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is the ligo experiment using the same design/layout with michaelson's and morley's experiment? | **from what i have understood** in both the ligo and the michaelson and morley experiments a light beam is splitted and let run across some km. then it is combined through the same prism and the energy change is measured through symbolometry. this energy change is caused because one of the two beams runs quickier. the only difference i can see is the size (ligo is some km long amd m & m built it within an library) and most importantly that in ligo one of the beams runs faster because of the space-time distortion (caused by the gravitational waves) while in the michaelson's and morley's experiment the speed change is caused by the fact that one of the beams is running through the aether amd being affected by the earth's movement. *i am not trying by any means to demote the importance of this discovery or the ligo team. what they found is astonishing. i am just observing some similarities and asking for more info.* thanks! | there are a few differences that make the ligo detectors a [*modified* michelson interferometer](_url_0_). as /u/iorgfeflkd mentioned, the most notable difference are the addition of two extra mirrors (called the input test masses or itms) in the interferometer's arms. thus, each arm forms a fabry perot (or resonant optical) cavity. this addition effectively causes the photons to bounce back and forth in the 4km long arms to 'measure' that distance multiple times before exiting the cavity. the photons bounce back and forth something like 300 times before exiting the interferometer arms. when the two cavities in the arms are "locked" at their resonant condition, the cavity acts like one giant highly reflective mirror. the return signal from this 'composite mirror' carries information about the distance the light has traveled while in the cavity. the ligo detectors also employ a power recycling mirror placed between the input laser and the interferometer. when the two cavities in the arms are "locked" at their resonant condition, the system behaves as a michelson interferometer where part of the interference pattern (and part of the power) is transmitted toward the detector and part of the power is transmitted back toward the laser. the power going back into the laser can cause destabilization of the laser (though this can be taken care of easily). the bigger issue is that light in this path is laser power that can be *recycled* back into the interferometer; hence the name 'power recycling mirror'. more power in the interferometer arms means better photon statistics and better signal to noise ratios. you can think of the power recycling mirror as forming an optical cavity with the interferometer; this cavity is then tuned so that most of the light is reflected back into the interferometer. an additional mirror called the signal recycling mirror is placed on the detector side of of the interferometer's output. this mirror forms an optical cavity with the interferometer as well. the mirror position can be tuned thus enhancing the output signal. these are the *major* differences in the optical design for ligo as compared to a standard michelson. there are, of course, many other additional add-ons to ligo like mode cleaners, which clean the shape of the laser beam, seismic isolation which keeps the mirrors as stationary as possible and so on.... [here](_url_1_) is a paper describing the aligo core optics design. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://inspirehep.net/record/812397/files/images_aligo2.png",
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1411/1411.4547.pdf"
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what are these weird circles and bumps on these rocks? | recently took a trip to the valley of fire in the nevada desert, and [found these really interesting rocks.](_url_0_) what are the circles and bumps on the rocks? they look like they could be fossils, but of what? trees? carrots? can anybody tell me what these are? | those look like concretions in sandstone. i cannot conclusively identify what their specific chemistry is just from eyeballing the pix (which are quite good btw), but i'll provide one common example of how such features may develop. there are others. picture a river depositing layers of sand, and that porous sand is getting buried and compressed by further accumulations above. that material is porous, and water may percolate through it. that water may react with the material it is traversing. now let’s suppose there are local isolated specks of organic matter dispersed through the sand; could be bits of bark, coal, twigs, whatever. that carbon-based stuff may be eaten by bacteria, which will release co2. this raises the partial pressure of co2 in the solution, and may induce the precipitation of carbonates in the pore space immediately surrounding the bug chow. once the process is complete, you wind up with these spherical patches of sandstone cemented by carbonates surrounding the place where thee organic matter (now eaten) used to be. the rest of the surrounding sandstone may be cemented by a different process, or may have remained more porous and be less thoroughly cemented. if burial continues to proceed, and *serious* compaction occurs, those concretions may at times get deformed and develop an asymmetry as they shorten vertically and elongate horizontally … this does not appear to be that case in your rocks. when the rock is broken up and exposed to weathering, as is the case in your pix, the difference in cementation in the concretions translates in differences in weathering patterns, acconding to the mechanical and chemical resistance of each rock patch, hence the pits and bumps. for more info, see: [coleman, m. l. (1993). microbial processes: controls on the shape and composition of carbonate concretions. marine geology, 113(1-2), 127-140.](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/z2qlj"
] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002532279390154N",
"http://archives.datapages.com/data/bulletns/2004/02feb/0175/IMAGES/04_0175.PDF",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4485175/",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=iron+nodule+sandstone+valley+of+fire,+NV&espv=2&biw=1396&bih=681&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj8OqP3qbSAhVFKiYKHaH2CdcQ_AUIBigB#tbm=isch&q=liesegang&*",
"https://www.mindat.org/min-3647.html",
"https://www.mindat.org/min-1719.html",
"https://www.mindat.org/min-1856.html",
"https://www.mindat.org/min-3314.html"
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what are the smallest parallax angles that can be measured and why? | the most sensitive out there right now to measure parallax angles is the esa's gaia spacecraft. it can measure down to 7 microarcseconds -- this is a very small number, equivalent to the diameter of a human hair in chicago as measured in nyc. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
am i misunderstanding food calculations, or is taco bell engaging in some trickery here? | _url_0_ xxl steak nachos 503 grams (1.09lbs) and 1160 calories with 550 calories from fat. 1160-550 = 610 calories not from fat. 610/4(calories per gram) = 152.5 grams. 550/9(calories per gram fat) = 61.1. 61.1 grams + 152.5 grams = 213 grams (or .4709 lbs). what's going on? over half a pound of magic calorie free food? | water doesn't provide calories. meat, veggies, and sauces are mostly water by weight. so there's your answer. fiber doesn't provide (many) calories either, but at 16 g per serving it's a minor component of the "magic" remainder here. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.tacobell.com/nutrition/information"
] | [] | [
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what is the current state of the bicep 2 results? are they still believed to be strong enough to support inflation theory? | one of the original articles: _url_0_ an article around the time of "doubt: _url_1_ | the thing about large experiments like this is that things usually move pretty slow. no major flaws have been found in the bicep 2 team's data or their analysis of their data. there are still, as there have always been, some concerns about the foreground model they used. general consensus is that while they did the best anyone could have done with the data available, there just isn't very good foreground data available. there is some question about whether the bicep team was conservative enough in estimating the uncertainty associated with the limited foreground data available, but on the whole, the community believes the result as much as any single experiment's single-frequency result could be believed. but the other thing about science is that we don't really "call it" until you have a confirming result from another experiment. so right now it's a waiting game. the planck satellite will be releasing much better foreground data in october, so the community is waiting with bated breath for that. and there are many other major cmb polarization experiments who are going after confirming the bicep result (including the bicep team itself, which in the future will look in other frequency bands and will have significantly more detectors). **tldr:** yeah, most of us in the community pretty much buy it. but we're really really excited for the planck data being released in october. and we're also looking forward to another experiment corroborating the bicep result. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/2014-05",
"http://news.sciencemag.org/physics/2014/05/blockbuster-big-bang-result-may-fizzle-rumor-suggests"
] | [] | [
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(heart physiology) conduction system fibers moving during heart contraction? your response is highly appreciated! | it is known that conduction system cells of heart are **mobile**, so that they are **moving** during contraction of heart. (as we know conduction system cells consist of:sa node, av node, av bundle, bundle branch, purkinje fibers) i was watching [this video](_url_0_), which shows purkinje fibers(and all other conduction system cells) movement during heart contraction.(purkinje fibers and other conduction system cells are shown with yellow color. movement of those is shown in video from 0:00 to 0:14). **so my question would be:** surely during heart contraction, when purkinje fibers(and other conduction system cells) are moving, they do not penetrate cardiomyocyte cell membrane right? in fact it would be even dangerous, if purkinje fibers(and other conduction system cells) would penetrate cardiomyocyte membrane during movement, as this would destabilize cardiomyocte membrane and it would result in cardiomyocyte cell death. **q:**would you agree that conduction system cells(when they move during heart contraction), do not penetrate cardiomyocte cell membrane? your response is highly appreciated. best regards, shdyyy | just to clear up some misinformation here. purkinje fibers are not nerves and are not "wiring". they are a type of muscle cell, in fact a special type cardiomyocyte cell that conducts an electrical action potential at a faster rate then other cardiomyocytes thus propagating the contraction of all the other cardiomyocytes in such a way that the heart beats in a synchronized manner that maximizes efficiency. if you can imagine if the heart cardiomyocytes started contracting at a constant rate from the sa or na nodes the muscle pump action would be forcing the blood sideways rather than a unified squeeze from the apex (bottom) of the heart upwards in a vector to the aortic/pulmonary valves. kind of like the action when you squeeze a toothpaste tube. its much more effective if you squeeze from the bottom up. when this goes wrong in the atrium it can lead to a disease called atrial fibrillation which cause the blood to be so turbulent in the atrium it can cause clots which lead to strokes! when it happens in the ventricles it can cause heart blocks which lead to heart failure or even worse ventricular fibrillation which is incompatible with life as your heart fails to effectively pumping blood/maintain a blood pressure! edit: typo. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lK32IfBw4hI"
] | [] | [
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could someone explain the light curve of delta cephei? | i recently got interested in variable stars/cepheids and have been trying to read up on delta cephei. i thought i had understood why the the star pulsated after watching the khan academy video on the subject. however, i later learned that delta cephei is not one star, but a binary star system, which makes me really confused about how delta cephei pulsates. if it only are two stars orbiting each other, shouldn't the light curve be a sinewave? my question: why does the light curve of delta cephei look like it does? | while delta cephei *is* a binary star system, it is not an *eclipsing* binary. it's variability is indeed due to pulsation from temperature/pressure instability. **edit** for an eclipsing binary to happen, there has to be an alignment among the two stars and the observer. when you really think about it, it's amazing that we see eclipsing binaries at all! | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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help explain miscellaneous concepts like particle physics to a high school junior. | background (warning: may contain blog material)- alright, as the title entails, i’m a 17 year old who’s beating his head against a wall trying to understand atomic, sub atomic theory, whichever my queries fall under, i do not know. ever since i read “how things work” in 2nd grade i’ve attempted to decipher the inner mechanism of, well, everything. i like to know how things work, reduce complex objects down to their most basic level. this is the first time i’ve hit a wall in my continuing effort to expand my understanding in this regard. it’s driving me crazy, and i must have an answer! i’ve done research on my own time, but 90% of the information i garner is much to technical for me to decipher. wikipedia, my steadfast ally for translating complex and abstract concepts into laymen’s terms has failed me, so i turn to you reddit, humbly seeking your wisdom. general disclaimer: i’m going to attempt to explain my current knowledge on the subject in relation to the question. this is by no means guaranteed to be correct - it’s my interpretation of the research i’ve done, and very well could be false. please correct me where you see fit. in addition, please note that this is a *why* thread, not *how*. i’m religious myself, but it’s not relevant to this conversation. i am also not asking this out of arrogance - i don’t seek to challenge the theories of accomplished scientists, i just want comprehension. * question 1: when i look at existence in general, it appears that duality plays a large role in existence. it makes sense when you consider the relative order of matter. electrons and protons attract one another - this is due to their opposing forces. without these forces, the particles would have no inclination to bond, and all matter would be chaotically strewn across the universe post-big bang. if this assumption is correct, i would go on further to assume that matter then must be divided into infinitely smaller particles of opposing forces. this in turn would invalidate any theory of a higgs boson, the smallest unit of matter - a ‘progenitor’ particle, if you will. i would think this because they very existence of a singular unit of matter is impossible given this set of physics. if we assume there is a progenitor form of matter, particle x, then at the beginning of existence said particle x would have no inclination to bond with one another, thus there would be no gluons, quarks, neutrons, atoms, molecules, etc. to simplify, if the universe is in fact (relatively) structured due to the duality of particles it would be physically impossible for a singular particle x to exist. how then, are scientists explaining the existence of this particle, higgs boson? again, i’m not challenging accomplished scientists - i’m sure they have an explanation, (i’ve probably even read it!) i just have no idea what it is. * question 2: our general perception of the passage of time is based on light, correct? this is why traveling faster than the speed of light would theoretically cause one to travel through time. i understand time is relative, but i don’t understand how you can ‘travel through it’. i.e, if twin 1 (t1) were to take off at faster than the speed of light while twin 2 (t2) remained on earth, why would they age at different rates? i’m assuming traveling faster than light won’t alter the biological clock of t1, so even if they’re perception of time is different, it would be impossible for t2 to become ‘older’ than t1. in addition, assume there hypothetical planet y. planet y exists in a solar system without a star, there is absolutely no light. nonetheless, organisms manifest and begin to evolve. fast forward a billion years or so: the inhabitants of planet y have evolved to sentience. yet because they exist in an aphotic environment, all of their perception is based on smell, electrical pulse, anything - just not light-based sight. how then would traveling faster than the speed of light cause them to travel through time? they would detect no change at all in that regard, since they don’t receive light-based information. so while time is indeed relative, it should be impossible to transcend it - there’s still a ceiling, an ultimate boundary, yes? * question 3: why do organisms age? i don’t understand this one at all, the reasoning behind this eludes me. based on the conservation of matter, i see no reason for a biologic organism to decay if sustained on the proper nutrients. why do we grow old, why do our cells and organ systems start failing? as i understand cellular biology, if an organism were to be properly supplied with the chemicals and nutrients for cellular division, why does the process eventually break down? mitosis becomes less effective as we grow older. new cells aren’t as effective as old cells, the heart beats slower and more irregularly, the liver cleanses toxins less effectively, the immune system becomes less and less potent at fighting of foreign bacteria and viruses. i have absolutely no clue as to why this happens. to those who respond: thank you for taking the time to read and answer my post. i sincerely appreciate any effort you’ve made to help my understanding of the quires i presented. know that the time it took you to formulate a response was not wasted, your words will be immeasurably valuable to me. again, thank you. | okay, there is a lot of stuff here...but i'll do my best to sort through some of it by going piece-wise... **q1** no, it is due to their opposing charge (perhaps this is what you are trying to get at...). they actually don't have an opposing force between them, but they do have an attractive force between them. i'm not sure how you can make this assumption (or what motivation you have for this). the way i understand your reasoning is that since we have a structured universe and things are just scattered willy-nilly that this means we cannot have started from a single particle (because otherwise it couldn't bond to anything).... well, we (physicists) don't think that it started from one particle (and it definitely wouldn't be the higgs boson). perhaps the root of the misunderstanding here is from a misunderstanding on what the higgs boson represents. yes, it is a fundamental particle (well, most models that predict it have it as non-composite...), but it is not "the fundamental particle". it is in no way the "progenitor" particle...as you put it. the higgs (or something like the higgs) **has** to exist because our standard model of particle physics is completely broken without it. if we think about the three forces in particle physics (weak, strong, electro-magnetic), their force carriers (w/z, gluon, photon, respectively) are all massless, except for the w and the z particles. now, if we want our theory to be re-normalizable, then we had better hope that our theory is locally gauge invariant. having a massive w/z combo breaks this symmetry (because of the nature of the praca equation...this is the field equation for vector bosons). spontaneous symmetry breaking (where our vacuum expectation value is not nec. zero) will solve this problem, and also will postulate the existence of the higgs (it literally "pops" out). so the higgs is needed for **all** of the particle physics we have done in the past half-century to hold. *disclaimer: yes, i believe there is a higgs, and that it will be found at the lhc...i am aware that there are other models that exist that give the w/z their mass (top quark condensate, etc.)* to solve this catastrophe we need the higgs (or something like it...) to arise from the spontaneous broken symmetries **q2** i'm not sure that is correct...we do measure time based on the *speed* of light...but i would not say that our perception of it has to do with light. light is so mind numbingly fast that it took humans centuries to figure out it wasn't instantaneous, and they had a pretty good grasp on the passage of time. so no, i don't think that has much to do with it. i believe the passage of time you are referring to is the "arrow of time", and most people use thermodynamical processes (entropy increasing reactions, dynamically allowed but thermodynamically forbidden reactions, etc.) in order to show it's existence. also, "the speed of light" is actually a bad word for what i think you are trying to describe. the speed is actually 'c', and it is the speed at which massless particles travel (light being one of them). the fact that c acts as a cosmic speed limit is what makes it so special, not that it is the "speed of light". i hesitate to answer your point about the twins because 1) traveling faster than the speed of light is not possible, and 2) it has been answered [here](_url_0_). that being said, perhaps time travel is too generous a word for this. when we talk about time travel in the case of special relativity we really mean is that two people in different reference frames disagree on the time elapsed. because time, and i mean real, "physicist time" doesn't have anything to do with our senses, or how we evolved. how these beings perceive their word will not in any way affect how the universe works. i'm honestly not sure what you mean by this...sorry. **q3** more of a biology thing here. i thought it has to do with your dna breaking down slowly after each successive copy it makes...but best to wait for somebody who knows of these things... edit: wrote this a bit quickly..slowly trying to make it human-readable... | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ioay1/if_you_could_theoretically_go_faster_than_the/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere#Telomere_shortening"
] | [
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how does antidiuretic hormone increase the permeability of the collecting ducts? | how does it act on the membranes of the ducts? what are its active sites? | antidiuretic hormone (adh, vasopressin) acts on both the collecting ducts and distal tubule. in the collecting duct, it facilitates the insertion of aquaporin channels on the apical side of the duct. aquaporin-2 allows the absorption of water into these cells, which results in the retention of water. in the distal tubule, it allows for better reabsorption of urea into the interstitium (the area outside of the tubule in the kidney) which increases the kidney's ability to passively pull water out of the tubule in the connecting and collecting ducts. this is because water has a tendency to move from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. adh is one of the important hormones involved in concentrating your urine and maintaining the fluid levels, as can be seen in two disorders: diabetes insipidus and siadh. in diabetes insipidus, you have a deficiency in adh, meaning it is not made. these people have excessive thirst and are constantly urinating. this is a very dilute urine because they are completely incapable of concentrating it due to a lack of adh, or a lack of response to adh. on the other hand, siadh (syndrome of inappropriate adh) is an overproduction of adh. these people retain fluid, have very concentrated urine, and are at risk of fluid overload. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
verbal reasoning: choose the most appropriate option to complete the following statement: 'ac is to vj, as ro is to (??)' [answer known, explanation needed] | [removed] | a - 5 = v c + 7 = j so r - 5 = m and o + 7 = v. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does getting poached effect elephants tusks evolution so quickly apparently? | so i am referring to this article i just read _url_0_ i don't understand how "evolution" could be the answer in such a small span on time, this isn't over millions or thousands of years but decades. but my real q is how does getting hunted/poached result in babies not having tusks? like, what "signal" does the environment, or your own body send to your offspring to not have tusks so they don't get taken? i don't get it. | elephants with genes for large tusks are being shot and therefore cannot breed. this means the genes for large tusks are not passed on to offspring. this is closer to artificial selection, i would say, as it is a consistent human-made selective pressure acting on the elephants. artificial selection does act a lot faster than natural selection due to the fact that selective pressures from natural selection are not consistent, they waiver in intensity. i hope this helps | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.businessinsider.com/african-elephants-are-evolving-to-not-grow-tusks-because-of-poachers-2018-11"
] | [] | [
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how likely is a message in a bottle actually being read by someone? | i was (i'm not proud to say) watching the video for lovefool, and in it, a castaway on an island puts a message in a bottle and sends it out to sea. my question is two-fold, how far out would you have to get the bottle before currents wouldn't just bring it back into shore, and also what are the odds of it actually getting to land somewhere and being read? | in most cases in some traditional small island in a large ocean, currents would wash the bottles away very easily; unless you fling the bottle directly into the incoming tide, it'll just be swept past the island and disappear. chances are winds or other currents will sweep it far enough away it doesn't hit the island when the tide comes back in. as for the odds of it landing somewhere, your best bet for estimating this is to look at the fate of a large fleet of rubber ducks lost into the pacific in 1992 and subsequently used for the study of ocean currents. many have washed up over the intervening years, in a number of odd places. _url_0_ however, the overall recovery rates are still pretty low - just a couple of percent. so you'd want to unleash a lot of messages to have a reasonable chance of somebody finding one. hope you brought a lot of bottles. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_Floatees"
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can somebody explain to me the mechanism by which digoxin shortens the qt interval? | by inhibiting the na/k atpase pump, it would seem, superficially at least, that the increased concentration of extracellular k would slow the rate of phase 3 k efflux, thereby lengthening the interval, much like a potassium channel blocker (e.g. amiodarone). where am i going wrong in this analysis? | your line of thinking is correct. however, the increased icf na+ also leads to inhibition of the na/ca/exchanger, which is how we get dig's therapeutic activities. this increases the amount of ca++ in the icf, and causes increased ca++ storage in the serca. this buildup of icf ca++ probably actually increases the k+ efflux (because of positive charge accumulation inside the cell from the divalent calcium), which changes the gradient for k+ (remember that the nernst potential is about the electrochemical gradient, not just the chemical gradient). as such, k+ effluxes faster, dropping to vrm more quickly, so the plateau phase is shortened. the bradycardia seen with dig is secondary to vagal stimulation from the increased cardiac output. this is also the downside of dig. the higher k+ in the ecf causes the vrm to increase, making the heart more excitable. this, combined with the shortening of the absolute refractory phase (because of shortened plateaus) is what gives rise to dig-induces arrhythmias, such as bigeminy and v-tach. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do people need a tetanus shot every 10 years, but don't need other shots (mumps, tb, etc)? | i understand that a flu shot is needed every year because the virus mutates. why do you need more than one tetanus shot? i know it's a bacteria, not a virus, is that why? does the bacteria change? why don't other vaccinations require a 'booster"? | ooh! tetanus is a fun one. turns out, tetanus toxin kills you before you mount an immune response. that is: fatal concentrations of tetanus toxin are sub-immunogenic. so that tetanus shot you're getting can't provide permanent immunity as with other vaccines. what you're doing is boosting the immune response so that your body is mounting a constant baseline defense. this way, when tetanus toxin enters your body, it doesn't have to initiate the immune response on its own because the immune response is ongoing. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19933727",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/qaf6d/why_do_different_vaccines_last_different_amounts/",
"http://www.bupa.co.uk/individuals/health-information/directory/t/tuberculosis?tab=Common%20questions"
] | [
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is going in a circle at the same pace turning at the same rate, still considered an inertial frame of reference? | i had been given an experiment in which i held a ball tied to a string and walked in a circle at a constant pace. there was no acceleration. i was supposed to drop the ball after walking on the circle for 5 revolutions, then i would observe what happens to the ball and someone else who was stationary observes what happens to the ball. this all went fine until we had to do the discussion and we were given some questions. we had to identify if the 2 frames of reference were 'inertial' or 'non-inertial'.1 being the person moving in the circle and 2 being the stationary observer. is the person moving in a circle at a constant speed in an inertial frame of reference or not? i have argued with my teacher quite a bit, and basically everywhere i have looked on the internet, this is made so stupidly complicated that i, a year 12 student can't understand. my teacher suggests he is but how is it inertial if the velocity is changing? sorry if i am not looking at something obvious or any dumb mistakes, not the smartest guy out there :p | a rotating reference frame is not inertial, even if the angular speed of the rotation is constant. this is correct if you switch 1 and 2. the rest frame of the person moving in the circle is non-inertial, and the rest frame of the stationary observer is inertial. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a tangible way to understand the strength of a cell membrane? | could a cell membrane break apart from an eyelash dropping on it? could i pop it between my fingers? | one example of direct interaction with a membrane would be ivf: _url_0_ the video shows microscopic manipulation of an egg, specifically the injection of a needle through the cell membrane. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQRrmdrgZv8"
] | [
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can anyone explain these strange shadow effects? | i noticed a strange effect today, which i am at a loss to explain. an object (actually my head, but i don't suppose that makes a difference) was illuminated from behind by the sun, and casting its shadow onto a wall. the sunlight was coming in through a window, so the window frame was also casting a shadow. as i moved the object so that its shadow got closer to that of the window frame, the object's shadow seemed to 'stretch' out towards the other one and merge with it - these images will probably explain better than my words can: _url_0_ the effect is most pronounced in the 4th image, but if you look through them in sequence you should get the idea. i checked my head at intervals during the process and can confirm no massive bulges appeared, so i assume this is an optical effect and would really like to understand it! | it's called the [shadow blister effect](_url_0_), and is caused by the fact that the light source isn't a point source which blurs the edges of shadows. you can find more info in [this /r/science post](_url_1_) and [this /r/askscience post](_url_2_) | 9 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/1r56X#0"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_blister_effect",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/f3a04/reddit_science_can_you_answer_this_my_grandpa/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2fd7bc/if_two_objects_are_extremely_close_but_still/",
"http://i.imgur.com/eBTw1VF.jpg"
] | [
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] |
what is the proper derivation of wien's approximation? | i haven't seen anywhere on the internet a proper derivation of the [wien approximation](_url_0_), all of them try to derive it from planck's law. anyone can give me a detailed derivation, preferable also showing the law as it appears in planck's paper ( u(lambda,t)=t^5*f(lambda*t) )? | just maximize i with respect to the wavelength. then you'll get a transcendental equation which can only be solved numerically. you can do a taylor series expansion to get wien's law. [here](_url_0_) is it. | 8 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien_approximation"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien's_displacement_law#Derivation_from_Planck.27s_Law"
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can you make a waterproof shear-thickening fluid? | ok, as many of you are probably aware, the military uses a shear thickening fluid on kevlar to create pierce-proof body armor. they use silica nanopowder (or calcium carbonate nanopowder) dissolved in polyethylene glycol, then they dilute it with ethanol, and soak the kevlar in it. then they bake the kevlar to make the ethanol evaporate, leaving the shear thickening fluid behind, between all of the fibers of the kevlar. well, my question is this: can you make a waterproof shear-thickening fluid that would do the same? i was considering using polydimethylsiloxane silicone fluid that has dissolved calcium bicarbonate in it, and then try using boric acid to create the solidity needed? (this would be a variation of silly putty) and then maybe dilute it in pentane, dip a shirt in and bake the pentane out? would this work? is there a better waterproof liquid + calcium carbonate nanopowder that would make a better, or stronger shear-thickening fluid than the one i presented? any help in this endeavor would be appreciated! | you might want to try asking this question at [r/asksciencediscussion](_url_0_) instead, since it's more of an exploratory question. i doubt anyone can tell you the answer to this simply because nobody's tried it before! with that being said, a few things to consider: kevlar is already very strong even without the shear thickening fluid connecting it's fibers, so unless your shirt is made from something extremely strong it's not going to perform the same way. second: ethanol or some other more aggressive organic solvent (like mek) might be a better idea than pentane, since that won't disperse a particle of calcium carbonate very well. good luck! | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskScienceDiscussion"
] | [
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are there better odds if the person switches the case at the end of deal or no deal? | wouldn't it be the same s the monty hall paradox or is it different because the person chose the cases and not the host? here is what i mean. _url_0_ | deal or no deal is fundamentally different from the monty hall problem, because in dond the player decides which cases are opened and therefore the cases are opened without any knowledge of the contents. by the time there are only 2 cases left, the only information that the player has is which 2 prizes are still available, but he has no information on which case is more likely to contain which prize. in the monty hall problem, the host has knowledge of the contents of the cases (or rooms) and opens cases/doors specifically to eliminate those that have no prize. by doing so, he gives information to the player. so unlike the monty hall problem, in dond it doesn't matter whether the player switches case or not. his expected payout is the same in both scenarios. in dond, the only player decissions that matter are whether the player accepts the offer from the banker or whether he keeps on playing. the order in which the player eliminates the cases and the final decission on whether or not to switch case are ultimately irrelevant (which is why it annoys me when the tv show puts so much emphasis on it). | 28 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H9CQscwXBt0&lc=z13jcbwaewvkwz1i504cc11rtvnjjjdrixg0k.1487888698718059"
] | [] | [
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what is special about aqua regia that it's constituents can't do on their own, and what is the physical/chemical explanation? | 1/3rd nitric acid and 2/3rds hydrochloric acid, aqua regia is known for its ability to dissolve relatively stable elements like gold and platinum. can nitric acid, or hydrochloric acid on their own not do so? if not, what physically and or chemically changes to make this possible? if so, why make aqua regia at all? | according to the [description here ](_url_0_), it's a matter of the combination of the two acids using different processes simultaneously that bypass the individual limitations of each. nitric acid can react with metallic gold, but because it produces free gold ions, it can only react with a miniscule quantity before saturating the solution and reaching equilibrium. hydrochloric acid can't react with metallic gold, but it can react with the gold ions to produce hydroauric acid, which then allows the nitric acid to react with some more metallic gold to produce more ions and continue the process. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_regia#Dissolving_gold"
] | [
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will friction eventually stop a domino line? | when you knock over the first domino in a line you are essentially putting energy into that system. so since friction takes away energy and makes it unusable will a line of dominoes eventually stop when friction takes enough of the usable energy away, or will the line go on indefinitely? | no, because there's energy being added with every piece that falls over. putting a domino piece upright increases its potential energy compared to it laying flat on the ground. when a piece is tipped over, that potential energy is converted into kinetic energy by the force of gravity. if the pieces are correctly positioned, the falling piece should gain enough kinetic energy to tip over the next piece, which in turn will also have its potential energy converted into kinetic energy. so in theory, a well constructed domino line should be able to go on indefinitely. | 49 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hPIobthvHg"
] | [
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how pronounced is the "classical casimir effect" experienced by ships that are docked close to each other? | also, for large ships is it overwhelmed by the gravitational attraction between them? i find it interesting that forces that engineers wouldn't usually take into account can be so easily observed on these scales. | according to [nature](_url_1_) it's mostly just an urban legend. [this article](_url_0_) may go into greater detail but i ~~can't access it right now~~ haven't read it yet. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:_l63udk3l1AJ:homedirs.wtamu.edu/~dcraig/PHYS4310/2008/Casimir_Maritime_1996.pdf+casimir+maritime&hl=en&gl=ca&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgyO0OZhyoPqW1GYNTNOKrvbz9f-b9aXTqw61AeCWbiacH31q75N1BYbmwiou5OC8j1eDyJ1ocdxA2AW0CeN3ONkydHgGV5ON0OHOScE9sfKmRYLPqZ10HZhaqwG2ibVFGB2ZHk&sig=AHIEtbRVRa8RU7g0JZ3W8Z_nO6rpH61GqQ&pli=1",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060501/full/news060501-7.html"
] | [
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is it fair to state that the vomeronasal organ is actually an auxiliary olfactory sense organ? | i am not a scientist by any means, and am really looking for helpful information on this subject. i am curious as to why jacobson's organ is specified as an auxiliary olfactory sense organ and am worried that it may be an anthropomorphic statement. i do know that it uses similar (maybe the same) portions of the brain to interpret stimuli, and maybe this is the only criteria necessary to name it auxiliary, but i am curious of the communities opinion on the matter. my main reason for asking is that i am a student of philosophy and understand that the phenomenology of one sense is so drastic from that of another that they cannot be compared from a linguistic perspective and have concerns that this leads us to reduce the possibility of extra sense organs in other animals to human understandable terms. | since no one else has answered yet, i give this a shot. there are three reasons supporting the idea that jacobson's organ is an auxiliary organ that provides stimuli comparable to smell/olfaction. 1. jacobson's organ develops from the olfactory placode during embryonic development, so evolutionarily speaking it has recently diverged from the "main" olfactory organ. 2. jacobson's organ is a chemoreceptor. although this doesn't say anything bout how the stimuli are interpreted by the brain, jacobson's organ does receive stimuli similar to the main olfactory organ and function in a similar way. i.e. it detects specific chemicals, not physical stimuli like pressure or temperatre. 3. straight from the op: this is speculation on my part, but that statement leads me to believe that stimuli from jacobson's organ are interpreted by the brain in a manner similar to what we call smell. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a name for sine-like waves that are generated from shapes other than a circle? | _url_0_ | i don't know of any special name for these functions, but the creator (/u/lucasvb) of the .gif you have linked tends to call them "polygonal trigonometric functions". it's a bit of a misnomer since trigonometric already means "having to do with a right triangle", but in the absence of a better term, it will do for the sake of brevity. you can see more on [his tumblr](_url_1_), where you can [play around with the waves yourself](_url_1_post/43274278347/experimenting-with-sound-the-polygonal). he also has contributed many of my favorite animations to wikipedia, which can be viewed [here](_url_0_). (i am fairly certain i have used his animations to explain some elementary concepts of geometry, waves, and pendulum motion on this very sub.) here are some more animations like the one you posted: [triangle, square, hexagon](_url_5_), [star](_url_4_), and a [heart](_url_3_). all that's really going on in these animations is that a line segment from the origin to the boundary of the enclosed region is drawn and swept around the origin at a constant angular speed. the graphs show either the x- or y-coordinate of the point on the boundary. it's nothing too difficult to work out explicitly, but the animations make for some very striking and beautiful images. for instance, for the stationary square (the animation you linked), you can easily show that the wave consists of 4 parts: a piece of the graph of the tangent function and its left-right reflection, and two horizontal line segments. | 9 | [] | [
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can someone explain the science behind the metal melting inside a coil in this gif? | _url_0_ | the coil is creating a radio-frequency energy. that is absorbed by the metal, which causes it to heat up and eventually melt. to get into more details, a current in the coil generates a magnetic field. but "nature" doesn't like for the magnetic field passing through an area (a term we call flux) to change. when a metal is present, that changing magnetic field will push electrons around to create an *opposing* current, and a magnetic field *opposing* the change in flux through the material. this is called an "induced" current. but metals aren't perfect conductors. the current of electrons faces internal resistance. so the current direction through the coil rapidly switches direction so that the flux is changing as frequently as possible, and the induced currents are as strong as possible (also alternating back and forth). but that resistance means some energy will be turned into heat. so the material heats and heats. | 5 | [] | [
"http://31.media.tumblr.com/b522c72b8e9ca2f1b8a50fe79d7e6039/tumblr_n2z3jzeGvp1qzt7d8o1_400.gif"
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] |
what "thing" [artificially created only] has the fastest rotation? | from wikipedia, only thing i could find that is mentionable: > modern ultrasonic dental drills can rotate at up to 800,000 rpm can we go deeper? | not sure if it is the fastest, but a sheet of graphene was rotated at 60 million rpm. (sources: [[1](_url_2_)], [[2](_url_0_)]). edit: [original paper](_url_1_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19514-levitating-graphene-is-fastestspinning-object-ever.html",
"http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v82/i11/e115441",
"http://www.physorg.com/news205090265.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy#Basic_NMR_techniques"
] | [
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can anyone explain haplobiontic and diplobiontic life cycles? | doing some revision for my plant biology module but i have conflicting information about haplobiontic and diplobiontic life cycles.. i'm not sure if my lecturer has mixed his terms up or something. my notes say that in haplobiontic life cycles, the diploid sporophyte is completely suppressed and in the diplobiontic life cycle, the haploid sporophyte is completely suppressed. this isn't matching up with what i've read online though. can anyone explain these a bit more clearly to me? and where do haplontic, diplontic and haplodiplontic cycles fit into these? thank you! | i'm not a botanist/biologist so hopefully somebody can give you a better response than mine. but, from my understanding in a haplobiontic life cycle the organism never switches between multicellular haploid and diploid phases and there is no alternation from one generation to the next. while in a diplobiontic life cycle both phases are represented by multicelluar phases and alternate by generation. the haploid phase would be a gametophyte with one set of genetic information, while the diploid would be a sporophyte with two sets. what your notes are probably referring to is that in an organism with a haplobiontic life cycle the diploid phase is not a full fledged life form, if that makes sense. an example would be something like a zygospore that is waiting to be triggered by environmental conditions to start producing the haploid phase of the organism, which in this case represents the "mature" phase of the organism that collects energy that it uses to produce more diploid structures by mating (two haploid structures fusing) to continue the cycle; it will probably be the phase of the organism that we are most familiar with. in a diplobiontic life cycle the organism will have a haploid form and a diploid form that may or may not be similar in appearance, structure, etc. but will differ in the genetic information they contain. the haploid reproductive structure would be a gametophyte that produces male and/or female gametes that later on fuse to form a diploid structure that developes into a multicellular sporophyte which will develop and produce the haploid form to continue the cycle. what your notes are probably referring to when they say that in a diplobiontic life cycle the haploid gametophyte is suppressed is that the haploid form is often purely for reproduction like the diploid form of a haplobiontic organism i described above, while the dibloid sporophyte phase is the phase that collects the energy for the process. i'm not sure this is true in the same way that it is in the case of a haplobiontic life cycle, so hopefully somebody more knowledgeable can clarify that. in either case "completely suppressed" might not be the best term because it might imply that they are absent. they are not necessarily absent, but it is more a matter of the role they play in the life cycle of the organism. i'm also not sure that it in every case the stated phase is the one suppressed, i think those are just the more common cases. haplontic would mean that the organisms cells are haploid, while diplontic would mean they are diploid and haplodiplontic would mean they can be both. an organism that qualifies as the two former would be haplobiontic, as it each generation exists in the same phase. humans, diploids, produce humans that are also diploids (and they use the fusion of haploid (single)cells to do this). an organism that qualifies as the latter would be diplobiontic in that it produces copies in one form that then produce the next form, and so it possess both haploid and diploid cells (not necessarily at once). to summarize, a haplobiontic organism does not alternate generations between haplontic and diplontic forms and a diplobiontic does alternate. so for the former, the organism lives as one or the other and produces the alternate form in order to produce its next generation. growth/cellular mitosis only occurs in one phase. in the latter, the organism lives for a while as one and then produces the other which lives as that form and produces the other and so on, alternating between the two. each phase contains a process of cellular mitosis in order to continue the cycle. hopefully that makes sense and i didn't mix anything up... hopefully if i got something wrong somebody will take the time to correct it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the ligation and dpn digest step important in site directed mutagenesis? | dpn*i* digestion is crucial to remove template plasmid from your reaction. dpn*i* cuts the specific sequence gatc only when the adenine is methylated. in a sdm reaction, the template dna is isolated from an *e. coli* strain which **methylates its dna** and the site-directed pcr reaction produces **nascent unmethylated dna**. if the template plasmid was left undigested in your reaction tube, most of your transformed colonies would contain your template dna as circular dna transforms logs higher than linear dna. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the total amount of information limited? | as i understood, the total amount of energy in our universe is limited (conservation of energy law). what about information? is the information limited? i mean information in general, not how many tb we store on our hard drives. edit: let's put it this way: the information, that was not created by humans (like the time you wake up or how many surgeries you had), but the information, that was contained in the universe before human beings and does not depend on them, people just discovered it (like the speed of light or conservation of energy law). i hope it is an appropriate distinction. | that's a really cool question. the entropy of a certain area is limited by the entropy of a black-hole with that size. this is called the bekenstein bound: _url_0_ | 36 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekenstein_bound"
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what are the current realistic theories/explanations for the bootes void? | the bootes void is consistent with [lambda-cdm](_url_1_), the `standard model' for cosmology. quantum fluctuations in the early universe result in overdensities and underdensities, that are magnified by [inflation](_url_0_). after this, gravity makes overdensities become more overdense, and underdensities more underdense. overdensities become galaxies/galaxy clusters/etc, and underdensities become voids. smaller voids close to one another can expand a little bit and merge, creating bigger voids, explaining larger voids like bootes. i don't think i've ever seen it mentioned as a problem, only as an example (albeit a very striking one). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model"
] | [
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|
would a function that outputs a series of half circles, with alternating sign (above or below the x axis), when differentiated, produce the tan() function? | here is a picture of what i mean: _url_0_ if so, would the integral of the tan() function then be this function? | no. one way to see this is that your curve has piecewise constant curvature. that is, if you travel along the curve at a constant speed, the tangent vector rotates at a constant rate with respect to *arc-length* (distance along the curve). however, the graph of a function whose derivative is tan(x) has a tangent vector that rotates at a constant rate with respect to *x*. since the arc-length and position along the x-axis aren't linearly proportional to each other, these two curves can't be the same. in fact, the integral of tan(x) with respect to x is -ln |cos(x)| + c. | 11 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/r02dCSb"
] | [] | [
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what are the limitations standing in the way of a portable fmri machine? | it seems like we could learn a lot about psycology and neurology if there was, like, a hat that had the same functionality as an fmri. why can't we build one that is smaller and lighter? | mri technology requires very, very strong magnetic fields, which needs a lot of power. a typical building wouldn't be wired to pump out that power to the mri hat and be a huge obstacle to portability. mri scans also have a lot of noise and while they try to keep the environment controlled, there's still a lot of noise from patients random thoughts and random effects of normal physiology (even small movements). having someone where a hat around the house would pick up a lot of extra em signals and most likely be too noisy to resolve. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is universal indicator? | universal indicator can seemingly be put into any solution without worry of a violent reaction, why? how does it change color based on ph level? | you don't have to worry about a violent reaction with universal indicator because the concentrations of the different ph sensitive dyes that make up the mixture are extremely low. the dyes themselves have incredible intense absorptions in the visible spectrum, so a little goes a long way. acid-base reactions can be quite exothermic if the concentrations are high enough, so you were on the right track in wondering why nobody worries about anything reacting violently. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to determine the energy required to cut through an object? | i was cutting through a steel bolt and wanted to know what how much energy would be required to cut through it. also, what about things makes them harder or easier to cut through? is it because their atoms are more tightly packed or bonded to one another more strongly? edit: for poor grammar. | as with most things in science, the answer to this question gets increasingly complex depending on how many assumptions you want to make about the physical/chemical processes that happen when you cut something. short answer: most of the energy needed to cut the material will be related to breaking chemical bonds. on a deeper level, we have to consider some other effects. when you take an object and you split it into two, you are increasing the total surface area of the material, which can in some instances produce a non-negligible contribution from the increased interfacial energy between the "fresh" material surface and the surrounding medium (air, liquid, etc). this is generally a critical determining factor in processes that happen spontaneously, such as bubble formation. depending on the process used to cut the material, you're probably also generating heat in the material and the cutting tool as well as introducing defects/damage to the cutting tool itself. this is actually a really good question, as this is an active area of research for many industrial processes such as optimizing the speed and accuracy of machining metal components! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes these abnormal growths on this cow? [pic inside] | i was browsing around imgur last night and found this picture of a cow. i've never seen such a thing, and i wanted to know if these were common, what caused them, and if there was a name. _url_0_ i'm referring to both the hump and the lump. | this is a specific type of cow, from the subspecies *bos primigenius indicus*, or humped cattle as opposed to the more common "taurine" cattle subspecies in the west *bos primigenius taurus*. those humps are not abnormal growths, but are natural areas of fat storage for the animal, similar to what a camels humps are like. and, like a camel hump, they can just slump over the shoulder, which is what is likely happening to this cow. lots of domesticated breeds are from the humped cattle group, most famously the brahman and the zebu. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/dxa7J.jpg"
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] |
what's the biggest living form ? | and is there such a thing as a size limit for a living form ? | it depends on where you draw the line for what a single "organism" is. i believe the largest organism on record that is generally accepted as a single unit is a [mushroom colony found in oregon](_url_0_) that spanned a couple thousand acres and weighed over 600 tons. the wikipedia page gives you a good idea of the scale you can expect in each kingdom, but at at any time, i'd say it's overwhelmingly likely that the largest living thing is going to be either a plant or fungus of some sort, since they aren't as limited by structural concerns as animals are. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_organisms#Fungi"
] | [
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"the cavitation theory of matter"- is there any credence to this theory? | the theory is explained in this video: _url_0_ they make some interesting points it seems, but i'm only a second year undergrad physics student, and a bit of it is over my head. how does this theory stack up against the more popular ones? | where is charge in this picture? why do antiparticles exist? what is spin and why is it integer? why do specific particles exist, shouldn't there be a continuous range of particles with continuously increasing surface area? why don't particles just merge? what is a photon? it has no mass. there are so many things missing. at the very least you would have to integrate a mechanism that explains how non-gravitational effects can emerge from these holes for it to be useful. it is also based on general relativity, but for particles, it needs to be a quantum theory, because entangled states exists. you will need to define the stress energy tensor for superpositions of these holes, the very problem that legions of physicists have been trying to solve for almost a century now. i didn't want this to sound so negative. it is a neat idea worth exploring. it is attacking the right problem: general relativity is wrong for singularities, so maybe particles are not singularities. but, just like string theory, if you can't get a prediction out of it eventually, it is not a theory, just an idea. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yeJhuZK-Bow&feature=share"
] | [
"http://www.dcgeorge.com/TheMeaningOfMatter.html"
] | [
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] |
what is the difference between an ammeter and an ohmmeter? | not much really, in very simple terms. an ammeter "typically" uses a low resistance shunt and measures the voltage drop across the shunt which is proportional to the current flowing through it. _url_0_ an ohmmeter uses a battery and a higher resistance in series with the measured load. as the load changes the current through the meter changes. _url_1_ there are less intrusive ways to measure current, i.e. with a hall effect sensor, but the meter/resistor is extremely common and cost effective. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.circuit-fantasia.com/circuit_stories/inventing_circuits/i-to-v_converter/i-to-v_ammeter_1000.jpg",
"http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/NEETS-Modules/images/clip_image331003.gif"
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|
if you dropped a blow dryer into a pool would you kill everyone it it? | how about if you dropped it into a lake, how far would the 'sphere of death' around it be? can fish survive it? | this is a really tricky question because it depends entirely on the pool. figuring out how much current someone in the vicinity would experience isn't a simple task. it wouldn't be a 'sphere of death' so much as a 'path of death' as the current flows towards the nearest grounding it can find. if you happen to be in the way you'll get a shock of some sort, but i don't know how you'd go about figuring out just how much current it would be without experimenting. you're going to blow the fuse and/or breaker in a fraction of a second, so intuition tells me you'll be relatively safe as long as you aren't directly next to the blow dryer when it hits the water. if you're in a pool and happen to be holding on to a metal ladder as the blow dryer falls in a few inches away you're probably in trouble, but if you're 10 feet away i wouldn't call it certain death. as always with questions regarding electricity, don't actually go and depend on this information to save you. anyone who willingly puts themselves into a small body of water as someone tosses in a blow dryer to see if they will die deserve the darwin award they are vying for. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could learning the times tables have an effect on my ability to do complex maths problems? | this post is going to just be full of embarrassment. i'm 19 years old and from ireland. when i was in primary (elementary) school i never learned my times tables (which might be called something else outside of the uk & ireland). so as a result, if you asked me what 4x7 is, i'd be reaching for my calculator. i can't even do really simple maths in my head quickly enough to be useful... but despite this, i'm not bad at doing maths problems at all. in secondary (high) school in ireland you can choose to either take higher or ordinary level in all your subjects. there's a massive level gap in the difficulty between higher and ordinary maths, so a lot of people do ordinary. i did ordinary level too, but found it to be pretty easy once i looked over some problems with answers and am hoping to get an a1 or a2 (already did the exam, have to wait until august for results). but it wasn't always like that, at the start of the year i was really struggling and even failed my first algebra exam. in september i'll probably be doing maths in college, so i'm a bit worried about it because the stuff i'll be learning will be of a much higher standard. which brings me here... if i learn my times tables would it have an effect on my ability to do complex maths? | i find that knowing elementary math makes everything else go quicker, because you can skip a lot of steps in your head. "complex math" is a broad term though... if you are doing something extremely abstract, knowing the times tables might not help. if you are doing calculus, or any kind of numerical methods, then i'd say you should buckle down and learn it. also, math is just great to know day-to-day. it helps you budget at the grocery store. it helps you figure out what city you can make it to before your gas tank runs out. or if you and all your friends go out to a bar, and the check gets passed around and they tell you that you owe $50 (or £50 i guess)... you're going to want to be able to prove them wrong. | 10 | [] | [] | [
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why is scoliosis so hard to cure? | the primary thing i do not understand is surgery. wouldn't it be easier put someone to sleep with some type of muscle relaxers and stretch out the spine to a more proper angle? | unfortunately it is not that simple. scoliosis is characterized by a curving of the spine from one side to the other, but its causes vary, so there is not one treatment for it. in functional-type scoliosis, the curve in the spine is caused by an abnormality elsewhere in the body, such as one leg being shorter than the other. this type can be fixed by correcting the abnormality, such as having the patient wear special shoes to level out the leg length discrepancy. in neuromuscular scoliosis, the curvature arises from the bones in the spine which fail to develop properly prior to being born. this type is very difficult to treat, as it is the bones themselves that need to be changed. if treatment is not sought, the condition will only worsen. braces do not usually work, and cannot correct the deformed bones. people with this type have to undergo surgery to correct the curve. during surgery rods and hooks are used to correct the curve, and then a spinal fusion is performed to hold the spine in place.the fusion takes bone from elsewhere in the body, and grafts it to the vertebrae. this makes the spine more rigid and straight. another type of scoliosis is degenerative scoliosis. this type, which is seen in older adults, is the result of arthritis which can weaken the tissues and ligaments associated with the spine, or from osteoporosis, which reduces bone mass. this type is difficult to treat because you would first have to treat the arthritis or osteoporosis, which may not be possible. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do levers and fulcrums make doing work easier, while still following the law of conservation of mass? where does the "extra" energy come from? | all other answers are right, but there is a small added factor. if you can use a lever to change the direction of your force. to lift something up by pushing down on a lever, then you get some help from gravity. the weight of your arm. when you lift something you are also lifting your arm and its mass at the same time. when you lift something by pushing down on a lever, you first lift your arm up to the lever, then let it rest, then push down and get the added weight of the arm helping you. in the end, same energy, but not all at the same time. if you are moving something big and can just sit on a see saw size lever to do it, you feel like it's no effort at all. however, you have to spend energy standing up when you're done, you use your current potential energy that you gained getting out of bed in the morning, and refill it by standing up after you moved the big rock or whatever. same total energy. a 6 year old taught me this in an outreach class. he insisted that lifting a weight with a single pulley was easier than lifting the weight with a string. basic mechanics says the boy is mistaken, the forces are the same. but we ignore the weight of the arm and just imagine a phantom arrow of force. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a biology/chemistry question | i know that ions such as k+(potassium) and na+(sodium) are necessary to send signals throughout the nervous system. they also eventually get flushed out of the body by the renal system. do the ions chemically change or become ineffective and get flushed or do they just float around the body and leave that way. also i know some neurons have reuptake, why cant they just recycle the ions indefinitely? | ions never "go bad". the only thing our body does is make sure that we maintain the correct concentration of each ion, either by changing our ion consumption/excretion or our water consumption/excretion. the body can't distinguish between "new" and "old" ions. edit: repeated myself | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how likely are you to succeed in preforming a field tracheostomy? | a friend of mine always complains when in movies a doctor or similar preforms tracheostomy outside of a hospital environment, without surgical tools. he claims it's basically impossible not to mess up, and the chances of actually saving someone this way are extremely close to zero. can you actually save someone by making the incision with just a sharp knife and some random plastic tube, from a pen or such, or is this just a last measure that has an extremely low chance of actually doing anything (and a significantly higher chance of just killing the person)? | if you know what you are doing, it's not a complicated procedure. the biggest things you have to worry about at the time of the procedure are bleeding and the inability to secure the airway. [here's an article looking at success rates](_url_0_) the high rate of death and brain damage is likely due to a long delay between airway obstruction and cricothyrotomy. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196064405820451"
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is there a way to allow a portion of an em field to pass through a material that would then prevent it from escaping? | i am doing an experiment but i was trying to out if there is a material that would allow em field pass through only in one direction? the idea is a isolation portions of the energy so a faraday cage would not work as the field would be more or less absorbed by the cage. ideally i would like to find something that works like a one way mirror. thanks! | [a faraday isolator] (_url_0_) is an example of a device that only allows a spectrum through in one direction. it is often used in fiber optics and lasers to prevent feedback. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_isolator#Polarization_dependent_isolator",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterial_cloaking"
] | [
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] |
why does any system/particles/electrons/atoms tend to be on the position with the lowest energy state? | i understand that the way electrons "fit" around the nucleus is such that they are in the lowest energy state possible. i'm also told that this is also the reason why atoms and various compounds/molecules are formed but why is this so? is there any specific reason? also how does the electron/atom "know" that it's in the lowest energy state and how it has to align itself? | it doesn't go to the lowest energy state unless it has somewhere to dump its energy. our everyday world is at a relatively low temperature, so that's pretty easy to do. in a closed system, the energy would tend to distribute itself evenly among the available atoms, because that's statistically more likely. if there's more energy than atoms, so to speak, the atoms stay excited. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series#Overview",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1eV+%2F+\\(Boltzman+constant\\)+in+Kelvin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_minimum_energy"
] | [
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advanced science question: what is the autocorrelation function and what does it mean? | i read the wikipedia article but am still having trouble understanding what it actually is. it measures the correlation of two temporally-spaced values and the time lag between them... but what does that mean? can somebody provide me a good example to learn off of? thanks!!! | the *meaning* of an autocorrelation function is this: let's say i have a function f(t), and another copy of the same function but shifted by some amount t, eg. f(t-t). if i look at those two functions plotted together they will either line up or not depending how the value of t. if t=0, the functions exactly line up. if f(t) looks like the shape of a single mountain, /\ / \ / \ ------------------ f(t) /\ / \ / \ --------------------- f(t) then if t=6 they won't line up so well anymore /\ / \ / \ --------------------- f(t) /\ / \ / \ --------------------------- f(t-6) the autocorelation function tries to express this notion. the basic idea is that we come up with some function c(t) that is large if the functions line up (t=0) and small as the functions don't line up (t!=0). c(0) means "how similar the functions are if they are shifted by 0 relative to one another." c(5) means "how similar the functions are if they're shifted by 5 relative to one another." now, we can have functions where the autocorrelation is big even for large shifts. here's an example: /\ /\ / \ / \ / \ / \ ---------------------------------------g(t) in this case, c(24) is only reduced by 1/2 compared to c(0) because with a shift of 24 there is one perfect overlapping mountain instead of the two you would get at a shift of 0. now, almost always correlation functions are used in the context of random processes. in this case you have to think a little bit more about how you want to define the autocorrelation because you don't have definite lumps, but rather probability distributions. that extra wrinkle is very important but if you understand the case here you'll be able to figure it out. ask questions if you need more info. edit: we need some kind of "how to draw pictures and write math in a reddit post" link in the sidebar. edit: fixed an error. i said g(24)=g(0) but for my example of two mountains spaced by 24 units the correct thing is g(24)=1/2 g(0). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which is safer - etbr or sybrsafe? | the "safe" part about sybrsafe is that it also fluoresces under blue light. therefore, if you're cutting bands out of a gel, for example, you can illuminate with blue light instead of uv, which is safer for the dna in the gel (cutting bands under uv illumination can degrade dna quality and cause mutations). for the majority of standard dna manipulations, however, using uv is fine and etbr vs. sybrsafe makes little difference. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
should aubrey de grey's approach be taken seriously or is it folly to believe that we have the tools to extend life considerably in the next 20 years? | for reference [here is](_url_0_) aubrey's recent tedtalk. | of course. aging is slow. technology is faster. that regenerative medicine will have all facets of aging covered is not certain, but the notion should not test one's general credulity. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qVMdvsvXuk"
] | [] | [
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will we ever reach a point where it must become necessary for people to specialize their entire lives? | like will a soft cap, where research has gone so far that it takes a lifetime to catch up, ever occur? will we avoid this by specializing kids after they have learned all they need to research? because eventually, it will take an immense amount of time to learn what you need to know to research, right? | no. because specializations and abstractions. if single specialization would become too big for single person to learn, it will begin split into multiple sub-specializations. this is slow, but natural process. as part of this process, abstractions happen between those sub-specializations. and some of those sub-specializations might become fields by themselves. take computers. no single person can understand whole process that happens on the lowest of levels in chip as you visit a website. there are at least dozens of abstractions that are involved. one person might understand low-level chip design, another might understand how chips communicate, another might understand how bits are handled by os, another might understand how web browser operates and another how website itself works and many inbetweens. historically computing was just extension electrical engineering, but as it grew it became it's own field. and then it divided into software and hardware. and even those are divided into many sub-specializations. same thing happens both in science and engineering. | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the caloric theory obsolete? | some 18th century scientists described heat as a weightless elastic fluid composed of particles that repel each other and are attracted by all other bodies. what kind of phenomena does this theory fail to explain? | it depends what you mean by the caloric theory. the original caloric theory was disproven by the famous count rumford cannon boring experiment: _url_0_ however, if you simply mean caloric theory as another name for kinetic theory then it fails in situations where its classical (i.e. non-quantum mechanical) assumptions no longer hold. especially in small, cold or heavily entangled systems. a perfect example of such a failure would be something like the behaviour of the specific heat of a supposed "ideal gas" (like a noble gas) or diatomic gas (like hydrogen gas) at low temperatures. at low temperatures their specific heat becomes quantized as classical modes "freeze out". in general any system where k*t (i.e. temperature "energy") is not much greater than all the fundamental excitations of the system will behave in a markedly non-kinetic theory way. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloric_theory#Later_developments"
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i have long qt syndrome. how does it work? | started passing out when i was 12, which led to a series of ekg's and other tests in arkansas children's hospital where i saw a heart specialist. i was diagnosed with long qt and being 12 i pretty much blew it off and i never sought information about it. i just avoided the medicines that i was supposed to (and i still do) and that was that. can someone smarter please explain to me exactly how it works? online sources are confusing me... | i am not sure which form you have specifically, but the most common forms of congenital prolonged qt syndrome are caused by abnormalities in a potassium channel in the heart. potassium is important during the cardiac action potential (the electrical signal that makes the heart beat in an organized fashion). people with prolonged qt are susceptible to something called r-on-t phenomenon. this named after the different waveforms on the ekg. the r wave occurs during ventricular contraction while the t wave occurs during relaxation. in r-on-t, the t wave of one heartbeat starts to overlap with the r wave of the following beat. in everyday vernacular, this basically can cause the heart's electrical system to "short circuit" and result in a very distinctive heartbeat pattern called torsades de pointes. when the heart beats this way, it doesn't pump blood very well and causes things like dizziness and syncope. it can also progress to something called ventricular fibrillation, in which the ventricle no longer contracts in an organized fashion and instead just "quivers" or fibrillates. ventricular fibrillation is fatal unless there is intervention (medication or defibrillation) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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help me understand why my speed of light loophole is probably wrong. | if gravitational attraction leads to constant acceleration, why can't two objects with mass be placed far enough apart in a sufficiently empty universe to accelerate towards each other and eventually reach the speed of light. i'm sure the distance needed could be calculated based on the mass of the objects and the math should be fairly simple, but i'm a biologist now, give me a break. additional thoughts * i'm assuming that the speed of the objects would actually be asymptotic to the speed of light, if that's the case, why? if acceleration is constant, shouldn't speed increase linearly? * i'm also assuming relativistic principles play a part (increased mass of objects as they approach the speed of light, time dilation, other magical stuff) which part do i have wrong? or oversimplified? or forgotten? | because the acceleration becomes less and less, the closer you get to the speed of light. you may or may not be aware of this, but in the theory of special relativity, when you add velocities, the relationship is **not** linear. in classical mechanics, you have a very simple relationship between two speeds *v* and *u*: *s = v + u* in relativity, however, [the relationship has an additional factor](_url_1_) that keeps the total speed *s* below the speed of light: *s = (v + u) / (1 + vu/c^(2))* at ordinary speeds, the term *(1 + vu/c^(2))* is very close to 1, so the factor is negligible. however, at high speeds (where the product *vu* is large compared to *c^(2)*), the factor is no longer negligible, and you get results like this: *v = u = .5c* *s = (v + u) / (1 + vu/c^(2))* *s = (.5c + .5c) / (1 + .25c^(2)/c^(2))* *s = 1c / (1.25)* *s = 0.8c* similarly, if you plug in *v = u = c*, you get *s = c*. so, the composition of any two velocities *always* adds up to the speed of light or less, in every reference frame. so in short, there is *no distance* for which *v + u* can possibly equal *c*. this is equivalent to saying: an infinite amount of energy is required to accelerate a massive body beyond the speed of light, and there is no distance for which the gravitational potential energy between two bodies is infinite. hope that helps! well, when dealing with gravity, the acceleration *won't* be constant -- it will increase with the decreasing distance between the two masses, according to [newton's law of universal gravitation](_url_0_): _f = g (m1\*m2)/r^(2)_ but even if the acceleration was constant, acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity over time. but velocity is different in different reference frames! that means, while the acceleration may be a certain magnitude in a certain frame of reference, in a different frame of reference, the acceleration will be scaled down proportionally to the object's current velocity. that is to say, the faster an object is travelling (in a reference frame), the less it accelerates, when a certain (frame-invariant) force is applied -- or equivalently, the more force is required to accelerate it by the same magnitude as if it were stationary. another way of saying this is that the force law in relativity is not newton's force law, *f = ma*, but rather it is *f = γma* where *γ* is the [lorentz factor](_url_2_). actually, mass *doesn't* increase as objects approach the speed of light -- these days, it is understood that "mass" means the *rest mass* of a body (its measured mass in the body's center of momentum frame), and kinetic energy is not considered part of an object's mass. the term that includes kinetic energy and scales according to *m = e/c^(2)* is known as "relativistic mass," and it is rather well established these days that relativistic mass is not the term *m* which appears in equations like *e = mc^(2)*, rather it is the term *m = γm* where *γ* is the lorentz factor and *m* is the body's rest mass. and by the way, in case you weren't aware, *e = mc^(2)* is actually a reduction of the complete formula, and it *only* applies to *massive* bodies, when the body is at rest. the full equation for an arbitrary body's energy at any speed is: *e^(2) = p^(2)c^(2) + m^(2)c^(4)* where *p* is the momentum as you may be able to tell, if you plug in *p = 0* you get *e = mc^(2)*. similarly, for a massless body, if you plug in *m = 0*, you get *e = pc* which is the familiar energy of a photon (this is how a photon can carry energy and momentum despite being massless and having an infinite range). and for a massive body which is moving, the mass remains the same, while the momentum contributes to the additional energy of the body. hope that helps! | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor"
] | [
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how did the human butt become an object of sexual interest? | among primates, and many other mammals, the rump is used to indicate when a female is in heat. the "female shape" indicates a sexually nature, well nourished individual. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_buttocks"
] | [
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|
is there any scientific evidence hiit (high intensity interval training) is an effective and safe weight loss program? | there have been some studies which showed it be more effective for fat loss than regular cardio. just google "tabatta training" and you will get a whole lot of results which discuss the studies involving hiit. also ask over at r/fitness, there is a lot of good knowledge over there but please read what the r/fitness faq has to say about it before you ask there. from my personal experience hiit is great for fat loss while preserving muscle mass. and yes it would probably be safer on your joints and body if you were already able to run well before beginnning hiit | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the gee-haw whammy diddle work?? | i was looking at old toys and i came across the gee haw whammy diddle. it looks terribly confusing and i'm baffled by how it works- can someone explain? | **simplified explanation:** the hole in the propeller is larger than the pin that holds it, and as you run the driving stick along the notches, the pin moves in a way that hits one side of the hole more than the other, causing rotation. **longer explanation:** -[wikipedia](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gee-haw_whammy_diddle"
] | [
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discharging capacitors as a weapon | not sure what you mean, but if the idea is to charge in parallel and then discharge in series, that is pretty easy to do with spark gaps. it is called 'marx generator' _url_0_ you can also look for it on youtube. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx_generator"
] | [
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|
how do lagrange points l4 and l5 work? are they always at a 60° between two bodies? | l1, l2, and l3 are all pretty easy to imagine, with addition and negation of gravitational forces and all that, but how exactly to l4 and l5 work, and what makes them exist at the end of an equilateral triangle? | lagrange points come from the restricted circular 3-body problem (hereafter 'rc3bp'; two massive bodies with one massless 'test particle', restricted - from [wikipedia: lagrangian point](_url_0_): > the reason these points are in balance is that, at l4 and l5, the distances to the two masses are equal. accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through the barycenter of the system; additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that the resultant acceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the two massive bodies. the barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of the system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep a body at the lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the rest of the system. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point"
] | [
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how do centipedes/millipedes control all of their legs? is there some kind of simple pattern they use, or does it take a lot of brainpower? | i always assumed creepy-crawlies were simpler organisms, so controlling that many organs at once can't be easy. how do they do it? edit: typed insects without even thinking. changed to bugs. edit 2: you guys are too hard to satisfy. | it's a distributed control system. each segment has a ganglion that acts as a small "brain" to control its pair of legs. the centipede brain sends a go signal and the ganglion handles the motion, coordinating its timing with signals from the segments ahead and behind. there's also a [central pattern generator (cpg)](_url_0_), an which is an intrasegmental network of neurons which generates a rhythmic output, that keeps them all in step. | 4,112 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator"
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] |
how much energy will the iter produce if successful--in layman's terms? | i was reading [this article](_url_0_) which states that the iter will produce 500mw of power out of an input of 50mw. the efficiency itself is very exciting, but what does it actually mean? how many homes can you run on that, and for how long? and will it produce 500mw a day, 500mw an hour...? bonus: assuming iter works 100% as intended, will they use it commercially or is it just a proof-of-concept? what'll the lifespan of this behemoth of a reactor be in a best case scenario? | iter is not intended to be used for commercial power. it’s for fusion research, and proving that we can in fact reach ignition using magnetic confinement fusion reactors. | 32 | [] | [
"https://financialtribune.com/articles/energy/71728/researchers-announce-nuclear-fusion-breakthrough"
] | [] | [
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what is the actual theoretical energy output of the iter? | in their website they have mentioned the experimental reactor will produce 10 times the energy it is given. now the energy given i assume is the energy for heating the plasma. then what about the whole reactor energy consumption. considering that, what will be actual output power with respect to the power consumed by the whole reactor. | iter won't produce electricity, so you could say it has zero power output. the total power consumption of iter will vary a lot. heating is planned to be 50 mw, fusion power is planned to be 500 mw - both only while the reactor is running. cooling the coils and running all the infrastructure will need some power as well. a commercial power plant would need something of the order of 3000 mw fusion power, converted to 1500 mw of electricity, with a heating power much lower than that. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about treeline elivations in the western us. | i was part of a discussion in /r/hiking about the treeline on mt hood in oregon and why it is so low as compared to the treeline in the rocky mountains at the same latitude (5k feet vs 10k feet respectively). one redditor suggested that it was due to costal winds but i pointed out that the treeline in southern california, which experiences the same wind patterns as costal oregon, is about 10k feet, which i understand would be even higher if not for dry conditions. i do understand that treelines become lower as you go north with treelines as low as 1k feet in alaska but what makes for such a disproportionally low treeline on mt hood? | treeline is affected by a wide variety of factors, any number of which could influence this. the trees will grow until they can't, which is determined by how "hard" it is for them. the main ones we focus on are: -temperature: generally colder is worse, its colder higher up. frozen soil is bad. -humidity: its often drier higher up, making it harder for growth. -aspect: north facing slopes have less sun, but south facing slopes also are drier. east/west/north/south goodness also are affected by weather patterns. -soil: both composition and depth matter. highly acidic soils make it harder for most trees to grow, same thing for shallower soils or ones permeated with groundwater. -local weather patterns: obviously worse weather, like high winds, makes it harder for trees to grow. m oist winds can cause condensation, which can make it easier. -tree species: different tree species have different toughnesses. a primarily piney ecosystem will often have a higher treeline than a deciduous one. these all play with each other too, so it is a pretty complex combo of factors. basically, trees grow until they can't anymore. i don't know exactly what causes the mt hood vs. rockies difference. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can something be in a superposition between existing and not existing? | i know that with quantum superposition that something can exist in two different places at the same time, but can something be in a super position between existing and not existing? and how would that work? | that can surely happen, but the correct way to phrase it is that there is a bigger system which has states where your object does not exist and states where it does, and this bigger system is in a superposition of two states from these classes. for example, the (quantum) electromagnetic field can be in a superposition of having 0 photons and having 1 photon. for a physically relevant example, consider an isolated excited atom. as time passes the "probability of a photon having been emitted" grows, but this just means the atom + em field system is in a superposition of the states 1) atom excited, 0 photons 2) atom ground state, 1 photon and that the "importance" of (2) in the superposition is growing. this superposition is actually an entangled state between atom and em field. only when you place a detector or any other macroscopic system to try and see if there is a photon there does the state of the system collapse to either 1 or 2, but until you do then it reasonable to say the photon is in a superposition of existing and not existing. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is so special about 1/360th of a circle that makes it a unit a measurement? | it's divisible by lots of numbers, so you can divide up the circle in lots of different ways with it. number like 12, 24, 36, 60, 120, 360 are called [highly composite numbers](_url_0_), they have more divisors than any smaller number and were typically favored in times when computation was difficult. if general division is hard, then you'll gravitate towards numbers with lots of easy divisions to reduce the chances that you have to do hard computations. we use 360 for the circle, in particular, because it was thought that the year had 360 days (because it's actually close and the ancients liked 360, as mentioned) , and so it was easy to do astronomy and astrology using a circle divided up this way. if i recall the til correctly from the other day, the egyptians had a 360 day year, but with 5 extra holidays to correct the gap. furthermore, imperial and time units are also divided up using highly composite numbers. before it became easy to do computations easily and quickly, imperial units were the smart choice because it was easier to work with them because they used highly composite numbers (with some adjustments here and there). in fact, the metric system is pretty arbitrary, being based on the not-special choice of our base ten number system. if we worked in a different base, then the metric system would be different. the imperial system is more mathematically interesting because it takes advantage of intrinsic and natural properties of numbers, it's totally independent of base. i'd say that the imperial units are "smarter", even if they are less practical these days. | 31 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_composite_number"
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|
trying to understand euler's identity. why is 23.14 ^i is -1 ? | you all know euler's formula, e^(pi*i) = -1 . i am trying to understand it, intuitively, it is hard i must admit and almost no online explanation is helping because all of them are just repeating formulas with forced meanings. anyway, now in this step, i want to solve a part of this equation, i-part. e^pi =~23.14 .so without including e or pi and treating 23.14.. as a normal number that we all know, i want to ask, why is 23.14^i equal to -1 ? or similarly why is 23.14^2i equal to 1 ? i would be very glad if you treat 23,14 as a single number and do not include e or pi in your answer. thanks for your any help | if you want to look at numbers which have complex (or imaginary) exponents, you would really do well to get comfortable with the number e. forget about 23.14 for a second. how should we make sense of any number raised to the i^(th) power? what should 1^i be? what about 2^i ? the definitions we have for real numbers do not make sense. we cannot think of 2^i as the number 2 being multiplied by itself i-times, or even a limiting case of such multiplications. the formula you are asking about is a special case of a formal notion of exponentiation. we define the exponential function, exp(x) to be exp(x)= 1 + x^(2)/2 + x^(3)/6 + x^(4)/24 + x^(5)/120 + ... x^(n)/n! + ... often this is written using the short-hand e^x . what happens if you plug x=it in the above? if you know some calculus (the power series expansions for sin(t) and cos(t) ) you can find that if you plug x=it in the above expansion you get exp(it)=cos(t)+ i sin(t) thus, if you put t=pi you get exp(i pi) = cos(pi) + i sin(pi) = -1 + i0 = -1. this is probably the "forced meaning" explanation that you're not finding satisfying. tl;dr how should you raise any number to a complex power? the answer is power series. and if you understand the most basic power series, you can understand e^(i pi) =-1. there is no intuitive 'numerical' reason that i'm aware of. it's just a fact of analysis which follows from the way exponentiation is defined. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a circular membrane - a drum - is struck, how many modes become excited? | i've been searching quite extensively for an answer to this question but i cannot find anything definitive. the most i can see is that "one or several" modes become excited, but this is never parameterized by any relevant factors. i imagine it depends on the location of the strike and the force applied. i do not need an exact formula, but i would appreciate some intuition here. i have seen several videos now of the individual modes being excited by oscillators at targeted frequencies. but when the drum is actually struck, does the membrane vibrate in some superposition of these modes? are all possible modes - all infinitely many - excited simultaneously, just with all higher modes having infinitesimal amplitude? or is there some finite fixed limit of the number of excited modes depending on say the force of the impact? (further, i imagine if you strike it hard enough, the material will break, so if this is the case then some higher modes would maybe never become excited, but perhaps we can gloss over such details.) | making some simplifying assumptions (eg friction doesn't exist)... yes, all of them become excited. this is true for 1d strings too, not just for circular membranes. to illustrate, let's model a "pluck" of a string as meaning that at t=0, the string at rest but is deformed into a perfect triangle shape. then we release the string and see what happens. the triangular pluck function we just described has a fourier decomposition (i'm assuming you know what that is based on your use of vocabulary): it can be represented as a sum of infinitely many sine waves. since each of these sine waves is a mode of the string, each of those modes get excited. the amplitude of each excitation doesn't change over time, and is simply the magnitude of that sine wave in the original pluck's fourier decomposition. the higher modes don't have infinitesimal amplitude, just very small: the sum of the squares of the amplitudes needs to be a converging series. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if 3-phase is more efficient, why isn't everything 3-phase? | i was reading on the difference between 3-phase and 1-phase power, and i got that 3-phase has 3 wires + neutral, and 1-phase has 1 wire + neutral. some sites i was reading on that 3-phase is more efficient and uses less conducting material, but it's primarily used for industrial purposes. residences stick to 1-phase. if it's more efficient and uses less materials, why then isn't everything in a 3-phase setup? what's the drawback to 3-phase that keeps 1-phase relevant. | 3-phase is only more efficient if you have a balanced 3-phase load. it does then require less conductor area than the same power delivered over single phase. but every piece of equipment would need to be 3 phase to achieve this. for large industrial equipment it is worth investing in this, but it is not economic to do for lots of small pieces that can work equally well on single phase. you would save on the electrical distribution cost, but at the small scale the increased costs of connections, switches and controls would outweigh the saving in copper. large office buildings tend to have three phase up to the distribution boards, but then use single phase to the sockets and appliances. there would also be higher voltage at the sockets, which would be a safety issue. the three phase is at 400v in uk, while single phase is 220, from the same supply, so more power is delivered for the same current in the 3 phase section, but at a lower, safer voltage in the single phase section. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly do we use some of the obscure micronutrients, like selenium, for? | i'm talking about things like copper, selenium, chromium, molybdenum, etc. are they all enzyme cofactors? what do we use them for? | all of the metals you listed do indeed function as enzyme cofactors, as do most trace, essential elements of the human body. i'll go over each and some of their basic functions: **copper** has the most different functions of the metals you listed. it is extremely important for essentially all levels of life. it's primary functions in humans are the facilitation of metabolic processes, human development, and erythrocyte synthesis. biochemically, it serves as a cofactor for various oxidase enzymes around the body. source: _url_2_ **selenium** is a bit more niche. it is involved in the synthesis and function of glutathione peroxidases, which serve to protect the body from harmful oxidation reactions. specifically, selenium atoms are contained in selenocysteine, a rare amino acid, which are residues in selenoproteins. glutathione peroxidases are a category of selenoproteins. finally, thioredoxin reductases, which are involved in sulfur bond formation, are also selenoproteins. source: _url_0_ **chromium's** mechanisms are less understood, but it is believed to be involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as insulin release. source: _url_1_ **molybdenum** is also an enzyme cofactor. it has a known role in the function of sulfite oxidases, xanthine oxidases, aldehyde oxidases, and mitochondrial amidoxime reducing components (marcs). source: _url_3_ a few others that you might be aware of are iron, well known for its role in oxygen transport, and magnesium, which is often used to stabilize phosphate groups in phosporylated compounds. | 34 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25077263",
"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Chromium-HealthProfessional/",
"http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/copper",
"http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/molybdenum",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9891606",
"ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"
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what are the chances of touching the same water molecules in two different locations during two different parts of your life? | very high. a common high school chemistry/physics problem is to compute the odds that one of the molecules you inhale next would have been part of caesar's dying breath. depending on your assumptions, it usually works to 90-95%. when you consider that water is much denser, and that you are compare all the water you have come into contact over your life, the odds jump to virtual certainty. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is the term 1/2xy^2 so common in physichs? | i've noticed that many formulae appears this "term", for example in bernoulli's equation, kinetic energy formulae, etc. | because it's a common integral for the simplest functions of a single variable. if you choose perhaps the simplest possible equation ... f(x) = x dx ... and integrate over it, then ... ∫ f(x) = 1/2 x^(2) + c so the basic form of the equation, with the one-half and the square, comes from integration. the remaining question is how does that other variable get in there? the other variable's presence doesn't come from integration; instead it is present as a constant in the original equation. if your original equation goes something like this ... f(x) = a x dx ... where "a" is a constant, and you take the integral, then ... ∫ f(x) = ∫ a x dx since the variable "a" is a constant, it can be moved out in front of the integral by the rules for integration, and multiplied back in later: ∫ f(x) = a ∫ x dx ∫ f(x) = a * (1/2 x^(2) + c) ∫ f(x) = (1/2) a x^(2) + ac and of course the constant of integration c (and any multipliers to it, such as "a" here), gets ignored as typically it doesn't matter and can be freely chosen, so we generally set to zero to make it go away: ∫ f(x) = (1/2) a x^(2) hope that helps! * * * edit: now, just to give a concrete example ... let's look at the formula for kinetic energy, (1/2)mv^(2). consider the relationships of force (f), power (p), and kinetic energy (ke): f = ma (force = mass times acceleration) p = fv = mav (power = force times velocity) ke = ∫ p dt = ∫ mav dt (kinetic energy is the integral of power with respect to time) we can manipulate the acceleration (a) to put it in terms of velocity (v), since one is the derivative of the other with respect to time: a = dv/dt so we can rewrite the equation for kinetic energy: ke = ∫ mav dt = ∫ m(dv/dt)v dt and now we can cancel out the time derivatives, leaving a velocity derivative: ke = ∫ m(dv/~~dt~~)v ~~dt~~ ke = ∫ mv dv ke = m ∫ v dv and then just integrating gives us the formula for kinetic energy: ke = (1/2) mv^(2) + mc, where c = 0 ke = (1/2) mv^(2) | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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please help me explain to someone why negatively charged ions on your feet won't detox your body. (link inside to scam product) | _url_0_ i don't know where to begin but this person is going to buy this item and i think it's a scam. here is the product's description: > what is a detox foot bath? > a negative ion is an atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons causing it to become negatively charged. this negative ion is smaller than a molecule which allows it to be easily absorbed by the body through the process of osmosis. the detox foot bath is not the propper scientific term .osmosis is used to describe the movement of particles through a membrane from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. in this case of the detox foot bath the higher concentration refers to the negative ions produced by the ion field that is set up by placing the array into the water.all detox foot baths operate through a process called electrolysis. this is done by generating the proper amount of current in the foot bath water causing the molecules of h2o to divide producing negative ions. once the negative ions are present in the water, the body absorbs these ions through osmosisthe ionic oasis foot spa generate millions of these negative ions during the foot bath session. the detox foot bath causes the body to absorb as many negative ions as possible. the detox foot bath could be compared to the process of a fully charged battery. when it has been fully charged it can not absorb anymore energy. > all foreign matter such as harmful chemicals, heavy metals, parasites, and others are all positively charged. the negative ion seeks out a positive molecule to attach to. once attached to these foreign substances the body can readily eliminate them naturally through its own natural processes. this is the reason why a person should only do a foot bath session 2 or 3 times a week. some of the impurities are transferred through the feet during the detox foot bath session however; once the body has absorbed such a high amount of negative ions it begins to eliminate these toxins over a period of days. | i am going to answer in the same way as upvoter222, but hopefully clear a few more things up. 1. negative ions are atoms *or molecules* that have a negative electric charge, meaning they either have added electrons or possibly more often have lost a proton (e.g., conjugate bases of brønsted–lowry acids). 2. the interior of cell plasma membranes are highly hydrophobic, and are most permeable to non-polar, uncharged molecules (cholesterol, for example). polar uncharged molecules like water can make it through, and since the definition of osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent across a membrane from low to high solute concentration, osmosis in biological systems *only* involves the transport of water as this is the only solvent. charged molecules or atoms (ions) are almost incapable of moving across the membrane without specialized transporters. it is obvious they have no idea what osmosis is. and for osmosis to even be applicable the substance would need to get through your skin first, which is practically impermeable to most things. 3. "ion field" is not a term used in any field of science that i am aware of. it is probable that they are just talking about an electric field, which would be applied across the water through electrolysis as they say they use. electrolysis of water will produce hydrogen and oxygen gas, neither of which are charged. ions are probably involved as an intermediate but there is no net production. also at any safe voltage to stick your feet in there is going to be almost no effect anyway. 4. small amounts of ions are always present in water anyways, even if it is 100% pure. it will self-ionize through the reaction 2h20 < - 5. i have no idea how that battery analogy applies to anything. 6. this is where they go from just misusing terminology and misunderstanding basic concepts in chemistry to completely making shit up. it is absolutely not true that "all foreign matter ... is positively charged." there are plenty of things that are harmful to you that are negatively charged. the parasites thing is especially stupid, as objects that large cannot have a significant net charge. the only thing that is remotely true is the heavy metals part, the soluble forms of heavy metals will almost always have lost electrons and unless they are complexed with something else they will have a positive charge. 7. no, positive and negative ions will not seek each other out and neutralize each other (in general, although there are a great many reactions were this does take place). isolated positive and negative ions will attract each other, but asthe distance between them approaches the sum of their van der waals radii repulsion between their electron clouds will begin to dominate. the magnitude of the charge is also usually "spread out" somewhat by the interactions of nearby h2o dipoles. if they always combined and bonded then salt water would not be able to exist, much less anything in your body. 8. your body is chock full of negative ions anyways. the vast majority of your dry weight is ions. proteins will nearly always have some net charge, positive or negative. nucleic acids like dna are negatively charged. fatty acids are negatively charged, as are many lipids although triglycerides are neutral. many, many metabolites are charged (many are acids). in fact, if we take away water and protons (or hydronium/hydroxide ions) i'm willing to bet most of the molecules in your body are already negative ions. chloride ions are present at fairly high levels as well. i can't think of many positive ions off the top of my head, but if you had things hunting down and neutralizing electron carriers like nad+ you'd be pretty fucked. you also have a ton of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and other positive metal ions that you can't do without. so tl;dr ions are not some type of magic, they exist all around us all the time and are a part of just about everything we take for granted. the makers of this product are throwing a bunch of sciencey-sounding words at you that they know you won't understand in order to scam you out of your money. i don't know how this isn't illegal, as pretty much everything they say is demonstrably false. | 4 | [] | [
"http://chirocity.com/detoxfootbatherchoniaebpro-ionicfootbath.aspx"
] | [
"http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Bonding/IonSize/halogen_radii.jpg"
] | [
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is the creationist vapor/water canopy theory even possible? | hey askscience, i went to a private christian school for the entirety of my kindergarten through high school education. the education offered to me was very biased and most of the time wasn't backed by any scientific facts. i was taught that the earth was "created" with a vapor/water canopy surrounding it which effectively caused an ideal earth. the canopy essentially created the perfect amount of sunlight for the development of life. it was the theorized as the reason why pre-flood humans lived for hundreds of years and also the cause of the grand canyon once "god caused the canopy to fall." i know, you don't have to tell me how messed up my education was :) brief [wikipedia article](_url_0_) about it. my question to you is: is this theory even scientifically feasible? assuming there was no god, would it be possible for a vapor/water canopy to exist and create the perfect earth that i was taught about? thanks! | i mean, maybe? here's the thing about religion. if a scientist were to say, "well, this wouldn't be possible because this and this and this" someone could just as easily say "well, then god must've done it this way." and then if a scientist says "well, that's impossible" the religious person can say "well, god works in mysterious ways." the issue here is one of [falsifiability](_url_0_). religion doesn't have it, so its not science, and therefore i'm afraid that this question doesn't really make sense. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_geology#Vapor.2Fwater_canopy"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability"
] | [
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generating matrixes | hello! i need to find some comfirmation to this idea i have. given a set of 2 vectors which elements have gaussianly distributed values, is there a way to use them to generate a matrix which also its values are gaussianly distributed? thanks for all the input you can give me and also any refference and directions on where to find this information would be greatly appretiated. thanks! | well, if you have random variables x_1 ... x_n and y_1 ... y_m, and you let a_ij = x_i + y_j, then all the a_ij 's will be normally (a more common term for gaussianly) distributed. that's one way to do the thing that you want. however, the a_ij 's will not be independent, which might or might not be important to you. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is a “brittle” diabetic? | [deleted] | a diabetic who runs high blood sugars that drop precipitously when given normal amounts of insulin. it can be because the pancreas is so damaged that the gland loses the ability to make glucagon in addition to not making insulin. the result is that the normal physiologic response to bring blood sugar up when it dips is missing, so it becomes easy for the patient to 'bottom out' so to speak. brittle diabetics are notoriously difficult to control, and we generally keep patients hyperglycemic as opposed to hypoglycemic because it's safer that way. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a scientific explanation for people with high libidos and low libidos? | after digging through /r/deadbedrooms and /r/lowlibidocommunity, it seems apparent that people with low libidos are missing some neurochemical component. they don't feel happy or relaxed or loved after having sex. and they don't feel frustrated, unloved, or depressed when they don't have sex. is there a scientific explanation for these differences? | although this is probably incredibly more complex, you can start by looking at serotonin. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors can have a side affect of lowering someones libido. therefore you can draw the conclusion that an increase in serotonin may decrease libido. from there, you could speculate that people low in serotonin may seek pleasure-inducing behaviors like sex. as opposed to those who may have higher levels of serotonin, who may in fact be more content without any augmentation. there are all sorts of other parts of the equation, but to answer your question, there are scientific bases (as far as we know at this point) for nearly everything having to do with sexual drive. hope this helps edit: forgot my sources: _url_1_ _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/769813",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9292833"
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scientists of reddit is there a catalyst for aerobic respiration? | yes, there is since there would not be enough chemical energy to start the multiple chemical reactions of respiration without enzymes. there are, however, multiple enzymes involved, since there are multiple different steps (glycolysis, chemical grooming, the krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation) involved with aerobic respiration. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is there an epipen (and generic alternatives) shortage? | i have read that they are having difficulty manufacturing them, but what difficulties and why? | epipens are a medical device. medical devices don't really have a "generic" regulatory option so any company that decides to sell a epipen knock-off needs to do all the testing over again except less testing for the drug. moreover, some companies decide to file patents around the device component, so you might not be legally able to make copies. this is what happened to all the asthma inhalers since as soon as the law went into effect banning cfcs in medical devices, teva medical filed a patent on propellants other than cfc's in inhalers so a $20 inhaler in the 90's is now $200+ for the same drug and same delivery mechanism. *edit: it looks like i forgot to respond directly to the op's question. being a medical device, you can't just build another manufacturing line and say everything is ok. you have to build the line, re-test the line to see if it still makes everything correctly at the extreme tolerances (process validations), and make sure your raw material suppliers don't change their materials on their side and still meet your increased capacity. what usually ends up happening in my industry (medical devices) on shortages are usually due to: (1) one of the key raw material suppliers cannot make enough of a component, (2) your new or existing line fails process validations/in-process checks, (3) fda/notified body audit findings triggering shutting down the line, or (4) a massive product recall that is currently in-progress. with (3), i've seen the fda at times try to negotiate with companies not trying to shut down a key product-line, but companies usually end up shutting the line down out of spite and have the physicians & patients file complaints to the fda. i am personally unsure of which of the reasons are causing epipens to be in short supply, but i wouldn't be surprised if it is one of the above causes. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone explain to me how is this light effect possible? | the reflective pannel is a tv screen, the light is coming from a lamp facing it. sorry for potato quality green-red beams are much brighter in rl [imgur](_url_0_) | what you're seeing here are diffraction spikes. your screen is made up of a grid of tiny pixels. this grid diffracts light into a diffraction pattern much in the same way a diffraction grating or mesh would. since you are illuminating the grid pattern with white light, each diffraction peak is slightly smeared out in a rainbow (since the spacing of peaks in a diffraction pattern depends on the wavelength of light being diffracted) | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/3VR9dlL.jpg"
] | [] | [
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is the speed at which your body processes a medication/drug affected by activity (exercise, sleep, eating) or environment (time of day, warm/cold)? | if a drug, like aspirin, says to take it every 4-6 hours, does the length it works for change for the same person under different conditions? or do our bodies process drugs at pretty much the same speed regardless of what we do? | yes, aspirin is subject to what we call first pass metabolism where the liver has to process the drug and often change the structure from an inactive state to an active state, and the drug prescribing info. for drugs give good estimates on averages based on dosages, but not necessarily activity at the time. however, for me as a type 1 diabetic, if i inject insulin into an area of the body that i'm about to use more than usual, the increased metabolic activity in those tissues associated with the activity performed causes an increase in the absorption and strength of the insulin, which could result in a low blood sugar if not planned for properly. also, first pass metabolism is also affected by activity, for example, if you were to eat a big meal and then go to the gym, your body is going to have to use it's energy to produce the activity instead of digesting and absorbing the nutrients ingested and so the gastric emptying time is decreased. here's an interesting article about the effects of gastric emptying and processing of ethanol -- > _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1727307/"
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can someone expand on this "apparent superluminal motion" (from an article in til) please | [here's the article.](_url_0_) the part i am curious about is this: > yet it does seem to be moving – and fast: its apparent sideways velocity is four times the speed of light. such apparent "superluminal" motion has been seen before in high-speed jets of material squirted out by some black holes. the stuff in these jets is moving towards us at a slight angle and travelling at a fair fraction of the speed of light, and the effects of relativity produce a kind of optical illusion that makes the motion appear superluminal. can someone expand a little on this? how does this "optical illusion" work? | basically, as the light is emitted, the gas particle that emitted the light falls behind, but only very slowly. the next photon that is emitted is still behind the first photon, but since the particle traveled at nearly the speed of light (in roughly the same direction) the second photon is much closer to the first photon then what you would expect. effectively, the photons are 'bunching up' and undergoing a doppler effect, and the measured speed of the gas indicates superliminal speed as hundreds of years worth of photons arrive in as little as five or ten years. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18775-mysterious-radio-waves-emitted-from-nearby-galaxy.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superluminal_motion"
] | [
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how to understand vacuum electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability? | i understand that c is the speed limit of everything in the universe, not just light. so c is an extremely fundamental constant. the speed of light in a vacuum is defined as (electrical permittivity * magnetic permeability)^-0.5, which happens to be c in a vacuum. these constants only apply to e & m, and are therefore part of a much "smaller" theory than c itself. i understand that vacuum permittivity and permeability are observed to be what they are and therefore they are what they are, but i'm looking for a deeper way of understanding them. for example, is there a fundamental reason why the vacuum speed of light is required to equal the universe's speed limit? and, having accepted that the vacuum speed of light equals the universe's speed limit, how to understand vacuum permittivity and permeability themselves? do they reflect fundamental "non-vacuum"-ish properties of vacuums? (it's not clear to me why, in a "true" vacuum, they should be anything other than zero or infinite.) or are they nothing more than just a couple physical constants we measure that, when multiplied and raised to the -0.5 power, happen to equal c to arbitrarily high precision? | the vacuum permeability and vacuum permittivity are linked through the speed of light which is a fundamental constant of nature. think μ = 1/(εc²) that's really just one constant, not two. the other can be derived from the first one. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how in the world do karotypes like xxxy come about? | i read about kleinfelter's syndrome (xxy) and the triple-x syndrome (xxx), and was wondering how is this even possible. heck, there are even xxxxx! | major in biology and studying genetics... when sperm and egg undergo mieosis nondisjunction can cause extra x or y sex chromosome to be present in an egg or sperm so, there is theoretically the possibility that a nondisjunctioned egg with two x chromosomes to meet a nondisjunctioned sperm with an xy chromosome, making the zygote hame an xxxy karyotype. annother more likely situation assuming nondisjunction happens in the first mieotic event you can end up with 4 x chromosomes in the first oocyte, and through another nondisjunction event you can have 4 in the secondary oocyte merges when that is fertilized by a sperm, this can be x or y and result in an xxxxy or xxxxx | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how far back in time would you have to go before the people of that era find a modern person 'strange-looking'? | assuming a modern day resident of europe, asia, or africa starts going backwards in time, attempting to fit in with the people of each era, how long can they go before they look too different to escape notice? | how tall are you? if you are over 5'9" you would start being unusually tall some time before 1900 but would fit in around 1000 at least in europe. if you have no tattoos or piercings and are not very tall or fat you could probably fit in all the way back to the neanderthal era 50,000 years ago. they might find something indefinably odd about your appearance, the way you walk talk or carry yourself, your expression. but physically or genetically you would not be very different. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does an electromagnet draw more current under load? | for example would an electromagnet that is holding the weight of a car draw more current than if it was only holding a couple of screws? | yes. while a permanent magnet does not require an input of energy to move objects, an electromagnet does. the reason for this is a little complex, but has to do with the fact that moving current creates a magnetic field and a moving magnet creates a current. a permanent magnet is like a gravitational field - no energy input, works forever, can't be turned off. but an electromagnet isn't a magnet, it just acts like one because of its current. the reason electromagnets consume energy is as follows: when an electromagnet attracts (or repels) another magnet and that magnet moves, it produces a current in the electromagnet (as per the fact above). this current is in the opposite direction as the original current of the electromagnet, causing the current in the electromagnet to diminish, and consuming energy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physics and chemistry experts: there's a product that's supposed to reduce limescale in water with magnets. i say it's bunk, others swear by it - what's the truth? | there's a product many people use in my area (south hessen, germany) because of our notoriously hard water: it's called the sialex ring. here's the website's [description](_url_0_) and [explanation](_url_1_) as to how it works. now, i'm calling total bs on this but i'm neither a chemist nor physicist - it just seems like a scam to me. people in my area, some entire towns, have bought and use these "magic" rings. is there any truth to the claims they make about its effectiveness on hard water? what say you? | it's complete bunk, yes. magnetism has an incredibly tiny effect on chemistry; to the extent that you can put in a whole human, with tens of thousands of delicately-balanced life-sustaining reactions going on, inside some of the most powerful magnets ever created, inside an mri machine, and not have _anything_ happen. the theory here is bunk, and [experiments](_url_0_) don't support it either. | 18 | [] | [
"http://www.sialexring.com/products-and-solutions/sialex-concept",
"http://www.sialexring.com/products-and-solutions/sialex-process"
] | [
"http://www.osti.gov/bridge/purl.cover.jsp?purl=/567404-bQ4DwB/webviewable/567404.pdf",
"http://www.sialexring.com/our-customers/casestudies"
] | [
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what does "effect size of 0.30" mean? | this paper has in the lead: > as of now, antidepressant clinical trials have an effect size of 0.30, which, although similar to the effects of treatments for many other chronic illnesses, such as hypertension, asthma and diabetes, is less than impressive. what is an effect size? what does it mean for an effect size to be 0.30? and what do they mean when they say it's less than impressive? _url_0_ _url_1_ edit: i have to flair the post. i chose psychology because paper is about anti-depressants. this feels like a sub-optimal tagging. | not clear here. *effect size* is an estimate of *how much* groups differ, rather than whether their difference is "statistically significant" or not. it's important to know an effect size because even treatments which achieve very low p values (p < < 0.05), and are *significantly different* by conventional standards, may not have much practical significance. cancer treatment a, for instance, may significantly prolong life over treatment b—but actually only by one day. that said, effect sizes are only partially standardized. probably the most common are *pearson's r* and *cohen's d*. [this](_url_0_)^pdf article is a good primer on the subject. the paper does not say in what terms the effect size is expressed. it cites another as its source for the effect size; i can only get a copy of that paper's abstract at the moment, and it doesn't say either. that said, it seems to be relatively common in psychology research to use cohen's *d*. as the primer article i linked to states, a cohen's *d* of 0.30 is a small-to-medium size effect. | 3 | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wps.20241/abstract",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wps.20241/epdf"
] | [
"http://psychology.okstate.edu/faculty/jgrice/psyc5314/AnEffectSizePrimer_2009.pdf"
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is add a real thing? is that disorder questionable? why do so many laymen roll their eyes about add? | i've honestly never been sure if add is a real thing or not. i can't tell if it's just a pop-psychology fad, or a real problem needing treatment and medication that a lot of people have. i'm sorry if this question is vague. what's the current scientific consensus on add/adhd? is it a legitimate disorder? | yes. it's probably overdiagnosed due to the difficulty of differentiating child behavioral problems (often related to family problems), childhood onset bipolar disorder, and adhd, as well as a whole slew of other learning disorders like auditory processing problems. exacerbated by the fact that it is often initially diagnosed and treated by primary care physicians instead of specialists, but it is a real thing. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to stop a reaction midway to study an intermediate? | for example, in a synthesis of an inorganic compound (so enzymes will not necessarily be involved), is there a practical means of halting the progress of a reaction to study intermediates? | most of the time in chemistry if we refer to an intermediate we are usually talking about an unstable species that once formed very quickly reacts to form either the next intermediate or final product. in cases like these, it is not possible to stop the reaction or isolate the intermediate as it is so unstable that it will react to form the final product before we could study it. in a multi-step reaction, you can also refer to many intermediates that are formed at each step of the reaction. these types of intermediates are usually stable and a different molecule to the reactants and final products. since these are stable, you would be able to study them but they are not really the type of intermediates that you are probably asking about in this question. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a difference in anyway of a problem that is unknown versus one that hasn't happened? | so for example let's say i have a die. i want you to write out what you think the first 10 rolls will be. (this has nothing to do with psychic powers don't worry) method 1: you write down your answers first and then i roll the dice. method 2: i roll the dice and then you write down your answers. (this has nothing to do with bias so assume we don't interact in anyway during this part) in method 1 the answer has not yet been determined so when you write a 3 it could be right or it could be wrong, depending on what happens when i roll the die. however in method 2 as soon as you write the answer it is either right or wrong. mathematically both have the same possibility of being right or wrong but in reality one of them has already been determined. so i realize to a statistician these situations are one in the same, but is there any area of study that would look at these as two distinct situations? | i think there's two ways of looking at this: 1. in both methods, you're already right or wrong despite *when* you wrote down what you expected to happen because the laws of classical physics are sternly defined and are never deviated from so, even though you haven't rolled the die yet as in method 1, it's already predetermined how you'll roll it, where it'll land, what number it'll land on, etc, because you exist within this physical world therefore your actions cannot deviate from these laws. with this kind of thinking, it's already been determined what number the die will fall on, it just hasn't happened yet. 2. i don't know much about quantum mechanics but from what i do know from a few courses in college and late-night wikipedia perusing, there is a distinct difference in methods 1 and 2. quantum mechanics says that, until an outcome from a set of potential outcomes has been picked, particles, the universe, whatever, exists in a super-position whereby all possibilities exist and only when the time comes is a particular possibility collapsed upon for you to see. with this way of thinking, i really can't give you a good answer for your question. i fully see what you're getting at as i've pondered similar thoughts myself - and the result, for me personally, has always been to stick with thinking method 1. i know i'm not qualified to answer this but i thought i'd give some sort of response since this question hits close to home for me. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do i explain/apply equations to the oscillation of a metal needle due to an electromagnet? (images in description) | i recently did some experiments with an electromagnet and a magnetic(?)*(it is affected by magnets)* needle, [like so \(images\)](_url_0_) the experiment was simple: i put a metal rod through a spool(coil?) creating an electromagnet and sat a rotating needle next to it. i made sure the rod was un-magnetic(?) before starting the experiment by switching between multiple and then turned the magnet on. i used different voltages to create different strengths of magnetism and filmed the system. i will be using tracker to graph the needle (in progress). i realise now that i (maybe) should not have measured the strength in voltage, but it does give you some indication of the strength i believe. my aim was to find the relationship between the **strength** of the electromagnet and the **frequency** of the oscillation of the needle, but i haven't been able to find out what equations to consider, as they are not in my syllabus. i know gravitational equations on the forces between two masses and that the strength of the force depends on the mass of the objects and the distance squared. i'm **guessing** magnetic forces are somewhat the same only relating perhaps to the charge(?) of the objects but also the distance. i also know equations related to simple harmonic motion and oscillations which i'm guessing is also involved somehow as the needle kinda resembles a classic pendulum, only the force is a magnet. how would i go about this? how do i apply physics to the oscillations? i could post more pictures or even a video if that helps, but i think you get the general idea from the pictures i posted. **edit:** [a graph](_url_1_) of the vertical axis displacement of the needle relative to the end of the rod, to illustrate the oscillations. **note:** the "rest" position of the needle (where the point is closest to the rod) is at x=200. i do not know why the amplitude is different "up" and "down", but i think it might be due to imperfections in the needle device or my electromagnet somehow. **edit ii:** the difference between this system and a classic pendulum is that the force of gravity (acting on the pendulum) is constant throughout the period, whilst the force of the magnet on the needle varies greatly over distance (i do not know why this is, so once again, more explicitly: **what is the force from the magnet on the needle? how do i describe/calculate it?**) | you can consider the needle as a small magnetic dipole of magnetic moment µ, think of it as a vector on the needle from south to north pole. the magnetic field b due to the rod exerts a torque on the needle (that makes it rotate) of magnitude µb sinθ where θ is the angle between the dipole moment and the magnetic field. the equilibrium condition is reached when the needle's dipole moment aligns with the magnetic field. for small angles around the equilibrium orientation the torque is approximately -µb θ where the sign is meant to describe a torque that makes the needle rotate opposite to the angle θ, back to equilibrium. this is similar to the force due to a spring of stiffness k given by f= -k x. in the case of a mass attached to a spring f = m a, together they describe an oscillatory behavior with a frequency 2 π f = √ (k/m) in the case of the needle the equation would be instead torque = i * angular acceleration, where i is the moment of inertia of the needle. comparing the equations then the needle will oscillate out of equilibrium with a frequency 2 π f = √ (µb/i) the magnetic field b can probably be taken proportional to the current, or in your case proportional to the voltage, so i guess you should check for a linear relationship between f and √v. | 14 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/w9TF8",
"http://imgur.com/lnrm2pK"
] | [] | [
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could someone explain these filters to me? | hey there, i'm a computer engineering student who kinda has a lack of knowledge of electronics. for some course i have to know how these two filters work(_url_0_), but i just can't seem to understand them. why does the highpass filter block low frequencies? and when you swap the capacitor with the resistor, why does it suddenly block high frequencies? i wish i had paid more attention to this when i was still in highschool... | if you did ac circuit analysis in high school, then... damn. anyway, we know that the current through a capacitor is c\*dv/dt. the voltage source is sinusoidal, so we'll say it's v*_0_*sin(wt) or something. since the cap's current depends on the derivative of the voltage, the frequency's gonna come out at some point. hopefully you can trust me because i don't want to actually do the differential equations, the voltage/current relationship for a capacitor is v = i/jwc where j is, of course sqrt(-1), if you remember your phasor analysis. if you didn't... ignore it, the point is that the w's in there. the impedance in the capacitor will decrease the higher the frequency is. so, at low frequencies, the cap has a high impedance, and will thus have a lot of voltage. it's the same as how if you have a small resistor and a big resistor in series, the big resistor will have more voltage across it. that's how we get the low-pass filter: v*_out_* is the voltage across the capacitor, which is sucking up the low frequencies. the resistor just sits there taking up anything that the cap didn't want, essentially. so, the high frequencies will be in the resistor, since the cap doesn't really respond to them. hence, the high pass filter. edit: the point is basically that the filter doesn't really *block* any frequencies. different circuit elements have different frequencies in them, though. a filter just plucks out the voltage over whichever circuit element has the frequencies we want in it. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/o6xVteV"
] | [] | [
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how much good does a layman do by using popular live saving methodes (cpr, heimlich maneuver...)? | are there any accepted guidlines that tell what to do when one gets in a situation, where such a method could help? is it better to do what one can, with limited medical knowledge, or does one end up doing more harm than good? | if someone's heart has stopped then you should do cpr and call an ambulance. the worst thing the cpr can do is break a rib or two. you might get sued for this in the us, but if you save the person's life, i dont think it will happen. if someone is choking on something, trying to breathe and holding their neck, the heimlich maneouver can clear it up. you should try in a situation like this, worst case scenario is that the guy throws up. always call an ambulance if you see that it might be a dangerous situation. cpr and the heimlich manouver is pretty simple, and usually doesn't cause much harm. therefore i think you should try to help, if you can, until someone who knows better shows up. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do epithelial cells line the outsides of organs that never experience external stimuli? | why are some cells called endothelial and some epithelial? i read that epithelial cells are cell that cover outsides of the organs and body. lot of organs never experience the external stimuli yet they have epithelial tissue. is my understanding of epithelial tissue wrong or is there more to it? | endothelial cells line the interior surface of blood vessels. epithelial cells are called that because of the layer of the blastoderm that they are derived from, iirc. you may be mixing up epithelial and epidermal. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how accurate is this article on sedentary lifestyles? it seems very sensationalist, but am i going to die much sooner because i spend so much time on my ass? | _url_0_ i sit down *a lot*. probably 12+ hours a day. so even if i do exercise, i'm going to die much sooner anyway? how much of this is actually true? terrified. | i wouldn't put much stock into any article i read on a subject when the website sells something that professes to be the answer to the problem discussed. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.builtlean.com/2011/10/03/is-a-sedentary-job-ruining-your-health/"
] | [] | [
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] |
what is the connection between energy and information in a system? | i mean in very general terms what is the relationship between these two properties of a system/process. it seems we can describe process more completely with both together rather than either form alone. | to establish such a relationship for a given system, you should consider how information relates to entropy, which you should do carefully. [here is a nice description of information](_url_1_) where a low probability of a state implies lots of information. so, small entropy, large info. then, the relationship between energy and entropy is captured by the "tds equations" which are jestfully called the 'tedious' equations. there are lots of different formulations of those, but a good one here might address t, s, q, and w - temperature, entropy, heat, and work. it is confusing, because thermodynamics is expressive only when you specify some conditions, like constant pressure, or volume, or number of particles... [see this article](_url_0_) the main takeaway is, the relations depend on the system and there are lots of cases to deal with making it hard to give a simple expression that relates energy and information. its always a matter *of what*. it is not surprising that information and energy are best related by changes in both or either quantity, rather than absolutes. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equations#Thermodynamic_potentials",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantities_of_information#Self-information"
] | [
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how does plan b work on the molecular level? can it prevent the implantation of an already fertilized blastula? | i am aware that the primary mechanism by which plan b works is through preventing fertilization in the first place, mainly by preventing ovulation. however, i have read that in the even that the egg \*is\* fertilized, plan b can prevent it from implanting in the uterus. i am curious by what mechanism the drug actually works to prevent fertilization, or, if that does not work, prevent implantation. & #x200b; also, i am aware that many fertilized eggs fail to implant naturally, so i assume that by "preventing it from implanting" sources mean that they increase the likelihood that implantation will fail to occur. how much more likely is it with taking plan b than without? | jury's still out on whether levonorgestrel (plan b) does indeed prevent implantation of a fertilized egg, the evidence is conflicting. pharma had to remove their claims that it prevents implantation in the eu, for instance. since it's virtually impossible to prove a negative (that plan b doesn't prevent implantation) they've changed the wording (at least in the us) to claim it \*may\* prevent implantation of a fertilized egg. & #x200b; to non-answer your last question (the likelihood of implantation with and without plan b), we'll likely never know. too many variables in an observational study and too unethical to directly study it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17241840",
"https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08487"
] | [
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how do computers allocate resources? | if a computer is doing something in the background, say rendering video, and something in the foreground, say browsing the web, and the web browsing is lagging, why doesn't it automatically redirect resources to ensure that the foreground task is smooth, and devote only the excess resources to the background task? or does it? how do computers allocate resources? | ressource allocation and management is the primary job of the operating system. what you're talking about is specifically cpu time, which is handled by the so called scheduler. there are different algorithms to determine which task gets cpu time next. linux, for example, uses the [cfs](_url_0_) (completely fair scheduler). simplified, the cfs tracks how much cpu time each task has used so far and gives the cpu to the next runnable task with the least time used. tasks can also be assigned priorities, which are used to weigh the already used cpu time, so used cpu time by tasks with low priority is weighted higher than the used cpu time of high priority tasks. there are also so called real-time algorithms for scheduling, that are used when a task needs to get their thing done in a very specific time frame, like a driver interacting with a device, for example. real-time tasks always take priority over everything else. i'm not sure how windows' scheduler works and if it can identify and prefer interactive tasks, but generally speaking, a scheduler doesn't know or care whether a task is interactive or not. since interactive (what you call "foreground") tasks spend a lot of time waiting for user input, and therefore accumulate less used cpu time, they generally get preferential treatment over long running "background" tasks once there's actually something to do, but that's not always the case. hang ups can especially happen when multiple tasks wait for shared resources, like mass storage. e.g. when a long running "background" task is currently waiting for the hard disk driver to retrieve some data and an interactive/"foreground" tasks also wants to access data on the same hard disk, it'll have to wait for the hard disk to become available. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/scheduler/sched-design-CFS.txt"
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guy with no background in math gets head injury during mugging. suddenly develops amazing math and art talents. is this likely a legit story, bs, or something in between? | _url_0_ this article came up on my twitter feed, the whole "i'm magically a mathematical genius who sees the pythagorean theorem everywhere" and john nash comparisons ring my bs alarm, but is something like this (getting much better at a talent after a brain injury) possible? has it happened before? | i'm not a neuropsychologist or anything of the sort. however, i am a mathematician, and i see no evidence here that this guy has acquired any mathematical ability. he draws some pretty pictures, name-drops a theorem everyone sees in high school, and that's it. his "drawing of pi", for example, doesn't look to me to have any mathematical content. | 9 | [] | [
"http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/health/2012/04/27/real-beautiful-mind-accidental-genius-draws-complex-math-formulas-photos/"
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how to power enough lights for my proposal? | [removed] | 800 incandescent chrismas lights would be about 350 watts. not alot... maybe 3amps. you generally cannot daisy chain more than 500 minilights together. so you would need to run 1 long extension cord, then a splitter, and plug in 2 runs of 500/300, or 400/400 to run around the area. the extension cord and outlet should be fine drawing 3 amps, though if you have a better 12 or 14gauge extension cord, put that closest to the outlet as the resistance is cumulative and will put the most load closest to the outlet. pretty much any generator would do the job too. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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