasons, but the capacity fell to 44,000. In 1995, expansions in the North Stand raised the capacity to 55,000. In the middle of 1999, the East and West Stands were expanded to give the stadium a capacity of 67,000. Then between 2005 and 2006 8,000 more seats were added to make a capacity of 75,000. Players First-team squad On loan Rivalries United has many rivalries including Liverpool, Manchester City, Leeds United and Arsenal. Their most intense rivalry is with "The Citizens" (Manchester City). This is because both clubs are from Manchester and each time they play against each other it is called the Manchester Derby. Club records Record League victory: 10-1 v Wolverhampton, Division 1, 15 October 1892 Record Premiership victory: 9-0 v Ipswich Town, 4 March 1995 Record European Cup victory: 10-0 v Anderlecht, European Champion Clubs' Cup, Preliminary Round, 26 September 1956 Record European Cup (Champions League era) victory: 7-1 v A.S. Roma, 10 April 2007 Record home win 10-0 v R.S.C. Anderlecht, 26 September 1956 Record away win: 8-1 v Nottingham Forest, 6 February 1999 Record League defeat: 0-7 v Blackburn Rovers, Division 1, 10 April 1926 / v Aston Villa, Division 1, 27 December 1930 / v Wolves, Division 2, 26 December 1931 Record Cup defeat: 1-7 v Burnley, FA Cup, 1st Round, 13 February 2020 Record 'Home' attendance: 83,250 v Arsenal, Division 1, Maine Road, 7 January 1948 Record League attendance (at Old Trafford): 76,998 v Arsenal, April 2008 Longest unbeaten run: 45 (all competitions), 24 December 1998 to 3 October 1999 Most appearances: 900 - Ryan Giggs Most League appearances: 606 - Bobby Charlton Most goals scored: 250 - Wayne Rooney Most League goals: 199 - Bobby Charlton Most League goals in a season: 32 - Dennis Viollet, Division 1, 1959-60 Most goals in a season in all competitions: 46 - Denis Law, 1963-64 Most goals scored in a match: 6 - George Best v Northampton Town, 7 February 1970 / Harold Halse v Swindon Town, 25 September 1911 Most goals scored in European competition: 38 - Ruud van Nistelrooy Goals in consecutive league matches: 10 consecutive matches - Ruud van Nistelrooy, 22 March 2003 to 23 August 2003 Highest transfer fee paid: £59.7 million - Angel Di Maria (from Real Madrid) Most League goals in a season (by team): 103 (1956/57, 1958/59) Most points in a 42-game season: 92 - 1993/94 Most points in a 38-game Season: 91 - 1999/2000 Most capped player: 129 - Peter Schmeichel - Denmark Fastest goal: 15 seconds - Ryan Giggs v Southampton, Premiership, 18 November 1995 Fastest four goals: 13 minutes - Ole Gunnar Solksjær v Nottingham Forest, Premiership, 6 February 1999 Related pages List of Manchester United F.C. players Notes References 1878 establishments in England Premier League clubs Sport in Manchester

Middlesbrough Football Club, is an English football club. Their stadium is the Riverside Stadium. The club plays in the Premier League. The manager is Neil Warnock. League position Former position Players Current squad As of 16 March 2009. Players out on loan As of 16 March 2009. References 1876 establishments in England English football clubs Middlesbrough

Newcastle United Football Club is an English football club in Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle play in the Premier League. In the 2008/09 season they were relegated after 16 years in the top flight, but won promotion back into the Premier League by winning the Football League Championship. In the 2015/16 season, they were relegated again. History Newcastle United was formed in 1892 after the two rival clubs Newcastle West End and Newcastle East End grouped together. They have played their matches at the ground St.James' Park ever since. This ground holds 52,000 people, and is one of the biggest in England. It is located just inside the centre of Newcastle. Newcastle originally played in red shirts and white shorts. In fact, there was a kit clash in their very first League match, away to the then-named Woolwich Arsenal. The home side wore red, so Newcastle played in their change kit of black and white stripes. A permanent switch to black and white soon followed, most likely to reduce kit clashes, and perhaps as a further attempt to appease West End fans. The decision was taken in 1894, as the minutes from the club meeting reveal: ‘It was agreed that the Club’s colours should be changed from red shirts and white knickers to black and white shirts (two inch stripe) and dark knickers.’. On the 24th day of May 2009 which was also the last day of the season, Newcastle were relegated to the second tier of English football, the Coca-Cola Championship. They returned to the top flight of English football, winning the Championship in the 2009/10 season. In the 2010/11 season, they finished mid-table. The club then went on to finish 5th place in the 2011/12 season. On 17 July 2019, former Sunderland manager Steve Bruce was made manager on a three-year contract. Bruce oversaw 13th and 12th placed finishes during his first two seasons in charge, both of which were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. On 7 October 2021, after 14 years as owner, Ashley sold the club to a new group of owners. The group was made up of Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund, RB Sports & Media and PCP Capital Partners. The club Traditionally the loudest support for the club came from the Gallowgate End - a stand in St. James' Park. This stand is where Alan Shearer once used to watch Newcastle play when he was a child. The record transfer fee the club has paid is £17 million (around $30 million) for Michael Owen, in August 2005. Alan Shearer was the previous record transfer at £15 million, which was also the world's largest transfer fee when he signed in 1996. The Newcastle United's number 9 shirt is one of the most famous shirts in the world. Legends such as Hughie Gallacher, Malcolm McDonald, Jackie Milburn and Alan Shearer have worn the famous shirt. League position Former position References Premier League clubs Newcastle upon Tyne 1892 establishments in England

Portsmouth F.C. is an English football club. They play in the Football League Two. Their home stadium is called Fratton Park. Portsmouth's manager is Kenny Jackett. The most famous manager was probably Harry Redknapp who took the team to an FA Cup victory in 2008 which subsequently got the team into the UEFA Europa League (then called the UEFA Cup) for the first time. The club has since been hit with financial problems and see themselves in the fourth tier of English football. They have a big rivalry with a team called Southampton F.C. They are also from Hampshire. League position Former position 2014=- NOT RELEGATED English football clubs Portsmouth 1898 establishments in England

Tottenham Hotspur Football Club is an English football club. The club plays in the Premier League. Their current stadium is The Tottenham Hotspur Stadium in north London. The captain of Tottenham Hotspur is Hugo Lloris and vice-captain is Harry Kane. The club's most common nickname is Spurs. Other nicknames include The Lilywhites and COYS. Famous Tottenham Hotspur players include Pat Jennings, Paul Gascoigne, Glenn Hoddle, Dave Mackay, Gary Lineker, Danny Blanchflower, Teddy Sheringham and Jimmy Greaves. They have many rivals in London, but their most famous rivals are Arsenal. Tottenham were the first winners of the UEFA Cup tournament, and the first team in the 20th century to achieve the league and cup double. In the 2016–17 Premier League, they finished in 2nd position and earned a place in the European Champions League. They reached the Champions League Final in the 2018-2019 season but ultimately lost 0-2 to Liverpool. First-team squad References Name 1882-1884 Hotspur F.C. 1884-present Tottenham Hotspur F.C. League position Former position 1882 establishments in England Premier League clubs Sport in London Tottenham

Derby County Football Club is an English football club. The club plays in the Football League Championship. History Early years The club was formed in 1884 by players from Derbyshire County Cricket Club who wanted something to do in the winter. They started out by playing at the Racecourse Ground, Derby. The Rams, as Derby County are known, were one of the first members of The Football League when it started in 1888. Back in 1895 the club moved to a new stadium, The Baseball Ground. It was called this because baseball had been played there much earlier beforehand, and it became their home for the next 102 years. When they moved, Derby County had changed their club colours to the black and white they still use today at matches. In 1898, Derby got to their first FA Cup final, but lost. The same happened again in 1899 and 1903. Derby's went down to the Football League's Second Division for the first time in 1907, but they came back up to the First Division in 1911. In 1914, they were relegated again, but won the Second Division the next year to get promoted. World War I meant that they had to wait until 1919 to play First Division football again. After just two seasons, they were relegated yet again in 1921. After Derby's next promotion in 1926 the club got much better, and were one of the top teams from the late 1920s all the way through to the 1939-1940 season, which was interrupted when World War II broke out. FA Cup win The FA Cup restarted in the 1945-1946 season. Derby got to the final again, but this time they beat Charlton Athletic 4-1 to win the Cup. Some people had thought the reason Derby kept losing in the FA Cup was that they were cursed by gypsies, as the Baseball Ground was built on the site of a gypsy camp. Some players even thought so, and before the final they asked the gypsies to lift the curse. The Football League began again the next season, but Derby did not play well and were relegated in 1953. Things went from bad to worse and in 1955 they were relegated to the Football League Third Division (North) for the first time in their history. Derby were too good for that league though, and finished second at the first try. Then they did even better next season by finishing first, and going back up to the top division. The Clough years In 1967, Brian Clough took over Derby County with Peter Taylor helping him. Derby were back in Division Two, but Clough got them promoted to the First Division in 1969. He led them to their first ever Championship in 1972. Derby could not win the title again the next season, but they did get to the semi-finals of the European Cup, but they lost to Juventus. A lot of people in England thought after the match that the Italian club had paid money to the referee as a bribe. This was never proved. Clough left the club after an argument with Derby's chairman Sam Longson. Clough later became manager of Nottingham Forest F.C., where he went on to win a First Division championship and two European Cups. After Clough Derby won the league again in 1974-1975, this time with Dave Mackay as manager. He used to play for the club, as captain, under Clough. When Mackay left in 1976, Derby got slowly worse until they went down in 1980. Derby's stay in the Second Division was not a happy one and they were relegated to the Football League Third Division in 1984. It was exactly 100 years since the club formed, and just nine years after their last Championship. The club made Arthur Cox manager. After a two-year stay in the Third Division, they were promoted to the Second Division. They won that league the next year, going back up to the First Division in 1987. The club managed to finish 5th in 1989, but it was owned by businessman Robert Maxwell, who was having money problems. He stopped spending money on new players, and sold the club not long before his death. The club was relegated back to the Second Division in 1991 (which changed its name to the First Division a year later when the First Division clubs left to form the FA Premier League). Jim Smith became Derby's manager in 1995. Before the end of the season, Smith took the Rams up to the Premier League for the first time. Back to the Premier League and relegation to the Championship Derby County did well in the 1996-97 season, finishing 12th in the final table with international players like Aljosa Asanovic and Igor Stimac playing well. The club moved into the new 33,000-seat Pride Park Stadium for the 1997-98 season, and went on to finish ninth. Next year they did even better, finishing eighth, but the season after that Derby struggled, and finished 16th. Another bad season followed in 2000-01, as Derby finished 17th in the Premiership - just one place clear of going down. Jim Smith left the club in October 2001 and his assistant manager Colin Todd took over. He kept his job for just 3 months before he was sacked. At the end of January 2002, John Gregory got the manager's job. Derby started well, but then lost seven of their last eight matches and were relegated again after six seasons in a row in the Premiership. It was a bad time to go down. Money owed to the Football League teams by the TV company ITV Digital was never paid, and Derby were one of the clubs to suffer worst. They had to sell their best players and rebuild a team with mostly very young players. They finished 18th after a difficult season. In late March, Gregory was suspended and George Burley came in as a temporary manager. At the end of the season Gregory was sacked and Burley took over fully. Owner Lionel Pickering lost control of the club and a new board of John Sleightholme, Jeremy Keith and Steve Harding came in. Derby finished 20th in the 2003-2004 First Division campaign, but did much better in the 2004-05 season and finished 4th in the Division which was now called the Football League Championship. This meant they won a promotion play-off spot, but lost in the semi-finals to Preston North End. Soon after losing, Burley left. Derby then employed Phil Brown for a short period who was then replaced by the Academy Coach, Terry Westley, who kept the club up in the 2005-06 season. Before the final game of the 2005-06 season a local consortium led by Peter Gadsby, took over the Rams and gave the manager's job to Billy Davies, who left Preston after compensation was agreed by both clubs for his services. The new changes and fresh activity in the transfer market promise a bright future for this founder member of the football league. Following a poor start to the 2007-2008 season which saw Derby achieve just one win in 14 matches Billy Davies left Derby County FC. Derby were promoted to the Premier League after defeating West Bromwich Albion 1-0 in the finals of the promotion playoffs. Famous players Many people think the best Rams player ever was Steve Bloomer, one of the highest scoring players in the history of English football. He played for Derby from the late 19th century to just before the First World War. Other top players include the FA Cup winners Peter Doherty, Jackie Stamps and Raich Carter. In more recent years players like Roy McFarland, Archie Gemmill, Colin Todd, Kevin Hector, Steve Powell, Ron Webster, Alan Hinton and Dave Mackay played in the championship winning sides. More recently, the England goalkeeper Peter Shilton, Stefano Eranio and Igor Stimac all played for the Rams. Bobby Davison was also a favourite of Rams fans. Recent famous players also include locally born Matthew Debyshire who has achieved some degree or recognition at Blackburn Rovers but has expressed desire to play a more successful clubs like Tottenham Hotspurs. Local rivals Derby County's main rivals are Nottingham Forest, who are based in Nottingham, a city just a few miles north-east of Derby. Leicester City, also based in the East Midlands, come a close second. Fans from the north of Derbyshire often dislike Sheffield Wednesday or Leeds United. Honours Football League First Division Champions, 1971-1972, 1974-75 Runners-up, 1895-96, 1929-30, 1935-36, 1995-96 Football League Championship Playoffs Winners, 2006-2007 Football League Second Division Champions, 1911-12, 1914-15, 1968-69, 1986-87 Runners-up, 1925-26 Football League Third Division (North) Champions, 1956-57 Runners-up, 1955-56 FA Cup Winners, 1945-46 Runners-up, 1897-98, 1898-99, 1902-03 Charity Shield Winners, 1975-76 Texaco Cup Winners, 1971-72 Watney Cup Winners, 1970-71 Anglo-Italian Cup Runners-up, 1992-93 League position Former position Club records Best Win: 12-0 (at home to Finn Harps F.C., UEFA Cup, First Round, First Leg, September 15, 1976) Worst Loss: 11-2 (away to Everton, FA Cup, First Round, January 18, 1890) Biggest Crowd: 41,826 (against Tottenham Hotspur, Football League First Division, September 20, 1969) Top Goal-Scorer: Steve Bloomer (292 league goals) Most Games: Kevin Hector (486 matches) Promotions: First team to gain promotion to the English Premiership at the new Wembley Stadium (2006-2007) Managers Harry Newbould (1896-1906) Jimmy Methven (1906-1922) Cecil Potter (1922-1925) George Jobey (1925-1941) Ted Manger (1944-1946) Stuart McMillan (1946-1953) Jack Barker (1953-1955) Harry Storer (1955-1962) Tim Ward (1962-1967) Brian Clough (1967-1973) Dave Mackay (1973-1976) Colin Murphey (1976-1977) Tommy Docherty (1977-1979) Colin Addison (1979-1982) John Newman (1982) Peter Taylor (1982-1984) Roy McFarland (1984) Arthur Cox (1984-1993) Roy McFarland (1993-1995) Jim Smith (1995-2001) Colin Todd (2001-2002) John Gregory (2002-2003) George Burley (2003-2005) Phil Brown (2005-2006) Billy Davies (2006-2007) Paul Jewell (2007-2008) Nigel Clough (2009-2013) Steve McLaren (2013-2015) Paul Clement (2015-2016) Nigel Pearson (2016-2016) Steve McLaren (2016-2017) Gary Rowett (2017-2018) Frank Lampard (2018-2019) Philip Cocu (2019-2020) Wayne Rooney (2020-present) References Other websites Official site Unofficial Derby County Fans Forum Unofficial site by the Derby Evening Telegraph Derby County-Mad We Are The Rams website Ramsportal RamZone RamsTrust - supporters' trust English football clubs 1884 establishments in England

Ipswich Town Football Club (Ipswich Town) is an English football club. It is based in Ipswich, Suffolk county. The club was founded in 1878. The club's home stadium is Portman Road. Ipswich Town currently play in the EFL League One, having been relegated from the EFL Championship in 2019, after 17 years in the division. The club has won the Football League First Division once, in 1962 and the FA Cup in 1978. They have also been successful in European football. They won the UEFA Cup in 1981. The current chairman of the club is Mike O'Leary. The current manager is Paul Cook. Two of the club's previous managers have gone on to manage the England national football team, and one has gone on to manage the Scotland national football team. A notable previous manager is Roy Keane, a legend for Ireland and Manchester United. History Ipswich Town F.C. was started as an amateur team in 1878 and was called "Ipswich A.F.C." The club played a lot of games in the local area and won several cup competitions. In 1936, they became a professional club and joined a league called the "Southern League" which they won in their first season. In 1938, they were elected to join The Football League and played in "Division Three (South)" until the end of the 1954 season, when they were promoted to "Division Two". In 1961, Ipswich Town won their division and were promoted to the highest level of English football, "Division One". The club went on to win this division the next season. This let them play in European football competition, The European Cup the following season. Two years later,they were sent back to "Division Two" where they stayed for four years before being promoted to "Division One" again, in 1968. Soon after, Bobby Robson became the manager of the club and led them to success in both English and European football. In 1978 Ipswich won the FA Cup at Wembley Stadium, beating Arsenal F.C. 1–0. Further success came in 1981 when Ipswich defeated Dutch team AZ Alkmaar. Bobby Robson was asked to become manager of the England national football team in 1982 so he left the club. Ipswich did not do well in the following seasons and were relegated to "Division Two" in 1986. They remained here until 1993 when they won the division and promotion into the new English Premier League. Two poor seasons followed, including a 9–0 defeat by Manchester United, still the biggest defeat in Premier League history. In 1995 Ipswich were relegated once again and stayed in second division of English football until they were promoted in 2000 after they beat Barnsley in the play-offs at Wembley 4–2. In their first season in the Premier League, Ipswich finished fifth; This meant they qualified to play in the UEFA Cup the next season. Although the club played well in the European competition, they were poor in the Premier League. They finished bottom and were relegated to Division One, now called Football League Championship. Ipswich were relegated to League One after the 18/19 season, finishing last in the championship. Colours and crest One of Ipswich Town's nicknames is The Blues. This is because the traditional kit the players wear is usually mostly blue. When Ipswich play against other teams who also wear blue, they change to an alternative kit, sometimes called an "away" kit. The "away" kit has been different colours including orange, white, red and black vertical stripes. Currently, the away kit is plain white. The crest which is on the shirts and shorts of the kit shows a horse, with one hoof resting on a football. Underneath the horse is a river—this represents the River Orwell which flows through the town. Stadium Ipswich Town play their home games at a stadium called Portman Road. The club started playing games here in 1884. The stadium can hold over 30,000 people. Outside the ground there are statues of both Bobby Robson and Sir Alf Ramsey. In 2003, England played a game against Croatia at Portman Road. England won the game 3–1. The England youth team has also played at the stadium several times. Other sports have been played at Portman Road, including athletics, hockey and American football. The stadium has also been used for events other than sports. It has been used for concerts by Elton John, R.E.M., Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Rod Stewart. Supporters Local fans call the team "Town" because it is a shortened version of the team name. Some people also call Ipswich the "Tractor Boys". This nickname is used a lot by newspapers. Many Ipswich fans use this name as a joke rather than letting it be an insult. The main rival of Ipswich Town is Norwich City who are based in Norfolk. When these two teams play, the game is called the "East Anglian derby". The derby is usually referred to as the 'Old Farm' derby, a take on the 'Old Firm' derby played in Scotland between Glasgow Celtic and Glasgow Rangers (now 'The Rangers'). Records Mick Mills holds the record for Ipswich league appearances. He played 591 matches between 1966 and 1982. The club's top league goalscorer is Ray Crawford, who scored 203 goals between 1958 and 1969. Ted Phillips holds the record for the most goals scored in a season, 41 in the 1956–57 season. Allan Hunter has played the most international games while at the club, making 47 appearances for Northern Ireland. The club's widest victories in the league have been their 7–0 wins against Portsmouth in 1964, against Southampton in 1974 and against West Bromwich Albion in the First Division in 1976. Their biggest defeats in the league were 10–1 against Fulham in 1963 and 9–0 against Manchester United in 1995. The highest number of people to watch Ipswich at Portman Road is 38,010 for a sixth round FA Cup match against Leeds United on 8 March 1975. The largest amount of money received for an Ipswich player is £6.5 million, from Newcastle United for Kieron Dyer in July 1999. The most the club has spent on a player was £4.75 million for Matteo Sereni from Sampdoria in July 2001. Managers Paul Cook is the current manager of Ipswich Town, replacing Paul Lambert. Lambert joined Ipswich Town in October 2018, after Paul Hirst was fired 2 days before. Lambert's previous job was Stoke City in the Premier League, where he spent 4 months in charge. Two managers of Ipswich Town have gone on to become the manager of the England national football team. The first was Sir Alf Ramsey. He also won the World Cup for England in 1966. The second was Sir Bobby Robson who got England to the semi-finals of the 1990 World Cup finals. George Burley became manager of the Scotland national football team in January 2008, for 22 months. Honours Ipswich Town won the top division once (when it was called Division One) in 1962. The club has won the FA Cup once, in 1978, when they defeated Arsenal F.C. 1–0. The club has also won the UEFA Cup once in 1981. League position Former positions References English football clubs Ipswich 1878 establishments in England

Sunderland Association Football Club is an English football club. They are from the city of Sunderland. The club played in the Premier League in the 2005/2006 season, they finished bottom. They played in the Football League Championship in 2006/2007, but were promoted back to the Premiership for 2007/08 under manager Roy Keane. Sunderland AFC were created in 1879 and joined the Football League in 1891. They have won the league six times. The last time Sunderland won the league was in 1936. Sunderland have won the FA Cup two times, in 1937 and 1973. For 99 years, Sunderland played their home games at Roker Park. In 1997 they moved, and now play their home games at the Stadium of Light. The stadium holds 49,000 people. The team's most recent promotion to the English Premier League was in 2007, and they are now, in 2015/16, in their ninth season in a row in this division. They have had three different managers in 2013. Martin O'Neill was fired at the end of March and Paolo Di Canio became manager. He was fired in September after the team had bad results, and Gus Poyet replaced him on October 8th. Seasons Notes References Premier League clubs Sunderland

West Bromwich Albion Football Club (West Brom, WBA) is an English football club. The club plays in the Championship. Their home stadium is called the Hawthorns. Albion were one of the founding members of The Football League in 1888 and have spent the majority of their existence in the top tier of English football. They have been champions of England once, in 1919–20, but have had more success in the FA Cup, with five wins. The first came in 1888, the year the league was founded, and the most recent in 1968, their last major trophy. They also won the Football League Cup at the first attempt in 1966. The club's longest consecutive period in the top division was between 1949 and 1973, and from 1986 to 2002 they spent their longest ever period out of the top division. The 2011–12 season will be their sixth season in the Premier League since 2002. The Hawthorns is a stadium on a hill. Names in their history 1878-1880 West Bromwich Strollers F.C. 1880-present West Bromwich Albion F.C. League position Former position Other websites West Bromwich Albion: Official website References Premier League clubs 1878 establishments in England

West Ham United Football Club is an English football club. The club plays in the Premier League. It was started in 1895 and its home stadium is the London stadium East London. The club is also called "the Hammers" and "the Irons" because it was started in a London Ironworks. Their main rivals are Millwall and other rivals are Tottenham Hotspur, Chelsea and Arsenal West ham currently are managed by David Moyes, their former care-taker manager for the 2017/18 season in Premier League. Name 1895-1900 Thames Ironworks F.C. 1900-present West Ham United F.C. League position Former position Notable players Sir Bobby Moore, captain of England when they won the FIFA World Cup in 1966. Sir Geoff Hurst, who scored three goals for England in the World Cup final. Sir Trevor Brooking, a good player for England in the 1970/1980s. Paulo Di Canio an entertaining player and hero for West Ham fans. Carlos Tevez, Helped keep West Ham in the Premiership with a great run of form 2006/2007. Mark Noble, West Ham's Long time captain and Player of the decade (2009-2019) Other websites Non official Hammer blog 1895 establishments in England Football clubs in London

Wigan Athletic Football Club is an English football club from Wigan, Greater Manchester. The club plays in the Championship, currently managed by Owen Coyle. They play their home games at the DW Stadium. In 2012-13 they won the FA Cup by beating Manchester City 1-0 and so they played in the UEFA Europa League in the season 2013/14. A few days later they were relegated from the English Premier League to the Football League Championship, becoming the first FA Cup-winning side to be relegated in the same season. Manager Roberto Martínez left the club shortly after to join Everton. Owen Coyle replaced him. Supporters Wigan Athletic Official Supporters Club (formally known as Wigan Athletic Supporters Travel Club) is the official supporters' association of Wigan Athletic Football Club. The supporters club are a non-profit organisation run by volunteers and meet before home matches in the South Stand Bar. Rivalries Since Wigan Athletic's admission to the Football League in 1978, the club has built up several rivalries, mainly with Bolton Wanderers. They also have a rivalry with Manchester City, because they are from the same city and have the same blue club color. League position Former position Managers As listed on the official Wigan Athletic website. Honours League Football League Championship (English second tier) Runners-up (1): 2004–05Football League Second Division (English third tier) Winners (1): 2002–03 Football League Third Division (English fourth tier) Winners (1): 1996–97Football League Fourth Division Promoted (1): 1981–82 Cup FA Cup Winners (1): 2012-13 League CupRunners-up (1): 2005-06 FA Community ShieldRunners-up (1): 2013 Football League TrophyWinners (2): 1984–85, 1998–99 UEFA Europa League''' Wigan's victory in the 2013 FA Cup Final qualified them for European football for the first time, earning them an automatic place in the group stage of the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League. References 1932 establishments in the United Kingdom 1930s establishments in England English football clubs Wigan

Wimbledon Football Club was an English football club. The club began in Wimbledon in 1889. In 2002 it moved to Milton Keynes and it 2004 it changed its name to Milton Keynes Dons F.C. Many football fans in Wimbledon did not agree with the move. They decided to start a new club there, which is called AFC Wimbledon. The club played in the English Football League and won the FA Cup in 1988. It was a professional football club, which means that the players get paid to play. First move: out of Wimbledon In 1992, the club decided that its ground at Plough Lane was too small and moved away from Wimbledon to Selhurst Park in Croydon. This ground is owned by Crystal Palace F.C.. They stayed there for the next 12 years. Second move: out of London, to Milton Keynes In 2002, the club's owners decided that they wanted to move the club out of London. Nobody really knows why they wanted to move. They said that there were too many clubs in London, that not enough people were coming to watch the matches. This meant that they did not collect enough money at the gate to pay everyone and that is why they could not afford to stay. They looked at Cardiff and Dublin before deciding to move to Milton Keynes. Milton Keynes is a new city that is 45 miles (or 75 kilometres) north of London. When they said what they wanted to do, most of their fans stopped paying to see matches, which meant that they had even less money to pay everyone. Before the move could happen, they had to get permission from the Football Association (the FA). The FA is the association of all the football clubs in England. The clubs elect a Committee to decide what to do about things. Most things they have to decide are easy but this was not easy to decide. Or maybe they knew what to decide but did not want to be the ones to decide it. So they asked three clever men to study the problem and tell them what would be best to do. These three men said that the club should be allowed to move. Some members of the Committee did not like this decision and tried to stop it. But the owners of Wimbledon F.C. said that they would get a judge to decide (in a court) if anyone tried to stop them. It costs a lot of money to go to court and whoever loses has to pay for everybody. The other clubs would not agree to pay if this happened, so the FA had to disagree the move. But it was already too late for the owners of Wimbledon F.C. They had no money left. They had borrowed money from the bank to keep going but now the bank wanted its money back. When you cannot pay back what you borrow, this is called "going bankrupt" and that is what happened. Luckily (or unluckily, depends on your point of view), the group in Milton Keynes that first wanted them to come, still wanted them. So this group paid back some of the money and in 2002, the club moved to Milton Keynes. They began playing in the National Hockey Stadium, beside Milton Keynes Central railway station and stayed there for two years until their new stadium was ready (2006). Many football fans around England did not like the idea that a club could move. They believe that a club belongs to a town and it is not like a furniture shop that closes down in one town and opens in another town. Another reason that they did not like it is that they would love to see their own club get into the Football League. The only way that they can do that is if they win their regional league, then win the Football Conference. So they felt that Milton Keynes was "jumping the queue" to get into the League. Because of this, many fans refused to attend ("boycotted") any games they played Milton Keynes In 2004, the new owners changed the name to 'Milton Keynes Dons F.C.' (usually just 'MK Dons'), which combined the name of their new home ('Milton Keynes') with the nickname ('Dons') from Wimbledon. With this, Wimbledon FC ceased to exist. But the boycott continued. In 2006, the Football Fans Federation proposed a way forward. The most important thing for the town of Wimbledon was the trophies (cups, shields) that the club had won when it was called Wimbledon F.C. The agreement was that Milton Keynes Dons F.C. would give these trophies to Merton Borough Council, which is the local government area that contains Wimbledon. The league history of Milton Keynes Dons F.C. would start from 2004 which is when they changed their name. The Fans Federation would ask fans to end the boycott. Everybody agreed and this is what has happened. English football clubs 1889 establishments in England

Accrington Stanley Football Club is an English football club. The club will play in League Two (the English fourth division) in the 2015/16 season. They were re-founded in 1968 after going bankrupt (having no money) in 1962. They were first founded in 1921. They are thought of as hard working but having no chance of success. Their nickname is Stanley. They play at the Interlink Express Stadium in Accrington in Lancashire, in England. English football clubs 1921 establishments in Europe 1962 disestablishments 1968 establishments in England 1920s establishments in England 1960s disestablishments in England

A.F.C Telford United is a football club based in Telford, Shropshire, England. They are currently a member of the National League North, the sixth tier of English football. They were founded in 2004. They are based off the original Telford United, which folded in 2004 after financial problems. They play their home games in New Bucks Head in Wellington, which is a part of Telford. References English football clubs

AFC Wimbledon is an English football club from London. The club are currently in EFL League One. AFC Wimbledon were formed in 2002 by fans angry at Wimbledon F.C. moving to Milton Keynes, 70 miles away from South London. They play at Plough Lane in London. Wimbledon AFC 2002 establishments in England

Sheffield Football Club is a football club in England. Sheffield F.C. is the oldest football club in the world. It was set up in 1857 in the city of Sheffield. Sheffield F.C. initially played games under the Sheffield rules and did not officially adopt the FA rules until 1878. Unlike Sheffield United F.C. and Sheffield Wednesday F.C., it does not play in a national league. English football clubs Sheffield 1857 establishments in Europe 1850s establishments in the United Kingdom

The asteroid belt or main belt is a ring of small and large rocks and dust between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The biggest object in the asteroid belt is Ceres, a dwarf planet. The Kirkwood gaps separate the asteroid belt into several groups. Most asteroids orbit at 2 to 3 times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Planets that are "inside" - or before - the asteroid belt (which means they are closer to the sun) are called inner planets. Planets that are "outside" - that is, after - the asteroid belt are called outer planets: so Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are inner planets, while Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer planets. Origin In 1802, shortly after discovering 2 Pallas, Heinrich Olbers suggested to William Herschel that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars–Jupiter region, this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before. This hypothesis has fallen from favor. The large amount of energy needed to destroy a planet, and with the belt's low combined mass (only about 4% of the mass of the Moon) do not support the hypothesis. Also, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids are difficult to explain if they come from the same planet. Today, most scientists accept that the asteroids never formed a planet at all. In general, the formation and evolution of the Solar System happened when a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form the Sun and planetesimals, and eventually the planets. This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the rocky planets and the gas giants. Planetesimals in the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly disturbed by Jupiter's gravity to form a planet. Instead they continued to orbit the Sun as before, while occasionally colliding. In regions where the velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals was more common than accretion, preventing the formation of planet-sized bodies. References Asteroids

Essen (; Low Franconian and Ripuarian: Esse, Latin: Assindia) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is on the Ruhr River and it is near Cologne, Duisburg and Bochum. 585,000 people live in Essen. Together with Dortmund, Essen is the biggest city of the Ruhr area with its 5,000,000 inhabitants. Essen is often called the shopping city (Einkaufsstadt) because there are so many malls and shops in it. Location of Essen Essen is in North Rhine-Westphalia and part of the Ruhr area, where eleven cities and four districts are. The rivers Ruhr and Emscher flow through the city. The lake Baldeney is part of the Ruhr. Essen's neighbour cities are Oberhausen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Ratingen, Heiligenhaus and Velbert in the Rhineland; and Hattingen, Bochum, Gelsenkirchen, Gladbeck and Bottrop in Westphalia. Other near cities are Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Dortmund and Münster. Politics Because of the large number of coal mine workers in Essen, the SPD, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, always was very strong in Essen. During the time of National Socialism, the Nazi Party installed the mayors. But from 1999 to 2009, the Christian Democratic Party ruled the city with the mayor Dr.Wolfgang Reiniger. At the local elections of 2009, the SPD's candidate Reinhard Paß became the new mayor. Famous things in Essen Villa Hügel (the villa of the family Krupp) Cathedral (Münster) (head of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Essen. In the Domschatzkammer, the dome treasure chamber, is the Golden Madonna of Essen) Old Synagogue (Alte Synagoge) Lichtburg (the oldest cinema of Germany) Zeche Zollverein (Zollverein Coal Mine, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2001) Folkwang museum (a big musum with a famous music academy) Werden abbey (a monastery from the Order of Saint Benedict, founded in 800) Aalto theatre (the greatest theatre of Essen, built by the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto) Essen philharmonic orchestra (this building, also known as Saalbau, is next to the Aalto theatre) History of Essen Around 850, Saint Altfrid founded the Damenstift, an abbey for women, ruled by a prince abbess. In this time the cathedral of Essen was built. In those days the name of the city was Assindia in Latin. Later it changed over Essendia and Essend to Essen. 1377 Essen became a free imperial city. At this time, Essen was just a small city in a region where few people lived. The city became more important when the Industrial Revolution began. In 1811, Friedrich Krupp founded a small steel factory in Essen which was fast growing. The city population also grew, and 80 years after the foundation of Krupp's steel work, Essen was a big city with 100,000 inhabitants. Because in the region of the Ruhr River much coal was found, many coal mines were founded in Essen and other near cities. Great industrial families like the Krupps, the Haniels and the Grillos gave money for cultural buildings like the Grillo theatre and the Folkwang museum. Because of its big industry, Essen was destroyed with bombs in the Second World War. Many people gave their lives, and many buildings were destroyed. Not all were rebuilt after WW2. But because the coal mining industry ended mining in Essen in the 1970's (coal from abroad was getting cheaper), the city was getting poor. The Strukturwandel (structural change) saved Essen. Old collieries like Zeche Zollverein became museums or theatres. In 2003, the universities of Essen and Duisburg joined together as the university Duisburg-Essen. In 2010 Essen was Kulturhauptstadt Europas (European Capital of Culture) together with Istanbul and Pécs in Hungary. Media in Essen The WDR (Westdeutscher Rundfunk/Western German Broadcasting) has a TV-station in Essen. The two biggest newspapers, the WAZ (Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung/Western German common newspaper) and the NRZ, the Neue Ruhr Zeitung/New Ruhr newspaper (at the lower Rhine regionNeue Rhein Zeitung/New Rhein newspaper) are in the city. Both newspapers belong to the WAZ-media group. Essen also has a radio station named Radio Essen. Boroughs of Essen Essen has nine districts (Bezirke) and 50 boroughs (Stadtteile). The most famous and most known are Kettwig, until 1975 a separate town and not part of Essen, with the Altstadt of Kettwig, where many timber framing houses are (Fachwerkhäuser). Also well-known is Werden. It lays like Kettwig in the south of the city and is the oldest borough of Essen. The Werden abbey stands here. In Essen-Rüttenscheid there are many cultural buildings (like the Folkwang or the Ruhrland museum). The WDR-studio and Essen's trade fair, the Gruga are also in Rüttenscheid. In the north of Essen is Katernberg, where in the past the coal mine workers lived. Here is Zeche Zollverein. In Katernberg, many houses were built by the Krupp family for their workers. Another big coal mine worker's borough, perhaps the biggest, is Margarethenhöhe near Rüttenscheid. It is named after Margarethe Krupp, wife of Friedrich Alfred Krupp. The Krupps wanted their workers to be absolutely dependent on them. So they built houses and malls for them, where they should spend their money, what they got from Krupp, again to the industrials. Today Margarethenhöhe is one of the most beautiful boroughs of Essen. Another big borough of Essen is Steele in the east of the city, that was in the 19th and early 20th century a city as big as Essen. In the west of Essen is Borbeck, which was long separate from Essen. In Borbeck is the great Borbeck Castle (Schloss Borbeck). The people of Borbeck speak their own regional dialect, the Borbecker Platt. The nine districts of Essen are: Bezirk I (Stadtmitte/Frillendorf/Huttrop) Bezirk II (Rüttenscheid/Bergerhausen/Rellinghausen/Stadtwald) Bezirk III (Essen-West) Bezirk IV (Borbeck) Bezirk V (Altenessen/Karnap/Vogelheim) Bezirk VI (Katernberg/Schonnebeck/Stoppenberg) Bezirk VII (Steele/Kray) Bezirk VIII (Ruhrhalbinsel) Bezirk IX (Werden/Kettwig/Bredeney) Famous people in Essen The most known people from Essen are the actor Heinz Rühmann, whose parents were the owner of Essen's famous hotel Handelshof near the Central Station (Hauptbahnhof), Carl Humann, explorer of the Great Altar of Pergamon, Karl Baedeker, a publisher whose company made many books for tourists (Baedeker), Alfred Krupp and Franz Dinndendahl, who made the first steam machine in the Ruhr area. These people were born in the city. Other people who were not born in Essen but lived and worked there a long time are Berthold Beitz, who saved the Krupp company from the ruin, Wilhelm Busch, a famous poet and painter or Gustav Heinemann, a German politician who was mayor of Essen and federal president of Germany. Other people like Otto von Bismarck and Paul von Hindenburg were honorary people in Essen. Sport The most popular sport in Germany is Association football or soccer. The most important soccer clubs of Essen are Rot-Weiß Essen (RWE) and Schwarz-Weiß Essen. They play in the 4th and the 5th league. More successfully is the women's association football club SG Essen-Schönebeck that plays in the first Bundesliga. The second big sport is team handball. TUSEM Essen is the most important club in Essen. The most popular ice hockey club is named ESC Moskitos Essen and the biggest basketball club ETB Wohnbau Baskets Essen. Essen also has many table tennis and swimming clubs. Twin towns Essen's twin towns are: - Sunderland, since 1949 - Tampere, since 1960 - Grenoble, since 1974 - Nizhny Novgorod, since 1991 - Tel Aviv-Yafo, since 1991 References Imperial free cities World Heritage Sites in Germany Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf

Gardening is the growing of plants such as flowers, shrubs and trees as a hobby or recreation. Some people also grow vegetables or fruit in their gardens. People do gardening outdoors in the soil in their backyard, or in pots or containers on their balcony or on their patio. Some people do gardening on a roof. People do indoor gardening inside their house or inside a building. Sometimes indoor gardening is done in greenhouses, which are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in. Grow tent is also used for indoor plants. Grow tent helps plant to grow in a more spectacular and develop a friendly environment. Water gardening is growing plants in ornamental pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic plants. Gardening can be done outside of the home, in city parks, botanical gardens, zoos, amusement parks, theme parks, and around tourist attractions. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers. Gardening compared with farming Gardening is related to farming. But farming is done on a much larger scale. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometres of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard usually only measures a few square meters. As well, farming is done as a business, to sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Gardening is done just to produce fruit or vegetables for the gardener's own family. Gardening is done as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business. Gardening tools Gardeners use tools to dig in the soil and water the crops. These tools include a spade, a fork, a hoe, a basket, a watering can, a hose, a Sprinkler, a bucket, a trowel and a wheelbarrow. With growing, technology gardeners now have tech like Self-watering containers, Garden sensors, Hydroponic systems and Indoor lighting systems. Gardens as art In many countries and cultures, designing beautiful gardens is treated as a fine art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks created Japanese gardens. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built. One example is the gardens at the Versailles palace in Paris, France. Landscaping, the making of an artificial landscape, may include gardening and the designer may be a professional landscape architect. Related pages Agriculture Horticulture Aquaculture Agronomy Hydroculture References

Democracy means rule by the people. The name is used for different forms of government, where the people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run. To become a stable democracy, a state usually undergoes a process of democratic consolidation. Democracy is the opposite of a dictatorship, a type of government in which the power is centralized on the hands of a single person who rules the nation. Dictatorship lacks political pluralism, and the people have no chance to join local politics. Freedom of expression is also limited. Methods In modern times, there are different ways this can be done: The people meet to decide about new laws, and changes to existing ones. This is usually called direct democracy. The people elect their leaders. These leaders take this decision about laws. This is commonly called representative democracy. Choosing is called an election. Elections are either held periodically, or when an officeholder dies. Sometimes people can propose new laws or changes to existing laws. Usually, this is done using a referendum, which needs a certain number of supporters. The people who make the decisions are chosen more or less at random. This is common, for example when choosing a jury for a trial. This method is known as sortition or allotment. In a trial, the jury will have to decide the question whether the person is guilty or not. In Europe, trials with a jury are only used for serious crimes, such as murder, hostage taking or arson. Types of government After people hold an election, the candidates that won are determined. The way this is done can be simple: The candidate with the most votes gets elected. Very often, the politicians being elected belong to a political party. Instead of choosing a person, people vote for a party. The party with the most votes then picks the candidates. Usually, the people being elected need to meet certain conditions: They need to have a certain age or a government body needs to determine that they are suitably qualified to perform the job. Not everyone can vote in an election. Suffrage is only given to people who are citizens. Some groups may be excluded, for example prisoners. For some elections, a country may make voting compulsory. Someone who does not vote, and who does not give a good reason usually has to pay a fine Kinds of democracy Democracy may be direct or indirect. In a direct democracy, everyone has the right to make laws together. One modern example of direct democracy is a referendum, which is the name for the kind of way to pass a law where everyone in the community votes on it. Direct democracies are not usually used to run countries, because it is hard to get millions of people to get together all the time to make laws and other decisions. There is not enough time. In an indirect, or representative democracy, people choose representatives to make laws for them. These people can be mayors, councilmen, members of Parliament, or other government officials. This is a much more common kind of democracy. Large communities like cities and countries use this method, but it may not be needed for a small group. History Ancient origins This kind of government was developed long ago by the ancient Greeks in classical Athens. They had everyone who was a citizen (not slaves, women, foreigners, and children) get together in one area. The assembly would talk about what kinds of laws they wanted and voted on them. The Council would suggest the laws. All citizens were allowed in the assembly. The Council were picked by draws (lottery). The participants in the Council would change every year and the number of people in the Council was at the most 500. For some offices the Athenian citizens would pick a leader by writing the name of their favorite candidate on a piece of stone or wood. The person with the most votes became the leader. Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, there were many systems, although only a few people could join in at this time. The Parliament of England began from the Magna Carta, a document which said that the King's power was limited, and protected certain rights of the people. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265. However, only a few people could actually join in. Parliament was chosen by only a few percent of the people (in 1780, fewer than 3% of people joined in). The ruler also had the power to call parliaments. After a long time, the power of Parliament began to grow. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the English Bill of Rights 1689 made Parliament more powerful. Later, the ruler became a symbol instead of having real power. Democratic consolidation Democratic consolidation is how a new democracy matures. Once mature, it is unlikely to revert to dictatorship rule without an external shock. The idea is that unconsolidated democracies suffer from intermittent elections which are not free and fair. In other words, powerful groups are able to prevent the system working fairly. Related pages Majority rule Direct democracy Political party Constitution Constitutional economics Political economy Election Rule of law Citizenship Activism Politics References

A game is something that people often do for fun. If so, it is different from work. Many sports are games, and there are many professional sports. In those cases, there is money to be made, because it is a type of entertainment. There are different kinds of games using many kinds of equipment. For example, in video games, people often use controllers or their keyboard to control what happens on a screen, such as a television screens and computers ones too. In card games, players use playing cards. There are also games that use your body, such as the Kinect. Most games need equipment, but not always. Children's street games often need no equipment. In board games, players may move pieces on a flat surface called a board. The object of the game varies. In race-type games like ludo, the object is to reach the end first. In go the object is to surround more space. In soccer it is to score more goals. Some games have complicated rules, some have simple rules. Definitions Ludwig Wittgenstein Ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein demonstrated that the elements (parts) of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to correctly define what games are. He concluded that people apply the term game to a range of different human activities that are related, but not closely related. Homo Ludens Homo Ludens (Playing Man) is a book written in 1938 by Dutch historian Johan Huizinga. It discusses the importance of the play element in culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play is a condition for the generation of culture. Roger Caillois French sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men), said that a game is an activity which is these things: free: the activity is voluntary separate: the activity cannot happen everywhere or, all the time uncertain: the people doing the activity do not know how it will end non-productive: doing the activity does not make or do anything useful governed by rules: the activity has rules that are different from everyday life fictitious: the people doing the activity know that the game is not reality Chris Crawford Computer game designer Chris Crawford tried to define the word game using a series of comparisons: Something creative is art if it was made because it is beautiful, and entertainment if it was made for money. Something that is entertainment is a plaything if it is interactive. Movies and books are entertainment, but not interactive. If a plaything does not have any goals to complete, it is a 'toy. If a plaything has goals, it is a challenge. If a challenge does not have an opponent, it is a puzzle. If it has an opponent, it is a conflict. If the player can do better at something than an opponent but cannot affect the opponent, the conflict is a competition. Racing and figure skating are competitions. However, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game. Crawford's definition of a game is: an interactive, goal-oriented activity, with opponents to play against, and where players and opponents can interfere with each other. History of Games The first writer of history was Herodotus, an ancient Greek. He wrote a book called “The Histories” around 440 BC, which is nearly 2500 years ago. Some of the stories he wrote were not true, and we don't know if this is one of those. Herodotus tells us about king Atys; he ruled about 5,500 [five thousand five hundred] years ago in a country called Lydia. His country was in western Asia Minor, near modern Greece. Atys had a serious problem; his lands had very little food because the climate was not good for agriculture. The people of Lydia demonstrated patience and hoped that the good times of plenty would return. But when things failed to get better, the people of Lydia thought up a strange solution for their problem. The path they took to fight their natural need to eat – the hungry times caused by the unusually hard climate - was to play games for one entire day so that they would not think about food. On the next day they would eat, so eating occurred every second day. In this way they passed 18 years, and in that time they invented dice, balls, and all the games commonly played today. Games appear in all cultures all over the world, an ancient custom that brings people together for social opportunities. Games allow people to go beyond the limit of the immediate physical experience, to use their imagination. Common features of games include a finish that you cannot forecast, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, imaginary elements, elements of chance, established goals and personal enjoyment. Games are used to teach, to build friendships, and to indicate status. In his 1938 history book the Dutch writer Johan Huizinga says that games are older than human culture. He sees games as the beginning of complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art. Ancient people used bones to make the first games. Dice are very early game pieces. Games began as part of ancient religions. The oldest gaming pieces ever found – 49 [forty nine] small painted stones with pictures cut into them from 5,000 [five thousand] years ago – come from Turkey, so perhaps the history of Herodotus is true. One of the first board games, Senet, appears in ancient Egypt around 3,500 [three thousand five hundred] years ago. The ancient Greeks had a board game similar to checkers, and also many ball games. The first reference to the game of Go occurs in Chinese records from around 2,400 [two thousand four hundred] years ago. Originally the game Go was used by political leaders to develop skill in strategy and mental skill. Knowing how to play Go was required by a Chinese gentleman, along with the skills of artistic writing or calligraphy, painting and the ability to play a musical instrument. These were regarded as the four most important skills. In ancient China, a gentleman had to pass a test in these four key skills in order to get a good paying job in the government. The Chinese brought Go to Korea, and it entered Japan around 1,500 [one thousand five hundred] years ago, and it has been popular ever since. In March 2016 a Google computer program beat the best Go players in the world. Go is believed to be the most complex board game ever created. Is this computer program smarter than a person? Well, it did beat the South Korean Go master Lee Se-dol, and Lee was surprised by the result. He acknowledged defeat after three and a half hours of play. Demis Hassabis, who made the Google program, called it an important moment in history, because a machine beat the best person in the world in an intelligent game. Such computer programs rely on what is called artificial intelligence. Go is a two-player game of strategy said to have had an origin in China perhaps around 3,000 [three thousand] years ago. Players compete to win more territory by placing black and white “stones” on a board made up of 19 [nineteen] lines by 19 [nineteen] lines. The first computer game that was ever created was probably the game OXO by Alexander Douglas in 1952. It was a version of tic-tac-toe. But most people consider the first true computer game where players actually participate to be Tennis for Two developed in 1958 by the physics scientist William Higginbotham. He wanted to teach about gravity, the force of attraction between masses. These men who created the early computer games did not forecast the potential for the popular use of games, because at that period in modern history it took a small room full of computers to make these games work! Another early game was Spacewar! developed in 1961 by MIT university student Steve Russell. In 1972 the company Atari produced the Pong game which was a huge commercial success; being a commercial success means that it made a lot of money. This was the true beginning of computer games that could be played at home. Today, all around the world people spend more the 3,000,000,000 [three billion] hours a week playing computer games. This is equivalent to more than 342,000 [three hundred and forty two hundred thousand] years! Other definitions "A game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome". "A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal". (Greg Costikyan) "A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context''". "At its most elementary level then we can define game as an exercise of voluntary control systems in which there is an opposition between forces, confined by a procedure and rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome". "A game is a form of play with goals and structure". Related pages Video game Puzzle Sports Toy References

Nebraska is a state near to the center of the United States. Its capital is Lincoln and the largest city is Omaha. It touches the states of Wyoming, South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Colorado and Kansas. Nebraska is known for its agriculture, especially beef and corn. Nebraska has hot summers and cold winters. A temperature of 30 °C (which is about 86 °F) is common in the summer, and in the winter it can be -20 °C (which is about -4 °F) or colder at night. History Native American tribes, including the Omaha, Oto, Missouri, Pawnee, Arapaho and Cheyenne, all ceded land in Nebraska to the U.S. government. On May 30, 1854, the United States government made a law called the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It made two territories called Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory. In the 1860s, many people moved there to take free land from the government. Nebraska became a state on March 1, 1867. Related pages Colleges and universities in Nebraska List of counties in Nebraska References 1867 establishments in the United States

Time is the never-ending continued progress of existence and events. It happens in an apparently irreversible way from the past, through the present and to the future. To measure time, we can use anything that repeats itself regularly. One example is the start of a new day (as Earth rotates on its axis). Two more are the phases of the moon (as it orbits the Earth), and the seasons of the year (as the Earth orbits the Sun). Even in ancient times, people developed calendars to keep track of the number of days in a year. They also developed sundials that used the moving shadows cast by the sun through the day to measure times smaller than a day. Today, highly accurate clocks can measure time in less than a billionth of a second. The study of time measurement is known as horology. The SI (International Systems of Units) unit of time is one second, written as s. When used as a variable in mathematics, time is often represented by the symbol . In Einsteinian physics, time and space can be combined into a single concept. For more on the topic, see space-time continuum. Units of time 1 millennium = 10 centuries = 100 decades = 200 lustrums = 250 quadrenniums = 333.33 trienniums = 500 bienniums = 1,000 years 1 century = 10 decades = 20 lustrums = 25 quadrenniums = 33.33 trienniums = 50 bienniums = 100 years 1 decade = 2 lustrums = 2.5 quadrenniums = 3.33 trienniums = 5 bienniums = 10 years 1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks = 365 days (366 days in leap years) 1 month = 4 weeks = 2 fortnights = 28 to 31 days 1 fortnight = 2 weeks = 14 days 1 week = 7 days 1 day = 24 hours 1 hour = 60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds 1 second = SI base unit of time 1 millisecond = 1/1,000 second 1 microsecond = 1/1,000,000 second 1 nanosecond = 1/1,000,000,000 second 1 picosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000 of a second 1 femtosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000,000 of a second 1 attosecond = 1/1,000,000,000,000,000,000 of a second 1 Planck time = smallest measurable unit of time Things used to measure time Clock Hourglass Stopwatch Sundial Circadian rhythm Time of day World Clock U.S. Naval Observatory Time in Hexadecimal numeral system Related pages Chronology 24-hour clock Time zone Space-time References Basic English 850 words Philosophy

In physics, a force is an interaction between objects. It is called an interaction because if one object acts on another, its action is matched by a reaction from the other object. This idea is known as Newton's third law, where action and reaction are "equal and opposite" (matched). The objects are just the things the force acts between. Different forces act between different sorts of object. For example, gravity acts between objects with mass, like the sun and the earth. Another example is electromagnetic force, which acts between objects with charge, like an electron and the nucleus of an atom. Gravity and electromagnetic force are two examples of forces. A force changes the state of an object (some physical quantity changes) or, strictly, the states of two objects, since the force is an interaction. For example, a force causes an affected object to be pushed or pulled in a certain direction. This changes the object's momentum. Forces cause objects to accelerate, add to the object's overall pressure, change direction, or change shape. The strength of a force is measured in Newtons (N). There are four fundamental forces in physics. A force is always a push, pull, or a twist, and it affects objects by pushing them up, pulling them down, pushing them to a side, or by changing their motion or shape in some other way. Newton's Second Law According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the formula for finding force is: where is the force, is the mass of an object, and is the acceleration of the object. This formula says that when there is a force on an object then it will move faster and faster. If the force is weak and the object is heavy, then it will take a long time to increase the speed very much, but if the force is strong and the object is light, then it will move a lot faster very quickly. Weight Gravity is an acceleration. Everything that has a mass is being pulled toward the Earth because of that acceleration. This pull is a force called weight. One can take the equation above and change to the standard gravity g, then a formula about the gravity on earth can be found: where is the weight of an object, is the mass of an object, and is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level. It is about . This formula says that when you know the mass of an object, then you can calculate how much force there is on the object because of gravity. You must be on earth to use this formula. If you are on the moon or another planet, then you can use the formula but g will be different. Force is a vector, so it can be stronger or weaker and it can also point in different directions. Gravity always points down into the ground (if you are not in space). Gravitational force Another equation that says something about gravity is: is force; is the gravitational constant, which is used to show how gravity accelerates an object; is the mass of one object; is the mass of the second object; and is the distance between the objects. This equation is used to calculate how the earth moves around the sun and how the moon moves around the earth. It is also used to calculate how other planets, stars and objects in space move around. The equation says that if two objects are very heavy then there is a strong force between them because of gravity. If they are very far apart then the force is weaker. References Further reading Gravity gd:Neart

Laboratory techniques are the techniques of handling the various pieces of apparatus. Basic techniques Handling of chemicals Ways to dissolve a solid in a liquid or to mix two liquids in a test tube: Shake the test tube gently Stir with a glass rod Tap the bottom of the test tube with your finger Pour the contents to and fro between two test tubes Stopper the test tube and shake Heating techniques Hold the material over a naked flame Put the material in a water bath Use a type of hairdryer called a "heat gun" to blow hot air at the material. Collecting gases Upward and downward delivery Over water Gas syringe Drying substances Leave the mixture at room temperature to evaporate on its own. Put the substance in an "oven" which heats it gently and removes water vapour. Smelling gases Never smell a gas directly. Waft a gas towards yourself if it is reasonably safe to smell it. Never smell a gas that is toxic or otherwise dangerous. Chemistry

The International System of Units is the standard modern form of the metric system. The name of this system can be shortened or abbreviated to SI, from the French name Système International d'unités. The International System of Units is a system of measurement based on 7 base units: the metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), Kelvin (temperature), mole (quantity), and candela (brightness). These base units can be used in combination with each other. This creates SI derived units, which can be used to describe other quantities, such as volume, energy, pressure, and velocity. The system is used almost globally. Only Myanmar, Liberia, and the United States do not use SI as their official system of measurement. In these countries, though, SI is commonly used in science and medicine. History and use The metric system was created in France after the French Revolution in 1789. The original system only had two standard units, the kilogram and the metre. The metric system became popular amongst scientists. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin) suggested a system with three base units - length, mass, and time. Other units would be derived from those three base units. Later, this suggestion would be used to create the centimetre-gram-second system of units (CGS), which used the centimetre as the base unit for length, the gram as the base unit for mass, and the second as the base unit for time. It also added the dyne as the base unit for force and the erg as the base unit for energy. As scientists studied electricity and magnetism, they realized other base units were needed to describe these subjects. By the middle of the 20th century, many different versions of the metric system were being used. This was very confusing. In 1954, the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) created the first version of the International System of Units. The six base units that they used were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, and candela. The seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971. SI is now used almost everywhere in the world, except in the United States, Liberia and Myanmar, where the older imperial units are still widely used. Other countries, most of them historically related to the British Empire, are slowly replacing the old imperial system with the metric system or using both systems at the same time. Units of measurement Base units The SI base units are measurements used by scientists and other people around the world. All the other units can be written by combining these seven base units in different ways. These other units are called "derived units". {| class="wikitable floatleft" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ SI base units |- !Unitname !Unitsymbol !Dimensionsymbol !Quantityname !Definition |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |style="text-align:center" |T |time | Prior: of a day of 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds Interim (1956): of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time. Current (1967): The duration of periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. |- !metre |style="text-align:center" |m |style="text-align:center" |L |length | Prior (1793): of the meridian through Paris between the North Pole and the Equator.FG Interim (1960): wavelengths in a vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p and 5d quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom. Current (1983): The distance travelled by light in vacuum in second. |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |style="text-align:center" |M |mass | Prior (1793): The grave was defined as being the mass (then called weight) of one litre of pure water at its freezing point.FG Interim (1889): The mass of a small squat cylinder of ~47 cubic centimetres of platinum-iridium alloy kept in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, France. Current (2019): The kilogram is defined by setting the Planck constant h exactly to (), given the definitions of the metre and the second. Then the formula would be 1 kg = |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |style="text-align:center" |I |electric current | Prior (1881): A tenth of the electromagnetic CGS unit of current. The [CGS] electromagnetic unit of current is that current, flowing in an arc 1 cm long of a circle 1 cm in radius, that creates a field of one oersted at the centre. IEC Interim (1946): The constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length. Current (2019): The flow of times the elementary charge e per second. |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |style="text-align:center" |Θ |thermodynamictemperature | Prior (1743): The centigrade scale is obtained by assigning 0 °C to the freezing point of water and 100 °C to the boiling point of water. Interim (1954): The triple point of water (0.01 °C) defined to be exactly 273.16 K. Previous (1967): of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Current (2019): The kelvin is defined by setting the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to , (J = kg⋅m2⋅s−2), given the definition of the kilogram, the metre and the second. |- !mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |style="text-align:center" |N |amount ofsubstance | Prior (1900): A stoichiometric quantity which is the equivalent mass in grams of Avogadro's number of molecules of a substance.ICAW Interim (1967): The amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. Current (2019): The amount of substance of exactly elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number. |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |style="text-align:center" |J |luminousintensity | Prior (1946): The value of the new candle (early name for the candela) is such that the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre. Current (1979): The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of watt per steradian. Note: both old and new definitions are approximately the luminous intensity of a whale blubber candle burning modestly bright, in the late 19th century called a "candlepower" or a "candle". |- |colspan=5| Notes The Prior definitions of the various base units in the above table were made by the following authorities: FG = French Government IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission ICAW = International Committee on Atomic Weights All other definitions result from resolutions by either CGPM or the CIPM and are catalogued in the SI Brochure. |} Derived units Derived units are created by combining the base units. The base units can be divided, multiplied, or raised to powers. Some derived units have special names. Usually these were created to make calculations simpler. Prefixes Very large or very small measurements can be written using prefixes. Prefixes are added to the beginning of the unit to make a new unit. For example, the prefix kilo- means "1000" times the original unit and the prefix milli- means "0.001" times the original unit. So one kilometre is 1000 metres and one milligram is a 1000th of a gram. References Systems

Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes in North America. It has a surface area of . It is wide. Lake Michigan is the 5th largest lake in the world. Lake Michigan is surrounded by the U.S. states of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan. It is the only Great Lake that is not partly in Canada. The largest city on the shore of Lake Michigan is Chicago. The earliest time that people lived near the lake was 800 CE. The word "Michigan" originally meant the lake itself. It is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning "great water". The first person to reach the deepest part of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump. Klump reached the bottom with a submarine as part of a 1985 research expedition. Twelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores. They are mainly in the Chicago and Milwaukee areas. References Other websites Great Lakes Lakes of the United States

A gas syringe is a tool used in a laboratory. It is used to collect a gas or to measure the volume of a gas. Simple systems can be settled in the laboratory to collect gas or to compress it. It is usually used to explain Gas Law. Laboratory equipment Measuring tools

In chemistry, a mixture is a substance that is made up of two or more simpler substances. These substances can be chemical elements or compounds. A mixture can be made of liquids, solids, or gases. Characteristics A mixture is not the same as a compound which is made of two or more atoms connected together. For instance, a mixture of the gases hydrogen and nitrogen contains hydrogen and nitrogen, not the compound ammonia which is made of hydrogen and nitrogen atoms. A mixture where the different parts can be distinguished easily is called heterogenous, one where this is not the case is called homogeneous. A third form is called colloid. If one substance in a mixture dissolves in the other, it is called a solution. For example, if sugar is put in water it forms a mixture, then dissolves to make a solution. If it does not dissolve, it would be called a suspension. Solids can be mixtures also. Alloys are mixtures. Many kinds of soil and rock are mixtures of different minerals. Thus, a mixture is made of two or more elements and/or compounds which are not chemically combined. Gallery References Chemistry

Language families are groups of languages that are related to each other because they come from a common older language. The languages in such a family are similar in their vocabulary or structure. For example, French and Spanish both come from Latin. Latin was spoken a long time ago, and some of the people who spoke it started to speak one way, saying, for example, for good: "bueno" while another group started saying "bon." Most words are said a little differently in Spanish and French, so the two are called different languages. Most languages belong to a language family, but some languages do not. These languages are called Language isolates. There also are constructed languages, like for example Esperanto. Constructed languages are made for different reasons: making a 'world language', for fun, for use in fiction, etc. Major language families By number of languages Ethnologue 22 (2019) lists these language families as "major". Each has at least 1% of all languages on Earth: Niger–Congo (1,542 languages) (21.7%) Austronesian (1,257 languages) (17.7%) Trans–New Guinea (482 languages) (6.8%) Sino-Tibetan (455 languages) (6.4%) Indo-European (448 languages) (6.3%) Australian [dubious] (381 languages) (5.4%) Afro-Asiatic (377 languages) (5.3%) Nilo-Saharan [dubious] (206 languages) (2.9%) Oto-Manguean (178 languages) (2.5%) Austroasiatic (167 languages) (2.3%) Tai–Kadai (91 languages) (1.3%) Dravidian (86 languages) (1.2%) Tupian (76 languages) (1.1%) Glottolog 4.0 (2019) lists the following as the largest families, of 8494 languages: Atlantic–Congo (1,432 languages) Austronesian (1,275 languages) Indo-European (588 languages) Sino-Tibetan (494 languages) Afro-Asiatic (373 languages) Nuclear Trans–New Guinea (314 languages) Pama–Nyungan (248 languages) Oto-Manguean (180 languages) Austroasiatic (159 languages) Tai–Kadai (94 languages) Dravidian (81 languages) Arawakan (78 languages) Mande (75 languages) Tupian (71 languages) Language-related lists

Chess is a board game for two players. It is played in a square board, made of 64 smaller squares, with eight squares on each side. Each player starts with sixteen pieces: eight pawns, two knights, two bishops, two rooks, one queen and one king. The goal of the game is for each player to try and checkmate the king of the opponent. Checkmate is a threat ('check') to the opposing king which no move can stop. It ends the game. During the game the two opponents take turns to move one of their pieces to a different square of the board. One player ('White') has pieces of a light color; the other player ('Black') has pieces of a dark color. There are rules about how pieces move, and about taking the opponent's pieces off the board. The player with white pieces always makes the first move. Because of this, White has a small advantage, and wins more often than Black in tournament games. Chess is popular and is often played in competitions called chess tournaments. It is enjoyed in many countries, and is a national hobby in Russia. History Most historians agree that the game of chess was first played in northern India during the Gupta Empire in the 6th century AD. This early type of chess was known as Chaturanga, a Sanskrit word for the military. The Gupta chess pieces were divided like their military into the infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. In time, these pieces became the pawn, knight, bishop, and rook. The English words chess and check both come from the Persian word shāh meaning king. The earliest written evidence of chess is found in three romances (epic stories) written in Sassanid Persia around 600AD. The game was known as chatrang or shatranj. When Persia was taken over by Muslims (633–644) the game was spread to all parts of the Muslim world. Muslim traders carried the game to Russia and to Western Europe. By the year 1000 it had spread all over Europe. In the 13th century a Spanish manuscript called Libro de los Juegos describes the games of shatranj (chess), backgammon, and dice. The game changed greatly between about 1470 to 1495. The rules of the older game were changed in the West so that some of the pieces (queen, bishop) had more scope, development of the pieces was faster, and the game more exciting. The new game formed the basis of modern international chess. Historians of chess consider this as the most important change since the game was invented. Rules The rules of chess are governed by the World Chess Federation, which is known by the initials FIDE, meaning Fédération Internationale des Échecs. The rules are in the section Laws of Chess of the FIDE Handbook. FIDE also give rules and guidelines for chess tournaments. Setup Chess is played on a square board divided into eight rows of squares called ranks and eight columns called files, with a dark square in each player's lower left corner. This is altogether 64 squares. The colors of the squares are laid out in a checker (chequer) pattern in light and dark squares. To make speaking and writing about chess easy, each square has a name. Each rank has a number from 1 to 8, and each file a letter from a to h. This means that every square on the board has its own label, such as g1 or f5. The pieces are in white and black sets. The players are called White and Black, and at the start of a game each player has 16 pieces. The 16 pieces are one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights and eight pawns. Movement Definitions: vertical lines are files; horizontal lines are ranks; lines at 45° are diagonals. Each piece has its own way of moving around the board. The X marks the squares where the piece can move. The knight is the only piece that can jump over another piece. No piece may move to a square occupied by a piece of the same color. All pieces capture the same way they move, except pawns. The king (K for short) can move one square in any direction. The king may not move to any square where it is threatened by an opposing piece. However, the king can move to a square that is occupied by an opponent's piece and capture the piece, taking it off the board. The queen (Q) can move any distance in any direction on the ranks, files and diagonals. The rooks (R) move any distance on the ranks or files. The bishops (B) move diagonally on the board. Since a bishop can only move diagonally, it will always be on the same color square. The knights (Kt or N) move in an "L" shape. Each move must be either two squares along a rank and one square along a file, or two squares along a file and one square along a rank. It is the only piece that can jump over other pieces. Like the other pieces, it captures an opposing piece by landing on its square. The pawns can only move up the board. On its first move a pawn may move either one or two squares forward. A pawn captures one square diagonally, not as it moves: see white circles on its diagram. In some situations, pawns can capture opponent's pawns in a special way called en passant, which means in passing in French (see below). Capturing Most pieces capture as they move. If a piece lands on an opponent's piece, the opposing piece is taken off the board. There are three special cases: The king cannot be taken (see check and checkmate). No piece can be taken while castling (see below). Pawns take one square diagonally. Check and checkmate If a move is made which attacks the opposing king, that king is said to be 'in check'. The player whose king is checked must make a move to remove the check. The options are: moving the king, capturing the threatening piece, or moving another piece between the threatening piece and the king. If the player whose king is in danger cannot do any of these things, it is checkmate, and the player loses the game. Special moves Castling Once in every game, each king can make a special move, known as castling. When the king castles, it moves two squares to the left or right. When this happens, the rook is moved to stand on the opposite side of the King. Castling is only allowed if all of these rules are kept:p120 Neither piece doing the castling may have been moved during the game. There must be no pieces between the king and the rook. The king may not be currently in check, nor may the king pass through any square attacked by the opponent. As with any move, castling is not allowed if it would place the king in check. En passant En passant ('in passing' in French) is a special capture. It is only available when a pawn moves forward two squares past an opposing pawn on an adjacent file. The opposing pawn must be on the 5th rank from its own side. Then the opponent's pawn can capture the double-mover as if it had only moved one square forward. This option is open on the next move only. For example, if the black pawn has just moved up two squares from g7 to g5, then the white pawn on f5 can take it by en passant on g6. The en passant rule was developed when pawns were allowed to make their double move. The rule made it more difficult for players to avoid pawn exchanges and blockade the position. It kept the game more open. Promotion When a pawn moves to its eighth rank, it must be changed for a piece: a queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color (player's choice). Normally, the pawn is queened, but in some advantageous cases another piece is chosen, called 'under-promotion'. Ways a game may end Checkmates are rare in competitive chess. The most common ends are decisions made by one or both players. Wins Checkmate. When a king is in check, and cannot get out of it. Resignation. A player may resign at any time, usually because their position is hopeless. A losing player is able to resign by placing their king on its side on the chessboard. Out of time. If player's clock time is over (exceeding the time control). Strictly speaking, this is not part of the rules of the game, but part of the rules of tournament and match chess where chess clocks are used.Chapter 8 Draws Draw agreed. A game may end in a draw at any time if one player offers a draw and the other accepts. Insufficient Material Or Dead Position . A position where no series of legal moves could lead to a mate (example: K+B vs K). The game is drawn.p92 Stalemate. If a player cannot make a move, and the player's king is not in check, this is also a draw. This kind of draw is called a stalemate, and is rare. 50-move rule. A game will also end in a draw if no piece is captured and no pawn has moved after fifty moves. This is called the fifty-move rule, and happens late in the game. Threefold repetition. If the exactly same position is repeated three times during a game with the same player to move each time, the player next to move may claim a draw. The game is now drawn. This is called a draw by threefold repetition. Competition rules The FIDE rules for competitive chess include all the above rules, plus several others.p92 et seq Touch and move law If players wish to adjust a piece on the board, they must first say "J'adoube" (I adjust) or the equivalent. Apart from that, if a piece is touched it must be moved if possible. This is the 'touch and move' law.p425 If no legal move is possible with the touched piece, the player must make a legal move with another piece.Section 4p90 et seq When a player's hand leaves a piece after moving it then the move is over and may not be changed (if the move was legal). There are a few famous cases where players appeared to break this rule without being punished. The most famous example was by the then World Champion Garry Kasparov against Judit Polgar in a top-class tournament. Chess clocks Competitive games of chess must be played with special chess clocks which time a player only when it is his/her turn to move. The essence is that a player has to make a certain number of moves in a certain total time. After moving, the player presses a button on the clock. This stops the player's clock, and start's the opponent's clock. Usually the clocks are mechanical, but some are electronic.Article 6p92 et seq Electronic clocks can be set to various programs, and they can count moves made.chapter 8 Notation for recording moves The moves of a chess game are written down by using a special chess notation. This is compulsory for any competitive game.Article 8 & Appendix E Usually algebraic chess notation is used. In algebraic notation, each square has one and only one name (whether you are looking from White's side of the board or Black's). Here, moves are written in the format of: initial of piece moved – file where it moved – rank where it moved. For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to show the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter P showing a pawn is not used, so that e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4". If the piece makes a capture, "x" is written before the square in which the capturing piece lands on. Example: Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn left is used in place of a piece initial. For example: exd5 means "pawn captures on d5." If a pawn moves to its eighth rank, getting a promotion, the piece chosen is written after the move, for example e1Q or e1=Q. Castling is written by the special notations 0-0 for kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check normally has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be written as # or ++. At the end of the game, 1-0 means "White won", 0-1 means "Black won" and ½-½ is a draw. In print, figurines (like those in diagrams, but smaller) are used for the pieces rather than initials. This has the advantage of being language-free, whereas the initials of pieces are different in every language. Typefaces which include figurines can be purchased by chess authors. Also, basic notes can be added by using a system of well-known punctuation marks and other symbols. For example: ! means a good move, !! means a very good move, ? means a bad move, ?? a very bad move (sometimes called a blunder), !? a creative move that may be good, and ?! a doubtful move. The purpose of these methods is to make publications readable in a wider range of countries. For example, one kind of a simple "trap" known as the Scholar's mate, as in the diagram to the right, may be recorded: 1. e4 e5 2. Qh5?! Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6?? (3...Qe7 would prevent the mate, with 4...Nf6 next move) 4. Qxf7# 1-0 With figurines in place of the initials, this would be understood by players everywhere. Playing arena Players may not smoke in the playing area, but only in areas designated by the organiser. Mobile phones may not be used or even switched on. Players may not use any sources of advice, and may not analyse on any device. These and other matters are covered by the FIDE Laws on the conduct of the players.Article 12 Stages of a game Chess is an easy game to learn the moves, but a difficult game to master. Strategy is an important part of the game. First of all comes the openings, about which a great deal is now known. The best-known move, the King's Pawn opening, is the white player moving his king's pawn on e2 forward two spaces to e4. Black can reply to that move in various ways. Opening The first moves of a chess game are called the opening. A chess opening is a name given to a series of opening moves. Recognized patterns of opening moves are openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian defence. They are listed in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings. They range from gambits, where a pawn, say, is offered for fast development (e.g. the King's Gambit), to slower openings which lead to a maneuvering type of game (e.g. the Réti opening). In some opening lines, the sequence thought best for both sides has been worked out to 20–30 moves, but most players avoid such lines. Expert players study openings throughout their chess career, as opening theory keeps on developing. The basic aims of the opening phase are: Development: to place (develop) the pieces (mostly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have the most powerful impact on the game. Control of the center: the center is the most important part of the board. The player who controls the center can move his/her pieces around freely. His/her opponent, on the other hand, will find his/her pieces cramped, and difficult to move about. King safety: keeping the king safe from danger. Castling (see section above) can often do this. Pawn structure: pawns can be used to control the center. Players try to avoid making pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. Players think, and chess databases prove, that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a better chance. Black normally tries to equalise, or to get some counterplay. Middlegame The middlegame is the part of the game after most pieces have been developed. It is where most games are won and lost. Many games will end in resignation even before an endgame takes place. A middlegame position has a structure. That structure is determined by the opening. The simplest way to learn the middlegame is to select an opening and learn it well (see examples in English opening and French defence). These are some things to look for when looking at a middlegame position: Material: changes in the balance of material are critical. To lose a piece for nothing is enough to lose a game. If the players are evenly matched, then a rough material balance of pieces is normal. Material balance is often quite static: it does not change for many moves. Development: the opening may have left one player with a lead in development. That player has the initiative, and may attack before the opponent can get his pieces out. It is a temporary asset: if a lead in development is not used effectively, it will disappear. The centre: in the centre pieces have their greatest effect, and some (such as the knight) attack more squares in the centre than at the sides. The player who controls the centre will almost always have the advantage. Mobility: a position is mobile if the pieces can get where they need to. Almost all middle game positions have some limitations to mobility. Look for open files for the rooks, and open diagonals for the bishops. Outposts are what knights need, places where they can not easily be dislodged. King safety: where is the king? Ideally, a king should be castled, and kept behind a screen of pawns. Many other things may happen in practice. If a king is weak, it may be put under direct attack. Pawns: they provide the skeleton of a position. They move slowly, and may become blocked for many moves. Everything takes place round the pawns. Different openings produce different pawn structures. In this way openings influence the whole game (Philidor: "Pawns are the soul of chess"). Here is an example from the borderline between opening and middlegame. In the diagram to the left, White will operate mainly on the Q-side, and Black on the K-side. White, to play, may wish to cope with Black playing 10...Nf4. He can do this by playing 10.g3, or by playing 10.Re1 so that if 10...Nf4 11.Bf1 will preserve the bishop (in this position an important defensive piece). Or maybe White will plough ahead with 10.c5, the key move on the Q-side. ChessBase shows that the number of tournament games with these choices were: 10.Re1 2198 10.g3 419 10.c5 416 The data base also shows that the overall results were significantly better for 10.Re1. What the player does is note the features on the board, and formulate a plan which takes the features into account. Then the player works out a sequence of moves. Of course, in practice, the opponent is interfering with the plan at every step! Endgame The endgame (or end game or ending) is the part of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier parts of the game and endgame: Pawns: during the endgame, pawns become more special. In the endgame, one thing players try to do is to promote a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank. Kings: may become strong pieces in the endgame. The king may be brought towards the center of the board. There it can support its own pawns, attack the opponent's pawns, and oppose the opponent's king. Draws: in the endgame, a game may be drawn because there are too few pieces on the board to allow a player to win. This is one of the main reasons for games to be drawn. All endgame positions can be put into two camps. On the one hand are positions which may be won by force. On the other hand, are positions which are drawn, or which should be drawn. The ones that are drawn for certain may be legally drawn (mate could not happen) or drawn by chess experience (no sane defence could lose). All endgames in master chess revolve around the borderline between winning and drawing. Generally, once a 'textbook' drawn position is reached the players will agree a draw; otherwise they play on. Endgames can be studied according to the types of pieces that remain on board. For example, king and pawn endgames have only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other endings are studied according to the pieces on board other than kings, e.g. rook and pawn versus rook endgame. Basic checkmates Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces, enough to checkmate the opponent's king. They are usually learned at the beginner stage. Examples are mate with K+Q v K; K+R v K; K+2B v K; K+B&N v K (this one is quite difficult). Chess and computers There are two types of chess programs. One is to play against you; the other is to help you become a better player by learning more. The two types can be made to work together, though they have different functions. Chess engines Chess engines are computer systems that can play chess games against human opponents. Quite a number have been devised; they can play at master level, though their processes are quite different from a human being.p87 Every year brings new advances, which if listed here would soon be out of date. Best advice is to go to English Wikipedia, who keep an up-to-date chart of the leading software: . Chess databases Chess databases do not actually play. They give access to the recorded history of master chess. There are two components. First, there is the software, which lets one search and organise the database material. Then there is the actual database, typically one to four million games. In practice, databases are used for two purposes. First, for a player to train his/her ability at specific openings. Second, to look up specific opponents to see what they play, and prepare against them beforehand. The existence of chess databases is one of the reasons young players can achieve mastery at an early age. ChessBase ChessBase is the biggest database, and widely used by masters. Although it can be used online, most users download the software and data onto their computer. If that computer happens to be a laptop, then they might take the laptop to tournaments, to help prepare for games. Players may not use computers or any other aid during games, but much preparation goes on behind the scenes. ChessBase has to be purchased, and it is not cheap. New in Chess This is a Dutch magazine for advanced players, which runs an on-line database called NicBase as part of its services. NicBase is free, and has over a million games. Chessgames Chessgames.com runs an on-line database of games. It is partly free, but requires registration. Full access to all its facilities is by a fairly modest subscription. It has over half a million games on its database. On-line playing sites There are websites which a player can join (for a fee) and play on line. In this case, the subscriber will play against other subscribers, not a computer. All standards of players are amongst the members, and various events are on offer at different rates of play. The two leaders in this market are: Internet Chess Club Playchess Further reading Burgess, Graham and John Nunn 1998. The mammoth book of the world's greatest chess games. Carroll & Graf. Chandler, Murray 1998. How to beat your dad at chess. Gambit, London. (Improvers) Chandler, Murray 2004. Chess for children. Gambit, London. (Beginners) Euwe, Max and Kramer H. 1994. The middlegame, books I and II. Hays. and This goes further than improvers need, but might be used by chess teachers as a source of classic positions. King, Daniel 2000. Chess: from first moves to checkmate. Kingfisher, London. Illustrated, 64 pages. (Beginners, children). Polgar, Laszlo 2006. Chess: 5334 problems, combinations and games. Illustr. ed, Black Dog & Leventhal. Pritchard, David Brine 2008. The right way to play chess. 8th ed, Right Way. (Beginners > impovers) Silman, Jeremy 1997. How to reassess your chess. 3rd ed expanded, Siles. Ward, Chris 1994. Opening play (think like a chess master). Batsford, London. Wolff, Patrick 2005. The complete idiot’s guide to chess. 3rd ed, Alpha, New York. (Beginners > improvers) Znosko-Borovsky, Eugene 1980. The middle game in chess. Dover. (Improvers > intermediate) Endgames These are endgames for improvers, based on reviews by John Watson. Flear, Glenn 2000. Improve your endgame play. Everyman, London. Seirawan, Yasser 2003. Winning chess endings. Everyman, London. Silman, Jeremy 2007. Silman's complete endgame course: from beginner to master. Siles. Snape, Ian 2003. Chess endings made simple. Gambit, London. Related pages List of World Chess Champions List of chess terms Chess Olympiad History of chess Middlegame Shogi References

Gold is a soft, dense, yellow metal. It is a chemical element. Its chemical symbol is Au. Its atomic number is 79. As a precious metal, it has been used for many thousands of years by people all over the world, for jewelry, and as money. Gold is important because it is rare, but also easier to use than other rare metals. It is also used to repair and replace teeth and in electronic equipment such as computers. The color of this metal is also called gold. Mining methods for gold are similar to other metals. Gold is so valued that the discovery of a new place to mine has sometimes caused a gold rush. The deepest workplaces for miners in the world are in South African gold mines. Often, gold is found as a native metal. This means it is not part of an ore, and does not need smelting. It may be in large, pure nuggets but more often must be separated from other minerals and soil. Most of the gold on Earth is deep inside the Earth's core because it is dense. Nearly all discovered gold was deposited on the surface by meteorites. Properties In chemistry, gold is chemical element 79, a transition metal in Group 11. It has an atomic weight of 199.966 a.m.u. Its symbol is Au, from the Latin word for gold, aurum. It is a "noble metal" meaning it has low chemical reactivity. Gold is very soft. It is malleable, meaning a goldsmith can hammer it into thin metal sheets. It is also ductile, which means it can be pulled into wire. When it is used in money or in jewelry, it is often alloyed with silver or some other metal to make it harder. Most metals are gray in color. Gold is yellow because of the way its electrons behave. The only other metal in common use that has a non-gray color is copper. Caesium also has a gold-like color, but it is not commonly used as a metal because it reacts with water. Gold is a fairly good electrical conductor, better than aluminium, but not as good as copper or silver. Copper and brass electrical connectors, especially those used with computer and audio/video equipment, are often plated with gold for corrosion resistance. Language and culture Gold can mean that something or someone is very good or has done very well. A gold medal is often the given to the first-place winner in a race or other sports. Something that is in some way good may be given gold status. Safety Metallic gold is non-toxic, which is unusual for a heavy metal. Soluble gold compounds, however, are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Gold is non-flammable, even in a pure oxygen environment or when finely powdered. It does not react with most household or laboratory chemicals. Gold is commonly processed with cyanide, which is highly toxic. Most of the cyanide is destroyed in the production process, so it is not present in the final product, but it can be a hazard to workers in a gold processing plant. Since gold conducts electricity, gold jewelry should never be worn when working with electricity. References Other websites Atomic Properties Gold Institute Gold -Citizendium Basic English 850 words Gold

A century is a way to describe a length of time. One century is one hundred years. The ancient Romans used the word centuria to describe a group of about one hundred soldiers, organized into a single unit. The Roman numeral for 100 is "C". The word for 100 in Latin is "centum". A centenary is a celebration of something that happened 100 years ago. A bicentenary celebrates 200 years, a tercentenary 300 years. A centenarian is someone who is 100 years old or more. Centennial means something that happens every 100 years, or that lasts 100 years. Units of time

The kilogram is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). It is in widely used in science, engineering, and commerce worldwide. The kilogram is exactly the mass of one litre of water. As of May 20, 2019, the definition of the kilogram is based on the Planck constant as . There are attempts to define the kilogram in other ways. One example specifies a number of atoms of a certain substance (at a certain temperature). One kilogram is a little more than 2.2 pounds. One tonne is one thousand kilograms. One litre of water weighs almost exactly one kilogram, at , at sea level. This was the basis of the definition of the gram in 1795. History In 1879, the piece of metal was made. It was officially chosen to be the kilogram in 1889. It was made of 90% platinum and 10% iridium. Those metals were chosen because they do not rust or corrode like most metals. It is stored in a vault at the BIPM in Sèvres, France. From 1795 to 1799, the unit of mass was not called "kilogram" but was called "grave". The original kilogram is kept inside bell jars. Over time, dust can collect on it. Before it is measured, it is cleaned to get the original size. Mass and weight The kilogram is a unit of mass. In normal language, measuring mass defines how heavy is something. This is not scientifically correct. Mass is an inertial property. It measures the tendency of an object to stay at a given speed when no force acts on it. Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion contain an important formula: F = ma. F is force. m is mass. a is acceleration. An object with a mass (m) of one kilogram will accelerate (a) at one meter per second per second when acted upon by a force (F) of one newton. This about one-tenth the acceleration due to earth’s gravity. The weight of matter depends on the strength of gravity. The mass of matter does not. The mass of an object is the same everywhere. Matter has invariant mass assuming it is not traveling at a relativistic speed with respect to an observer. According to Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the relativistic mass (apparent mass with respect to an observer) of an object or particle with rest mass m0 increases with its speed as M=γm0 (where γ is the Lorentz factor). This effect is vanishingly small at everyday speeds, which are by orders of magnitude less than the speed of light, but becomes noticeable at very high speeds. For example, traveling at just 10% the speed of light with respect to an observer—exceedingly fast compared to everyday speeds (about )—increases an object’s relativistic mass just over 0.5%. As regards the kilogram, relativity’s effect upon the constancy of matter’s mass is simply an interesting scientific phenomenon that has zero effect on the definition of the kilogram and its practical realizations.</ref> Objects are "weightless" for astronauts in microgravity. However, the objects still have their mass and inertia. Astronaut must use ten times as much force to accelerate a ten-kilogram object at the same rate as a one-kilogram object. A common swing, as shown in the picture, can show the relationship of force, mass and acceleration. Someone could push an adult on the swing. The adult would accelerate slowly. They would only swing a short distance forward before the swing would change direction. If a child is sitting on the swing, then the child would swing forward faster and further. Related pages General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Gram Grave (original name of the kilogram, its history) Inertia International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) International System of Units (SI) Litre Mass Mass versus weight Metric system Metric ton National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Newton SI base units Standard gravity Weight Notes References SI units Units of mass

The second (symbol: s), is a unit of time. There are 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day. This tradition dates back to the Babylonian. In science, a second is the time it takes for a caesium atom to vibrate 9,192,631,770 (around 9 billion) times. Scientists measure the second this way because the length of a day changes all the time. For example, when the dinosaurs lived, a day was about an hour shorter. Vibrations of atoms on the other hand always take the same time. This atomic second is also called the SI second. Metric prefixes are frequently combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second, e.g., the millisecond (one thousandth of a second) and nanosecond (one billionth of a second). Though SI prefixes may also be used to form multiples of the second (such as “kilosecond”, or one thousand seconds), such units are rarely used in practice. More commonly encountered, non-SI units of time such as the minute, hour, and day increase by multiples of 60 and 24 (rather than by powers of ten as in the SI system). One heartbeat of an adult at rest, will last about one second. International second Under the International System of Units, the second is currently defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of (absolute zero). The ground state is defined at zero magnetic field. The second thus defined is equivalent to the ephemeris second. The international standard symbol for a second is s (see ISO 31-1) Equivalence to other units of time 1 international second is equal to: 1/60 minute (1 minute is equal to 60 seconds) 1/3,600 hour (1 hour is equal to 3,600 seconds) 1/86,400 day (1 day, in the sense of non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units, is equal to 86,400 seconds) There are 31,536,000 seconds in a common year, 31,622,400 seconds in a leap year, and 31,557,600 seconds in a Julian year Historical origin Originally, the second was known as a "second minute", meaning the second minute (i.e. small) division of an hour. The first division was known as a "prime minute" and is equivalent to the minute we know today. Third and fourth minutes were sometimes used in calculations. The factor of 60 comes from the Babylonians who used a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system. However, the Babylonians did not subdivide their time units sexagesimally (except for the day). The hour had been defined by the ancient Egyptians as either 1/12 of daytime or 1/12 of nighttime, hence both varied with the seasons. Greek astronomers, for example Hipparchus and Ptolemy, defined the hour as 1/24 of a mean solar day. Sexagesimally subdividing this mean solar hour made the second 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. SI multiples SI prefixes are commonly used for times shorter than one second, but rarely for multiples of a second. Instead, certain non-SI units are permitted for use in SI: minutes, hours, days, and in astronomy Julian days. Greek time periods, for example the mean synodic month, were usually specified quite precisely because they were calculated from carefully selected eclipses separated by hundreds of years—individual mean synodic months and similar time periods cannot be measured. Nevertheless, with the development of pendulum clocks keeping mean time (as opposed to the apparent time displayed by sundials), the second became measurable. The seconds pendulum was proposed as a unit of length as early as 1660 by the Royal Society of London. The duration of a beat or half period (one swing, not back and forth) of a pendulum one metre in length on the Earth's surface is approximately one second. In 1956 the second was defined in terms of the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun for a particular epoch, because by then it had become recognized that the Earth's rotation on its own axis was not sufficiently uniform as a standard of time. The Earth's motion was described in Newcomb's Tables of the Sun, which provides a formula for the motion of the Sun at the epoch 1900 based on astronomical observations made between 1750 and 1892. The second thus defined is the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time. This definition was ratified by the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. The tropical year in the definition was not measured, but calculated from a formula describing a tropical year which decreased linearly over time, hence the curious reference to a specific instantaneous tropical year. Because this second was the independent variable of time used in ephemerides of the Sun and Moon during most of the twentieth century (Newcomb's Tables of the Sun were used from 1900 through 1983, and Brown's Tables of the Moon were used from 1920 through 1983), it was called the ephemeris second. When atomic clocks were made, they became the basis of the definition of the second, rather than the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Following several years of work, Louis Essen from the National Physical Laboratory (Teddington, England) and William Markowitz from the United States Naval Observatory (USNO) determined the relationship between the hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium atom and the ephemeris second. Using a common-view measurement method based on the received signals from radio station WWV, they determined the orbital motion of the Moon about the Earth, from which the apparent motion of the Sun could be inferred, in terms of time as measured by an atomic clock. As a result, in 1967 the Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the second of atomic time in the International System of Units (SI) as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. The ground state is defined at zero magnetic field. The second thus defined is equivalent to the ephemeris second. The definition of the second was later refined at the 1997 meeting of the BIPM to include the statement This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K. The revised definition would seem to imply that the ideal atomic clock would contain a single caesium atom at rest emitting a single frequency. In practice, however, the definition means that high-precision realizations of the second should compensate for the effects of the ambient temperature (black-body radiation) within which atomic clocks operate and extrapolate accordingly to the value of the second as defined above. The second in role-playing games Sometimes in role-playing games a second is used to refer to a small period of time or a single turn of combat. It is used as a standard moment of time, and does not necessarily refer to a real second, and could be shorter or longer depending on the scenario. Trivia Until modern times, degrees and hours were divided successively by 60 in pars minuta prima, pars minuta secunda, pars minuta tertia and so on. This evolved to the modern minute and second, but for smaller divisions we follow now the decimal division. In some languages, dictionaries still keep the word for third for 1/60 of a second, for example Polish (tercja) and Arabic (ثالثة). Related pages Leap second Orders of magnitude (time) UTC International System of Units Hertz Becquerel References Other websites Official BIPM definition of the second Seconds and leap seconds by the USNO The leap second: its history and possible future Units of time Basic English 850 words SI units

Orange is a color. It is the combination of red and yellow. Orange is the color of an orange fruit, which is where the name of the color comes from. Before the orange fruit was introduced to England in the 1500s, this color was called yellow-red. The first recorded use of orange as a color name in English was in 1512, in the court of King Henry VIII. Meaning of orange To the eye, orange is a very "hot" color, so it gives the sensation of fire. But orange is not as heated a colour as red. As a citrus color, orange is associated with healthy food and is appetising. Orange is the color of Autumn and harvest. Though rare in heraldry, orange is symbolic of strength and endurance. Orange is very easy to see, so people can use it to catch attention and highlight the most important elements of a design. Orange is very effective for promoting food products and toys. On road signs, the color orange means there is construction work ahead. It is used for these signs because it can easily be seen even at night. Dark orange can mean lying or not trusting somebody. Red-orange means desire, sexual passion, pleasure, power, , and thirst for action. Tones of orange color comparison chart Seashell (web color) (Hex: #FFF5EE) (RGB: 255, 245, 238) Old Lace (web color) (Hex: #FDF5E6) (RGB: 253, 245, 230) Antique White (web color) (Hex: #FAEBD7) (RGB: 250, 235, 215) Papaya Whip (web color) (Hex: #FFEFD5) (RGB: 255, 239, 213) Blanched Almond (web color) (Hex: #FFEBCD) (RGB: 255, 235, 205) Champagne (Hex: #F7E7CE) (RGB: 247, 231, 206) Banana Mania (Crayola) (Hex: #FBE7B2) (RGB: 251, 231, 128) Moccasin (web color) (Hex: #FFE4B5) (RGB: 255, 228, 182) Bisque (web color) (Hex: #FFE4C4) (RGB: 255, 228, 196) Navajo White (web color) (Hex: #FFDEAD) (RGB: 255, 222, 173) Peach Puff (web color) (Hex: #FFDAB9) (RGB: 255, 218, 185) Peach (Hex: #FFE5B4) (RGB: 255, 229, 180) Deep Peach (Crayola Peach) (Hex: #FFCBA4) (RGB: 255, 203, 164) Peach-Orange (Pale Salmon) (Hex: #FFCC99) (RGB: 255, 204, 153) Light Orange (Skin) (Crayola) (Hex: #FED8B1) (RGB: 254, 216, 177) Bright Apricot (Crayola Apricot) (Hex: #FDD5B1) (RGB: 253, 213, 177) Apricot (Hex: #FBCEB1) (RGB: 251, 206, 177) Melon (Crayola) (Hex: #FEBAAD) (RGB: 254, 186, 173) Macaroni and Cheese (Crayola) (Hex: #FFDB88) (RGB: 255, 189, 136) Sandy Brown (web color) (Hex: #F4A460) (RGB: 244, 164, 96) Light Salmon (web color) (Hex: #FFA07A) (RGB: 255, 160, 122) Dark Salmon (web color) (Hex: #E9967A) (RGB: 233, 150, 122) Medium Salmon (Hex: #FF8C69) (RGB: 255, 140, 105) Coral (web color) (Hex: #FF7F50) (RGB: 255, 127, 80) Salmon (web color) (Hex: #FA8072) (RGB: 250, 128, 114) Coral Pink (Hex: #F88379) (RGB: 248, 131, 121) Light Coral (web color) (Hex: #F08080) (RGB: 240, 128, 128) Bittersweet (Crayola) (Hex: #FE6F5E) (RGB: 254, 111, 94) Terra Cotta (Hex: #E2725B) (RGB: 226, 114, 91) Tea Rose (orange) (Hex: #F88379) (RGB: 248, 131, 121) Vivid Tangerine (Crayola) (Tangerine Sherbet) (Hex: #FF9980) (RGB: 255, 153, 102) Atomic Tangerine (Crayola) (Hex: #FF9966) (RGB: 255, 153, 102) Orange Peel (Hex: #FFA000) (RGB: 255, 160, 0) Orange (web color) (Hex: #FFA500) (RGB: 255, 165, 0) Deep Saffron (Hex: #FF9933) (RGB: 255, 153, 51) Gamboge (Hex: #EF9B0F) (RGB: 228, 155, 18) Carrot Orange (Hex: #ED9121) (RGB: 237, 145, 33) Tangerine (Hex: #F28500) (RGB: 243, 132, 0) Bright Orange (web color "Dark Orange") (Hex: #FF8C00) (RGB: 255, 140, 0) Corporate Orange (Hex: #FF8100) (RGB: 255, 129, 0) Orange (Color Wheel Orange) (Hex: #FF7F00) (RGB: 255, 127, 0) Automotive Amber (SAE/ECE Amber) (Hex: #FF7E00) (RGB: 255, 126, 0) Medium Orange (Hex: #FF7802) (RGB: 255, 120, 2) Pumpkin (Hex: #FF7518) (RGB: 152, 118, 54) Carrot (Hex: #FF7700) (RGB: 255, 119, 0) Rich Orange (Crayola Orange) (Hex: #FF681F) (RGB: 255, 104, 31) Safety Orange (Blaze Orange) (Hex: #FF6600) (RGB: 255, 102, 0) Persimmon (Hex: #EC5800) (RGB: 236, 88, 0) Cadmium Orange (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #FF6103) (RGB: 255, 97, 3) Tangelo (Hex: #F94D00) (RGB: 249, 77, 0) International Orange (Hex: #FF4F00) (RGB: 255, 79, 0) Vermisse (Hex: #F34234) (RGB: 227, 66, 52) Red-Orange (Crayola) (Hex: #FF3F34) (RGB: 255, 63, 52) Electric Vermilion (Hex: #FF3F00) (RGB: 255, 63, 0) Orange-Red (web color) (Hex: #FF4500) (RGB: 255, 69, 0) Portland Orange (Hex: #FF5A36) (RGB: 255, 90, 54) Ultra Orange (Crayola) (Outrageous Orange) (Hex: #FF6037) (RGB: 255, 96, 55) Tomato (web color) (Hex: #FF6347) (RGB: 255, 99, 71) Deep Carrot Orange (Hex: #E9692C) (RGB: 255, 150, 0) Neon Carrot (Crayola) (Hex: #FFA343) (RGB: 255, 163, 67) Ochre (Hex: #CC7722) (RGB: 204, 119, 34) Bronze (Hex: #CD7F32) (RGB: 205, 127, 50) Copper (Hex: #B87333) (RGB: 184, 115, 51) Peru (web color) (Hex: #CD5700) (RGB: 205, 133, 63) Antique Brass (Crayola) (Hex: #C88A65) (RGB: 200, 138, 101) Café au Lait (Coffee and Milk) (Latte) (Hex: #A67B5B) (RGB: 166, 123, 91) Pale Brown (Hex: #987654) (RGB: 152, 118, 54) Cocoa Bean (web color Chocolate) (Hex: #D2691E) (RGB: 210, 105, 30) Tenne (Tawny) (Hex: #CD5700) (RGB: 205, 87, 0) Burnt Orange (Hex: #CC5500) (RGB: 204, 85, 0) Mahogany (Hex: #C04000) (RGB: 192, 64, 0) Dark Terra Cotta (Hex: #CC4E3C) (RGB: 204, 78, 92) Dark Coral (Hex: #CD5B45) (RGB: 205, 91, 69) Medium Brown (Crayola Brown) (Hex: #AF593E) (RGB: 175, 89, 67) Sienna (web color) (Hex: #A05220) (RGB: 160, 82, 45) Brown (Hex: #964B00) (RGB: 150, 75, 0) Saddle Brown (web color) (Hex: #8B4513) (RGB: 139, 69, 13) Rust (Hex: #B7410E) (RGB: 183, 65, 14) Russet (Hex: #804618) (RGB: 128, 70, 27) Red-Brown (web color Brown) (Hex: #A52A2A) (RGB: 165, 42, 42) Cognac brown (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #9F381D) (RGB: 159, 56, 29) Burnt Umber (Hex: #8A3324) (RGB: 138, 51, 36) Pullman Brown (UPS Brown) (Hex: #644117) (RGB: 100, 65, 23) Coffee (Coffee Bean [Unroasted]) (Hex: #6F4E37) (RGB: 111, 78, 55) Dark Brown (Hex: #654321) (RGB: 101, 67, 33) Roast Coffee (Coffee Bean [Roasted]) (Deep Coffee) (Hex: #704241) (RGB: 112, 66, 65) Medium Taupe (Hex: #674C47) (RGB 76, 21,71) Cafe Noir (Black Coffee) (Hex: #4B3621) (RGB: 75, 54, 33) Taupe (Hex: #483C32) (RGB: 72, 60, 50) <li style = "background-color: #9ab973;"> Olivine (Hex: #9AB973) (RGB: 154, 185, 115) Related pages List of colors Amber Coral Orange-red Peach (color) Salmon Notes

The Basque Country (Basque: Euskal Herria) is a region in Southwestern Europe that is within the borders of France and Spain. Description It is the home of the Basque people. It is at the western end of the Pyrenees on the Bay of Biscay. Its boundaries are complicated, as it consists of seven districts: four within Spain and three within France. History Origins No one knows when the Basques came to Europe. Many say that they have been in Europe since the Neolithic period at the end of the Stone Age, but others say that they were here even earlier. The first written information about the Basque Country is from the Roman times, when the Basque people already spoke their own language. During the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Basque Country was isolated from the invading Goths. Middle Ages During the Muslim invasion of Southern Europe, the Basque Country split in two: the Castilian and the Navarrese lands. A war with France later split the Navarrese zone in two. After the Reconquista, the Castilian Basque lands and Navarre became part of the new country: Spain. Since then, Basque people from the Spanish area of the Basque Country have had their own government and have fought to gain the northern part of the Basque Country from France. Now Today, three of the Basque districts in Spain (Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa) form the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. The political unit is one of 17 autonomous communities in Spain. The fourth Basque district in Spain (Navarra) is its own separate autonomous community of Spain. The three districts in the North (French) Basque Country are Lapurdi (Labourd), Nafarroa Beherea (Basse-Navarre) and Zuberoa/Xiberoa (Soule). Population The entire region has a surface area of 20,664 km2 (7978 sq mi). The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country has 7,234 km2 (2793 sq mi), and its population is about 2,000,000 - about 5% of the total population of Spain. Basque and Spanish are spoken, and its largest city is Bilbao although the capital is Vitoria-Gasteiz. Famous people Miguel de Unamuno Maurice Ravel (through his mother) Che Guevara (through his mother) St. Ignatius Loyola Louis Daguerre Pío Baroja Largest cities Bilbao Donostia Gazteiz Iruña Biarritz Baiona Maule Donibane Garazi Other websites The official website of the Basque Autonomous Community Geography of France Geography of Spain