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learn only 3 things about them ... On one end is the long siphon, and the other a strong thin flexible shell allows it to slip easily into the They are rapid burrowers. Let's put this one down and see how fast it can burrow. seen? These almost cylindrical clams can move surprisingly quickly and are rarely seen as they are usually buried in the sand. They are sometimes seen above ground on the undisturbed sandy shores near seagrass areas on our northern shores. They are adapted for burrowing deeply in soft bottoms. Built for digging: 1.5-5cm long. The razor clam is a strong and quick burrower. The somewhat rectangular and cylindrical two-part shell is thin, narrow and smooth, allowing the animal to slip easily through the sand. On one end of the shell emerges a strong foot that it uses to burrow quickly into wet sand. On the other end a long siphon sticks out to the surface to breathe and feed. The siphon breaks easily when the animal is disturbed. In this way, the animal probably avoids being dragged out of the sand by its siphon. What do they eat? Like other bivalves, razor clams are filter feeders. The buried clam sticks its long siphon out to the surface. When submerged, it sucks in a current of water through the siphon. It uses its enlarged gills to sieve food particles out of this current. Razor clam (Solen Chek Jawa, Jan 04 Siphon of a large buried razor clam? Changi, Jul 11 uses: Larger razor shells are edible and are collected as food. Like other filter-feeding clams, however, razor clams may be affected by red tide and other harmful algal blooms. Such clams can then be harmful to eat. Pasir Ris Park, Dec 09 shared by James Koh on his blog. Pasir Ris, Dec 11 Bulbous tip of the muscular foot. clams on Singapore shores Solenidae recorded for Singapore Tan Siong Kiat and Henrietta P. M. Woo, 2010 Preliminary Checklist of The Molluscs of Singapore.

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Salmon are native to the world’s two biggest oceans and the rivers draining into them. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is the only salmon species in the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic salmon are anadromous; that is, they spent their young life in rivers, migrate to the sea to grow, and then return to the river in which they were born to spawn. In its natural setting, the female salmon lays thousands of eggs, depositing them in gravel on the riverbed. One or more males then discharge sperm over the falling eggs to fertilize them. The female covers the eggs with several centimetres of gravel. The ova begin to develop right after fertilization and typically hatch in the spring. When hatched, the fish have a yolk sac containing food attached to their bodies. Once the yolk sac is consumed, the fish begin their journey up through the gravel of the riverbed to the top of the water. At this point, they are referred to as “swim up fry.” Atlantic Salmon undergo a number of physiological and behavioural changes as they mature. In their first autumn, they develop into parr with vertical stripes and spots for camouflage. They remain in the river for one to three years, continuing to grow until they are between 10 and 25 centimetres in length. At that point, in preparation for a life at sea, the fish become silvery and begin swimming with the current, rather than against it as they have been since birth. As they grow in their ocean surroundings, fewer predators are able to feed on them. Their rate of growth is therefore critical to survival. Salmon boast an exceptional homing instinct that allows them to find their river of origin when it is time to spawn, despite sometimes very lengthy migrations. The Aboriginal Fishery Strategy (AFS) program was launched after the 1992 Sparrow Decision, which reaffirmed the Aboriginal Right to fish for food, social and ceremonial purposes. The strategy provides for the management, protection and enhancement of fisheries resources and fish habitat. Under this strategy, the Abegweit First Nation is allowed up to 200 adult Atlantic salmon per year for use in ceremonial rites. In recent years, however, the community has refrained from using those fish due to low stocks. This shortage of fish has also resulted in a “catch and release” restriction on the recreational fishery.

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Grained spruce bark beetle ( Cryphalus abietis ) |Latreille , 1807| The bark beetles (Scolytinae) are a subfamily of the weevils (Curculionidae). Bark beetles are a species-rich group of beetles , often brown or black in color , of which many species reproduce under the bark or in the wood of trees in self-drilled passages and sometimes cause great economic damage. As primary consumers or destructors , they play an important role in the material cycle of the forest ecosystem . However, the bark beetles are known to the general public primarily for the severe damage that some species of them can cause in forests after mass reproduction as forest pests . There are around 6000 species of bark beetle worldwide (as of 2014), and new species are constantly being discovered and described. Around 600 species are native to the Palearctic , between 250 and 300 in Europe and around 110 in Germany. When German-speaking forestry practitioners speak of “the” bark beetle, they almost always refer to a certain species, the printer ( Ips typographus ). Bark beetles reach a body length between 0.7 and 12 millimeters (lengths between 1 and 6 millimeters are given for the Central European species, but there are larger species such as the giant bark beetle ( Dendroctonus micans ) with up to 9 mm). The body is ovate to elongated, often heavily sclerotized and hard-armored, usually more or less cylindrical and cylindrical, the ratio of length to width from about 1.2 to 8 to 1. They are black, in various shades of brown to yellowish, rarely somewhat shiny metal. The body surface is usually smooth, often sparsely hairy or scaly. As an exception within the weevils, a trunk (anatomically also called rostrum) in the bark beetles is extremely rudimentary, but mostly completely regressed, which is why they were not counted among the weevils in the past, but rather regarded as an independent family. The head is always more or less inclined downwards (the mouth opening points downwards), usually spherical and narrower than the pronotum , it is often hidden under the protruding pronotum and invisible when looking straight from above. The complex eyes are flat (they do not protrude from the contour of the head), they are rounded to elongated and often kidney-shaped or constricted, sometimes divided into two sections. The antennae are widely separated from one another, pivoted under the eyes or at the base of the mandibles , they are always kneeled (the antenna flagella form an angle with the base member or scapus) with an antenna lobe at the end. On the head capsule, the clypeus and frons are fused together, a labrum is missing. The short, strong mandibles are curved, they end in a point. Many species have a separate pocket at their base in which they transport fungal spores. The stores (lacinia and galea) of the maxilla are fused, the maxillary palpate is tripartite. The pronotum is about as wide as the elytra or slightly narrower, mostly cylindrical and often highly arched, it is relatively short, a good half as long to almost twice as long as it is wide. The scutellum may be clear, but in many species it is sunk and hidden under the wing covers. The elytra are usually cylindrical with straight sides, at the rear end usually abruptly rounded hemispherical, this fall often bears small teeth, which are important in determining the species. As is typical for weevils, four limbs can be seen on the legs, one (the third) is enlarged and hairy on the underside, the fourth has receded into a short, barely visible rudiment. The rails are often serrated on the outside and have a distinct, often hook-like end pin, they are longer than the tarsi and often widened towards the end. Five stermites are visible on the abdomen, as is typical for the weevils, the first two are immovably fused together. The larvae are maggot-like, legless and usually colored white with a darker, hard sclerotized head capsule. This is usually round, without larval eyes (stemmata). The small, conical antenna consists of only one segment. They have a pair of spiracles on the prothorax and eight, slightly smaller pairs on the first eight of the ten abdominal segments. Most bark beetles develop in the living tissue of the bark , the bast of trees and other woody plants (for species with a different way of life see below). Many of them begin their development there, but in later stages they switch to the bark, which actually gives them their name, or to the wood. The host plant's attack begins differently depending on the species ; three types can be distinguished: in monogamous species, females begin to set up a breeding path. These are searched for by males, controlled by chemical signals ( pheromones ), and mating occurs on the outside of the bark or within the passage. In polygamous species, there are (a chamber males, Rammelstein chamber called a nesting transfer as the beginning) feed from outside into the bark. Here they are visited one after the other by several females who mate them. Few species are solitary. Here already mated females look for a suitable breeding tree for themselves and start the attack independently. The mated females then begin to eat a passage within the bark. At its side it deposits its eggs, usually in small, eroded niches, depending on the species on both sides, only on one side or in small groups (clutches). Some species create a larger chamber instead of a narrow tunnel. In all species, the newly hatched larvae then start from this niche and start eating a passage into the nutrient-rich phloem of their host tree. This can be designed very differently: in species that primarily feed directly on the plant matter they eat, they can be ten to fifteen centimeters long; they then extend almost exclusively in the nutrient-rich bast, the wood and the corked outer bark are avoided. These species are called bark breeders by forest entomologists . In contrast, species whose diet is mainly based on self-grown, wood-degrading symbiotic fungi ("ambrosia beetles") usually only create a shorter passage or a chamber in which the larva then grazes the fungal lawn. Since the fungi, unlike the larvae themselves, can also break down lignin and cellulose from wood , such species can also expand their duct systems into the inner wood tissue, called wood breeders by the forts . Bark beetle larvae go through three to five larval stages before they pupate. After the pupa has rested, which usually only lasts five to ten days, the newly hatched imaginal beetle is in the pupa chamber; it is usually not yet hardened and light in color. In most species, it then continues to eat within the pupa chamber ( maturation feed ). The young beetles then eat an exit hole to the outside through the bark, or they use existing tunnels and holes, in most of the Ambrosia beetles the maternal breeding tunnel. In moderate (temperate) and cold latitudes, the young beetles usually only hatch in the spring or early summer following their development, so they still spend the winter in the host tree. Then they look for a mating partner and a suitable place to lay eggs. To do this, most species carry out dispersion flights , often only over a few hundred meters to a neighboring tree, sometimes over considerable distances, supported by wind and air currents. Some species stop at a suitable tree for further ripening. Common bark breeders in Central Europe and their preferred tree species: - Letterpress ( Ips typographus ) (spruce) - Engraver ( Pityogenes chalcographus ) (spruce) - Large and Small Forest Gardener (Pine) - Oak bark beetle (oak) Frequent wood breeders (xylomycetophage, or ambrosia beetles) in Central Europe and preferred tree species: - Striped timber bark beetle ( Trypodendron lineatum ) (on lying softwood) - Black timber bark beetle ( Xyleborus germanus ) (native to East Asia, introduced to North America and Central Europe. On a large number of hardwood and coniferous trees). Symbiosis with mushrooms, ambrosia beetles Wood is a very nutrient-poor substrate that lacks numerous nutrients that are essential for herbivores. In order to remedy this deficiency, numerous species of bark beetles have switched to using the decomposition capacity of fungi , with which many species live in a close symbiosis . The cooperation is very different. Many species can live without mushrooms and complete their development, but grow better and faster with their presence. Others are completely dependent on their mushroom partner. In order not to leave anything to chance, these beetles carry the fungus (as mycelium or spores ) with them on their dispersion flights; they have special organs called mycangia or mycetangia for this purpose; special, pocket-shaped indentations at various points on the integument. Various wood-destroying fungi of the genera Ophiostoma and Ceratocystis , "blue-tinged fungi" belonging to the sac fungi of the order Ophiostomatales , as well as a number of closely related anamorphic genera, serve as fungal partners . The symbiotic mushrooms play a special role in a species-rich group of bark beetles, the ambrosia beetles. The anamorphic mushrooms were named after ambrosia , the food of the Greek gods, after ambrosia , the food of the Greek gods, by their discoverers, who were amazed that some species of bark beetle can obviously grow and thrive in their hollows without eating any significant amounts of wood Genera Ambrosiella and Raffaelea . These mushrooms are no longer able to live independently, they are dependent on their beetle partner to spread; this has been interpreted by various entomologists as an equivalent to agriculture in the animal kingdom. On the other hand, the fungus is the only food source of the beetle larvae and imagines. The same community has independently developed in a very similar form in another group of weevils, the subfamily of the core beetles or Platypodinae , these possibly forming the sister group of the bark beetles. The fungus also has other uses for the beetles, for example by breaking down secondary plant substances formed as a defense of the tree and by closing the resin canals of the conifers through rapid growth . Ambrosia beetles comprise about 3400 species in ten tribes , which are not closely related to each other, so they do not form a systematic unit, but an ecological group whose way of life must have developed convergent many times , probably at least seven times. They are the only bark beetles that can penetrate the xylem , i.e. the actual wood body within the cambium , so they correspond to the " wood breeders" of forest entomologists. The food base is the conidia of the fungal partner, which lives on wood itself, so the beetle is characterized as "xylomycetophag" (roughly wood-fungal). Since the tree species is only indirectly its food source, individual species often appear in a large number of tree species that are not closely related. Ambrosia beetles have their distribution center in the tropics, but with some species they can be found in temperate latitudes. Remarkably, a species-rich, presumably monophyletic group of ambrosia beetles has a sex determination system using haplodiploidy . Similar to the better known case of the hymenoptera , unfertilized eggs always turn into males and fertilized ones into females. Typically these species have dwarfed, completely eyeless males that never leave the breeding galleries of their host tree. Mating takes place with sisters (occasionally with dams of the previous generation), so that although sexual reproduction is maintained, a high rate of inbreeding is given. Most species of bark beetles use wood and bark from tree species. Many species that feed on the somewhat more nutrient-rich phloem occur only on a group of related tree species, such as one genus (oligophag), and less even on one tree species (monophag). Most of the wood-eating species are polyphagous, on very different types of wood, and a few even equally on hardwood and coniferous wood. While most species use living trees, there are also bark beetles that specialize in deadwood . Specialists also exist for branches and twigs and roots. Various species, for example from the genus Conophthorus , live in the interior of the cone axis of conifer cones. Few species groups have developed completely different food substrates. A very important agricultural pest is the coffee cherry beetle ( Hypothenemus hampei ) which does not attack the wood of the coffee plants but the fruit. Coccotrypes dactyliperda (and other species of the genus) feeds on the seeds and unripe fruits of date palms . Few species mine in leaves or petioles, some in the roots of herbaceous , non-woody plant species. For example, the clover bark beetle Hylastinus obscurus, which is also widespread in Central Europe, lives in the roots of herbaceous legumes. Bark beetles of the genus Sampsonius have developed a kleptoparasitic way of life. The adults are not able to create breeding galleries themselves. To do this, they look for those of the genus Dryocoetoides , which are closely related to them . Their faster developing larvae then take over their galleries for their own reproduction. Species that cause the host tree to die Among the numerous species of bark beetle, only a few species, mostly attached to conifers, colonize living trees, which they can then cause to die through their infestation, whereas most species are weak parasites (secondary pests) that only colonize dying or sick individuals with greatly reduced resistance can. The total of only around 15 to 20 species tend to mass reproduce ( gradations ) and in years with high population density can cause entire forests to die, each with millions in damage to forestry. Some species from the genus Ips in Eurasia and North America and the genus Dendroctonus , especially in North America, are notorious . The prerequisite for these species is the ability to overcome the defenses of their plant host, e.g. through resin flow and defense chemicals (secondary plant substances) such as terpenoids . In order to be able to attack healthy trees, the species carry out synchronized mass attacks by thousands of individuals on the same tree in order to exhaust its defense. Usually they only succeed in doing this if the tree has already been damaged by other, biotic and abiotic, stress factors such as drought. At the peak of a gradation, some species can also cause massive damage to completely healthy trees through synchronized mass attacks. To synchronize, they use communication through pheromones such as verbenol and myrcene , which are often produced through the chemical conversion of phytochemicals. The advantage for the beetle is that such trees can only compete with other bark beetle species. In Central Europe, the spruce ( Picea abies ) is the tree species with the highest bark beetle damage. In addition to the natural spruce forests of higher mountain areas, man has created optimal bark beetle biotopes with extensive pure spruce stands. In extreme climatic conditions (long periods of heat or drought, winter with a lot of broken snow), printers and engravers can multiply explosively (years with mass increase are, for example: 1994/95, 1999, 2003/2004, 2018). A special case is Dutch elm disease, a parasitic fungal disease of all elms in Europe and North America, which is triggered by a fungal disease ( Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi ) introduced from East Asia , which is transmitted by bark beetles of the genus Scolytus , in Europe mainly by two species Elm splint beetle , large and small . Infested European elms usually die after a few years. Related fungal diseases that are also transmitted by bark beetles are "Mango sudden decline syndrome" or "Mango sudden death disease" in Mango ( Mangifera indica ). They may also be involved in the spread of Phytophthora ramorum (sudden oak death). In all of these cases, the beetles are only carriers ( vectors ) of the fungus; they themselves only cause negligible damage to the tree. In Europe, bark beetles caused an average of 2.9 million cubic meters of damaged wood per year between 1950 and 2000, that is 0.7 percent of the European logging volume and around half of the total damage caused by biological pathogens. An analysis of the amount of damaged wood in Europe from 1990 to 2001 showed a similar value with 1.2 percent of the logging. These values are far overshadowed by the damage caused by a single species, the mountain pine beetle (mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae have been caused) in North America, where 11 million hectares of pine forest are from 1990 to 2010 devastated the damaged wood reached 240 million cubic meters. The main problems of bark beetle infestation are: - if the forest is used economically by humans. In the case of large-scale bark beetle infestation, wood prices on the timber market drop dramatically. For forest owners there is great financial damage. - Infestation by bark beetles caused by the symbiotic fungi, a discoloration of the wood in the outside area. Due to the higher waste of the saws, this results in a loss of value of at least 30% of the wood price for "healthy" wood. - in infestation of edge trees. These protect the forest from wind and storm . Such open spaces make the forest stand more vulnerable. As a result, even more trees have to be felled, or there is more wind break. - In some German federal states and in Austria, the forest owner is legally obliged to take measures against the bark beetle to protect the neighboring forest. Bark beetle control In Central Europe, it is mainly the few species of bark beetles that attack conifers that tend to multiply in the forest that are combated. There are mainly two types, the printer ( Ips typographus ) and the engraver ( Pityogenes chalcographus ), especially on the forest tree species spruce. The control is based almost exclusively on measures of the so-called "clean forest management". In addition, wood-breeding species on stored trunk wood are combated. Insecticides are also used here. The “clean forest management” is based on the fact that the bark beetles that breed bark should be deprived of their nutritional basis in the forest before the incipient foci of infestation develop into mass reproduction. Attempts are made to cut down infested trees that are still standing in a timely manner. Lumbering logs are debarked; It has been shown that peeling off in strips is just as effective as complete debarking, but this method has not yet become established in practice. Material suitable for breeding (harvest residues) remaining in the forest is removed or rendered harmless by mulching, chopping or burning. Under normal conditions, bark beetle populations then remain below the economic damage threshold . Bark beetle infestation should also be counteracted in the long term by means of silvicultural measures by avoiding large monocultures of particularly susceptible species or on locations particularly susceptible to infestation. Other control methods are based on catching bark beetles on their dispersion flights before they have reached new host trees. Common methods are special attractant traps (pheromone traps) as well as trapping trees and trapping clubs (beating) or piles of trapping wood. These methods achieve roughly comparable performance, but fail at high bark beetle densities; they are then used to determine the infestation density (monitoring). Switzerland has been using biotechnical methods to combat the bark beetle since 1984. Fighting bark beetles in the forest using insecticides is legally permissible if specially approved agents are used. However, due to its low effectiveness in connection with high ecological damage, it is used less often than in previous decades. The insecticide treatment of lying, stored logs ( piles ) is still common. Alternative methods are also possible here. These include, for example, wet storage and sealing in plastic films. The bark beetles were traditionally regarded as an independent family, related to the weevils, leaf beetles and longhorn beetles. Morphological studies on larvae and adults instead suggested a position within the weevils (Curculionidae). This was clearly confirmed by all phylogenomic studies (investigation of the relationships based on the comparison of homologous DNA sequences). Within the weevils, they belong to the derived weevils (in the narrower sense), with kneeling antennae. The first analyzes suggested a close relationship or a sister group relationship to the beetles (Platypodinae), and the Cossoninae , which also bored into wood as larvae, were generally considered to be closely related. More recent analyzes indicate that the beetles are close relatives of the Dryophthorinae subfamily . The similarity of the bark beetles to them (and also to the Cossoninae) is probably based on a convergent evolution through the common way of life in the wood. The exact position of the bark beetle within the weevil is currently unclear. This is also due to the fact that the monophyly of numerous subfamilies of the extremely species-rich weevils is unexplained and often doubtful. The monophyly of numerous tribes within the subfamily has been confirmed, that of others has not yet been clarified. The subfamily of bark beetles is divided into the following tribes in the current system from 2009 - Scolytini Latreille, 1804 - Amphiscolytini Mandelshtam & Beaver, 2003 - Bothrosternini Blandford, 1896 - Cactopinini Chamberlin, 1939 - Carphodicticini Wood, 1971 - Coptonotini Chapuis, 1869 - Corthylini LeConte, 1876 - Cryphalini Lindemann, 1877 - Crypturgini LeConte, 1876 - Cylindrobrotini Kirejtshuk, Azar, Beaver, Mandelshtam & Nel, 2009 - Diamerini Hawthorn, 1909 - Dryocoetini Lindemann, 1877 - Hexacolini Eichhoff, 1878 - Hylastini LeConte, 1876 - Hylesinini Erichson, 1836 - Hylurgini Gistel, 1848 - Hyorrhynchini Hopkins, 1915 - Hypoborini Nuesslin, 1911 - Ipini Bedel, 1888 - Micracidini LeConte, 1876 - Phloeosinini Nuesslin, 1912 - Phloeotribini Chapuis, 1869 - Phrixosomatini Wood, 1978 - Polygraphini Chapuis, 1869 - Premnobiini Browne, 1962 - Scolytoplatypodini Blandford, 1893 - Xyleborini LeConte, 1876 - Xyloctonini Eichhoff, 1878 - Xyloterini LeConte, 1876 Here is a generic list with individual species (selection): - Date bark beetle ( Coccotrypes dactyliperda ) - Linde bark beetle ( Cryphalops tiliae ) - Linden bark beetle or common linden bark beetle ( Ernoporus tiliae ) - Letterpress or large eight-toothed spruce bark beetle ( Ips typographus ) - Small eight-toothed spruce bark beetle ( Ips amitinus ) - Six-toothed pine bark beetle ( Ips acuminatus ) - Large larch bark beetle or eight-toothed larch bark beetle ( Ips cembrae ) - Nordic spruce bark beetle ( Ips duplicatus ) - Black pine bark beetle ( Ips mannsfeldi ) - Twelve-toothed pine bark beetle or large twelve-toothed pine bark beetle ( Ips sexdentatus ) - Colorful ash beetle ( Leperisinus varius ) - Gorse bark beetle ( Phloeophthorus rhododactylus ) - Juniper bark beetle ( Phloeosinus thujae ) - Carniolan pine bark beetle ( Pityophthorus carniolicus ) - Pine branch bark beetle ( Pityophthorus cephalonicae ) - Notched spruce bark beetle ( Pityophthorus exsculptus ) - Smooth bark beetle ( Pityophthorus glabratus ) - Mountain pine bark beetle ( Pityophthorus henscheli ) - Knoteks stone pine bark beetle ( Pityophthorus knoteki ) - Scots pine bark beetle ( Pityophthorus lichtensteini ) - Hairy bark beetle , furrowed spruce bark beetle, spruce hairy bark beetle or small Nordic bark beetle ( Pityophthorus micrographus ) - Spruce branch bark beetle ( Pityophthorus morosovi ) - Furrowed spruce bark beetle ( Pityophthorus pityographus ) - Downy bark beetle ( Pityophthorus pubescens ) - Traeghard's bark beetle ( Pityophthorus traegardhi ) - Elm splint beetle - Hornbeam beetle ( Scolytus carpini ) - Oak split beetle ( Scolytus intricatus ) - Maple sapwood beetle ( Scolytus koenigi ) - Large fruit tree beetle ( Scolytus mali ) - Dwarf pin beetle ( Scolytus pygmaeus ) - Great birch sapwood beetle ( Scolytus ratzeburgi ) - Wrinkled fruit tree beetle ( Scolytus rugulosus ) - Oak bark beetle ( Taphrocoetes hirtellus ) - Spruce beetle ( Xylechinus pilosus ) - Clematis bark beetle ( Xylocleptes bispinus ) - Book-Nutzholzborkenkäfer or deciduous Nutzholzborkenkäfer ( Syn. Xyloterus domesticus ) ( Trypodendron domesticum ) - Smooth timber bark beetle ( Xyloterus laevae ) - Striped Nutzholzborkenkäfer , Softwood Ambrosia beetles or Linierter Nutzholzborkenkäfer ( Syn. Xyloterus lineatus ) ( Trypodendron lineatum ) - Oak lumber bark beetle , lined hardwood bark beetle, oak ambrosia beetle , lined hardwood bark beetle or lined oak lumber bark beetle ( Xyloterus signatus ) Fossil evidence of bark beetles has been around since the Middle Cretaceous , roughly 100 million years ago. Initially there were only difficult to interpret fossils from feeding tunnels in petrified wood and compression fossils made of limestone from the famous Florissant fossil deposit (earlier Oligocene), the assignment of which remained uncertain because not all essential features are recognizable, are now made of both Burmese and Lebanese amber well-preserved inclusions have been described. These are remarkable in that they are very similar to the recent species, so that one of the finds has even been placed in a recent genus. The old age of today's bark beetles contrasts with the fact that the weevils themselves belong to the younger beetle families and are not fossilized before the Jurassic . This points to an early radiation of the group, already in the Mesozoic Era. Bark beetles are very species-rich in both Baltic amber and younger Dominican amber , 23 species in seven genera in Baltic amber, five of which are extant. - Bjarte H. Jordal: Scolytinae Latreille, 1806. Chapter 3.7.12 in Richard AB Leschen, Rolf G. Beutel (editors): Handbook of Zoology / Handbuch der Zoologie. Arthropoda, Insecta, Coleoptera, Beetles. Volume 3: Morphology and Systematics (Phytophaga). Walter de Gruyter Berlin / Boston 2014. ISBN 978-3-11-027370-0 . - Jiri Hulcr, Thomas H. Atkinson, Anthony I. Cognato, Bjarte H. Jordal, Duane D. McKenna: Morphology, Taxonomy, and Phylogenetics of Bark Beetles. Chapter 2 in Fernando E. Vega, Richard W. Hofstetter (editors): Bark Beetles: Biology and Ecology of Native and Invasive Species. Elsevier, Amsterdam etc. 2015. ISBN 978-0-12-417156-5 . - Reinhard Schopf & Johannes Enssle: Interesting facts about bark beetles. In NABU Baden-Württemberg (publisher): Technical articles on the planned Black Forest National Park. Stuttgart, February 2013, pp. 34–41. - Karl E. Schedl : 91. Family Scolytidae (bark and ambrosia beetles). In: Heinz Freude, Karl Wilhelm Harde, Gustav Adolf Lohse (editor): Die Käfer Mitteleuropas. Volume 10: Bruchidae, Anthribidae, Scolytidae, Platypodidae, Curculionidae. Goecke & Evers, Krefeld 1981. ISBN 3-87263-029-6 - Kenneth F. Raffa, Jean-Claude Grégoire, B. Staffan Lindgren: Natural History and Ecology of Bark Beetles. Chapter 1 in Fernando E. Vega, Richard W. Hofstetter (editors): Bark Beetles: Biology and Ecology of Native and Invasive Species. Elsevier, Amsterdam etc. 2015. ISBN 978-0-12-417156-5 . - cf. Entry Ambrosia beetle in the spectrum lexicon of biology , www.spektrum.de, 1999 Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg. - Brian D. Farrell, Andrea S. Sequeira, Brian C. O'Meara, Benjamin B. Normark, Jeffrey H. Chung and Bjarte H. Jordal (2001): The Evolution of Agriculture in Beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae ). Evolution 55 (10): 2011-2027. doi: 10.1111 / j.0014-3820.2001.tb01318.x (open access). - Bjarte H. Jordal, Andrea S. Sequeira, Anthony I. Cognato (2011): The age and phylogeny of wood boring weevils and the origin of subsociality. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 59 (3): 708-724. doi: 10.1016 / j.ympev.2011.03.016 . - Bjarte H. Jordall, Benjamin B. Normark, Brian D. Farrell (2000): Evolutionary radiation of an inbreeding haplodiploid beetle lineage (Curculionidae, Scolytinae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 71: 483-499. doi: 10.1006 / bijl.2000.0457 . - DHR Spennemann (2018): Global distribution of the date stone beetle, Coccotrypes dactyliperda (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae). Journal of Insect Biodiversity and Systematics, 4 (3): 203-226. - BS Lindgren, KF Raffa (2013): Evolution of tree killing in bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): trade-offs between the maddening crowds and a sticky situation. Canadian Entomologist 145: 471-495. doi: 10.4039 / tce.2013.27 - Bark beetle infestation doubled in 2018. In: wsl.ch. Federal Research Institute for Forests, Snow and Landscape , February 6, 2019, accessed on February 6, 2019 . - Karl-Heinz Otto: Never been there before - the extreme mass reproduction of the large eight-toothed spruce bark beetle 2018 , published in GeKo Aktuell 1/2019, publisher: Geographical Commission for Westphalia, Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe (LWL), ISSN 1869-4861. ( PDF file, digitized online ) - John Gibbs, Clive Brasier, Joan Webber: Dutch Elm Disease in Britain. Forestry Commission Research Information Note 252, 1994. PDF - Asad Masood & Shafqat Saeed (2012): Bark beetle, Hypocryphalus mangiferae stebbing (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is a vector of mango sudden death disease in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany 44 (2): 813-820. - Mart-Jan Schelhaas, Gert-Jan Nabuurs, Andreas Schuck (2003): Natural disturbances in the European forests in the 19th and 20th centuries. Global Change Biology 9 (11): 1620-1633. doi: 10.1046 / j.1365-2486.2003.00684.x - JC Grégoire & HF Evans: Damage and Control of Bawbilt Organisms. An overview. Chapter 4 in: François Lieutier, Keith R. Day, Andrea Battisti, Jean-Claude Grégoire, Hugh F. Evans (editors): Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, a Synthesis. Springer Verlag, Dordrecht, 2004. ISBN 978-1-4020-2241-8 - FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (editor): Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010, Main report (FAO forestry paper 163). FAO, Rome, 2010. ISBN 978-92-5-106654-6 . - Susanne Kaulfuß Susanne (2012): Prevention of insect damage - prevention is better. www.waldwissen.net, May 25, 2012. - Lutz-Florian Otto, Bert Schmieder: Information for forest owners on bark beetle infestation www.waldwissen.net, December 9, 2016. (Print version: Otto, L.-F., Schmieder, B. (2016): Waldpost 2016/2017 - newspaper for forest owners in Saxony, publisher Staatsbetrieb Sachsenforst: 13-14.) - Gabriela Lobinger and Michael Veicht: Bark beetle control - what is effective, useful, allowed? Bavarian State Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forests (StMELF), Bavarian State Institute for Forests and Forestry LWF . accessed on August 3, 2019. - Jonas Hagge, Franz Leibl, Jörg Müller, Martin Plechinger, João Gonçalo Soutinho, Simon Thorn (2018): Reconciling pest control, nature conservation, and recreation in coniferous forests. Conservation Letters 2019 (12): e12615. (8 pages) doi: 10.1111 / conl.12615 - Threat bark beetle A polemic by Helmut Klein, 2009 (PDF) - Hannes Krehan: The ABC of bark beetle control on spruce . waldwissen.net, information for forestry practice. (Print version: BFW practical information 17: 17-18, online July 11, 2016.) - Rainer Hurling & Jan Stetter (2013): Schlitzfalle or Fangholzhaufen? AFZ (Allgemeine Forstzeitung) - der Wald 9/2013: 25-28. - Martin Illi: Pest. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . December 14, 2011 , accessed March 8, 2020 . - Hansjochen Schröter, Jutta Odenthal-Kahabka: Use of insecticides against bark beetles (print version 2005: Hand-out Storm Damage Management . Ed. State Forest Administration Baden-Württemberg and State Forests Rhineland-Palatinate) online February 29, 2012. - Dana Liechti: Forbidden insecticides in the Swiss forest. In: blick.ch . May 11, 2019, accessed October 1, 2019 . - Sigrid Mugu, Dario Pistone, Bjarte H. Jordal (2018): New molecular markers resolve the phylogenetic position of the enigmatic wood-boring weevils Platypodinae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny 76 (1): 45-58. - Dario Pistone, Jostein Gohli, Bjarte H. Jordal (2018): Molecular phylogeny of bark and ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae) based on 18 molecular markers. Systematic Entomology 43 (2): 387-406. doi: 10.1111 / syen.12281 - Miguel A. Alonso-Zarazaga & Christopher HC Lyal (2009): A catalog of family and genus group names in Scolytinae and Platypodinae with nomenclatural remarks (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Zootaxa 2258: 1-134. doi: 10.11646 / zootaxa.2258.1.1 - Anthony I. Cognato & David Grimaldi (2009): 100 million years of morphological conservation in bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae). Systematic Entomology 34: 93-100. doi: /10.1111/j.1365-3113.2008.00441.x - Alexander Kirejtshuk, Dany Azar, Roger Beaver, Michail Mandelshtam, André Nel (2009): The most ancient bark beetle known: a new tribe, genus and species from Lebanese amber (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae). Systematic Entomology 34: 101-112. doi: 10.1111 / j.1365-3113.2008.00442.x - Sabine Grüne: Handbook for the determination of the European bark beetles . M. & H. Schaper Verlag, Hannover 1979, ISBN 3-7944-0103-4 . - Wolfgang Schwenke (Ed.) Et al .: The forest pests of Europe. A manual in 5 volumes - Fritz Schwerdtfeger : Forest diseases . Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin 1981, ISBN 3-490-09116-7 . 486 pp. - Bark beetle - information portal. LWF Bavarian State Institute for Forestry and Forestry - Bark beetle monitoring in Austria. BFW Federal Forest Research Center, Federal Office for Forests, Austria - Bark beetle dossier on waldwissen.net §. May 2006, online version January 28, 2009. - D. Nierhaus-Wunderwald (1996): The natural opponents of the bark beetle - WSL fact sheet for practice - PDF (3.2 MB) - Video: way of life of the bark beetle . Institute for Scientific Film (IWF) 2005, made available by the Technical Information Library (TIB), doi : 10.3203 / IWF / C-12520 . - Bark beetles at Naturspaziergang.de (descriptions and good pictures of bark beetles in Germany)

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Book value is an accounting term that describes the value of an asset according to its balance sheet. For assets, the value is based on the original cost of the asset less any depreciation or amortization. A company's net book value is its total assets minus liabilities. That sum is divided by the number of common shares outstanding, and the result is book value per common share. Book value may differ substantially from market value.

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One idea I've read, although did not find corroborating evidence of, stated that the drive to emigrate drove up the capabilities of the people left behind. Yes, developed countries often take the best of the developing world, but the drive to emigrate focuses many on education, so the ones left behind, and the country they inhabit, are better off. As an example, if you have 100 people in a country, and you have a system that says 10 can leave that score highest on an exam. Sixty (60) try to raise themselves by studying. At the end, 10 leave, leaving 50 more educated than when they started. So yes, the 10 best were taken, but 50 raised themselves’ up, benefiting not only themselves but also their community. A synopsis of a study by the Rand Corporation: While the effects of immigration on the receiving country have received a great deal of attention, less has been paid to its effects on the sending country. The available data suggest that, on net, emigration has a positive effect on the sending country. For example, by decreasing the labor pool in the sending country, emigration helps to alleviate unemployment and increase the incomes of the remaining workers. Also, emigres often send money home, enhancing their families' standards of living and thereby contributing both to the home economy and the nation's trade balance. Most emigres are young, male, and married, however, so there can be a destabilizing effect on the family. Some countries have attempted to restrict immigration, in the belief that it does not enhance economic development. However, the evidence suggests that, because of the benefits noted above, this might result in an even greater economic decline than such countries fear. Another positive study: The two most salient ways migration influences development within Mexico is through remittances and labor markets, according to this report from MPI's Regional Migration Study Group. When looking at Mexico, this analysis finds that when the labor market effects and household income benefits of remittances are compiled into a model of the Mexican economy, Mexico’s fiscal balance appears to benefit from emigration — its economic output rising by 8.8 percent and tax collection by 7.4 percent over the last decade. And even more positive effects: Research has shown that workers migrate, find employment, and then move on or return home which discredits the myth that immigrants are flooding into western nations to settle permanently. This temporary migration has a positive effect on the sending nations as the returning workers are more highly-skilled and experienced, able to boost their home economy due to the skills learned abroad. Further evidence has proven that migrants rarely take native workers’ jobs, and they boost employment effects in the long term. In her paper on the impact of immigrant labor on native workers, Amelie F. Constant says that migrants often “accept jobs that natives don’t want or can’t do [and] they create new jobs by increasing production, engaging in self-employment, and easing upward job mobility for native workers.

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As the warmer days slip away, winter starts to crawl into everyday life, inviting with it the rodent population. They scurry into your home and/or business to seek out the heavenly smells of food, whilst also seeking a warm, dry environment to inhabit. Carrying diseases and bacteria, these four-legged creatures can contaminate surface areas around your property, bringing with them potential risks to your health. Without proper prevention or control, rodents can cause substantial damage to your property. Chewing on your furniture along with your wires and cables, creating a potential fire hazard and electrical risks. Here is a little more about Rodents Rodents have several characteristics that put them at the top of the list of unwanted guests. Rodents are avid explorers. They have a natural love for new terrains, cords, pipes and false floors. These spaces are considered a mice highway, providing a direct line to your electrical wires, computer networks, and other warm, dry spaces to set up their nests. Mice and rats will scurry along searching high and low for food. Within a 24 hour period rodents can find up to 40 feeding places! Rodents are focused on reproducing. A female mouse can produce a litter of up to 16 mice monthly. This means if you have a family of mice living in your walls, they are constantly reproducing and expanding their infestation. Rodents have a very flexible skeleton structure. A mouse can squeeze through a hole the size of your pinky finger, while a rat is able to squeeze through a hole the size of your thumb. They are also agile and can jump up to 24 cm in height! With mice travelling up to 1 km a day in search of food and a suitable nesting area. With tiny little legs, this is a vast distance. During a rodent’s journey, they leave a trail of droppings, with an average of 80 droppings produced in a day. This is a key indicator that you have a rodent infestation. These gnawing little vermin are adaptable to most environments and can easily move in the dark. They also only need up to 3g of food a day, not a lot for a creature always on the move. Signs of Rodents: These unwanted guests living and breeding in your property are easy to spot if you know the common signs: - Droppings: A trail of droppings is a clear sign. Check your home and/or office cupboards and kitchen areas – these provide a great source of food for rodents. - Rub Marks: These are dirty marks left behind when the rodents rub against a hard surface. - Tracks: A quick trick to spot track marks is to place some powder on the floor in the kitchen overnight, close to the edges of bench/cupboards. If you find little footprints in the morning then you know you have unwanted guests. - Smell: Rodents leave a trail of urine which leaves a very distinct and unwanted smell. - Teeth Marks: They love to gnaw on hard things and will gnaw to gain access to food. Get in contact with Rentokil if you feel you might have a potential rodent infestation.

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Upto 3 Months By the age of 3 months, a parent should check for the following symptoms and in case of lacking criteria, one should immediately seek advice from a pediatrician. - Observe a child’s sleeping position and monitor if the child holds the head in a prone position or if it is sleeping on the tummy. - Observe if a child squeaks and watch for the giggle or laughter. - Observe if a child puts a finger or fist in and out of the mouth. - Observe if a child notices toys, people around and turns its head to look at the faces of other people when you hold the child in your arms. - Observe if the child watches its own hands. - Make sound at the level of an infant’s ear from behind with a cup/katori, spoon or a low frequency rattles if available and observe for a startle response. - Observe if your child becomes quiet or smile in response to your voice even if you can’t be seen.

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Study Pocket Card (777KB) The endothelium is the inner lining of blood vessels. The cells in this lining help regulate blood flow and immune system function. Problems with endothelial cells can contribute to heart disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes. Certain genes or parts of genes may be related to problems with endothelial function. Researchers want to study healthy adults who have genes that may affect their endothelial function. More information on these genes may provide more information on genetic risk for certain diseases. Participants will have a single study visit that will take place at the NIEHS Clinical Research Unit (CRU) in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, and volunteers will be compensated for their time. Participants will be screened with a physical exam and medical history. Blood and urine samples will be collected. Participants will have an ultrasound of the artery in the arm and will be given a short-acting medication called nitroglycerin to study blood flow and blood pressure. - Ages Eligible for Study: 18–70 years - Genders Eligible for Study: All - Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No - Participant of the Environmental Polymorphisms Registry and current contact information available - Genotype information available for relevant CYP2J2 and EPHX2 polymorphisms, which indicates: - WT for EPHX2 K55R and WT for CYP2J2 7 - WT for EPHX2 K55R and heterozygous for CYP2J2 7 - WT for CYP2J2 7 and heterozygous for EPHX2 K55R (N=30) - WT for CYP2J2 7 and homozygous for EPHX2 K55R (N=30) - Willing and able to provide informed consent - Able to comply with all protocol procedures

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One year after Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf Coast, engineers and designers are still studying measures to improve the durability of buildings. According to researchers for the Wind Engineering Research Center at Texas Tech University, concrete is a good bet–much better than wood and steel. Jackie Craven of About.com explains the study: To duplicate hurricane-like conditions in the laboratory, researchers shot wall sections with 15-pound 2 x 4 lumber “missiles” at up to 100 mph, simulating debris carried in a 250 mph wind. These conditions cover all but the most severe tornadoes. Hurricane wind speeds are less than the speeds modeled here. Missile tests designed to demonstrate damage from hurricanes use a 9-pound missile traveling about 34 mph. Researchers tested 4 x 4-foot sections of concrete block, several types of insulating concrete forms, steel studs, and wood studs to rate performance in high winds. The sections were finished as they would be in a completed home: drywall, fiberglass batt insulation, plywood sheathing, and exterior finishes of vinyl siding, clay brick, or stucco. All the concrete wall systems survived the tests with no structural damage. Lightweight steel and wood stud walls, however, offered little or no resistance to the “missile.” The 2 x 4 ripped through them. “The results of the tests were not surprising, but they were dramatic,” says Donn Thompson, PCA’s residential technology program manager. “Concrete walls meet both the criteria needed to protect occupants in a severe storm—structural integrity and missile shielding ability.”

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A positive whole number has two digits When the two digits are reversed, a new number is formed. The difference between the squares of the tow numbers is 2376. The sum of the two numbers is 66 times the difference between the digits of the original number. Find the two numbers. Is there a way to solve it by simple factorisation or it has to be solved using simultaneous equations (e.g. let x be 10 and y be 5 etc) The algebra one is like this, but can it be solved by simple factorisation? Alrighty, so we set X and Y to be the two digits of the number. Let X>Y. So our first number, if we assume it is the larger of the two, is 10x+y and its reversal is x+10y The sum of the two numbers is 66 times the difference between the digits So that gives us 10x+y + x+10y = 66(x-y) 11(x+y) = 66(x-y) (x+y)=6(x-y) -> Eq A The difference between the squares is 2376, so we have (10x+y)^2 - (x+10y)^2 = 2376 100x^2 + 20xy + y^2 - x^2 - 20xy - 100y^2 = 2376 99x^2 - 99y^2 = 2376 x^2 - y^2 = 24 (x+y)*(x-y) = 24 substitute Eq A 6(x-y)*(x-y) = 24 (x-y)^2 = 4 x-y = 2 (remember we defined x>y) Plug that into Eq A x+y = 12 (x-y) + (x+y) = 2 + 12 2x = 14, x = 7, ergo y = 5

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by Ken-Hou Lin and Megan Tobias Neely* As the coronavirus spread around the world, the global economy entered a recession unprecedented in scale. The World Bank predicts a 5.2 percent economic contraction by the end of this year—the largest downturn since World War II. The current crisis is so enormous in magnitude that it has been called the Great Lockdown. Yet, the stock markets worldwide have surged at a stunning rate since the end of March and the S&P 500 jumped near 40%. The rally took place amidst widespread job loss, disrupted global supply chains, and the absence of a probable cure or vaccine for a pandemic that kills thousands of people daily. Pundits have speculated why the current disconnect between the real economy and financial markets exists, whether it be the assurance provided by the Federal Reserve or the soundness of public corporations. But no one can deny that the widely held belief in financial markets as a reflection of the economy’s strength is mere fiction. Stock prices do not measure the value that firms can create from producing but the profits they can distribute from extracting. A shrinking economy hurts only the former and not necessarily the latter. In our new book, Divested: Inequality in the Age of Finance, we document how the United States has been taken over by finance. We show that the rise of finance represents a paradigmatic, regressive shift in how American society organizes economic resources. In this process, financial markets have channeled tremendous resources to investors and the financial sector, divesting ordinary households and states. The divorce between the economy and financial markets did not start in 2020 but in the 1990s. While the two were loosely linked between 1950 and 1990, financial markets began to decouple from the real economy during the Clinton administration, because of financial deregulation. Shareholder value became the corporate doctrine, mass layoffs become common practice, and economic inequality soared. The Great Recession, following the 2008 financial crisis, exposed the consequences of this finance-driven economy. While the regulatory and monetary policies did steer the US economy away from a catastrophic collapse, the recovery was slow, painful, and highly uneven. Governmental stimuli, mostly in the form of monetary policies, first went to banks and large corporations, with the belief that credit would eventually trickle down to families in need. The “banks and corporations first” approach worked, but only rescued the financial sector. Even though the financial crisis wiped out almost three-quarters of financial sector profits, the comeback was striking. Before mid-2009, the financial sector had brought in a quarter more income than 2007. Profits continued to grow in the following years. In 2017, the sector made 80 percent more than before the crisis. Similarly, the stock market began to rebound in 2009 and fully recovered in 2013. To be clear, what was good for the stock market did not necessarily benefit American families. More than 80 percent of the stock market is owned by only 10 percent of Americans and foreign investors. Thus, the prosperity brought about by investing in the stock market does little for middle- and working-class families. The unemployment rate was still as high as 8 percent in 2013 and the single-family mortgage delinquency continued to hover above 10 percent. By 2016, a typical American family owed 30 percent less wealth than they did in 2007. The racial wealth gap only widened during the recovery. The median household wealth of white, black, and Hispanic households all dropped around 25 percent after the burst of the real estate bubble. But white households recovered at a much faster pace. By 2016, black households had still lost about 30 percent of their wealth, compared to 14 percent for white families. The unequal recovery shows that using monetary policy to address economy crisis creates a clear principal-agent problem by giving money to the banks and having them serve as stewards for the rest of the economy. This was particularly evident in the ineffectiveness of quantitative easing. The conventional wisdom held that banks—as well as corporations and investors—knew how to put the credit into best use. And so, to provide liquidity and stimulate economic growth, the Federal Reserve increased the supply of money by purchasing treasury- and mortgage-backed securities from banks. What the banks did, however, was prioritize their own interests over those of the public. They were hesitant to lend the money out to homebuyers and small businesses, since the money would then be locked into long-term loans that paid low interest. Instead, they deposited most of the funds and waited for interest rates to rise. As the nation faces another economic crisis, it appears that loose monetary policy and finance-centered welfare are again the default remedies. The Federal Reserve took action to cut the benchmark interest rate to near zero—a policy move that does not directly support those hardest hit by the crisis. Private banks have been tasked with distributing a majority of small business loans, which brought in $10 billion in fees. These painkillers, after all, do not cure the disease; they merely deaden the symptoms. We show in Divested that the US society has come to a turning point. Decades of economic transfer from productive to financial activities and from workers and the state to executives and shareholders has created an extremely volunerable society. Poor public health investments, crumbling infrastructure, flimsy social safety nets, and insufficient employment protection all contribute to the ongoing crisis in the United States. All these deficiencies not only put many lives at risk but also undermine the public’s confidence in the long-term prosperity of the US economy. All is made worse by a president who failed to enact a comprehensive government response to the virus, worrying that any action would scare investors. While more urgent actions should be taken to lessen the economic impacts on American families, a new “New Deal” must be made. The coronavirus crisis shows that universal healthcare and paid sick leave are not just policies benefiting those who do not have them but also improves the safety and wellbeing of those who do. Having a more robust social safety net already in place would rescue a vulnerable population from unexpected economic turmoil. Importantly, the crisis reveals that we need to divest our resources away from financial markets and re-invest in institutions that support a prosperous society. One lesson of the on-going disaster: There is no true winner in a deeply unequal society. * Ken-Hou Lin is Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Texas at Austin. Megan Tobias Neely is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Organization at Copenhagen Business School and a postdoctoral researcher at Stanford University’s VMware Women’s Leadership Innovation Lab. (The emphases added by the editor.)

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Joseph the Educator Joseph the Educator In this week's Torah portion, Mikeitz, Joseph, now the viceroy of Egypt, receives a visit from his brothers who seek relief from the famine in Canaan. While Joseph recognizes them, they don't realize that he is the brother they kidnapped and sold into slavery. This makes sense. They expected him to have died as a poor slave in Egypt long before. There is no reason for them to suspect that the Egyptian VIP who confronts them, speaking through an interpreter, is long-lost Joseph. Joseph could them kill when he recognizes them. He could embrace them, forgiving them and consoling them to feel no guilt. He does neither. Instead, anticipating King David,1 and later, Hamlet,2 he puts on an act. In his case, he pretends to suspect them of being spies. He imprisons them. Then, he lets them leave and return to Canaan, keeping Simeon as a hostage of sorts. He tells them not to come back without their youngest brother (Benjamin). Why does Joseph behave this way? Is it to exact vengeance on his brothers? To manipulate reality in such a way that his boyhood dreams will come true and all of his brothers will bow down to him? I think not. I believe Joseph is teaching his brothers—and by extension us—that repentance happens not when you confess or say you are sorry. Repentance occurs when you are confronted with the same temptation and refuse to do the same thing. The medieval sage, Moses Maimonides, claimed this as the mark of true repentance. In The Natural, the great 20th century American writer, Bernard Malamud shows us a character who makes the opposite choice. The book tells about the baseball player Roy Hobbes who makes a mistake early in his career and pays dearly for it. Unlike the movie of the same name with Robert Redford, the book ends on a sad note. Confronted with a similar dilemma years later, after climbing his way back to the top, Hobbes does the same thing yet again. It is understandable why Hollywood would change the ending. Joseph knows that his brothers can only repent of their transgression against him by changing their course of action when confronted with a similar choice. And he needs a stand in for himself, because he no longer is vulnerable to their machinations. Benjamin is the stand in. Through a series of manipulations, culminating in next week's Torah portion, Joseph sets up a scene by which his brothers can return to Canaan well-provisioned, with only this price—they must leave Benjamin behind. At this point in the story, Judah, the fourth oldest son, but a clear leader, steps up and announces that he cannot allow Benjamin to be taken away from his family. Judah declares that he will go into slavery in lieu of Benjamin (Genesis 44:33). This is all that Joseph needs to hear. He clears the room and sheds some personal tears. He reveals himself to his brothers. Just like Willy Wonka, who discloses that Charlie has passed the test and inherited the chocolate factory, Joseph explains that the test is over and the brothers have passed. Joseph tests his brothers, but he also teaches them a way back from the abyss. It is no coincidence that the editors of the new Reform High Holiday prayer book, Mishkan HaNefesh, chose to include a Torah reading from the Joseph story for Yom Kippur.3 It is not only because, according to ancient Jewish tradition, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers on Yom Kippur.4 It is also because the lesson of Joseph is essential to Yom Kippur. We can change our ways. It begins with confession and sorrow but it ends with changing our behavior. To quote Maimonides: Those who meet the same challenge but do the right thing, their repentance is complete. (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Repentance, 2:1) It is no accident, then, that we are named Jews after Judah. He was the brother who stepped up and passed the test. He proved that his character had deepened and he would now make the right choice. Interestingly, it was a woman, Tamar, back in chapter 38 of Genesis, who taught him the meaning of integrity after he lied to her about her future with his son. At one point in the narrative, realizing his mistakes, Judah declared that Tamar is "more righteous than I" (Genesis 38:26). Ironically, this recognition has resonance later on in the Rabbinic term of adulation for his younger, testing brother: Joseph the Righteous5 will be his name. Righteousness leads to righteousness. Tamar's integrity influences Judah's. Judah's beau geste enables Joseph to forgive his brothers. This happy tale hinges, however, on the test of Joseph. His actions may appear cruel but they are by design and they enable the family—and by extension—the Jewish people to move forward. I once heard about a teacher who gave out a quiz with the following instructions: "I'm giving you two tests today, one in trigonometry and one in honesty. I hope you pass both of them. But if you pass only one, be sure it's the test in honesty because there are a lot of good people who don't know any trigonometry, but there are no good people who are not honest." Life tests us all. The question is not whether we will fail. We will. The question is whether or not we will learn from our failures and change. Judah shows us the way. I Samuel 21:14 William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Hamlet, 1.5.170-172 Genesis 50:14-26 in Mishkan HaNefesh (NY:CCAR, 2015) Book of Jubilees 34:12 Babylonian Talmud, Yoma 35b Rabbi Edwin C. Goldberg is the Senior Rabbi of Temple Sholom in Chicago, IL. He is the coordinating editor of the new High Holiday prayer book, Mishkan HaNefesh (CCAR). He has a doctorate in Hebrew Letters from Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion and has published five books, most recently Love Tales from the Talmud (URJ Press) and Saying No and Letting Go: Jewish Wisdom on Making Room for What Matters Most (Jewish Lights). Rabbi Goldberg points out that Joseph forgives his brothers only after they have illustrated their repentance for the wrong they did to him. They refuse, after confronted with the same temptation, to do the same thing. But Joseph has work to do as well before their reconciliation can occur. He is a skilled interpreter of dreams, especially those of the Pharaoh. Within all of Torah, the word "interpret" (from the root pei-tav-reish, in its verbal and noun form) is used only in Genesis 40 (7x) and 41 (7x), but so often as to suggest that "interpret" offers the key to what Joseph must do. He needs to discern the meaning of what has happened to him, this time not in a dream but in reality, not for Pharaoh but for himself. What must Joseph learn? At the height of his power Joseph exults in Genesis 41:51, "For God has made me forget all the troubles I endured in my father's house." Joseph thinks he is done with the past. Soon enough he learns that he is not. Memory floods Joseph when he recognizes his brothers standing before him in Egypt. He wakes as if from a dream to the rawness of his trauma and loss from so long ago. His tears lead to insight and recovery. Joseph weeps first after hearing his brothers express their guilt over what they did to him (Genesis 42:21, 24). Joseph weeps again when seeing Benjamin. "Overcome with feeling for his brother," in Genesis 43:30, Joseph eventually turns back to his other brothers. Forgetting for Joseph, just as for most of us, is never really an option. But we can wake from dreams to clarity and compassion. Love can follow anguish. As a student of mine once memorably observed, tears, not words, led the way. Dr. Adriane Leveen is a senior lecturer in Hebrew Bible at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York, NY. Mikeitz, Genesis 41:1-44:17 The Torah: A Modern Commentary, pp. 264–277; Revised Edition, pp. 267–283; The Torah: A Women's Commentary, pp. 233–258

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Varanasi, also commonly known as Banaras or Benaras, is a city situated on the banks of the River Ganges in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, 320 kilometres (199 mi) southeast of state capital Lucknow. It is regarded as a holy city by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the oldest in India. The Kashi Naresh (Maharaja of Kashi) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi and an essential part of all religious celebrations. The culture of Varanasi is closely associated with the River Ganges and the river's religious importance. The city has been a cultural and religious centre in North India for several thousand years. The Benares Gharana form of the Indian classical music developed in Varanasi, and many prominent Indian philosophers, poets, writers, and musicians resided or reside in Varanasi. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath located near Varanasi (Kashi). People often refer to Varanasi as "the city of temples", "the holy city of India", "the religious capital of India", "the city of lights", "the city of learning", and "the oldest living city on earth." Information based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varanasi

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Introduction to Oracle Net Services Architecture This module adds more depth to our prior discussion of Oracle Net Services architecture. We will look at the Oracle Net components and at all of the parameter files, including the - protocol.ora, and - sqlnet.ora files. We will also see how the pieces fit together and how Net uses these files to establish database communications. After completing this module, you will be able to: - Describe the syntax and function of Net parameter files - Define the components of Oracle network tools - Describe the components and functions of the tnsnames.ora file - Explain how the protocol.ora file operates - Explain the purpose and uses of the sqlnet.ora file - Establish Net communications at the process level - Explain the purpose and syntax of Oracle database links - Establish connections over database links We will begin the module by looking at the syntax and function of the Net parameter files. Oracle Names Legacy Oracle Names is a product that stores connection information about all databases in a distributed environment in a single location. Any time an application issues a connection request, it consults the Oracle Names repository to determine the location of the database server. Oracle Names is primarily an administrative aid that makes the maintenance of this information easier. Its use is not required; the alternative is to provide local tnsnames.ora files on every client machine. Oracle Names Upgrade If you upgrade all or part of your network to Oracle9i, you should upgrade all the Oracle Names Servers in the region to version 9. - Can my release 8.0 clients use Oracle Names version 9 to resolve service names? - Can my release 8.0 clients then use the connect descriptor returned from Oracle Names version 9 to connect to an Oracle version 8 database? Yes, if the connect descriptor was specified correctly when it was entered into Oracle Names. Oracle supplies three key components that interact to locate services, establish connections, transport data, and handle exceptions. They are: - Oracle Net Services - Transparent Network Substrate (TNS) - Oracle Listener While the interaction among these products does not generally require intervention beyond the initial installation, some customizations are often beneficial in an environment that is making heavy use of snapshots, symmetric replication, or other distributed functionality. About Oracle Net Services Oracle Net Services provides enterprise-wide connectivity solutions in distributed, heterogeneous computing environments. Oracle Net Services eases the complexities of network configuration and management, maximizes performance, and improves network diagnostic capabilities. This section introduces the basic networking concepts involved in a typical network configuration. Oracle Net, a component of "Oracle Net Services", enables a network session from a client application to an Oracle Database server. When a network session is established, Oracle Net acts as the data courier for both the client application and the database. It is responsible for establishing and maintaining the connection between the client application and database, as well as exchanging messages between them. Oracle Net is able to perform these jobs because it is located on each computer in the network.

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Best Practices Manual for Supervisors By: Carla E. Elder Date: October 11, 2010 Instructor: Shannon Stahl This manual is for those who want to learn how to be an effective and productive supervisor in their department. Being able to communicate, training, and provide a safe and exciting environment within your company is essential, and how you treat your employees can determine your skills at being a successful in your supervisory duties. In this manual, you will find a few pointers on how to accomplish this goal. TABLE OF CONTENTS Demonstrating Communication Skills Determining Effective Orientation and Training Methods Chapter 3: Improving Productivity for Teams Conducting Performance Appraisals Improving Employee Relations Demonstrating Communication Skills In this chapter you will learn what communication means and how to demonstrate effective communication skills. What is communication? It’s the act of exchanging information. It can be used to, command, instruct, assess, influence, and persuade other people. It is important for all aspects of life, including business. People communicate every day. Having good communication skills can affect how successful a supervisor is within his or her department. Some of the things that are useful when communicating with employees are: * Communicating with employees is vital for supervisors. They must be able to be clear and precise when giving instructions to employees so that they are able to perform effectively. By being able to communicate effectively they can motivate their workers so that they are excited about work. Being able to listen and allow others to voice their opinions and views are vital when supervising others. * Learning to interact between individuals involves sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal messages. The purpose of communicating in this manner is so that the sender is understood and the receiver understands. This type of communication is called interpersonal communication. Sometimes this type of communication can fail due to poor listening habits, inadequate communication skills, insufficient feedback, and inappropriate assumptions. Remember that interpretations if not assumed correctly can cause problems that otherwise if heard or interpreted correctly would not have causes so much chaos. Learning the semantics of words can determine how people interpret them. Choosing them carefully and making sure that they are defined clearly when used helps when communicating effectively. Every individual has their own unique perception. We as humans often perceive the same situation in different ways. What one may hear the other may not, which can cause a simple statement to be taken out of context. Learning to communication effectively is important in all aspects of life and to be the supervisor that excels above and beyond, calls for being able to communicate with employees, effectively, efficiently, and productively. Chapter 2: Determining Effective Orientation and Training Methods How do you determine what is correct when orientating and training new employees? There are various procedures used to orientate employees and it varies based on the individual company. The is no on-time orientation process, but it is ongoing and for as long as an employee works with a specific company, the orientation process can continue depending on the employees ability to advance. It is the job of both the supervisor and the human resource department to orientate the employee into the new company environment. The supervisor’s job is to ensure that the employee makes a safe and successful transition into the department and with fellow co-workers. A good supervisor takes time to explain to the employee about the company, what is expected of the employee, job duties, rules, regulations, policies and procedures,... Please join StudyMode to read the full document

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There was but little difference in the ways taxis and commercial buses operated in Lagos in the 1980s. Like their commercial bus counterparts, taxi operators drove from one bus stop to another picking and dropping off passengers. This mode of operation prevailed until some residents decided to live up to the city’s tag of showmanship. They suddenly decided that they would no longer share taxi seats with other passengers. That was how the idea of ‘taxi drop’ was born. By this, an individual who boards a taxi does not expect the driver to pick any other passenger until he or she has alighted. Such an individual must be prepared to pay highly for the service. He or she could pay as much as 10 times the fare he would have paid if he were to share the seats with other passengers. For obvious reasons, it was an idea taxi drivers also relished. With a ‘drop’ passenger, the taxi driver is saved the stress of moving from bus stop to bus stop in search of passengers. It also means he would make more money carrying fewer passengers and thus reduce the pressure on his cab. In fewer hours, taxi drivers began to make more money than they did in the ‘pre-drop’ era. However, less fortunate commuters who did not have the wherewithal to carry drops found themselves at the receiving end. Because they could no longer enjoy the luxury of a taxi, they had to settle for danfo or molue buses. Happily for this category of commuters, commercial motorcycles appeared on the scene as they bemoaned their fate. The motorcycle, popularly called okada, became a faster and more comfortable option. Before long, there was an avalanche of okada on Lagos streets. It soon became a more popular mode of transportation than buses and taxis. But its use was restricted to neighbourhood streets. But as time went by, okada riders in the city became more and more daring as their rank swelled with the nation’s army of unemployed youths. Even stark illiterates found in it an opportunity to earn a living because they needed no certificate or formal training to engage in the business. As competition in the business became keener, okada riders began to explore new routes until they started plying the city’s highways they had previously dreaded because of the danger of being knocked down in the deluge of vehicles on such roads. Thus, Agege Motor Road, Ikorodu Road and Lagos-Abeokuta Expressway and other highways in the city came under the patronage of okada riders. They rode with suicidal brashness, overtaking vehicles on the highways in the most reckless manner and generally exposing their lives and those of their passengers and other road users to serious danger. They had no regard for the traffic control mechanisms put in place by the state government and ignored the highway codes and traffic rules that seek to put accidents in check. They even disregarded government’s directive to ride their motorcycle with crash helmets. The dangers posed by the new line of business would later be compounded with the security threats it constituted. Its swift nature soon made it a potent tool for smuggling, armed robbery, assassination and other social vices. Realising these threats, the government decided that the time had come to restrict the activities of okada riders to neighbourhood streets where they operated originally. It made it an offence to ply about 500 of the close to 5,000 roads and streets around the city. But protests have since greeted the new law. The protests, which started on a peaceful note, assumed a violent dimension early in the week as some okada riders in the city went on the rampage, destroying many of the BRT (Bus Rapid Transport) buses with which the state government has considerably eased transportation problems in the city. To be sure, the attacks on government-owned buses were intended as reprisals against the seizure and destruction of many motorcycles whose owners were caught violating the new traffic rules. Of course, one could argue that the manner in which the Lagos State Government has destroyed many of the confiscated motorcycles bordered on heartlessness. What, one would ask, does the state government stand to gain from destroying the motorcycles when their owners could be asked to retrieve them with sums that are huge enough to make them not to contemplate plying the highways again. In the alternative, the confiscated motorcycles could be auctioned if they are not claimed by their owners after a specified number of days. Millions of farmers in the rural areas are in need of motorcycles to move their crops to the market. If they have no way of coming to Lagos to buy, their children or relations in the city can buy and send to the village. Yet, the attacks on buses that had eased the pains of commuters in the state were ill-informed. With the attacks, the okada riders have inadvertently pitted themselves against the remaining members of the public. From the underdogs, they have become the aggressors. To win a battle of this nature, they need a lot of public sympathy. Unfortunately, whatever public sympathy they had enjoyed would appear to have been squandered with the senseless attacks on public buses. Now their case is not anything better than that of a man slated for incineration robbing his body with oil. From the perspective of public interest, the decision of the state government to crush some motorcycles that had been confiscated from errant okada riders stands more justifiable than the defiant heartlessness with which okada riders went about vandalising public property. While the government’s action can simply be defended as an exercise carried out in public interest, the latter would only be viewed from the prism of selfishness on the part of the okada riders. Many, who before now had condemned government’s onslaught against okada riders as a wicked attempt to rob them of their only source of income after failing to provide jobs for teeming youths in the state would now readily endorse an outright ban on okada business. From the image of a brute it had borne since it started destroying seized motorcycles, the state government is now perceived as overwhelmingly generous to allow continued operation of okada business even in the city’s neighbourhoods. Even the argument that the state government could inadvertently be encouraging okada riders dispossessed of their motorcycles to go into such crimes as armed robbery and assassination has been reduced to the debate on the older creature between the hen and the egg. The voices of those who say okada business is a booster and not an inhibitor of these vices now appear to be louder.

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In a Country well governed, poverty is something to be ashamed of. In a country badly governed, wealth is something to be ashamed of – Confucius Poverty is a condition in which people are deprived of the basic necessities of life.In a country like India, poverty has a historical relation. It started from the time of British colonial rule and spread like an infectious disease all over the country. According to sources, the World Bank has clearly stated that India has the largest number of people living below the international poverty line. Poverty exposes people to suffer every now and then in their day to day life for survival and thus it is beyond the capacity of the rich people to imagine the heights of exploitation that the poor people go through in order to live. Here, I would like to mention about one of the award winning documentary film “Children of the Pyre” which clearly explains the struggle of seven children surviving in India’s business Cremation ground Manikarnika, Varanasi. Every day near about 100 bodies are cremated on that ground and these boys steal those used shrouds to sell them for money. How choking it could be that at the very age of enjoying their childhood they have to invest their whole time on the dead and survive on the corpse for livelihood. My heart wrenches when i think about the tragic condition faced by these little faces. The condition is turning even more vulnerable because the government is not taking any measure to improve the lifestyle of these people. There seems to be a lack of sympathy for the unfortunate. However, it is worth mentioning that there has been a gradual change in the poverty ratios of the country. Since in India Planning commission is considered to be the prime agency to research the poverty data and estimate the poverty line of the country, therefore, every year large sample surveys on household and expenditure are carried throughout the country. Recently the world bank has clearly stated that India has the largest number of people surviving below the international poverty line. The world bank has revised its method of poverty estimation. And according to this new method, the world has 872.3 million people below the poverty line and among those 179.6 million people live in India. Since it has turned out to be a multi dimensional issue in our country, therefore, I think it’s high time for the government to take proper initiative to eradicate extreme poverty.

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J. R. is, of course, Union General John F. Reynolds, the highest ranking officer to lose his life in the Battle of Gettysburg. He was killed early in the battle on July 1, soon after he made a crucial decision to engage the advancing Confederates at Gettysburg. Among the histories of the battle there appears to be consensus that it was a Confederate sharpshooter who picked him off. Jacob Hoke, in The Great Invasion of 1863, one of the early histories of the battle, writes that, “General Reynolds, anxious as to the result rode forward a short distance to reconnoiter, and raising his field glasses to his eyes he sought to take in the full situation, when a ball from a sharp-shooter’s musket struck him in the back of the head, coming out near the eyes, and he fell dead.” Two highly influential 20th Century histories of the battle by Glenn Tucker, in High Tide at Gettysburg, and Bruce Catton, in Glory Road, concurred with Hoke, that it was a sharpshooter, but each added additional details. Reynolds, expecting support, had turned in the saddle to look toward the crest of the ridge behind him. It was 10:15 A.M. He was struck in the back of the neck by a Minie’ ball fired by a marksman from a tree on the bank of the stream. The ball passed through his head and came out the other side of the eye. . . . Reynolds fell forward without speaking a word. His frightened horse was dashing toward the open fields when his aides caught it. The body dropped lifeless from the saddle. They wrapped him in an army blanket, and a detail from the 76th New York carried him to the seminary and on to the little stone house of George George on the Emmitsburg road. Catton’s described the incident: Now Reynolds was studying the battle, trying to make out just how much weight lay back of the Rebel attack, and a Southern sharpshooter in an old stone barn got him in the sights of his rifle and shot him dead. The only thing consistent in these accounts – and we could cite numerous other ones – is that Reynolds was shot by a sharpshooter. Otherwise, none are in agreement with one another. Hoke has Reynolds peering through his field glasses when he is hit in the back of the head by a sharpshooters ball that kills him instantly. We don’t know where the sharpshooter is but it sounds like he is behind Reynolds. Tucker tells us the sharpshooter was in a tree on the bank of a stream, which can only be Willoughby Run. He also adds the detail that Reynolds horse spooked and started to dash toward an open field until one of his aides caught it and that it was not until this point that the general fell from the saddle. We also learn that it was a detail from the 76th New York, from Brigadier General Lysander Cutler’s brigade that carried him from the field. Catton disagrees with Tucker. The sharpshooter was not in a tree along Willoughby Run, he was in an old stone barn, which can only be the Edward McPherson barn. The belief that Reynolds fell to a sharpshooter’s bullet began long before these histories were written. There were at least two Confederate veterans who came forward after the war to claim that they were the sharpshooter that had fired the bullet. Who was first is hard to establish. Perhaps the earliest was Ben Thorpe, of Satterwhite, North Carolina. In 1903 the Pittsburgh Leader newspaper related his story. We are told that Thorpe was 16 in 1863 and a sharpshooter in the 26th North Carolina. Each man in the 26th was a sharpshooter, “trained by long practice to pick a squirrel from the top of a tall tree.” Ben was sent up a cherry tree that morning and had been perched there for nearly one half hour when a group of officers rode up on a little knoll 900 yards away and halted. Thorpe’s lieutenant appeared below the cherry tree and called up to Thorpe, “Ben, do you see the tall, straight man in the centre of that group? He is evidently an officer of some high rank and is directing operations which threaten our line. Sight your gun at 700 yards and see if you can reach him.” Ben let fly but “saw” that the bullet struck short of its mark. He elevated the sight on his “long-barrelled rifle” to 900 yards and fired. This time the horse plunged forward and the rider fell from his saddle. “Ben, it did its work,” said Thorpe’s lieutenant (who remains nameless in the story). Not until afterwards did Thorpe learn who he had shot and he admitted that he was “genuinely sorry,” since Reynolds was known as such a brave, good soldier. [“He Shot General Reynolds,” Vertical File V-5 Participant Accounts, John F. Reynolds, Gettysburg NMP Library.] In 1947 a sensational story circulated that a Mount Airy, North Carolina man that made and sharpened the tools by which the bronze monument of General Reynolds on the Pennsylvania Monument was carved, had actually shot the general 47 years earlier. His name was Frank Wood. We are not told what regiment he belonged to only that he and fellow sharpshooter, “Private Cox,” became separated from their company early in the battle and “found themselves” in a railroad cut. The story continues: “From this cover they surveyed the scene. A few hundred yards away they saw on a big horse a man, gold braid on his hat, epauletts on his shoulders, scabbard and boots with spurs and other accoutrements speaking of high rank. He was standing up in his stirupps, waving his sword and shouting to his men. ‘Give them hell, boys. Give them grape. Give them hell. Give them grape.’” Private Cox asked Wood if he thought he could pick off the Union general. The range was great, (we are not told any specifics on the range other than Reynolds was a “few hundred yards away”), but Wood gave it a try, took deliberate aim and fired. Reynolds fell from his horse dead. [“Killed General, Later Sharpened Tools to Carve Monument to Him,” Vertical File V-5 – Participant Accounts, John F. Reynolds, Gettysburg NMP Library.] In 1952 the York [PA] Sunday News revisited the Ben Thorpe story. In this version Thorpe was only a short distance off the Cashtown (Chambersburg) Road, at the edge “of an ancient orchard.” Thorpe climbed a cherry tree, as he had in his 1903 account, but this time the officer at the base of the tree was a Captain Webb, who Thorpe relates was killed two days later in Pickett’s Charge. This time Thorpe fired three times before he hit Reynolds; the first shot with his sights set at 1,100 yards, the second at 900 yards, and the third, and fatal, shot at 800 yards. The story the Sunday News carried had been told to Lender Hensel, a Lancaster resident who met Thorpe on a business trip to North Carolina in the early 1900’s. Hensel believed Thorpe because “there was no reason for him to lie. His story was not ‘old soldier boasting,’ it was told in an apologetic tone. He was, he said, ‘a Bible man.’” [“The Man Who Shot General Reynolds,” Sunday News, Nov. 23, 1952, Vertical File V-5 – Participant Accounts, John F. Reynolds, Gettysburg NMP Library.] Thorpe may have been a humble fellow and “a Bible man” but there are significant problems with his version of Reynolds death. There are, in fact, issues with every account that has Reynolds being killed by a sharpshooter. But, let us first take a closer look at Thorpe and Frank Wood. The first clue that something is amiss is revealed by searching the muster rolls of the 26th and 55th North Carolina. I include the 55th because this is the only regiment Wood could have been in, since they were the only North Carolina unit engaged at the time of Reynolds’s death. There was a D.T., Elliot, and James Wood in the 55th North Carolina but no Frank Wood. Ben Thorpe did serve in the 55th North Carolina, enlisting on June 1, 1863 at Petersburg, Virginia at age 18 as Benjamin Person Thorp without the ‘e.’ Thorpe was with his regiment at Gettysburg and was captured on July 14 at Falling Waters, Maryland at the end of the Gettysburg Campaign. He spent the rest of the war in Union prisons. While the fact that Thorp was at Gettysburg must render the possibility that he did shoot, or shoot at, some officer, the position of his regiment during the action precludes that it was Reynolds. It would also be surprising that an 18 year old with only one month’s service would be assigned duty as a sharpshooter. There was also no “Captain Webb” in the 26th Regiment, and no “Private Cox” in the 55th Regiment. There were many phony veterans in the post Civil War era, which Wood may have been. In addition, the 26th North Carolina was not engaged in the action in which Reynolds was killed, and while the 55th North Carolina was, they were nearly three-quarters of a mile north of the spot that Reynolds lost his life engaged in a desperate battle with General Lysander Cutler’s brigade. Tall tales such as Thorpe’s and Wood’s may have had some influence on Hoke, Tucker and Catton, and others, when they wrote their versions of Reynolds death. But precisely where Hoke, Tucker and Catton discovered some of the details they included is unknown, although we will explore some likely sources in part 2 of this post. Whatever their source, each account is problematic. If, as Hoke writes, Reynolds had his glasses up to his eye when he was shot in the back of the head, then he would have been looking at the Confederates, which means the sharpshooter had to have infiltrated Union lines to get behind the general to make his shot. This is simply not possible. In Tucker’s account the sharpshooter is in a tree along Willoughby Run. This would have been a spectacularly amazing shot since one cannot see Willoughby Run from where Reynolds was hit. Neither, as we shall see, is there any evidence that Reynolds horse bolted after he was hit, or that a party of the 76th New York carried him from the field. That regiment was fighting the 55th North Carolina at the time nearly a half-mile away. Catton has the sharpshooter in the McPherson barn, although he doesn’t mention it by name. But it is the only stone barn in sight of where Reynolds was shot so it is a safe assumption that this is what Catton meant. But four guns of Battery A, 2nd U.S. Artillery was positioned only yards away from this barn, and when Reynolds was shot had been relieved by the 2nd Maine Battery. There were also cavalrymen of Buford’s division around the farm. In addition, the 95th New York and 14th Brooklyn Infantry advanced to near the farm buildings at the time of Reynolds death. We can eliminate the McPherson barn as a possible hiding place for the man that shot Reynolds. Once we have eliminated all of these versions of Reynolds death as implausible or outright fabrications, we are still left with the question, who shot J.R.? In our next post we will examine the existing accounts of men on Reynolds staff that were with him when he was shot, and an obscure Confederate account, to see if they help resolve this mystery. D. Scott Hartwig,

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Cancer causes death in 50% of the population of dogs more than 10 years old. Like in humans, cancer can develop slowly and for no apparent reason. Neoplasia in Dogs - Neoplasia is described as the abnormal proliferation of cells. - It can occur in different parts of the body. - It can affect dogs of all ages and breed but is often observed in the older populations. - It is often observe in dogs but rarely in cats. What is Neoplasia in Dogs - Neoplasia is an abnormal growth of cells and tissues. - This should not be confused with tumors. Tumors are a form of neoplasm that has formed a lump while neoplasms do not necessarily form lumps. Still, for simplicity’s sake, the two terms may be used interchangeably. - It could be benign or malignant. - It can be caused by many different factors, including: - Reaction to vaccines and medications - Genetic predisposition - Ingestion or inhalation of toxins and carcinogens Symptoms of Neoplasia in Dogs - The following are some of the symptoms of neoplasia: - Sores that do not heal easily - Weight loss - Loss of appetite - Difficulty in swallowing - Abnormal lumps or swellings that grow - Bad odor - Breathing difficulties - Difficulty in urination and defecation - Lethargy or lack of energy - Bleeding in any body opening - The identification of the symptoms of neoplasia can alert the owner if the dog has this ailment.

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- Plants are living organisms and include trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. - The scientific study of plants is known as botany. - All plants are classified and have scientific names. - A plant's scientific name is the key to finding out all sorts of information about that plant species. - Plants have a life cycle. - Plants have the ability to adapt to their environment. - Australia has many unique plants. - School A to Z features links to third-party websites and resources. We are not responsible for the content of external sites. - The traditional ways of classifying plants have been based on the visible physical characterists of the plant. With DNA technologies, now scientists also use genetic characteristics to classify plants. - The scientific names of plants tell us something about the plant. Growth and change - All plants need these things to grow: room to grow, the right temperature, light, water, air, nutrients and time. - Plants convert light to energy using a process called photosynthesis. Check the photosynthesis diagram. - There are various parts of a plant and parts of a flower. Try this activity on flower parts. - Seeds and trees also have different parts. - All plants have a life cycle. Look at a diagram of a life cycle. - Seeds need to germinate before they can grow. Follow the video and germinate some seeds. There are many ways that seeds are dispersed. - Plants are pollinated to reproduce. - Plants have the ability to adapt to different environments. - Plants help people and the environment in many ways. - Australia has a floral emblem and so does every state and territory of Australia. - Australia has a variety of beautiful native plants. - History - early naturalists of Australia. - Plant glossary. - Ask a scientist - check out answers given to school children at the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens. - Visit Botany Bay- the large area of water was given the name by Captain James Cook because of the large number of plants discovered there by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, scientists on his voyage to Australia. - Watch this National Geographic video on plants. - Starting to grow - where do plants come from? - Plant glossary - Life cycle of plants - Activity - build a virtual garden - Activity - make a salad from plant parts - Activity - save this garden - Scientific information about trees - Changing colour of leaves - All about seeds - Plant parts - Science and plants for schools - Australia's biggest trees - Gardening for kids This site uses Google Translate, a free language translation service, as an aid. Please note translation accuracy will vary across languages. Doing it by the book As a parent it's only natural to want to help your child, but when it comes to homework and study, the completed work should be theirs. Here are some important points to remember to ensure your child is following good practice for a lifetime of learning.

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Operant conditioning has taught us that behavior can be controlled by its consequences. This means that causing discomfort (punishment) can be used to extinguish an undesirable behavior. If we apply this to criminal behavior, then it would be logical to assume that punishment for breaking the law will reduce criminal behavior. This notion has led to research to facilitate the understanding of how to effectively reduce the commission of crimes. The beginnings of the Deterrence Theory of Punishment may be found in the early works of Thomas Hobbes, Cesare Becarria, and Jeremy Bentham. Hobbs, Beccaria, and Bentham provided the foundation for modern deterrence theory in criminology (Mutchnick, Martin, Aus... ... middle of paper ... ... an individual’s decision to commit murder. Following this line of thought, Paul Horton and Gerald Leslie had this to say about the relationship between punishment and crime: “The misplaced faith that punishment may rest upon the unrealistic assumption that people consciously decide whether to be criminal – that they consider a criminal career, rationally balance its dangers against its rewards and arrive at a decision based upon such pleasure-pain calculation. It supposedly follows that if the pain element is increased by sever punishments, people will turn from crime to righteousness. A little reflection reveals the absurdity of this notion (Sutherland, Cressey, Luckenbill 2011).” Legal sanctions cannot deter criminal behavior unless people understand them. Other research has also found that studies report a weak relationship between the severity of the punishment Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Crime and its punishment are the responsibility of the criminal justice system. The system helps define what punishment is appropriate for which crime. The criminal justice system is in place to ensure that criminal laws are being adhered to according to the law. This judicial function is responsible for making sentences for those who are convicted for committing crimes. There are four traditional goals of punishment which are: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation (incarceration), and rehabilitation.... [tags: Crime, Criminal law, Criminal justice, Punishment] 724 words (2.1 pages) - An Analysis of the Proportionate Punishment for Crime and the Argument for “Mercy” in the Penal System in Crimes and Punishments by Cesare Beccaria This ethical study will define an argument in favor of proportionate punishment and the use of “mercy” dictate the measure of justice given to lawbreakers in the Cesare Beccaria 's Crimes and Punishments. Beccaria defines the premise that punishments should be in proportion to the crime, which provides a compassionate form of punishment per the crime being committed.... [tags: Crime, Criminal justice, Criminology] 1523 words (4.4 pages) - Criminal Justice Final Paper The criminal justice system is composed of many intricate parts that are all necessary for the system to work properly. Every division of the system accounts for its own specific tasks and does their best to protect the law of the land. The major components are the police, the courts and the corrections. Each of these groups bring their own set of specialized skills to reach further towards the goal of a peaceful society. The police are responsible for making arrest, writting citations, patrolling the streets, etc.... [tags: Crime, Criminal justice, Prison, Police] 1709 words (4.9 pages) - Theories of Crime and Criminal Activity Every theory of crime has at least 2-3 meta-theoretical levels above it. The fundamental issues are usually addressed at the approach level, and are often called the assumptions, or starting points, of a theory, although the term "assumptions" more strictly refers to the background or domain boundaries one can draw generalizations about. Above the approach level is the Perspective level, the largest unit of agreement within a scientific community, and in fact, the names for the scientific disciplines.... [tags: Crime Psychology ] 1492 words (4.3 pages) - The general theory of crime I would pick is the neoclassical school of theory. Neoclassical focuses on the importance of character and the dynamics of character development, as well as the rational choices that people make when faced with opportunities for crime (Schmalleger, 2012). This theory is practically what is used in law enforcement today. The neoclassical theory focuses on punishment as being a deterrent for future crimes. Unfortunately, it is becoming more evident is the criminal justice system, criminals are being punished lightly or the charge is downgraded.... [tags: Crime, Capital punishment, Prison, Criminology] 878 words (2.5 pages) - A crime is an action considered to be violating the law. There are various kinds of crimes, whose determination is influenced by the current living conditions. Hence, with the implementation of new technologies, and innovations such as the Internet, crimes do not only exist in the physical world, but also in the cyber world. Thus, there are many differences and similarities between these two concepts, among which the most relevant are: the scale, the reach, perception and media effect, and the speed.... [tags: Crime, Theft, Robbery, Capital punishment] 864 words (2.5 pages) - A Nihilistic Analysis of Crime and Punishment This paper provides an exhaustive analysis, from a Nihilistic perspective, of the novel, Crime and Punishment. The paper is divided into many sections, each with a self-explanatory title in capital letters, such as the section that immediately follows this sentence. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MARMELADOV'S RECOLLECTION SCENE Katerina Ivanovna must deal with a man who drinks his life away while his family starves. Marmeladov recounts their suffering by first describing his loss of a job.... [tags: Dostoevsky Crime and Punishment] 4904 words (14 pages) - Introduction Capital punishment was an ancient penalty. This has incurred many argues since 18th century. The focal points are ‘value of life’ and ethical concerns. Besides, the economics analysis also is important, which focuses on the effects and efficiency of capital punishment. In the article, the anterior part indicates the supporting reasons of death penalty, the posterior part indicates the cons. Support Reason Deterrence of punishment Becker (1968), first of all, assumes that the crime is bad which incurs social loss, it should be deterred, death penalty is the severest punishment, and potential criminals are normal individuals.... [tags: Capital Punishment, Death Penalty] 1843 words (5.3 pages) - I. Summarize each of the theories posited in this chapter. In the early days of Juvenile justice a theory of criminology was developed to explain crime and why it was committed. The Classic School of Criminology developed after Cesare Bonesana Beccaria published an essay titled “On Crime and Punishment” and was followed by Jeremy Bentham’s “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation” (Bartollas, 2014, p.51) The general idea of this school of thought is that human have the ability to make the right choice, if not we will be punished.... [tags: Criminology, Crime] 1682 words (4.8 pages) - There is an ongoing problem in our society regarding punishment and responsibility. We, as a society, tend to look away when it comes to how criminals are being punished and maybe we should be paying more attention. Violence seems to be an integral part of our society, some raise their children with violence, we watch it on television, read it in newspapers and books and now we are even playing violent video games. When it comes to the judicial system the majority of citizens do not even know how individuals are being punished or if the punishment is too harsh, not severe enough or if the individual even needs punishment because what they may need is psychiatric help.... [tags: punishment, prisons, criminals] 769 words (2.2 pages)

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ACS Scott: input level effects on crop and soil heavy metal and metalloid concentrations Peer Reviewed StatusNon-Peer Reviewed MetadataShow full item record Different input levels, defined by a combination of tillage intensity and the application of agro-chemicals, affect the availability of heavy metals and metalloids in the soil and subsequently the absorption of heavy metals and metalloids by crops. We studied the effect of organic, high, and reduced input levels in a long-term rotation study on the concentration of 24 heavy metals and metalloids in yellow peas and hard red spring wheat. The Long-Term Agro- Ecosystem Research for the Canadian Prairie Ecozone (Alternative Cropping Systems Project) was established at the AAFC Research Farm in Scott, SK, Canada in 1994, rotating in six-year cycles. We found that selenium concentration in yellow peas and cobalt concentration in hard red spring wheat were highest under the organic input level, while cadmium levels in yellow peas were highest in the high and reduced input levels. The difference in soil heavy metal and metalloid concentration was not significant among input levels but significant between crop types. Part OfSoils and Crops Workshop The following license files are associated with this item:

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Image.open( "C:\test.jpg") is this wrong ? gagsl-py2 at yahoo.com.ar Tue Aug 28 06:23:35 CEST 2007 En Mon, 27 Aug 2007 11:48:46 -0300, Carnell, James E <jecarnell at saintfrancis.com> escribi�: >> Image.open("C:\test.jpg") # this is what I have right now. And it >> can't find the file or directory. The file is there (it is everywhere >> on my computer now!!!) Use "C:\\test.jpg" or r"C:\test.jpg" or "C:/test.jpg" instead. \t is interpreted as a tab character > I found some code where they apply the file path to a variable in single > quotes. Is that how it is done. Also I thought single quotes were for > characters not strings. a = 'This is a string' b = "This is a string too" c = """This is a d = '''This is e = "e" f = 'f' You can read the relevant Tutorial section here More information about the Python-list

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3 July 2018 Is it time to assess your website? You’ve probably never given much thought about the web browser you use when using the web, and why should you? Well, if you’ve decided to read this blog, you’re probably considering a website build with us or maybe you’re just curious about how browsers impact your experience of the web. Just like most technology, there’s a confusingly large number of browsers to choose from; all providing the same service, but all doing it in their own unique way. By the end of this blog, you’ll hopefully understand a bit more about the browsers we choose to support and the reasons behind our choices. Firstly, before we look at the reasons for supporting certain browsers, a quick lesson in what a browser is. A web browser is a software application that allows you to view web pages and access information across the web. The first browser, called “World Wide Web”, was created in 1990 and it didn’t take long for others to follow. By 1994, “Mosaic” and “Netscape Navigator” had been released and in 1995, Microsoft released the first version of a browser (which you may have actually heard of) called “Internet Explorer”. Most modern browsers are predictable in their behaviour and a web page will look and behave consistently across them. This is in part due to the fact that there are organisations that create standards for the browser developers to adhere to. The time it takes for browser developers to bring their browser up to these standards can differ greatly. This combined with the fact that browser developers will not alter their old (not supported) browser versions to meet these standards means that if you view the same web page in a few different browsers, it is possible that it will look or behave differently in each one. As with any technology, browsers are constantly improving. As browsers evolve, they offer greater support for new coding standards and methods that have been developed. Although these improvements might not always be obvious to the end user, they can often make a big difference for developers. These improvements and support for new coding standards can mean they have to write less code and their code is more manageable and lightweight. Anyway, enough about how it makes developers lives easier, what does this mean for you? These changes can lead to an improvement in performance, reducing the amount of computing power needed to browse the web and reducing the load times of websites. They bring with them new functionality and mean websites can become more powerful in terms of the functionality they provide; as well as allowing greater possibilities with the design of the site. Not everything you see on the web can work in all browsers, due to the browser limitations and the advancements in web technologies since that browser was released. An example of this is modern web-based online gaming. Some older browsers simply don’t have the power needed to render the games like modern browsers and some are unable to read the code used to create the games. Security is paramount for websites, especially those who handle sensitive data. It seems that every other month another large company is victim to a security breach through their website and you can imagine the damage this does to their reputation and business as a whole. One reason some browsers are left behind and new versions are released is due to security issues. If a security vulnerability is found in a browser, it’s developer will often address this issue, but only on the browser versions, it is actively supporting. This means if a security vulnerability is found on an older/unsupported version, it will not be fixed and using that browser can make you vulnerable. As you now know, not all browsers offer the same support for code; so an identical web page may not look the same in different browsers, as one browser may not be able to read/interpret certain code. In a lot of cases, it is possible to write code or add code to make the web page look and behave consistently across browsers. This does, however, add time and complexity to creating the website and becomes harder and more time consuming with the more browsers you support. We aim for our websites to work on as many devices and browsers as possible, but we can’t support them all. Although the browsers we support can differ on a website by website basis, a good way for us to choose which browsers to support is to look at their usage figures. If we’re building a website that will be used exclusively on a mobile device, we don’t have to worry about supporting desktop exclusive browsers (even though most will naturally be supported). Below is a list of the most popular browsers and their global usage percentage. Google Chrome holds the majority of the market share, helped massively by Chrome for Android which accounts for 52% of its usage. Safari’s usage figures are helped by its IOS (mobile) usage, which accounts for 43% of its usage. Firefox is a great browser but has a relatively small usage when compared to Google Chrome and Safari. Quite the change from 2004 where IE was used by 88.9%. Edge took over from Internet Explorer in 2015 and although it is considerably better than Internet Explorer, it still has a smaller usage. The remaining market share is made up of browsers such as Opera and browsers only available in certain countries, as well as device-specific browsers like browsers on smart TV’s. Usage statistics sourced from: ‘Browsers we support’ updated July 2018 3 July 2018 Is it time to assess your website?

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Immunization Schedule, Adults (cont.) Many bacteria can cause respiratory tract infections such as pneumonia. Pneumococcal organisms are the most common bacteria causing pneumonia. Pneumonia is especially dangerous for people with other serious medical conditions. Each year, about 1 million people are hospitalized for pneumonia. The pneumonia vaccine immunizes against the 23 most common strains of the pneumococcus bacteria. It does not contain any live bacteria. The healthier the immune system of the vaccine recipient, the better their immunity after the vaccine. Healthy young people have an excellent response compared to those who are older or those with a weakened immune system (such as people with diabetes, alcoholism, or cancer). - Who gets the vaccine: The immunization is recommended for adults 65 years and older; for anyone aged 2-64 years who has a chronic illness or other risk factors such as diabetes, lung, heart, or liver disease; for Alaska Natives, certain American Indian populations; for people who had their spleen removed; for people with sickle cell disease; for those with weakened immune systems (HIV, cancer, chronic kidney failure, organ transplantation); and for people receiving chemotherapy for cancer. - When given: The shot is routinely given as a onetime dose. It gives lifelong immunity. It can be given to someone who doesn't know if he or she has had the vaccine before. If the first dose was given before the age of 65 years and it has been more than five years since, another shot can be given. For those at highest risk, a onetime revaccination after five years is recommended. - Side effects: There may be joint aches and tenderness and redness at the injection site. Fever can occur. - The shot is not for anyone who has had an allergic reaction to the vaccine in the past. Pregnant or breastfeeding women may take the vaccine. Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 8/13/2014 Gregory L Walker, MD, FACEP, Ped EM Must Read Articles Related to Immunization Schedule, Adults A cough is a symptom of an underlying disease or condition. A chronic or persistent cough may signal certain lung conditions that should be evaluated by a healt...learn more >> Hepatitis is a general term that means inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis B is caused by infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV, Hep B). Hepatitis B is tra...learn more >> Immunizations and Antibiotics for Oversea Travel Most immunizations are not required under International Health Requirements but are recommended. Anyone lacking certain region- or country-specific immunization...learn more >> Patient Comments & Reviews The eMedicineHealth doctors ask about Immunization Schedule, Adults:

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The longest lived empires in history, the Roman and the Ottoman, lasted approximately six hundred years; the Jews, a people long without a land and scattered to the four winds, are un-obliterated after two millennia of persecution. Moral: empires fall, but nations survive – perhaps the single most important lesson of history. Nations survive defeat, enslavement and centuries of oppressions. Empires may mutate as the Russian did from Tsarist to Soviet, but they cannot withstand successful conquest. Then they always die and stay dead. Why are nations so stubbornly durable in contrast with empires? The answer is simple: an empire is a political construct, but a nation is an expression of Man’s nature. Where empires are held together by force or conscious self-interest, nations just exist, organic constructs which evolve out of Man’s innate tendency to associate in discrete, clearly bounded groups. The enlargement of human groups Taking the evidence of history as a whole, it is reasonable to conclude that there is an inherent tendency within human society to attempt to create ever larger units of political authority. It is probably no more than the general tendency of organisms to maximise their position in Nature by colonising as much territory as possible and then sustaining the maximum population the territory will bear. The fact that Man is a social animal with a high degree of self-awareness and intelligence makes human beings unique as an organism. These qualities allow Man to extend the group in ways which no other social animal can because the self-awareness and intelligence permits a psychological enlargement as well as a material one – the advent of farming was of course necessary to allow the human population to expand and form groups larger than the band or tribe. Nonetheless the process of group expansion is complex and fraught. In a tribe of 500 it is easy to see how a sense of belonging and identity exists, because everyone will have a personal relationship of some sort with everyone else. In a group of 10,000 that is not possible in any meaningful sense. Nonetheless, in a group of 10,000 the individual can still be practically aware of the group, for example through public meetings. With a group of a million the relationship between the group members becomes intellectual rather than personal or practical. Man can create such an intellectual sense of belonging because he is self-conscious. To create very large agglomerations of people who see themselves as part of a whole requires a core of values which are accepted by generality of the population. These values may be religious, as in the case of the mediaeval church or Islam. Then the sense of belonging is supranational, indeed supracultural. But such feelings have always bowed before the demands of family, tribe, feudal lordship and nation. Hence the failure of the mediaeval church’s claim to supremacy; hence the mutual antipathy of many Muslim peoples throughout history. National identity does not consist of clone like similitude, but it does require a sense of belonging, an instinctive recognition of those included within the parameters of a national group. The components of national identity National identity is most commonly presented in terms of such banalities as “national dress” (often a mark of past servitude), food and crafts or in the more demanding but still narrow world of High Art. Both are inadequate explanations because they touch only a small portion of human existence. To find the answer to a people’s national identity one must look to their general culture which includes at its most sophisticated, science, technology, politics, education, sport, history, morals, humour, language. From the general culture comes what might be called the secondary human personality, which is developed by and is continually developing the components of culture. By secondary personality I mean a nurtured overlay on the innate personality. The range of basic human traits – aggressiveness, placidity, timidity, extraversion and so forth – are universal. But those qualities are the mere skeletons of minds. Above them stand the modifications of experience. From experience develops the secondary personality. The social context of that experience and the reflection of that experience through the secondary personality creates culture, is culture. The importance of territory The United Kingdom (UK) is a state really without parallel in the world. It has been a remarkably successful political entity despite containing four distinct native peoples, the English, Scots, Welsh and Irish. The UK has worked for Scotland, Wales and England for one simple reason, each people had a territory which they dominated. Scotland might be subject to an English dominated Parliament but a Scot could still live in a land where all about him were his fellow countrymen and women and the administration of the practical government which he encountered was in the hands of Scots. The one place where the UK did not work and does not work is Ireland, the one part of the UK where there is a division between the native population and the product of large scale settlement from the British mainland. There is a lesson from the UK experience. Territory is what people care about most. The advantages of homogeneity To live in a homogenous society is a luxury for it removes the great cause of human friction, the clash of cultures. Perhaps most importantly, it allows a people to enjoy their own culture both by having ready access to it and by being allowed to celebrate it. England probably became the prototype of the nation state because it was very homogenous for so long. It is noticeable that even with England’s example very few countries have been able to create anything approaching a true nation state. Those that have come close, such as the French or the Germans, have all shared a high degree of homogeneity. The multicultural society A multicultural society is by definition not a nation but an empire. To live in a multicultural society is to be constantly assailed by considerations which simply do not arise in the homogenous society such as naturally segregated areas and their accompanying tensions. Elites of course use the opportunity to act in an authoritarian manner but they also act from practical need. Simply to maintain order, laws and their application must be more restrictive of personal liberty. That is particularly so in the case of free expression. Before the post-1945 immigration, Britain did not have any restrictions on free speech beyond those of libel, slander, obscenity and blasphemy (which was very rarely invoked). Now we have a raft of legislation which makes it an offence to incite racial discord, the interpretation of this being ever more narrowly interpreted. These impingements on personal liberty are entirely the result of mass immigration. Citizens but not part of the nation Despite the most strenuous propaganda efforts by liberals, everyone knows in their heart-of-hearts that having the legal right to carry a passport and reside in a country does not make a person part of a nation. Adult immigrants are plainly not part of the receiving nation because they lack the cultural imprinting which being brought up in a country gives. But being born and raised in a society does not automatically make a person part of the nation in the emotional sense if they belong to a minority group which sets itself apart from the majority. The difference between legal nationality and belonging to a nation can be seen in the difference between England and Britain. Britain is a blend of legal entity, geographical proximity, historical interaction and a degree of fellow feeling deriving from (by now) shared values and experiences. But it has always been a second order focus of loyalty, more legal construct than emotional reality. The essentially legal nature of Britishness was shown rapidly after the votes on devolution occurred. Not only did the Scots and Welsh become much less likely to refer to themselves as British, the English, who had long used British as a synonym for English, soon began to refer to themselves as English rather than British. Claiming to be British suddenly seemed anachronistic. Ironically, and pathetically, the only parts of the population who continue to commonly describe themselves as British are the Northern Irish Protestants and the various ethnic minorities. The fact that the ethnic minorities in Britain almost invariably describe themselves as something other than English, Scots, Welsh or Irish is very telling. Although they use British frequently it is rarely un-hyphenated. Rather we find black-British, Asian-British or more specific constructions such as Chinese-British. Alternatively, they may use a description such as British Muslim. The native peoples of Britain have never hyphenated their Britishness. But many of the ethnic minorities in Britain are even more removed from the native population than that. They commonly describe themselves as black, Asian, Indian, Bangladeshi, Jamaican Afro-Caribbean, Nigerian, Muslim, Hindu and Sikh or any other racial, national or cultural distinction you care to name. Nor are these terms confined to common usage. The 2001 census form offered choices such as Black British, while groups supposedly representing this or that ethnic group commonly describe themselves as “black”, “Asian”, “Bangladeshi” and so on, for example, the Association of Black Police Officers. These groups are recognised by the government and not infrequently funded by them. The principle of multiculturalism has become institutionalised in Britain. A true nation is a precious thing as a cultural artefact. A nation which forms itself into a true state is doubly blessed because it is the most effective means of allowing men to live in security with a minimum of strife. Only a fool would throw away such a luxury. Much as liberal internationalists would like to imagine that nationality can be put on and taken off as easily as an overcoat. Rather, it is an adamantine part of being human for it is the tribe writ very large. Men need have a sense of belonging. Remove their opportunity to feel part of a “tribe” and they will be disorientated. With ever increasing frequency, individuals are granted legal status as a citizen or national of a country without being part of the nation. But the process is not even. Countries of the Third World have little immigration – and indeed generally discourage it – while the West is besieged with incomers both illegal and legal. The greater racial and cultural difference in a state the more it resembles an empire. The more it resembles an empire the greater the risk of civil war and the dissolution of the state. That is what we in Britain and the rest of the developed world ultimately face, the dissolution of our states and the loss of control of our respective homelands.

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Chinua Achebe (1930 – 2013) is probably both the most widely known and the most representative African novelist. He may very well have written the first African novel of real literary merit—such at least is the opinion of Charles Larson—and he deals with what one can call the classic issue that preoccupies his fellow novelists, the clash between the indigenous cultures of black Africa and a white, European civilization. He avoids the emotionally charged subject of slavery and concentrates his attention on political and cultural confrontation. His five novels offer, in a sense, a paradigm of this clash. He begins in Things Fall Apart with the first incursion of the British into the Igbo region of what became the Eastern Region of Nigeria, and his subsequent novels trace (with some gaps) the spread of British influence into the 1950’s and beyond that into the postindependence period of the 1960’s. The one period he slights, as he himself admits, is the generation in transition from traditional village life to the new Westernized Africa. He had difficulty imagining the psychological conflict of the African caught between two cultures. There is no example in Achebe of Cheikh Hamidou Kane’s “ambiguous adventure.” Achebe does, however, share with Kane and with most other African novelists the idea that his function as a writer is a social one. Achebe insists repeatedly on this social function in response to Western critics who tend to give priority to aesthetic values. He seems to suggest, in fact, that the communal responsibility and the communal tie are more fundamental than artistic merit for any writer, but certainly for the African writer and for himself personally at the present stage in African affairs. He describes himself specifically as a teacher. His purpose is to dispel the colonial myth of the primitive African and to establish a true image of the people and their culture. This message is intended, to some extent, for a Western audience, but especially for the Africans themselves, since they have come to believe the myth and have internalized the feeling of inferiority. Achebe’s aim is to help them regain their self-respect, recognize the beauty of their own cultural past, and deal capably with the dilemmas of contemporary society. It is important, however, that Achebe is not fulfilling this role as an outsider. He returns to the traditional Igbo concept of the master craftsman and to the Mbare ceremony to explain the functional role of art in traditional society. He insists that creativity itself derives from a spiritual bond, the inspiration of a shared past and a shared destiny with a particular people: Alienated writers, such as Ayi Kwei Armah, cannot be in tune with themselves and are therefore likely to be imitative rather than truly creative. It would appear, then, that Achebe values originality and freshness in the management of literary form but considers these attributes dependent on the sensitivity of writers to their native settings. Whereas Achebe’s motivation in writing may be the restoration of pride in the African world, his theme—or, rather, the specific advice that he offers, albeit indirectly— is much more pragmatic. He does not advocate a return to the past or a rejection of Western culture. Like other African writers, he decries the destructive consequences of colonial rule: alienation, frustration, and a loss of cohesiveness and a clear code of behavior. He recognizes as well, however, that certain undesirable customs and superstitions have been exposed by the foreign challenge. His practical advice is that Africans should learn to cope with a changing world. He teaches the necessity of compromise: a loyalty to traditional wisdom and values, if not to tribal politics and outmoded customs, along with a suspicion of Western materialism but an openness to Western thought. He notes that in some cases the two cultures are not so far apart: Igbo republicanism goes even beyond the British-American concept of democracy, a view that the Ghanaian novelist Armah has developed as well. Unlike the negritude writers of francophone Africa, Achebe, in his attempt to reinterpret the African past, does not paint an idyllic picture. He regrets the loss of mystery surrounding that past, but he chooses knowledge because he considers judgment, clarity of vision, and tolerance—virtues that he locates in his traditional society—to be the way out of the present confusion and corruption. This key idea of tolerance pervades Achebe’s work. One of his favorite stories (Yoruba, not Igbo) illustrates the danger in dogmatism. The god Echu, who represents fate or confusion, mischievously decides to provoke a quarrel between two farmers who live on either side of a road. Echu paints himself black on one side and white on the other, then walks up the road between the two farmers. The argument that ensues concerns whether the stranger is black or white. When Echu turns around and walks back down the road, each farmer tries to outdo the other in apologizing for his mistake. Achebe’s most pervasive vehicle for this idea of tolerance, however, is in the concept of the chi, which is central to Igbo cosmology. Achebe interprets it as the ultimate expression of individualism, the basic worth and independence of every person. Politically it means the rejection of any authoritarian rule. Morally it means the responsibility of every person for his or her own fate. The chi is one’s other self, one’s spiritual identity responsible for one’s birth and one’s future. Thus, while one’s chi defines one’s uniqueness, it also defines one’s limitations. As Achebe frequently notes in his novels, no one can defeat his or her own chi, and the acceptance of one’s limitations is the beginning of tolerance. It is the social purpose, this “message” of tolerance, in Achebe’s novels that dictates the form. His plots tend to be analytic, static, or “situational,” as Larson argues, rather than dynamic. Instead of narrative movement, there is juxtaposition of past and present, of the traditional and the modern. Achebe achieves balance through comparison and contrast. He uses exposition more than drama. His main characters tend to be representational. Their conflicts are the crucial ones of the society. The protagonists of the two novels set in the past, Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God, are strong men who lack wisdom, practical sense, an ability to accept change, and a tolerance for opposing views. The protagonists of No Longer at Ease and A Man of the People are weak and vacillating. They accept change but are blinded by vanity and have no satisfactory code of conduct to resist the unreasonable pressures of traditional ties or the corruption and attractions of the new age. The two male protagonists of Anthills of the Savannah, also hindered by vanity, prove inadequate idealists in a power-hungry environment and wake up too late to their lack of control over events. An even more predominant feature of the five novels is their style. Achebe makes the necessary compromise and writes in English, a foreign tongue, but manipulates it to capture the flavor of the native Igbo expression. He does this through dialect, idiom, and figurative language as well as through proverbs that reflect traditional Igbo wisdom, comment ironically on the inadequacies of the characters, and state the central themes. Achebe thus manages, through the authorial voice, to establish a steady control over every novel. To some extent, one senses the voice in the proverbs. They represent the assessments of the elders in the clan, yet the wisdom of the proverbs is itself sometimes called into question, and the reader is invited to make the judgment. In general, it is Achebe’s juxtaposing of character, incident, proverb, and tone that creates the total assessment. Against this background voice one measures the pride, vanity, or prejudice of the individuals who, caught in the stressful times of colonial or postcolonial Nigeria, fail to respond adequately. The voice does not judge or condemn; it describes. It reminds the Nigerian of the danger of self-deception. It also recognizes the danger of failing to communicate with others. Achebe keeps ever in mind the tale (found in numerous versions all over Africa) of humankind whose message to Chukwa (the supreme deity) requesting immortality is distorted by the messenger and thus fails in its purpose. The voice he adopts to avoid the distortion is one of self-knowledge, practical sense, pragmatism, and detachment but also of faith, conviction, and humor. The voice is, in a sense, the message itself, moderating the confrontation between Africa and the West. Things Fall Apart Significantly, Achebe takes the title of his first novel, Things Fall Apart, from William Butler Yeats’s 1920 apocalyptic poem “The Second Coming,” which prophesies the end of the present era and the entrance on the world’s stage of another that is radically different. Things Fall Apart treats the early moments of that transition in an Igbo village. For the people of the village, the intrusion of the British is as revolutionary as the coming of a second Messiah, Yeats’s terrible “rough beast.” To some extent, Achebe creates a mythic village whose history stretches back to a legendary past. Chapters are devoted to the daily routines of the people, their family lives, their customs, their games and rituals, their ancient wisdom, their social order, and their legal practices. Achebe remains a realist, however, as he identifies also certain flaws in the customs and in the people. Superstition leads them to unnecessary cruelties. The protagonist, Okonkwo, reflects a basic conflict within the society. He is, on one hand, a respected member of the society who has risen through hard work to a position of wealth and authority. He conscientiously accepts the responsibilities that the elders lay on him. At the same time, he is such an individualist that his behavior runs counter to the spirit of traditional wisdom. His shame over his father’s weak character provokes him to be excessive in proving his own manhood. A defensiveness and uncertainty lie behind his outward assertiveness. It is true that the clan has its mechanisms to reprimand and punish Okonkwo for errant behavior. Nevertheless, even before the British influence begins to disturb the region, the cohesiveness of the clan is already in question. One particular chink in Okonkwo’s armor, which identifies a weakness also in the clan as it faces the foreign threat, is his inflexibility, his inability to adapt or to accept human limitations. Since he, in his youth, overcame adversity (familial disadvantages, natural forces such as drought and excessive rains, challenges of strength as a wrestler), he has come to believe that he has the individual strength to resist all challenges to his personal ambition. He cannot accept the presence of forces beyond his control, including the forces of his own personal destiny. It is this and the other aspects of Okonkwo’s character that Achebe develops in the first section of the novel against the background of the tribe to which he belongs. Part 1 ends with the symbolic act of Okonkwo’s accidentally killing a young man during a funeral ceremony. Like death, the act is beyond his control and unexplainable, yet it is punishable. The elders exile him for seven years to the village of his mother’s family. This separation from his village is itself symbolic, since in a way Okonkwo has never belonged to the village. While he is away, the village changes. With the coming of the missionaries, traditional religious practices begin to lose their sanction, their absoluteness. In part 3, Okonkwo returns from exile but finds that his exile continues. Nothing is as it was. Open hostility exists between the new religion and the traditional one. The British government has begun to take over authority from the elders. The novel ends with Okonkwo’s irrational killing of a messenger from the British district officer and with his subsequent suicide. Okonkwo rightly assumes, it would seem, that no authority now exists to judge him: The old sanctions are dead, and he refuses to accept the new ones. He must be his own judge. There is, however, if not a judge, a voice of reason and compassion, detached from the action but controlling its effects, that assures Okonkwo of a fair hearing. The voice is heard in the proverbs, warning Okonkwo not to challenge his own chi (his own spiritual identity and destiny), even though another proverb insists that if he says yes his chi will say yes too. It is heard in the decisions of the elders, the complaints of the wives, and the rebellion of Okonkwo’s own son, Noye, who turns to Christianity in defiance against his father’s unreasonableness. It is found in the tragic sense of life of Okonkwo’s uncle, Uchendu, who advises this man in exile to bear his punishment stoically, for his sufferings are mild in comparison with those of many others. Achebe locates his voice in one particular character, Obierika, Okonkwo’s closest friend and a man of thought rather than, like his friend, a man of action. In the important eighth chapter, Achebe measures his protagonist against this man of moderation, reflection, and humor, who can observe the white invader with tolerance, his own society’s laws with skepticism, and, at the end of the novel, his dead friend with respect and compassion. Achebe’s voice can even be seen in the ironically insensitive judgment of the district commissioner as the novel closes. As superficial and uninformed as that voice might be in itself, Achebe recognizes that the voice nevertheless exists, is therefore real, and must be acknowledged. The final view of Okonkwo and of the village that he both reflects and rejects is a composite of all these voices. It is the composite also of Okonkwo’s own complex and unpredictable behavior, and of his fate, which is the result of his own reckless acts and of forces that he does not comprehend. Amid the growing chaos one senses still the stable influence of the calm authorial voice, controlling and balancing everything. No Longer at Ease From the early twentieth century setting of Things Fall Apart, Achebe turns in his second novel, No Longer at Ease, to the mid-1950’s, just before independence. The protagonist, Obi Okonkwo, grandson of the tragic victim who lashed out against British insolence in his first novel, resembles to some extent his grandfather in his inadequacy to deal with the pressures of his society, but he has far different loyalties. The novel begins after things have already fallen apart; Nigeria is between societies. Obi no longer belongs to the old society. His father is the rebellious son of Okonkwo who left home for the Christian church and was educated in mission schools. Obi received a similar education and was selected by his community to study in England. The financial and personal obligation this creates plagues Obi throughout the novel, for after he receives his Western education he no longer shares the old customs and the old sense of loyalty. He considers himself an independent young man of the city, with a Western concept of government and administration. After his return from England he receives a civil service job and has visions of reforming the bureaucracy. The story is thus about the practical difficulties (it is not really a psychological study) of an ordinary individual separating himself cleanly from the past while adapting to the glitter and temptations of the new. Obi faces two particular problems. He has chosen to marry a woman, Clara, who belongs to a family considered taboo by the traditional community. He attempts to resist family and community pressure, but he eventually succumbs. Meanwhile, Clara has become pregnant and must go through a costly and embarrassing abortion. Obi essentially abandons his responsibility toward her in his weak, halfhearted respect for his family’s wishes. He likewise fails at his job, as he resists self-righteously various bribes until his financial situation and morals finally collapse. Unfortunately, he is as clumsy here as in his personal relations. He is arrested and sentenced to prison. As in Achebe’s first novel, the subject of No Longer at Ease is the individual (and the society) inadequate to the changing times. The author’s main concern is again a balanced appraisal of Nigerian society at a crucial stage in its recent history, because the greatest danger, as Achebe himself observes, is self-deception. He presents a careful selection of characters whose vanity, prejudice, or misplaced values allow them only a partial view of reality. Obi is, of course, the main example. He leaves his home village as a hero, is one of the few Nigerians to receive a foreign education, and, as a civil servant and proud possessor of a car, becomes a member of the elite. His vanity blinds him to such an extent that he cannot assess his proper relationship to his family, to Clara, or to his social role. His father, caught between his Christian faith and tribal customs, cannot allow Obi his independence. Mr. Green, Obi’s British superior at the office, is trapped by stereotypical prejudices against Africans. There is no one individual—such as Obierika in Things Fall Apart—within the novel to provide a reasonable interpretation of events. One nevertheless feels the constant presence of Achebe as he balances these various voices against one another. Achebe also assures perspective by maintaining a detached tone through irony, wit, and humor. The narrator possesses the maturity and the wisdom that the characters lack. This novel also shows Achebe experimenting with structure as a means of expressing the authorial voice. NoLonger at Ease opens—like Leo Tolstoy’s Smert’ Ivana Il’icha (1886; The Death of Ivan Ilyich, 1887)—with the final act, the trial and judgment of Obi for accepting a bribe. Achebe thus invites the reader to take a critical view of Obi from the very beginning. There is no question of the reader’s becoming romantically involved in his young life and career. This distancing continues in the first three chapters as Achebe juxtaposes present and past, scenes of reality and scenes of expectation. The real Lagos is juxtaposed directly against the idyllic one in Obi’s mind. A picture of the later, strained relationship between Obi and Clara precedes the romantic scenes after they meet on board ship returning from England. Through this kind of plotting by juxtaposition, Achebe turns what might have been a melodramatic story of young love, abortion, betrayal, and corruption into a realistic commentary on Nigerian society in transition. In Things Fall Apart he rejects a paradisiacal view of the African past; in No Longer at Ease he warns against selfish, irresponsible, and naïve expectations in the present. Arrow of God In his third novel, Arrow of God, Achebe returns to the past, taking up the era of British colonization a few years after the events of Things Fall Apart. The old society is still intact, but the Christian religion and the British administration are more firmly entrenched than before. Achebe again tries to re-create the former Igbo environment, with an even more elaborate account of daily life, customs, and rituals, and with the scattering throughout of traditional idioms and proverbs. The foreigners, too, receive more detailed attention, though even the two main personalities, Winterbottom and Clarke, achieve hardly more than stereotyped status. Rather than work them late into the story, this time Achebe runs the two opposing forces alongside each other almost from the beginning in order to emphasize the British presence. Now it is the political, not the religious, power that is in the foreground, suggesting historically the second stage of foreign conquest, but the Christian church also takes full advantage of local political and religious controversy to increase its control over the people. Achebe continues to be realistic in his treatment of traditional society. It is not an idyllic Eden corrupted by satanic foreign power. In spite of the attractive pictures of local customs, the six villages of Umuaro are divided and belligerent, and, in two instances at least, it is ironically the British government or the church that ensures peace and continuity in the communal life. By this stage in the colonization, of course, it is difficult (and Achebe does not try) to untangle the causes of internal disorder among the Igbo. Like Okonkwo, the protagonist in Arrow of God, Ezeulu, is representative of the social disorder. In him Achebe represents the confidence in traditional roles and beliefs challenged not only by the new British worldview but also by forces within. Personal pride, egotism, and intolerance sometimes obscure his obligation to the welfare of the community. Whereas Okonkwo is one among several wealthy members of the clan, Ezeulu occupies a key position as the priest of Ulu, chief god of the six villages. The central cohesive force in the society is thus localized in this one man. Ezeulu differs from Okonkwo in another way as well: Whereas Okonkwo stubbornly resists the new Western culture, Ezeulu makes such gestures of accommodation that his clan actually accuses him of being the white man’s friend. Instead of disowning his son for adopting Christianity, he sends Oduche to the mission school to be his spy in the Western camp. Ezeulu’s personality, however, is complex, as are his motives. Accommodation is his pragmatic way of preserving the clan and his own power. When the opportunity arises for him to become the political representative of his people to the British government, he refuses out of a sense of loyalty to his local god. This complexity is, however, contradictory and confusing, thus reflecting again the transitional state of affairs during the early colonial period. Ezeulu does not always seem to know what his motives are as he jockeys for power with Winterbottom and with the priest Idemili. In trying to save the community, he sets up himself and his god as the sole sources of wisdom. As priest—and thus considered half man and half spirit—he may, as Achebe seems to suggest, confuse his sacred role with his human vanity. It is in the midst of this confusion that Achebe again questions the existence of absolutes and advises tolerance. The central concept of the chi reappears. Does it say yes if humanity says yes? If so, humankind controls its own destiny. If not, it is severely limited. In any case, the concept itself suggests duality rather than absoluteness. Even Ezeulu, while challenging the new power, advises his son that one “must dance the dance prevalent in his time.” Chapter 16, in which this statement appears, contains the key thematic passages of the novel. In it, one of Ezeulu’s wives tells her children a traditional tale about a people’s relation with the spirit world. The story turns on the importance of character—the proper attitude one must have toward oneself and toward the gods. Aboy accidentally leaves his flute in the field where he and his family had been farming. He persuades his parents to let him return to fetch it, and he has an encounter with the spirits during which he demonstrates his good manners, temperance, and reverence; this encounter leads to material reward. The envious senior wife in the family sends her son on a similar mission, but he exhibits rudeness and greed, leading only to the visitation of evils on human society. The intended message is obvious, but the implied one, in the context of this novel, is that traditional values appear to be childhood fancies in the face of contemporary realities. At the end of the chapter, Ezeulu puts those realities into focus. He describes himself as an arrow of god whose very defense of religious forms threatens the survival of his religion, but he goes on to suggest the (for him) terrifying speculation that Oduche, his Christian son, and also Christianity and the whites themselves, are arrows of god. At the end of his career, Ezeulu is opening his mind to a wide range of possibilities. This tolerance, however, is double-edged, for, as Achebe seems to suggest, humanity must be not only receptive to unfamiliar conceptions but also tough enough to “tolerate” the pain of ambiguity and alienation. Ezeulu is too old and too exhausted to endure that pain. The final blow is his son’s death, which occurs while he is performing a ritual dance. Ezeulu interprets this as a sign that Ulu has deserted him. Indeed, the voice in Arrow of God is even more ambiguous than that in the first two novels. There is no Obierika to correct Ezeulu’s aberrations. Akueke, Ezeulu’s friend and adviser, is not a sure guide to the truth. Achebe works through dialogue in this novel even more than in Things Fall Apart, and the debates between these two men do not lead to a clear answer. Akueke cannot decipher the priest’s motives or anticipate his actions. Ezeulu, as a strange compound of spirit and man, is to him “unknowable.” Nor does Achebe make the task any easier for the reader. Ezeulu does not seem to understand his own motives. He considers himself under the spiritual influence of his god. His sudden, final decision not to seek a reconciliation with his people he imagines as the voice of Ulu. He thus sacrifices himself and his people (as well as the god himself) to the will of the god. Achebe remains silent on the issue of whether the voice is the god’s or Ezeulu’s. One can only speculate that since the society created the god in the first place (or so the legend went), it could also destroy him. A Man of the People Like No Longer at Ease, Achebe’s fourth novel, A Man of the People, seems rather lightweight in comparison with the two historical novels. It takes place not in Nigeria but in an imaginary African country, a few years after independence. Achebe seems to be playing with some of the popular situations in contemporary African literature, as though he were parodying them. The main character, Odili, has relationships with three different women: Elsie, a friend from the university who functions as a sort of mistress but remains a shadowy figure in the background; Jean, a white American with whom he has a brief sexual relationship; and Edna, a beautiful and innocent youngwomanwithwhomhe “falls in love” in a rather conventional Western sense. There is also the typical estrangement of the university-educated son from his traditionally oriented father. Achebe contrives a somewhat romantic reconciliation during the last third of the novel. Finally, while all of Achebe’s novels are essentially political, this one pits two candidates for public office against each other, with all the paraphernalia of personal grudges, dirty tricks, campaign rhetoric, and even a military coup at the end that ironically makes the election meaningless. (In fact, it was already meaningless because the incumbent, Nanga, had arranged that Odili’s name not be officially registered.) Furthermore, the contest is a stock romantic confrontation between the idealism of youth and the corrupt opportunism of an older generation. While the story might at first glance appear to be a melodramatic rendering of the romantic world of love and politics, it so exaggerates situations that one must assume Achebe is writing rather in the comic mode. Along with this choice of mode, Achebe also creates a more conventional plot line. The rising action deals with the first meeting after sixteen years between Odili, a grammar school teacher, and Nanga, the “man of the people,” Odili’s former teacher, local representative to parliament, and minister of culture. In spite of his skepticism toward national politics, Odili succumbs to Nanga’s charm and accepts an invitation to stay at his home in the city. The turning point comes when Odili’s girlfriend, Elsie, shamelessly spends the night with Nanga. Odili sees this as a betrayal by Elsie, even though he himself feels no special commitment to her. More important, Odili feels betrayed and humiliated by Nanga, who does not take such incidents with women at all seriously. His vanity touched by this rather trivial incident, Odili suddenly reactivates his conscience over political corruption and vows to seek revenge. The attack is twofold: to steal Edna, Nanga’s young fiancé, who is to be his second wife, and to defeat Nanga in the next elections. Odili’s motives are obviously suspect. The rest of the novel recounts his gradual initiation into love and politics. The revenge motive drops as the relationship with Edna becomes serious. The political campaign fails, and Odili ends up in the hospital after a pointless attempt to spy on one of Nanga’s campaign rallies. Again, it is tempting to treat this as a conventional initiation story, except that Odili’s experiences do not really cure him of his romantic notions of love and politics. For the first time, Achebe elects to use the first-person point of view: Odili tells his own story. This may be the reason that the balancing of effects through juxtaposition of scenes and characters does not operate as in the earlier works. The tone is obviously affected as well: Odili is vain and pompous, blind to his own flaws while critical of others. Hence, Achebe has to manipulate a subjective narrative to express the objective authorial voice, as Mark Twain does in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) or (to use an African example) as Mongo Betidoes in Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba (1956; The Poor Christ of Bomba, 1971). The primary means is through Odili’s own partial vision. Odili frequently makes criticisms of contemporary politics that appear to be just and therefore do represent the judgment of Achebe as well. At the same time, Odili’s affected tone invites criticism and provides Achebe with an occasion to satirize the self-deception of the young intellectuals whom Odili represents. Achebe also expresses himself through the plot, in which he parodies romantic perceptions of the contemporary world. In addition, he continues to include proverbs in the mouths of provincial characters as guides to moral evaluation. Achebe emphasizes one proverb in particular to describe the political corruption in which Nanga participates. After a local merchant, Josiah, steals a blind beggar’s stick to make his customers (according to a figurative twist of reasoning) blindly purchase whatever he sells, the public reacts indignantly with the proverb: “He has taken away enough for the owner to notice.” Unlike Achebe’s narrator in the first three novels, Odili cannot allow the proverb to do its own work. He must, as an academic, analyze it and proudly expand on its meaning. He had done this before when he became the “hero” of Jean’s party as the resident expert on African behavior and African art. He may very well be correct about the political implications of the proverb, that the people (the owners of the country) are now being blatantly robbed by the politicians, but he fails to identify emotionally with the local situation. Nor is he objective enough to admit fully to himself his own immoral, hypocritical behavior, which he has maintained throughout the novel. He is an egotist, more enchanted with his own cleverness than concerned about the society he has pretended to serve. In like manner, at the close of the story Odili turns the real death of his political colleague, Max, into a romantic fantasy of the ideal sacrifice. Totally pessimistic about the reliability of the people, he returns once again to the proverb to illustrate their fickle behavior as the melodramatic villains: They always return the Josiahs to power. Achebe may to some extent share Odili’s view of the public and the national leadership it chooses, but he is skeptical of the Odilis as well, and hence he positions the reader outside both the political structure and Odili as an observer of the society. Achebe, then, even in this firstperson narrative, does not abandon his authorial voice, nor does he abandon the role of social spokesman that he had maintained in all his other novels. Anthills of the Savannah Achebe’s fifth novel, Anthills of the Savannah, written twenty-one years after his fourth, shares some of the preceding novel’s interests. Achebe once again makes the situation political and the setting contemporary. As in AMan of the People, the country, Kangan, is fictitious (though the resemblance to Nigeria is again hardly disguised), but the time is somewhat later in the independence period, perhaps in the 1970’s or the early 1980’s. Also, once again, the main actors in the drama knew one another under different circumstances in the past. Whereas the former relationship between Nanga and Odili was teacher and student, the three male protagonists of Anthills of the Savannah are of the same generation and first knew one another as fellow students at Lord Lugard College when they were thirteen years old. The novel deals with their lives during a period of twentyseven years, including their experiences in England at the University of London, their adventures in love, and their choices of careers. These years are shown only through flashbacks, however, for the focus is on a twoweek period in the present, on the edge of a political crisis, when the characters are forty years old. Achebe does not present his narrative in a straight chronological line; in addition to flashbacks, even during the two-week present he recounts, or has his characters recount, events out of chronological order—a technique he used in his other novels as well to control reader response. The events of this two-week period begin, as the novel does, on a Thursday morning as Sam, now president of Kangan, presides over his weekly cabinet meeting. Sam had decided long before, following the advice of his headmaster at Lord Lugard College, to choose the army over a medical career because it would turn him into a “gentleman.” His choice proved to be a good one when, after a military coup two years earlier, he was named president of the new government. A fellow student at Lord Lugard, Christopher Oriko, became his minister of information. Chris used his influence over Sam to name five of the twelve cabinet members and to appoint another old school friend, Ikem Osodi, editor of the National Gazette. The political conflict in the novel focuses on these three men, although Sam as a character remains largely in the background. The relationship between Chris and Sam has become increasingly strained over the two-year period, as Sam has expanded his drive for status into an ambition to be president for life with total authority. He is now highly suspicious of Chris and has appointed the tough, ruthless Major Johnson Ossai as his chief of staff and head of intelligence. Chris, meanwhile, as he himself admits in the opening chapter, has become an amused spectator and recorder of events, almost indifferent to the official drama before him. Such an attitude has also driven a wedge between him and Ikem, who, as a crusading journalist, has continued to attack government incompetence and to represent and fight for the hapless public, while Chris has counseled patience and diplomacy in dealing with Sam. The inciting force on this Thursday is a delegation from Abazon—the northern province of Kangan devastated, like Nigeria’s own northern regions, by drought— that has come to the capital city of Bassa to seek relief. Ikem has only recently written an editorial, his allegorical “Hymn to the Sun” that dries up the savannah, accusing the president (the sun) of responsibility and promoting the delegation’s cause. Sam at first feels threatened by the loud demonstrations outside his office, but when he learns that the delegation consists of only six elders and that the rest of the demonstrators are Bassa locals, he decides to use the situation to rid himself of his old school buddies and to entrench himself in power surrounded by loyal henchmen such as Ossai. Chris and Ikem do not realize what is going on behind the scenes—nor does the reader—until events get beyond their control. Within hours, Sam has Ikem arrested and murdered (though the official version is that he was shot while resisting arrest for plotting “regicide”), the Abazon delegation put in prison, and Chris declared an accomplice of both. Chris himself has managed to escape; he hides out with friends and sympathizers and eventually, in disguise, travels by bus past roadblocks to the Abazon province. There he learns that a military coup has toppled Sam from his throne and that Sam has mysteriously disappeared. Ironically, at this very moment, in the midst of riotous celebration at a roadblock, Chris is shot by a police sergeant while trying to prevent the man from abducting and raping a girl. The novel leaves no hope that the next regime will offer Kangan any better leadership. Themenin this modern African state consistently fail to bring the persistent political incompetence under control. Sam is a variation on the Nanga type, the amoral, self-interested servant of power who does not foresee the consequences of his ruthless treatment of others. This naïveté of the tyrant is matched by the naïve idealism of the moral crusader, Ikem, and the naïve detachment of the philosophical observer, Chris. While most of the novel is an omniscient third-person narrative, with Achebe providing a clear, balanced perspective, five of the first seven chapters are told in first person, with Chris and Ikem being two of the three narrators. Inside their minds, the reader sees a false self-confidence that Achebe eventually parlays into a chauvinism, apparently characteristic of the African male. For the first time in his novels, Achebe takes up the feminist theme, stating flatly that women need to be a major part of the solution to Africa’s woes. Sam, as perceived by the third character-narrator, Beatrice, Chris’s fiancé, treats women as sex objects, as he invites Beatrice to a dinner party at his lake retreat, assuming that she will be honored to serve her president. The two male protagonists, Ikem and Chris, innocent carriers of long-held assumptions, treat the women they love too lightly, and neither understands until only days before his death the wisdom and spiritual power of Beatrice, the central female character in the novel. In fact, Beatrice herself seems only half aware of her strength until the crisis in Kangan puts it to the test. In chapters 6 and 7, which she narrates, she reveals the change that takes place in her. Chapter 6 is her account of the visit to Sam’s retreat, where her defensiveness and vanity obscure her actual superiority over the other guests, including a young American female reporter who uses her sexuality to gain access to Sam. Beatrice sees herself, rather vaingloriously at this point, as a sacrificial shield to protect Sam—a symbol for her of the African leader—from the white temptress. Still, she rebuffs Sam’s sexual advances, and he, insulted and humiliated, sends her home in ignominy. Beatrice sees dimly, however, the role that she must play. In chapter 7, she receives help from Ikem, who visits her for the last time before his death. With her help he has made a great discovery, for she had long accused him of male chauvinism, and he reads to her the “love letter” that she has inspired. It is a feminist recantation of his chauvinism, a rejection of the two traditional images of women found in both biblical and African sources: the woman as scapegoat, the cause of evil and men’s suffering, and the woman idealized as the mother of the male god, called upon to save the world when men fail. His final word on the insight she had given him, however, is that the women themselves must decide their role; men cannot know. Beatrice tells this story of Ikem’s last visit in her journal, written months after Ikem has died. Only then is she able to put the pieces of the tragedy together in her mind. Chris, too, begins to see a special power in Beatrice during the weeks of crisis. She becomes for him a priestess of sexual and spiritual resources who could, as a prophetess, tell the future. Indeed, it is Beatrice (a literary allusion to Dante’s Beatrice, only one of several whimsical allusions in the novel) who warns Chris and Ikem that they must mend their relationship, that tragedy is in store not only for them but also for Sam. They do not take her seriously enough, however, as they soon discover. Achebe, however, does not allow the elevation of Beatrice into the traditional Igbo role of half woman, half spirit (the Chielo of Things Fall Apart, as Beatrice herself notes), to be the work of the characters alone. In chapter 8, Achebe himself, as omniscient narrator, recounts the Igbo legend of the sun-god who sent his daughter to earth as a harbinger of peace. This legend suggests that henceforth women must stand as mediators between men and their desires, but this too is not Achebe’s final word on the subject. As Ikem says in his confession to Beatrice in chapter 7, “All certitude must now be suspect.” In the last chapter, Achebe tries to bring together his thoughts on women and numerous other themes throughout the novel. The scene is Beatrice’s apartment, and the time is nine months after the tragedy. Those present are a family of friends, including Elewa, Ikem’s fiancé; Agatha, Beatrice’s housekeeper; and Abdul Medani, the army captain who secretly helped Chris escape from Bassa. The occasion is the naming ceremony for Elewa and Ikem’s twenty-eight-day-old daughter. The women, along with the men present, are trying to put their lives and, symbolically, the lives of their countrymen in order. Beatrice fears, however, that they are all fated pawns of “an alienated history.” They acknowledge the value of people and the living ideas that they leave behind, the importance of humor and the need to laugh at oneself, the “unbearable beauty” even of death, and the community of all religions that can dance the same dance. They learn that women can perform tasks usually reserved for men; since Ikem is not present, Beatrice, the priestess, names the child: Amaechina, the path of Ikem, a boy’s name for a baby girl. Elewa’s uncle, a male representative of traditional thinking, arrives to preside over the naming but instead pays homage to the young people in the room. “That is how to handle this world,” he says, “give the girl a boy’s name,” make her “the daughter of all of us.” It is important not to take oneself too seriously. Sam, Ikem, and Chris forgot, as Beatrice had to remind them, that their story is not “the story of this country,” that “our story is only one of twenty million stories.” That reminder may be the main message of Anthills of the Savannah, that the other millions of people are not ants caught in a drought, retreating from the sun into their holes, but people with their own stories. As the elder in the Abazon delegation reminds Ikem, the story is the nation’s most valued treasure, the storyteller possessed by Agwu, the god of healers and the source of truth. Beatrice, like Ikem and Chris, is a writer, a teller of stories. Uchendu, in Things Fall Apart, warns that all stories are true; this fifth novel, itself full of proverbs, stories, legends, and political allegory of the sun shining on the anthills of the savannah, is an ambitious exposé and a compassionate vision of the future. Long fiction, Things Fall Apart, 1958. No Longer at Ease, 1960. Arrow of God, 1964. A Man of the People, 1966 Anthills of the Savannah, 1987 Short fiction: “Dead Men’s Path,” 1953; The Sacrificial Egg, and Other Stories, 1962; Girls at War, and Other Stories, 1972. Poetry: Beware: Soul Brother, and Other Poems, 1971, 1972; Christmas in Biafra, and Other Poems, 1973; Collected Poems, 2004. Nonfiction: Morning Yet on Creation Day, 1975; The Trouble with Nigeria, 1983; Hopes and Impediments, 1988; Conversations with Chinua Achebe, 1997 (Bernth Lindfors, editor); Home and Exile, 2000. Children’s literature: Chike and the River, 1966; How the Leopard Got His Claws, 1972 (with John Iroaganachi); The Drum, 1977; The Flute, 1977. edited texts: Don’t Let Him Die: An Anthology of Memorial Poems for Christopher Okigbo, 1932-1967, 1978 (with Dubem Okafor); Aka weta: Egwu aguluagu egwu edeluede, 1982 (with Obiora Udechukwu); African Short Stories, 1985 (with C. L. Innes); Beyond Hunger in Africa, 1990 (with others); The Heinemann Book of Contemporary African Short Stories, 1992 (with Innes). Miscellaneous: Another Africa, 1998 (poems and essay; photographs by Robert Lyons). Source: Rollyson, Carl. Critical Survey Of Long Fiction. 4th ed. New Jersey: Salem Press, 2010

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An Ancient Roman Tale of Love and Salt The Ancient Romans, like all peoples, ancient or modern, had a love of stories. This was particularly true when the "moral" of the story proved to be evident to the listener. Following is one such tale told by the Romans. A king had three daughters who he loved very greatly. However, at times he would sometimes wonder if his love for his girls was equal to their love for him. So one day he asked each girl to describe her love for him. The eldest daughter described her love for her father as being like her love for bread. This pleased the king, who happened to be rather fond of bread, like most people. The king then asked his middle daughter. She described her love for the king her father as being like her love for wine. This too pleased the king. However, when his youngest and wisest daughter reflected upon her love for her father, she described it as being like salt. This did not sit well with the short-tempered king, who immediately ordered that his daughter leave the palace by the next morning, that she should never return. However, the wise girl was unflustered by this, and calmly instructed her father's cook to leave all salt out of the preparations for the king's supper. Of course, upon eating his victuals, the king immediately realized his mistake, given the value he had of salt for his food, as love in his relationships. He immediately offered a reprieve to his youngest child, with profuse apologies. (Those who love Shakespeare will undoubtedly note a similarity twixt this tale and that of the bantering between King Lear with his youngest daughter Cordelia.)

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Listen as Dr. Aklog describes valve stenosis. The valve stenosis, stenosis is simply a fancy word, medical word, for a valve that does not open properly, a valve that is narrowed or blocked, and what happens is if the valve can't open properly, then typically the heart has to work harder to push the blood through the narrowing, and typically blood backs up and can cause a variety of symptoms, and really any valve in the heart can be affected by stenosis or narrowing. About Dr. Aklog, M.D.: Dr. Lishan Aklog is the current Director and Chief of Cardiovascular Surgery at The Heart and Lung Institute of St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center in Phoenix, Arizona and Director of EmpowHer's Medical Advisory Board. Specializing in adult cardiac care, he graduated from Harvard College followed by Harvard Medical School. Dr. Aklog was a cardiothoracic resident at Brigham and Women’s/Boston Children’s Hospital, an Associate Chief of Cardiac Surgery at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York, and completed international fellowships in London, England and Paris, France. View Dr. Aklog Videos: Visit Dr. Aklog at St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center

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(CNN/NASA) — NASA says a newly discovered asteroid will pass “very close” to earth this weekend. This diagram from NASA shows the space rock’s projected path. So how close will it come? About 25,000 miles from the Earth, or one-tenth of the distance from the center of the Earth to the moon. It’s expected to fly over New Zealand at about 2:18 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday. The 60-foot-long space rock won’t hit Earth or any satellites, but the flyby will give astronomers a chance to study it. Named 2014 RC, the asteroid was first spotted only last month.

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CS4NC Initiative: For Teachers Expand Computer Science Opportunities To All Students In North Carolina K-12 Schools In his January 2018 report to the Joint Legislative Education Oversight Committee, NC Superintendent Mark Johnson kicked off the CS4NC Initiative with the overall goal to “provide opportunities for all North Carolina students to learn computer science and gain the skills needed to: (1) create and contribute, not just use and consume, in the digital economy; and (2) actively engage as informed citizens in our complex, technology-driven world. Through collaboration and communication with multiple stakeholders, a coordinated statewide computer science initiative will strengthen pathways from kindergarten to career, address equity gaps, leverage successful programs, and encourage cross-sector partnerships throughout the state.” The report outlines recommendations across three areas: Teacher, Curriculum, and Schools. NC K-12 CS Standards Currently open for public comment, the proposed NC K-12 Computer Science Standards were initially drafted by the CS Steering Committee (as part of the State Board of Education’s Special Committee on Digital Learning and Computer Science) in collaboration with the Department of Public Instruction, the Friday Institute for Educational Innovation at NC State’s College of Education, and the Lt. Governor’s Office. During a presentation of the draft standards to the NC Board of Education in April of 2019, the Board approved adding Computer Science to the NC Standard Course of Study. The draft standards are now in the final stage of the review process after a year of cross-sector focus groups including teachers, school, district, and state administrators, and interested parties from outside of the K-12 education field. After a period of public comment, the final proposed standards will be presented to the NC Board of Education for approval. At which time, the NC Department of Public Instruction (NCDPI) will develop implementation plans for the new standards. Become a CS Teacher In order to guarantee every student in North Carolina has the opportunity to learn computer science, there is significant need for teachers who want to teach computer science. Regardless of your current subject area and grade level, there are opportunities for you to make CS4NC a success. For K-5 teachers, the standards will ask you to introduce the fundamental concepts of computer science and computational thinking to your students to demystify the topic and create enthusiasm for computer science. In middle grades and high school, there is a need for teachers to teach new courses dedicated to broadening participation in computer science as well additional opportunities for integration. Fortunately, there are numerous professional learning programs designed to help teachers become teachers who teach computer science. CSTA is a national community focused on creating a strong environment to support K–12 educators by sharing the latest best practices in K-12 computer science education, creating local communities across the US + Canada that make sure every computer science teacher has a home, and building the largest teacher-led computer science professional development event in the world. In addition to creating this community of practice, CSTA has worked with ISTE to publish recommended Standards for CS Teachers to help guide teachers pursuing the goal of becoming a Computer Science Teacher. CS for All Teachers provides a virtual home for teachers to connect with one another and with the resources and expertise they need to successfully teach computer science in their classrooms. With the support of a cohort of community ambassadors, PreK-12 teachers can get answers to their burning questions from the HelpSquad, share their experiences in small groups, participate in online events, search for resources, and learn new instructional strategies from their colleagues—all in an effort to ensure computer science for all by connecting novice computer science teachers with the resources and people they need to learn rudimentary CS knowledge and skills as well as providing resources for teachers already on their journey to becoming a leader in computer science education. Explore CS Resources - Curricular resources compiled by Code.org - Expand CS at your school - CS Education Discussion Forum: A facebook group of 2700 teachers - CSTA’s Annual Conference (virtual this year) - CSFirst: Curriculum resources from Google - MakeCode with Microsoft - Apple: Teaching Code - NICERC’s Cyber Interstate: A library of free curricular resources for preparing the nex-gen cyber workforce - Virtual Job Shadow videos for students interested in knowing more about career in computing Learn more on how you can play an active role in bringing CS to your school and broadening participation in computer science.

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With the growth of internet web services and mobile apps, password management has become a real issue that a user should be concerned about. This has especially become so since now we are consumers of a lot of web services where the very first step is to create an user account which hopefully no one else can log into. The basic problem of password management can be broken down into the following questions: - What password should I pick for which website ? - How should I store/retrieve my passwords ? There are some solutions to tackle this problem. Use the same password for every website. - Easy to remember even with growing number of websites. - Use your brain only and do it efficiently (there’s just one). - Big security risk. Choose a methodology that can be easily remembered for generating password for different websites. For e.g., add 007 after the website url. - Easy to remember even with growing number of websites. - No single point of security risk, the methodology needs to be discovered by someone trying to attack you. - Use your brain only. Remember depending on how complicated the steps of the methodology are, efficiency of the password computation can vary. - The security risk depends on the sophistication of the methodology. - The manual process of computing the password limits the methodology or else trades off with the computation time. You don’t want to sit down with a pain and paper to compute your password :-). Solution 3 (Takeaway for this post): Use a password manager. There are lots of them out there. - Managing passwords is not your problem. - Can pick very strong passwords. - No correlated passwords. - Have to trust the password manager program A browser comes with the simplest password manager since it saves your password if you want it to. A word of caution here, always use a master password for your browser to manage your password so that no one else can view your saved passwords without entering the master password. You also want the passwords to be saved on your computer in an encrypted file so that others cannot read it which any decent password manager would do. There are lots of password management tools out there. Use them. Generate a strong password if your password manager does not support password generation. Here are some ways to do it on Linux/MacOS or Windows. A password manager can also backup your saved passwords in the cloud to save you from machine failures. Preferably choose one which does that. Never compromise on encryption. The cloud is less trusted than your computer. If you still think you do not need a password manager, read this. Now that I am done sermonizing, looking back I used to do password management by hand by saving my passwords in a file and then encrypting them using a GPG key and storing them on git server. And then I stumbled up Pass. It does the same things but better. Try it if you a power user or just want to know how the infrastructure works without doing all of it :-). This is not smart. Get smarter !! It was a cold January morning in 2011. There was snow all around and I was trudging along with the trepidation of soldier treading a minefield. My destination was a hair salon to get a haircut. I looked at the board outside which said “studierabat” meaning student discount. I almost jumped for joy. The normal price for a men’s haircut boldly proclaimed 250 DKK. I went inside, was greeted by a beautiful girl in her mid 20s who went on to give me a great haircut. After the haircut, I paid 200 DKK (20% off as student discount) and that’s when the high prices of Copenhagen haircuts hit home. I had just experienced a hairy culture shock literally speaking. I had been living in Copenhagen for the past 5 months and I thought that I was immune to the price shock that outsiders felt when entering the Danish shops. I had never really factored in the haircut prices. I had chosen one of the cheapest places to get a haircut (after a great deal of internet searches) but I ended up parting with a week’s worth of grocery money. That’s when someone told me about the Copenhagen hair cutting school where it costs 49 DKK for a haircut. The news thrilled me more than any of the groundbreaking discoveries my science books have drilled into me. It was almost like finding a hidden treasure. Sure, the people who cut your hair are students who are supervised by teachers but except on one occasion I have always got a great haircut there. On that one occasion, the hairdresser misunderstood what I wanted and ended up giving me a haircut which I had to bear for the next 2 months. Today I got another fantastic haircut and that too for free because it was my tenth haircut there which is free :-). Wednesday mornings could not be any better. I tried to ask out the beautiful brunette who cut my hair but she said she was married. I guess that was probably asking too much of a Wednesday. It holds for Danish haircuts if you know where to look Last Tuesday, the Dean of the Faculty of Science proposed a merger plan to merge the departments of computer science and math into one. The meeting invitation went out to the faculty and the students only a day ago in the midst of a busy teaching bloc. The merger was reported in the University Post. This has sparked a spate of opinions which all seem to point to the utter absurdity of the move especially since it was tried 2.5 years ago and failed, and nothing has changed since then other than the reasons against it. A lot of conspiracy theories are also doing the rounds. Whatever the real reasons behind the merger may be, what is clearly apparent is the fact that the move has not been thought out well by the Dean’s office and has not encapsulated the people it concerns and hence it just remains a tactless, non-visionary (contrary to the claim), damaging exercise just for the sake of it. This probably sums it up The other week I had gone to the Fotex store in Lyngby storcenter for my grocery trip. I came across a superb offer on Pancake mix. If you buy one you pay 22 kr. but if you buy 2 you only pay 26 kr. Given my love for pancakes buying 2 pancake mixes was just a no-brainer. I bought my stuff and came back home happier than ever. The next day I noticed I had only brought one pancake mix and the other must have got left behind in the shopping bag. I checked my bill to confirm and I saw that I had paid for 1 pancake mix for 22 kr. That was not a happy feeling, but knowing how awesome the people in Fotex are I figured I could go the next day and pick another mix and pay just 4 kr. and be done with it. So I went. I went to the counter and explained the situation the girl at the counter and asked if its ok to pick up another and pay 4 kr. She rolled her eyes as she looked at another girl she was happily chatting with and asked me to explain it again. I did so dutifully taking all the pauses in the world and making sure I left no cryptic PhD talk in it. The girl at the counter again looked at the girl she was chatting with, rolled eyes, and said “No, that’s not possible. Its a new day”. Now that did not seem to make any sense. I did not want to argue with her so I went over to another guy and asked whats the return policy. He told me if you have the bill and return the stuff within 30 days, we would accept it. So, I went to the counter again and politely asked the girl if I could return the pancake mix I bought. She said, “Yes”. I said, “Great, then please take it back”. I also told her that if this is so, isnt it exactly the same thing I suggested earlier ? That I return the stuff get 22 kr. back and then go buy 2 pancake mixes for 26 kr which is the same as paying 4 kr. for the other mix. The girl just made a weird face and said, “Please give the mix and the bill”. That I did, she went to her computer and did some stuff and came back and told me that the mix I was returning was not on the bill. The bar code on the mix did not seem to match with what the computer showed for the mix purchased in the bill. I just stared incredulously. I told her that was the bill and I have not bought any other mixes and the mix must be on the bill as otherwise the machines which detect if you have paid for stuff you are taking out of the store would have beeped when I took it the other day. How am I supposed to know what bar codes get put on the bill or not ? Am I not supposed to trust people on the counter ? Am I supposed to go check bar codes on bill after every purchase ? Her reaction was, “I am sorry” and she walked off. It really felt insulting the way the entire episode panned out. I am not being stingy about the money, I had just gone to correct an honest mistake. Given my past brushes with people in the stores here I was more than certain that the solution would just be eked out in a matter of seconds. It did not matter if I would have got the other mix for 4 kr. if the whole situation was handled with more care and understanding than plain rude, insulting behavior. What actually panned out was an episode of rude nonsensical behavior which has made me a bit wary of what to expect in stores. Maybe I was just lucky so far and this was just a jolt to restore the normalcy of day to day life. Looks like this is what they did to me as well Just the other day, I got a package from my parents containing some stuff that I could not bring when I took the flight from India. Most of it was used personal stuff and a lot of cookies. I was actually surprised to see a letter asking me to pickup my 14 kg package instead of the customary yellow around the fringes slip from the post-office. I was shocked to see that I had to pay VAT on the goods of around 335 DKK of which around 150 DKK was the assessment charge (you have to pay for the work they did to put the VAT). It seemed a bit strange to me since the entire value of the goods in the package was less than 200 DKK. And I wanted to know how they had fixed up the charges. I searched frantically online but could not get anything about the rules for sending international non-commercial postage. I could dig up some rules and regulations on what one can send and how it can be assessed but it seemed fairly academic missing a lot of practical questions. I did find a lot of posts saying how people found the postage system here ridiculous because of the international posting guidelines and how everyone in the post-office is apathetic about it. I had a 14 day window in which I had to pick up the package else it will be sent back. I talked to the customs department in the post-office and they told me that a student does not have to pay any taxes on his stuff if it does not have high commercial value. The problem with my package was they could not infer that it belonged to a student and my parents had not filled the customs declaration very clearly about the used stuff and its value. So, he raised a case for me and told me I have to wait until they free my package off taxes. 5 days went by and I had only 5 days remaining before the package was sent back. No news of my case. I called up and my case was assigned topmost priority. After furnishing a scan of my student card my package was freed of taxes and I could pickup the package next day. Overall, my experiences with the Danish Postal system has always been topnotch. In this case, although I was perplexed over the taxation initially (I am not going into a debate of its fairness), but eventually everybody at the postal office was very helpful in resolving the case amicably. The next time I eat one of cookies which my mother sent I won’t crib about how costly it was. Yay to the sane and friendly Danish Postal system !! Don’t be afraid to poke the right people. More often than not you will have a satisfactory and sane resolution. We live in reasonable times, don’t we ? That’s a topic for another day. And I received a happy mail I went in a group last week on a Swiss hiking holidays. I had a great time hiking around the Alps in the valley and would definitely advise and force anyone planning to stay in Interlaken to stay in Lauterbrunnen. However, even with the Alps all around us, what caught my eye was the hospitality I received at the Valley Hostel. Though this might sound as a sales pitch, it is not so. What struck me was : - When we arrived at around 7-30 in the evening, Susie (hostel staff or owner, not quite sure) was more than friendly. She helped us check in, asking us about our trip and plans just like a friend. - She took us to our room and insisted on carrying all the towels and linen herself. Now that made us feel very homely since at least I am used to such behavior when I go to a friends’ or relatives’ place. - Every time we had a question and we asked Susie about it, she made it a point to answer it with more than we asked for, till the point we had to interrupt and run away. The entire behavior made me ponder how much a little thoughtfulness and friendliness can go to preserve memories. So much so that someone completely unknown ends up making a sales pitch for you Awesome Valley Hostel staff (Susie on the left and the unknown guy on the right) I went for a ritual haircut to Copenhagen Frisorskole where I have been going for the past 2 years. But this time it was different, the hairdresser who was cutting my hair had different ideas for my hair than what I wanted. And his supervisor also went for what he said instead of listening to what I was saying. And that is how I got a haircut disaster. Although in the end I managed to salvage the situation a bit by instructing them how to abandon what they were doing and do what I wanted. Will I go back again ? I think I will since its really really cheap and well worth the money as it has always been for me except this time. Oh dear !! What did I do wrong ? I so miss the free S train rides on the first Sunday of every month. They were the ideal opportunities for poor students like me to make those long forays into the Danish countryside. If you can, it would be nice even to have subsidized tickets on the first Sunday of every month if not completely free. After all, the best things in life are usually free. Yours really really sincerely, Just another student who loves to travel and explore Hope it doesn’t come to this

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CC-MAIN-2018-22

https://bonii.wordpress.com/category/social/

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en

lose (one's) marbles(redirected from lost our marbles) lose (one's) marbles To be or become mentally deficient, incompetent, or deranged; to become of unsound mind. My poor grandmother started losing her marbles after she had a stroke. I've been so sleep deprived lately that it feels like I've lost my marbles! lose (all) one's marblesand lose one's mind Fig. to go crazy; to go out of one's mind. What a silly thing to say! Have you lost your marbles? Look at Sally jumping up and down and screaming. Is she losing all her marbles? I can't seem to remember anything. I think I'm losing my mind. lose one's marbles see under have all one's buttons. lose your marblesINFORMAL If you lose your marbles, you become crazy. At 83 I haven't lost my marbles and my memory is, thank God, as clear as it ever was. People are talking about him as if he's lost his marbles. Note: You can also say that someone has all their marbles, meaning that they are not crazy. He's in his eighties but he clearly still has all his marbles. lose your marblesgo insane; become irrational or senile. informal Marbles as a term for ‘a person's mental faculties’ probably originated as early 20th-century American slang. The underlying reference is apparently to the children's game played with multicoloured glass balls. 1998 Spectator At least, that is how I recall the event, but I am losing my marbles.

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CC-MAIN-2018-47

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Public concern about environmental issues including climate change has slumped to a 20-year low since the financial crisis, a global study reveals. Fewer people now consider issues such as CO2 emissions, air and water pollution, animal species loss, and water shortages to be “very serious” than at any time in the last two decades, according to the poll of 22,812 people in 22 countries including Britain and the US. Despite years of studies showing the impact of global warming on the planet, only 49 per cent of people now consider climate change a very serious issue – far fewer than at the beginning of the worldwide financial crisis in 2009. Worries about climate change first dropped in industrialised nations but they have now also fallen in developing economies including Brazil and China, according to the survey by GlobeScan Radar. The declining interest in climate change comes amid a backlash against costly green energy investments in an age of austerity. David Nussbaum, head of WWF UK, said “sustained pressure” was required from political leaders to combat climate change. He said it was only when “real indicators” of climate change came, such as floods and droughts, that public perceptions changed. He told The Independent: “Of course people’s concerns about climate change changed in 2009 when economic pressures were rising… [But] the problems haven’t gone away… There are longer-term concerns that may not seem imminent that are extremely serious. A skilled political leader has got to grapple with how you act and respond to the immediate pressure people feel while helping [to take] account of the wider concerns and interests.” Campaigners said the “perceived seriousness” of climate change had also fallen sharply since the unsuccessful UN Climate Change Summit in Copenhagen in December 2009. The summit ended in what was described as “confusion, disagreement and disarray” as political leaders failed to agree a legally binding deal to curb greenhouse gas emissions. Graham Thompson, a spokesman for Greenpeace, said: “The public can see that the response of our politicians is completely inadequate to the threat scientists have revealed, and that dissonance is reflected in these polls.” Doug Miller, chairman of GlobeScan, said: “Evidence of environmental damage is stronger than ever, but our data shows that economic crisis and a lack of political leadership mean that the public are starting to tune out.” The Department of Energy and Climate Change reiterated the view of Ed Davey, Climate Change Secretary, that “the basic physics of climate change is irrefutable”. The GlobeScan survey found that water pollution is viewed as the most serious environment problem worldwide with 58 per cent of people polled saying it represents a very serious concern. - More about: - Financial Crisis - Global Politics - Global Warming - Industrial Countries

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CC-MAIN-2017-09

http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/green-fatigue-sets-in-the-world-cools-on-global-warming-8513826.html

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en

[Description(s) from The National Gazetteer "NORTH YELL, a parish in the Shetland Isles, coast of Scotland. It comprises the northern portion of the island of Yell, with the island of Feltar, besides numerous small islets in Colgrave and Yell sounds. It is a mountainous district, chiefly sheepwalks, with remains of Picts' houses and Danish forts along the coasts. The cliffs on the W., with the islets adjoining, are frequented by swarms of sea-fowl, terns, eider-ducks, and other Arctic species, while the narrow seas or sounds, called Blumel, Colgrave, and Yell sounds, abound in herrings, sillocks, and ca'ing whales. The parish is in the presbytery of Burra-voe. The minister's stipend is £160, with manse. "REDFIRTH, an ancient parish, now joined to North Yell, Shetland Isles, coast of Scotland. It gives name to a voe or loch on the E. side of Yell Island." [Description(s) from The National Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland (1868) Transcribed by Colin Hinson ©2003]

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CC-MAIN-2018-05

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Research & Education : William F. Sheedy Essay Contest Since 1990, the William E. Sheedy Memorial History Contest has honed the research skills of Middletown’s eight-year-olds, who study town history as part of their third-grade curriculum. Each spring the Middlesex County Historical Society competition invites students to research the life of an ancestor and report their findings in an essay format. The result: an annual outpouring over 100 wonderful portraits of beloved grandparents, quirky aunts and uncles, and accomplished forebears from a more distant past. The finished reports reveal an inquisitive spirit worthy of any historian. The students use primary and secondary sources and a variety of research techniques to create their depictions. They interview family members, dig up old newspaper clippings, and unearth photographs and documents to explore the connections between a loved one’s life and the era he or she lived in. Each year the entries represent an impressive variety of cultures and experiences, from immigration in the early 20th century to American life during the depression to Colonial-era values. Many, too, reveal with humor and poignancy the significance of good deeds and the importance of family. While many students benefit from the contest through their discovery of remarkable accomplishments, unusual talents or acts of courage, it is often the values and words of wisdom quietly passed on that make the biggest impression. As one third-grader winner wrote in her winning report about her grandfather, a musician and candy-maker, he “taught me that you have to work hard in your life and that your family is the most important accomplishment you can have — but a little music and candy in your day can help.” Each year, the winning historians are presented with a $20 award, and all entrants receive a certificate of participation and a special pencil. In early June, the Historical Society hosts a reception at General Mansfield House to honor all the participants in the contest and their families. The Historical Society’s exhibits and (weather permitting) the gardens are open for viewing. The William E. Sheedy Memorial History Contest was established by friends of the late William Sheedy, who served for many years as the Historical Society’s treasurer. The contest is open to all Middletown public and private school third graders. The 2016 winners are (in alphabetical order): Bruno Aguilar, Damarkus Bourne, Caitlin Srey Burgess, Georgia Caldwell, Natalia Calvo, Sophia Calvo, Tamia Collins, Benjamin Curiel, Jackson Drew, Christian Gonzalez, Romaine Hanson, Sophia Hiebert, Lilian Kerr, Michael Kline, Alish McKenna, Brody Miller, Zuzanna Rogowski, Ethan Starks, Thank you for sharing your family stories! The 2015 winners are (in alphabetical order): Ariana Bafumi, Gioa Biales, Cameron Cook, Dahlia Goldblatt, Sydney Hunter, Elise Kennedy, Isabella Lane, Rosealee Otis, Diya Patel, Julianne Pickett, Nathanael Rodbourn, Obsidian Rodriguez, Oskar Ruser, Joseph Silvestro, and Sydney Tuttle. Congratulations and thanks to all of you for sharing your family stories! Mayor Dan Drew, school administrators and families came together to celebrate the 2013 Sheedy contest winners: Elizabeth Appell, Elizabeth LaBlanc, Aaron Ranney, Olivia Parcesepe, Mason Neumann, Conner Konopka, Isaiah Connor, Ryan Quinn, Kristen Gustafson, Joseph Karpinski, Constantinos Soteriou, Seshank Sekar, Tyah Pettaway. The 2012 Sheedy contest winners are: Quentin Conner, Emily LaValley, Benjamin Elliot, Avila Thompson, Kaya Cook, Jessica Nowakowski, Emma Zingle, Sophia Pini, Richard Palozie, Alyssa Lecky, Alejandrea Lozade, Azra Cecunjanin. The 2011 Sheedy contest winners are: Erica Augeri, Michael Bjorklund, Andrew Brown, Jason Connelly, Michael Flynn, Jenna Ifkovic, Jayden Koski, Caroline Rocco, Lia Rosenbloom, Sarah Rydell, Shreya Seshadri, Ryan Tobin.

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CC-MAIN-2019-13

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Aerobic activity is a popular form of exercise for many people due to the positive health benefits it imparts. For example, aerobic exercise can improve heart, lung, and circulatory health; alleviate stress; encourage weight loss; improve stamina; and strengthen and tone muscles. Despite the benefits of aerobic activities, the constant and repetitive impact of jumping, side-to-side movement, and pushing forward on hard surfaces can lead to foot and ankle injuries. Due to the stress on the feet, it is important to wear appropriate footwear while participating in aerobic exercise to reduce the chance of injury. Choose a sneaker specifically designed for the activity at hand. The sneaker should offer support for the arch, soles, and sides of the foot, as well as the right type of cushioning and shock absorption Remember, a running sneaker is designed differently than a sneaker for aerobics classes. For example, a shoe for aerobics classes accommodates for side-to-side motions, jumps, twists, and turns. A proper fit is also crucial, so be sure to bring along the actual socks you will wear during the aerobic activity when trying on new sneakers. Since the feet swell as the day goes on, it is best to try on new sneakers in the latter part of the day so they are not too small or tight. It is also essential to keep the feet and ankles well-stretched and strong by performing specific ankle and foot exercises before and after aerobic activity.

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CC-MAIN-2017-39

http://arlingtonfootandankle.com/term/aerobic-exercise/

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So as to successfully create food items together with highest quality, each phase of processing has to be well-designed. Unit Operations in Food Engineering systematically introduces the basic information required to design food procedures and the equipment required to carry out them. It covers the most typical food technology component operations in detail, such as guidance for executing special layout calculations. Initial chapters present transportation phenomena principles such as momentum, mass, and energy transport in various unit operations. After chapters present detailed unit performance descriptions based on fluid transport and mass and heat transport. Each chapter concludes with a collection of solved problems as examples of the applied concept.

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CC-MAIN-2018-39

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If you are in charge of managing a database server, from time to time you may need to run a query and inspect it carefully. While you can do that from the MySQL / MariaDB shell, but this tip will allow you to execute the MySQL/MariaDB Queries directly using the Linux command line AND save the output to a file for later inspection (this is particularly useful if the query return lots of records). Let us look at some simple examples of running queries directly from the command line before we can move to a more advanced query. To view all the databases on your server, you can issue the following command: # mysql -u root -p -e "show databases;" Next, to create a database table named tutorials in the database rootadminzdb, run the command below: $ mysql -u root -p -e "USE rootadminzdb; CREATE TABLE tutorials(tut_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, tut_title VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL, tut_author VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL, submissoin_date DATE, PRIMARY KEY (tut_id));" We will use the following command and pipe the output to the tee command followed by the filename where we want to store the output. For illustration, we will use a database named employees and a simple join between the employees and salaries tables. In your own case, just type the SQL query between the quotes and hit Enter. Note that you will be prompted to enter the password for the database user: # mysql -u root -p -e "USE employees; SELECT DISTINCT A.first_name, A.last_name FROM employees A JOIN salaries B ON A.emp_no = B.emp_no WHERE hire_date < '1985-01-31';" | tee queryresults.txt View the query results with the help of cat command. # cat queryresults.txt With the query results in a plain text file, you can process the records more easily using other command-line utilities.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.ucartz.com/clients/index.php?rp=%2Fknowledgebase%2F2005%2FHow-to-Run-MySQLorMariaDB-Queries-Directly-from-the-Linux-Command-Line.html&language=croatian

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en

If the scene inside a modern-day maternity ward seems stressful and primal, Cara Ratner wants you to imagine what it was like to bring a baby into the world in the days before 911 and anesthesia. Ratner is an archaeologist who joined the San Diego Archaeological Center five months ago as the director of education programs, and next month, she will give her first lecture, “The Archaeology of Childbirth,” at the center in San Pasqual Valley. The presentation is the culmination of years of research, which began in graduate school at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. “Childbirth is so vitally important to the human species, yet it always gets overlooked in the archaeological record,” she told me when we spoke Tuesday. “We are products of this naturally occurring event.” There are some good reasons why archaeology has largely ignored this universal human experience, she acknowledged: “Oftentimes, it was done at home, where normal activities occurred — you’d give birth and clean up, so you wouldn’t see it in the archaeological record.” But from locations around the world has come physical evidence of what primitive cultures thought and practiced when the third trimester was up — for example, birthing bricks in Egypt. “The women would stand on these bricks,” engraved with images of pregnancy, while in labor, Ratner explained. “I found that the most common birthing position is not to lay flat on your back — it’s actually sitting or kneeling. Most people assume that the way we give birth, in a hospital, is common — but it isn’t. It’s actually rare.” Ratner is a North American archaeologist, and her fascination with primitive childbirth grew out of a preoccupation with the lives of women in early Southwest civilization. “I loved looking at the women in archaeology, and the children — they’re usually not represented,” she said. “A lot of times, you hear about the hunter, but not about the woman or the elderly.” Once, while working in the Lower Pecos Canyonlands of Texas, Ratner was escorted to a hieroglyphic site where images of pregnant women peered back from the cool rock walls. There was no mistaking the drawings. “They were very obviously pregnant, and very obviously women,” she recalled. “They showed women in movement — they weren’t passive, they weren’t laying down. Some of them had flutes in their hands, and they were dancing. So there are some incredible depictions in rock art of women dancing and engaging in these activities, and that was absolutely fascinating.” Not always welcome dinner-party material, Ratner’s childbirth talk is generally met with interest by women who have delivered children themselves, she said. But anyone who is interested in how things worked before hospitals and sterilized instruments would be served by understanding how birth was carried out in centuries past. “It’s really not going to be a gruesome talk,” Ratner assured me with a laugh. “I don’t show videos or anything like that.” The lecture is scheduled for 11 a.m. Feb. 8. It is free to members of the archaeology center, and $5 otherwise. The center is at 16666 San Pasqual Valley Road in Escondido, just east of the Safari Park.

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CC-MAIN-2015-18

http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2014/jan/23/archaeologist-lecture-prehistoric-childbirth/?ap

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en

SCIENTISTS at MMU are developing a new generation of material catalysts used for refining and purifying liquids. Research with the Max Planck Society, backed by the EPSRC and Leverhulme Trust, promises greater efficiency and ‘greener’ performance for a host of industrial processes. MMU’s Advanced Materials Research Group believe that crystalline zeolites – porous mineral structures – will display new and exciting properties when made into very thin films. The team have pioneered a new method to prepare such films, and can now routinely prepare thin films less than 100 nanometres thick (0.1 millionth of a metre). Dr Aidan Doyle, who leads a six-strong team of zeolite investigators, said: "Thin zeolites are an exciting new phenomenon but this is really just the start of the research". "Working with the Max Planck Society , we hope to find out a lot more about their properties and how they can be used. For instance, it will be possible to analyse zeolites at the atomic level for the first time using a range of powerful techniques. These nanomaterials will also show novel properties in semi-conduction and electronics". Zeolites ‘filter’ enzymes and other elements from compounds and are used widespread in petrol refinement, industrial cleansing and household chemicals, such as washing powder.

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CC-MAIN-2017-09

http://www2.mmu.ac.uk/business-school/about-us/news/story/index.php?id=634

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en

A diet too high in calories, which leads to obesity, increases breast cancer risk. Postmenopausal obesity increases breast cancer risk because the aromatase enzyme system in fat cells causes more estrogen to be formed. Children who are obese develop menstrual cycles an early age, also increasing breast cancer risk. Drinking alcohol in any form, beer, wine or spirits, increases breast cancer risk through its effect upon the liver. The liver metabolizes estrogen and can change it into an inactive form. A liver impaired by alcohol lets estrogen build to higher levels, thereby stimulating the breast. For example, men who are alcoholics develop increased breast tissue, called gynecomastia, from elevated estrogen levels.

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CC-MAIN-2018-34

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The THC is the psychoactive component of marijuana, and è been the subject of investigation by researchers from the Università of Tel Aviv. According to the data, published in Behavioural Brain Research and Experimental Brain Research, the THC if used with controlled doses may protect the brain from possible damage resulting from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), injury, toxicityà drug, only a few examples. Damage that might have clinical outcomes important più or less serious. The study carried out by the israeli researchers is interesting becauseé shows how to use the active ingredient of marijuana in very low doses and at different times. The dose experienced is, on average, less than from one thousand to 10 thousand times that normally contained in a joint. While the time of use range from one to seven days before the lesion, and up to three days after. According to scientists, the active ingredient acts directly on the brain cells, preserving, in time, cognitive functions. For Yosef Be, one of the authors of the research, it is a treatment that canò be used, and be safe in time, in many types of brain injury. tests have revealed that the THC has the characteristic not only of preventing the cell death, but to promote more growth factors. The study has been conducted on animals divided into two groups. The first group, treated with THC (following brain injury), has given a better response in the behavioral tests, cognitive, learning and memory in 3-7 weeks after the traumatic event (compared to that of control which had not received THC). in Addition, in animals that had received the active ingredient, there was a higher presence of chemical substances neuroprotective. the researchers is; the long period in which può be administered the treatment to make an interesting study. Thereò, in fact, allows to intervene after a brain injury, but also before, in order to prevent those of the future. Be emphasize in every way the importance of the low dosage of THC. Amount; a minimum allow you to start the process of ‘therapeutic’ by reducing to a minimum the initial damage. Cannabis, if taken by adolescents, the intelligence is reduced Cannabis, Tuscany voted in favour of the treatments with cannabinoids 3 June 2013

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CC-MAIN-2020-45

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en

Click to Listen: Play Audio File Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click and save link) This is the VOA Special English Agriculture Report. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization says deforestation has decreased over the past ten years. But it still continues at a high rate in many countries. Deforestation is mainly caused by the cutting down of tropical forests to provide land for agriculture. The world’s total forest area is just over four billion hectares. About thirteen million hectares of forest were cut down or lost through natural causes each year in the last ten years. This compares with about sixteen million hectares per year during the nineteen nineties. The FAO study covers two hundred thirty-three countries and areas. The study found that Brazil and Indonesia have reduced their deforestation rates. The two countries had the highest loss of forests in the nineteen nineties. In addition, the study noted tree-planting programs in countries such as China, India, Vietnam and the United States. These programs, along with natural expansion of forests in some areas, have added more than seven million hectares of new forests each year. South America and Africa had the highest yearly loss of forests during the last ten years. South America lost four million hectares. Africa lost almost three and a half million hectares. However, Asia gained more than two million hectares a year in the last decade. In North America and Central America, the forest area remained about the same. In Europe, it continued to expand, but at a slower rate than earlier. Eduardo Rojas is assistant director-general of F.A.O.’s Forestry Department. He said for the first time, the rate of deforestation has decreased around the world. This is the result of efforts taken at local and international levels. Mister Rojas said countries have improved their forest policies and legislation. They have also provided forests for use by local communities and native peoples and for the protection of biological diversity. He said this is a welcome message in two thousand ten – the International Year of Biodiversity. However, Mister Rojas said the rate of deforestation is still very high in many areas. He said countries must strengthen their efforts to better protect and manage their forests. And that’s the VOA Special English Agriculture Report, written by Jerilyn Watson. You can find transcripts, MP3s, podcasts and captioned videos at voaspecialenglish.com. I’m Bob Doughty.

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CC-MAIN-2017-34

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is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Ac and atomic number 89, which was discovered in 1899 , the earliest discovered of the radioactive elements. Actinium is a silvery, radioactive , metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity, actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth element lanthanum Actinium is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227Ac, an α and β emitter with a half-life of 21.773 years. One ton of uranium ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium. The actinium isotope 227Ac is a transient member of the actinium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 235U (or 239Pu) and ends with the stable lead isotope 207Pb. Another actinium isotope (225Ac) is transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain, beginning with 237Np (or 233U) and ending with near-stable bismuth (209Bi). It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a neutron source for energy. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications. 225Ac is used in medicine to produce 213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio-immunotherapy for Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT). 225Ac was first produced artificially by the ITU in Germany using a cyclotron and by Dr Graeme Melville at St George Hospital in Sydney using a linac in 2000. Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne , a French chemist, who separated it from pitchblende as a substance being similar to titanium (1899) or similar to thorium (1890). Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902 as a substance being similar to lanthanum and called it "emanium" in 1904. After a comparison of substances in 1904, Debierne's name was retained because it had seniority. The history of the discovery stayed questionable and in publications from 1971 and later in 2000 showed that the claims of André-Louis Debierne in 1904 conflict with the publications in 1899 and 1890. The word actinium comes from the Greek aktis, aktinos, meaning beam or ray. Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore , but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226 in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300°C. Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive isotope Ac. 36 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 227 Ac with a half-life of 21.772 y Ac with a half-life of 10.0 days , and 226 Ac with a half-life of 29.37 h . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is 217 Ac which decays through alpha decay and electron capture . It has a half-life of 69 ns . Actinium also has 2 meta states Purified 227Ac comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from 206 u (206Ac) to 236 u (236Ac). Ac is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects, 227 Ac is even more dangerous than plutonium . Ingesting even small amounts of 227 Ac would be fatal. Actinium compounds, along with advanced circuitry are used in a time travel device in Excalibur: Morgana's Revenge

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Flowers are an easy and inexpensive way to add a dash of color to any room in the home. A large variety of attractive, low-maintenance flowers thrive when grown indoors. Most flowers require bright light in order to produce their blooms so place flowering plants in areas of the home where they receive a considerable amount of natural sunlight each day. Often used as a bedding plant, impatiens grow well when brought indoors. Impatiens are available in a wide variety of colors ranging from white to pinks, oranges, purples and reds. Impatiens reach a height of 6 to 24 inches and have a 6- to 24-inch spread. Plant impatiens in large containers or pots that allow for proper drainage. The Missouri Botanical Garden states that impatiens thrive in rich, organic soil and require bright, indirect lighting when grown indoors. According to Clemson University, Martha Washington, common and ivy-leafed geraniums are three types of geraniums that grow well indoors. Plant geraniums in a large tub or pot that has proper drainage and fill pots with soil that is a mix of garden loam, perlite and peat moss. In order for the geranium to continually produce flowers throughout the year, place them in areas where they receive bright, natural light. Do not place geraniums in hot or drafty, cool areas of the house. Ever-blooming miniature roses thrive when grown indoors. Their flowers come in a large variety of colors including, pink, orange, coral, yellow, white, red and mauve. Plant miniature roses in a mid-sized pot that provides sufficient drainage and use a soil rich in organic matter. According to Iowa State University, miniature roses need five to six hours of sunlight from a west or south facing window to ensure proper growth and flowering. Keep plants out of excessive heat or cold, drafty areas. Native to Africa and Madagascar, the cape primrose is a relative of gloxinia and the African violet. The plant produces clusters of delicate pink, blue or purple flowers year-round. The cape primrose prefers a cool, indoor climate and thrives when planted in a soil mix of perlite, peat moss, lime and vermiculite. Cornell University states that cape primrose flowers require full sunlight from September to March and indirect sunlight from April until August. The goldfish plant is native to Brazil, Mexico and Costa Rica. Named for its orange-gold goldfish-shaped flowers, this flowering plant works best as an indoor, hanging plant. Plant goldfish plants in a soil mix of peat and perlite or use a potting medium specially made for African violets. The goldfish plant requires bright light and humid conditions to encourage continual year-round blooming. If flowers stop blossoming, water the plant, place it in a plastic bag and place it in indirect light until it begins to flower again.

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What is a Continuous Rotation Servo? What is a Servo? Before understanding what a continuous rotation servo is, it is important to know what a servo is. At the most basic level, a servo is just a controllable motor. There are various types of servos. The Standard Servo is a geared down motor that has a limited range of rotation. These servos use internal electronics to identify the current angle of the motor, and using an input signal, are told what position is desired. The electronics then perform calculations and will make the motor spin one way or the other to move to the desired position. Most servos utilize a form of PWM to receive the desired position from a controller. This is done by having a PWM signal with a period of 20ms. It would be very easy for another device to measure the duty-cycle or pulse time and use that to receive data simply by adjusting the duty-cycle of the signal. In this case the servo receives the PWM signal and measures the time that the signal is high. There are some variations for maximum and minimum pulse durations among the servos. However, all servos should position the servo arm (or 'horn') at the mid-point of its range of motion when the pulse received is 1.5ms. Most servos have a maximum input of 2.0ms, and a minimum input of 1.0ms. So if you were to send a pulse for 1.0ms, the servo would go to one end of travel, and it would go to the other end if you sent a pulse for 2.0ms. So What is a Continuous Rotation Servo? A continuous rotation servo is a servo that does not have a limit on its range of motion. Instead of having the input signal determine which position the servo should rotate to, the continuous rotation servo relates the input to the speed of the output and direction. For example, an input PWM signal of 1.5 ms relates to the center position, so the servo will not move. A PWM signal of 1.0 will turn the servo full-speed in the clockwise direction and a PWM signal of 2.0 will turn it full speed in the counter-clockwise direction. Values in between 1.0 ms and 2.0 ms will turn the servo at corresponding speeds and directions. |Input Pulse (ms)||Rotation Speed (%)||Direction of rotation|

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1. Plan and deliver short, organized spoken messages and oral reports tailored to specific audiences and purposes. 9. Identify successful strategies for job interview preparation. 10. Explain how best to answer standard and behavioural job interview questions. In Ch. 9 above, we discussed how the job application process is basically a communications test that begins with a low-difficulty written component in the cover letter and résumé, and ends with a high-level oral exam in the interview. Among other things, the interview helps the employer get to know the job applicant better and confirm that they are who their résumé and cover letter say they are. It places the burden of proving the résumé’s claims on the applicant by inviting them to speak anecdotally about them. The most successful applicants will use the interview questions as opportunities to connect their experience and qualifications to the requirements of the job at hand as stated in the job posting. The successful pitch convinces the employer that the applicant, as the solution to the problems associated with the job vacancy, is not only a good match for the role and its duties, but also a good fit for the culture of the workplace. The employer wants to confirm that the candidate will get along well with management, coworkers, and customers, which the employer can get a sense of only through conversation. Advice about how to succeed in job interviews is about as varied as there are people offering advice on job interviews because every employer is different in how they conduct interviews and what they want to get out of them. This variety makes preparing for job interviews tricky. A job interview can be as informal as walking in to speak with a store manager without so much as a résumé. It could be as formal as a three-stage process with a pre-interview phone screening, two-hour interview in front of a panel asking the same questions of each candidate, and a follow-up hour-long interview with questions specific to the leading candidates. A rigorous interview process may have pre-interview screening procedures such as personality tests, written and oral language proficiency tests, background investigations (e.g., college transcript, criminal records check), consultations with previous employers, and even personality-assessing video games (NPR, 2013) to ensure that the employer doesn’t waste hours interviewing candidates unfit for the role. The interview may involve demonstrations of skill such as solving a complex engineering problem on a whiteboard. It may be conducted via web conference. It may be an unstructured conversation about something completely different from the work at hand and take place in a coffee shop. It may be in an off-site hotel room or in the actual workplace itself. The only consistent element in all of this variety is that you’ll have a conversation with employer or their representatives. Given the variety of types of interview, how can you possibly prepare for one? Let’s consider this question with regard to what’s common in most interviews and the employer’s motivations in finding the perfect candidate for the role. Of course, you can’t necessarily count on the employer being an excellent judge of character in an interview because, looking around the professional landscape, you can see various degrees of incompetence and repulsive personalities among employees; they all presumably managed to beat out other candidates in convincing employers to hire them in interviews. If you’re unsure how it’s going to play out, though, the best you can do is assume that your interview will be rigorous and prepare to “wow” them with your knowledge of the company, position, and yourself. Let’s consider what you can do before, during, and after the interview to increase your chances of landing a job offer. - 10.3.1: Pre-Interview Preparation - 10.3.2: Job Interview Performance - 10.3.3: Post-interview Follow-up Messages When you get a call or email for an interview, congratulations! The employer is officially interested in you because you meet the basic qualifications of what they’re looking for, but so do several other people—your competition—so don’t celebrate quite yet. So now what? How do you do it better than them and rise to the top of the pile? Between the moment you find out about the interview and the interview itself, you must do everything in your power to build the confidence necessary to answer questions convincingly so that the employer has no reason not to hire you. Confidence starts with knowing your stuff, so the first order of business is to review and build upon whatever research into both the company and the position you did for the written portion of your application. Whereas that research supplied the information you needed to select the experience and qualifications you assembled in your targeted résumé and cover letter, the research you now do will have to be extensive enough that you can draw upon a sound understanding of the company and the role to be able to answer any reasonable question about them off the top of your head. Of the questions you can anticipate in the interview, you can definitely prepare for those about the company itself. They might be as simple and blunt as “Tell us what you know about our company” or as strategic as asking you how you would best serve the company clientele in a certain situation. Since the first rule of business is to know the customer and what they want, the employer will want to ensure that your priorities are in line with its own, which is to supply the customer’s demand. If you have no idea who the customer is and what they want because all you did to prepare was skim the company website, the employer might just end the interview right there. You must therefore research as much as possible who the company serves and go beyond the company website. Does the company’s revenue come from other companies (is it a business-to-business supplier or contractor?), the government, or the consumer public? If the latter, get some solid information on their demographics. Are they primarily: - Men, women, or both? - What age? Children, adolescents, young adults, 20-35 year-olds, middle-aged adults, the elderly, or all ages? - What are their life circumstances? Are they wealthy, middle class, or of limited means? Are they young parents or pensioners? Etc. - What are their motivations? Are they filling a want or a need? What feeling are they trying to achieve with the product or service the company provides? Once you have a good idea who the customer is, you can imagine some scenarios of customer interactions, especially to prepare for the interview’s behavioural questions (see §10.3.2.4 below). You can find an excellent summary of the company’s priorities in its mission or vision statement if it has one. Many companies will have such a statement on their website, usually in the “About” page. Though these are usually very polished with marketing language, memorizing and being able to paraphrase them in a way that makes it your own will suggest to the employer that your goals in getting this job align with theirs, and that you will therefore be a good fit. Of course, some standard information on the company is also necessary. Start by asking yourself: - How big is it? Is it a single-location small business, a franchise stretching across a certain region of the province or nation, a governmental agency, or a multinational corporation? - When was it founded and how has it changed over the years (e.g., has it changed ownership, changed its focus, diversified its product line, merged with other companies, etc.)? - What are its current challenges? For this latter point, start by Google-searching for news items or ads in local or national news outlets. If you find that the company is embarking on some major newsworthy initiative or contract, chances are the position has to do with it. Whenever an employer prepares to spend money by hiring someone to do a job, it’s to solve a problem, which in general is not having someone to do a certain set of tasks that would help achieve their business goals. Find out what that problem is in great detail so that you can convincingly pitch yourself—i.e., your skill sets and talents—as its solution. Another way to do this is to get some inside information by asking around. If there’s someone within the company whom you already know or can approach via networking to get some valuable “intel” (intelligence or information) on what the company culture is like and what the employer would therefore be looking for, then you could cater your answers to that profile. This isn’t so much disingenuous as it is catering to the audience, which, as we’ve been saying since §2.2, is the essence of all good communication. The previous subsection’s advice about finding someone inside intel on the company culture pertains also to the position. If someone in the department where the position has opened up knows something about why that is, you’ll want to take them out for coffee and a chat. The more you can discover about the motivations of the employer in hiring for that position, the better you can cater to those needs. Absent insider help (or in addition to it), your next recourse is simply to study the job posting very closely and annotate it. For every point it describes in terms of required qualifications and skills, as well as a description of the job duties the successful candidate will perform, write notes about how your own work or educational experience prepared you to do the same. Otherwise, write notes about what you can say if your experience hasn’t prepared you to perform those duties. Write your responses to each in terms that you would actually say to the employer if they asked you for evidence proving that you have the qualifications, skill, or ability to do the duties listed. If the job posting is vague, you could instead research the role itself, the skills required to perform it successfully, and what duties it involves. A good place to start is the Government of Canada’s Job Bank Explore Careers by Essential Skills database. Every profession has a page that lists the following: - The types of documents you would be reading, writing, and working with (literacy) - Math skills (numeracy) involved - Oral communication skills (oracy) - Problem-solving skills - Technology you would be working with—both hardware and software - Additional Information Closely studying every word of this would furnish you with a thorough idea of what the job entails and thus with material you can use in the interview to answer questions knowledgeably. Now that you’ve started a set of notes based on the job posting, continue building on it in a question-and-answer format. Come up with as many questions as you can think of that the employer could ask. The more job interviews you do, the more you can add and adapt questions for particular job types. We will explore some standard questions in §10.3.2.3 below and behavioural questions (§10.3.2.4) you can adapt to the profession at hand. Taking the time to work out your responses to these possible questions will help enormously if you refine and study those responses. If you do this well and the employer asks the very questions you anticipated, then your answers will roll off your tongue with confidence. You will look magnitudes better than the candidates who didn’t prepare and have to stall to think about their responses before speaking. Those who don’t prepare tend to poorly articulate their thoughts as they figure out their wording as they go, and then regret their answers afterward, realizing that they could have said it better or included a clinching detail that didn’t come to mind at the time. When you work out those details ahead of time, however, answering perfectly off the top of your head will make you look like an in-demand expert. As part of this preparation, write and memorize an elevator pitch with four-to-five key talking points that would best convince the employer that you’re perfect for the position. Vague, open-ended questions such as “Why should we hire you?” or “What will make you successful in this position?” are your cue to hit those key points starting with your best selling point and working on down. Focus on your qualifications, experience, and the skills that best match with what the employer is looking for as stated in the job posting. Phrase them as brief, easy-to-follow stories. If you can summarize these coherently altogether in a minute or two—the time that it would take to accompany the employer up an elevator—and they genuinely recommend you well to the position, you do the employer the favour of giving them all they need to make a confident decision about your suitability. If you don’t get the opportunity to hit those key points served on a silver platter in one question, your job is to look for opportunities to make those pitches throughout the interview. If you’re genuinely well suited to the position, your chances are good that questions will lend themselves to at least some of those points. They may even ask at the end of the interview if you have anything else to say, in which case you can cover any of the points you hadn’t so far found an opportunity to mention, as well as reiterate your main selling point or two in order to keep them fresh in interviewers’ minds when you leave. Of course, preparing a set of notes is useless if you lack the time to study and rehearse your responses in a mock job interview situation, so manage your time effectively and schedule mock job interviews throughout the week prior to your actual interview. The more comfortable and familiar you are with the interview dynamic of someone asking you questions and you responding, the more confident and articulate you can be for the real thing. Enlist a trusted partner, family member, friend, or even an interview coach from Algonquin College’s Employment Support Centre to ask questions you anticipated, as well as some you haven’t so you can practice thinking on your feet. Help from a friend or acquaintance who is an employer themselves would be especially helpful because they can draw on personal experience to advise you on what works and what doesn’t from their managerial perspective. Their honest feedback will be invaluable as long as you accept and implement their constructive criticism. You may also get a sense yourself of what works and what doesn’t, but having someone else to talk to about it and work it out will do wonders for your interview preparedness. With dress being a form of nonverbal communication, be as strategic in planning what you’re going to wear to your interview as you are with what you’re going to say. When people make up their mind about you within milliseconds of looking at you, wearing a well-fitted suit or office-appropriate attire is crucial because, as with any communication, you must adapt your style to the expectations of your audience. Though you may think that a nice suit is essential in any job interview, there are types of jobs, such as in the trades, where wearing a suit might suggest that you won’t really fit the workplace culture. If you’re applying for a finance-industry job on the thirty-third floor of a Bay Street Toronto skyscraper, on the other hand, a shabby, ill-fitting suit will immediately suggest failure and the interview will be seen as a waste of valuable time. For a good sense of how people in a workplace dress on a daily basis, go check it out for yourself. If the style of dress is casual, what would be considered unprofessional in any other place (e.g., in a tattoo shop), or if it’s a uniform, dressing slightly more formally than that is probably a good bet. Of course, if there’s any way to find out what the employer’s actual expectation is, such as calling someone in the Human Resources department, go with whatever they say. Whatever you wear, don’t forget to wash, iron, and even have it dry-cleaned if necessary. Polish your shoes. Plan out and coordinate accessories. Try everything on ahead of time and solicit the advice of your partner, family, roommates, or friends. Apply the same scrutiny to the rest of your controllable appearance including your hair and skin (e.g., shaving) so that you leave no details unattended on interview day. One off-detail might be the one that the employer gets hung-up on and remembers about you, whereas you want everything about you to be as impeccable as the résumé and cover letter that got you this interview in the first place. A consistently high-quality presentation will suggest to the hiring manager that you’ll be that way in the position they’re hiring for. Many people consider job interviews among the most nerve-wracking situations in their life. Given that your livelihood and self-esteem depend on successfully passing the interview, such a high-pressure situation is sure to produce some (if not a great deal of) anxiety. Though this is a normal, healthy reaction, you simply cannot resign yourself to acting nervous in the interview itself because doing so threatens to spoil your chances of success. Just as confidence is contagious by the process of social mirroring (see §10.1.3.1 above), so is nervousness; if you appear nervous, the hiring manager will be nervous about hiring you because your behaviour suggests that you feel you’re not equal to the task, that you’re an impostor punching above your weight for even applying. If you answer questions confidently, on the hand, and build trust by looking the employer in the eye as you explain yourself, they’ll be confident that you’ll perform just as well in the job itself. What can you do, then, to help build the level of confidence that you need to succeed in the interview? The social psychologist Amy Cuddy explains one particularly promising strategy nicknamed “fake it to make it” in a well-viewed TEDtalk. Cuddy bases her advice on credible research into the effect whereby you can achieve certain emotional states by the actions of your body. Just as an athlete strikes a victory pose when they win and feel powerful, you can trick yourself into feeling confident by striking power poses before your performance. Either way, the confidence hormone testosterone increases as the stress hormone cortisol drops. Though it may feel silly, locking yourself in a bathroom stall and striking some powerful Superman or Wonder Woman poses has been clinically proven to help interview performance and positively determine employer choices. A short workout has the same effect, though you don’t want physical exertion just prior to your interview to make you appear sweaty lest that be confused with nervousness. Besides this simple, no-cost “life hack,” your only other best bet for increasing confidence is to know your stuff inside and out. When you’ve rehearsed your interview repeatedly and get to the point where you can answer anticipated questions confidently and eloquently, as well as control for every other detail regarding your appearance, you should feel on top of it. With this confidence, you should feel ready to nail the interview and land the job. Once you’ve done all you can to prepare, you’re now ready to take the interview by storm. Your goal here is to thoroughly impress the employer so they have no doubt whatsoever that you’ll be a sound investment. Just as you refuse to buy a product that is even slightly defective (e.g., you wouldn’t buy a computer with a key missing or a slightly cracked screen), the employer will be careful with the money they’ll pay the winning candidate to do the job. They want perfection, but if they can’t find it, they may either accept something slightly less or just re-post the position to keep searching for someone closer to what they’re looking for. Knowing that your livelihood’s at stake and that employers don’t hand out jobs quite as easily at the professional level as they did your first entry-level job at Tim Hortons or Subway, you have to make your interview performance impeccable. You’ve only go one shot at it, so you want to take care of every last detail. Yes, it’s possible to win a job competition if your performance falls short of the advice given in the subsections below, but you should at least aim for the perfection described below if you want to increase your chances of success. Don’t leave something so important to chance. Aim to arrive an hour or so before the interview is scheduled in case there’s a traffic jam or other unexpected snag on the way. If it’s a smooth ride and you arrive early, use your time wisely. Go to the washroom and, while you’re in there, try out some of Amy Cuddy’s power poses to help build your confidence (see §10.3.1.6 above). If you’re then seated in a waiting room, ensure that you have good posture. Keep calm by breathing deeply; count to five slowly while inhaling and the same while exhaling. Get in the zone by focusing on the points you prepared to talk about, rehearsing them in your head. Be self-aware of your nonverbals. If the employer entered the room right then and looked directly at you, would they see someone who looks nervous, intense, bored, frustrated, zoned-out, or excited? Only the latter will make the strong first impression that will set you on the path to success. As the ad slogan cliché goes, you never get a second chance to make a first impression. Recent studies show that in fact we make up our minds about people in about a tenth of second and tend to focus on details that confirm that first impression thereafter (Willis & Todorov, 2006). This means that some of your success comes down to what you look like the moment you walk into the room or the hiring manager enters the waiting room to call you in. Though there’s not much you can do about the shape of your face, you have plenty control over the grooming of your hair, skin, and of course your style of dress as discussed in §10.3.1.5 above. What makes the most difference, however, is if your smile conveys a sense of enthusiasm for what’s about to go down. After first sight, the first-impression sage continues with your nonverbal behaviour as you get up and approach the employer, giving you crucial seconds to confirm their already-positive impression or sway them toward a more favourable one. Smiling is key as it conveys warmth and friendliness, which is what most employers will want you to be around coworkers and customers for operations to go well. Next, greet them with a friendly “Pleased to meet you” (or the like) and shake their hand firmly but not aggressively. A limp handshake will give the impression of being a pushover without any confidence. A crushing, vise-like grip, on the other hand, will say that you’re foolishly trying to dominate someone who is in fact secure in the dominant position, or that you’re over-compensating for feelings of inadequacy. If the interview is before a panel with several other interviewers or assessors, say your greetings and shake their hands as well. Introductions will probably go around the panel, in which case take care to remember their names because they will be really impressed by your people skills if you can repeat their names when parting at the end. The moments when you are led to your place at the table or desk for the interview itself are also crucial for the manners you display. They’ll assess for how you might behave around coworkers and clients, so if you engage in pleasant small-talk in a way that shows off your social agility, and even wit if you can say something genuinely funny in there, you’ll be on a good footing going into the interview proper. If you come off as awkward by botching your timing and speaking at the same time as the interviewer or responding weirdly, you set yourself at a disadvantage that will be difficult to recover from. The same will happen if you appear overly shy with one- or two-word answers to the employer’s attempts at small talk. On your way to the interview, you may wish to prepare some witty things to say about your trip over or the weather when the need for small-talk arises, but be able to deliver them naturally at the expected moment. Finally, wait for the employer’s cue to sit down at whatever chair they designate. As you thank them for the seat, you may also set an appropriately polite tone by thanking them for the opportunity to speak about the position. Express gratitude that they’re generously giving you their valuable time despite their busy schedules. You never know exactly what an employer is going to ask you during the interview because they rightly going to rely on the element of surprise to test how well you can think on your feet. Luckily, however, there are several questions you might expect to hear variations of because most employers have the same or similar motivations, and therefore tend to ask a similar set of questions. Preparing responses to these questions ahead of time, as advised in §10.3.1.3 above, will help you articulate your answers smoothly during the actual interview. While still anticipating having to adjust your answers to whatever spin the employer puts on these standard questions, you can avoid the awkwardness of having to entirely work out your responses as you go. Before we look at these, let’s consider for a moment what depth you should go into with each response. Before employers begin asking questions, they often explain the structure of the interview and possibly provide you with a printed list of questions or, if not, say how many questions and how much time you have for the whole interview. With these two pieces of information, do some quick math to determine approximately how much time you have to answer each question. If you have an hour for 15 questions, for instance, you can ball-park around about 3-4 minutes per response when you factor in the time it takes for them to ask each one. Knowing this, a 30-second answer to any of the questions will disappoint the interviewer with nowhere near the level of detail they expect. On the other hand, rambling on for five or more minutes will hurt you unless you’re responding to the most important question, the one that allows you to make your main pitch. Just remember that you’ll need to steal some time from less important questions later. How do you stretch out an answer to 3-4 minutes if that’s how much time you have? Provide specific evidence. Even if you don’t have that much time, the more specific your responses are in terms of the evidence they provide the employer, the more truthful they sound. Back up everything you say with anecdotal evidence informing how you came to that conclusion. Try to link your answers to your evidence with the word because. If the employer asks how you would deal with a certain problem related to the profession—how you would deal with a workplace accident that seriously injures a co-worker, for instance—first say what you would do. Next, follow it up with “because that’s how we trained to deal with a severe trauma injury in my 20-hour Workplace Safety course at Algonquin College” or “because that’s what the Occupational Health and Safety Act requires us to do.” Show that you benefited from your training and do your job by the book when required. Let’s now consider some typical questions, what motivates the employer to ask them, what they hope to hear, what responses will effectively ruin you, and what responses will tilt you favourably toward winning a job offer. - “Why should we hire you?” - “Why do you think you’ll be successful in this position?” - “Have you done this type of work before?” - “What experience has prepared you for this position?” - “How have non-employment experiences prepared you for this job?” Open-ended questions tend to have the effect of catching those who aren’t expecting them off guard; the unprepared interviewee might be temporarily paralyzed as they figure out where to start. When asking such a vague question, however, the employer really wants to see where you go with it. They prefer to see you describe yourself as a professional who will solve whatever problem they’re hiring someone to address. A slightly disappointing answer will immediately digress into irrelevant personal details, such as where you were born and how old you are (details you should avoid divulging for the bias they may invite), before coming around to your professionalism. A profoundly disappointing answer will carry on into hobbies and personal interests without even getting around to your professionalism. On the other hand, if you begin by saying that you’re an accountant (if the job is to be an accountant) who has 10 years’ experience doing the very job that the employer is hiring for, you’ll immediate give the hiring manager confidence in your sense of professionalism. If you continue from there to list your skills that match up with what the job posting described as required, explaining what combination of education and work experience taught you those skills and helped develop them into competencies, the employer might be tempted to offer you the job right then and there. - “Why did you choose this profession?” - “What do you like so much about a [job title]?” - “Tell us what you know about our company.” - “How can you best serve our most typical customer?” If you answer this open-ended question with the obvious “the money” or something else self-serving such as “Because I think it’ll be a good career move,” you’ll immediately scare the employer into thinking that you’re too self-involved to have priorities inconsistent with the company’s. What they want to hear is something along the lines of their mission or vision statement and consistent with their own business goals. If your only motivation is what’s best for you, they’re going to think that you’ll just use the job as a stepping stone and leave as soon as something better comes along, requiring them to go through this tedious hiring process all over again six months. Take this question as your cue to compliment the company and demonstrate what you know about them. Show that you’ve done your homework into both the company and position, and be specific in saying what you like about them, their products or services, and their workplace culture. If you can work into your answer how you’re going to be the solution to their problem, and if you can focus on how you see yourself serving the clientele as your main priority, you’ll be on your way to getting a job offer. The absolute best answer will also convey passion for the work you’ll do. If you give the employer the sense that you absolutely love to do this kind of work and that you’ll be a happy camper doing it at their workplace, you’ll give them confidence in you as a sound long-term investment. They know that employees who enjoy the work are more productive and loyal, whereas those who drag themselves into work and are miserable in their role are an unproductive drag on operations. Expressing your passion for the work in a very enthusiastic tone will give the employer a great deal of confidence in you. Continuing that positive vibe throughout the interview will work in your favour when the interviewer reflects on which candidate would best succeed in the role. - “What would your previous managers say are your best and worst qualities?” - “Are there any reasons why we shouldn’t hire you?” - “What experiences in this line of work have challenged your commitment to it and what experiences have bolstered your commitment to it?” How you answer this tricky question, especially the “weaknesses” part, can either make or break you. Throughout the interview, you’re doing everything you can to avoidi giving the employer a reason to not hire you, but you can’t answer this question without providing them with at least one. Omitting a weakness would show an inability to follow instructions, which no employer wants in an employee. There’s no way around it. So how can you answer this without ruining your chances? Follow this three-part message organization: - Weakness + improvement on the weakness You can add more strengths at the beginning and the end depending on how much time you have, but don’t add more weaknesses. The idea here is much like the indirect approach or “poop sandwich” constructive criticism (see §4.1.2 or §8.3 above and §126.96.36.199 below) in that you surround the bad news with good news. Don’t lead with a weakness because doing so appears to prioritize your flaws above your strengths if they’re the first to come to mind. Don’t end with a weakness because that will sit with the listener when you finish talking, leaving them to mull over whether they really want someone with that kind of weakness. Instead, surround your weakness with strengths in the skills that the employer listed as required in the job posting, as well as personal qualities attractive to any employer, such as conscientiousness, the ability to learn quickly, and a positive attitude. Use this as an opportunity to summarize some of your 4-5 key points mentioned in §10.3.1.3 above, but be concise about them. Think of your weakness as an area of improvement, not as a permanent disability, so that you can pivot from the weakness into the strength of self-improvement. If you give the employer a deal-breaker weakness that you’re unable or unwilling to improve upon, such as being too lazy or slow, having an intense hatred for people, or a serious addiction to alcohol or drugs, you give them too strong a reason not to hire you. If you go with the cliché answer of “I’m a perfectionist” thinking that you’re disguising a strength as a weakness and that the employer will appreciate someone who focuses on the details and stops at nothing to do their best work, they’ll see through the ruse because they’ve heard it all before. From a manager’s perspective, the problem with perfectionism is that it takes too long and is a liability at crunch times. If you use perfectionism or something like it as your weakness, follow up with an explanation of what you’re doing to improve on it. You could say that you used to be like that in high school, but crunch times in college have helped you make great strides at figuring out when it’s appropriate to move on from things of lesser importance when they’re 90% perfect so you can spend extra time on the things that really matter. As another example, if you say that your weakness is that you tend to procrastinate too much, follow it up by saying you downloaded and follow an app that organizes your day to include limited time for relaxing diversion when you’re typically at your least productive so that you’re more productive before and after. That way, you can pivot to strengths such as having good time management and self-awareness. Like the previous question, this one can be a trap if you answer in a way that makes you look like a poor long-term investment. When an employer wants to know that you’ll commit to them, don’t give the sense that you’re chronically unfulfilled by your jobs or that you got fired for something awful you did. If your actual reason is that you didn’t get along with management or coworkers, ranting about them here will give the employer the sense that you have problems with authority and will be similarly difficult in this workplace. Instead, answer with a narrative arc that positions your previous job as a pathway towards the job you really want: the one you’re competing for here. - “What are your short- and long-term goals?” - “What are your career plans?” When the employer asks what your short- and long-term goals are, they’re hoping you’ll commit to them and the profession you’ve chosen, as well as hear some ambition for upward movement. They’ll be unimpressed if you say that your ultimate goal is to work for another company (so you’re just going to use them as a stepping stone) or another career. They may also feel sad for you if your goal is to still be doing the job they’re hiring for after five years. They likely started at the bottom wrung themselves and worked their way up to the managerial, decision-maker position they’re in now, so they’ll respect someone who is willing to put in the time and effort to do the same. They may also think that they themselves will be moving on up from their current middle-management position to more senior positions, which will open up their current positions to be filled by the people who are now entry-level like you. Saying that you want your path to be something like theirs so that you’ll look to them as a mentor can be both flattering and assuring that your loyalty will be to their company. Employers recognize that a job interview is a two-way street. They’re assessing you at the same time that you’re assessing them. Though they hold the balance of power because they have the money you’re after, which gives them the right to ask the majority of questions, they’ll usually give you the opportunity to interview them briefly at the end. Having nothing to ask will look bad because it suggests that you lack curiosity and haven’t given much thought to the position and the company. Asking what your starting salary is will be considered rude, as will asking about other benefits; these are details to work out when they offer you the job, not during the interview. Asking what a typical work day looks like will also suggest that you don’t understand the position well enough to perform it. If you researched both the position and company in your preparation, however, you will have inevitably seen things that piqued your curiosity or confused you about what the company does and what the position entails. Show that you did that research by asking those questions. If you see that the company engages charitably with community, for instance, ask how you can get involved. Asking what opportunities for advancement within the company suggests that you have ambition as well as loyalty to the company, and that you want to grow with them. You can also achieve this effect by asking about the company’s short- and long-term strategic directions. Asking practical questions such as if there job involves training program in the first month shows that you have begun considering the realities of the position. Finally, asking when you can expect to hear back from them about their decision is fair for planning purposes. - “Have you ever had to deal with a difficult co-worker, manager, or customer (or, in college, a difficult classmate or professor)?” - “Describe how you took an innovative approach to solving a difficult problem in your last job or in college.” - “How have you showed initiative or creativity in your previous job or in college?” - “How do you manage your time effectively during crunch time? Would you sacrifice the quality of your work to meet a deadline or opt to meet expectations for quality but deliver the product late? One type of standard job interview question deserves special consideration because of the strategy required to answer it. The behavioural question asks either what you have done in a certain situation or, if you haven’t encountered it previously, what you would do if you found yourself in that situation in the job you’re applying for. The employer is here assessing for how you solve practical workplace problems, ideally by following some known formula for success or procedure with predictable outcomes. A very common such question is how you have dealt with a difficult co-worker, manager, or customer. The wrong answer would be any of the conflict responses described in §11.2.6-8, as would speaking harshly about the person you select to tell your story about. You must remain strictly positive throughout the interview to avoid inviting any negative impressions. Though some employers may state their expectations for how you structure your answer, those who don’t will be impressed if you divided your answer into the four parts given in Table 10.3.2.4 below. Table 10.3.2.4: Answering Behavioural Questions |1. Describe the situation||Yes, I have encountered a difficult co-worker. I was the delivery supervisor of an organic grocery home delivery service. Dave, one of the warehouse workers, was upset about something and acting out, especially by taking pot-shots at the manager, Karin. The manager wasn’t having any it of it and was prepared to fire him.| |2. Explain what you did about it||I chatted with Dave about it and it turned out that he had some good ideas about how to improve the warehouse operation—especially his part of it—but a personality clash with the manager meant that she didn’t take him seriously and wouldn’t listen to him. As a supervisor, I depended on good relations between both the warehouse and office staff, so I just went into full conflict-resolution mode, arranged for the two to sit down and listen to each other’s concerns, and mediated to ensure the conversation stayed civil.| |3. Explain the result of your actions||As a result of their conversation, they came to an amicable solution whereby Karin would let Dave implement his ideas on a trial basis for a few weeks and Dave would cool it with the anti-authority delinquency and apologize for the insults. His ideas improved the warehouse operation’s efficiency measures by 15% and were adopted as an ongoing practice. After that, they got along just fine or at least tolerated each other.| |4. Assess whether you would do the same again in the new workplace and what you learned by the experience||Given a similar situation here at Company Z, I would certainly do the same thing. It proved the productive power of listening to each other and talking out your differences as a opposed to bickering and drastic measures that would lead to losing valuable perspectives.| If you can say in response to the question, “Honestly, I’ve never had to deal with a problem co-worker, manager, or customer because I’ve only ever had really positive relations with all,” stopping there would score poorly in the employer’s evaluation. It’s up to you to take the initiative to say, “. . . but if that ever did happen, I would probably apply what I know about conflict resolution,” and then proceed to explain what you would do in the hypothetical scenario. What’s important to the employer is that you have a plan and are aware of best-practice procedures for dealing with whatever situation they put you in. Though you may enter the job interview feeling that they hold all the cards and the power is entirely theirs to accept or reject you, it could just as well go the other way depending on how in-demand you are and how desperate the employer is. An interview is a two-way exchange where both employer and job applicant have the opportunity to get to know each other better, and you might find that you either like or don’t like what you see just as much as the other way around. This means that while you’re trying to make yourself as attractive as possible to win a job offer, be on the lookout for red flags suggesting that they’re not the kind of employer you’d be happy working for, especially if you’re good (or lucky) enough to have multiple job offers to choose from. One sign of trouble that’s easy to spot is if the interviewer asks questions that they are required by law not to ask a job candidate. Questions that produce responses that can be used to discriminate against the candidate are a Ontario Human Rights Code violation. Such questions include anything about your: - National origin, ethnicity, or religion - Exception: employers can ask if you are legally permitted to work in Canada - More exceptions: if the organization serves a particular community and needs to hire within that community (e.g., a First Nations counsellor to serve indigenous youth or a service worker who speaks the language of a certain minority group highly concentrated in a particular area) - Exception: if the organization serves a particular age group and needs to hire someone in that group (e.g., a youth group counsellor 25 years of age or under to serve 15- to 25-year-old youths) - Disabilities, health conditions, or physical characteristics unrelated to the job - Exception: if the employer asks about an obvious disability to determine what workplace accommodations are necessary - Exception: if the employer is recruiting someone with a disability to serve individuals who also have disabilities - Sexual orientation - Relationship, marital, or family status - Partner’s employment - Dependents (children), pregnancy, or intentions to have children (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2009) An employer asking you questions relating to any of the above puts you in an awkward position. If you feel that you no longer want the job because you get the sense that the employer would be a mistake to work for, you could certainly tell them that the Ontario Human Rights Code prohibits them from asking that question. If they’re a small-business start-up, perhaps the employer wasn’t aware of the Code and could benefit from knowing what they can and cannot ask. If you still want the job, however, and are worried that challenging the employer on the legality of the question will jeopardize your chances, you can try to joke or pivot your way out of answering. If you don’t get the job and you suspect it has to do with discrimination related to the illegal question or your refusal to answer it, you can bring a Human Rights Code violation complaint (called an application) against the employer to the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario following advice from the Human Rights Legal Support Centre. Nearly as important as what you say during an interview is how you say it—both in terms of your tone of voice and body language. Modulate your voice so that it follows the normal conversational rhythms and high-to-low shifts in volume and pitch appropriate for what you say, while trending often towards high pitch and volume to convey a sense of enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is contagious; if you’re enthusiastic about the job, the employer will be enthusiastic about you. A robotic monotone, on the other hand, risks boring your audience to sleep. Your facial expressions should be consistent with that enthusiasm, frequent flashing smiles, raised eyebrows, wide eyes, and head-nodding to effect a positive, high-energy vibe. Like a monotone voice, an expressionless deadpan appearance will be hard to read, on the other hand, and suggest that you’re bored with the interview and will be dissatisfied with the job, even if it’s actually your way of suppressing nervous behaviour by appearing calm. At the negative extreme, frequently furrowing your brow (even in concentration) and grimacing will give the impression that you tend towards an angry or haughty disposition, which will be a drag to have around. Control your posture and hand movements to complement your responses. Sit erect and even lean in occasionally to appear attentive and actively listening to questions, as well as to appear excited when responding. Balance this by also loosening up, leaning back, and looking relaxed when the room calls for it with it’s own easy-going mood (see §10.1.3.1 above for more on the benefits of social mirroring). Sitting perfectly erect for too long will make you look stiff and robotic or petrified in nervousness. Looking too relaxed the whole time, however, will suggest that you don’t care much about the job and the people there, or that you’re too tired because you stayed up late the night before and would probably do the same and be unproductive if you got the job. If you need to keep your hands tucked away because their shaking would give away your nervousness, that’s fine. Otherwise, use moderately animated hand gestures to emphasize your spoken points as you naturally would in conversation. Above all else, maintain good eye contact. Looking the person you’re speaking to steadily in the eyes conveys a sense of confidence in what you’re saying and builds trust. Constantly looking down or away suggests either nervousness and a lack of confidence in what you’re saying or a mental struggle to remember points and articulate concepts that really should come easily to mind if you’re truly suited for the position. If the questions come to you from a panel, look primarily in the eyes of the one asking the question, but also share your eye contact methodically with everyone else on the hiring committee sitting across from you. Managed effectively, all of these subtle nonverbals suggest the kind of social competence and confidence that would make you successful in the position at hand. The recency effect in psychology (see §4.1 above) demands that you leave a strong, positive impression in your audience’s mind if you want them to remember you favourably. You can achieve this if, in the final moments with the interviewers, your behaviour is consistent with the rest of your interview performance if you were doing it right: positive and enthusiastic. The final impression you want to make is that, even after a possibly gruelling interview, you are even more interested in the position than you were before. Only candidates who really want the job and enjoyed talking about it will be considered for a job offer, whereas those who just appeared nervous or were difficult to read because of their aloof, deadpan robotic nonverbals will hardly give the employer confidence in their abilities. Be warm and friendly in your parting words. Keep smiling, say that it was a pleasure speaking with them, and use the names they used during the introductions. “Thank you so much for taking the time to speak with me about the position. I’m really looking forward to hearing from you. It was a pleasure, Keith [said while shaking Keith’s hand]. Thanks again, Dora. Hope to see you again, Helen.” As you leave the room, walk confidently with a slight bounce in your step. The day after a job interview, write a follow-up email thanking the employer for their time and interest. Though you may consider this an optional cherry on top of a successful job interview, it’s really more of an expected formality in the modern job interview process. When the hiring committee meets to discuss the five or six candidates who interviewed, those who neglected to send a thank-you note will look uncaring or neglectful compared to those who demonstrated thoughtful and considerate gratitude by writing a note. The message need not be long, but must be well written and error free. A message along the lines of the example below would suffice to show that you’re still interested in the job and the company. Dear Mrs. Harrington: Please allow me to thank you for your time and the opportunity to talk about the Software Developer position at your office yesterday. Enjoying our conversation immensely convinced me that I would be a great fit in your company. Developing software has been my greatest passion these past six years, and supporting Company Z’s bid for market dominance in the years ahead would be my dream job. Please let me know if I can do anything to help make your decision easier. Otherwise, I am very much looking forward to hearing from you next week. Once this message goes out, move on. As good as you might feel about how you did, you won’t have any idea what they decide until you hear back from them. Sometimes the best candidate doesn’t get the job after all, so don’t torture yourself by checking your phone and email every five minutes for the good or bad news. Instead, focus on your next applications. When your job is to get a job, it should be a full-time occupation that you don’t rest from until you accept a job offer. If you get a follow-up message saying that another candidate better suited what the selection committee was looking for, feeling dejected and getting upset is a natural reaction to the bad news. What’s really important at this point is that you do two things: (1) don’t respond angrily by demanding a reason why you were rejected or what the winning candidate had over you. The employer will simply be protecting itself from legal action when they say that they can’t go into detail about their decision, especially because all of the people on the committee will likely have signed confidentiality agreements to not discuss their decisions with anyone outside of the committee. Instead, accept defeat gracefully. Who knows—they may have been impressed enough that when they follow-through on plans to hire again in six months, they’ll have you in mind—unless you blow it by burning the bridge in an angry response to rejection. (2) Learn from the experience. The more interviews you do, the more you figure out what works and what doesn’t based on reading the reactions around the room and how you feel afterwards. Reflect on where you could have improved and keep a set of notes on what you would do better next time. In the meantime, keep applying to other positions, building your professional network, and even add skill sets and educational experience that would better position you for the jobs you want. If you decide on the basis of the interview to withdraw from the competition before the company even sends you their decision, the courteous thing to do would be to immediately send a polite message explaining that you would no longer like to be considered for the position. Courtesy in this case is especially important if your reason is that you accepted a job offer from a more attractive company. You don’t have to say that that’s the reason, but you want to keep the door open to the company you’re rejecting in case it doesn’t work out with the company you’re going with after all. You may not get a second chance with the company you’re rejecting, but you definitely won’t if you burn that bridge with a snarky email, and you never know who they might talk to (a future potential employer?) about any untoward behaviour. If all goes well and you get a job offer or if you’re informed that you’re the leading candidate either by phone or by email, of course you should express your excitement and gratitude for them selecting you. From there, you may have several formalities to follow through on such as submitting the names and contact information of references and filling out other paperwork, all of which you must do promptly and perfectly lest your success be still dependent on your degree of compliance through the confirmation process. Considering that a job interview is an oral communication test, study for it the way you would any other important exam: by anticipating questions, practicing your responses, and rehearsing with timed trials; for the interview itself, control everything in your power to win the job competition with your best possible performance. 1. Conduct a mock job interview with a classmate where you both take turns as interviewer and interviewee. Use some of the standard question variations given throughout §10.3.2.3 and §10.3.2.4 as a basis for your list of questions, but modify them to suit the profession you are training for. As a basis for your role-play scenario, use the job posting that you selected and wrote a targeted résumé and cover letter for in the Ch. 9 end-of-section Exercises. 2. Book an appointment with an Algonquin College Employment Support Centre tutor for advice and a mock job interview based on the same job posting and application you assembled for the Ch. 9 end-of-section Exercises. The Government of Canada. (2018). Explore careers by essential skills. Job Bank. Retrieved from https://www.jobbank.gc.ca/essentialskills?prof_id=371&lang=eng NPR. (2013, December 1). Could video games be the next job interview? Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2013/12/01/246999632/playing-the-game-to-get-the-job Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2009, April 16). Interviewing and making hiring decisions. Human Rights at Work 2008 – Third Edition. Retrieved from http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/iv-human-rights-issues-all-stages-employment/5-interviewing-and-making-hiring-decisions TED. (2012, October 1). Your body language may shape who you are | Amy Cuddy [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ks-_Mh1QhMc Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006, July 1). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science 17(7), 592-598. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cea4/fb5e46aee36ff77ac5d4f0014cd8cb1bee30.pdf

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The name Fort McMurray often conjures up grim images of oilsands mines, upgraders and tailing ponds. Now, the local government is trying to turn over a new leaf – or at least grow some new leaves. The community plans to use garbage from its landfill to grow vegetables. Already, during the test phase, they have grown lettuce and herbs inside of a shipping container at the community's landfill. "You always hear [negative] stuff about the oilsands, but these things that we are doing, are making it better," says Ashley Boyd, sustainability associate with the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo. - Fort McMurray goes about its business despite oil price drop - Aboriginal workers, firms hit by Alberta oil slowdown The project is described as containerized aquaponics, since the greenhouse system does not rely on sunshine or soil. Instead, it uses artificial lighting, heat and a circulating water system. Tilapia, a type of fresh water fish, are raised in the bottom of the greenhouse. Waste water from the fish serves as organic fertilizer for the plants, while the plants clean the water of fish feces and urine. "In Fort McMurray, everything has to be transported up here — vegetables, fish, anything that you would want to grow — because we have so much cold weather up here," says Boyd. The average January temperature is about -17 C. So far, one shipping container is set up as a greenhouse that relies on electricity from the community. Beginning this summer, a gasifier will be installed. The machine will burn wood chips from the landfill to create heat and electricity for the greenhouse. Like many cities, Fort McMurray has a large stockpile of wood chips from tree trimming and removal. Eventually, all the waste in Fort McMurray that cannot be recycled will go through the gasifier. "It's using everything we have," says Boyd. "It's taking our waste, putting it through the gasifier, giving it back to the greenhouse to produce vegetables." The plan is to operate greenhouses in four shipping containers. The vegetables will be given to the local food bank or sold at the farmers' market. Energy companies are continuously trying to improve the image of the oilsands and the community, through newspaper and TV advertisements showing the grassy meadows of sites reclaimed from oil production. At the end of 2012, about 5,000 hectares of land in the oilsands region had been permanently reclaimed, while about 55,000 hectares was in use by industry, according to the Alberta government's most recent figures. The industry-funded Canada's Oil Sands Innovation Alliance tries to dramatically improve the environmental performance of the oilsands. The plunge in global oil prices has led to layoffs and company spending cuts in Fort McMurray. So far, the community's greenhouse project has not been affected by any cuts from the local government. "It is a consideration because some of these things do cost quite a bit of money," says Boyd. "But it is helping the environment and making Fort McMurray such a better place, more efficient." The cost of the greenhouse project is unknown. Boyd says less than $100,000 has been spent on the first shipping container. The municipality has approved $4 million for zero-waste projects, including the greenhouses and gasifier. "This will be a huge project within the whole municipality. It's just trying to make better use of everything we have." In the future, office buildings near the landfill could be built to rely on garbage for heat and electricity. An interpretative centre is also being considered to educate the community about the waste-to-energy projects.

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|Description: This detail of a map of Florida shows railroads and major cities and towns current to 1932 for Hardee County. Major waterways are shown, as well as lakes, town, islands, and marsh. Other notable features are Seminole Indian Reservations, canals, and railroads. Features included in this detail are Wauchula, Fort Green, and Zolfo Springs.| Place Names: Hardee, Bowling Green, Fort Green, Fort Green Springs, Vandola, Zolfo Springs, Buchanan, Sweetwater, Gardner, Limestone, Bridges, Lily, Ona, Wauchula ISO Topic Categories: boundaries, transportation, inlandWaters, oceans Keywords: Hardee County, physical, political, transportation, swamps, everglades, wetlands, physical features, county borders, railroads, boundaries, transportation, inlandWaters, oceans, Unknown,1932 Source: , (, : US Department of the Interior Geological Survey, 1932) Map Credit: Courtesy the private collection of Roy Winkelman.

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This step by step tutorial explains how to draw a handshake. The provided tips and examples can be used for drawing in the anime, manga, comic book or traditional art styles. Drawing a handshake can be difficult because parts of both hands are hidden behind one another and because even individual hands are not easy to draw. To help this tutorial offers a detailed breakdown of the drawing process with an explanation for each step. Also as already mentioned these examples can be applied to drawing hands in just about any style. So if you’ve come here looking to just learn to draw hands and don’t care much for anime all of the drawing tips will still be just as useful for you. If you do like to draw in the anime and manga style then you are definitely in the right place and should also check out the rest of the tutorials here on AnimeOutline. Before You Begin Drawing the Handshake Before you draw a handshake it’s good to have an understanding of the pose each hand takes in a handshake. You can see this in the examples below. The drawing of the “front hand” of the handshake above is made as though the “back hand” is invisible. You can also see the rough placement of each of the joints of the foreground hand in this example. Being aware of their positioning can help you estimate the length of each part of the fingers as well as the thumb. For more tips on drawing hands in various poses also see: And in this next example you can see the drawing of the second hand as it would look like if the first one was invisible. Again you can also see the estimated placement of the joints for this hand as well. In this tutorial both hands are of equal size so you can somewhat think of each one as the other one flipped over. All of the joints and major parts will be in roughly the same places. All of the proportions should also be pretty much the same. Step 1 – Make a Construction Drawing of Both Hands To start the actual drawing process make a sketch of each of the hands as though the other one is transparent. For this step simply draw the fingers as one combined shape and leave out all of the smaller details. Also be sure to draw very light lines that you can easily erase until the last step of the tutorial. The goal of this step is to make sure you have the correct proportions and placement for each hand. Drawing the hidden sections will also help you insure that the different parts of the hands are properly aligned with one another. You may need to erase and redraw things several times to get everything to look right. For examples of what can happen if you don’t make a “see through” sketch as well as other common drawing mistakes see: Step 2 – Clean up the See Through Construction Lines Once you believe you have the correct placement and proportions erase the parts of each hand that should be hidden behind the other hand. After you are done you should have a fairly clean and simple construction drawing of the handshake. Step 3 – Draw the Individual Fingers Inside the construction drawing “framework” from the previous step draw the individual finger. Please note that the examples are made so that the fingers fit almost perfectly into the framework. In your drawing you may find that you need to tweak the length of some of the fingers to go outside the construction lines. This is absolutely fine. Step 4 – Draw the Smaller Details of Each Hand & Finish the Handshake Drawing For this step you can add the smaller details of the hands such as the fingernails and wrinkles. Draw some hints of the bones around the base of the fingers on the front hand as well. You can also add some curves around the finger joints of the foreground hand where they bend to wrap around the background hand. These will help show the bends. In anime, manga and comic book style hands the fingernails may not be drawn at all. Drawing the fingernails does however make the hand look better and can also help show the angle of the bend of each finger. For example you can see that the fingernail on the index finger is drawn much narrower then the rest. This helps indicate that it’s pointing more towards the viewer instead of more towards the side like the other fingers. When you finish adding all of the details go over your drawing with darker lines. You can make the lines slightly thicker for the larger parts of the hand and thinner for the smaller details. For some other general drawing tips also see: A handshake as well as hands in general are quite difficult to draw. If you really want to practice drawing handshakes try and draw each one individually in the handshake position as though the other one is invisible (as shown in earlier examples). Doing so can really help you get a better understanding of the pose of each hand and can help you avoid mistakes when drawing the two hands combined. For drawing hands holding various objects see: - 6 Ways to Draw Anime Hands Holding Something - How to Draw Hand Poses Step by Step - How to Draw Hands Holding Chopsticks Step by Step

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I will be adding resources here as I find them – mostly Maths and Physics themed. Online Mathematics Course Loughborough’s Mathematics Education Centre runs a free, three-week MOOC – Getting a Grip on Mathematical Symbolism – designed for those students aspiring to become scientists or engineers but who lack mathematical confidence. It will run again on the FutureLearn platform starting May 8th. Registration is open now: The course is designed for students who have some engineering or science knowledge gained through vocational qualifications or through workplace experience but who perhaps have not studied mathematics formally since leaving school. It will be appropriate for those who lack confidence but who need to establish a bedrock of knowledge in order to further their education. This is a foundation, entry-level course and is not intended for those who already possess recent post-GCSE mathematics qualifications. It is highly recommended for those students going to university who have not studied maths beyond GCSE. Please share when appropriate. Note that it is planned to run this course again shortly before the start of the new academic year in September. Magnet Academy is an online resource provided by the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory — the largest, most high-powered magnet lab in the world. It has a wide selection of useful tutorials about electromagnetism for ages 5 upwards. A simple motor that doesn’t need commutators or brushes, only: – An AA battery – Some disc-shaped strong magnets – Some wire and wire cutters and/or pliers The aim is to bend the wire in a roughly heart shaped design so that the top just touches the + end of the battery and the bottom curls around the base (i.e. magnet). It needs to be close enough so that a current will flow but not so close that friction stops it from moving. When a current flows through the wire a force is exerted on it due to the magnetic field of the magnet at the bottom of the battery. (The direction of this can be determined using Fleming’s left hand rule.) This produces a torque on the wire that results in it rotating about the battery: in the example above the wire would rotate clockwise.

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The photo above shows the left dentary, still in the jacket. It has an oddly deformed area, indicated by the arrow. If we look at the jacket from the side, it becomes apparent how this deformation occurred: The arrow is indicating a second bone that has punched through the dentary. I believe this bone is the postorbital process of the frontal, a projection of the frontal bone the sticks down behind the eye socket. When the skull was crushed down onto the lower jaw, the postorbital process was pushed through the dentary. Another interesting feature was revealed when the right dentary was removed. There was a thin layer of sediment, just a few millimeters thick, separating the dentary from the skull. This sediment contained several trace fossils, burrows formed by some type of invertebrate, like the one shown below:

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How do I change y-2x=7 into slope intercept form, and into standard form?? Slope-intercept form of a linear equation looks as y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. To change the equation y- 2x = 7 into slope-intercept form, isolate y by adding 2x to both sides: y = 2x +7 Here, m = 2 is the slope and b = 7 is the y-intercept. In standard form, a linear equation looks as ax + by = c, where a, b, and c are integers. The given equation is already almost in standard form. All is needed is to exchange the order of the variables: -2x + y = 7 One can also multiply both sides of the equation by - 1: 2x - y = -7 y = 2x + 7 (slope-intercept form) 2x - y = -7 (standard form) Write the equation, `y - 2x = 7` into slope-intercept form and standard form. To change to slope intercept form: `y = mx+b.` Add 2x to both sides to isolate y. `y-2x+2x = 7 + 2x` ` ``y = 2x+7` `y-2x = 7` in slope-intercept form is `y = 2x+7` . Standard Form: the standard form of a line is in the form Ax + By = C where A is a positive integer, and B, and C are integers. `y-2x =7` Multiply every term by -1 to have x-coefficient positive. `-1(y -2x)=7 rArr -y + 2x = -7` Rearrange in `ax+by = c` form `2x - y = -7` ` ``y-2x=7` in standard form is `2x-y=-7` . simply add 2x to both sides to get slope intercept form is slope intercept form which is the same as y=mx+b to get this standard form : 2x-y-7 y-2x=7 slope intercept form= y = mx + b standard form= ax + by = c to get the slope intercept form just add 2x to both sides you will end up with to get the standard form just minus 7 on both sides y-7=2x and minus y -7=2x-y just flip it 2x-y=-7 and voila! That helped clear my confusion! Thank you very much!

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A report for a child in the kindergarten is a recording of the teacher’s observation of the child within a sensible framework. It is also an attempt to describe the unfolding nature of the child. In the process of evaluation the teacher has to be very alert and has to work with extreme care to avoid any slip into the conventional mould of categorizing or classifying children according to a set of criteria. It is most important as teachers that we capture the subtle yet unique aspects of the young children’s dynamic selves as evident in the time spent in the school environment, and communicate the essence of their nature. In this context, let us look at some of the intentions in writing a report and the role of the report as a communication to parents. Firstly, the report would help parents get a sense of their child in an environment very different from the home. The early years in school form the first formal learning environment for the child. It is also the first time the child is part of a large group of similar-age children. Secondly, through the report the parents receive an objective account of their child’s activities and engagements in school. Implicit in the report is the description of the ‘right environment’ for a young learning mind. Thirdly, it is hoped that the parents may get a view of what are the expectations of children of this particular age group, and they also may understand how they could actively work towards making the environment at home compatible with the school. Lastly, the parents would acquire help from the teacher in the form of recommendations and suggestions which serve toguide them through the growth of their child. With these intentions the report needs to be descriptive. It must be a comprehensive report based on observation of the child in different environments and engaging in different activities. Care needs to be taken not to be comparative or judgmental in the reading of the child. The comments need to be tentative and not conclusive as one cannot be too certain while making inferences based on children’s behavior. Keeping in mind that a child is in a dynamic state, the attempt must be to write about him/her as a changing, flowingentity. The kindergarten child, in terms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, is at the sensorimotor stage — the stage when sensory and motor exploration help him to learn about the world. Key elements of this exploration would necessarily require a study of the child’s observation ability, alertness, awareness of surroundings, sense of wonder and curiosity, listening and ability to work practically through situations. It is also a time when the child is coming to understand and acquire a sense of identity and this is a period of immense social and emotional growth. The child is grappling in his journey from the world ofthe self to that of a social being. Keeping all this in mind the report is formatted as follows: 1. The personality of the child. (This is a note on the child’s disposition and emotional state. It includes the child’s attitude to school and routine and hisrelationship with peers in terms of participation, initiative and willingness.) - Zee comes cheerfully to school and greets her teachers with a bright smile. She leaves her things in class and runs off to catch a little game with her friends outdoors before the bell goes. - Tina has learnt to express her needs and difficulties clearly and appropriately. When someone is assertive in a group and she disagrees, she is able to stand up to them with an emphatic ‘no’. - He does not give in easily to the demands of his peers. He confidently stands up and asks for his rights. - Her interest wanes when an activity has to be done in a group and she tends to get playful. She prefers to complete a project by herself. - He tries to talk himself out of a tricky situation with his teacher but his own sense of fairness and reasoning stops this process midway. 2. An understanding of the interactions of the child with the adults and other children. - Her social circle has widened. She has begun playing with the boys in her class. She shares a warm relationship with adults in the class. She always communicates her difficulties with her teacher. - He seems interested in people, feels connected and has an affection for them. He is concerned when any of his classmates is in pain or is injured and will help them. He is very observant of his classmates and can report coherently what most of his friends are doing at any given point of time. 3. The cognitive development of the child as seen in her observation, perceptions, listening and thinking strategies, handling of tasks and material and uniqueness of learning styles. - Learning by watching others is a strategy Lee adopts successfully. - He explores actively his natural environment and observes phenomena he comes across with a keen eye. He makes good connections and infers well. - She is quick to follow concepts and directions. She listens carefully to instructions and responds accordingly. She is confident of whatever she undertakes and works independently. She completes a given task and does not hesitate to ask for help whenever required. - Her interest in books continues as she spends a lot of time browsing through the books in the library corner. She is quick to notice the change of books and immediately settles down to browse through them. - His quality of listening is selective. He will listen only to what interests him. He has to be reminded very often that he is in a group and needs to restrain himself. Sometimes this lack of listening is because he thinks he knows it already. 4. The communication skills of the child in terms of clarity in speech and language ability. - During circle time, she occasionally participates by sharing news. She has not been regular in bringing things for ‘Show and Tell’. Participating in the programme may help her gain confidence in presentation. - Tarika is articulate. She has started participating in class discussions. She shares news with much enthusiasm. She enjoys the ‘guest’ assemblies and asks pertinent questions to the speaker. - He is an articulate child who speaks fluently in English and also understands Tamil. His speech is clear and coherent. He expresses his thoughts and ideas clearly. He is regular in bringing items for ‘Show and Tell’. He speaks confidently to the group. He also listens to his friends while they are speaking. - His communication is largely in Hindi. He does not attempt to speak much in English or Tamil. He is very comfortable in Hindi and can speak in long coherent sentences. His face is very expressive and often conveys what he feels. Long conversations bore him as also listening to ‘Show and Tell’. 5. The physical development of the child as in the fine and gross motor skills. (The points noted are precision, stamina, control and coordination and sense of balance. The health of the child as seen in the energy and activity levels is reported. The food habits of the child as observed during lunch arereferred to.) - Active and energetic, Rohan enjoys being outdoors. He is agile on the jungle gym and runs very fast. He participates well in organised games. His motor coordination is good. - Kavita takes long to finish her lunch. She seems to have strong reservations about some vegetables and food preparation. She is being helped to have all that is served without indulging in strong likes and dislikes. 6. The development of a child’s sense of aesthetics and order. (The child’s expression in his/her art work, in his approach in doing things and in his appreciation of people and things around. The child’s participation in such activities as classroom duties, taking care of personal belongings and classroommaterial, taking up a given task and completing it are also important.) - Her creativity is expressed in her art work. Her work is meticulously done. She is innovative in her craft work. - Farid is learning to take care of his belongings. Very often he misplaces his books and stationery. He is also yet to take responsibility for the classroom chores. He does not volunteer to do the classroom duties but when called upon by the teacher or friends, does a neat job. Writing a report for the kindergarten child, while not an easy task, affords the teacher a good learning opportunity and helps him to reflect on a wide spectrum of questions and arrive at a meaningful understanding of children. The challenge for the teacher is to remain alert and watchful of the child in allsettings, from the lunch table to free play to communication skills.

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Bio-Individuality: What Works for You There is no one perfect way of eating that works for everybody. This is called bio-individuality. Each person has very specific needs for his or her own health according to age, constitution, gender, size, lifestyle and ancestry. Ancestry, you ask? What does that have to do with anything? Well, it does and if you think about it you will see the sense in it. If your ancestors were Japanese, you will most likely thrive on a Japanese-type diet, high in rice, sea vegetables and fish. If your ancestors were from India, your digestive system will probably love basmati rice, cooked beans and curry. If many generations of your ancestors from Scandinavia were accustomed to eating dairy on a daily basis, it’s natural that your body will be able to assimilate dairy foods. This theory also applies to foods that you have trouble digesting. For example, many traditional African communities had an abundance of beans, grains, animal protein, sweet potatoes and green vegetables. Dairy was not easily accessible or easy to store in hot regions, and therefore, not a part of the traditional diet. So it makes sense that a lot of people of African descent are lactose intolerant. Blood type also influences bio-individuality. Each blood type (A,B,AB,O) can be traced to a certain period of human history with distinct differences in diet, culture, and social conditions. Each type has developed particular strengths and limitations and knowing them can influence your health. For example, many type O’s feel energized by eating meat, while type B’s are better able to digest dairy. If you eat a food that is incompatible with your blood type, it could eventually lead to health problems. Another aspect of bio-individuality is metabolism, or the rate at which you convert food into energy. Knowing your personal metabolic rate is helpful when gauging the amount of food your digestive system can process. There are three metabolic types: Protein types, Carbo types and Mixed types. An example of this is that some people can eat a lot of processed carbohydrates (bread and pasta) and stay very thin while others gain weight on such a diet. Knowing what foods You metabolize best will help you to choose foods that make you feel good and support your individual body. This is why fad diets don’t work for most people in the long run. We are living in an age of modern nutrition. This means that almost everyone is on one diet or another, diet books are best sellers, and every day we are informed of a new discovery proclaiming the health benefits of a certain food or the best way to lose 10 pounds in a week. Nutrition experts disagree about almost everything. For example: one expert can prove dairy is a necessary component of a healthy diet, while another expert can prove dairy is very detrimental to health. The one thing the experts do agree on is that we all need variety in our diets. So, what is the answer to the nutrition question? Listen to your body. It knows what foods you need, when it needs them and what is best for You. Research what foods are best for your blood type, your metabolism and what foods were typical for your ancestry. Make small changes like adding more fresh vegetables and fruits to your diet, as well as whole grains. Learn to pay attention when you eat so you can decide when you’re full. Learn to recognize the difference between ‘real’ hunger and eating just because you’re bored or stressed. Cook healthy foods at home, make better choices when you eat out, and eat out less. Check out what constitutes a ‘portion’ size so you can stop over-eating at a meal. Learn to slow down and savor your food instead of rushing through a meal because you have things to do or while working at your desk. Even though each person is a distinct individual, we all share the same instincts. Don’t ignore the personal messages your body is sending.

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Testing the flight physics one thing that struck me was that beyond the critical AOA for a given airfoil we were simply setting the coefficient of lift to 0. I think the reason is that most of the charts only continue plotting maybe 5 degrees beyond the critical AOA. However, I found a source for a symmetrical airfoil (no camber) which was taken all the way through 180 degrees of AOA! The lift coefficient pretty closely follows a f(x) of sin(x/90*pi-0.04)+0.04 except for in those laminar flow regions from alpha 0 to 25 and 155 to 180. Although the drag is absurd at 45 degrees AOA, the lift produced is almost equal to that at the critical AOA of 15! So I was coding the scale-height-based density calculations and to verify some of the calculations I ran it at 60km and ended up with an atmospheric density equal to that of Earth’s. However, I ran it again at 50km and the density is twice as much already! At 35km (where we parked the first extractor) it is almost 7 times the density as it is at sea level on Earth. It looks like we are at the 100 PSI level at 35km. As long as there is an inert gas like Helium making up 95% of the volume it is survivable. You would have to carry an oxygen breather which exhausts the CO to the atmosphere. Long-term exposure to that pressure will cause aseptic bone necrosis similar to underwater exploration here on Earth. The deep-dive record is above 30 atmospheres, we are only talking about 7 atmospheres here. Quick demo to show you my progress. The needles don’t move yet but the digital displays for the left engine are working. FADEC will start the engine, stabilize at ground idle, then I run it up to a full power static test, then back to ground idle, then shutdown. A lot is going on behind the scenes simulating these 6 different engine components and the airflow… I would wager that there isn’t any simulator out there that takes it this far! 😉

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Systemic Conditions Sugar Land, TX The Total Body Connection The health of your teeth and gums affects far more than the appearance of your smile. Scientific research reveals that patients who have gum (periodontal) disease have a greater risk of experiencing certain types of systemic problems. In fact, a number of widespread general health problems have been linked to gum disease in the mouth. The best way to protect against these concerns is by maintaining regular dental care, however the importance of treating gum disease as early as possible cannot be overstated. Without treatment, the disease will progress, increasing your risk of not only tooth loss but a host of other concerning health problems as well. Systemic Conditions Linked to Gum Disease Heart Disease and Stroke + Gum disease increases the risk of heart disease, placing those with the oral condition at a 50 percent higher chance of having a heart attack. Researchers believe harmful bacteria from the mouth travel through the bloodstream, possibly contributing to inflammation within the cardiovascular system. It is also believed that this inflammatory response influences the increased risk of stroke in gum disease patients. Patients with uncontrolled gum disease often have difficulty controlling blood-sugar levels, and patients with uncontrolled diabetes find it hard to manage gum disease. Both conditions must be treated and well-managed to achieve periodontal and metabolic health. Pregnancy Complications + Pregnant women with gum disease are at a higher risk of pre-term labor and delivering low birth weight babies. Gum disease must be well-managed during pregnancy to minimize the incidence of these potential complications. Respiratory Disease + Recent research indicates that those with gum disease may be at increased risk of developing respiratory illness, including pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute bronchitis. The relationship is believed to be triggered by inhalation of harmful oral bacteria into the lower respiratory tract, which can worsen existing lung conditions. Certain Cancers + Some studies have shown an increased risk of oral cancer, as well as esophageal, gastric, pancreatic and lung cancers, in those with periodontal disease. Over 200 million Americans have some form of periodontal disease, which places a large portion of the population at risk for these health problems. Our mission at Sugar Land Periodontics and Implant Dentistry is saving smiles and enhancing lives. Committed to helping you enjoy lasting periodontal and general health, we offer specialized gum disease treatments to restore health to your smile and manage the effects of the oral condition.

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life sciences, language arts one class period You may print this activity for educational use. Before their visit, students will learn that... living things have different structures to support their bodies. Almost all animals have a skeleton , the organ system that supports the body, provides shape and h elps animals move. But not all skeletal systems are similar. Some animals have a hard skeleton inside their bodies (e.g., the bones of fish, frogs, dogs and humans). Other animals have hard skeletons on the outside (e.g., the cuticle of a grasshopper ), or produce a structure to protect the body (e.g., the shell of a clam). Some skeletons aren't hard, they're hydrostatic-- formed from sacs of fluid (e.g., in earthworms and sea anemones). Skeletal systems are so important that scientists classify animals by their type of skeleton. Animals classified as vertebrate have internal skeletal systems made of bone or cartilage . Animals classified as invertebrate have solid, external skeletons or hydrostatic skeletons. Because each species has a unique skeleton,you can use skeletal structure to identify animals. For example,you can tell a bird skeleton by its hollow bones. Features such as wing bone length and beak shape help you decide which species of bird the skeleton belonged to. Paleontologists identify fossils by examining skeletons and other hard parts such as shells left behind by once-living animals. This activity gives your students a closer look at the structures that give animals shape and lets them compare the similarities and differences between vertebrates and invertebrates. - Pictures or mounted reproductions of whole animals. Invertebrates (animalswithout backbone ) include: snail, giant squid, grasshopper, earthworm, starfish. Vertebrates (animals with backbones) include: frog, fish, bird and small mammal. - Prepared or fabricated snail shell, starfish test (body) and grasshopper cuticle. - Prepared or fabricated skeletons of frog, fish, bird and small mammal. QUESTIONS TO BEGIN Touch your arm. What do you feel inside it? (That's a bone. Bones make up your skeleton inside your body.) Can you think of another animal that has a skeleton in its body? Can you think of any animals that have skeletons outside their bodies? - Place around the classroom pictures or mounted reproductions of whole animals. Use vertebrates and invertebrates (see list under Materials). - Have your students walk around the room in pairs or small groups and sketch each specimen. - Have them write (or discuss) their thoughts about each animal's skeleton. Do they think it's the same as their own skeletons or different? - Bring the class back together. - Using pictures or fabricated shells and skeletons, discuss each specimen, emphasizing the differences between the skeletal systems of vertebrates and invertebrates. QUESTIONS TO CLOSE What do you think you would be like without your skeleton? How does a skeleton help an animal? Science: Model Curriculum Guide, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1987. Arms, Karen and Pamela 5. Camp. Biology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1987. Burnie, David. How Nature Works. Pleasantville, NY: Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1991.

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Quakers & Capitalism — Transition into Modern Liberalism May 12, 2011 § Leave a comment In this series on Quakers & Capitalism, I have divided Quaker economic history into three major periods separated by times of transition that lasted roughly a generation, during which external forces have combined with internal trends within Quakerism to completely transform the community’s culture and its economic life. During the first transition, from roughly 1661 to 1695, the persecutions combined with the establishment of gospel order to turn the movement away from its radical apocalyptic engagement with the social, political and religious institutions of the day into a culture that was paradoxically dualistic: quietist and peculiar, insular and withdrawn from virtually every area of social converse—but one: Quakers were intensely engaged in the worlds of industry, commerce and the practical arts and sciences. They entered this transition as mostly independent farmers and small trades people. They emerged as a people almost wholly engaged in commerce, poised to literally change the world, after all, by ushering in an all-new system for creating wealth—industrial capitalism. Not quite single-handedly, but not far from it, either. The double-culture period lasted two hundred years, though 19th century evangelicalism weakened the intense dualism that had marked the 18th century, drawing Friends out of their isolation to a degree and helping to inspire paternalistic philanthropic attempts to ameliorate the suffering of the poor. The first transition period had rather clearly defined boundaries, marked by the passage of new legislation designed to crush the dissenting sects, beginning in 1661, and by their repeal, concluding fairly decisively in 1695, and by George Fox’s efforts to establish gospel order among Friends upon his release from prison in 1661 and by his death in 1691. The second transition period is a little less clearly defined. I have chosen 1895 as the starting point and 1920 as the end. Externally, 1895 saw the passage in Great Britain of the final legislation legalizing the limited liability corporation. This new technology would completely transform, not just capitalism, but Quakerism, as well. Other forces emerged about the same time that created a fertile environment for dramatic change within the Society: - the origins of the what would soon become the Labour Party in Great Britain; - the rise in America of Progressivism as an alternative response to industrialization besides the conservatism and socialism and anarchism of the day; - the rise in America of Pentecostalism, often dated to 1901, and of the Social Gospel movement, which had a relationship with the Progressive Party much like today’s Christian right does with the Republican party; and - the articulation for the first time of Catholic social teaching, beginning with Pope Leo III’s encyclical, Rerum Novarum, in 1891. All of these movements were to a degree responses to the downside of industrial capitalism, whose awesome wealth-generating capacity had outgrown society’s ability to control its excesses and its ability to protect its victims. Then came the Great War, a cataclysm that, in Europe, anyway, would reroute virtually all social energies, decimate an entire generation of men, and transform the zeitgeist of the West. The war also brought to a climax a new zeitgeist in Quakerism that had begun in 1895 in Britain, with the Manchester Conference, and in 1887 in America, with the Richmond Conference. The conferences marked a turning point in the course of evangelicalism among Friends and, for many Friends, a decisive move toward liberalism. Friends General Conference formed in 1900, Three Years Meeting (later Friends United Meeting) formed in 1902. In 1893, Rufus Jones became the editor of Friends’ Review (later, The American Friend), and began a lifelong effort to reunite divided Friends and modernize Quakerism. In 1897, Jones met John Wilhelm Rowntree, a kindred spirit who had played a major role in the Manchester Conference and the summer school movement that came out of it. A generation of young very gifted Friends began leading Quakers into the modern era and toward a level engagement with the world around them that had not existed since the 1650s. Then, again for the first time in 250 years, Friends faced persecution for their faith, for conscientious objection to the war. After more than a decade of liberalization and increasing involvement with social problems and institutions, this experience finally closed the door on Quaker withdrawal from the world. The American Friends Service Committee was born in 1917. In 1918, London Yearly Meeting heard and discussed the report of its Committee on War and the Social Order, charged with analyzing the causes of the war and proposing responses. The resulting Eight Principles of a Just Social Order became a major theme of the first Friends World Conference, held in London in 1920. In the meantime, Quaker economics also entered a new era. In a future post, we’ll start examining this major transition in our economic history with a look at Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree and his landmark book, Poverty: A Study in Town Life.

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Korean Air Lines Flight 007 HL7442, the aircraft that was shot down, at Honolulu in 1981. |Date||1 September 1983| |Summary||Shot down by the Soviet military after navigation error by KAL pilots| |Site||Sea of Japan, near Moneron Island, west of Sakhalin Island, Soviet Union | |Aircraft type||Boeing 747-230B| |Operator||Korean Air Lines| |Flight origin||John F. Kennedy International Airport,| New York City, New York, U.S. |Stopover||Anchorage International Airport,| Anchorage, Alaska, U.S. |Destination||Gimpo International Airport,| Gangseo-gu, Seoul, South Korea Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (also known as KAL007 and KE007)[note 2] was a scheduled Korean Air Lines flight from New York City to Seoul via Anchorage, Alaska. On 1 September 1983, the South Korean airliner servicing the flight was shot down by a Soviet Su-15 interceptor. The Boeing 747 airliner was en route from Anchorage to Seoul, but deviated from its original planned route and flew through Soviet prohibited airspace about the time of a U.S. aerial reconnaissance mission. The Soviet Air Forces treated the unidentified aircraft as an intruding U.S. spy plane, and destroyed it with air-to-air missiles, after firing warning shots which were likely not seen by the KAL pilots. The Korean airliner eventually crashed in the sea near Moneron Island west of Sakhalin in the Sea of Japan. All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed, including Larry McDonald, a United States Representative from Georgia. The Soviets found the wreckage under the sea on September 15, and found the flight recorders in October, but this information was kept secret until 1993. The Soviet Union initially denied knowledge of the incident, but later admitted shooting down the aircraft, claiming that it was on a MASINT spy mission. The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union said it was a deliberate provocation by the United States to probe the Soviet Union's military preparedness, or even to provoke a war. The White House accused the Soviet Union of obstructing search and rescue operations. The Soviet Armed Forces suppressed evidence sought by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) investigation, such as the flight recorders, which were released ten years later, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. As a result of the incident, the United States altered tracking procedures for aircraft departing from Alaska. The interface of the autopilot used on airliners was redesigned to make it more ergonomic. In addition, the incident was one of the most important events that prompted the Reagan administration to allow worldwide access to the United States Global Positioning System (GPS). - 1 Aircraft - 2 Details of the flight - 2.1 Passengers and crew - 2.2 Flight deviation from assigned route - 2.3 Shootdown - 3 Search and rescue - 4 Human remains and artifacts - 5 Political events - 6 Investigations - 7 Alternative hypotheses - 8 Aftermath - 9 Popular culture - 10 Maps - 11 See also - 12 Footnotes - 13 Notes - 14 References - 15 Further reading - 16 External links The aircraft flying as Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was a Boeing 747-230B jet airliner with Boeing serial number 20559. The aircraft first flew on January 28, 1972, and was delivered on March 17, 1972 to German airline Condor with the registration D-ABYH. It was sold to the ITEL Corporation in February 1979 and leased to Korean Air Lines with the registration HL7442. Details of the flight Passengers and crew |South Korea||105 *| The aircraft flying as Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was a Boeing 747-230B registered HL7442. The aircraft departed Gate 15 of John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City on August 31, 1983, at 00:25 EDT (04:25 UTC), bound for Gimpo International Airport in Gangseo District, Seoul, 35 minutes behind its scheduled departure time of 23:50 EDT, August 30 (03:50 UTC, August 31). The flight was carrying 246 passengers and 23 crew members.[note 1] After refueling at Anchorage International Airport in Anchorage, Alaska, the aircraft, piloted on this leg of the journey by captain Chun Byung-in, first officer Son Dong-hui and Flight Engineer Kim Eui-dong, departed for Seoul at 04:00 AHDT (13:00 UTC) on August 31, 1983. The aircrew had an unusually high ratio of crew to passengers, as six deadheading crew were on board. Twelve passengers occupied the upper deck first class, while in business class almost all of the 24 seats were taken; in economy class, approximately 80 seats were empty. There were 22 children under the age of 12 years aboard. 130 passengers planned to connect to other destinations such as Tokyo, Hong Kong, and Taipei. United States Congressman Larry McDonald from Georgia, who at the time was also the second president of the conservative John Birch Society, was on the flight. Flight deviation from assigned route After taking off from Anchorage, the flight was instructed by air traffic control (ATC) to turn to a heading of 220 degrees. Approximately 90 seconds later, ATC directed the flight to "proceed direct Bethel when able". Upon arriving over Bethel, Alaska, KAL 007 entered the northernmost of five 50-mile (80 km) wide airways, known as the NOPAC (North Pacific) routes, that bridge the Alaskan and Japanese coasts. KAL 007's particular airway, R-20 (Romeo Two Zero), passes just 17.5 miles (28.2 km) from what was then Soviet airspace off the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. The autopilot system used at the time had four basic control modes: HEADING, VOR/LOC, ILS, and INS. The HEADING mode maintained a constant magnetic course selected by the pilot. The VOR/LOC mode maintained the plane on a specific course, transmitted from a VOR (VHF omnidirectional range, a type of short-range radio signal transmitted from ground beacons) or Localizer (LOC) beacon selected by the pilot. The ILS (instrument landing system) mode caused the plane to track both vertical and lateral course beacons, which led to a specific runway selected by the pilot. The INS (inertial navigation system) mode maintained the plane on lateral course lines between selected flight plan waypoints programmed into the INS computer. When the INS navigation systems were properly programmed with the filed flight plan waypoints, the pilot could turn the autopilot mode selector switch to the INS position and the plane would then automatically track the programmed INS course line, provided the plane was headed in the proper direction and within 7.5 miles (12.1 km) of that course line. If, however, the plane was more than 7.5 miles (12.1 km) from the flight-planned course line when the pilot turned the autopilot mode selector from HEADING to INS, the plane would continue to track the heading selected in HEADING mode as long as the actual position of the plane was more than 7.5 miles (12.1 km) from the programmed INS course line. The autopilot computer software commanded the INS mode to remain in the "armed" condition until the plane had moved to a position less than 7.5 miles (12.1 km) from the desired course line. Once that happened, the INS mode would change from "armed" to "capture" and the plane would track the flight-planned course from then on. The HEADING mode of the autopilot would normally be engaged sometime after takeoff to comply with vectors from ATC, and then after receiving appropriate ATC clearance, to guide the plane to intercept the desired INS course line. The Anchorage VOR beacon was not operational because of maintenance. The crew received a NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) of this fact, which was not seen as a problem, as the captain could still check his position at the next VORTAC beacon at Bethel, 346 miles (557 km) away. The aircraft was required to maintain the assigned heading of 220 degrees, until it could receive the signals from Bethel, then it could fly direct to Bethel, as instructed by ATC, by centering the VOR "to" course deviation indicator (CDI) and then engaging the auto pilot in the VOR/LOC mode. Then, when over the Bethel beacon, the flight could start using INS mode to follow the waypoints that make up route Romeo-20 around the coast of the U.S.S.R. to Seoul. The INS mode was necessary for this route, since after Bethel the plane would be mostly out of range from VOR stations. At about 10 minutes after take-off, KAL 007, flying on a heading of 245 degrees, began to deviate to the right (north) of its assigned route to Bethel, and continued to fly on this constant heading for the next five and a half hours. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) simulation and analysis of the flight data recorder determined that this deviation was probably caused by the aircraft's autopilot system operating in HEADING mode, after the point that it should have been switched to the INS mode. According to the ICAO, the autopilot was not operating in the INS mode either because the crew did not switch the autopilot to the INS mode (shortly after Cairn Mountain), or they did select the INS mode, but the computer did not transition from INERTIAL NAVIGATION ARMED to INS mode because the aircraft had already deviated off track by more than the 7.5 miles (12.1 km) tolerance permitted by the inertial navigation computer. Whatever the reason, the autopilot remained in the HEADING mode, and the problem was not detected by the crew. At 28 minutes after takeoff, civilian radar at Kenai Peninsula on the eastern shore of Cook Inlet and with radar coverage 175 miles (282 km) west of Anchorage, tracked KAL 007 5.6 miles (9.0 km) north of where it should have been. When KAL 007 did not reach Bethel at 50 minutes after takeoff, a military radar at King Salmon, Alaska, tracked KAL 007 at 12.6 nautical miles (23.3 km) north of where it should have been. There is no evidence to indicate that civil air traffic controllers or military radar personnel at Elmendorf Air Force Base (who were in a position to receive the King Salmon radar output) were aware of KAL 007's deviation in real-time, and therefore able to warn the aircraft. It had exceeded its expected maximum deviation sixfold, 2 nautical miles (3.7 km) of error being the maximum expected drift from course if the inertial navigation system was activated. KAL 007's divergence prevented the aircraft from transmitting its position via shorter range very high frequency radio (VHF). It therefore requested KAL 015, also en route to Seoul, to relay reports to air traffic control on its behalf. KAL 007 requested KAL 015 to relay its position three times. At 14:43 UTC, KAL 007 directly transmitted a change of estimated time of arrival for its next waypoint, NEEVA, to the international flight service station at Anchorage, but it did so over the longer range high frequency radio (HF) rather than VHF. HF transmissions are able to carry a longer distance than VHF, but are vulnerable to electromagnetic interference and static; VHF is clearer with less interference, and preferred by flight crews. The inability to establish direct radio communications to be able to transmit their position directly did not alert the pilots of KAL 007 of their ever-increasing divergence and was not considered unusual by air traffic controllers. Halfway between Bethel and waypoint NABIE, KAL 007 passed through the southern portion of the North American Aerospace Defense Command buffer zone. This zone is north of Romeo 20 and off-limits to civilian aircraft. Some time after leaving American territorial waters, KAL Flight 007 crossed the International Date Line, where the local date shifted from August 31, 1983, to September 1, 1983. KAL 007 continued its journey, ever increasing its deviation—60 nautical miles (110 km) off course at waypoint NABIE, 100 nautical miles (190 km) off course at waypoint NUKKS, and 160 nautical miles (300 km) off course at waypoint NEEVA—until it reached the Kamchatka Peninsula. |Romeo 20 waypoint||Flight-planned coordinates||ATC||KAL 007 deviation| |CAIRN MOUNTAIN||Anchorage||5.6 mi (9.0 km)| |BETHEL||Anchorage||12.6 nmi (23.3 km)| |NABIE||Anchorage||60 nmi (110 km)| |NUKKS||Anchorage||100 nmi (190 km)| |NEEVA||Anchorage||160 nmi (300 km)| |NIPPI||Anchorage/Tokyo||180 mi (290 km)| |NYTIM||Tokyo||500 nmi (930 km) to point of impact| |NOKKA||Tokyo||350 nmi (650 km) to point of impact| |NOHO||Tokyo||390 nmi (720 km) to point of impact| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| In 1983, Cold War tensions between the United States and Soviet Union had escalated to a level not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis because of several factors. These included the United States' Strategic Defense Initiative, its planned deployment of the Pershing II weapon system in Europe in March and April, and FleetEx '83-1, the largest naval exercise held to date in the North Pacific. The military hierarchy of the Soviet Union (particularly the old guard led by Soviet General Secretary Yuri Andropov and Minister of Defence Dmitry Ustinov) viewed these actions as bellicose and destabilizing; they were deeply suspicious of U.S. President Ronald Reagan's intentions and openly fearful he was planning a pre-emptive nuclear strike against the Soviet Union. These fears culminated in RYAN, the code name for a secret intelligence-gathering program initiated by Andropov to detect a potential nuclear sneak attack which he believed Reagan was plotting. Aircraft from USS Midway and USS Enterprise repeatedly overflew Soviet military installations in the Kuril Islands during FleetEx '83, resulting in the dismissal or reprimanding of Soviet military officials who had been unable to shoot them down. On the Soviet side, RYAN was expanded. Lastly, there was a heightened alert around the Kamchatka Peninsula at the time KAL 007 was in the vicinity, because of a Soviet missile test at the Kura Missile Test Range that was scheduled for the same day. A United States Air Force Boeing RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft flying in the area was monitoring the missile test off the peninsula. At 15:51 UTC, according to Soviet sources, KAL 007 entered the restricted airspace of the Kamchatka Peninsula. The buffer zone extended 200 kilometres (120 mi) from Kamchatka's coast and is known as a flight information region (FIR). The 100-kilometre (62 mi) radius of the buffer zone nearest to Soviet territory had the additional designation of prohibited airspace. When KAL 007 was about 130 kilometres (81 mi) from the Kamchatka coast, four MiG-23 fighters were scrambled to intercept the Boeing 747. Significant command and control problems were experienced trying to vector the fast military jets onto the Boeing before they ran out of fuel. In addition, pursuit was made more difficult, according to Soviet Air Force Captain Aleksandr Zuyev, who defected to the West in 1989, because ten days before Arctic gales had knocked out the key warning radar on the Kamchatka Peninsula. Furthermore he stated that local officials responsible for repairing the radar lied to Moscow, falsely reporting that they had successfully fixed the radar. Had this radar been operational, it would have enabled an intercept of the stray airliner roughly two hours earlier with plenty of time for proper identification as a civilian aircraft. But instead, the unidentified jetliner crossed over the Kamchatka Peninsula back into international airspace over the Sea of Okhotsk without being intercepted. In his explanation to 60 Minutes, Zuyev stated: Some people lied to Moscow, trying to save their ass. The Commander of the Soviet Far East District Air Defense Forces, General Valery Kamensky, was adamant that KAL 007 was to be destroyed even over neutral waters but only after positive identification showed it not to be a passenger plane. His subordinate, General Anatoly Kornukov, commander of Sokol Air Base and later to become commander of the Russian Air Force, insisted that there was no need to make positive identification as "the intruder" had already flown over the Kamchatka Peninsula. General Kornukov (to Military District Headquarters-Gen. Kamensky): (5:47) "...simply destroy [it] even if it is over neutral waters? Are the orders to destroy it over neutral waters? Oh, well." Kamensky: "We must find out, maybe it is some civilian craft or God knows who." Kornukov: "What civilian? [It] has flown over Kamchatka! It [came] from the ocean without identification. I am giving the order to attack if it crosses the State border." Units of the Soviet Air Defence Forces that had been tracking the South Korean aircraft for more than an hour while it entered and left Soviet airspace now classified the aircraft as a military target when it reentered their airspace over Sakhalin. After the protracted ground-controlled interception, the three Su-15 fighters (from nearby Dolinsk-Sokol airbase) and the MiG-23 (from Smirnykh Air Base) managed to make visual contact with the Boeing. The pilot of the lead Su-15 fighter fired warning shots, but recalled later in 1991, "I fired four bursts, more than 200 rounds. For all the good it did. After all, I was loaded with armor piercing shells, not incendiary shells. It's doubtful whether anyone could see them." At this point, KAL 007 contacted Tokyo Area Control Center, requesting clearance to ascend to a higher flight level for reasons of fuel economy; the request was granted, so the Boeing started to climb, gradually slowing as it exchanged speed for altitude. The decrease in speed caused the pursuing fighter to overshoot the Boeing and was interpreted by the Soviet pilot as an evasive maneuver. The order to shoot KAL 007 down was given as it was about to leave Soviet airspace for the second time. At around 18:26 UTC, under pressure from General Kornukov, and ground controllers not to let the aircraft escape into international airspace, the lead fighter was able to move back into a position where it could fire two K-8 (NATO reporting name: AA-3 "Anab") air-to-air missiles at the plane. Soviet pilot's recollection of shootdown In a 1991 interview with Izvestia, Major Genadi Osipovich, pilot of the Su-15 interceptor that shot the 747 down, spoke about his recollections of the events leading up to the shootdown. Contrary to official Soviet statements at the time, he recalled telling ground controllers that there were "blinking lights". He continued, saying that "I saw two rows of windows and knew that this was a Boeing. I knew this was a civilian plane. But for me this meant nothing. It is easy to turn a civilian type of plane into one for military use." He furthermore did not provide a detailed description of the aircraft to the ground controllers: "I did not tell the ground that it was a Boeing-type plane; they did not ask me."[note 3] Commenting on the moment that KAL 007 slowed as it ascended from flight level 330 to flight level 350, and then on his maneuvering for missile launch, Osipovich said: They [KAL 007] quickly lowered their speed. They were flying at 400 km/h (249 mph). My speed was more than 400. I was simply unable to fly slower. In my opinion, the intruder's intentions were plain. If I did not want to go into a stall, I would be forced to overshoot them. That's exactly what happened. We had already flown over the island [Sakhalin]. It is narrow at that point, the target was about to get away... Then the ground [controller] gave the command: "Destroy the target...!" That was easy to say. But how? With shells? I had already expended 243 rounds. Ram it? I had always thought of that as poor taste. Ramming is the last resort. Just in case, I had already completed my turn and was coming down on top of him. Then, I had an idea. I dropped below him about two thousand metres (6,600 ft)... afterburners. Switched on the missiles and brought the nose up sharply. Success! I have a lock on. We shot down the plane legally... Later we began to lie about small details: the plane was supposedly flying without running lights or strobe light, that tracer bullets were fired, or that I had radio contact with them on the emergency frequency of 121.5 megahertz. Soviet command hierarchy of shootdown The Soviet real-time military communication transcripts of the shootdown suggest the chain of command from the top general to Major Osipovich, the Su-15 interceptor pilot who shot down KAL 007. In reverse order, they are: - Major Gennady Osipovich, - Captain Titovnin, Combat Control Center – Fighter Division - Lt. Colonel Maistrenko, Smirnykh Air Base Fighter Division Acting Chief of Staff, who confirmed the shootdown order to Titovnin - "Titovnin: You confirm the task? - "Maistrenko: Yes." - Lt. Colonel Gerasimenko, Acting Commander, 41st Fighter Regiment. - "Gerasimenko: (to Kornukov) Task received. Destroy target 60–65 with missile fire. Accept control of fighter from Smirnikh." - General Anatoly Kornukov, Commander of Sokol Air Base – Sakhalin. - "Kornukov: (to Gerasimenko) I repeat the task, Fire the missiles, Fire on target 60–65. Destroy target 60–65... Take control of the MiG 23 from Smirnikh, call sign 163, call sign 163 He is behind the target at the moment. Destroy the target!... Carry out the task, Destroy it!" - General Valery Kamensky, Commander of Far East Military District Air Defense Forces. - "Kornukov: (To Kamensky) ...simply destroy [it] even if it is over neutral waters? Are the orders to destroy it over neutral waters? Oh, well." - Army General Ivan Moiseevich Tretyak, Commander of the Far East Military District. - "Weapons were used, weapons authorized at the highest level. Ivan Moiseevich authorized it. Hello, hello.", "Say again.", "I cannot hear you clearly now.", "He gave the order. Hello, hello, hello.", "Yes, yes.", "Ivan Moiseevich gave the order, Tretyak.", "Roger, roger.", "Weapons were used at his order." At the time of the attack, the plane had been cruising at an altitude of about 35,000 feet (11,000 m). Tapes recovered from the airliner's cockpit voice recorder indicate that the crew were unaware that they were off course and violating Soviet airspace. Immediately after missile detonation, the airliner began a 113-second arc upward because of a damaged crossover cable between the left inboard and right outboard elevators. At 18:26:46 UTC (03:26 Japan Time; 06:26 Sakhalin time), at the apex of the arc at altitude 38,250 feet (11,660 m), the autopilot disengaged (this was either done by the pilots, or it disengaged automatically). Now being controlled manually, the plane began to descend to 35,000 feet (11,000 m). From 18:27:01 until 18:27:09, the flight crew reported to Tokyo Area Control Center informing that KAL 007 to "descend to 10,000" [feet; 3,000 m]. At 18:27:20, ICAO graphing of Digital Flight Data Recorder tapes showed that after a descent phase and a 10 second "nose-up", KAL 007 was leveled out at pre-missile detonation altitude of 35,000 ft (11,000 m), forward acceleration was back to pre-missile detonation rate of zero acceleration, and air speed had returned to pre-detonation velocity. Yaw (oscillations), begun at the time of missile detonation, continued decreasingly until the end of the 1 minute 44 second section of the tape. The Boeing did not break up, explode or plummet immediately after the attack; it continued its gradual descent for four minutes, then leveled off at 16,424 feet (5,006 m) (18:30–18:31 UTC), rather than continuing to descend to 10,000 (3,000 m) as previously reported to Tokyo Area Control Center. It continued at this altitude for almost five more minutes (18:35 UTC). The last cockpit voice recorder entry occurred at 18:27:46 while in this phase of the descent. At 18:28 UTC, the aircraft was reported turning to the north. ICAO analysis concluded that the flight crew "retained limited control" of the aircraft. However, this only lasted for five minutes. The crew then lost all control. The aircraft began to descend rapidly in spirals over Moneron Island for 2.6 miles (4.2 km). The aircraft then broke apart in mid-air and crashed into the ocean, just off the West coast of the Sakhalin Island. All 269 people on board were killed instantly from blunt trauma.[note 4] The aircraft was last seen visually by Osipovich, "somehow descending slowly" over Moneron Island. The aircraft disappeared off long range military radar at Wakkanai, Japan at a height of 1,000 feet (300 m). KAL 007 was probably attacked in international airspace, with a 1993 Russian report listing the location of the missile firing outside its territory at although the intercepting pilot stated otherwise in a subsequent interview. Initial reports that the airliner had been forced to land on Sakhalin were soon proven false. One of these reports conveyed via phone by Orville Brockman, the Washington office spokesman of the Federal Aviation Administration, to the press secretary of Larry McDonald, was that the FAA in Tokyo had been informed by the Japanese Civil Aviation Bureau that "Japanese self-defense force radar confirms that the Hokkaido radar followed Air Korea to a landing in Soviet territory on the island of Sakhalinska and it is confirmed by the manifest that Congressman McDonald is on board"., A Japanese fisherman aboard 58th Chidori Maru later reported to the Japanese Maritime Safety Agency (this report was cited by ICAO analysis) that he had heard a plane at low altitude, but had not seen it. Then he heard "a loud sound followed by a bright flash of light on the horizon, then another dull sound and a less intense flash of light on the horizon" and smelled aviation fuel. Soviet command response to post-detonation flight Though the interceptor pilot reported to ground control, "Target destroyed", the Soviet command, from general on down, indicated surprise and consternation at KAL 007's continued flight, and ability to regain its altitude and maneuver. This consternation continued through to KAL 007's subsequent level flight at altitude 16,424 ft (5,006 m), and then, after almost five minutes, through its spiral descent over Moneron Island. (See Korean Air Lines Flight 007 transcripts from 18:26 UTC onwards: "Lt. Col. Novoseletski: Well, what is happening, what is the matter, who guided him in — he locked on why didn't he shoot it down?") Missile damage to plane The following damage to the aircraft was determined by the ICAO from its analysis of the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder: KAL 007 had four redundant hydraulic systems of which systems one, two, and three were damaged or destroyed. There was no evidence of damage to system four. The hydraulics provided actuation of all primary and secondary flight controls (except leading edge slats in the latter) as well as of landing gear retraction, extension, gear steering, and wheel braking. Each primary flight control axis received power from all four hydraulic systems. Upon missile detonation, the jumbo jet began to experience oscillations (yawing) as the dual channel yaw damper was damaged. Yawing would not have occurred if hydraulic systems one or two were fully operational. The result is that the control column did not thrust forward upon impact (it should have done so as the plane was on autopilot) to bring down the plane to its former altitude of 35,000 feet (11,000 m). This failure of the autopilot to correct the rise in altitude indicates that hydraulic system number three, which operates the autopilot actuator, a system controlling the plane's elevators, was damaged or out. KAL 007's airspeed and acceleration rate both began to decrease as the plane began to climb. At twenty seconds after missile detonation a click was heard in the cabin, which is identified as the "automatic pilot disconnect warning" sound. Either the pilot or co-pilot had disconnected the autopilot and was manually thrusting the control column forward in order to bring the plane lower. Though the autopilot had been turned off, manual mode did not begin functioning for another twenty seconds. This failure of the manual system to engage upon command indicates failure in hydraulic systems one and two. With wing flaps up, "control was reduced to the right inboard aileron and the innermost of spoiler section of each side". Contrary to Major Osipovich's statement in 1991 that he had taken off half of KAL 007's left wing, ICAO analysis found that the wing was intact: "The interceptor pilot stated that the first missile hit near the tail, while the second missile took off half the left wing of the aircraft... The interceptor's pilot's statement that the second missile took off half of the left wing was probably incorrect. The missiles were fired with a two-second interval and would have detonated at an equal interval. The first detonated at 18:26:02 UTC. The last radio transmissions from KE007 to Tokyo Radio were between 18:26:57 and 18:27:15 UTC using HF [high frequency]. The HF 1 radio aerial of the aircraft was positioned in the left wing tip suggesting that the left wing tip was intact at this time. Also, the aircraft's maneuvers after the attack did not indicate extensive damage to the left wing." The co-pilot reported to Captain Chun twice during the flight after the missiles' detonation, "Engines normal, sir." The first missile was radar-controlled and proximity fuzed, and detonated 50 metres (160 ft) behind the aircraft. Sending fragments forward, it either severed or unraveled the crossover cable from the left inboard elevator to the right elevator. This, with damage to one of the four hydraulic systems, caused KAL 007 to ascend from 35,000 to 38,250 feet (10,670 to 11,660 m), at which point the autopilot was disengaged. Fragments from the proximity fuzed air-to-air missile that detonated 50 metres (160 ft) behind the aircraft, punctured the fuselage and caused rapid decompression of the pressurised cabin. The interval of 11 seconds between the sound of missile detonation picked up by the cockpit voice recorder and the sound of the alarm sounding in the cockpit enabled ICAO analysts to determine that the size of the ruptures to the pressurised fuselage was 1.75 square feet (0.163 m2)). Search and rescue As a result of Cold War tensions, the search and rescue operations of the Soviet Union were not coordinated with those of the United States, South Korea, and Japan. Consequently no information was shared, and each side endeavored to harass or obtain evidence to implicate the other. The flight data recorders were the key pieces of evidence sought by both governments, with the United States insisting that an independent observer from the ICAO be present on one of its search vessels in the event that they were found. International boundaries are not well defined on the open sea, leading to numerous confrontations between the large number of opposing naval ships that were assembled in the area. Soviet search and rescue mission to Moneron Island The Soviets did not acknowledge shooting down the aircraft until September 6, five days after the flight was shot down. Eight days after the shootdown, Marshal of the Soviet Union and Chief of General Staff Nikolai Ogarkov denied knowledge of where KAL 007 had gone down, "We could not give the precise answer about the spot where it [KAL 007] fell because we ourselves did not know the spot in the first place." Nine years later, the Russian Federation handed over transcripts of Soviet military communications that showed that at least two documented search and rescue (SAR) missions were ordered within a half-hour of the attack to the last Soviet verified location of the descending jumbo jet, over Moneron Island: The first search was ordered from Smirnykh Air Base in central Sakhalin at 18:47 UTC, nine minutes after KAL 007 had disappeared from Soviet radar screens, and brought rescue helicopters from Khomutovo Air base (the military unit at Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airport in southern Sakhalin), and Soviet Border Troops boats to the area. The second search was ordered eight minutes later by the Deputy Commander of the Far Eastern Military District, General Strogov, and involved civilian trawlers that were in the area around Moneron. "The border guards. What ships do we now have near Moneron Island, if they are civilians, send [them] there immediately." Moneron is just 4.5 miles (7.2 km) long and 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide, located 24 miles (39 km) due west of Sakhalin Island at ; it is the only land mass in the whole Tatar Straits. Search for KAL 007 in international waters Immediately after the shootdown, South Korea, owner of the aircraft and therefore prime considerant for jurisdiction, designated the United States and Japan as search and salvage agents, thereby making it illegal for the Soviet Union to salvage the aircraft, providing it was found outside Soviet territorial waters. If it did so, the United States would now be legally entitled to use force against the Soviets, if necessary, to prevent retrieval of any part of the plane. On the same day as the shootdown, Rear Admiral William A. Cockell, Commander, Task Force 71, and a skeleton staff, taken by helicopter from Japan, embarked in USS Badger (stationed off Vladivostok at time of the flight) on September 9 for further transfer to the destroyer USS Elliot to assume duties as Officer in Tactical Command (OTC) of the Search and Rescue (SAR) effort. Surface search began immediately and on into September 13. U.S. underwater operations began on September 14. On September 10, 1983, with no further hope of finding survivors, Task Force 71's mission was reclassified from a "Search and Rescue" (SAR) operation to a "Search and Salvage" (SAS). On October 17, Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti, Jr. took command of the Task Force and its Search and Salvage mission from Rear Admiral Cockell. First to be searched was a 60-square-mile (160 km2) "high probability" area. This was unsuccessful. On October 21, Task Force 71 extended its search within coordinates encompassing, in an arc around the Soviet territorial boundaries north of Moneron Island, an area of 225 square miles (583 km2), reaching to the west of Sakhalin Island. This was the "large probability" area. The search areas were outside the 12-nautical-mile (22 km) Soviet-claimed territorial boundaries. The northwestern-most point of the search touched the Soviet territorial boundary closest to the naval port of Nevelsk on Sakhalin. Nevelsk was 46 nautical miles (85 km) from Moneron. This larger search was also unsuccessful. The vessels used in the search, for the Soviet side as well as the US side (US, South Korea, Japan) were both civilian trawlers, especially equipped for both the SAR and SAS operations, and various types of warships and support ships. The Soviet side also employed both civilian and military divers. The Soviet search, beginning on the day of the shootdown and continuing until November 6, was confined to the 60-square-mile (160 km2) "high probability" area in international waters, and within Soviet territorial waters to the north of Moneron Island. The area within Soviet territorial waters was off-limits to the U.S., South Korean, and Japanese boats. From September 3 to 29, four ships from South Korea had joined in the search. Piotti Jr, commander of Task Force 71 of 7th Fleet would summarize the US and Allied, and then the Soviets', Search and Salvage operations: Not since the search for the hydrogen bomb lost off Palomares, Spain, has the U.S. Navy undertaken a search effort of the magnitude or import of the search for the wreckage of KAL Flight 007. Within six days of the downing of KAL 007, the Soviets had deployed six ships to the general crash site area. Over the next 8 weeks of observation by U.S. naval units this number grew to a daily average of 19 Soviet naval, naval-associated and commercial (but undoubtedly naval-subordinated) ships in the Search and Salvage (SAS) area. The number of Soviet ships in the SAS area over this period ranged from a minimum of six to a maximum of thirty-two and included at least forty-eight different ships comprising forty different ship classes. These missions met with interference by the Soviets, in violation of the 1972 Incident at Sea agreement, and included false flag and fake light signals, sending an armed boarding party to threaten to board a U.S.-chartered Japanese auxiliary vessel (blocked by U.S. warship interposition), interfering with a helicopter coming off the USS Elliot (Sept. 7), attempted ramming of rigs used by the South Koreans in their quadrant search, hazardous maneuvering of Gavril Sarychev and near-collision with the USS Callaghan (September 15, 18), removing U.S. sonars, setting false pingers in deep international waters, sending Backfire bombers armed with air-to-surface nuclear-armed missiles to threaten U.S. naval units, criss-crossing in front of U.S. combatant vessels (October 26), cutting and attempted cutting of moorings of Japanese auxiliary vessels, particularly Kaiko Maru III, and radar lock-ons by a Soviet Kara-class cruiser, Petropavlovsk, and a Kashin-class destroyer, Odarennyy, targeting U.S. naval ships and the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter USCGC Douglas Munro (WHEC-724), USS Towers, escorting USS Conserver, experienced all of the above interference and was involved in a near-collision with Odarennyy (September 23–27). Had TF [task force] 71 been permitted to search without restriction imposed by claimed territorial waters, the aircraft stood a good chance of having been found. No wreckage of KAL 007 was found. However, the operation established, with a 95% or above confidence level, that the wreckage, or any significant portion of the aircraft, does not lie within the probability area outside the 12 nautical mile area claimed by the Soviets as their territorial limit. At a hearing of the ICAO on September 15, 1983, J. Lynn Helms, the head of the Federal Aviation Administration, stated: "The USSR has refused to permit search and rescue units from other countries to enter Soviet territorial waters to search for the remains of KAL 007. Moreover, the Soviet Union has blocked access to the likely crash site and has refused to cooperate with other interested parties, to ensure prompt recovery of all technical equipment, wreckage and other material." Human remains and artifacts No body parts were recovered by the Soviet search team from the surface of the sea in their territorial waters, though they would later turn over clothes and shoes to a joint U.S.–Japanese delegation to Nevelsk on Sakhalin. On Monday, September 26, 1983, a delegation of seven Japanese and U.S. officials arriving aboard the Japanese patrol boat Tsugaru, had met a six-man Soviet delegation at the port of Nevelsk on Sakhalin Island. KGB Major General A. I. Romanenko, the Commander of the Sakhalin and Kuril Islands frontier guard, headed the Soviet delegation. Romanenko handed over to the U.S. and the Japanese, among other things, single and paired footwear. With footwear that the Japanese also retrieved, the total came to 213 men's, women's and children's dress shoes, sandals, and sports shoes. The Soviets indicated these items were all that they had retrieved floating or on the shores of Sakhalin and Moneron islands. Family members of KAL 007 passengers later stated that these shoes were worn by their loved ones for the flight. Sonia Munder had no difficulty recognizing the sneakers of her children, one of Christian age 14 and one of Lisi age 17, by the intricate way her children laced them. Another mother says, "I recognized them just like that. You see, there are all kinds of inconspicuous marks which strangers do not notice. This is how I recognized them. My daughter loved to wear them." Another mother, Nan Oldham, identified her son John's sneakers from a photo in Life magazine of 55 of the 213 shoes—apparently, a random array on display those first days at Chitose Air Force Base in Japan. "We saw photos of his shoes in a magazine," says Oldham, "We followed up through KAL and a few weeks later, a package arrived. His shoes were inside: size 11 sneakers with cream white paint." John Oldham had taken his seat in row 31 of KAL 007 wearing those cream white paint-spattered sneakers. Nothing was found by the joint U.S.–Japanese–South Korean search and rescue/salvage operations in international waters at the designated crash site or within the 225-square-nautical-mile (770 km2) search area. Eight days after the shootdown, human remains and other types of objects appeared on the north shore of Hokkaido, Japan. Hokkaido is about 30 miles (48 km) below the southern tip of Sakhalin across the La Pérouse Strait (the southern tip of Sakhalin is 35 miles (56 km) from Moneron Island which is west of Sakhalin). The ICAO concluded that these bodies, body parts and objects were carried from Soviet waters to the shores of Hokkaido by the southerly current west of Sakhalin Island. All currents of the Strait of Tartary relevant to Moneron Island flow to the north, except this southerly current between Moneron Island and Sakhalin Island. These human remains, including body parts, tissues, and two partial torsos, totaled 13. All were unidentifiable, but one partial torso was that of a Caucasian woman as indicated by auburn hair on a partial skull, and one partial body was of an Asian child (with glass embedded). There was no luggage recovered. Of the non-human remains that the Japanese recovered were various items including dentures, newspapers, seats, books, eight KAL paper cups, shoes, sandals, and sneakers, a camera case, a "please fasten seat belt" sign, an oxygen mask, a handbag, a bottle of dish washing fluid, several blouses, an identity card belonging to 25-year-old passenger Mary Jane Hendrie of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada, and the business card of passenger Kathy Brown-Spier. These items generally came from the passenger cabin of the aircraft. None of the items found generally came from the cargo hold of the plane, such as suitcases, packing boxes, industrial machinery, instruments, and sports equipment. Russian diver reports In 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian newspaper Izvestia published a series of interviews with Soviet military personnel who had been involved in salvage operations to find and recover parts of the aircraft. After three days of searching using trawlers, side-scan sonar, and diving bells, Soviet searchers located the aircraft wreckageat a depth of 174 metres (571 ft) near Moneron Island. Since no human remains or luggage were found on the surface in the impact area, the divers expected to find the remains of passengers who had been trapped in the submerged wreckage of the aircraft on the seabed. When they visited the site two weeks after the shootdown, they found that the wreckage was in small pieces, and found no bodies: I had the idea that it would be intact. Well, perhaps a little banged up... The divers would go inside the aircraft and see everything there was to see. In fact it was completely demolished, scattered about like kindling. The largest things we saw were the braces which are especially strong—they were about one and a half or two meters long and 50–60 centimeters wide. As for the rest—broken into tiny pieces... According to Izvestia, the divers had only ten encounters with passenger remains (tissues and body parts) in the debris area, including one partial torso. Tinro ll submersible Captain Mikhail Igorevich Girs' diary: Submergence 10 October. Aircraft pieces, wing spars, pieces of aircraft skin, wiring, and clothing. But—no people. The impression is that all of this has been dragged here by a trawl rather than falling down from the sky... Vyacheslav Popov: "I will confess that we felt great relief when we found out that there were no bodies at the bottom. Not only no bodies; there were also no suitcases or large bags. I did not miss a single dive. I have quite a clear impression: The aircraft was filled with garbage, but there were really no people there. Why? Usually when an aircraft crashes, even a small one... As a rule there are suitcases and bags, or at least the handles of the suitcases." A number of civilian divers, whose first dive was on September 15, two weeks after the shootdown, state that Soviet military divers and trawls had been at work before them: Diver Vyacheslav Popov: "As we learned then, before us the trawlers had done some 'work' in the designated quadrant. It is hard to understand what sense the military saw in the trawling operation. First drag everything haphazardly around the bottom by the trawls, and then send in the submersibles?...It is clear that things should have been done in the reverse order." ICAO also interviewed a number of these divers for its 1993 report: "In addition to the scraps of metal, they observed personal items, such as clothing, documents and wallets. Although some evidence of human remains was noticed by the divers, they found no bodies." Initial Soviet denial General Secretary Yuri Andropov, on the advice of Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov, but against the advice of the Foreign Ministry, initially decided not to make any admission of downing the airliner, on the premise that no one would find out or be able to prove otherwise. Consequently the TASS news agency reported twelve hours after the shootdown only that an unidentified aircraft, flying without lights, had been intercepted by Soviet fighters after it violated Soviet airspace over Sakhalin. The aircraft had allegedly failed to respond to warnings and "continued its flight toward the East Sea". Some commentators believe that the inept manner in which the political events were handled by the Soviet government was affected by the failing health of Andropov, who was permanently hospitalised in late September or early October 1983 (Andropov died the following February). In a 2015 interview Igor Kirillov, the senior Soviet news anchor, said that he was initially given a printed TASS report to announce over the news on September 1, which included an "open and honest" admission that the plane was shot down by mistake (a wrong judgement call by the Far Eastern Air Defence Command). However, at the moment the opening credits of the Vremya evening news programme rolled in, an editor ran in and snatched the sheet of paper from his hand, handing him another TASS report which was "completely opposite" to the first one and to the truth. U.S. reaction and further developments The shootdown happened at a very tense time in U.S.–Soviet relations during the Cold War. The U.S. adopted a strategy of releasing a substantial amount of hitherto highly classified intelligence information in order to exploit a major propaganda advantage over the Soviet Union. Six hours after the plane was downed, the South Korean government issued an announcement that the plane had merely been forced to land abruptly by the Soviets, and that all passengers and crew were safe. U.S. Secretary of State George P. Shultz held a press conference about the incident at 10:45 on September 1, during which he divulged some details of intercepted Soviet communications and denounced the actions of the Soviet Union. On September 5, 1983, President Reagan condemned the shooting down of the airplane as the "Korean airline massacre", a "crime against humanity [that] must never be forgotten" and an "act of barbarism... [and] inhuman brutality". The following day, the U.S. ambassador to the UN Jeane Kirkpatrick delivered an audio-visual presentation in the United Nations Security Council, using audio tapes of the Soviet pilots' radio conversations and a map of Flight 007's path in depicting its shooting down. Following this presentation, TASS acknowledged for the first time that the aircraft had indeed been shot down after warnings were ignored. The Soviets challenged many of the facts presented by the U.S., and revealed the previously unknown presence of a USAF RC-135 surveillance aircraft whose path had crossed that of KAL 007. On September 7, Japan and the United States jointly released a transcript of Soviet communications, intercepted by the listening post at Wakkanai, to an emergency session of the United Nations Security Council. Reagan issued a National Security Directive stating that the Soviets were not to be let off the hook, and initiating "a major diplomatic effort to keep international and domestic attention focused on the Soviet action". The move was seen by the Soviet leadership as confirmation of the West's bad intentions. A high level U.S.–Soviet summit, the first in nearly a year, was scheduled for September 8, 1983, in Madrid. The Shultz–Gromyko meeting went ahead, but was overshadowed by the KAL 007 event. It ended acrimoniously, with Shultz stating: "Foreign Minister Gromyko's response to me today was even more unsatisfactory than the response he gave in public yesterday. I find it totally unacceptable." Reagan ordered the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on September 15, 1983, to revoke the license of Aeroflot Soviet Airlines to operate flights to and from the United States. Aeroflot flights to North America were consequently available only through Canadian and Mexican cities, forcing the Soviet foreign minister to cancel his scheduled trip to the UN. Aeroflot service to the U.S. was not restored until April 29, 1986. An emergency session of the ICAO was held in Montreal, Canada. On September 12, 1983, the Soviet Union used its veto to block a United Nations resolution condemning it for shooting down the aircraft. Shortly after the Soviet Union shot down KAL 007, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, operating the commercial airports around New York City, denied Soviet aircraft landing rights, in violation of the United Nations Charter that required the host nation to allow all member countries access to the UN. In reaction, TASS and some at the UN raised the question of whether the UN should move its headquarters from the United States. Charles Lichenstein, acting U.S. permanent representative to the UN under Ambassador Kirkpatrick, responded, "We will put no impediment in your way. The members of the U.S. mission to the United Nations will be down at the dockside waving you a fond farewell as you sail off into the sunset." Administration officials were quick to announce that Lichenstein was speaking only for himself. In the Cold War context of Operation RYAN, the Strategic Defence Initiative, Pershing II missile deployment in Europe, and the upcoming Exercise Able Archer, the Soviet Government perceived the incident with the South Korean airliner to be a portent of war. The Soviet hierarchy took the official line that KAL Flight 007 was on a spy mission, as it "flew deep into Soviet territory for several hundred kilometres, without responding to signals and disobeying the orders of interceptor fighter planes". They claimed its purpose was to probe the air defences of highly sensitive Soviet military sites in the Kamchatka Peninsula and Sakhalin Island. The Soviet government expressed regret over the loss of life, but offered no apology and did not respond to demands for compensation. Instead, the Soviet Union blamed the CIA for this "criminal, provocative act". In a comparative study of the two tragedies published in 1991, political scientist Robert Entman points out that with KAL 007, "the angle taken by the US media emphasised the moral bankruptcy and guilt of the perpetrating nation. With Iran Air 655, the frame de-emphasised guilt and focused on the complex problems of operating military high technology". The fact remains that the US did render compensation to the Iran Air victims, however, while the Soviet Union never did for its own mistake. Since the aircraft had departed from U.S. soil and U.S. nationals had died in the incident, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was legally required to investigate. On the morning of September 1, the NTSB chief in Alaska, James Michelangelo, received an order from the NTSB in Washington at the behest of the State Department requiring all documents relating to the NTSB investigation to be sent to Washington, and notifying him that the State Department would now conduct the investigation. The U.S. State Department, after closing the NTSB investigation on the grounds that it was not an accident, pursued an ICAO investigation instead. Commentators such as Johnson point out that this action was illegal, and that in deferring the investigation to the ICAO, the Reagan administration effectively precluded any politically or militarily sensitive information from being subpoenaed that might have embarrassed the administration or contradicted its version of events. Unlike the NTSB, ICAO can subpoena neither persons nor documents and is dependent on the governments involved—in this incident, the United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, and South Korea—to supply evidence voluntarily. Initial ICAO investigation (1983) The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) had only one experience of investigation of an air disaster prior to the KAL 007 shootdown. This was the incident of February 21, 1973, when Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 was shot down by Israeli F-4 jets over the Sinai Peninsula. ICAO convention required the state in whose territory the accident had taken place (the Soviet Union) to conduct an investigation together with the country of registration (South Korea), the country whose air traffic control the aircraft was flying under (Japan), as well as the country of the aircraft's manufacturer (USA). The ICAO investigation, led by Caj Frostell, did not have the authority to compel the states involved to hand over evidence, instead having to rely on what they voluntarily submitted. Consequently, the investigation did not have access to sensitive evidence such as radar data, intercepts, ATC tapes, or the Flight Data Recorder (FDR) and Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) (whose discovery the U.S.S.R. had kept secret). A number of simulations were conducted with the assistance of Boeing and Litton (the manufacturer of the navigation system). The ICAO released their report December 2, 1983, which concluded that the violation of Soviet airspace was accidental: One of two explanations for the aircraft's deviation was that the autopilot had remained in HEADING hold instead of INS mode after departing Anchorage. They postulated that this inflight navigational error was caused by either the crew's failure to select INS mode, or the inertial navigation's not activating when selected, because the aircraft was already too far off track. It was determined that the crew did not notice this error or subsequently perform navigational checks, that would have revealed that the aircraft was diverging further and further from its assigned route. This was later deemed to be caused by a "lack of situational awareness and flight deck coordination". The report included a statement by the Soviet Government claiming "no remains of the victims, the instruments or their components or the flight recorders have so far been discovered". This statement was subsequently shown to be untrue by Boris Yeltsin's release in 1993 of a November 1983 memo from KGB head Viktor Chebrikov and Defence Minister Dmitriy Ustinov to Yuri Andropov. This memo stated "In the third decade of October this year the equipment in question (the recorder of in-flight parameters and the recorder of voice communications by the flight crew with ground air traffic surveillance stations and between themselves) was brought aboard a search vessel and forwarded to Moscow by air for decoding and translation at the Air Force Scientific Research Institute." The Soviet Government statement would further be contradicted by Soviet civilian divers who later recalled that they viewed wreckage of the aircraft on the bottom of the sea for the first time on September 15, two weeks after the plane had been shot down. Following publication of the report, the ICAO adopted a resolution condemning the Soviet Union for the attack. Furthermore, the report led to a unanimous amendment in May 1984 – though not coming into force until October 1, 1998 – to the Convention on International Civil Aviation that defined the use of force against civilian airliners in more detail. The amendment to section 3(d) reads in part: "The contracting States recognize that every State must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight and that, in case of interception, the lives of persons on board and the safety of aircraft must not be endangered." U.S. Air Force radar data It is customary for the Air Force to impound radar trackings involving possible litigation in cases of aviation accidents. In the civil litigation for damages, the United States Department of Justice explained that the tapes from the Air Force radar installation at King Salmon, Alaska pertinent to KAL 007's flight in the Bethel area had been destroyed and could therefore not be supplied to the plaintiffs. At first Justice Department lawyer Jan Van Flatern stated that they were destroyed 15 days after the shootdown. Later, he said he had "misspoken" and changed the time of destruction to 30 hours after the event. A Pentagon spokesman concurred, saying that the tapes are re-cycled for reuse from 24–30 hours afterwards; the fate of KAL 007 was known inside this timeframe. Hans Ephraimson-Abt, whose daughter Alice Ephraimson-Abt had died on the flight, chaired the American Association for Families of KAL 007 Victims. He single-handedly pursued three U.S. administrations for answers about the flight, flying to Washington 250 times and meeting with 149 State Department officials. Following the dissolution of the U.S.S.R., Ephraimson-Abt persuaded U.S. Senators Ted Kennedy, Sam Nunn, Carl Levin, and Bill Bradley to write to the Soviet President, Mikhail Gorbachev requesting information about the flight. Glasnost reforms in the same year brought about a relaxation of press censorship; consequently reports started to appear in the Soviet press suggesting that the Soviet military knew the location of the wreckage and had possession of the flight data recorders. On December 10, 1991, Senator Jesse Helms of the Committee on Foreign Relations, wrote to Boris Yeltsin requesting information concerning the survival of passengers and crew of KAL 007 including the fate of Congressman Larry McDonald. On June 17, 1992, President Yeltsin revealed that after the 1991 failed coup attempt concerted attempts were made to locate Soviet-era documents relating to KAL 007. He mentioned the discovery of "a memorandum from K.G.B. to the Central Committee of the Communist Party," stating that a tragedy had taken place and adding that there are documents "which would clarify the entire picture." Yeltsin said the memo continued to say that "these documents are so well concealed that it is doubtful that our children will be able to find them." On September 11, 1992, Yeltsin officially acknowledged the existence of the recorders, and promised to give the South Korean government a transcript of the flight recorder contents as found in KGB files. In October 1992, Hans Ephraimson-Abt led a delegation of families and U.S. State Department officials to Moscow at the invitation of President Yeltsin. During a state ceremony at St. Catherine's Hall in the Kremlin, the KAL family delegation was handed a portfolio containing partial transcripts of the KAL 007 cockpit voice recorder, translated into Russian, and documents of the Politburo pertaining to the tragedy. In November 1992, President Yeltsin handed the two recorder containers to Korean President Roh Tae-Woo, but not the tapes themselves. The following month, the ICAO voted to reopen the KAL 007 investigation in order to take the newly released information into account. The tapes were handed to ICAO in Paris on January 8, 1993. Also handed over at the same time were tapes of the ground to air communications of the Soviet military. The tapes were transcribed by the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (BEA) in Paris in the presence of representatives from Japan, The Russian Federation, South Korea, and the United States. A 1993 official enquiry by the Russian Federation absolved the Soviet hierarchy of blame, determining that the incident was a case of mistaken identity. On May 28, 1993, the ICAO presented its second report to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. In 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin disclosed five top-secret memos dating from a few weeks after the downing of KAL 007 in 1983.[note 5] The memos contained Soviet communications (from KGB Chief Viktor Chebrikov and Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov to General Secretary Yury Andropov) that indicated that they knew the location of KAL 007's wreckage while they were simulating a search and harassing the American Navy; they had found the sought-after cockpit voice recorder on October 20, 1983 (50 days after the incident), and had decided to keep this knowledge secret, the reason being that the tapes could not unequivocally support their firmly held view that KAL 007's flight to Soviet territory was a deliberately planned intelligence mission. Therefore, if the flight recorders shall be transferred to the western countries their objective data can equally be used by the U.S.S.R. and the western countries in proving the opposite view points on the nature of the flight of the South Korean airplane. In such circumstances a new phase in anti-Soviet hysteria cannot be excluded. In connection with all mentioned above it seems highly preferable not to transfer the flight recorders to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) or any third party willing to decipher their contents. The fact that the recorders are in possession of the U.S.S.R. shall be kept secret... As far as we are aware neither the U.S. nor Japan has any information on the flight recorders. We have made necessary efforts in order to prevent any disclosure of the information in future.Looking to your approval. D. Ustinov, V. Chebrikov (photo)[note 6] December 1983 The third memo acknowledges that analysis of the recorder tapes showed no evidence of the Soviet interceptor attempting to contact KAL 007 via radio nor any indication that the KAL 007 had been given warning shots. However in case the flight recorders shall become available to the western countries their data may be used for: Confirmation of no attempt by the intercepting aircraft to establish a radio contact with the intruder plane on 121.5 MHz and no tracers warning shots in the last section of the flight That the Soviet search was simulated (while knowing the wreckage lay elsewhere) also is suggested by the article of Mikhail Prozumentshchikov, Deputy Director of the Russian State Archives of Recent History, commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the airplane's shootdown. Commenting on the Soviet and American searches: "Since the U.S.S.R., for natural reasons, knew better where the Boeing had been downed...it was very problematical to retrieve anything, especially as the U.S.S.R. was not particularly interested". Revised ICAO report (1993) On November 18, 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin, in a goodwill gesture to South Korea during a visit to Seoul to ratify a new treaty, released both the flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice recorder (CVR) of KAL 007. Initial South Korean research showed the FDR to be empty and the CVR to have an unintelligible copy. The Russians then released the recordings to the ICAO Secretary General. The ICAO report continued to support the initial assertion that KAL 007 accidentally flew in Soviet airspace, after listening to the flight crew's conversations recorded by the CVR, and confirming that either the aircraft had flown on a constant magnetic heading instead of activating the INS and following its assigned waypoints, or, if it had activated the INS, it had been activated when the aircraft had already deviated beyond the 71/-nautical mile Desired Track Envelope within which the waypoints would have been captured. In addition, the Russian Federation released "Transcript of Communications. U.S.S.R. Air Defence Command Centres on Sakhalin Island" transcripts to ICAO—this new evidence triggered the revised ICAO report in 1993 "The Report of the Completion of the Fact Finding Investigation", and is appended to it. These transcripts (of two reels of tape, each containing multiple tracks) are time specified, some to the second, of the communications between the various command posts and other military facilities on Sakhalin from the time of the initial orders for the shootdown and then through the stalking of KAL 007 by Major Osipovich in his Su-15 interceptor, the attack as seen and commented on by General Kornukov, Commander of Sokol Air Base, down the ranks to the Combat Controller Captain Titovnin. The transcripts include the post-attack flight of KAL 007 until it had reached Moneron Island, the descent of KAL 007 over Moneron, the initial Soviet SAR missions to Moneron, the futile search of the support interceptors for KAL 007 on the water, and ending with the debriefing of Osipovich on return to base. Some of the communications are the telephone conversations between superior officers and subordinates and involve commands to them, while other communications involve the recorded responses to what was then being viewed on radar tracking KAL 007. These multi-track communications from various command posts telecommunicating at the same minute and seconds as other command posts were communicating provide a "composite" picture of what was taking place. The data from the CVR and the FDR revealed that the recordings broke off after the first minute and 44 seconds of KAL 007's post missile detonation 12 minute flight. The remaining minutes of flight would be supplied by the Russia 1992 submission to ICAO of the real-time Soviet military communication of the shootdown and aftermath. The fact that both recorder tapes stopped exactly at the same time 1 minute and 44 seconds after missile detonation (18:38:02 UTC) without the tape portions for the more than 10 minutes of KAL 007's post detonation flight before it descended below radar tracking (18:38 UTC) finds no explanation in the ICAO analysis: "It could not be established why both flight recorders simultaneously ceased to operate 104 seconds after the attack. The power supply cables were fed to the rear of the aircraft in raceways on opposite sides of the fuselage until they came together behind the two recorders." Passenger pain and suffering Passenger pain and suffering was an important factor in determining the level of compensation that was paid by Korean Air Lines. Fragments from the proximity fused R-98 medium range air-to-air missile exploding 50 metres (160 ft) behind the tail caused punctures to the pressurized passenger cabin. When one of the flight crew radioed Tokyo Area Control one minute and two seconds after missile detonation his breathing was already "accentuated", indicating to ICAO analysts that he was speaking through the microphone located in his oxygen mask, "Korean Air 007 ah... We are... Rapid compressions. Descend to 10,000." Two expert witnesses testified at a trial before then Magistrate Judge Naomi Reice Buchwald of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. They addressed the issue of pre-death pain and suffering. Captain James McIntyre, an experienced Boeing 747 pilot and aircraft accident investigator, testified that shrapnel from the missile caused rapid decompression of the cabin, but left the passengers sufficient time to don oxygen masks: "McIntyre testified that, based upon his estimate of the extent of damage the aircraft sustained, all passengers survived the initial impact of the shrapnel from the missile explosion. In McIntyre's expert opinion, at least 12 minutes elapsed between the impact of the shrapnel and the crash of the plane, and the passengers remained conscious throughout." Flight 007 has been the subject of ongoing controversy and has spawned a number of conspiracy theories. Many of these are based on the suppression of evidence such as the flight data recorders, unexplained details such as the role of a USAF RC-135 surveillance aircraft, the untimely destruction of the U.S. Air Force's King Salmon radar data, or merely Cold War disinformation and propaganda. In addition, Gennady Osipovich (the Soviet fighter pilot who shot down flight 007) continues to believe that he shot down a spy plane, when he really shot down a passenger aircraft. The FAA temporarily closed Airway R-20, the air corridor that Korean Air Flight 007 was meant to follow, on September 2. Airlines fiercely resisted the closure of this popular route, the shortest of five corridors between Alaska and the Far East. It was therefore reopened on October 2 after safety and navigational aids were checked. NATO had decided, under the impetus of the Reagan administration, to deploy Pershing II and cruise missiles in West Germany. This deployment would have placed missiles just 6–10 minutes striking distance from Moscow. Support for the deployment was wavering and it looked doubtful that it would be carried out. When the Soviet Union shot down Flight 007, the U.S. was able to galvanize enough support at home and abroad to enable the deployment to go ahead. The unprecedented disclosure of the communications intercepted by the United States and Japan revealed a considerable amount of information about their intelligence systems and capabilities. National Security Agency director Lincoln D. Faurer commented: "...as a result of the Korean Air Lines affair, you have already heard more about my business in the past two weeks than I would desire... For the most part this has not been a matter of unwelcome leaks. It is the result of a conscious, responsible decision to address an otherwise unbelievable horror." Changes that the Soviets subsequently made to their codes and frequencies reduced the effectiveness of this monitoring by 60%. The U.S. KAL 007 Victims' Association, under the leadership of Hans Ephraimson-Abt, successfully lobbied U.S. Congress and the airline industry to accept an agreement that would ensure that future victims of airline incidents would be compensated quickly and fairly by increasing compensation and lowering the burden of proof of airliner misconduct. This legislation has had far reaching effects for the victims of subsequent aircraft disasters. The U.S. decided to utilize military radars to extend air traffic control radar coverage from 200 to 1,200 miles (320 to 1,930 km) out from Anchorage.[note 8] The FAA also established a secondary radar system (ATCBI-5) on Saint Paul Island. In 1986, the United States, Japan and the Soviet Union set up a joint air traffic control system to monitor aircraft over the North Pacific, thereby giving the Soviet Union formal responsibility to monitor civilian air traffic, and setting up direct communication links between the controllers of the three countries. President Reagan announced on September 16, 1983, that the Global Positioning System (GPS) would be made available for civilian use, free of charge, once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in the future. Furthermore, the interface of the autopilot used on large airliners was modified to make it more obvious whether it is operating in HEADING mode or INS mode. Alvin Snyder, the director of worldwide television for the United States Information Agency, was the producer of the video shown to the U.N. Security Council on September 6, 1983. In an article in The Washington Post on September 1, 1996, he stated that he had been given only limited access to the transcripts of the Soviet communication when he produced the video in 1983. When he received full insight into the Soviet transmissions in 1993, he says he realised that: "The Russians (sic) believed the plane to be an RC-135 reconnaissance plane" and that "Osipovich (the Soviet fighter pilot) could not identify the plane" and "That he fired warning cannon shots and tipped his wings, an international signal to force the plane to land". Some of these statements were contradicted by the pilot in an interview with The New York Times, in which he confirmed that he did fire warning shots, but that they would not have been visible as they were not tracers. In a March 15, 2001, interview, Valery Kamensky, then Commander of the Soviet Far East Military District Air Defense Force and direct superior to General Kornukov, opined that such a shootdown of a civilian passenger plane could not happen again in view of the changing political conditions and alliances. In this interview, Kamensky stated, "It is still a mystery what happened to the bodies of the crew and passengers on the plane. According to one theory, right after the rocket's detonation, the nose and tail section of the jumbo fell off and the mid fuselage became a sort of wind tunnel so the people were swept through it and scattered over the surface of the ocean. Yet in this case, some of the bodies were to have been found during the search operations in the area. The question of what actually happened to the people has not been given a distinct answer." On September 1, 2003, commenting in a 20th anniversary of the shootdown article in RIA Novosti, Mikhail Prozumentshchikov, Deputy Director of the Russian State Archives of Recent History disclosed that the Soviet naval forces in the search for KAL 007 in international waters, already "knew better where [it] had been downed" while conducting their search, and that nothing was found "especially as the USSR was not particularly interested." In 2015, Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs declassified diplomatic documents which revealed that two months after the catastrophe, a high-ranking official of the U.S. administration confidentially informed Japan's diplomats that the Soviet Union had mistaken the aircraft with an American reconnaissance plane. Korean Air still flies from New York JFK International Airport to Seoul. However, the flight no longer stops at Anchorage or flies to Gimpo International Airport as it now flies directly to Incheon International Airport. Flight number 007 has been retired since, using flight numbers for two separate flights as 82, 86 and 250. As of September 2018[update], the separate flights were using an Airbus A380 and a Boeing 777. - Two television movies were produced about the incident; both films were produced before the fall of the Soviet Union allowed access to archives: - Shootdown (1988), a telemovie starring Angela Lansbury, John Cullum, and Kyle Secor, was based on the book of the same title by R.W. Johnson, about the efforts of Nan Moore (Lansbury), the mother of a passenger, to get answers from the U.S. and Soviet governments. - The British Granada Television documentary drama Coded Hostile, screened on September 7, 1989, detailed the U.S. military and governmental investigation, highlighting the likely confusion of Flight 007 with the USAF RC-135 in the context of routine US SIGINT/COMINT missions in the area. Written by Brian Phelan and directed by David Darlow, it starred Michael Murphy, Michael Moriarty, and Chris Sarandon. It was screened by HBO in the United States under the title Tailspin: Behind the Korean Airliner Tragedy on August 20, 1989. An updated version of Coded Hostile was screened in the UK on August 31, 1993, incorporating details of the 1992 UN investigation. - Lee Greenwood has stated that he wrote the song "God Bless the USA" in response to his feelings about the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007. "The song just about wrote itself," Greenwood said in the book God Bless the USA (by Greenwood and Gwen McLin). "The words seemed to flow naturally from the music, and came out with total honesty. They were an expression of my feelings of pride. To me, America seemed just like a rookery, a place where we have a chance to grow, unmolested and free." - KGO-TV in San Francisco aired an advertisement in November 1983 for an upcoming news special report titled "Green Street Reds", about suspicious activities at the Soviet consulate. In the ad, they depict Santa Claus and all his reindeer being blown out of the sky by a Soviet missile. The advertisement was produced by Davis, Johnson, Mogul & Colombatto. Angry parents complained to KGO about the poor impression the image of Santa's death made upon young children. - The incident is used as a plot point in the episode "Brandy Station" of Deutschland 83. - Irish guitarist and singer Gary Moore's song "Murder in the Skies" was written about this incident. The song was included on Moore's album Victims of the Future, which was released two months after the shootdown in December 1983. - Sri Lankan baila singer Anton Jones' Sinhala song "Koriyan Guwan Yanaya" ("Korean Airplane") discusses the incident. - The Canadian television show Mayday on the National Geographic Channel covered this accident in a Season 9 episode entitled "Target is Destroyed". - This tragedy was used as inspiration for The West Wing episode "The Wake Up Call" in which an Iranian fighter pilot shoots down a British airliner over the Caspian Sea. The airliner was off-course and drifting into Iranian airspace. It is said that the airliner was mistaken by the pilot for an American RC-135 spy plane. - The 2018 video game Phantom Doctrine depicts the shootdown as a part of a conspiracy by the "Beholder Initiative" to force the United States government to allow civilian access to GPS. The players' organization attempts to prevent the shootdown by cutting communications access from the ground, so that a mole within the Soviet military cannot give the order to shoot it down, but it turned out that the mole was actually the pilot of the Soviet interceptor, who had been previously instructed to shoot down the plane as part of Beholder's plan, and thus ignored the orders to hold fire. - In the card-driven strategy game Twilight Struggle, "Soviets Shoot Down KAL-007" is a US card that can potentially hand the US an instant win, or otherwise greatly benefit the US. - Cold War (1979–85) - History of the Soviet Union (1982–91) - Korean Air Lines Flight 902 - List of airliner shootdown incidents - List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office - Notable decompression accidents and incidents - Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 - Iran Air Flight 655 - Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 - 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident, which happened three weeks later. - 3 cockpit crew, 20 cabin crew and 6 deadheading crew (ICAO 93, Sect. 1.3, p. 6) - KAL 007 was used by air traffic control, while the public flight booking system used KE 007 - This omission of the identity of KAL 007 as a Boeing by Osipovich is evident in the communications subsequently released by the Russian Federation with the combat controller, Captain Titovnin (see Flight timeline and transcripts). - The last plotted radar position of the target was 18:35 hours at 5,000 meters." (ICAO '93, p. 53, para. 2.15.8) - These memos were published in the Soviet news magazine, Izvestia #228, October 15, 1992, shortly after being made public by Yeltsin. - "Photo of Chebrikov". Airliners.net. Archived from the original on June 23, 2006. Retrieved April 5, 2010. - For illustration only—KAL 007 did not necessarily use this type of recorder. - These radars had been used in 1968 to alert Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253 in a similar situation. - Aviation Safety Database - Maier, KAL 007 Mystery - Young & Launer, pp. xiii, 47 - Sputnik, The Truth and Lies about the South Korean Airliner - Pearson, p. 145 - Congressional Record, September 20, 1983, pp. S12462-S12464 - Soviet news magazine, Izvestia #228, October 16, 1992 - "KAL Tapes To Be Handed Over To ICAO" (PDF) (Press release). International Civil Aviation Organization. January 1993. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 9, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2009. - Degani, 2001 - Pace (1995). 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Retrieved January 8, 2009. - Wilkes, Donald E Jr (September 3, 2003), "The Death Flight of Larry McDonald", Flagpole Magazine, p. 7, archived from the original on March 14, 2012. - Witkin, Richard (May 19, 1991). "Soviet Pilot Insists Downed Korean Jet Was Spy Plane". The New York Times. Retrieved January 25, 2009. - Bamford, James (1983). The Puzzle Palace: A Report on America's Most Secret Agency. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-006748-5. - Clubb, Oliver (1985). KAL Flight 007: The Hidden Story. The Permanent Press. ISBN 0-932966-59-4. - Grady, William P. (2005). "KAL 007". Understanding the Times – Volume One: How Satan Turned America From God. Grady Publications. pp. 504–570. ISBN 0-9628809-3-0. - Hersh, Seymour M. (1987). "The Target Is Destroyed": What Really Happened to Flight 007. Vintage. ISBN 0-394-75527-8. - Kirkpatrick, Jeane Jordan (1988). "KAL-007: Violating the Norms of Civil Conduct". Legitimacy and Force. Transaction, Inc. pp. 374–375. 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ISBN 1-58659-025-1. - Shootdown on IMDb - Tailspin: Behind the Korean Airliner Tragedy on IMDb - Soviet Air Force Transcripts, Airliners.net - Bickel v. Korean Air Lines (case), Alt law, archived from the original on August 23, 2008. - Hollie v. Korean Air Lines (case), Find law. - "KAL Flight 007 25 years on", The First Post, UK, archived from the original on September 12, 2008. - "Photos and first-person account of US-Soviet naval confrontation", USS Sterett, archived from the original on February 21, 2010. - USCGC Munro and the Korean Airliner (KAL 007), Jack's joint. - Hawes, Kingdon R "King", Lt Col, USAF (Ret.), A Tale of Two Airplanes. - Maier, Timothy (April 17, 2001), "KAL 007 Mystery", Insight Magazine, archived from the original on September 18, 2001. - on YouTube - on YouTube - FBI files on KAL 007 hosted at the Internet Archive - KAL 007 Passenger List, April 17, 2001. - Works related to Korean Air Lines Flight 007 transcripts at Wikisource

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One of the most difficult things about photography is understanding leaves. Three areas are covered when you study leaves. One area concerns how the leaves interact with one another area concerns how they relate to the environment. I will briefly discuss each area. Large-scale trees and plants can have many different terms to describe the leaves. You might refer to them as “myriads”, or “many leafed” varieties. This is a common term, but technically it is incorrect. A true leaf is only oneicle (a small blade). If you wish to simplify your language a bit you may consider “dry Leaves”. The environment plays a crucial role in the development of leaves. Dry leaves can be caused by too much heat from sunlight. Therefore, a photograph taken using a low grade camera and a long exposure will show only the leaf’s underside. An image taken with an advanced camera will show all of its greenish or yellow surface. Let’s take a look at a sample using the Royal Botanic Garden of Sydney. The photograph’s blue background, foreground, and foliage all blend beautifully together. The main subject of the photo, a large weeping willow bough is in the foreground. A series pink flowers, the prominent feature, are adorning the background. The image is called Watershed and shows the subject dressed in full regalia as they embrace the weeping Willow bough. This image was chosen because the subject is grasping the plant with both his hands. In an apparent attempt to imitate the actions of birds of prey, the leaves have been picked and sometimes damaged. The subject’s actions have been portrayed in a positive light by the image composers and the staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens. Staff have now implemented a regulation requiring employers implement a leaves portion and FMLA for all employees on parental leave. Why did staff choose to use this image for signage? This image could be seen to be in keeping with the theme and policy of the CFDA as well as the Labor Government’s current policy of introducing a Parental leave scheme to provide additional protection for working parents during their pregnancy and maternity leaves. The image was also created by a professional illustrator who knows the types of images that would be needed for a leaflet. There is no need to recreate every leaflet image currently in circulation in a single sheet of text. The creation of images can be time-consuming and puts any leaflet reader’s mind at the back of their mind. Another benefit to adopting this leaflet picture is that it allows us all to imagine different scenarios in which we might encounter these images. The leaflet would need to be designed in such a way as to capture the natural progression of a leaf through the seasons. It might be necessary to include seasonal images in a leaflet designed for a working mother. It would be equally applicable to any other person whose main responsibility will be caring for their children. Anyone should be able see the benefits of leaves. The message that I hope to convey is that understanding leaves, the CFDA, and the law is crucial to understanding both the policy and the law. A leaflet does NOT have to contain the same content as the explanatory text. It does not have to repeat the entire explanatory text. Instead, it should make clear the key differences between the leaflets and provide sufficient detail to explain how one leaflet differs from another. This is an important point because many people have been made aware of the fact that leaflets that contain similar text and graphics won’t be enforceable by the Employment Tribunal as leaflets that are more detailed. (The majority Employment Tribunal decisions are in favour of employers.

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- Original article - Open Access Application of the ATP assay to rapidly assess cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces: a path to set a standard for future missions AMB Express volume 6, Article number: 113 (2016) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) measures and validates the biological cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces by counting endospores using the NASA standard assay (NSA). NASA has also approved an adenosine-5′-triphosphate (ATP)-based detection methodology as a means to prescreen surfaces for the presence of microbial contamination, prior to the spore assay. During Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) spacecraft assembly, test, and launch operations, 4853 surface samples were collected to verify compliance with the bioburden requirement at launch. A subset of these samples was measured for microbial cleanliness using both the NSA (n = 272) and ATP assay (n = 249). NSA results revealed that ~8% (22/272) of the samples showed the presence of at least one spore, whereas ATP assay measurements indicated that ~15% (35/249) of samples exceeded the “threshold cleanliness limit” of 2.3 × 10−11 mmol ATP per 25 cm2 used by MSL. Of the 22 NSA samples with a spore, 18% (4/22) were considered above the level of acceptance by both techniques. Based on post launch data analysis presented here, it was determined that this threshold cleanliness limit of 2.3 × 10−11 mmol ATP per 25 cm2 could be adopted as a benchmark for assessing spacecraft surface cleanliness. This study clearly demonstrates the value of using alternative methods to rapidly assess spacecraft cleanliness, and provides useful information regarding the process. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has an obligation to comply with international policy for missions to Mars by not jeopardizing possible extraterrestrial life forms, precursors, and remnants through the conduct of scientific investigations (COSPAR 2011). Traditionally, NASA measures spacecraft surface biological cleanliness by counting endospores, since they are most often the predominant survivors of dry heat microbial reduction flight hardware processing and have been reported to survive in extreme conditions (Favero 1971; La Duc et al. 2004; NASA 2011; Puleo et al. 1977). Since counting endospores using the NASA standard assay (NSA) is time consuming, requiring a 72 h incubation period, a rapid and sensitive adenosine-5′-triphosphate (ATP)-based molecular assay, requiring only a minute for sample processing, has been approved by NASA as a means to screen spacecraft hardware for the presence of microbial contamination (Kern et al. 2005; Morris et al. 2010). This methodology (hereafter referred to as the ATP assay), which measures ATP associated with living and dead microbes, has not currently been approved by NASA as an alternative to the spore assay for determining overall microbial contamination of spacecraft. When the ATP assay methodology was first validated using the Mars Exploration Rovers as a testbed (MER-ATP), it was understood that there could be no direct correlation observed between bacterial spores, as measured by the NSA, and biomarkers, as measured by the ATP assay. The ATP assay, however, was recommended as a suitable methodology for monitoring hardware being brought into the controlled, clean room spacecraft assembly environment. It was also suggested that the ATP assay was appropriate for assessing the microbial cleanliness of component surfaces before they were mated (Kern et al. 2005). The MER-ATP study recommended that if spacecraft surfaces were found to be at a threshold cleanliness limit of ≤2.57 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2 by the ATP assay, but spore count was zero by the NSA, the sampled surface should be considered clean for spore accounting purposes (Kern et al. 2005). (In the MER-ATP study’s field tests, when aliquots of the same collected samples were examined with both the ATP assay and NSA, no such discrepancies were actually observed.) The MER-ATP study also recommended a higher threshold, or control level, for required recleaning (≥3.51 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2). Subsequently, NASA adopted these threshold values and approach as an accepted supplemental spacecraft cleanliness assessment assay to the NSA (NASA 2010). NASA’s largest rover to date, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), was launched in November 2011 to assess the habitability for past life, investigate the surface geology, and characterize the radiation environment of Mars. MSL was assembled to meet stringent microbial cleanliness requirements that involved contamination controls including clean room assembly and microbial reduction (COSPAR 2011; NASA 2011). Since NASA had approved the ATP assay to prescreen spacecraft hardware for the presence of microorganisms prior to conducting the NSA, the MSL project adopted it for this purpose and used it as a contamination risk reduction tool. MSL was the first NASA mission that utilized the ATP assay to measure hardware cleanliness for mandatory inspection points, while using the NSA for official spore count enumeration. Based on the ATP assay and NSA data gathered during MSL assembly, test and launch operations (ATLO), it was presumed that the use of the ATP assay could potentially be expanded to support planetary protection bioburden requirements verification on future missions. The objective of the study presented here was to mine and analyze the NSA and ATP data collected during the MSL planetary protection campaign to enable further consideration of the suitability of the ATP-based assay to measure the biological cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces. Furthermore, from a planetary protection perspective, this MSL-based study independently analyzed the data to determine whether or not a “clean” NSA spore count estimation consistently yielded an equivalent “clean” ATP result. Materials and methods Spacecraft surfaces were sampled during the MSL ATLO mission phase, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s (JPL) Spacecraft Assembly Facility in Pasadena, CA and the Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Cape Canaveral, FL. Samples for both spore and ATP assays were collected prior to critical spacecraft assembly events (e.g., environmental thermal vacuum, acoustic, and vibrational testing; transportation of the spacecraft from the primary assembly clean room; hardware rework; hardware last access; and NASA Planetary Protection Officer verification sampling). NSA samples were from small surface areas (25 cm2) using cotton swabs (6″ cotton tip applicators, 806-WC, Puritan Medical, Guilford, ME) and from larger surface areas (0.1–1.0 m2) using polyester wipes (9″ × 9″ ITW Alpha polyester wipes, Texwipe TX3211, Kernersville, NC), per NASA-HBK-6022 (NASA 2010). In contrast, ATP assay samples were collected only from small surface areas (25 cm2) using polyester swabs (Alpha Swab with Long Handle, Texwipe TX761, Kernersville, NC), per NASA-HBK-6022 (Kern et al. 2005; Venkateswaran et al. 2003). Sample processing for the NSA Prior to sample collection, all wipes were folded, rolled, and placed into 50 mL Falcon tubes (Cat No. 352070, BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) where 15 mL of sterile water was added and then autoclaved. Following this, wipes were aseptically removed from tubes with sterile-gloves. Wipes were then unrolled and folded into quarters such that sampling surfaces were approximately 1/8 the total surface area of the wipe. Sample-laden wipes were then placed in sterile 500 mL glass bottles, which were transported to the laboratory. In most instances, the NSA was carried out immediately. However, due to multiple shift operations and changes in the assembly schedule, samples were occasionally refrigerated at 4 °C for no more than 24 h from the time of collection, before analysis. After sample collection, 200 mL of sterile rinse solution (85 mg/L potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 200 mg/L Tween 80; pH 7.2) was added to each wipe-containing bottle. When cotton swabs were employed, the pre-sterilized material was removed from the package and pre-moistened with sterile water before the spacecraft surface was sampled. Once a sample was collected, the swab head was excised and placed into 10 mL of sterile water. The sampled wipe or swab was then subjected to vortex mixing at maximum power for 5 s and sonication at 19–27 kHz for 2 min ± 5 s. Samples were then subjected to heat shock at 80 °C ± 2 °C for 15 min. Suitable aliquots (2 mL each replicates; n = 4) from the heat-shocked and processed samples were aseptically placed in sterile petri dishes to which sterile molten (55 °C) trypticase soy agar (BD Co., Franklin Lakes, NJ) was added. Plates were incubated aerobically at 32 °C in an inverted position, and colony-forming units (CFUs) were enumerated following 24, 48, and 72 h of growth. Appropriate field blanks were performed using sterile wipes or swabs exposed to the clean room environment, in the proximity of the spacecraft, for approximately 1 min. A field blank was collected every 6th wipe or 10th swab. Negative media controls (no sample) and positive media controls (using Bacillus subtilis var. niger) were included for each batch of agar. Sample processing for the ATP assay Prior to sample collection, all polyester swabs were pre-sterilized and pre-moistened with 3 mL of sterile molecular-grade water (W4502, Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) before the spacecraft surface was sampled. Immediately after sample collection, swab heads were cut with pre-sterilized wire cutters and placed into 3 mL of sterile molecular-grade water (Sigma). Swab heads were then immediately taken to the laboratory where the ATP assay was conducted, or were placed in the refrigerator at 4 °C for <2 h. A Check-Light HS Set kit was used, in accordance with manufacturer instructions (Kikkoman Corporation, Noda City, Japan). Sample collection tubes containing the polyester swabs were thoroughly mixed using vortex to release any attached microbial cells. The total ATP content was measured in replicates (a minimum of three per sample) using well-established procedures (Venkateswaran et al. 2003). The ATP assay employed 0.1 mL of sample and 0.1 mL of a detergent solution for cell lysis. The lysis solution provided by the manufacturer contained benzalkonium chloride and a proprietary ATP-releasing agent. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 1 min, and then 0.1 mL of luciferin-luciferase reagent was added. The sample was then vortexed and bioluminescence measured with a luminometer (Lumitester K-200, Kikkoman Corporation). For each set of assays a standard curve using pure ATP (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) in serial dilutions was carried out to overcome any experimental variances, operator differences, and instrument discrepancies, etc. To ensure the most accurate results, new reagents, disposables, and water were used for each ATP processing event. Negative controls of water were included in all experiments. Field blanks were conducted and processed after every 10 spacecraft samples, where a sterile swab was exposed to the clean room environment but not actively brought in contact with spacecraft surfaces. Samples used for ATP analysis were not subjected to heat shock or sonication as compared to those of the NSA. Data mining of MSL NSA and ATP assay results For MSL’s planetary protection implementation, the 72 h spore counts derived from the NSA were statistically treated to calculate bioburden density (Beaudet 2013). The ATP measurements were treated using an Excel-based macro template that conducts a regression analysis on the standard curve, the average relative luminescence unit (RLU), standard deviation, coefficient of variation. Background noise from the sterile water was subtracted from the average (RLU) before calculating total ATP content, which was carried out by fitting the average RLU per sample from at least three replicates on a standard curve from serial dilutions of an ATP standard (Sigma-Aldrich ATP 0.1 M, 0.5 mL solution) ranging from 1 × 10−11 to 1 × 10−6 mol. The amount of ATP in units of mmole/sample was then established by multiplying the calculated ATP concentration by the total sample volume. Individual ATP samples were then grouped into broad spacecraft “zones.” Zones were based on the broader spacecraft subsystems representing several larger flight system and launch vehicle components, such as the backshell, descent stage, heatshield, and rover (Benardini et al. 2014). Finally, averages for bioburden densities and ATP mmole/zones were calculated for the specified spacecraft zones. To compare the cleanliness measured by the NSA (spore burden) and ATP assay (overall microbial burden), only samples collected from adjacent spacecraft surface locations could be used. Unlike the MER-ATP study, aliquots from the same samples were not used to generate ATP assay data from MSL because of MSL’s required standard flight sampling strategy and sample processing. The MSL campaign NSA and ATP datasets were compared side-by-side to correlate the samples using the sampling date and hardware location. The data from the remaining non-adjacent samples were discarded. The data that could be correlated were organized into assays that contributed directly to the MSL bioburden requirement input (deemed accountable bioburden) and assays that were collected from support assays to gauge the spacecraft recontamination potential either from early stage ATLO hardware (i.e. engineering models, fit checks, and/or in a non-flight configuration) or ground support equipment (deemed non-accountable bioburden). Differences in project cleaning practices, microbial reduction, and bioburden requirements made it important to parse and analyze accountable and non-accountable bioburden separately at the highest level of sample binning. A computational analysis was conducted for the data obtained from 320 NSA and 297 ATP samples collected from adjacent locations on MSL hardware. The relevant samples from each dataset were further organized by sampling date and sampling locations, then grouped accordingly into spacecraft “zones”. Notably, multiple combinations of NSA wipes and swabs were used to represent ATP samples, thus the absence of a 1:1 comparison. The analysis directly correlated the bioburden densities and ATP mmole for each spacecraft zone average bioburden densities and ATP mmole/sample for each specified spacecraft zone. For the purposes of this study, a contamination event is defined as ≥1 spore observed during the analysis of a swab or wipe. Similarly, based on the MER-ATP study, as well as the calibration curve generated during this study, a threshold level based on ATP content was suggested as “contamination event.” When analyzing the MSL data, any sample that was <50 RLU (<1.16 × 10−11 ATP mmole/sample) was considered as “clean.” Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 1, samples that exhibited <50 RLU were highly variable (>15% coefficient of variance) and not statistically reliable. Of the 4853 NSA samples and 606 ATP samples collected during the MSL ATLO campaign and analyzed here, only 320 NSA samples and 297 ATP samples were collected from adjacent locations. The other samples had to be excluded from further consideration for this analysis, since they could not be directly compared. Samples collected were from a variety of surfaces to accurately capture the cleanliness of spacecraft subsystems, or a given component. Sample characteristics are provided in Table 1. Forty-eight samples deemed “non-accountable” were collected from the descent stage (early MSL ATLO phase); the rover interior filters [inside chambers that communicate with the external environment only through high efficiency, particulate air (HEPA, removes 99.97% of all particles >0.3 µm)]; and the launch vehicle isolation diaphragm (support hardware that maintains adequate hardware spore cleanliness levels greater than flight hardware requirements). These non-accountable samples were collected and processed for reasons related to monitoring cleanliness, but were not used in calculating MSL’s overall bioburden density. The characteristics of actual flight hardware samples, 272 in total, whose bioburden densities were accounted, are also provided in Table 1. Spore burden of MSL surfaces Among 272 accountable MSL spacecraft surface samples subjected to the estimation of spore burden using NSA, 22 samples (~8% of the 272 MSL surface samples) showed the presence of at least one spore. When all 272 samples were grouped into zones, only ~3% of the descent stage (five of 141 samples) and rover (three of 105 samples) surface samples were shown to be dirty (≥1 spore) compared to 40% of the backshell (eight of 20 samples) and 100% of the heatshield (6 of 6 samples) components (Table 2). When a larger surface area was sampled (1 m2) using polyester wipes, spore contamination (one to 26 spores per wipe) was observed in 19 out of 67 wipes (~28%). When NASA-certified cotton swabs were used to sample smaller (25 cm2) spacecraft surfaces, only three out of 205 samples showed the presence of spores and none exhibited more than one spore per sample. In contrast to accountable MSL surfaces, non-accountable surfaces yielded 15-fold more spores using swabs and 2.2-fold more spores using wipes. In summary, the NSA side-by-side samples utilized for this analysis represented a 47.77 m2 spacecraft surface area and exhibited 439 spores, equivalent to 9.2 spores per m2. This spore burden value is less than the allowable 300 spores per m2 limit (NASA 2011) and less than the observed average MSL bioburden density of 22 spores per m2 (Benardini et al. 2014). ATP assay-based cleanliness of MSL surfaces In total, 249 of the accountable MSL spacecraft surface samples that were measured for ATP content were used for the comparative analysis reported here. Of the 249 samples, 35 (~15% of the MSL surface samples) showed >2.3 × 10−11 mmol ATP per 25 cm2 surface area. Similar to the NSA results, when all the 249 samples were grouped in zones, the descent stage (9% dirty) and rover (14% dirty) surface samples were determined to be cleaner than backshell (19% dirty) and heatshield (~33% dirty) surface samples (Table 2). The luminometer instrument used to measure ATP reproducibly detected ≥50 RLU (equivalent to ≥1.6 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per sample). The coefficient of variance was <15% for those samples that exhibited a >50 RLU reading. The calibration curve of the instrument was linear (r2 = 0.999) when a known amount of ATP, ranging from 1.0 × 10−11 to 1.0 × 10−7 mmol (Fig. 1), was used. The dynamic range of the instrument was 50 RLU to 500,000 RLU. The ATP assay could not be performed using aliquots of the same samples collected for the NSA because of stringent MSL planetary protection protocols, as well as mission schedule conflicts. As a result, a direct comparison in the analysis reported here was not possible. However, samples from numerous side-by-side samples (~250 side-by-side samples) were employed for the cultivation of spores and measurement of ATP content. Thus, it was still possible to perform a valid comparison using samples from adjacent surfaces. With this assumption, spore bioburden density was plotted against ATP content (Fig. 2). Since majority of the samples (>85%) had no spore counts only 22 samples that showed presence of at least 1 or more spores were depicted in Fig. 2. Among these 22 samples only 4 samples possessed ≥1 spore and were recommended for further cleaning (>2.3 × 10−11 ATP mmoles). The focus of ATP sampling for MSL was to monitor the microbial cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces that underwent microbial reduction and were assembled in controlled, HEPA-filtered clean rooms. In general, spacecraft components were subjected to one or more of the following microbial reduction processes or practices: precision cleaning consisting of an alkaline detergent and mechanical scrubbing followed by sonication in a series of solvents (JPL 1990), isopropyl alcohol wiping (Benardini et al. 2014), hardware covering with appropriate draping to prevent recontamination, or dry heat microbial reduction (Benardini et al. 2014). The HEPA-filtered air and any accumulated particulates on the spacecraft, ground support equipment, and floor of the humidity-controlled, desiccated clean room surfaces provide low quantities of nutrients to inhabiting microbes (Venkateswaran et al. 2001). Particulate materials from spacecraft surfaces within HEPA-filtered environments showed a low incidence of spores and cultivable microbial populations (Ghosh et al. 2010; La Duc et al. 2004, 2007). Upon examination using state-of-the art molecular microbial approaches an equal representation of both Gram-negative and Gram-positive microbial populations were revealed, most of them were viable but yet to be cultivated (La Duc et al. 2003, 2009; Vaishampayan et al. 2010; Venkateswaran et al. 2001, 2012). In total, given the low cultivable spore counts in conjunction with the extremely low ATP levels the MSL ATLO campaign results supports these earlier findings illustrating the cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces. When microbial reduction processes and practices were stringently performed, and subsystems were assembled in a nutrient-deprived class 100 K or better clean room, only 15% of the 249 samples analyzed for this study exceeded the 100 RLU (2.33 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2) threshold cleanliness limit used by MSL. This threshold level was consistent with the previous MER-ATP study where surfaces with <2.57 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2 were only recommended for optional cleaning, whereas surfaces surpassing >3.51 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2 were required to be cleaned again. (Kern et al. 2005). This postlaunch analysis of MSL ATP data also supported MER-ATP conclusions, where it was noted that ATP was a useful biomarker for measuring spacecraft surface cleanliness (Kern et al. 2005). The analysis of MSL data expands the ATP knowledgebase in that it demonstrates the application of ATP threshold established from the MER-ATP study when applied to a flight project, i.e., not in a controlled experimental setting. When applying binary threshold levels for acceptable cleanliness, as in the MSL case, a clean ATP assay (<2.33 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2) result also yielded a clean NSA (0 spore) result, demonstrating the same observable planetary protection outcome with high confidence (~97%, 242 out of 250 samples; Fig. 2). Likewise, when spacecraft surface samples did not exceed the binary ATP threshold, they correlated with the clean NSA results and within acceptable MSL flight processing limits. During this analysis, ~98.5% of samples (268 out of 272 samples from accountable surface areas) were shown to be clean by both the NSA and ATP assay. Therefore, for future missions seeking a binary cleaning threshold, the threshold value used by MSL during ATLO (<2.33 × 10−11 ATP mmoles per 25 cm2) could be utilized to assess the cleanliness of hardware during the final stages of spacecraft assembly. These data also strongly support the notion that the ATP benchmark demonstrates the same planetary protection “clean” outcome as NSA swabs on flight hardware that have undergone multiple microbial reduction practices and processes (heat microbial reduction, alcohol cleaning, etc.). The distinction between the examination of microbial burden on accountable and non-accountable surfaces proved to be of great importance in the data analysis. Unlike accountable spacecraft surfaces that have undergone microbial reduction, it was not possible to consistently evaluate non-accountable surfaces, which were not cleaned or maintained in the same way as flight hardware, using the threshold ATP cleanliness limit as an alternative to the spore assay. In many samples from non-accountable surfaces, notably before the final stage of spacecraft assembly, ATP levels were relatively high (30% of the samples). This is probably attributable to the higher bioburden levels allowed for the launch vehicle (500–1000 spores m2) (Benardini et al. 2014), the presence of non-spore-forming cells (Venkateswaran et al. 2003), or lysed but dead cells (Ghosh et al. 2010; La Duc et al. 2007) that might not have been adequately removed. In summary, the ATP assay allowed MSL project personnel to make informed decisions regarding spacecraft surface cleanliness within minutes versus three days using the NSA, which was of significant benefit to the schedule. When necessary, based on the measured ATP levels, additional cleaning could be done almost immediately (~1 h from sampling) as hardware was assembled, with resampling being conducted either later on the same day or the following day. The implementation of the ATP assay provided a means for the project to rapidly assess spacecraft cleanliness and allowed the project to decrease the risk of potential disassembly, recleaning, and reassembly of the hardware in the event of a NSA dirty sample. The application of the ATP assay on MSL demonstrates the value of alternative microbial methods for process/system control, optimization, and routine monitoring of the general microbial quality of spacecraft subsystems during assembly process. This analysis of MSL ATLO data was conducted independently of the MSL planetary protection campaign and the required spore burden verification assessments for the MSL mission. However, it did identify certain circumstances and conditions in which there was excellent alignment of the cleanliness information from the ATP assay and the NSA in assessing surface cleanliness of hardware being prepared for flight. Beaudet RA (2013) The statistical treatment implemented to obtain the planetary protection bioburdens for the Mars Science Laboratory mission. Adv Space Res 51(12):2261–2268. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2013.01.026 Benardini JN 3rd, La Duc MT, Beaudet RA, Koukol R (2014) Implementing planetary protection measures on the Mars science laboratory. Astrobiology 14(1):27–32. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.0989 COSPAR (2011) COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy. World Space Council, Houston, TX, USA https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/sites/default/files/pppolicy.pdf. Accessed 11 Nov 2016 Favero MS (1971) Microbiologic assay of space hardware. Environ Biol Med 1(1):27–36 Ghosh S, Osman S, Vaishampayan P, Venkateswaran K (2010) Recurrent isolation of extremotolerant bacteria from the clean room where Phoenix spacecraft components were assembled. Astrobiology 10(3):325–335. doi:10.1089/ast.2009.0396 JPL (1990) Detail specification, general cleaning of materials—FS505146C. JPL, Pasadena Kern R, Kazarians G, Beaudet RA, Venkateswaran K, Chen F (2005) Rapid enzyme-based microbial burden assays: The case for certifying total adenosine triphosphate assay for use on spacecraft hardware. JPL D-30970. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, p 1–141 La Duc MT, Nicholson W, Kern R, Venkateswaran K (2003) Microbial characterization of the Mars Odyssey spacecraft and its encapsulation facility. Environ Microbiol 5(10):977–985 La Duc MT, Kern RG, Venkateswaran K (2004) Microbial monitoring of spacecraft and associated environments. Microb Ecol 47:150–158 La Duc MT, Dekas A, Osman S, Moissl C, Newcombe D, Venkateswaran K (2007) Isolation and characterization of bacteria capable of tolerating the extreme conditions of clean room environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 73(8):2600–2611. doi:10.1128/AEM.03007-06 La Duc MT, Osman S, Vaishampayan P, Piceno Y, Andersen G, Spry JA, Venkateswaran K (2009) Comprehensive census of bacteria in clean rooms by using DNA microarray and cloning methods. Appl Environ Microbiol 75(20):6559–6567. doi:10.1128/AEM.01073-09 Morris HC, Monaco LA, Steele A, Wainwright N (2010) Setting a standard: the limulus amebocyte lysate assay and the assessment of microbial contamination on spacecraft surfaces. Astrobiology 10(8):845–852. doi:10.1089/ast.2009.0446 NASA (2010) Handbook for the Microbiological Examination of Space Hardware, NASA-HDBK-6022. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington NASA (2011) Planetary Protection Provisions for Robotic Extraterrestrial Missions. NPR 8020.12D, April 2011. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C Puleo JR, Fields ND, Bergstrom SL, Oxborrow GS, Stabekis PD, Koukol R (1977) Microbiological profiles of the Viking spacecraft. Appl Environ Microbiol 33(2):379–384 Vaishampayan P, Osman S, Andersen G, Venkateswaran K (2010) High-density 16S microarray and clone library-based microbial community composition of the Phoenix spacecraft assembly clean room. Astrobiology 10(5):499–508 Venkateswaran K, Satomi M, Chung S, Kern RG, Koukol R, Basic C, White D (2001) Molecular microbial diversity of a spacecraft assembly facility. Syst Appl Microbiol 24:311–320 Venkateswaran K, Hattori N, La Duc MT, Kern R (2003) ATP as a biomarker of viable microorganisms in clean-room facilities. J Microbiol Methods 52(3):367–377 Venkateswaran K, La Duc MT, Vaishampayan P (2012) Genetic Inventory Task: Final Report, JPL Publication 12–12. vol 1 and 2. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, p 1–117 JNB developed the concept with KV and executed the project. KV designed the experiment, analyzed the results, and written the manuscript with JNB. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Part of the research described in this paper was carried out by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. The authors acknowledge the contributions of Catharine Conley and Pericles Stabekis of the NASA Planetary Protection Office. We are thankful to Robert Koukol for his role as MSL Planetary Protection manager in helping to coordinate the sample collection campaign. A significant amount of sample collection and processing was carried out by Fabian Morales and Gayane Kazarians. The authors thank Sheryl Bergstrom for her logistical support at KSC, Robert Beaudet for his raw data management, Melissa Jones for critically reading the manuscript, and Karen Buxbaum and James A. Spry for managerial oversight. Copyright 2016 California Institute of Technology. Government sponsorship acknowledged. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Animal subjects were not used during this study. About this article Cite this article Benardini, J.N., Venkateswaran, K. Application of the ATP assay to rapidly assess cleanliness of spacecraft surfaces: a path to set a standard for future missions. AMB Expr 6, 113 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-016-0286-9 - Planetary protection - NASA standard assay

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Marine Ecosystem Research Marine ecosystem research at PMEL is focused on measuring, understanding, and predicting impacts of natural physical, chemical, biological, geological, and anthropogenic processes on the oceanic web of life. PMEL's primary contribution is to put the biological research into the context of the physical and geochemical settings. PMEL marine ecosystem research is focused primarily along the U.S. Pacific and Arctic ocean coastal zones, but efforts are global with respect to explorative research and fundamental processes. Marine Ecosystem Research Activities Ecosystems & Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated Investigations (EcoFOCI) - EcoFOCI is a collaborative research effort by both UW (JISAO) and NOAA scientists at the Pacific Marine Environmental Lab (PMEL) and the Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) who focus on the unique and economically important high-latitude ecosystems of Alaska. The mission of the EcoFOCI Program is to understand the dynamic relationships among climate, fisheries, and the marine environment to ensure sustainability of Alaskan living marine resources and healthy ecosystems. Earth-Ocean Interactions - Renowned for interdisciplinary seafloor and water column processes work at numerous volcanic and hydrothermal sites around the globe, this group discovers unique chemosynthetic ecosystems and studies biogeochemical processes of global importance to address the NOAA goals of healthy oceans, technology development, and ocean stewardship. Acoustics - Using autonomous stationary hydrophones, mobile platforms such as ocean gliders and floats equipped with acoustic sensors, and cabled observatories the Acoustics group studies both natural and anthropogenic sounds in the marine environment. Ocean Carbon - In the open and coastal oceans, the Ocean Carbon group is currently making high-quality measurements of ocean acidification parameters, as well as ancillary properties, such as dissolved oxygen an nutrients that are related to ecosystem research.

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ON TEACHING OUR CHILDREN TO BE SELF-SUFFICIENT: Sirach 40:28-30 GNT "My child, don't live the life of a beggar; it is better to die than to beg. If you have to depend on someone else for your food, you are not really living your own life. You pollute yourself by accepting food from another. Begging is torture to the soul of any sensitive person. A shameless person can make begging sound sweet, but something inside him burns." ON TEACHING OUR CHILDREN SELF-RESPECT Sirach 10:28-31 GNT "My child, keep your self-respect, but remain modest. Value yourself at your true worth. There is no excuse for a person to run himself down. No one respects a person who has no respect for himself. Poor people can be honored for their good sense, and rich people can be honored for their wealth. If someone is honored while he is poor, think how much he will be honored if he becomes rich! If someone is despised while he is rich, think how much more he will be despised if he becomes poor!" A VERSE FOR HOMESCHOOL PARENTS (SMILE) Sirach 11:10 GNT "My child, don't get involved in too many things. If you try to do too much, you will suffer for it. You won't be able to finish your work, and you won't be able to get away from it either." Sirach 7:23-25 GNT "If you have sons, educate them. Teach them self-discipline while they are young. If you have daughters, keep them virtuous, and don't be too indulgent with them. When you give your daughter in marriage, you have finished a great task, but give her to a sensible man." A SENSE OF DECENCY (teaching our children to blush!) "My children, listen and I will teach you the circumstances when it is proper to be ashamed. Sometimes it is entirely out of place. Before your parents, be ashamed of immoral behavior. Before a ruler or an important person, be ashamed of a lie. Before a judge, be ashamed of criminal behavior. Before a public assembly, be ashamed of breaking the law. Before a friend or partner, be ashamed of dishonesty. Before your neighbors, be ashamed of theft. Be ashamed of breaking a promise, of leaning on the dinner table with your elbows, of stinginess when you are asked for something, of not returning a greeting, of staring at a prostitute, of turning down a relative's request, of depriving someone of what is rightly his, of staring at another man's wife, of playing around with his slave woman (keep away from her bed!) of insulting your friends, of following up your gifts with criticism, of betraying secrets." ON SPOILED ROTTEN DADDY'S GIRLS Sirach 42:9-13 GNT "Although he will not let his daughter know it, a father will lie awake at night worrying about her. If she is young, he worries that she might not get married. If she is already married, he worries about her happiness. If she is a virgin, he worries that she might be seduced and become pregnant while living in his house. If she is married, he worries that she might be unfaithful, or that she might not be able to have children. Keep a close watch over your daughter if she is determined to have her own way. If you don't, she may make a fool of you in front of your enemies. You will be a constant joke to everyone in town, a public disgrace. Make sure that her room has no windows or any place where she can look out to the entrance of the house. Don't let her show off her beauty in front of men, or spend her time talking with the women. Women hurt other women just as moths damage clothing."

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If God Could Save Everyone Would He? By Dr. Stephen E Jones The belief that God cannot do some things, or that God is limited in His ability, is fairly common among Christians. Many think that God’s ability to act is limited by man’s “free will.” People often think that God either cannot override man’s will or that He is incapable of making man change his will to conform to the will of God. But God would not be God at all, if He were so helpless in the face of billions of people, each restricting God in his own way by his free will. The collective restriction would be rather enormous, for each man has jurisdiction over his own piece of the earth, even if it is just his own body. Is God a mere bystander in human history? Is God merely a good counselor to men? Does God wish that men would follow Him, but can do little or nothing about it? Is this how we are to define the meaning of “God”? Some years ago some religious philosophers came to the conclusion that “God is dead.” What they meant was that God created all things and then left it all to fend for itself, to evolve into whatever men might make it. The bottom line is that they believed that God was indifferent and no longer concerned Himself with human history. This kind of thinking was a natural outgrowth of the idea that God was helpless to do anything in the face of man’s free will. But which is worse, to make God helpless or to make Him indifferent? Those of us who have a more personal relationship with Jesus Christ and who see His hand in our lives every day do not subscribe to the idea of God’s helplessness nor to His indifference. The very fact that He sent Jesus Christ to die for the sin of the world shows how intensely interested He is in man. He is anything but indifferent. The Bible also gives many examples to show that God is anything but helpless. He constantly takes the credit for the overthrow of whole nations, as well as the positive events, such as the redemption of Israel from Egypt. Isaiah 45 is the great “sovereignty” chapter in the Old Testament. God says that even a pagan king like Cyrus the Persian would do everything that God tells him to do. In Romans 9 Paul says that God raised up His own opposition in the person of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, to show us that He was sovereign. With the sovereignty of God in mind, then, what is it that prevents God from saving all mankind? Is He really under a self-imposed restriction that limits His ability to save all men? If so, by what law? What law makes it imperative for God to allow His children to use their free will to destroy themselves? Must I follow such a practice with my own children? Must I stand in the driveway and merely coax my child into leaving the street when a car approaches? Why do we think it is a moral imperative that God must do this with His children? If God really is God and is all-powerful, all-wise, and all-knowing, as He claims to be, then how is it that He should lose the vast majority of humanity to the wiles of the devil or man’s wicked (but free) will? Is God really the loser in this cosmic battle between good and evil, light and darkness? When we come to the end of history, will God prove to be the sore loser by torturing all those who dared to defeat Him? We do not think so. The Bible does not teach that God is a loser. The Bible tells us clearly that God will be the ultimate winner, and that His plan for all of creation will be fulfilled. God’s intent and plan was clearly stated in a vow to Moses, saying in Num. 14:21, “as I live, all the earth will be filled with the glory of the Lord.” 2 Peter 3:9 says, that He is not willing that any should be lost, or perish. Thus, if any are lost, it is not because it is the will of God. The Apostle Paul says in 1 Tim. 2:4 that God “will have all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth.” This, too, defines the will of God for all men. The problem is that evil men seem to thwart God’s will, and God seems to be powerless to do anything about it. How powerful is God, anyway? Let us begin at the beginning. The Creator Owns All Things The first verse in the Bible establishes that God is the Creator of all things. “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” Most people in the world believe this, but few people understand what this implies. It means that God OWNS all things by right of creation. One owns what one creates. This is why God told Moses in Lev. 25:23, “The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is Mine.” In other words, under Bible law, God holds the right of eminent domain. He had divided the land of Canaan among the tribes and families of Israel as their inheritance. However, they did not have the right to do as they pleased with their land. God retained sovereignty over the land. The people’s rights were limited by certain restrictions set down by law. This shows that God retained sovereignty over the land, even though He gave the people a certain level of authority. One restriction was that they did not have the right to sell their property for ever, that is, in perpetuity. Their inheritance was non-transferable. If they incurred a debt, they were allowed to sell land only until the Year of Jubilee, which occurred every 49 years (Lev. 25:8). This meant that a family could not lose their inheritance for more than a generation. It ensured that every citizen would have land. The land belonged to God, so no man had the ability or the right to lose his land for all time. He was only capable, by his own will, to “lose” it temporarily, because that was the extent of his authority. By law, under God’s sovereignty, a man could only lose (or sell) his land temporarily. Now consider the fact that God created all men, both good and bad. In fact, He formed man of the dust of the ground (Gen. 2:7). God used building material (dust of the ground) that He created—and therefore owned. This means that God owns all men as well as all material things in the universe. Man is part of the “land” that God owns by right of creation. That means man does not have the authority, right, or even the ability to “sell his soul to the devil” for all time. His authority is limited by law. Hence, even if a man decides by his own “free will” to sell himself into bondage to sin or to the devil, he must inevitably return to his inheritance at the end of time when God decrees the Jubilee for all creation. God is Responsible for All Creation In the divine laws of liability God lays down the principle that a man is responsible for what he owns. For example, if a farmer digs a well and neglects to cover the pit, and if a neighbor’s ox falls into that pit and is killed, the owner of the pit is liable and must pay damages to his neighbor Ex. 21:33, 34 says, 33 And if a man opens a pit, or digs a pit and does not cover it over, and an ox or a donkey falls into it, 34 the owner of the pit shall make restitution; he shall give money to its owner, and the dead animal shall become his. Again, if a man lights a fire and it gets out of hand and burns the neighbor’s field, the man who lit the fire is liable, because he created the fire and therefore is its owner. Ex. 22:6 says, “he who started the fire shall surely make restitution.” These are basic liability laws that define the will of God in areas of justice and responsibility between men. This principle, when applied to the big picture, shows us that God is responsible for all of His creation—even for the bad things that happen. God is ultimately liable for all the evil that has occurred in the world. One cannot blame the devil, because the devil created nothing and owns nothing. One cannot ultimately blame bad men either, because the bad men did not create themselves. In the case of the ox falling into the uncovered pit, the one who dug it cannot say in his defense, “That stupid ox fell into the pit by his own free will.” Such an argument makes no difference in the divine court. The only relevant fact in the case is that the one who dug the pit is responsible for it. In the case of Adam and Eve, whether these are actual people or just prototype human beings, the Bible story makes it clear that God created them. The “tree” of the knowledge of good and evil (regardless of how men interpret the story) provoked the temptation, and the “serpent” was the tempter. God created both the tree and the serpent and is therefore ultimately responsible for both of them. That means God, in effect, “dug a pit” and left it uncovered. That is, Adam and Eve—like the stupid ox—were told to stay away from the uncovered pit. Of course, they did not obey, and thus man “fell” into the pit and died (became mortal). So who is legally liable in the divine court? Well, God is, of course. Adam and Eve did not dig the pit, nor did they create the serpent. They were just too ignorant to stay away from the pit. They fell, and they died. God’s own law, then, demanded that the Owner of the pit pay fully for the death of the ox (Ex. 21:34). In other words, God set up the law in such a way that He would make Himself liable for the fall of Adam and Eve. Did God know what He was doing? Of course He did. He knew from the beginning that the law would demand that He—the Creator and Owner of all—would have to pay the full penalty for sin. That is why Jesus came to earth to pay the full penalty for sin. First of all, He loved His creation enough to do this (John 3:16). Secondly, He made it mandatory by law that He would have to do this. In that sense, the law was prophetic, for it mandated that the Creator would have to take full responsibility for man’s fall—that is, for the ox falling into the pit. In fact, it prophesied that God would have to come to earth and be born as a man in order to be capable of dying for the sin of the world. The Laws of Redemption The land could not be sold in perpetuity, but there were times when men incurred debts that they could not pay. Jesus told a parable about this in Matt. 18:23-35. He told of a man who owed “ten thousand talents,” which, in today’s monetary terms, would be about $150 million. Verse 25 says that because he could not pay the debt, he and his wife and children had to be sold as bondservants in order to make payment on the debt. Under biblical law, men were bondservants until their debts were paid or until the Year of Jubilee, whichever came first. At the Year of Jubilee all debts were cancelled purely by grace, no matter how much might still be owed. Bondservants were forced by law to work for their masters, but they also had rights. Slavery itself as practiced in most parts of the world was unlawful under biblical law. A man and his family who had become bond-servants because of debt were supposed to work for their masters until the debt was paid. Then they were set free. But there was another way that the debt could be paid. The bondservant could be redeemed by a relative. Jesus is the Redeemer Lev. 25:47-55 tells of the laws of redemption. It says that a relative has the right of redemption, as long as he has enough money to pay the debt of his relative. If a relative comes to the master of the slave and has the money to pay the debt that is owed, he may pay the debt and purchase the slave. The slave master might prefer to keep the slave, because he is a good worker. But he has no choice in the matter, because the redeemer is a relative. The only time the slave master has the choice is if the would-be redeemer were a mere friend but not a relative. In such a case, he could allow it or not, according to his own “free will.” Why? Because the right of redemption is given only to a relative. A relative has lawful rights; a mere friend does not. The Bible story shows us how this law applied to the nation of Judah. The House of Judah had fallen into sin and thereby had incurred a huge debt that they could not pay. (All sin is reckoned as a debt in the Bible.) God was the Judge who had sold them as bondservants to the nation of Babylon (604 B.C.). The debt note was later purchased in succession by Persia (537 B.C.), then Greece (332 B.C.), and finally by Rome (63 B.C.). In the days of Jesus, Rome held the debt note of Judah, or Judea. This was why Rome ruled Judea while Jesus ministered on the earth. Jesus came as their Redeemer, not to overthrow Rome by military conquest but by purchasing them in a lawful, peaceful manner. The nation rejected Him, however, because they wanted a great general that would obtain freedom by force. The Bible says in Heb. 2:11-17 that Jesus Christ did not come to earth by taking the form of an angel. He came rather as a man, born of a woman, taking upon Himself the seed of Abraham in order to qualify as a relative to Israel and Judah. This gave Jesus the right of redemption. But further, verse 14 tells us that Jesus Christ came in “flesh and blood,” in order to qualify as a relative to all men. This gave Jesus the right of redemption for all men all the way back to Adam. This is why He was the redeemer of all men, not just the redeemer of Israel. He was related to all who were flesh and blood—without exception. For this reason, the apostle John tells us in his letter, 1 John 2:2, “He has covered our sins, and not for ours only, but also those of the whole world.” Jesus gave His very life for the sins of the whole world. He paid the full penalty for every sin ever committed since Adam. Only His very life could pay the full debt for all mankind. By the divine law, Jesus Christ came as a near relative to redeem all of mankind and his entire estate (the earth). Those are lofty goals, some may say, but was He really capable of making such a huge payment? The Bible makes it clear that His life and His blood was worth far more than the entire debt of the world from the beginning. So, yes, Jesus Christ was certainly “rich enough” to make such an expensive purchase. So first we see that Jesus Christ had the lawful right of redemption, on the grounds that He was a near relative of all flesh and blood, including the House of Israel. Secondly, we see that Jesus Christ was willing to pay the full price of redemption for the entire world—and He had the “cash” to do it. The final question is this: Did Jesus Christ want to redeem all mankind? This is really a question of how much He loves His creation. If He were an angry God that preferred to destroy most of His creation, then one might doubt that He really wanted to redeem all of mankind. But the Bible says in John 3:16, “For God so loved the world that He gave His only Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life.” Thus, we see that the law gave Jesus Christ the right of redemption; He had enough “money” and more to pay the full redemption price; and He certainly had the motive to do so. So, if God COULD save all men, would He, in fact, do so? That is the big question. If you had the lawful right to redeem all men, and you had the cash to do so, and you loved them as much as God loves the world, what would YOU do? Yes, God would indeed save all mankind if He were capable of doing so. And that is why He has actually done it. What is Required of us? There are many people today and throughout history who have not wanted to be redeemed by Jesus Christ, usually because they did not really understand their need of redemption or did not have faith that He could really set them free. What about these people? Will they benefit from Jesus’ redemption payment in spite of their unbelief? Yes, they will—but not immediately. All will be held accountable for their actions, and every judgment will fit the crime. Here is how it works. The law of redemption says that those who agree to be redeemed by their relative must serve their redeemer (Lev. 25:53). The difference is that he will be treated better with Jesus as his master than he was treated by the previous master, sin.Those who accept Him as their Redeemer are obligated to declare Jesus Christ as their Master and to serve Him. Paul puts it this way in Rom. 6, 15 What then? Shall we sin because we are not under the law but under grace? May it never be! 16 Do you not know that when you present yourselves to someone as slaves for obedience, you are slaves of the one whom you obey, either of sin resulting in death, or of obedience resulting in righteousness? 17 But thanks be to God that though you were [or used to be] slaves of sin, you became obedient to that form of teaching to which you were committed, 18 and having been freed from sin, you became slaves of righteousness. In other words, those who are redeemed are not set free to do as they please. The redeemer has purchased their debt note, and therefore, they are still bondservants—but now they are bondservants of One who loves them and will treat them right. They are no longer slaves to sin. They are now slaves of righteousness and servants of God. A person set free from sin does not mean that he suddenly becomes perfectly sinless. Paul is referring to sin as the old slave master. When we worked for the old slave master, who told us to sin, we were free from God and His righteousness. Conversely, when God purchased us through Jesus Christ, we are no longer bound to do what sin tells us to do, and we are free to do what is right in God’s eyes. Rome that Christ’s redemption did not mean they were free to continue in sin. They were only free from the old slave master who, in the past, had commanded them to sin. But what about those who refuse to accept the provision God has made for us to be redeemed? Such people have the lawful right to refuse to be redeemed by their near relative, Jesus Christ. They may continue obeying the demands of the sin nature rather than be obedient to the law of God. Paul calls himself “a bondservant of Jesus Christ” (Rom. 1:1), because he understood the laws of redemption. That is why he told the Christians in This is their right—for a while. The law says in Lev. 25:54 that “even if he is not redeemed in these years, he is still to go free in the year of Jubilee, both he and his children with him.” In other words, the year of Jubilee will set all men free in the end, whether they were redeemed or not during those years. To understand this, we need to explain a little about the old Hebrew calendar. God divided time into periods of seven days and seven years. Every seventh day was a Sabbath, a day of rest. But also, every seventh year they were to let the land lie fallow, for it was a land-rest year. In this land-rest year, no one had to make payments on their debts, because their main source of income was suspended. After seven land-rest years was a Jubilee at the end of 49 years. Then ten days into the 50th year a trumpet was blown to signal the day of Jubilee. This was the specific day that all debts were cancelled, and every man was to return to his inheritance if he had lost it any time during the previous 49 years. Lev. 25:10 says, 10 You shall thus consecrate the fiftieth year and proclaim a release through the land to all its inhabitants. It shall be a jubilee for you, and each of you shall return to his own property, and each of you shall return to his family. Of course, this was only applicable to those who had been unable to work long enough to pay off their debt. They could have been released earlier if they had earned enough money to pay their debt and thus purchase their freedom. It was also applicable only to those who did not have a redeemer—or if people had not accepted the redemption of a willing relative. Perhaps they did not trust him or know him well enough to trust his motives. Or perhaps they just thought that his commands would be too rigorous. Whatever their reasons, even if they have not availed themselves of Jesus’ redemption in this age, they will still go free in the year of Jubilee. There is a limit on how much judgment and discipline that God dispenses upon His children. They may have a choice whether or not to be redeemed by their near relative, but the year of Jubilee is by God’s will. The time of redemption was between Jubilees. Once the year of Jubilee arrived, redemption was irrelevant. In the case of all mankind, NOW is the day of redemption. Jesus has made the full payment for sin and asks that all men come under His lordship. But many do not submit to Jesus Christ. Such people will not be redeemed, but yet they will be set free from the enslavement of sin in the final Jubilee, when God sets all men free by His own will. Endless Punishment is against the Law With God, there is no such thing as never-ending punishment. The Bible verses that are usually quoted to prove never-ending punishment are actually mistranslations of the original text. The word for “eternal” and “everlasting” in the New Testament is the Greek word, eonian, which means “pertaining to an EON (age).” In other words, God’s final judgments pertain to a specific age in the future. It is an age to come, where God will “sell” all unbelievers to the servants of Jesus Christ, so that they will be compelled by law to learn obedience to the divine law. In this way the servants of Christ will “reign with Him” (Rev. 20:6). Rev. 5:10 says, “they will reign on the earth,” not in heaven. This would be meaningless, of course, unless they had people to reign over. The believers will be given various measures of authority, according to Jesus’ parable in Luke 19:12-27. Yet the purpose of this authority is to teach the unbelievers how to live in subjection to Jesus Christ and His Kingdom. That age will eventually end at the final Jubilee, when all judgment ceases, and all men are brought fully into the glory of God, even as He promised by covenant. Biblical law treats all sin as a debt, but it also treats all debt as temporary. All debt is limited by the law of Jubilee. With God there is no such thing as a perpetual debt. In fact, no man even has the authority to put himself under a perpetual debt. This goes back to the law where God says He owns all the land. No man can sell his land and lose it for all time. Since man is made of the land (dust of the ground) that God created, no man owns himself. God owns all men and has never given any man the ability to sell his soul forever. Man is also God’s inheritance. God created the law of Jubilee to safeguard His own inheritance. God will never lose His inheritance, because He decreed this law from the beginning. Another law also shows this principle of limited judgment. Deut. 25:1-3 is a law that deals with misdemeanors, where there is no restitution: 1 If there is a dispute between men, and they go to court, and the judges decide their case, and they justify the righteous and condemn the wicked [guilty party], 2 then it shall be if the wicked man deserves to be beaten, the judge shall then make him lie down and be beaten in his presence with the number of stripes according to his guilt. 3 He may beat him forty times but no more, lest he beat him with many more stripes than these, and your brother be degraded in your eyes. Here we see that the judgment is limited to a maximum of forty stripes. Thus, we see that divine judgment is merciful in that it limits judgment for both felonies and misdemeanors. Judgment for felonies are limited by the Jubilee; judgment for misdemeanors are limited by forty stripes. In either case, there is no provision for torture such as we find in the modern idea of eternal torment in a literal fire. Such ideas came not from the Bible, but from other religions. The “fire” in the Bible is a symbol of divine law and was never meant to be taken in a literal sense. Those who reject Jesus Christ will indeed be brought to judgment in the great resurrection. However, there is no reason to think that they will be lost forever. It would be unjust to punish men beyond the measure of their sin. And it would be unlawful to punish men beyond the prescribed penalties of divine law. God will judge the world, not by man’s law but by His own law, which is His perfect standard of measure. The Day of Judgment So what will happen to the sinners in that day? The Bible speaks of a final day of judgment where all men will stand before the Great White Throne (Rev. 20:11-15). Here is where God will foreclose on all debts from the beginning. Here is where all men will be held accountable for their actions that they did in their life on earth. The Bible speaks of this judgment in terms of “fire.” Some think this “fire” is a literal torture pit. It is not. The divine law never once dispenses torture as a judgment for any sin. Deut. 4:12 tells us that God manifests Himself as a fire. In the New Testament, we read in Heb. 12:29 that God Himself is a consuming fire. This simply means that the presence of God will consume whatever is not good. Further, His judgments are designed to correct men, not to destroy them. They are designed to restore the lawful order, so that whatever men have done to violate the rights of others will be righted. The law’s purpose is to obtain justice for the wronged and forgiveness for the sinner who wronged those other people. The purpose of divine law is first to bring justice to those who have been wronged, and secondly to bring correction, forgiveness, and restoration to the sinners. Hence, in Isaiah 26:9 the prophet speaks to God saying, 9 For when the earth experiences Thy judgments, the inhabitants of the world will learn righteousness. The divine law itself is the “lake of fire” mentioned in Rev. 20:14, 15. Moses tells us in Deut. 33:2 that the law is a “fiery law” in His hand. Daniel 7:9 also pictures that final judgment, where God judges the world, holding every man accountable for their actions committed during their life time. He says that the throne itself is a fire, out of which comes a “fiery stream” that judges all men. In ancient times, a throne symbolized the law, much like a modern judge now is said to “sit at the bench” when he presides over a trial. Hence, the throne is the fire—the law. It is simply a metaphoric way of saying that God’s fiery law will judge all men. But to know the nature of that fire, one must study the divine law itself. And not once does the divine law prescribe torture for any sin. Thus, the “lake of fire” in the Bible was never meant to be taken as literally as some have done. God does not torture men for any sin. This is plainly evident to anyone who studies the divine law. In fact, this is in striking contrast to the laws of men and of other religions. Death is the Penalty for Sin Eternal torment is NOT the penalty for sin. Paul writes in Rom. 6:23, 23 For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord. From the beginning, Moses wrote that the penalty for the worst sins was death. Such was the penalty for open idolatry, witchcraft, murder, adultery, bestiality, kidnapping, and rape of a married or engaged woman. There was no judgment of God’s law that even implied torture in a literal fire for any sin. The penalty was merely death. And positively the worst judgment for sin was for the sinner’s dead body to be burned (cremated) in order to prevent them from receiving an honorable burial (Lev. 21:9). Jesus Christ came to pay the full penalty for our sin and for the sin of the whole world. This did not mean that Jesus would have to burn in the pit of hell. Not even for a moment—much less for eternity! He paid the full penalty for sin by dying on the cross, not by burning for eternity. If never-ending torture in hell were really the penalty for sin, then Jesus would still be there, burning for eternity! Yet we find that Jesus was only required to be dead for three days. God is not so unjust as to torture people for disobeying Him. The nature of the “fire” is defined by the divine law itself, and the duration of the judgment is limited by the law of Jubilee. Those who come into judgment at the Great White Throne will be judged according to their works (Rev. 20:13-15). Their judgment will fit their crimes committed during their life time. There is no way, of course, that any man will be able to actually pay the penalty for his own sins. For this reason, they will also be “sold” into bondage according to the law (Ex. 22:3). They will be put under the authority of the believers, the servants of Christ, in order that they may serve their sentence until the Jubilee sets all men free. In the final analysis, the law says that if a man cannot pay a debt (which is incurred by sin), he is to work as a bondservant to pay the debt. If the debt is too great to be paid, he must work until the year of Jubilee sets him free. The unbelievers at the Great White Throne will be sentenced to work as bondservants until the final Jubilee sets them free. The purpose of this is not so that their masters can act like tyrants over a bunch of slaves. In other words, the purpose of putting bond-servants under masters is so that the sinners of the earth may learn the will of God and learn to follow Christ. Their “masters” will teach them and train them in the laws of God. What a happy time! For this reason Psalm 130:4 says, 4 There is forgiveness with Thee [God], in order that You may be respected. We respect those who have the ability to forgive, not those who perpetually refuse to forgive others. God has often been presented as One who either will not or cannot forgive sin, once a man has completed his life on earth. It is no wonder so many have no respect for God. I believe that God has been misrepresented. The Second Death The sentence of the law upon the unbelievers is in itself the second death. The second death is not like the first death. The first death is mortality that ends with men being placed in a grave. The second death comes at a time when the first death itself is destroyed, as we read in Rev. 20:14, 14 And death and Hades [the grave] were thrown into the lake of fire. This is the second death, the lake of fire. He was telling the people that to violate God’s laws was the way of death. Ultimately, he was speaking of the “second death” that is mentioned in Rev. 20:14. There the “second death” is equated with the “lake of fire.” This “death” is different from the first kind of death (mortality and literal death), because in that day death itself will be destroyed. Men will no longer die after they have been raised from the dead, but they will have to remain separated from God until the great Jubilee. Because of Adam’s sin, all men have become mortal. That in itself is a judgment for sin. But the final judgment is the “lake of fire, which is the second death” (Rev. 20:14). This type of death is of a different sort. It speaks of the future age when the unbelievers who did not avail themselves of Jesus’ offer of redemption will remain mortal and will have to learn right and wrong as servants of God. They will not die, but will remain as servants of God, learning the ways of God in much the same manner as believers today are learning obedience. That age may last for thousands of years, with everyone experiencing a sort of immortality. Our bodies are designed to last forever, with old cells being replaced by new cells, so long as we have the proper nutrition and environment. This will be an age in which all men will experience that bodily renewal, and if anyone should happen to die by some accident, they could easily be raised from the dead immediately. During this time that God rules the earth through Jesus Christ and the “Sons of God,” the nations will rejoice. Finally, there will be true justice and mercy in the courts. Psalm 67:4 says, 4 O let the nations be glad and sing for joy; for You will judge the nations upon earth. Psalm 72:11 says, 11 Yes, all kings shall bow down before Him; all nations shall serve Him. Psalm 86:9, 10 says, 9 All nations that Thou hast made shall come and worship before Thee, O Lord; and they shall glorify Thy name. 10 For Thou art great and doest wondrous deeds; Thou alone art God. The Final Outcome of God’s Will In Gen. 9:9-17 God made a covenant (or contract) with the whole earth. It was a covenant that said He would never again destroy the earth. Many today mistakenly think that the earth is soon going to be destroyed, either by men or by God. This is not true. It may look like disaster is coming, and it is certain that man would destroy the earth if it were left to him. But God has promised to prevent it. This is the first covenant that God made with anyone. The first time that the word “covenant” is used in the Bible is found here in Gen. 9:9. At earlier times, God made promises, not covenants. Years later, in the story of how God brought Israel out of Egypt, we find that the Israelites were rather stubborn and disobedient to God, and they came near to stoning Moses more than once. Finally, after ten examples of direct disobedience, God told Moses in Num. 14:12, “I’m just going to destroy the whole nation and start over with you and your children.” This was, of course, just a test, for God knew He would not do this. So did Moses. That is why Moses reminded God of His promise to Israel. He also said in Num. 14:15 and 16 that if He were to destroy the people, it would be admitting that He was not powerful enough to do what He had said He would do. The people of the other nations would say that it was because He “was not able to bring this people into the land which He promised them by oath.” Here is the crux of the matter. Was God really able to fulfill His intent? Could His will be thwarted by man’s will? Is man’s free will more powerful than God’s sovereign will? Nowadays, many people would say that God could not be blamed for the refusal of the people to be obedient to Him. But that is not the issue. The fact is, if God were unable to make Israel obedient, then God would be perceived as a failure. It is much like a disobedient child. If the parent is unable to turn the child into a productive citizen, then it is ultimately the failure of the parent, not of the child. The child is not the one in authority. Whoever is in the position of authority is responsible for those under him or her. So God tempted Moses to see if he would take the bait. But Moses had no such ambitions to make his own family the chosen people. Moses then challenged God in an extraordinary manner, telling Him that the nations would think God is not able to perform His will—that man’s will was stronger than God’s will. God’s response was to tell Moses in Num. 14:21, 21 but indeed, as I live, all the earth will be filled with the glory of the Lord. Not only was God able to bring this one nation into the land God had promised, but He was also able to fill the whole earth with His glory. In other words, man may temporarily remain in bondage as a slave to sin and outside of His will, but ultimately, God’s will is that the whole earth would be filled with His glory. God’s will is to save all men (1 Tim. 2:4). There is nothing and no one on earth that can prevent this from taking place. Either men will consent to be redeemed in this age, or they will do so after the final judgment at the Great White Throne. One may do this the easy way or the hard way. But either way, God is God, and His will shall ultimately prevail. By the time of the final Jubilee, when He sets all men free, they will be filled with His glory. The prophet echoes this verse in Hab. 2:14, saying, 14 For the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord as the waters cover the sea. How much of the sea is covered by water? One hundred percent of it. How much of the earth will be covered by the knowledge of the Lord? One hundred percent. That is how the prophet interpreted what God said to Moses. It means that all men will be saved, and God’s presence will fill the entire earth. Keep in mind that men were made with the dust of the ground. God intends to fill the whole earth, which includes every man’s body (dust). God’s Promise to All In Isaiah 45:23 God says, 23 I have sworn by Myself [by my own name] . . . that unto Me every knee will bow and every tongue will swear allegiance to Me. This is no idle boast. It is a statement of intent that God has the ability to fulfill. This verse is quoted by the apostle Paul in Phil. 2:10, 11, saying, 10 at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth; 11 and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father. The question is this: Is God able to fulfill this oath, or is it an idle boast? Col. 1:16 tells us that 16 by Him were all things created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and invisible . . . all things were created by Him and for Him. Then a few verses later in verse 20, we read that Jesus Christ, by His death on the cross, “has reconciled all things unto Himself . . . whether they are things in earth or things in heaven.” In other words, Paul’s use of the term “all things” really does mean all things. He not only created all things, but He also has reconciled all things to Himself. His death on the cross was not merely effective for a few, but for the whole of creation. It is not slated for destruction, but to house the glory of God. Paul speaks again in 1 Cor. 15:22-28 of the time when all men will be raised from the dead for judgment and to receive the rewards due them. Paul says that Jesus Christ must reign over the earth until all enemies have been subdued—that is, until no one disagrees with Him and His divine law. Everyone will ultimately come into agreement that God really is a good and a just God. To know Him is to love Him. Then Paul says that the final enemy to be destroyed is death. Only then will mankind be able to enjoy fully the presence of God. Only then will all the earth be full of His glory. Paul says in verse 28 that “God will be all in all.” His full presence will not be in just a few people, nor will He dispense just a little of His glory in all men. Rather, His full glory will radiate out of all men. That is the plan. And God is indeed able to perform His will. Many are now unwilling to go along with the plan, because of ignorance, for if they knew the glory that God had prepared for them, they would not hesitate to avail themselves of the redemption that Jesus has provided by His death on the cross. We close with John’s vision in Rev. 5:13,13 and every creature which is in heaven and on the earth and under the earth, and all that are in the sea, and all that are in them, I heard saying, “Blessing and honor, and glory, and power be unto Him that sits upon the throne, and unto the Lamb [Jesus] for the ages of the ages”.This is a picture of the goal of history and the divine plan for His creation. No one will be grumbling that a tyrant has come to power and ought to be overthrown. All will know the love that God has for them and for all mankind. It is a happy scene. There are no tortured screams coming from an imagined pit of hell. God really is able to save all mankind—and He intends to do it.

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—July 5, 1863 — On the morning of July 5, 1863, Springfield awoke to the roar of cannon fire coming from Lebanon. That afternoon John Hunt Morgan's column reached Springfield with over 300 Federal prisoners in tow. Young Will McChord, then eleven, described the events of that day 60 years later in his memoirs, "we knew that Morgan and his men were coming to Springfield. Rumors were flying on every side and Main Street was in the wildest confusion. I was seized with an uncontrollable desire to see Morgan and his men. I went to Cross Street where I could see up the pike towards Lebanon. Morgan's Calvary was coming down the hill into Springfield. My mind was made up; not to run away from the rebels but to run toward them - regardless of the consequences. I drew myself up to my full height and gave the leader (Col. Basil Duke) a military salute. With all the grace of a valiant knight he returned my salute and extended his hand, which I eagerly grasped." Accompanying Col. Duke was Maj. William J. Davis from South Carolina. After paroling the prisoners at the Courthouse, Davis was invited to the residence of Cleland Cunningham for refreshments and entertainment. Here, Davis met his host's two charming daughters, "Miss Frank" and "Miss Belle." It seems to have been a case of love at first sight between the Major and "Miss Frank," and before the enamored officer left Springfield he submitted a "proposition" to the lady to carry her "off to Columbia, S. C. before or after the war." Upon leaving Springfield, Morgan instructed Davis' forces to create a diversion, hoping to cover his crossing of the Ohio River at Brandenburg. While attempting to do so, Davis and his men encountered Union troops and Davis was captured. During his fifteen-month incarceration Davis wrote many letters to "Miss Frank." The courtship of Major Davis and Miss Frances Cunningham culminated in their marriage on December 16, 1866. William C. McChord When Morgan's men came through Springfield, McChord ran with the exuberance of your down Main Street to greet the Confederates. The Courthouse in Springfield Morgan, enraged over the death of his brother Tom an Lebanon, forced over 300 Union prisoners to march "at the double quick" that is, to run, the ten miles from Lebanon to Springfield in the July heat.

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Probability is the measure of occurrence of an event. An event is one or more outcomes (result) of an experiment. An experiment is that which have a chance (to be done or not to be) in the result. Odds of an event = No. of ways theevent occurs : No. of ways the event can’t occur = Success : Failure Gaussian distribution function: It is also called as “normal distribution”. It is a bell shaped curve. Example 1:Find the probability of rolling an odd number on the dice. Express the probability as a fraction, decimal, ratio and percent. Answer: The possible even numbers are 1, 3 and 5. Number of favourable outcomes = 3 Total number of outcomes = 6 Probability to get an even number = 3⁄6 = 1⁄2 = 0.5 = 1: 2 = 50% Example 2: There are 5 red marbles, 6 blue marbles and 9 yellow marbles. What is the probability of finding a blue marble? Answer: Number of blue marbles = 6 Number of favourable outcomes = 6 Total number of blue marbles = 5 + 6 + 9 = 20 Probability to get a blue marble =6⁄20 =3⁄10 = 0.3

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President Donald Trump has fulfilled a key campaign pledge, announcing that the U.S. will withdraw from the Paris climate agreement. The Paris Agreement, which committed the U.S. to drastically reducing greenhouse gas emissions, was a truly bad deal—bad for American taxpayers, American energy companies, and every single American who depends on affordable, reliable energy. It was also bad for the countries that remain in the agreement. Here are four reasons Trump was right to withdraw. 1. The Paris Agreement was costly and ineffective. The Paris Agreement is highly costly and would do close to nil to address climate change. If carried out, the energy regulations agreed to in Paris by the Obama administration would kill hundreds of thousands of jobs, harm American manufacturing, and destroy $2.5 trillion in gross domestic product by the year 2035. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump removed a massive barrier to achieving the 3 percent economic growth rates America is accustomed to. Simply rolling back the Paris regulations isn’t enough. The Paris Agreement would have extended long beyond the Trump administration, so remaining in the agreement would have kept the U.S. subject to its terms. Those terms require countries to update their commitments every five years to make them more ambitious, starting in 2020. Staying in the agreement would have prevented the U.S. from backsliding or even maintaining the Obama administration’s initial commitment of cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28 percent. The Obama administration made clear in its commitment that these cuts were only incremental, leading up to an eventual 80 percent cut in the future. In terms of climate benefits produced by Paris, there are practically none. Even if every country met its commitments—a big “if” considering China has already underreported its carbon dioxide emissions, and there are no repercussions for failing to meet the pledges—the changes in the earth’s temperature would be almost undetectable. 2. The agreement wasted taxpayer money. In climate negotiations leading up to the Paris conference, participants called for a Green Climate Fund that would collect $100 billion per year by 2020. The goal of this fund would be to subsidize green energy and pay for other climate adaptation and mitigation programs in poorer nations—and to get buy-in (literally) from those poorer nations for the final Paris Agreement. The Obama administration ended up shipping $1 billion in taxpayer dollars to this fund without authorization from Congress. Some of the top recipients of these government-funded climate programs have in the past been some of the most corrupt, which means corrupt governments collect the funds, not those who actually need it. No amount of transparency negotiated in the Paris Agreement is going to change this. Free enterprise, the rule of law, and private property are the key ingredients for prosperity. These are the principles that actually will help people in developing countries prepare for and cope with a changing climate and natural disasters, whether or not they are caused by man-made greenhouse gas emissions. 3. Withdrawal is a demonstration of leadership. The media is making a big to-do about the fact that the only countries not participating in the Paris Agreement are Syria and Nicaragua. But that doesn’t change the fact that it’s still a bad deal. Misery loves company, including North Korea and Iran, who are signatories of the deal. Some have argued that it is an embarrassment for the U.S. to cede leadership on global warming to countries like China. But to draw a moral equivalency between the U.S. and China on this issue is absurd. China has serious air quality issues (not from carbon dioxide), and Beijing has repeatedly falsified its coal consumption and air monitoring data, even as it participated in the Paris Agreement. There is no environmental comparison between the U.S. and China. Other countries have a multitude of security, economic, and diplomatic reasons to work with America to address issues of mutual concern. Withdrawal from the agreement will not change that. Certainly, withdrawing from the Paris Agreement will be met with consternation from foreign leaders, as was the case when the U.S. withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol. However, it could very well help future negotiations if other governments know that the U.S. is willing and able to resist diplomatic pressure in order to protect American interests. 4. Withdrawal is good for American energy competitiveness. Some proponents of the Paris Agreement are saying that withdrawing presents a missed opportunity for energy companies. Others are saying that it doesn’t matter what Trump does because the momentum of green energy is too strong. Neither argument is a compelling case for remaining in the agreement. Whether it is conventional fuel companies or renewable ones, the best way for American energy companies to be competitive is to be innovative and competitive in the marketplace, not build their business models around international agreements. There is nothing about leaving the agreement that prevents Americans from continuing to invest in new energy technologies. The market for energy is $6 trillion and projected to grow by a third by 2040. Roughly 1.3 billion people do not yet have access to electricity, let alone reliable, affordable energy. That’s a big market incentive for the private sector to pursue the next energy technology without the aid of taxpayer money. The U.S. federal government and the international community should stop using other peoples’ money to subsidize energy technologies while regulating affordable, reliable energy sources out of existence. The Paris Agreement was an open door for future U.S. administrations to regulate and spend hundreds of millions of dollars on international climate programs, just as the Obama administration did without any input from Congress. Now, that door has thankfully been shut.

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In ancient times our ancestors in India envisioned the journey of our life over four stages, called Ashrams, which were a natural evolution in the life of an individual based on their needs at a particular age. This Vedic framework was laid out for a reason. It was practical and helped to maintain harmony in society and with the family. From birth to approximately 25 years of age was called the Brahmacharya ashram, a time to acquire knowledge, and develop oneself. Next follows the Grihastha ashram, from 25 to 50 years of age, a time to earn a living, get married, have children, and play an active role in the economy and society. Beginning anywhere between 50 and 60 years of age was the Vanaprastha ashram, which literally meant a departure for the forest or a period of stay in the forest. Our scriptures say Vanaprastha starts when one gets wrinkles, and white hair and has grandchildren. This period lasted till the age of 75 years. Vanaprastha marked a gradual withdrawal from the very active involvements of the previous Grihasthashram and more time devoted to the Self and contemplating on one’s purpose in life and trying to understand the workings of this Universe. It was a move towards simplifying one’s life and exploring spirituality. At the end came Sannyas ashram, a time of renunciation with no attachment to place and creature comforts. One’s focus turned inward to feel the presence of God and reach one’s highest potential of merging with the Universal Consciousness in this life. A person observing Sanyas ashram may lead the life of a wanderer. This period of old age would be from the age of 75 till the body’s final journey. Many of us follow the tenets of the first two ashrams in today’s world, without much thought as they unfold. However, the third stage, Vanaprastha, may not be getting the attention it deserves. Many people continue Grihasthashram till their last days. While there is no need to give up one’s home and family to move into a forest, a shift in mental attitude is required, to live for the larger society. When the system of four ashramas was followed in society, many individuals during their Vanaprastha years came up for the selfless service that is needed for institution and nation-building. Today the absence of that concerted effort is a loss to society. Let’s look at a few aspects of Vanaprastha that most can practice, including some Yama and Niyama. Maharishi Patanjali in his treatise Yoga Sutra has described the eight limbs of Yoga. Two out of these eight limbs are Yama (self restraints) and Niyama (positive guidelines). Observed together they give a structure for living in harmony with others and oneself. Post the age of 50, after career peaks have been reached and a family raised one may have a yearning to do something different. What elements of this ancient system of Vanaprastha can be followed in today’s world to continue one’s development and get a sense of fulfilment? While we may continue to live in our homes, Vanaprastha entails downsizing and living simply. It is a time of detachment from material comforts and luxuries, that is practicing the Yama of Aparigraha, non-possessiveness. We may not need everything that we have surrounded ourselves with to raise a family. Pare down to the essence in all aspects of your day – eating, dressing, daily activities. Make conscious Saatvik (loosely translated as moral) choices to have a wholesome life. Become aware of what and how much you really need, let go of the rest. One becomes keenly aware that for optimum health the Yama of Mitahara – moderation in food is necessary! Focusing on the abundance in one’s life will lead to Santosh, contentment. Even though one remains at home a gradual withdrawal from worldly affairs is called for so that the next generation, those in the Grihasthashram can run the household. Seniors can be mature counsellors to others. One needs to resist the urge to interfere in the choices and daily activities of family members. More engagement with Nature Vanaprastha is a time of shift from spending most of our time inside four walls to spending time in God’s creation. Being in touch with the elements of Nature is an exhilarating feeling which many of us may have forgotten. Experience the regenerative power of Nature through activities like gardening, a daily visit to a park, or living on the city’s outskirts or in a small town with more access to Nature. Or it can be in the form of regular outings to nature, treks, and nature walks. When we immerse ourselves in the five primordial elements, panchamahabhuta – sunlight, open skies, fresh air, rain, the earth under our feet, and greenery, we rekindle our awareness of being a part of Nature. Allow slowing down and drawing our sustenance from Nature. Be a Giver Give freely your time and expertise, support those who need it most. Shift your focus and efforts to work for the good of the larger society. Let those in the earlier stages of their life benefit from the wisdom of your years. You could do that as a mentor in your professional field, as an involved hands-on grandparent, as a volunteer in a field close to your heart. Being involved in the education of younger generations brings joy and helps to pass on valuable sanskaras. Do something for others outside your immediate family, in a small or big way. Through selfless work, the elderly can observe the Yama of Daya, compassion, and the Niyama of Dana, generosity. Time for Self-expansion Vanaprastha does not mean resting on your laurels. Continue to learn new things. Read to your heart’s content, learn from the wisdom of great thinkers of yore. Recognize this as a time of strength, a time to contemplate on yourself, Swaadhyay, and the larger society. Empty nesters may have more time on their hands, which is an opportunity to do something soul-satisfying that nurtures one’s spirit. Explore the Spirituality This is the time for exploring the spiritual dimensions of life. Daily prayers, meditation, and reading the scriptures help us to understand the metaphysical forces that guide our lives. No matter what one’s relationship with God has been till now, this is a good time to dedicate your life force for something higher than yourself and surrender with Bhakti to a higher power. This Niyama of Ishvarapranidhana, contemplation of Ishwar, God gives strength and solace to the soul. It is the opportunity to do Sadhana for the divine. Vanaprastha can be a time of restructuring and rejuvenating your life. Letting go of what is not working so well and making a fresh start with some of the things that you have always wanted to do but never got around to till now. And expanding your circle of caring to include a much wider world…think Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam. *Leaving behind the corridors of the corporate world, the author is a Yoga teacher, and health coach specializing in Therapeutic Yoga, Prenatal & Postnatal Yoga. She teaches online to students internationally, www.srimoyiyoga.com. She has fond memories of the yoga classes at her school, Lady Irwin School, New Delhi, which kindled a lifelong interest in Yoga. Bhaswati also enjoys spending time in nature, growing a fruit garden using permaculture principles on the outskirts of Bangalore. Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are the personal opinion of the author and do not reflect the views of raagdelhi.com which does not assume any responsibility for the same. You may also be interested in these articles:

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Background: Traffic circles — which are not the same thing as roundabouts — were first used in Roman times, for chariots. ‘Modern roundabouts’ (the correct technical name) were first invented and put to use in Britain in the mid-1960s. The USA stuck with traffic circles and in some states ‘rotaries’ (also different) until early in this new, 21st Century and even now some states are still in this hiatus. Why build roundabouts at all? The reasons are overwhelming. Using roundabouts improves traffic flow on busy roads or at previously-complex intersections, and — even more importantly — they reduce the occurrence of fatal and serious-injury crashes by well over ninety percent because they prevent T-bone/right-angle collisions, which in turn are extremely dangerous to vehicle occupants. Situation: Many of America’s new ‘modern roundabouts’ — and I have encountered a lot in the many states in which I have instructed defensive- and advanced driving — are usually well-designed, except for three extremely important factors. What are the problems that concern us? The first is the fact that most roundabouts, to this day, in the USA do not have what one might call ‘map’ or ‘layout’ signs on each approach, showing drivers well in advance the exit they will need from the roundabout, to reach their destination. It is both arrogant and dangerous to assume that the drivers in any location are *all* local and all know which way to go at any intersection. And given that many drivers are still very uncomfortable on roundabouts — at least in part because of our third concern, below — anything that risks a driver swerving late to the right to take the exit they need, or swerving left, equally late, to stay on the roundabout when they were preparing to exit from it, is clearly dangerous and can cause collisions. Whether or not a collision results, such incidents serve to reinforce people’s fear of roundabouts and are therefore doubly damaging. Our second concern follows from the first, in that the various lanes on American roundabouts do not always follow a set regime regarding which lane one should take for going left (properly described as being “more than half way around the roundabout”), going straight ahead, or turning right. In the absence of the above-mentioned map/layout signs, drivers only discover at the very last moment, just a few yards before reaching the actual roundabout, which lane they need to be in, and when this happens, yet more frantic and potentially dangerous swerves take place, but this time as lane changes, rather than “exit or stay”. Indeed, at roundabouts with more than four entry/exit roads — and quite rightly there are plenty like this — or at roundabouts where the entries and exits do not form a geometrically symmetrical crossroads, such last-minute lane allocations can be a real challenge. Our third concern is that we know of no states that are advising people to use turn signals before entering roundabouts, during their journey through a roundabout (both ‘as applicable’) and always when leaving the roundabout. This is part of a systemic failure throughout the USA to educate drivers accurately how to drive around roundabouts correctly, and this failure has left a significant proportion of American drivers disliking or afraid of roundabouts — an immensely undesirable scenario. All ADoNA training courses include full best-practice, theoretical training on how to correctly use roundabouts for maximum safety, and as long as there are any roundabouts near the training location you select, there will be full practical training as well. Courses Improving the Overall Situation Around 2006-07, my own concern about what can only be classed as flaws in the correct design and use of roundabouts in America triggered me to start communicating with officialdom at national, state and local levels about the situation, but not for the first time, we were met with what can only be described as a stone wall — a total unwillingness to even acknowledge, let alone reply to, our communications on this important matter. In exasperation, we have to ask what is this failure to employ the best-practices developed by other countries that have been using modern roundabouts for more than 60 years? Do the administrators concerned bizarrely believe that proven and refined safety techniques are of no importance here in America so they’re just going to do it their own way? I’m sorry, but either way this is grossly unacceptable and certainly gives the impression of arrogance — a case of “re-inventing the wheel but very badly.” - Use ‘map’/’layout’ signs on every approach to all except the most-localized of roundabouts, so that visiting or inexperienced drivers are not left floundering as to which lane to use on the approach to the roundabout or not knowing which exit they will need to take from the roundabout until they actually reach it. - Develop a single (i.e. national!) policy for which lanes drivers should use at any roundabout in the USA — based on the geometry of any particular roundabout — “except where signs show otherwise.” Such an over-arching rule would allow all American drivers the chance to understand the benefits and use of roundabouts, and should be in every state’s drivers’ manual, with exactly the same wording so that there can be no drift away from its exact meaning. - Teach drivers when and where to signal, on the approach, the transit through and the exit from any and every roundabout. It is a remarkably easy rule to learn. Failure to teach drivers this is to treat them like idiots, and if you treat drivers like idiots, they will all drive like idiots! - Teach drivers that when approaching the yield line at the entrance to any roundabout, that they should be: “Prepared and able to stop but ready to keep going, if it is legal and safe to do so.” It is a sad but inescapable and relevant fact that the USA is effectively the worst-performing developed nation in the world when it comes to road safety and reducing an excessively high number of road deaths each year. With a death-rate more than four-times worse than the leading nations of Sweden and the UK, America has a very long way to go to improve its highway safety to even just an acceptable level. Addendum : A article titled ‘The Simple Solution to One of America’s Most Dangerous Travel Problems’ was published by ATTN on June 24, 2017, and relates to Massachusetts. It contains all of the above problems and also implies that roundabouts, ‘rotaries’ and ‘traffic circles’ are the same thing when they are certainly not. Also see our page: More on Roundabouts

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New research indicates bicycle helmets are very good for your head even if you collide with a motor vehicle. However helmet-wearing rates by teenagers and children involved in accidents are very low A new paper attracted a lot of attention earlier this month because of a finding that cyclists who ride without a helmet are more likely to take risks. The Conversation did its own investigation and ran the story under the heading Crash data shows cyclists with no helmets more likely to ride drunk. The Sydney Morning Herald took a more sober approach – it reported Cyclists without helmets ‘likely to be risk-takers’. Risky behaviour is one of the issues addressed in the paper but these reports distracted attention from a couple of other important results. The key purpose of the research reported in the paper was to examine the effectiveness of helmets in minimising head injuries in the event of a collision between a bicycle and a motor vehicle. The paper documents an investigation undertaken by four UNSW researchers, M Bambach, R Mitchell, R Grzebieta, and J Olivier. It’s published in the April 2013 edition of Accident prevention and analysis, a leading journal in this area. There’s an ungated version available here (the file has to be saved first). Bambach et al examined 6,475 collisions between cyclists and motor vehicles in NSW where the accident was reported to police, hospital data was available if applicable, and the helmet-wearing status of the cyclist was recorded. The authors were able to combine rich information about the type and severity of injuries with data about the circumstances of the accident. Their headline finding is that helmets confer a large protective effect in the event of a collision with a motor vehicle. The odds of sustaining a ‘moderate’ head injury in a collision are 1.9 times greater if the cyclist doesn’t wear a helmet. However the odds of suffering a head injury classified as ‘serious’ are 2.6 times greater if the rider’s unhelmeted. In the case of a ‘severe’ head injury they’re 3.9 times greater. When the researchers broke head injuries down by type, the estimated odds of suffering a ‘serious’ or ‘severe’ skull fracture if no helmet is worn is 4.6 times greater. These findings go against the meme that helmets only offer protection in the event of a minor accident, like simply falling off a stationary bike or while pedalling at low speed. They contradict the myth that a helmet is useless in an accident with a car. The authors say the research shows the benefit from wearing a helmet increases with the severity of the injury. It’s also very likely the better odds offered by helmets are under-stated. That’s because the number of riders who were involved in a collision with a motor vehicle but avoided a head injury because they wore a helmet can’t be known. There’s also some comfort in the finding that more than 90% of cyclists who were in a collision with a car didn’t sustain a head injury. Those that did, however, were more likely to have collided with a larger vehicle; or to be cycling on a road with higher maximum speeds; or to have disobeyed a traffic signal; or to not be wearing a helmet. Worryingly, the researchers also found children who were involved in a collision were much more likely to be unhelmeted. Children aged 12 years or less comprised 19% of all those who weren’t wearing a helmet at the time of their accident but just 7% of those who were. This pattern was similar for those aged 13-19 years. Teenagers made up 35% of all those who weren’t wearing a helmet when they collided with a motor vehicle but 11% of those who were. Overall around half of all children and teenagers were not wearing a helmet at the time of the accident. This compares with 23% of those aged 20-29, 15% aged 30-39, and 12% aged 40-49 years. Since it’s about accidents involving motor vehicles, this research can’t tell us if children and teenagers are more inclined to cycle without a helmet. However it shows non-helmet wearers in this age group are significantly over-represented in accidents. Both children and teenagers who weren’t wearing a helmet were also more likely to have sustained a head injury than their peers who were. They make up 35% of those with a head injury compared to 24-27% of the controls. As noted at the start, riders who weren’t wearing a helmet were more likely to have been engaged in risky behaviours at the time of the accident. The net result is unhelmeted riders were involved in more severe crashes, but the authors say the difference in severity is small. This research bears on the argument about whether or not Australia’s mandatory helmet laws make sense. I interpret the findings as reinforcing the good sense of wearing a helmet when cycling, especially on roads. I would of course be free to make that choice even if the helmet law were repealed. The question of whether or not helmets should continue to be mandatory must be considered in the context of other arguments, especially the claim that the law deters cycling. A more pressing issue though is the over-representation of under 20s in accidents with cars; their higher rates of head injury; and the remarkably low helmet-wearing rates of those in this age groups who’re involved in collisions with motor vehicles.

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Course Text: Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S. M. (2018). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. · Chapter 6, “Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?” · What Is Plagiarism? · Introductions and Conclusions · Ending the Essay: Conclusions · Resources for Scholarly Writing Synthesis and integration involve succinctly summarizing the main points of the chosen resources and combining the summaries into a coherent narrative. Synthesis and integration require skills that improve with experience. · Review the Torraco article from Week 5, focusing specifically on synthesizing and integrating the literature review. · Of the 10-12 collected resources, choose the 4 peer-reviewed journal articles that most closely address the problem chosen for your Capstone Project. In 2-4 pages, respond to the following: 1. Cite the four resources you have chosen to synthesize and integrate into a narrative. (You may copy and paste the citations from the list of resources you submitted last week.) 2. Synthesize and integrate the four resources into a coherent narrative that: · Begins with an introduction · Includes an integrated synthesis of the resources · Relates the narrative to your problem statement Please read uploaded papers and use correct format for this assignment

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Authentication Rules and Electronic Records I. AUTHENTICATION RULES IN LAW A. The Nature of Authentication ii) where? who? B. The Process of Authentication i) the threats ii) the risks iii) the costs iv) the benefits C. Authentication Rules iv) legal effect II. AUTHENTICATING ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS A. The Nature of Electronic Documents i) uncertainty of storage ii) uncertainty of retrieval iii) ease of alteration, difficulty of detection B. Legal Responses to Electronic Records III. LEGISLATION ON AUTHENTICATING ELECTRONIC RECORDS A. Approaches to Formal Authentication of Electronic Records i) governmental discretion ii) closed systems iii) technology specific general rules iv) technology neutral general rules · reliability – further legislation · reliability rule – is it needed? · Party autonomy – role of contracts to set standards · Attribution rules v) hybrid rules – combining neutral and less neutral rules B. Choosing a Legislative Model C. Other Rules Affecting Authentication i) liability rules ii) recognition rules Authentication Rules and Electronic Records John D. Gregory This paper discusses the legal status of authentication rules in the light of electronic records. It does so in three parts. First, it provides an overview of the nature of rules about authentication of records on paper, and why and how they have evolved. Next, it discusses the impact of electronic records on these rules, and how the rules have responded to them. Finally, it examines the principal methods of modernizing legal authentication regimes in order to accommodate electronic records, while maintaining the policies that led to the authentication rules in the first place. Authentication is the decision whether a record is what it purports to be. It is therefore a question of evidence, though not always of the formal law of evidence. It is a judgment of the credibility or reliability of a document. Three questions arise in the process of authentication: What is this record? Where or who does it come from? Has its content been altered, either intentionally or unintentionally? i) What? The answer to the first question depends on the context of the individual document. A record may be anything capable of recording information: a contract, a letter, a statute, a laundry list, a bank statement, a ledger of transactions. This question is not generally the subject of legislation. ii) Where/Who? The second, on the source of the document, gives rise to (part of) the law on signatures. However, it is very important to note that a signature is just one way of determining the origin of a document. The document is what counts in law, not the signature. One authenticates the document, not the signature. A signature without a document is legally meaningless, it is just an autograph. A document without a signature may be very important legally. One can authenticate an unsigned document and rely on it. But a document whose origin is unknown is unlikely to be given legal consequences. There are many ways of deciding where a document came from. Its content is one: it may recite its origin, e.g. “This is an agreement made on [date] by [party X and party Y].” A business letter – one that may be part of a legal transaction - usually states the address from which it comes and the address to which it is being sent, along with the identity of the sender and addressee. Other ways of determining the source of a record include the context (it may be part of an ongoing discussion shown by several records), physical evidence (a letterhead, a fingerprint), postal evidence (a postmark, even a stamp), or testimony of someone who knows (e.g. “this is the contract I made with party X last year”, “this is the latest draft of the contract being negotiated with party Y”.) There may be evidence created by a third party, that is to say someone. not directly affected by a transaction or relationship that the record affects, such as a witness, a public official, a record-keeper, and the like. (Sometimes such people make the originator’s signature more reliable, rather than the document itself.) As noted, a very common method of showing the source of a record is the signature of the person who created it. A handwritten signature is relatively hard for someone other than the signer to duplicate accurately by hand, so it is a relatively good way to trace the document to the signer. It should be noted that one needs additional evidence to use a handwritten signature – sometimes of the identity of the signer, since some signatures are not legible and unambiguous statements of the signer’s name, and generally of a genuine signature of the signer to compare with the one on the record to be authenticated. Signatures may be supported by supplementary evidence as well, notably that of one or more witnesses to the signature, or the evidence of a public official such as a notary or clerk of a court. Making a document under oath, such as an affidavit, does not by that fact make its source more reliable. The oath goes to the truth of the contents, not their source or their permanence. However, the person before whom the oath is made – notary or commissioner of oaths – may be a useful witness as to the source. Sometimes the laws of evidence provide that a document witnessed by (or sometimes sworn before) a public official is admissible in evidence without further proof of origin, i.e. it is “self-authenticating”. iii) Content? The third element of authentication involves a judgment of the integrity of the record. A record can be altered intentionally or unintentionally (for example a page could be lost or torn or words become illegible). If the person relying on the record wants a legal relationship with the person who created it, then the two parties must have a common intention, and the record of that intention must be the same for both of them. In short, the integrity of the document is important for obvious reasons. Nevertheless the integrity of documents is often protected fairly casually. An original handwritten signature is some evidence of the integrity of the page on which it appears. It is common in some legal systems, notably common law systems, for multi-page contracts to be joined only by a staple. It is uncommon, except for wills, for parties who sign multi-page documents to initial every page. Some legal systems require some kinds of document to be signed before a public official such as a notary, who may keep the original document in safe custody and make true copies for the use of the parties. Sometimes important documents must be deposited in a public registry, thus out of reach of those who might want to alter them, though usually public registries serve as public notice of the contents of the records as much as a means of keeping them secure. A seal can help show the integrity of a document if it forms an impression through all its pages. This is more common with seals (and documents) of public officials than of seals used by private parties, which tend today to be impersonal and used on a single page. One of the common ways of strengthening the likelihood of integrity of a document is to ensure that one has an original version of it. It is harder to tamper undetectably with an original than with a copy, which may be the copy of an altered original. For this reason notaries in Latin systems keep the originals of documents made before them, as mentioned a moment ago. B. The Process of Authentication One authenticates a document in order to decide whether or not to rely on it, that is, to change one’s legal position or to enter into legal obligations. This decision is influenced by a number of factors, not all of them related to the technical nature of the document. The process can be described as a “threat-risk analysis”, which involves an evaluation and a balancing of four factors: threats, risks, costs and benefits. i) The threats to the genuineness of the source: who is interested in providing a false document? This involves considering the history of the relationship with the person providing the document: is the person trustworthy? Has there ever been any problem with a document from this person, transmitted by the same method? Are there others who would benefit from a forgery or an alteration? ii) The risks to the person deciding whether to rely: what is the likelihood that the source of the document has provided a false document in this case? This involves the technical examination of the evidence of source and integrity. iii) The costs of relying on a false document: what is at stake if the document is not genuine? How much is lost? What is the cost of getting or asking for better evidence of source or integrity? Will the other person refuse? What are the technical costs of a better security system? Are the costs of more reliability higher than the costs of the loss from a false document? iv) The benefits of taking a chance on the document: are the potential benefits high compared to the risk of loss and the cost of loss? Not all documents or relying parties will produce the same result. Different people will have different tolerance for loss and different estimates of the threats, risks, costs and benefits even in similar circumstances. High value transactions or transactions with strangers will produce different results than less important transactions with trusted partners. In short, authentication is a judgment, and not an automatic process. It is first of all a business judgment. However, the law has intervened in most countries to set conditions on the exercise of the judgment, making it also a legal judgment. Documents with legal effect are of course part of a legal system, a system of rules governing the relations of people and other entities, as devised by some institution of government. Governments often decide to intervene in judgments about authentication, by making rules that influence the process. i) Purpose: The reason for rules that affect authentication is that the government has seen a public purpose in making them. A number of purposes are at work. The government may decide that the consequences of particular transactions are so important to people that it requires that they be made less risky, by ensuring that some reliable forms of authentication are used. Sometimes only particularly vulnerable people – such as consumers – are made subject to such rules. Put another way, there is often a difference between what the law requires for validity and what people will choose to do out of prudence. The law may allow a pencil signature on a piece of tissue paper to be valid, but many people would consider it imprudent to accept such a flimsy document and insist on something more durable. Sometimes the law will intervene to move the legal standard closer to what prudence seems to require. At other times governments act to protect a state interest in authenticity. Public records are often taken to be more important than records used only among private parties, because public records involve the official status of citizens, or the expenditure of public funds, or the documents making up the history of the community. Authentication rules applicable to public records are common. It is important to note that not all form requirements are based on concerns about authentication. Some are created to produce evidence that certain formalities have been complied with, or that the transaction has been properly conducted. For example, requiring a consumer’s signature on a contract may be a way of ensuring that the consumer appreciates the serious, or at least legally binding, consequences of what is being done. It may be a way of ensuring, and proving later, that the consumer got to look at the terms of the contract before being bound to it. Neither of these motives show any concern about identifying the consumer reliably. As a result, as we will see later, laws affecting how electronic records can satisfy form requirements may not need to demand a highly detailed support of authentication. ii) Nature: Authentication rules generally require that documents be made in a particular form, or with particular formalities. Among the most common are: · writing requirements: that a document made for a particular purpose or between particular parties must be in writing · signature requirements: that a document must be signed by all parties to it, or by the party that will be subject to the obligations it creates. · ceremonial requirements: that a document must be signed in certain circumstances, such as before witnesses, or before certain people, such as notaries or other public officials, or by applying a seal (these rules may be more often to protect the signer of the document than to ensure its authenticity later.) · originality requirements: that a document to have legal effect must be used or presented in its original version and not only as a copy · registration requirements: that the document be deposited in a public register. Requirements that the public have access to the register may be part of authentication – extra eyes to detect inauthenticity – or part of a public notice regime, for example to establish priorities of claims – that has nothing to do with authentication as such. iii) Scope: Authentication requirements typically affect certain documents with a serious impact on the affairs of the person making them. Some typical examples in Canada and the United States are: · land transfers · contracts for high values or involving consumers · family status documents such as marriage contracts · personal care documents like living wills or powers of attorney It may be safe to say that most documents to be submitted to public authorities are subject to some requirements to show their source and integrity, whether the requirements arise from statute or administrative procedure. iv) Legal effect: Rules affecting authentication can have one or more of several impacts on the documents subject to them. · validity: a document that meets the requirement is valid, or one that does not meet the requirement is invalid. · enforceability: whether or not the document is valid, it may not be enforceable, for example against a party who has not signed it · admissibility: a document not in proper form may not be admissible in judicial proceedings, particularly those involving its enforcement · registrability: a document not in proper form may not be registered, and registration may be required to ensure certain rights or priorities concerning the subject of the document. · acceptability: a document not in proper form may simply be refused by a public authority subject to an authentication regime. II. AUTHENTICATING ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS In recent years many documents formerly made on paper have been appearing in electronic form. This has caused some concerns and some difficulties with the authentication process. This part of the paper looks at the nature of electronic documents and how they may be authenticated in practice. It then turns to the application of existing authentication rules to electronic documents. A. The Nature of Electronic Documents Electronic documents are collections of instructions about electric current, to turn the current on or off. A bit is a yes-or-no instruction about current flow. With combinations of seven or eight bits (bytes), one can give sufficiently complex instructions to make characters of most alphabets. Electronic documents commonly show the result of these instructions as words or numbers on a computer screen, or printed out onto paper. Despite this effort at understandability and the apparent relation to writing, people have been worried about the reliability of electronic documents. There are three main reasons for this: i) uncertainty of storage: The electronic instructions about current flow must be stored in some form of electronic medium, whether in a computer’s hard drive, a diskette, a CD, or a magnetic tape (among others). These media may not be completely stable; some data may be lost or altered over time, without human intervention. The media themselves may lose power or data, or they may be affected by outside forces such as magnets or electrical power surges. Likewise if the data are transmitted from one storage place to another, over wires or by wireless means, some of the data may degrade in the process. Finally, the technology of data creation, storage and retrieval are evolving quickly, and data may have to “migrate” from one hardware support to another over its useful life, or be made processible by different software over that period. Will data be lost in those processes? ii) uncertainty of retrieval: Sometimes data are created in one software or hardware system and retrieved in another. Data may be lost in doing so. In any event the display of the data depends on compatibilities and proper functioning of equipment, and it may be difficult to know if data are being lost in the process. Each time the process is repeated, there is an additional risk of loss. iii) ease of alteration, difficulty of detection: Since electronic documents are just a collection of instructions, those instructions might be changed by anyone with the right software and access to the document. Once they have been changed, the resulting document may show no signs of the change. A copy of the instructions may be perfect, i.e. it may not be distinguishable in any practical manner from the version first created (unlike documents on paper). Further, evidence of origin – such as a signature – is itself electronic and thus subject to the same undetectable alterations as the signed text. Still further, bits are independent: they can be picked up and moved around, from one document to another as well as within a document. Thus the bits used to sign one document might be moved to appear in another document unknown to the signer of the first document. The result of these factors is a rebalancing of the threat-risk analysis that one does in authenticating any document. The risks are greater, the costs of avoiding them are different. On the other hand, the benefits of using electronic documents may be greater as well: flexibility, transferability, ease of retrieval, and others. There are methods to reduce the risks inherent in the nature of electronic documents. This is not the place for a detailed technical description of them. However, an indicative list may be helpful to focus the discussion. These factors apply to one’s own documents and to evaluating those created by others. The information may not always be available on every point, but they may give an idea of matters to inquire about, or even to require disclosure of in dealing with others. · Check the integrity of the storage process: when a document on paper is transferred to paper, have the resulting electronic text checked for completeness and accuracy. If this is not practicable for all transfers, check a representative sample. · Use trustworthy processes – i.e. know what the reliability of the technology is and use appropriate levels of it for the purpose · Control access to the means of creating electronic records. Simple controls of physical access to the means of creating electronic documents may help ensure that only the right people get to them. Likewise electronic controls like passwords or higher level security can keep unauthorized people from the records. · Use trustworthy people – i.e. ensure the skill and honesty of the people creating, storing and retrieving electronic documents are adequate. Keeping out strangers is a help, but the people you know may also be a risk. · Use secure communications methods, or if insecure communications are to be used (the Internet being a prime example), secure the data being communicated. The usual way to do this is encryption (see note in next paragraph) · Use a trusted third party to intervene in the decision-making about reliability, to attest to facts otherwise not readily ascertainable. A good deal of discussion about protection electronic records turns on uses of encryption. Encryption can increase dramatically the reliability of identifying the source of a document. If only one person knows the encryption key, besides the person reading the document, then the person reading it can be sure where it came from. (Proving which of the two people who knew the key actually created the document can be harder.) With dual-key cryptography (also called asymmetric or public-key cryptography), this advantage can be obtained for a system with many potential readers, as a different key is used for signing records (the “private key”, known only to the signer) and for reading them (the “public key”, available to be known by anyone who needs to know it). In addition, encryption allows for a test of the integrity of an electronic record from the time of encryption to the time of reading (also called “verification”). This process involves “hashing” the record, which means taking a mathematical digest or compression of it by a known formula (bits being numbers or digits, they are eminently suitable for mathematical processing). When one hashes the received record by the same method that was used on the original record and the hash results match, then it is safe to say that the record has not changed from beginning to end. When a private encryption key is used to encrypt the hash digest of a message, or the message itself, for the purpose of identifying the signer and generally to show the integrity of the signed text, it creates a “digital signature”. (Signatures created by any electronic means are described as “electronic signatures”, of which a digital signature is one particular kind.) A system in which the identity of the person holding the private key is certified by a trusted third party, known as a certification authority or provider of certification services, according to certain rules and contracts, is known as a Public Key Infrastructure, or PKI. Electronic documents are quite different physically and practically than documents on paper. The methods of keeping them from inappropriate change are often different too. As a result, one of the main challenges in authenticating electronic records is properly evaluating the effect of the differences, both in vulnerability and in protection. In other words, as noted, the threat-risk analysis is harder, and most people have less experience in doing it. This challenge has affected the legal responses to electronic records, a subject to which we now turn. B. Legal Reponses to Electronic Records The first and still a very important legal response to authenticating legal records is the private law method of contract. The parties to a transaction, or the users of a document, agree among themselves what steps to take to make the electronic document reliable enough for them. A typical example of such contracts are the interchange agreements, also called trading-partner agreements, that are common among parties to Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) arrangements. Such agreements often include descriptions of the procedures, the technology, and the intermediaries to be used in communicating electronically. They also prescribe or adopt a standard for the meaning of traditional legal documents, such as purchase orders or receipts. This paper has been dealing with rules for authentication, i.e. rules laid down usually by the state, not just by private parties. It is a good question to what extent private parties can by agreement among themselves decide how such official requirements can be met. If the law requires that a document be signed, may the parties using a document decide by themselves, without any state authority, that their electronic signatures satisfy that rule? Can the parties simply decree that as between themselves, an electronic document will be considered to be “in writing” as required by law, so that no party may seek to invalidate the document later on ground that it is not in writing because it is electronic? Does it make a difference that the document is to be submitted to an agency of the state, rather than just between private parties? The difficulty in answering such questions was one factor that led to the legislative measures discussed in the next section of this paper. It is arguable, as noted earlier, that an electronic document is “in writing” for the purposes of an authentication rule requiring writing. In use, many such documents are displayed in letters and numbers that we recognize as characters of writing. This argument runs into several counter-arguments, however, that have led to reluctance to accept electronic documents for this purpose without legislative support. The first is that writing requirements often appear in contexts that seem as a matter of policy to call for a degree of stability of the document, and electronic records do not all have this stability. Second, many places have statutes about the interpretation of other statutes (in Canada they are generally known as the Interpretation Act), and they often define “writing” or related terms in words that suggest if not state outright that some tangible medium must be present. One finds words like “printed” and “lithographed”. Third, writing requirements often appear without the word “writing” itself, but rather terms that imply writing on paper such as “on a prescribed form” or “certified”. Finally, not all documents whose users seek a legal effect do use the characters of writing. Machine-readable documents may also be suitable for the purposes of writing, but they cannot be said to resemble it. Many EDI forms are of this kind – codes recognizable by machines according to agreed standards, but not displayed in letters or numbers. The courts have sometimes been willing to allow electronic records to satisfy form requirements that are rules about authentication. For example, a Canadian court a few years ago decided that a form of proxy faxed to a corporation for its shareholders’ meeting was “signed” as required by the corporate statute. Its status as a faxed document did not prevent the signature on it from satisfying the requirement. One wonders if the court would have been as confident if there had been any dispute about who had signed the proxy, and not only about its form. One could argue that the court dealt with the letter of the authentication rule – that the document be signed – and ignored the spirit of the rule, which was to provide a good way to judge where the document came from. Since, however, the source of the document in that case was not in dispute, the result is satisfactory for the case. The case shows the importance of distinguishing between the question of whether a document is signed and the question of who signed it. Often the form requirement demands only that one prove the former, the fact of signature. The parties relying on the signature are left to prove the source of the document separately, just as they have to demonstrate its legal effect once it has been authenticated. Rather than multiply examples of courts being more or less willing to find authentication rules satisfied by electronic documents, however, it is simply worth noting that court decisions govern only the facts before the courts, however narrow or unusual. Only after a number of cases have been decided similarly can users of documents begin to be confident that the latitude will be applied broadly … or not. In short, it is hard to derive advice on authenticating electronic records from the few cases available in any jurisdiction. It is fair to say that over time, people have become more comfortable with electronic documents, and more used to making the appropriate calculations about their authentication. To a significant extent, the available technology has become more secure, as well. Consider the widespread use of Secure Socket Layer (SSL) security in web-based commerce, which allows people to provide credit card numbers or other sensitive personal information with little or no fear of interception. Modern web browsers and word processing software often allow users to encrypt their electronic messages, either for storage in their own machines or in transmission to others. As a result, people have been more willing to contemplate electronic documents satisfying authentication rules. In the past decade a large number of countries have enacted legislation about the use of electronic documents. Sometimes they simply authorize the state to use electronic documents for official purposes, or to keep official records in electronic form. Sometimes they spell out how to do particular things electronically. The latter class of statute usually has a degree of detail about how things are to be done electronically, in order to satisfy legal requirements. Just as authentication rules for paper documents arose because the state wanted to intervene in the authentication decision – or to take away the decision entirely from the users of documents, so with electronic records, the state sometimes decrees what is good enough and what is not. Legislation on such matters has become more accepting and less prescriptive. However, states are still involving themselves in the authentication decision, and making a threat-risk analysis, or a prudence analysis, on behalf of their citizens. This is in part because people and their governments still trust electronic records less than paper records. It is also because electronic records do present particular challenges to the interpretation of existing authentication rules. Some legislative assistance is necessary if such rules are not to bar the use of electronic records even when the state and the citizens favour their use. It is now time to look at the current range of legislation that is available to express the results of that analysis. III. LEGISLATION ON AUTHENTICATING ELECTRONIC RECORDS This section reviews legislation that applies broadly to electronic records. It does not include statutes that prescribe rules for particular documents or narrow classes of documents, or documents only for state use, because such statutes are as varied as the documents they deal with. Some of the approaches described here may be usable for more narrow purposes, of course. The legislation described here is often applicable on its face only to commercial applications, though some countries have applied the principles more broadly in implementing it. Each state deciding to enact laws to accommodate electronic documents will have to decide how much freedom commercial parties should have to make their own arrangements or judgments about authentication, and how far any such freedom may be appropriate for other kinds of documents. There are few if any international models for non-commercial electronic documents, such as those affecting matrimonial matters, administrative law or criminal prosecutions, though some countries have adopted legislation on some aspects of the question, or have applied the commercial models more broadly. This paper focuses on commercial matters and does not explore possible models for non-commercial electronic documents. After the examination – the longest part of the text – of approaches to authentication rules for electronic records, and of the factors that might lead someone to favour one or the other of them, the paper looks more briefly at some other elements of legislation in this field that do not deal directly with the formalities of authentication but which contribute to the ways the relevant laws operate. In particular that part of the text deals with liability rules and recognition rules. A. Approaches to Formal Authentication of Electronic Records There are, roughly speaking, five general approaches to legislating authentication rules for electronic records. Each will be described in turn. i) governmental discretion ii) closed systems iii) technology specific general rules iv) technology neutral general rules v) hybrid rules – combining neutral and less neutral rules i) governmental discretion: This is the most open-ended approach. A government official, or government officials responsible for particular documents, is given the power to prescribe how particular documents are to be done. It is used generally where documents are to be filed with the state, so the state has a specific interest in the reliability of the document but also in the manageability of the process by which the documents are created and submitted. The discretion may be applied to remove existing authentication rules or to adapt them to the new medium of the document. Example: Ontario’s Business Regulation Reform Act, 1994, s. 10 (Statutes of Ontario, Canada, 1994, chapter 32. See www.e-laws.gov.on.ca for Ontario statutes and regulations.) Also s. 8 of UK Electronic Communications Act, 1998, which allows the responsible minister to declare how form requirements can be satisfied electronically (subject to some Parliamentary control) ii) closed systems: A “closed” system of communication (i.e. of circulation of documents) is one in which all parties are linked to each other by contract or by admission or permission by someone with the power to control the system. This is often the government or a part of the government. At that point “system rules” will apply to authentication. The nature of the system rules will depend on the needs of the system. If everyone in the system is using the same trusted or officially approved hardware or software, or is identified automatically by the fact of accessing the system, then little other formal authentication may be required. EDI systems governed by trading partner agreements, as described above, are closed systems. To the extent that legislation recognizes the effectiveness of the contractual authentication devices to satisfy official requirements, they are logically included in the list of legislative approaches. We will see below that the more general legislative approaches usually make some room for private authentication systems alongside the statutory schemes. Example: the Toronto E-Filing Pilot Project, 1996 – date. See Rules of Civil Procedure, Revised Regulations of Ontario, 1990, chapter 194, as amended, Rule 4.05.1. Private law firms using software provided by the Ministry of the Attorney General are allowed to file electronic court documents without the signatures needed on their paper equivalents. They may also pay the filing fees from their bank accounts by electronic means. All participants are known to and approved by the Ministry. iii) technology specific general rules: Governments that have wanted to facilitate the use of electronic documents, generally or in commerce, have often moved cautiously to remove the barriers caused by existing authentication rules. They have spelled out the attributes of the technology deemed appropriate for commercial uses, for example, and have given special legal effect to it. The usual technology chosen for such statutes is public-key cryptography. This technology has the advantage of being well tested in theory and predictably reliable. It has the additional advantage of offering a third party to make it more reliable. A signature on paper involves two people or classes of people: the signer and the person(s) relying on the signature. While an electronic signature may also involve only the same two classes, it may also involve a third person, someone who acts as an intermediary to establish the relying party’s trust in the signature itself. An electronic signature is only bits, like any other electronic document. Many people believe that electronic signatures will inspire more confidence if a trusted third party certifies to the relying party that the signature bits are in fact the signature of a particular person. (The technology and not the third party guarantees the integrity of the electronic document supported by a digital signature.) The technology has however two disadvantages, both arising from its technical complexity. First, it is hard for the general potential user of such a system to judge whether the technical requirements are being properly met. Second, it may be hard to demonstrate to a court just why the technology is reliable and should be accepted by the court. Legislation has thus been devised to ensure that such certification authorities (CAs) follow trustworthy procedures. Some statutes offer to the relying party reinforced credibility of the identification in such certificates, by way of a presumption of attribution, and also a presumption of the integrity of the document involved. It is thought that such presumptions help the signer choose the technology with confidence, and relieve the relying party of having to get into the details of the technology before a court. Much of the early conceptual work about such a system was carried out by the American Bar Association, whose Digital Signature Guidelines were influential. (The Guidelines are available at http://www.abanet.org/scitech/ ec/isc/digital_signature.html.) The first legislation to this effect was the Utah Digital Signature Act of 1995. (Utah Act, Utah Code Annotated, Title 46-3, http://www.le.state.ut.us/~code/TITLE46/46_02.htm.) It dealt expressly with public key cryptography as signature. It regulated certification authorities and exempted them from liability if they followed the rules. It also provides a presumption of attribution for duly certified signatures. The Utah Act was followed in three other states (Washington, Minnesota and Missouri). However, this approach was severely criticized on several grounds. · As technology evolved there were many different implementations of digital signatures, with different degrees of involvement and engagement by third parties and relying parties and thus different risks and degrees of reliability. Presumptions were not justified to the same degree for each implementation. · The relationship among the participants was not always as contemplated in the legislation. Different uses of electronic documents needed different degrees of reliability, in fact, so having a single system designated by law was sometimes unhelpful or even risky to the users. · The apparent advantage of not having to prove the technology in court was reduced by the need to respond persuasively to someone who attacked its reliability. · Digital signature legislation was thought to impede the free development of electronic records systems, as it gave an unfair legal advantage to the technology of public key cryptography. · More recently, privacy advocates have attacked some features of PKIs as a threat to personal information. In the result, no further American states have followed the Utah example. In the wake of the Utah Act, Germany, Italy and Malaysia also passed digital signature legislation, with extensive rules about the creation of signatures, the role of the certification authority, and so on. Germany has since modified its law to conform to the Directive of the European Union on Electronic Signatures, which is discussed below in the section on hybrid legislation, and Italy will have to do so as well in due course. The place where PKI legislation is still actively under development is among governments for state use. Many governments have decided that their electronic records require this technology, and for their own purposes are legislating the legal requirements for, and the results in law of, its use. An important part of the motivation for such legislation is the duties and liability of the parties when the technology is used, a topic discussed in a later section of this paper. iv) technology neutral general rules In distinction to the specific detailed statutes mentioned here, a number of countries – and international bodies – have preferred a minimalist response to the quest for certainty about the legal status of electronic communications and authentication. They have chosen a minimalist approach for several reasons. First, the existing law - statutes and jurisprudence and private law based on contracts - is capable of resolving a good number of questions on its own. Electronic messages, even on the Internet, do not present radically new questions for all legal purposes. As noted, the level of comfort with electronic records generally increases with familiarity. Next, the technology underlying electronic records is changing rapidly, so attempts to prescribe specifically how to conduct legally effective communications risk obsolescence even before they come into force. In any event the uses to which electronic communications are put vary so widely that no single technology would suit all of them. The proposed legislation can be said to be “technology neutral” for this reason. The leader in this field is the United Nations (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Commerce. (Official Records of the General Assembly, Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/40/17)(1996). The text and the very useful Guide to Enactment are at ) The Model Law sets out an electronic equivalent to various form requirements that are prescribed for paper. Thus a requirement for a signature of a person is satisfied if a method is used that identifies the person and indicates the person’s approval of the electronic record, and if the method used is as reliable as is appropriate in all the circumstances, including the existence of any agreement among the parties about the method to be used. (Article 7(1) of the Model Law on E-Commerce.) It is generally accepted that “approval” in this formula means only willingness to adopt the text as one’s own, without necessarily restricting a signature to one used to assent to a contract. This function of a signature – to link a person with a document – is the same for a signature on paper or a signature associated with an electronic document. This means that the authentication function can be satisfied by an electronic signature under this formula. However, Article 7(3) of the Model Law allows implementing countries to exclude particular signatures from the scope of the permission, without saying what to exclude. The Guide to Enactment asks that the exclusions be narrow so as not to reduce the scope of the general permission. A state legislating on authentication of electronic records may choose to exclude on the basis of the type of document, the type of transaction, or the type of party. The motive of excluding would be to protect either the interests of the parties or the interests of the state in reliable authentication or prudent practices, in other words, the same motive that often underlay the creation of the authentication rule in the first place, before electronic documents came into the picture. The range of exclusions – of cases where authentication decisions cannot be left to the parties – is likely to be narrower when the documents and transactions are purely commercial. The more the enabling legislation extends to non-commercial matters, the more interest the state may have in involving itself in authentication decisions. Many of the countries implementing the UN Model Law on Electronic Commerce have chosen similar exclusions. They typically exclude land transfers (though not always short term leases), wills (which are arguably not commercial anyway), powers of attorney, and negotiable instruments (bills of exchange, promissory notes, cheques). Land transfers tend to have a public interest component, at least for the protection of third parties, often done through a public registration system. Powers of attorney and wills may be prepared by the parties themselves without professional advice, which increase the risk of insecurity in matters very important to the property of the makers. (Some countries require the participation of notaries in these documents; if a system of electronic notarial documents can be devised, then this concern is lessened.) Negotiable instruments carry in themselves the value they represent, and they therefore must be unique, i.e. exist in a single official version only. Electronic records are at present impossible to create so they cannot be copied, if they are still to be transferable. The Model Law on Electronic Commerce does not itself exclude consumer transactions. However, its provisions yield to consumer protection laws in enacting states. Enacting states may have to decide if a requirement in their law that a consumer contract be in writing or signed should be satisfied by an electronic document that comply with the Model Law’s rules, or whether further demands should be imposed. The United States federal law, for example, requires that the capacity as well as the consent of consumers to communicate electronically be adequately demonstrated. (See the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act, Public Law 106-229 of 2000.) We will return to exclusions in our discussion of hybrid legislation, below. A number of countries have implemented the UN Model Law on Electronic Commerce, including the signature provisions. Examples are Singapore, Australia, Hong Kong, India, Bermuda, Ireland, Columbia, Canada, the United States and France. (Useful sources of information on international developments in this field, and links to online versions – for statutes of all types - are the Internet Law and Policy Forum, , the McBride Baker Coles firm website, , and the Baker & McKenzie firm website, .) Four issues arise out of the Model Law’s approach that cast light on potential legislation about authenticating electronic records: reliability standards, rules dispensing with reliability, party autonomy, and attribution rules. · Reliability – further legislation: The e-signature rule of the Model Law on E-Commerce is very helpful in ensuring that electronic signatures can be used with legal effect, i.e. that some of the rules about authentication can be met by an electronic signature. It is however very general. People signing documents electronically will want assurance at the time of signing that the method they are using is in law appropriately reliable for their circumstances, so that the signed document will be legally effective. Without case law on the subject, reliability and thus effectiveness was a matter of opinion, debate and uncertainty. As a result, UNCITRAL developed a new Model Law on Electronic Signatures, adopted in July 2001. (It is available online at . A Guide to Enactment will be published on the same site shortly.) The new Model Law sets out criteria for evaluating the reliability of an electronic signature, though it states clearly that the criteria are not exclusive and that other electronic signatures may be appropriately reliable too within the meaning of the 1996 Model Law. The criteria for reliability are these: (a) « the signature creation data are, within the context in which they are used, linked to the signatory and to no other person » For a signature to be reliable, the data have to point to one person, at least within the context of the signature. The qualification would allow the same signing code for more than one person, but not where it is at all likely to be ambiguous. (b) « the signature creation data were, at the time of signing, under the control of the signatory and of no other person » People are safely presumed to control the means for creating a handwritten signature – their signing hand. Traditional cheque-signing machines present similar problems to electronic signatures: they are acceptable often only because the relying party has strong assurance that the purported signer will not repudiate the signature. For electronic signatures (also created by a kind of machine), the ability to control the use of the signing data is here made part of the criteria for reliability. (c) « any alteration to the electronic signature, made after the time of signing, is detectable » The next two paragraphs reflect a debate within the Working Group about the extent to which a signature at law shows the integrity of the signed document. Common law delegates generally said it did not. Civil law delegations generally said it did. (No one doubted the need for a relying party to know that the document was trustworthy; the debate dealt only with the function of a signature to show that.) The compromise was to focus in one paragraph on alterations to the signature, which could be understood to refer to any doubt about the link between the signature and the document with which it was linked, and in another with alterations to the document. The test in paragraph (c) is not that a signature that is altered is invalid, but only that the alteration must be detectable. Once detected, the change may have a range of effects, largely within the judgment of the relying party, since the relying party takes the risk if the signature is invalid. (d) « where a purpose of the legal requirement for a signature is to provide assurance as to the integrity of the information to which it relates, any alteration made to that information after the time of signing is detectable. » The provision is a standard provision for the characteristics of digital signatures (those created using public key cryptography). The Working Group did not decide that this characteristic was needed for any electronic signature to be reliable – unless preserving or showing the integrity of the document is considered an essential function of a signature. This was the civil law view, and civil law countries may want this provision as part of their criteria for a signature reliable enough to have the same legal effect as a handwritten signature, if they choose a reliability test at all – a question discussed below. Paragraph 6(5) repeats the caveat of Article 7(3) of the Model Law on E-Commerce, that enacting states may carve out some unspecified kinds of signature as exceptions to the general rule. It is open to discussion whether the need for a carve-out is as strong when criteria for reliability are clearer than they were in the old text. Compliance with mandatory rules is already guaranteed under Article 5. Perhaps enacting states will find it clearer to list by statute the places where higher standards are required. This question is noted again in the discussion below of hybrid legislation. Article 7 anticipates a short-cut to reliability: the declaration by an authorized body that a particular method of creating an electronic signature is reliable. This body may be in the public sector or may be a private body authorized by the public authorities to give such accreditation. The declaration is intended to avoid the need to prove that any particular signature technique meets the general standard of reliability or the particular criteria of paragraph 6(3). Although the article does not intend for countries to designate how reliable e-signatures must be done, only particular ways that are deemed to be reliable, there will be much pressure in practice for signers to use the approved methods. Some concerns have been expressed that countries will introduce disharmony in what is acceptable, by accrediting inconsistent signature methods under this article. Any such accreditation must be in accord with recognized international standards, to reduce the chances of this. The recognition rules discussed below also bolster this approach. To date no country has adopted the Model Law on Electronic Signatures, though traces of its reasoning are found in the New Zealand Electronic Transactions bill published in 2000. The more “reliable” a signature has to be to meet a legal signature requirement, the more comfortable a state can be that its existing authentication rules (i.e. designed originally for paper documents) can accommodate electronic documents that comply with the UN model. However, it is important that the hurdles to electronic documents not be set too high for all purposes. The discussion earlier about commercial and non-commercial documents is relevant here. Some countries have done without any specific reliability test for electronic commercial documents, as the following text explains. · reliability rule: is it needed? Some implementations of the UN Model Law on Electronic Commerce omit the reliability test entirely, so that any electronic signature meets a signature requirement. The e-signature would have to be made with intention to sign the document, so evidence would be needed of its nature. The Canadian and American uniform statutes, the American federal statute, the Quebec provincial statute, and the European Union Directive on Electronic Signatures all take this approach (the EU Directive for basic e-signatures, though it provides special rules for advanced electronic signatures, discussed below. (Directive 99/93/EC, December 1999, .) The reason for the omission is that current law imposes no reliability test on handwritten signatures. Anything that can be shown to be linked to a person with intent to sign a document can be a signature. As noted earlier, a signature is just one way to authenticate a document. If one can show with respect to any document, or any apparent signature, who created it, what it relates to, and what the intention was (a matter of context not form), then the task of authentication is complete. Showing in addition that the form of signature met some kind of reliability test, independent of what one can actually prove toward authentication, seemed superfluous, if not simply a trap for the unwary, a risk of invalidity despite clear proof of authenticity. This approach puts the authentication of electronic records on a closer footing to that of paper records. If the law requires a signature on a paper record, then the party wishing to enforce the record at law can simply show the fact of signature. Then the legal requirement is met. Going on to show just who signed it and why it is reliable is a separate issue. The party seeking enforcement must then prove fact, not compliance with a vague or complex legal standard. This is an easier task, and one more in tune with the nature of authentication, which is a business judgment about the acceptability of risk. · Party autonomy – role of contracts to set standards: Article 7 of the 1996 Model Law allows a court to take into account any agreement among the parties to a document when judging the reliability of a signature method. In doing so the court could presumably not follow the agreement. Otherwise the parties cannot opt out of this standard for satisfying a signature requirement, or the other “functional equivalence” rules of Chapter II of Part One of the Model Law on Electronic Commerce. The new Model Law on Electronic Signatures shows an evolution of this position. Article 5 says that parties to a transaction may vary or opt out of any provision of the Model Law (i.e. of implementing legislation) except where this is prohibited by law. This was intended to be the equivalent of saying that the power to opt out is limited by “mandatory rules” or considerations of “public order”, in the language of international conventions. It was not intended to encourage countries to prohibit commercial parties from making their own arrangements across a range of documents. This is therefore a broader autonomy to make one’s own arrangements than in the older text. In addition, Article 3 of the new Model Law states clearly that the parties are free to decide what will be good enough among themselves, even if they choose a more demanding authentication technique than that which would be considered appropriately reliable under Article 6. They may also take advantage of any rule of law that would allow for a less reliable signature than the general standard of appropriate reliability. (One does not contemplate legislation approving “inappropriate” reliability, but rather legislation setting a lower standard for a good reason, in the absence of which reason and legislation the signature technique could be considered insufficiently reliable.) Legislation based on the UN models thus makes space for the trading partner agreements done for EDI, mentioned earlier, that spell out that the electronic signature or document authentication processes named in the contract will satisfy the authentication rules of the applicable law. This is true especially for electronic signatures. The other rules would have to comply with the standards of the 1996 Model Law, but they are likely to be compatible with what the parties would agree on anyway. This broad role for party autonomy recognizes that authentication is more a matter of business risk management than of legal duty. However, the law still plays two roles: first, it tells those without the power to negotiate standards how to get to a generally acceptable system. Second, it sets the important standards for authentication, those that cannot be derogated from, in other words those that are so important that parties are not allowed to make their own judgment. This power is given not only by the submission of private agreements to public order, but also by the power to exclude some kinds of signatures or records from the statutory permissions altogether. The exclusions would put electronic documents back into the general law about forms that affect authentication. Sometimes, as we have seen earlier, they will not be able to satisfy those forms for technical reasons, and electronic documents will not be legally effective. (Possibly in some cases the right policy response would be special rules for those special form requirements. For example, the province of Ontario has followed the general Canadian uniform statute in excluding land transfer documents from the permission to use electronic documents and signatures. Nevertheless the province has established an electronic system of land transfers, with its separate statutory and technical security regimes.) Legislation that leaves much autonomy to the parties to decide what evidence they need of authentication also exposes parties to the risk of wrong decisions. If this is done, then it is important to ensure that parties are free to decide not to use electronic records and signatures at all. The Canadian, American and Australian statutes, among others, are all very clear on that point. As the Canadian uniform statute puts it, in section 6(1), “nothing in this Act requires any person to use or accept information in electronic form, but consent may be inferred by conduct.” The power to say No is the power to say Yes, If …, and thus impose for particular transactions or classes of transaction the rules for reliable authentication that seem appropriate to that person. Since the relying party takes the risk, on paper or online, that the document or signature is not genuine, that party should be able to decide on the medium in which it will run that risk. One may however bind oneself by contract to accept electronic records, at least for a period. The American uniform statute expressly grants the right to change one’s consent on this point and prevents people from waiving that right (s. 5(c)). · Attribution rules: Article 13 of the U.N. Model Law on Electronic Commerce provides that data messages may be attributed to those who create them or who authorize their creation. This is of course the general law in most countries. The United States and Australia have legislated similar provisions. The Canadian legislators thought this went without saying, so did not say it. The 1996 U.N. Model Law goes on to provide a rule (or presumption) of attribution where certain agreed security procedures are used on data messages, or if an unauthorized person got access to the security procedures through the fault of the authorized user (Model Law paragraphs 13(3) and (4)). To date these rules have not been widely adopted by implementing countries. The American drafting group attempted to devise similar rules, but they fell under severe criticism based partly on the fluidity of the technology available and partly on the likely lack of sophistication of its users. (Reports of the Drafting Committee meetings can provide details. Online at: , notably the meetings of September 1997 and January 1998.) The Canadian uniform statute did not try to follow the Model Law on this point in the Uniform Act, but the federal government has given it some echo in its legislation, discussed below. The working group of UNCITRAL on electronic signatures aimed to give more substance to the provisions of Article 13 of the 1996 text, but there too, efforts to draft clear attribution rules ended up much narrower than originally hoped. (See the reports of the meetings of UNCITRAL’s Working Group on Electronic Commerce, notably for July 1998 (A/CN.9/454, para. 40 – 53); for February 1999 (A/CN.9/457, para. 99 – 107, and Working Paper WP.79 para 31 - 33); for September 1999 (A/CN.9/465, para. 68 – 77); and for February 2000 (A/CN.9/467, para. 44 – 71). They are all at http://www.uncitral.org/english/workinggroups/wg_ec/index.htm.) Where legislation is silent on attribution, parties to electronic transactions will have to satisfy themselves of the origin of electronic documents and signatures. What is prudent will depend on the circumstances, including the other identification methods available (such as use of a credit card), the total value of the transaction and the cost of getting better assurance of origin. A technology-neutral statute can do little more without hampering parties who are capable of making their own decisions. Statutes that say more about the technology may permit themselves to say more about attribution as well. v) hybrid general rules As the Utah model fell into question, attempts were made to find technology-neutral statutes that would nevertheless recognize that some kinds of e-signatures were more reliable than others. The most solidly drafted of these was the Illinois Electronic Commerce and Security Act of 1998, which went through several public drafts with commentary on its way to passage. Illinois provided that parties might agree that an electronic signature would satisfy a legal signature requirement. In addition, particularly reliable e-signatures were described as “secure electronic signatures”. These had certain characteristics first described in the United States by the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) in the early 1990s. These characteristics were, in the words of the Illinois Act (s. 10-110): · The signature is unique to signer in the context in which it is used; · It can be used to objectively identify the person signing the electronic record; · It was reliably created by such identified person (e.g. because some aspect of the procedure involves the use of a signature device or other means or method that is within the sole control of such person) and that cannot be readily duplicated or compromised; · It is created and linked to the electronic record to which it relates, in a manner such that if the record or signature is intentionally or unintentionally changed after signing then the electronic signature is invalidated. Illinois allowed the Secretary of State to designate electronic signature systems that met these criteria, so that litigants would not have to prove compliance with them in every case. Where the criteria were present, the Act provided a presumption of attribution, i.e. that the signature actually came from the person who apparently made it. It also sets out criteria for evaluating the reliability of certificates. The Illinois model has influenced many others, including California in the US, Singapore (the first nation to implement the U.N. Model Law on Electronic Commerce), India, Hong Kong, Bermuda, and others. Among international bodies, it affected the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures and the European Directive on that subject. In Canada, the federal government has adopted the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), Part 2 of which deals with electronic documents. (S.C.2000 c.5, http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/P-8.6/index.html) It is a hybrid statute as well. Some of the signature provisions simply allow signature requirements to be satisfied electronically by use of an e-signature in the form to be prescribed by regulation. However, several sections contemplate the use of a “secure electronic signature”. For example, one can use a secure electronic signature to create a certificate signed by a minister or public official that is proof of a fact or admissible in evidence. A secure electronic signature may serve as a seal, if the seal requirement has been designated under the Act. Affidavits may be made electronically if both deponent and commissioner of the oath sign with a secure electronic signature. Declarations of truth may be made with such signatures, in similar circumstances. Witnesses may sign under similar conditions. It is worth noting that unlike most of the hybrid statutes, the Canadian federal law gives no choice about whether to use a secure electronic signature. To sign electronically and validly within the meaning of the provisions named, people must use the secure electronic signature. A “secure electronic signature” is not defined in the Bill, except as “an electronic signature that results from the application of a technology or process prescribed by regulations made under subsection 48(1)”. That subsection sets out the usual provisions for signatures of this type, as we have discussed above in regards to Illinois. The intention is that in the first instance the only technology to be designated will be that of digital signatures certified by the Government of Canada, or those from systems cross-certified with the GOC PKI. (Cross-certification allows two or more public key infrastructures to recognize each other’s certificates and thus signatures. More on the Government of Canada PKI can be found online at ) Some provincial governments are developing public key infrastructures as well, and they hope to be cross-certified with the federal PKI. To date no regulations have been made on secure electronic signatures. On the international front, the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures aims to help the parties determine in advance whether the reliability standard of the 1996 Model Law has been met, as noted above. The new Model Law also avoids detailed descriptions of the technology to be used, however, for the reasons that support minimalism in the first place. Earlier drafts talked of “secure” or “enhanced” electronic signatures. The terms have been dropped but the criteria of identification, sole control and detection of alteration remain in the new criteria for reliability of an electronic signature. The new Model Law is barely a hybrid within the meaning of this discussion. It shows that even hybrids have a range of degrees of obligation about the methods of authentication that they authorize. Compare the European Union’s Directive on Electronic Signatures. It ensures that electronic signatures can be valid despite their electronic form and despite not meeting the more demanding standards described in the rest of the Directive. It goes on to prescribe in considerable detail a regime for “advanced electronic signatures” created by a “secure-signature-creation device” and supported by “qualified certificates”. Again one recognizes the NIST/Illinois language, though the appendices on technical requirements for qualification are more detailed than in those texts. The result of using this technology is an electronic signature to which member states must give the legal effect of a handwritten signature. There are no presumptions of attribution. This may strike some as a weak result for a strong technology. Two main motives inspire this kind of legislation. The first is certainty, the same motive as for the technology specific legislation in Utah and elsewhere. While the general permission to use electronic signatures – with a reliability test, often, outside North America – may satisfy some more sophisticated parties, those who want to know that their signature process will be taken to be reliable, or those who do not want to have to prove its reliability, may be well served by the more detailed rules. Hybrid legislation reflects the nature of authentication among private parties: different weight is given to different documents and to different technologies. The difference is of course the role of the state in making the calculations mandatory and in defining them to some extent. The second motive is closely related to authentication. Some classes of signature may not be made electronically except with a secure electronic signature. This is the case under the Canadian federal legislation, the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act. Documents whose authentication is considered particularly important must use the most secure processes to be authenticated in an electronic form. It is worth noting that most of the items in the list in the Canadian statute relate to the use of the signed document in evidence. It is arguable that the detailed requirements in the hybrid legislation will not be easy to meet, judging from the difficulties in setting up public key infrastructures in Canada and the United States. However, even when they are met on their face, the assurances of identity of the signatory are vulnerable, depending on the design of the system. It is arguable that even presumptions of attribution are risky outside the context of a state-supported or at least state-regulated system, where the technical standards and trustworthy procedures are well known and expertly applied. As noted in the earlier discussion of the nature of a signature, the fact of a signature is only one way in a commercial transaction to provide evidence of attribution. (Indeed, the identity of the other party is often less important than its solvency or the quality of its goods or services. For this reason one distinguishes sometimes between identification – who is this person? – and authentication – is this the person I want it to be? The latter is often a more important function of a signature, because one uses other means to determine who one wants to deal with. This paper uses the term “authentication” to cover both aspects, however.) Business parties may in practice choose to satisfy themselves about attribution through procedures that do not qualify as a signature at all, and certainly not as an advanced or a secure signature. This statement brings us back to two earlier points that are worth considering in the context of hybrid legislation, in part because of the popularity of this kind of legislation. The first is that authentication is first of all a business decision about risk tolerance and risk management, though it is often supported or framed by official rules about what is acceptable authentication. Second, the need for official rules will vary with the use to which the authenticated document will be put. The more likely the document is to be used only among sophisticated commercial parties, the less need there is for government to intervene or to prescribe detailed rules. If there will be less sophisticated parties, like consumers, or if the purposes of the document are not commercial but relate to personal life or official status, then the state is more likely to want to intervene. There are two means of “intervening”, in that sense. The first is to provide detailed rules for acceptable authentication of electronic documents, as is done in the hybrid legislation. These rules may be restricted in their application to uses in particular need of reliability, as has been done in the Canadian federal law. The second means is to exclude particular classes of document or transaction from the general permission to authenticate by electronic means. The UNCITRAL Model Laws both contemplate exclusions. Typical exclusions in national legislation have been mentioned already. It should be noted that these two methods work in the same direction, support the same policy, i.e. to protect those who need extra protection. The more detailed the rules are for electronic authentication, the fewer documents need to be excluded from the permission to authenticate electronically. Conversely, if a country excludes most sensitive documents from the legislation, then the remaining documents may well be left to be authenticated however the parties to them see fit. B. Choosing a Legislative Model When deciding whether to legislation on acceptable methods of authenticating electronic records, countries need to keep several factors in mind. Some are neutral, some indicate a preference for minimal technology-neutral rules, and some may favour a more detailed law like the hybrid legislation described above. · Harmonization – is the law consistent with that of one’s major trading partners, or with that of countries with which one hopes to trade? In days of global borderless trading, how open does one need to be to distant or new potential trading partners? Is it easier to harmonize a more simple regime? · Users’ familiarity with electronic technology – are people faced with electronic documents likely to make sound decisions about their authentication? The more familiar they are, the less likely they are to need legislative assistance. Are people required to use electronic records – in which case they may need more protection – or are they free to accept or reject – in which case they may have more power to choose what authentication methods are acceptable to them without state help. · Available technology – is equipment readily available to the creators and users of electronic records that would allow them to satisfy detailed technical requirements of legislation? · Purposes of rules – different authentication rules may apply to different documents, parties or transactions. If the rules exclude some of the more sensitive of these, then they may be able to be more open to party autonomy for what is covered. State records may need different treatment from private records, as noted earlier. A single rule on authentication may not be sufficient for the variety of records and transactions and parties possible. · Traditions of party autonomy – how much choice do people have to authenticate documents on paper? Does legislation limit and channel this process as well? People may expect a consistent approach among media. Is there a tradition of strong state involvement in authentication decisions? · Law of evidence – does the law of evidence in the country require particular formalities of presentation or signing? These formalities or their equivalents may be required to ensure authentic electronic records are available for courts. · Standards – are technical standards available for creating electronic records or signatures? The European Electronic Signature Standard is in preparation, as is a Canadian standard on electronic documents. Standards might be a useful basis of a legislative requirement, or the basis on which a government decides to let private parties make their own “standardized” decisions. · Avoid surprises – Would rules about validity or enforceability of documents based on their compliance with authentication rules surprise users of documents, so that they would find documents (and thus transactions) invalid when they expected them to be acceptable? Are there common forms of transactions over the Internet that do not readily meet the legislated standards? · Complexity of legislative system – can the parties readily figure out that a document is authentic and thus usable (subject to other legal defects, as always), under proposed legislation? Is authentication largely a question of fact, or does it depend on difficult legal judgments? C. Other Rules Affecting Authentication Some legislation on authenticating electronic records has gone beyond the strict requirements of authenticity to deal with related matters. The two most notable are liability rules and rules on the recognition of foreign electronic documents or signatures. While such provisions are not necessary to a sound authentication regime, they are not irrelevant. Liability rules may push all the parties to electronic records to conduct themselves in a way that will maximize the chances that the records they produce will be reliable. Recognition rules generally increase the confidence with which one may deal with foreign electronic documents, which promotes international commerce. The rules ensure that foreign methods of authentication are accepted where the documents are to be used, while protecting the country of use by requiring that the reliability of the foreign methods be equivalent to those in the country of use. i) liability rules For documents used between two parties, there seems to be little desire to legislate on the liability of the parties. The usual rule is that the relying party takes the risk of inauthenticity. Traditional authentication rules are more likely to invalidate non-compliant documents than they are to impose liability on their users. For three-party systems, with a certification authority between the signer and the relying party, some countries have wanted to legislate to ensure that parties knew what their responsibilities were. Another aim was to allocate liability in a way to promote activity of trusted third parties, who have sometimes been considered essential to the development of reliable e-commerce. This latter motive was strongly evident in Utah, which relieved the third party of liability if the rules were followed. The Utah system was however much criticized on its liability (and attribution) rules: it was said to distort the true value of the technology to legislate liability. The real risks would become apparent and would be reflected in insurance premiums and the prices of services. Essentially the digital signature statutes were allocating risk by law differently than how the real risk fell. This was “legislating market winners”, which was said to be inappropriate in a free market. (B.Biddle, “Legislating Market Winners” (1997), http://www.acusd.edu/~biddle/LMW.htm .) The UN Model Law on Electronic Signatures says that parties must “bear the consequences” of failing to comply with the conduct set out in the Model Law. This adds little to current law. At one point it was thought helpful to ensure that all enacting countries did impose some liability for negligent mis-statement of fact. It is not clear that this much is left in the current formulation. It is however worth noting that the responsibility of the relying party may be different from that of the signer (the holder of the signing device) and the certification authority, called in the Model Law (and the EU Directive) the certification service provider (CSP). Negligence of the signer or CSP is very likely to harm others. Negligence of the relying party harms only the relying party, who may end up with a contract with the wrong person, or with no one. The consequences of the relying party’s negligence is thus not to be liable to someone else but to be unable to blame anyone else for the loss (though liability could be shared in some cases.) The EU Directive on Electronic Signatures requires member states of the Union to ensure certain liabilities of the CSP but also provides for CSPs to limit their liability by appropriate disclosures. Otherwise there are no standards or values for liability. The Quebec statute on information technology is essentially a technology-neutral statute but nevertheless makes detailed provision for the activity of persons who certify the identity of signatories of technology-based documents and it sets up a voluntary accreditation scheme for them. It also examines the nature of recognized standards for reliable technology in this area. Further, Quebec provides for the liability, or the exemption from liability, of communications intermediaries like Internet service providers. (An Act to establish a legal framework for information technology, Statutes of Quebec 2001 c.32.) Concerns have been raised about liability provisions even of the level of generality of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures. They are drafted with a three-party model, really a digital signature/PKI model, in mind, but apply on their face to any electronic signature. The conduct they promote may be too demanding for some kinds of signature. In addition, the terms are sufficiently general that inconsistent implementation is likely, and this will be confusing for commercial parties – in any of the three roles – that want to operate internationally. The responsibilities of the parties may often be better determined by contract among themselves. It also needs to be clear whether the party autonomy permitted by such legislation allows parties to change the rules of conduct and liability or whether these rules are mandatory in all cases. ii) recognition rules The use of electronic documents and especially the Internet has stimulated the need for consistent rules for recognizing foreign documents. One country’s authentication rules are not applied only to its own residents’ records. The more consistent these rules are, the more confident people will be to trade internationally by electronic means. Where different countries are using three-party certification processes to authenticate electronic records, one hears of “cross-certification” to ensure the use of the records in another country. This is a technique by which one certification authority certifies a document on the strength of the certificate of another certification authority. It depends on very detailed technical coordination of certification standards and operations among participating CAs. (The concept appears for use within countries as well as across borders.) While national cross-certification agreements exist, they seem more at a demonstration level for the moment. (Such agreements have been published, for example, between Canada and Singapore.) They also are restricted to certification models, i.e. they are technology-specific. It has become more common to speak of “cross-recognition”, or simply of “recognition”, of foreign electronic records. “Cross” suggests a mutuality: A recognizes B’s records if B recognizes A’s records. Given the speed and unpredictability of electronic commerce, it is likely to be more productive for a country to recognize electronic records from anywhere that meets its standards, without concern for reciprocity. The UN Model Law on Electronic Signatures deals with recognition in Article 12. It makes the location of the origin of an electronic signature or certificate irrelevant to the recognition of the document. Likewise the place of business of the issuer of the certificate or of the signer is irrelevant. The article requires implementing states to give the same legal effect to a foreign signature or certificate that a domestic signature or certificate would have, if they have substantially equivalent reliability. (Exact technical conformity is not required.) This language is chosen to allow for a range of degrees of reliability. Thus the domestic rules on authentication can be respected. If a country insists on high reliability for particular kinds of documents, it can insist that foreign electronic records demonstrate equivalent reliability at that high level. Lower levels of reliability may be met by lower level foreign records. However, the rules on reliability are to meet “recognized international standards” for reliability. This important provision intends to prevent a multiplicity of standards, including those that might be imposed as non-tariff barriers to trade. The UN Working Group discussed whether to define « recognized international standards. » While no definition was retained, the Guide to Enactment of the MLES will point out that such standards may originate with public or private bodies and may be « standards » adopted by official standard-setting bodies, or guidelines. No doubt there would be some kind of unofficial hierarchy in favour of public standards, if an accreditation authority found that applicable standards varied when it needed to decide about signing methods. Finally, Article 12 of the new Model Law allows parties among themselves to agree to their own standards, which are to be recognized unless they are invalid under applicable law. This language echoes the limits to party autonomy on domestic signatures, discussed earlier. Implementing countries should be slow to intervene in such private decisions, but if their authentication rules are particularly important to them, they are allowed to do so. While the language of the UN Model Law deals only with signatures and certificates, its principles (non-discrimination against foreign records, equivalent reliability and broad though not limitless party autonomy) are readily applicable to any other rules affecting the authentication of electronic records. Authenticating a document is an exercise of judgment, of balancing the risks of acceptance against its benefits. Sometimes the state intervenes to require certain forms to be observed, in order to protect the interests of parties or of the state itself. Electronic documents present some new challenges, in part to estimate if the current rules are sufficiently strong for them, and in part, conversely, to see how the current rules can be made flexible enough to accommodate them. An increasing body of legislation and international models for legislation exists to guide countries who are trying to decide how to deal with electronic records in the context of their own culture, traditions, and existing legal rules affecting authentication. This paper has reviewed the principles underlying many of the existing rules and discussed the main trends in the legislation. It has also suggested a number of factors that may properly influence the decision of someone considering new legislation. The values of harmonization with one’s neighbours and the international community, and the usefulness of allowing the parties to commercial transactions to set their own rules, move one towards a minimalist regime of acceptance. Values of protecting vulnerable parties and assisting those unfamiliar with the technology may move one towards more detailed statutory requirements. There is no single right answer to the questions raised here. The responses given by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law should arguably be at the base of reflection, as they represent a broad consensus of all the worlds’ legal systems. But UNCITRAL has left a good deal of space for implementing countries to make their own decisions, not only by the choice of the model law as its texts, but in the room given for exceptions to the scope of legislation and in the reference to what will be evolving international standards. It is hoped that the discussion in this paper will prove useful in taking the next steps to accommodate the electronic world in which we all find ourselves. A note on vocabulary: a) This paper uses the terms “record” and “document” interchangeably. The former tends to be used in the United States, and the latter in Canada. Archivists often distinguish them on the basis that a record is a document in the context of an organized method of storage and retrieval, i.e. record-keeping system. b) The term “authentication” is sometimes used, especially in the United States, to refer to the process engaged in by the creator of a record, to provide, along with a record, the evidence that will later be used to determine its credibility. Notably it is used as a near-synonym for “signing”. The present paper uses the term only to refer to the process engaged in by the holder of a document who wants to estimate its reliability. The rules established to make this process work will of course affect the manner in which the creator of a record creates it.

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How can Wright’s ideas and principles help a young generation to create better livable cities and human settlements? This is the central question that motivated me to start the production of a feature documentary, The Wright Way, as a transformational film that may benefit people of all cultures around the world. I know that when young people begin to study Frank Lloyd Wright, a better future will be invented based on the laws of nature, which includes human nature. Wright’s iconic works should not be turned into objects of worship, nor should his writings become a dogma. After studying Wright in depth, his ideas should be challenged to generate new ideas. By learning from history and from Wright, a new generation of designers willing to transform the world can get inspired to create original organic architecture from the city to the private dwelling. Having visited many of his works, including less famous Usonian houses, and having met with some of his best followers, The Wright Way Hint “hints” at the production of a feature documentary that may contribute to a needed global transformation. Hanna House, “Honeycomb,” Stanford, CA, 1937-1962. Hanna House, “Honeycomb” Plan, Stanford, CA, 1937-1962. Rayward–Shepherd House, “Tirranna,” New Canaan, CT, 1955. Photo: R&R Meghiddo. Melvin Maxwell and Sara Stein Smith House, Bloomfield Hills, MI, 1950. Photo: R&R Meghiddo. Samuel Freeman House, Los Angeles, 1923. Photo: R&R Meghiddo. Sol Friedman House, “Toyhill,”, Pleasentville, New York, 1948. Photo: R&R Meghiddo. 1. End poverty; 2 . End hunger; 3. Ensure healthy lives; 4. Ensure inclusive quality education; 5. Achieve gender equality; 6. Ensure water and sanitation; 7. Ensure sustainable energy; 8. Promote sustainable decent work for all; 9. Build resilient infrastructure, sustainable industrialization and foster innovation; 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries, 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable; 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns; 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change; 14. Keep oceans, seas and marine resources sustainable; 15. Protect and restore terrestrial ecosystems; 16. Promote peace and justice for all; 17. Strengthen the means of implementation. It is an ambitious wish-list out of which architecture can play a vital role (Goal #11.) If adopting Wright’s organic architecture principles, the result could extend a sustainable life on Earth well beyond 2030. WRIGHT IDEAS IN A NUTSHELL Like Galileo, Newton, Darwin and Einstein, who discovered laws of nature, Frank Lloyd Wright formulated principles which have affected design throughout the ages, from the Nuraghe of Sardinia (1900-730 BCE,) to the Katsura Imperial Villa (1624,) to Fallingwater (1939.) Although he was as prolific a writer as he was an architect, the reading and studying his ideas has remained confined to few scholars. His language is not easily accessible, his books are rarely put in the schools of architecture’s “must read” list. How can one overcome these obstacles while young people’s span of attention is getting shorter and shorter? What are Wright’s essential ideas? Nature is the architect’s principal school. The creative possibilities of form, color, pattern, texture, proportion, rhythm and growth are all well expressed in nature. The building grows out of the landscape as naturally as any plant. Its relationship to the site is so unique that it would be out of place elsewhere. Materials are to be used based on their intrinsic nature: strength, color, texture. One material is not to be disguised as another. A building should convey a sense of shelter, refuge, or protection against the elements. Its inhabitants should never lack privacy or feel exposed and unprotected. Space:“The reality of the building does not consist of the roof and the walls but the space within to be lived in”, said Wright, quoting Lao Tzu. The interior space determines the exterior form. Interior space is not packed in boxes called rooms; rather, space should flow freely from interior area to interior area. An area is never fully comprehended when viewed from a single point, but it must be slowly experienced as one moves through space. The human body should be the only scale of a building and its furnishings. Each building has its own grammar, its distinct vocabulary of pattern and form. All parts of the building, from the smallest detail to the overall form, speak the same language. The grammar may be completely different for two buildings of similar functions. Ornament, when used, it is to be developed as an integral part of the material, not applied. Simplicity in art is a synthetic positive quality in which we may see evidence of mind, breadth of scheme, wealth of detail and with the sense of completeness found in a tree or a flower.” Furniture should be built-in as much as possible. Sculpture and painting are to become elements of the total design. First Unitarian Society Meeting House, Shorewood Hills, WI, 1951. Photo: R&R Meghiddo. MODERN, CONTEMPORARY AND ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE What became labeled as “Modern Architecture” or “Modernism,” originated in Europe of the 1920s. Walter Gropius’ Bauhaus, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe’s ideas, based on constructive social programs, provided with a machine –like with no decoration and easy to learn slogans, such as “less is more,” ribbon glass windows, all-white rectangle walls, and building on piloti. They influenced the design of thousands of architects around the world, some with positive results, many with catastrophic effects of massive housing and urban sprawl lacking identity. Wright’s work, although classified by historians under the umbrella name of “Modernism,” refused to be categorized in any one architectural movement. His master-teacher, Louis Sullivan, who pioneered the use of steel for office building, had coined the concept of “form follows function”, later on modified be Wright as “form and function are one.” Simplicity for Wright was an end-result of chiseling out the unnecessary, not a point of departure. For most young architects eager to start building their own projects, it was impossible to learn Wright’s principles and ethic code without studying in depth his writings, analyzing his drawings and visiting his buildings. Most chose the shortcut. In the 1960s the term “modern” was substituted by the more inclusive term “contemporary.” It included hundreds of art and architecture languages and grammars. Some were authentic, some were progressive, like “High-Tech,“ some were regressive, like “Post-Modernism,” many were trendy, and some “stararchitects” indulged in building acrobatics having little to do with people’s needs. “Contemporary” implied a freedom of expression that many interpreted as “anything goes.” Nicholas Grimshaw’s Eden Project, Cornwell, England, 2001-2009. Vincent Callebaut’s Hyperions Eco-Neighborhood. Make Architects’ Golden Sands Resort, Malta. Moshe Safdie’s Christal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, AK, 2011. A ONE-HUNDRED YEAR AGENDA At a philosophical level, the quests of Dario Salas Sommer’s Moral Physics, Yuval Noah Harari’s New Human Agenda, and Frank Lloyd Wright’s Organic Architecture, interact as “a cosmic vision beyond ever-changing creeds or viewpoints that have until now divided human beings according to their geography, their culture or their ideas.” God / Nature / Truth / Unity / Existence / Being / Whole become interchangeable words implying the working and interacting together as a whole. The time is now. As the world’s population grows to a likely ten billion by mid-century, twelve billion by 2100 and possibly 30 billion by 2200, planetary management that crosses borderlines and governments become indispensable. In addition to all said Mixed-use and multi-functionality are integral components of a sustainability agenda. While mixed-use juxtapose multiple functions (housing, commerce, education, ) multi-functionality makes possible the multiple uses of the same space, and the multiple-use of the same component: a stairway as structure, a column or beam as a container of ducts, a wall as container of storage, a roof as an edible garden. Proximity between living space and working space are part of the sustainability agenda. Working space can be: a. within the dwelling unit; b. adjacent to the dwelling unit ( see Price Tower); c. Within walking or bike distance from the dwelling. Mobility is integral to both human needs and to sustainability, yet it demands a total revision of how it works. It consists of three categories. A. Emergency access (firemen, ambulances, police, rescue from disasters.) b. Public use: air mobility and public transportation of multiple kinds: trains, tramways, air tram cable cars, moving conveyors, buses, taxis (with drivers or driverless,) hot air balloons. c. Private: bikes, skateboards, cars, trucks (owned or rented.) Organic architecture needs to awaken from its long sleep. It requires reinterpretation without falling into nostalgia or an imitative expression of Nature. Although nature remains the most important source of inspiration, it is to be interpreted, not copied.

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12 February 1784 Ice flows were spotted in the Gulf of Mexico after passing from the Mississippi River. Ice actually blocked the river at New Orleans, LA. This was only 1 of 2 times that this has ever occurred, the other was during the Great Arctic Outbreak of 1899. Storm Track, Fog, and Ice Charts of the North Atlantic Ocean, and Hurricane Track Charts of the Gulf of Mexico (Google eBook) Front Cover John P. Finley 1889 8 March 1784 Hurricane spotted at Cuba 1784 SPANISH SHIP IS FOUND IN GULF By WILLIAM J. BROAD Published: December 19, 1993 Geophysical research with citations from B. Franklin (1784) attributing the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi River Ice flows to a volcanic eruption. "The anomalous winter of 1783–1784: Was the Laki eruption or an analog of the 2009–2010 winter to blame?" Rosanne D’Arrigo,1 Richard Seager,1 Jason E. Smerdon,1 Allegra N. LeGrande,2 and Edward R. Cook1 Received 7 January 2011; revised 31 January 2011; accepted 7 February 2011; published 15 March 2011. Franklin Mint website

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Relying on a Peripheral Brainby Joseph Kim, MD, MPH | March 9, 2009 In the old days, medical students used to walk around with pockets bursting at the seams. Why? Because they were carrying around hand-written notes, cards, and mini textbooks to help them remember all the information they were trying to learn. Many people have described the medical school experience as “drinking out of a fire hydrant.” The volume of information is so great that our limited brains quickly get saturated with information and we’re unable to retain any more data. When medical students would transition from the classroom environment to the clinical setting, they often relied on a pocket-sized notebook that they often called their “peripheral brain.” Some may have called that book their “second brain,” while others may have referred to it as their “ectopic brain.” Here’s a slight tangent: the word ectopic is defined as something that is in the wrong place. You’re probably familiar with the phrase “ectopic pregnancy” which is used when the developing embryo/fetus is not in the correct place (uterus) and is developing in the wrong place (e.g., in the fallopian tubes). The medical student’s peripheral brain often lasts for several years because many students carry this book into post-graduate medical training (also called internship and residency). This book often gets very personalized with a wealth of hand-written notes, formulas, and other medical pearls. Perhaps you think that I’m speaking of the stone ages when I speak of a paper book. Granted, the electronic PDA (personal digital assistant) and the smartphone have revolutionized the concept of a peripheral brain. Having access to the Internet on your handheld device is like having a gigantic book in your pocket. In the pre-PDA era, students had a finite amount of content they could carry in their pockets. Now, the sky is the limit because of revolutionary technology and increasing capabilities of micro computers (also known as ultra-mobile PCs or UMPCs). So, you may not be a medical student, but do you rely on a peripheral brain? I think many of us have become utterly dependent on one but we may not realize it until we accidentally leave it at home. Then, when we’re somewhere and we suddenly realize that we don’t remember someone’s phone number, we are hopelessly lost! Technology continues to increase our efficiencies, but it also makes us more and more dependent on our peripheral brains. If you rely on a GPS (global positioning system) for directions as you’re driving, then you’re relying on a peripheral brain. If you keep all your phone numbers on your mobile phone, then that phone has become your peripheral brain. If you heavily use a PDA or smartphone and you keep a wealth of important information on that, then you’ve got an electronic peripheral brain in your pocket. No future articles scheduled. This Sunday February 14th (9 p.m. ET), the Emmy-nominated Brain Games tv-show is back! Wonder junkie Jason Silva returns to our screens, teaming up with... READ MORE → Do not miss out ever again. Subscribe to get our newsletter delivered to your inbox a few times a month. Like what you read? Give to Brain Blogger sponsored by GNIF with a tax-deductible donation.Make A Donation

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The University of BC has created a massive human colon replica to help students learn and diagnose colon irregularities. A picture of the inflatable piece of human anatomy was recently posted onto the UBC Twitter account. Judging by the photograph, it almost looks to be a piece you would find at a local science exhibit. The huge replica is said to be filled with imitation diseases and medical issues that the students are to try and diagnose. As one can see by the picture, the colon looks to have some serious problems. This kind of learning environment put on by the University of BC is a fun way to really get students involved. What scholar doesn’t want to walk through a giant colon in the pursuit of knowledge? Additional Images Via: Fade to Play Immersive Educational Anatomy Exhibits More Stats +/- Futuristic Science Exhibits Distracted Driving Campaigns Negative Nicotine Effects Infographics Economy-Focused Sustainability Projects University-Based Social Planning

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National Football League rivalries As with all sports leagues, there are a number of significant rivalries in the National Football League. Rivalries are occasionally created due to a particular event that causes bad blood between teams, players, coaches, or owners, but for the most part, they arise simply due to the frequency with which some teams play each other, and sometimes exist for geographic reasons. Purely geographic rivalries are rare in the NFL, since crosstown rivals do not play each other nearly as often as in other leagues that have more games (and therefore more opportunities to play other teams). For example, Major League Baseball teams face every other league opponent at least three times in the regular season, and within a division as many as 19 times. In recent years, the NFL changed its scheduling formula to ensure every possible matchup happens within a four-year span, not counting pre-season games or the Super Bowl. A main factor in the fact that crosstown rivals are almost always in opposing conferences is history: in the two current markets (New York/New Jersey and San Francisco Bay Area) that have two NFL teams, two have one team (Jets in New York, Raiders in Oakland) that was a member of the American Football League. As part of the AFL–NFL merger, all AFL teams had to be retained, even if it meant multiple teams in one metropolitan area. The newly merged league opted not to go through an extensive geographical realignment, and instead, the AFL formed the basis of the AFC, and the old NFL formed the basis of the NFC; as a result, each team ended up in an opposite conference from their crosstown rival. This allowed the combined league to retain both existing television partnerships of each league—NBC for the AFL/AFC, and CBS for the NFL/NFC—instead of choosing one or the other (ABC joined the mix in 1970 with Monday Night Football). Games can be classified in three main categories: - Intra-divisional: Games between opponents in the same NFL division. Since 2002, there are 32 teams in eight divisions of four teams each. Each team plays each division opponent twice in the regular season (once at home, once away) for a total of six regular season games out of 16 total. Thus, every NFL team, regardless of its age, could fairly be said to have at least three primary rivals. Occasionally, two teams will play three times in a year if they meet again in the playoffs. - Inter-divisional: Games between opponents in different divisions but within the same conference. Teams do not play a given inter-divisional opponent more than once during the regular season, however they may meet again for a second time in the playoffs. The NFL schedules divisions to play against each other on a rotating basis, so that every team from one division will play every team from another division, for a total of four games per team. Each team will also play one team from each of the remaining two divisions within the conference that finished in the same divisional standing position in the prior year—for a grand total of 12 intra-conference games. Conference games are often important, as a team's record in common games, as well as its overall record against its conference, is sometimes used as a tiebreaker for playoff seeding at the end of the regular season. Also, many regular season opponents have met again in the playoffs, and the result of a regular season game can affect where the playoff game will be played. - Inter-conference: Games between opponents in different conferences. Teams do not play a given inter-conference opponent more than once during the season unless they were to meet up in the Super Bowl. The NFL schedules inter-conference divisions to play each other on a rotating basis within a four-year cycle. For instance, given the 2012 NFL season as a reference, the NFC East played the AFC North during the 2012 season, then the AFC West during the 2013 season, AFC South during the 2014 season, and finally the AFC East in the 2015 season before repeating the cycle. The league also schedules inter-conference games on an eight-year cycle so any particular team will both host and visit any given team in the league within eight years. The league's teams do not play, and do not have rivalries with, teams outside the league. The NFL sportscasters, journalists, and fans typically use the terms "division rival" or "divisional rival" instead of "intra-divisional rival", and "conference rival" (also "NFC rival" or "AFC rival") instead of "inter-divisional rival". The use of a prefix such as "inter-" is reserved solely for games between opponents from different conferences. The oldest NFL rivalry, dating back to when the league was founded in 1920, consists of its two remaining charter members: the Decatur Staleys/Chicago Bears and Chicago/St. Louis/Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals. The longest rivalry is between the Green Bay Packers and Chicago Bears (they did not play each other in 1982 due to the player's strike, though). It dates back to 1921 and is currently approaching 190 games, with 48 Pro Football Hall of Famers and 21 league championships between the two teams. The longest continuous rivalry in the NFL is between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers, as they have played each other at least twice every season since 1932. In the AFC, the Pittsburgh Steelers and Cleveland Browns have the longest rivalry with over 120 games, two in the playoffs, and 10 league titles between them. The "turnpike rivalry" as it is called is only separated by a two-hour drive and began during the 1950 NFL season. Both teams were NFL franchises predating the AFL that formed the basis of the AFC, and were moved to the AFC when the leagues merged in 1970; the only break in the rivalry was during the 1990s when the Browns suspended operations for three years. While the Indianapolis Colts also moved over from the "old" NFL to the AFC, it hasn't had a continuous rival with either team from before the merger, though it had a minor rivalry with the Browns in the 1960s when the Colts were located in Baltimore. The longest continuous rivalry in the AFC is several divisional rivalries from the AFC East (entire division except the Miami Dolphins) and AFC West (entire division) dating to the league's founding in 1960. No team in the NFL has faced a team from another league since 1969 (1961 if the AFL is ignored), and as such, interleague rivals do not exist. Though certain teams from opposing leagues (e.g. the Hamilton Tiger-Cats' and Toronto Argonauts' enmity toward the Buffalo Bills over the Bills Toronto Series) have fostered a rivalry for fan base and popularity, under current rules, the NFL cannot, and will not, schedule an actual game (even an exhibition game) against a non-NFL opponent, making such a rivalry academic. - 1 American Football Conference - 1.1 AFC East - 1.2 AFC North - 1.3 AFC West - 1.4 AFC South - 1.5 Inter-division - 2 National Football Conference - 2.1 NFC East - 2.2 NFC North - 2.3 NFC South - 2.4 NFC West - 3 Historical Rivalries - 4 See also - 5 References - 6 External links American Football Conference Buffalo Bills vs. Miami Dolphins In the AFC East rivalry between the Buffalo Bills and Miami Dolphins, the 2 teams have played 96 regular season games, with the Dolphins having a 56–39–1 advantage as of December 2013. The teams have also met four times in the NFL playoffs. The Bills are 3–1, including a victory in the 1992 AFC Championship Game. New York Jets vs. New England Patriots Games between the New York Jets and New England Patriots have often played out the fierce Yankees–Red Sox rivalry in Major League Baseball, as New York City and Boston are approximately 3½ hours apart by car. More recently, the Jets have tried to overcome the Patriots domination in the division and the conference, facing them in the playoffs twice in a five-season span. The Patriots defeated the Jets 37-16 in the 2006 playoffs, while the Jets won 28-21 in the 2010 playoffs. The series is in New England's favor, 54–52–1, while the Patriots lead the playoff series 2-1. Miami Dolphins vs. New York Jets In the Dolphins–Jets rivalry, they have often competed for divisional supremacy, and have played a number of classic games. This includes the game, known in NFL Lore as the Monday Night miracle where the Jets erased a 30-7 lead after three quarters and won the game in overtime. Currently, the Jets lead the series 47–43–1, while the Dolphins have won the lone playoff meeting, defeating the Jets in the 1982 AFC Championship Game. New York Jets vs Buffalo Bills Baltimore Ravens vs. Pittsburgh Steelers The rivalry between the Baltimore Ravens and Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC North is one of the most intense in the NFL, often for divisional supremacy. They are also known for fielding tough, hard-hitting defensive squads, giving their games an extra element of physical intensity. The two teams have met in the playoffs four times, three wins by the Steelers (2001, 2008, 2010) and one by the Ravens (2014). They are the only teams in the AFC North to win the Super Bowl, and possess a combined 8–2 record in the game (the Ravens won in both their appearances, all others came from the Steelers). The Steelers lead the all times series 24-17. Cincinnati Bengals vs. Cleveland Browns This rivalry has produced two of the highest scoring games in the NFL history. The Bengals lead the series 42–37. Geography and a shared heritage add to this rivalry. Cleveland (Northeast) and Cincinnati (Southwest) are on opposite corners of the state and essentially split Ohio. In 1963, legendary Cleveland Browns head football coach Paul Brown was terminated by Art Modell. After his time with the Cleveland Browns, Brown made the decision to create a team of his own, giving birth to the Cincinnati Bengals franchise. The colors of each team are similar, since Paul Brown chose the exact shade of orange used by the Browns for the Bengals, and the Bengals original uniforms were identical to the Browns uniforms, excluding the word "Bengals" on the helmet. The Bengals and Browns first played in 1970. Previously, the Bengals were a part of the AFL. After the AFL–NFL merger, the Browns and Bengals were placed in the AFC Central Division. They have played twice a year since 1970, except in 1982 (Player's strike-shortened season) and 1996–98 (Cleveland Browns relocation controversy). Cincinnati Bengals vs. Pittsburgh Steelers The two teams have played each other twice a year since becoming division rivals in 1970, the lone exception being 1982, when the annual matchup in Cincinnati was canceled due to the player's strike; the teams only met in Week 2 in Pittsburgh that season just before the start of the strike. Originally placed in the AFC Central following the AFL–NFL merger, the two teams currently compete in that division's successor, the AFC North. The rivalry is not quite as historic as the Bengals–Browns rivalry, however, many Bengals fans consider the Steelers to be their greatest rivals, much like Cleveland Browns fans. (Steeler fans, however, often consider the Baltimore Ravens as their top rival.) It is disputed which is the more widely bitter rivalry, but this specific rivalry is often ranked as one of the NFL's most bitter, chiefly due to the Steelers having more championships and the events of the 2005 wild card playoff game between the two teams. Cleveland Browns vs. Pittsburgh Steelers The Browns–Steelers rivalry is one of the most storied in the American Football Conference and NFL. With 120 meetings and counting, it is the oldest rivalry and surpasses other AFC rivalries by at least 5 contests. The two divisional foes have a natural rivalry due to the commonalities between the cities. It is sometimes called the Turnpike Rivalry because the majority of driving route between the two cities are connected via the Pennsylvania and Ohio Turnpikes. Denver Broncos vs. Oakland Raiders The Raiders lead the series 60–49–2, including the playoffs. During the AFL days in the 1960s and up to 1976, this rivalry was very lopsided, with the Raiders going 26–6–2, including 14 consecutive wins from 1965–1971. The Broncos defeated the Raiders in the 1977 AFC championship, en route to the first Super Bowl appearance. The Raiders won 13 out of 15 meetings from 1988–1994, and held a 49–20–2 series lead by 1994. However, the Broncos reversed their fortunes against the Raiders when Mike Shanahan became the Broncos' head coach in 1995. Shanahan coached the Raiders in 1988 before being fired four games into the 1989 season, and later became involved in a lengthy contract dispute with Raiders' owner Al Davis. The Broncos went 21–7 against Oakland during the 14 seasons that Shanahan coached the Broncos (1995–2008). As of 2013, the two teams have met 17 times on Monday Night Football, the most frequent pairing in Monday Night Football history. Kansas City Chiefs vs. Oakland Raiders The Chiefs–Raiders rivalry is considered to be one of the NFL's most bitter. Since the AFL was established in 1960, the Chiefs and Raiders have shared the same division, first being the AFL Western Conference, and since the AFL–NFL merger, the AFC West. The Chiefs lead the regular season series 54–50–2 The Chiefs won the most recent matchup 31-13. The Chiefs are one of two teams in the NFL with a winning record against the Raiders (alongside with the New England Patriots, with 10 or more contests). Oakland Raiders vs. San Diego Chargers The San Diego Chargers' rivalry with Oakland dates to the 1963 season, when the Raiders defeated the heavily favored Chargers twice, both come-from-behind fourth quarter victories. One of the most memorable games between these teams was the "Holy Roller" game in 1978, in which the Raiders fumbled for a touchdown in a very controversial play. On November 22, 1982, the Raiders hosted their first Monday Night football game in Los Angeles against the Chargers. San Diego led the game in the 1st half 24–0 until the Raiders came into the 2nd half and made a huge comeback and won 28–24. Oakland leads the series 59–50–2. Kansas City Chiefs vs San Diego Chargers Kansas City Chiefs vs Denver Broncos Denver Broncos vs San Diego Chargers Houston Texans vs. Tennessee Titans Indianapolis Colts vs. New England Patriots The Colts–Patriots rivalry is one of the NFL's most famous. The two teams combined for five Super Bowl victories (four by the Patriots) and seven American Football Conference Championships since 2001, while both are noted for their organizational excellence. The nature of this rivalry is somewhat ironic because while the Colts and Patriots were AFC East division rivals from 1970–2001 (dating back to the Colts' time in Baltimore), their intensified enmity wasn't prevalent until Indianapolis was moved into the newly formed AFC South following the 2001 season as part of the NFL's realignment. The two teams did not meet in 2002 but have met every year from 2003–12. From the first game of the rivalry's renewal (a 38–34 Patriots victory highlighted by a last-second goalline stand) the rivalry has been bitterly close: following New England's 31–24 win in 2011 the Patriots lead the series with seven wins (two in the playoffs) versus five wins (one playoff) for the Colts, and the Patriots hold a slim lead in points scored, 319–305. The Colts and Patriots have met every year since 2003 as both teams often finished in the same position in their divisions. The other AFC East teams have only been able to play the Colts when the East and South divisions were scheduled to play a full interlocking schedule; they will do so again in 2015. The modern matchup was often headlined as a contest between Pro Bowl quarterbacks Peyton Manning and Tom Brady, who together have won six NFL MVP awards in eight years (2003–10; four by Manning). Tom Brady received his first start against the Colts after an injury to then-starter Drew Bledsoe, and proceeded to defeat the Colts in his first six games against them in the next years, including the 2003 AFC Championship game and a 2004 AFC Divisional playoff game. The Colts won the next 3 matches, notching two regular season victories and a win in the 2006 AFC Championship Game on the way to their win in Super Bowl XLI. The Patriots' 2007 quest for a perfect season included a comeback 24–20 victory in their final visit to the RCA Dome. The Colts won the next two; in their 2009 Super Bowl season they won 35–34 following a 4th and 2 call by Bill Belichick. The 2010 matchup was Indy's first trip to Gillette Stadium since 2006; a last-minute Manning interception ended a 31–28 Patriots win. In 2011, the Patriots beat the Colts without Manning playing, 31–24. In 2012, the Patriots rudely welcomed Colts rookie quarterback Andrew Luck to the rivalry, returning two interceptions thrown by the first pick of the 2012 NFL Draft for touchdowns en route to a 59–24 blowout. The result was the same for the two teams in the 2013 AFC Divisional playoff game as New England cruised to a 43–22 victory. The most recent scheduled game was played November 16, 2014 at Lucas Oil Stadium, with New England defeating Indianapolis 42-20 behind 201 yards rushing from Jonas Gray, who also set a Patriots franchise record with four rushing touchdowns in the game. National Football Conference Dallas Cowboys vs. Washington Redskins The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins is called the top NFL rivalry of all time and "one of the greatest in sports" by Sports Illustrated. The two franchises have won 31 combined division titles and ten NFL Championships, including eight combined Super Bowls. They are the two wealthiest franchises in the NFL. The rivalry started in 1960 when the Cowboys joined the league as an expansion team. During that year they were in separate conferences, but played once during the season. Since 1961, Dallas has been in the same division as the Redskins. Dallas Cowboys vs. Philadelphia Eagles The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and Philadelphia Eagles has been one of the higher profile rivalries in the NFL over the past three decades, characterized by bitterly contested games that are typical of the NFC East, with both teams often contesting for the division crown. Dallas Cowboys vs. New York Giants The modern rivalry dates back to the 2003 season when Bill Parcells took over as Cowboys head coach. After he left, Wade Phillips coached the Cowboys to a division winning season in 2007 only to see the team fall to the Giants in the 2007 Divisional playoff game, in what proved to be the final playoff game in Texas Stadium history. Since then both teams have found a knack for winning on the other's home field. The Giants sport a 4-1 record at AT&T Stadium with the only loss coming in the 2013 season opener. Likewise the Cowboys are 3-1 at MetLife Stadium with their only loss coming in the teams 2011 season finale. Both teams combine for a total of nine Super Bowl Championships with the Giants winning the two most recent trophies. New York Giants vs. Philadelphia Eagles The rivalry between the Philadelphia Eagles and New York Giants dates back to 1933. However, the competition began to heat up when both teams came to relative prominence in the 1940s and 1950s. The rivalry is mainly based on the two teams being in the same division in the NFL since 1933 and the geographic New York City–Philadelphia rivalry. It is ranked by Sports Illustrated as amongst the top ten NFL rivalries of all-time at #4. However, the geographic rivalry between the Eagles and Giants is well known in football circles, meriting mention on ESPN.com. The rivalry is the oldest of the NFC East and has been one of the best rivalries in the NFL in the 21st century. The Giants and Eagles have met four times in the playoffs. The Giants won in 1981 & 2001, and the Eagles won in 2007 & 2009. New York Giants vs. Washington Redskins The Giants and Redskins have a storied rivalry. While New York leads the rivalry, there have been great periods of competition between the two teams, most notably during the 1980s where they clashed for division titles and super bowl championships. Between 1982–91 they combined for 8 division titles and 5 Super Bowl titles, two by the Giants (1986, 1990) and three by the Redskins (1982, 1987, 1991). The rivalry was dormant due to the Redskins recent struggles, then revived in the 2011 season when the Redskins beat the eventual Super Bowl champions twice in the regular season, while 2012 saw it intensify both on the field (the Redskins overtook the Giants to win the division) and off it (during the off-season, an NFL commission led by Giants' owner John Mara imposed harsh salary-cap penalties on the Redskins, who were convinced Mara maliciously used his league-wide powers to advance his own team's interests; after the Redskins beat the Giants in December, owner Daniel Snyder, accepting post-game congratulations from a team employee, loudly replied that "I hate those motherfuckers"). The two teams met in the playoffs twice, both games resulting in blowouts. Washington Redskins vs. Philadelphia Eagles Chicago Bears vs. Green Bay Packers The strike-shortened 1982 NFL season did not include a Bears-Packers game. Because of this, it is not the longest continuous rivalry. That goes to the Lions-Packers, who have played at least twice each season since 1932. The rivalry has led to the Chicago–Milwaukee/Wisconsin rivalry being seen in other sports, like the Brewers–Cubs rivalry in Major League Baseball and the rivalry between the Bulls and the Bucks in the National Basketball Association. The teams met four times in the 2011 calendar year, and the Packers won all four. They met on January 2 in the 2010 regular season finale, then three weeks later in the NFC Conference Championship Game en route to winning Super Bowl XLV, and then they had both meetings in the 2011 regular season. The 2013 regular season finale served as a playoff game for the NFC North Division Championship, which Green Bay won 33–28 scoring a 48-yard touchdown on fourth-and-8 with 38 seconds left. Chicago Bears vs. Detroit Lions The Bears–Lions rivalry is an NFL rivalry between the Chicago Bears and Detroit Lions. The franchises first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans and based in Portsmouth, Ohio. They moved to Detroit for the 1934 season. The Bears and Lions have been division rivals since 1933 and have usually met twice a season since the Lions franchise began. This rivalry is also the longest-running annual series in the NFL as both teams have met at least once a season since 1930. (Due to the 1982 strike, the Bears–Packers rivalry was not played that season.) However, one of the two meetings between both teams was cancelled during Week 3 of the 1987 season, which does not make this rivalry the longest-running continuous series in the NFL (that feat belongs to the Lions–Packers rivalry, who have met at least twice a season since 1932 without any cancelled meetings). Detroit Lions vs. Green Bay Packers The Lions–Packers rivalry is an NFL rivalry between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers. They first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans and based in Portsmouth, Ohio. The team eventually moved to Detroit for the 1934 season. The Lions and Packers have been division rivals since 1933 and have always met at least twice a season since 1932, without any cancelled games between both rivals (as of today). This is therefore the longest continuously-running rivalry in the NFL. Detroit Lions vs. Minnesota Vikings The Lions–Vikings rivalry is a rivalry between the Detroit Lions and Minnesota Vikings. The Lions and Vikings have been battling since the Vikings entered the league in 1961. Minnesota has dominated the series; however, Detroit has given the Vikings, a usual contender for the NFL playoffs, many close games over the years. Green Bay Packers vs. Minnesota Vikings The Packers–Vikings rivalry began in 1961, when the Vikings entered the league as an expansion team. The rivalry is known for being very close, both in the all-time series and in each game. It is also considered to be one of the most intense rivalries in the NFL, due these close games, the fact that both teams have often fought for the NFC North title, and the fact that the two states in which these teams reside (Minnesota and Wisconsin) have a rivalry in many sports, seen between the Timberwolves and Bucks, and the Big Ten rivals, the University of Wisconsin and University of Minnesota. Events such as Randy Moss mooning the Green Bay crowd in the first playoff game between these two teams (won by the Vikings), and former Packer great Brett Favre's move to the Vikings have created more resentment between these teams. Minnesota Vikings vs Chicago Bears Atlanta Falcons vs. New Orleans Saints At 85 games played, the series between the Falcons and Saints in the NFC South is the oldest and most established rivalry in the division. Born one year apart, the Saints and Falcons were the first two NFL franchises in the Deep South (Dallas being arguably southern but not in the traditional Deep South). They have shared many of the same players, such as Morten Andersen (the leading scorer in both franchises' histories), Bobby Hebert (who quarterbacked for both teams in the 1990s), and Joe Horn (the Pro Bowl Saints receiver who left for the Falcons in 2007). They have also drawn coaches from the same families, and even shared a head coach: recent Falcons coach Jim L. Mora is the son of longtime Saints coach Jim E. Mora, and former Falcons and Saints coach Wade Phillips is the son of former Saints coach Bum Phillips. Although rarely noted by the national media - no doubt due to both teams' long stretches of futility until the opening decade of the 21st century - games between the Falcons and Saints have riveted their respective regions for more than 40 years. Fans of both teams consider the other their most important and hated opponent. ESPN.com writer Len Pasquarelli has cited the rivalry as one of the best in all of sports: "Every year, bus caravans loaded with rowdy (and usually very inebriated) fans make the seven-hour trip between the two cities. Unless you've attended a Falcons-Saints debauchery-filled afternoon, you'll just have to take my word for how much fun it really can be." Atlanta leads the series 45-40 (44–40 regular season, 1–0 playoffs). From 2006 onward, the teams have become consistent playoff threats, New Orleans appropriated three division titles in 2006, 2009, and 2011, while the Falcons made the playoffs in 2008 and captured the division in 2010 and 2012. Both teams have reached the Super Bowl (the Saints won Super Bowl XLIV over the Colts 31–17, while Atlanta lost Super Bowl XXXIII to the Broncos 34–19). New Orleans Saints vs. Tampa Buccaneers Carolina Panthers vs. Tampa Buccaneers Atlanta Falcons vs. Carolina Panthers San Francisco 49ers vs. Seattle Seahawks The Seattle Seahawks and San Francisco 49ers became divisional rivals in 2002, when Seattle moved to the NFC West. However, it wasn't until 2011 that the match-up became a true rivalry. The 49ers won the division in 2002, but didn't have another winning season until 2011. Meanwhile, the Seahawks made the playoffs five straight times from 2003–2007 and appeared in Super Bowl XL. In 2010, the Seahawks hired former USC head coach Pete Carroll, who took the Seahawks to the playoffs in his first year, and the rivalry started growing in 2011 when the 49ers hired former Stanford head coach Jim Harbaugh, who also took his team to the playoffs in his first year. Carroll and Harbaugh had been intense rivals as college head coaches, and the rivalry followed them into the NFL. The rivalry took off in 2012, when the two teams posted winning records and made the NFC playoffs during the same year for the first time. The teams split their games, with the Seahawks defeating the 49ers 42–13 on national TV in a week 16 game that kept the division race alive until the final week. San Francisco ultimately won the division by a half-game and advanced to Super Bowl XLVII, while the Seahawks lost in the NFC divisional round. In 2013, the teams again split their games, and the Seahawks won the division by a game and went on to win Super Bowl XLVIII, defeating the 49ers in the NFC Championship game. All three 49ers-Seahawks game were highly anticipated that season, and most sports analysts called it the best rivalry in the NFL. Now ever since then the San Francisco 49ers and the Seattle Seahawks fans are always eagerly awaiting this divisional round matchup. Seattle leads the series 16–15. San Francisco 49ers vs. St. Louis Rams The rivalry between the 49ers and St. Louis Rams began in 1950. The rivalry became one of the most intense in the NFL in the 1970s as the two California based teams (the Rams then played their home games in Southern California) regularly competed for the NFL's NFC West Division title. The two teams have contested 129 matches, in which San Francisco leads 64-62-3. After the Rams relocated to St. Louis (in 1995), the rivalry lost its geographical lore, although games are still intense. The cultural differences between the West Coast (where the 49ers are based) and the Midwest (the home base for the Rams) also added to the intensity of the rivalry. Sports Illustrated considers it the 8th best of all time in the NFL. Dallas Cowboys vs. San Francisco 49ers The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers began in the 1970s and reached prominence during the 90's. For three straight seasons from 1992 through 1994 the two teams met in the conference championship game. Each was a hotly contested battle whose winner went on to win the Super Bowl in every one of those seasons. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games with Dallas leading the postseason series 5-2. New York Giants vs. San Francisco 49ers The rivalry between the Giants and 49ers is rooted in the 1980s when both teams were on the rise and would combine to win six Super Bowls from 1981–90. During that stretch there were five postseason meetings between the two teams. The 49ers defeated the Giants in the first two meetings (the 1981 NFC divisional round 38–24 and again in the divisional round, this time in 1984, winning 21–10) en route to victories in Super Bowl XVI and Super Bowl XIX. The Giants would defeat the 49ers in the next three playoff meetings; in the 1985 Wild Card round the Giants defeated the defending Super Bowl XIX champions 17–3, then crushed the 49ers 49–3 in the divisional round of the 1986 playoffs en route to winning Super Bowl XXI, the first in the history of the Giants franchise. This game is memorable for nose tackle Jim Burt's hit on Joe Montana that knocked him out of the game in the second quarter; Montana's pass on this play was intercepted by Lawrence Taylor and Taylor ran in a 34-yard touchdown. The two teams met again in the 1990 NFC Championship Game. In one of the most physical football games ever played the Giants upset the 49ers 15–13, ending their hopes of winning three Super Bowls in a row while the Giants went on to win their second Super Bowl in franchise history in Super Bowl XXV. The 49ers got their revenge in the 1993 playoffs when they defeated the Giants in the divisional round 44–3 in the last game of Lawrence Taylor's and Phil Simms' careers. Recently, the rivalry has cooled down from its peak in the 1980s. However during the 2011 NFC Championship game the two met at Candlestick Park. The Giants defeated the 49ers to go to Super Bowl XLVI. - NFL scheduling#Formula - "Throwback Game of the Week – Dolphins at Bills". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Retrieved March 1, 2010. - "Miami Dolphins Franchise Encyclopedia". Pro Football Reference. Retrieved March 1, 2010. - Nobles, Charlie (January 18, 1993). "Miami Gives Up Ball And a Trip to the Bowl". New York Times. p. C3. - Steinberg, Dan (February 2, 2008). "Baseball's Fault Lines Show Stress In Arizona". The Washington Post. p. E11. - Walker, Ben (January 27, 2008). "Super Bowl highlights super rivalry: Beantown vs. Big Apple". NFL.com (National Football League). Associated Press. With New York Yankees-Red Sox, that's just the way New York-Boston sports are...Be it on the field, court, diamond or ice, that's how it is between Beantown and the Big Apple. - "New York Jets vs. Miami Dolphins Regular Season/Postseason Results". The Football Database. - "Pittsburgh Steelers Playoff History". Fox Sports. - "Steelers-Browns Rivalry Over?". CBSPittsburgh.com. October 14, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2011. - "Top 10 NFL Rivalries of All Time". Sports Illustrated. si.com. - "Kansas City Chiefs vs. Oakland Raiders All Time Results". The Football Database. - "Oakland Raiders' Record by Opponent". The Football Database. - "Oakland Raiders - San Diego Chargers rivalry". rivalrywatch.com. November 17, 2014. - Chadiha, Jeffri (October 31, 2007). "Ranking the NFL's best rivalries: Where does Colts-Pats fit?". ESPN.com. - "Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2008-01-06. - "NFL Team Valuations". Forbes. September 2, 2009. - "NFL History 1951-1960". NFL.com. - Mucha, Peter (January 5, 2001). "A City's Hopes Fly High on the Wings of Eagles". Philadelphia Inquirer. p. A1. New York teams—the Mets, Rangers, Giants and Knicks—rank among Philadelphia's most loathed rivals. - "Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time: No. 4 Giants-Eagles". si.com. - Brookover, Bob (September 17, 2006). "The Birds' Biggest Rival—In a division of fierce foes, the Giants have battled the Eagles as tough as anyone". The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. D1. - Brookover, Bob (November 6, 2008). "Eagles—Giants among top rivalries". The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. D6. - Layden, Tim (January 24, 2011). "Once More Unto The Breach". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2011-01-19. - Triplett, Mike (January 17, 2014), "Seahawks, 49ers collide with intent", espn.go.com - "Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2008-01-30.

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This interactive visualization depicts sea surface temperatures (SST) and SST anomalies from 1885 to 2007. Learn all about SST and why SST data are highly valuable to ocean and atmospheric scientists. Understand the difference between what actual SST readings can reveal about local weather conditions and how variations from normalâcalled anomaliesâcan help scientists identify warming and cooling trends and make predictions about the effects of global climate change. Discover the relationships between SST and marine life, sea ice formation, local and global weather events, and sea level. In this audio slideshow, an ecologist from the University of Florida describes the radiocarbon dating technique that scientists use to determine the amount of carbon within the permafrost of the Arctic tundra. Understanding the rate of carbon released as permafrost thaws is necessary to understand how this positive feedback mechanism is contributing to climate change that may further increase global surface temperatures. This well-designed experiment compares CO2 impacts on salt water and fresh water. In a short demonstration, students examine how distilled water (i.e., pure water without any dissolved ions or compounds) and seawater are affected differently by increasing carbon dioxide in the air. This activity covers the role that the oceans may play in climate change and how climate change may affect the oceans. It is lesson 8 in a nine-lesson module Visualizing and Understanding the Science of Climate Change.

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Yes, but not directly into the lungs as mammals do (except for some tropical fish). (Actually they breathe oxygen not air.) As water passes over a system of extremely fine gill membranes, fish absorb the water's oxygen content. Gills contain a network of fine blood vessels (capillaries) that take up the oxygen and diffuse it through the membranes. Primarily by contracting bands of muscles in sequence on alternate sides of the body so that the tail is whipped very rapidly from side to side in a sculling motion. Vertical fins are used mainly for stabilization. Paired pectoral and pelvic fins are used primarily for stability when a fish hovers, but sometimes may be used to aid rapid forward motion. Tunas and tuna-like fish, billfish, and certain sharks are the speed champions, reaching 50 miles per hour in short bursts. Sustained swimming speeds generally range from about 5 to 10 miles per hour among strong swimmers. Most do. The sea horse is among the exceptions. Another is the shrimp fish of the Indian Ocean, which congregates in schools of several individuals and swims vertically, its long tube-like snout pointing directly upward. A catfish indigenous to the Nile and other African rivers also swims in the vertical posture. Many kinds of midwater deepsea fishes swim or rest vertically. Not in the human manner. Carnivorous fish like sharks use their sharp teeth to seize and hold prey while swallowing it whole or in large pieces. Bottom dwellers such as rays are equipped with large flat teeth that crush the shellfish they consume. Herbivorous fish (grazers) often lack jaw teeth, but have tooth-like grinding mills in their throats, called pharyngeal teeth. Fish would suffocate if they tried to chew, for chewing would interfere with the passage of water over the gills, necessary for obtaining oxygen. Tuna image courtesy of "Regulatory Fish Encyclopedia, Office of Seafood and Office of Regulatory Affairs, Food and Drug

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In 1933, a certain party just failed to win an overall majority, polling 43.9 percent of the vote. To take power, therefore, it too formed a coalition government. Once in power, of course, it passed the Enabling Act aimed at keeping the ruling party in power. Today, we have the "enhanced majority" requirement, the Cleggerons' own version of the Enabling Act, to prevent them from being deposed. With 55 percent of MPs required to vote for a dissolution of parliament, they will have the ideal mechanism in place. Gordon Brown must be kicking himself. If only he'd thought of it, he could still be in No 10.

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WHO says Japan radiation localized, no immediate threat The World Health Organization believes the spread of radiation from a quake-crippled nuclear plant in Japan remains limited and appears to pose no immediate risk to health, the WHO's China representative said on Friday. "At this point, there is still no evidence that there's been significant radiation spread beyond the immediate zone of the reactors themselves," Michael O'Leary told a group of reporters. "At the same time, we know that the situation is evolving and we need to monitor closely and see what happens over time. Things can obviously change, and have changed, over this last week." Japan has been battling for nearly a week to bring under control the overheating Fukushima nuclear plant after it was battered by a massive earthquake and tsunami. Experts and officials fear a major leak of radioactive substances from the plant could pose a serious health risk, and China and nearby countries have stepped up monitoring of radiation levels. O'Leary suggested that the impact of such an event on China would be small, but said other factors mattered too. GeoEye's IKONOS satellite image was taken over the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan at 10:19 am (Tokyo time) on March 17, 2011 and released to Reuters on March 17. Credit: Reuters/GeoEye Satellite Image/Handout

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Sudden Oak Death (SOD) Sudden Oak Death (SOD) is a plant disease caused by the water mold Phytophthora ramorum (P. ramorum). This organism causes disease in more than 100 species of trees, shrubs, herbs, and ferns. P. ramorum is a serious threat to forest and nursery industries throughout the Pacific Northwest. P. ramorum spreads by wind and rain moving within forest canopies from treetops to stems and from understory plants to overstory trees. The pathogen survives in infested plant material, litter, soil, and water. Management efforts in Pacific Northwest forests and nurseries focus on eradicating the pathogen where it is found and on preventing new infections. Sudden Oak Death affects landowners, businesses, resource managers, and conservation groups. There are several management options which depend on personal goals and location. This website is dedicated to bringing awareness and resources to Oregon residence concerning Sudden Oak Death and its impact on our communities. In 2017, a SOD Task Force was convened by U.S. Senator Jeff Merkley and Oregon State Representative David Brock Smith staffed by the Association of Oregon Counties through legislative funding. The mission of the Task Force was to develop a collaborative-based strategic action plan to contain the lineage of P. ramorum and eradicate the EU1 lineage of P. ramorum in Curry County, Oregon using an ecosystem management approach that is scientifically sound, ecologically credible and economically sound. Development and unanimous approval of the Strategic Action Plan required cooperation, coordination, and collaboration among the participating Federal agencies, and with the State of Oregon, Tribes, local governments and private landowners. Please visit the Task Force page for more information Locations of SOD The origin of P. ramorum is unknown. In the urban–woodland interface and in forests, Sudden Oak Death is known only in 15 counties in California and in a 292-square-mile area in Curry County, Oregon. How SOD came to the area is not known for sure, but genetic tests suggest it was introduced to Oregon through infected nursery plants. No other locations in the wild are known in North America. Sudden Oak Death has been found in several plant nurseries in Oregon and other states, and these nurseries are under strict inspection and eradication protocols. Each year, new outbreaks are detected, and much effort is spent suppressing the disease. Signs and Symptoms of SOD Each year, new infestations are detected, and much effort is spent in slowing the spread of this disease. Symptoms include sap bleeding, stem canker, lesions, dead tree, foliage or twig dieback, and leaf blight or spots. Other Phytophthora species and fungi can cause similar symptoms on tanoaks and other host species, which is why laboratory confirmation is required. What you can do • Familiarize yourself with symptoms of P. ramorum and report areas for testing if concerned about infection. • Know the location of the quarantine boundary. • Do not transport plant material or firewood from affected areas in California or Oregon. • Before you leave affected areas in California or Oregon, wash mud and soil off your vehicle, equipment, clothing, and footwear. If possible, use a 10-percent bleach solution for washing. • When purchasing host plants from nurseries, ask nursery management about the origin of the plants and whether they have been inspected. Photo credit: Sarah Navarro/ODF “Oregon has a long history of pioneering innovative ways to resolve urgent natural resource issues. I’m proud that in a time of political divisiveness, we in Oregon are coming together to tackle a pressing issue for our southern counties. The Sudden Oak Death pathogens NA1 and EU1 are too great a problem for one agency or one level of government to solve. With the potential for devastating impacts on our local economy and environment, this task force will work collaboratively to look for more and better solutions to fight these pathogens.” - Senator Jeff Merkely Map of the Quarantine Area and the Generally Infested Area. Note: These boundaries are subject to revision. Photo credit: Sarah Navarro/ODF If you are located outside of known infested areas within Curry County: Oregon Department of Forestry - Brookings, OR If you are located outside of Curry County: Oregon Department of Forestry - Salem, OR Please visit the Reporting page for more information. Please visit the Resources page for more information.

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Technology has allowed education to take place outside of classrooms. It has changed the way education happens by offering video conferencing as an alternative to the typical classroom environment. This article will explain to you what the benefits are of using video conferencing in an educational setting. Multiple schools can connect Previous to video conferencing, when schools wanted to connect with one another, they would need to send teachers to one another. Although this did lead to teachers gaining additional teaching and management experience, a lot of time was wasted in the process. With video conferencing, time wasted is no longer an issue. When a school has organized a conference, a training session for teachers, or even a webinar that can help with online education, it only takes a few minutes to sign up and gain access. Attendees are also able to communicate with each other, sharing valuable information all while being in separate locations. Students can learn from afar The typical classroom environment is often taken for granted. For students living in rural areas, attendance in a classroom environment isn’t always easy to achieve. But, by using video conferencing to produce virtual classrooms, these students gain access to learning without having to go anywhere. They are finally able to learn from afar, opening education up to many who have not had this ease of access before. Lessons can be recorded When a student misses a class or is too sick to attend, being able to review the day’s lesson at home means he or she won’t fall behind. Prior to video conferencing, missing a day meant trying to teach the lesson to yourself. Although this may be okay for easier lessons, when lessons are difficult to understand and full of new knowledge, trying to learn them on your own isn’t so easy. Video conferencing provides students with the benefit of playing back lessons that have been recorded by the teachers. Students are able to watch the class and review the material as if they had been there in the first place. Chatting with experts is available Experts are able to give video conferences to teachers and students. Not only are they able to share information, but they are also able to chat face to face with those they are teaching. And, by using video conferencing, experts with busy schedules don’t have to waste time on traveling and other expenses. Out-of-class learning is made easier Learning is a lifelong process, and having access to quality material online makes it easier to keep education going. Video conferencing allows for out-of-class learning which is convenient for both the teacher and the students. There is no longer a strict time schedule that both teachers and students have to adhere to. Teachers can now use video conferencing to share their knowledge, and students are able to watch the material when they are available. This technology also allows students and teachers to create study groups and communicate with one another from the comfort of their homes. Parents and teachers can be connected Teachers like to keep in touch with parents, but parent-teacher conferences can be difficult for parents to attend. Using video conferencing makes it convenient for a teacher to schedule a parent-teacher conference over the computer. This is an easy solution for parents who have busy schedules and generally miss out on their child’s school events. Virtual field trips are the new student experience Planning a school field-trip takes a lot of time, energy, and resources. Things can go wrong, weather can change, and time restraints can make it difficult to meet all the field-trip plans. By using video conferencing to create a field-trip experience for students, the entire class can go on the trip while sitting in the comfort of their home or classroom. Convenient and cost-effective, video conferencing can create many different field-trip opportunities that couldn’t be had otherwise. One final benefit of using video conferencing is the overall cost of education is reduced. There is no longer a need for grand facilities that can be difficult to fund and expand to meet growing populations. It also opens the doors for more in-depth and expansive learning that a classroom is just unable to provide. With all the benefits that come from video conferencing, it won’t be surprising to see it continue to grow in the education sector. Teachers, students, and the overall academic setting can all benefit from the use of video conferencing over the typical classroom experience.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

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The P in the equation is the pressure of the gas, the V is the volume of the gas, the n is the number of moles of gas, the R is the gas constant, and the T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin. References: Chemistry by Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 6th ed. The room temperature and pressure were recorded. The copper can be dried and recycled with metals or you can dispose of it in the garbage. The temperature of the water was acquired in Celsius degrees. Wrap a 30-cm length of copper wire around the lump to make a cage. The following Trapped air bubbles cause volume to be to low balancing out our air that escaped the gas collecting tube. This is shown in Figure 3. Wrap the piece of magnesium around the copper loop so that it will fit easily into the gas-measuring tube. If one meter of magnesium ribbon weighs more than 0. Then, cooling the same capillary tube with ice while measuring the temperatures cooling effect on the gas bubble inside the capillary tube. Once the pressure of the water vapor was found, this was subtracted from the atmospheric pressure, which in this case was 1 atm. This was possible due to the assumption given in the beginning of the lab that the atmospheric pressure in the room is standard pressure. Do not wash them with water. The main purpose of this lab is to determine the molar volume of hydrogen gas experimentally in order to compare it to the theoretical molar volume of ideal gases. Using stoichiometry, calculate the moles of hydrogen produced from the total mass of magnesium ribbon you began with. Introduction In this lab, the experiment focused on the relationship between the temperature and pressure of an ideal gas that was dry ice inside the closed container. Calculate the % error of your experiment. Conclusion By determining the molar mass of butane gas from experimental data, the chemical formula can be determined as well. If the water in the tube is evaporated, the other product, a white salt, remains. Ideal Gas Law Lab 1. A molecular view is helpful in understanding what is observed experimentally. Data: After measuring the mass of the flask with the various contents, it was clear that the wight was not always consistent due to the large number of decimal places. Mass of flask filled with air 48. Mass of the gas in grams: The mass of the gas in the glass jar was calculated by subtracting the mass of the lighter after releasing the gas 16. It was to prevent the carbon dioxide escaping from the flask. Freezing point depression is one of four important colligative properties of ideal solutions freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, vapor pressure decrease, and osmotic pressure increase in which the change in the solvent properties is dependent on the concentration, not the identity, of the solute particles. One of the products is hydrogen gas. Calculate your percent error and list your major sources of error. In this experiment, a known mass of magnesium was reacted with a solution of hydrochloric acid and water in an eudiometer tube. Principles involved: When gases are compared, their volumes, temperatures and pressure are always involved. To do this, we need to define entropy. Microscale Very small lengths of magnesium ribbon are used. Thereafter, the flask was filled with water before being sealed, using an excess amount of water to ensure that it was completely filled. The system must reach the point where the energy and entropy are low enough for the inter-particle forces to take control and fix the sovent particles in position in the crystal structure. The flask was kept upright throughout. To study the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. The pressure of the water vapor was found on the chart that was given at the start of the lab, and the pressure correlated with the temperature of the water. It is also important that part 2 is done well. In this experiment, a known mass of magnesium is reacted with an excess amount of hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. The number of moles of water and the number of moles of the hydrate was used to calculate the ratio of moles of water to moles of the sample. The Gas constant we had a percent error of 7. The pressure given in the problem is the total pressure and since the hydrogen is collected over water, we need to account for the partial pressure of water using Table 1. When hydrogen gas is made from the magnesium and hydrochloric acid, the container's environmental conditions are changed to Standard Temperature and Pressure. Tear or cut a small piece of paper towel or napkin so that it is just barely bigger than the top of the graduated cylinder. The temperature curve on the experimental plot is rounded, rather than sharp. Use the volume of hydrogen gas from the experiment at the corrected pressure Question 3 and room temperature. Report the identity of your unknown based on the molar mass. The pressure of the water vapor can be ascertained from a table of water vapor pressures. Place your finger over the hole in the rubber stopper and invert the gas-measuring tube.

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Welcome to Center for the Developing Mind As of 2018, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention updated their statistics; stating that by the time a child is 8 years old in the USA, 1 out of every 59 children will be diagnosed on the autism spectrum. If you are navigating this website, likely you are doing so, because you are worried that either you or someone you love might be suffering from a developmental delay or regulatory disorder, like ASD, Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder) or Selective Mutism. First, know that there’s help available to find out just what the difficulties are, if any, and address those challenges. What Are Developmental Delays and how does they manifest in young children?There are many different types of developmental delays in infants and young children. They include problems with: - Language or speech - Movement -- motor skills - Social and emotional skills - Thinking -- cognitive skills What are the warning signs of a developmental delay? There are several general "warning signs" of possible delay: Behavioral Warning Signs - Does not pay attention or stay focused on an activity for as long a time as other children of the same age - Focuses on unusual objects for long periods of time; enjoys this more than interacting with others - Avoids or rarely makes eye contact with others - Gets unusually frustrated when trying to do simple tasks that most children of the same age can do - Shows aggressive behaviors and acting out and appears to be very stubborn compared with other children - Displays violent behaviors on a daily basis - Stares into space, rocks body, or talks to himself more often than other children of the same age - Does not seek love and approval from a caregiver or parent Individuals impacted with developmental and/or regulatory disorders often need a variety of services when it comes to dealing with their individual problems. How often have parents expressed concern, wishing for one unified service center that approaches the healing of their child from a variety of different disciplines? My name is Dr. Esther Hess and I have listened to my families! I am a developmental psychologist and Senior Clinician for Stanley Greenspan, M.D. (the developer of the DIR/Floor Time model of intervention). I am also the executive director of our state of the art facility, Center for the Developing Mind that addresses the specific needs of children, adolescents and young adults and their families struggling with developmental and social/emotional challenges. The Center for the Developing Mind™ The Center for the Developing Mind™, a non-public agency in the state of California, is a multidisciplinary treatment facility for children, adolescents and young adults with developmental delays and/or regulatory disorders. Clinical interventionists including mental health, speech therapy, occupational therapy and educational support not only lend their individual support towards establishing a treatment protocol, but the Center’s clinical staff specializes in combining when necessary, multidisciplinary services within treatment sessions to maximize treatment options. At Center for the Developing Mind, we pride ourselves on the taking care of the needs of the whole family. Recently the Center has been involved in a collaborative research project with colleagues from UCLA where we are looking at the feelings of neuro-typical brothers and sisters of persons with ASD. We also work collaboratively with school districts facilitating Individual Educational Plan meetings, parent/clinician/school case conferencing and have now expanded into adult services to include individual, couple, family and group support and when applicable, supervision within the adult workplace and social skills support. The center is equipped with a variety of rooms designed to create the right environment for different types of therapy: mental health, occupational, educational, speech and language and more. Click here to learn more about our facilities. Dr. Esther Hess I feel blessed that I literally have the best job in the whole world, because I get to go down on the floor every day and play with kids and toys. And, as much as I love to be ‘on the floor’ helping my children and their families, I am also passionate about being an author; having written numerous professional chapters and articles on how to conduct play therapy for children and adolescents impacted by ASD, selective mutism and ADHD. Additionally, I am a national and an international speaker on DIR/Floor Time: A Developmental/Relational Model of Intervention for Children, Adolescents and Young Adults Impacted by ASD and Sensory Processing Challenges. It has been my privilege to be able to combine my love of travel and teaching and see 48 out of our 50 states in the USA. Most recently, I have expanded my reach and have taught on this subject in over 4 continents! As a consequence of my ever expanding teaching on developmental and regulatory disorders worldwide, I have begun to explore the bridge between clinical practice and policy making. Over the last three years, I have visited Capitol Hill on several occasions, where on the invitation of several Senatorial and Congressional offices, I and various members of our staff have offered both education and support to push forward an ambitious new agenda to better serve children and adults on the spectrum. In a series of policy recommendations, I have had the privilege to highlight and advocate for the needs of children and adults with autism as it deals with relatively familiar pediatric early intervention needs while expanding into the newly acknowledged lifespan concerns including learning life skills, accessing qualified support providers and obtaining funding that’s flexible.

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People who take an antidepressant are far more likely to suffer a recurring bout of depression than someone who decides on a non-pharmaceutical approach. Taking a drug almost doubles your risk of suffering a relapse, say researchers, from the Virginia Commonwealth University in the US and McMaster University in Canada, after reviewing a range of studies that monitored the effectiveness of antidepressants and placebos, or sugar pills, on groups of patients with major depression. Overall, depressed people who took no drugs or were given a placebo had a 25-per-cent likelihood of suffering a further episode in the future, whereas those who took an antidepressant were 42-per-cent more likely to do so. The researchers believe the drugs interfere with the brain's self-regulatory processes for coping with depression, causing these processes to overcompensate when the drug treatment stops, triggering another depressive episode. Depression may be a natural and beneficial process as the brain works to cope with stress or loss, the researchers concluded (Front Psychology, 2011; 2: 159; doi: 10.3389/ fpsyg.2011.00159).

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A sunscreen that uses DNA to act as a 'second skin' is on the horizon, potentially offering better protection from ultraviolet light throughout the day without the laborious task of constant reapplication. Scientists in the US used DNA samples taken from salmon to develop a product which gets better at shielding the skin from harmful UV exposure the longer it is in direct sunlight. It also helps lock in the moisture beneath the skin's surface – promising a longer-lasting tan. Instead of damaging our own skins' DNA (resulting in sunburn), the UV light instead only affects the alternative, applied layer of salmon DNA. Dr Guy German, assistant professor of biomedical engineering at Binghampton university, where the research was conducted, explained: "We thought, let's flip it. What happens instead if we actually used DNA as a sacrificial layer? So instead of damaging DNA within the skin, we damage a layer on top of the skin." In tests, the research team found that the thin, optically transparent crystalline DNA films that they had developed became better at absorbing UV light the more they were exposed to it. German added: "If you translate that, it means to me that if you use this as a topical cream or sunscreen, the longer that you stay out on the beach, the better it gets at being a sunscreen." As it stands, current sunscreens need to be applied roughly 30 minutes before sun exposure and then reapplied every couple of hours throughout the day – unless you go swimming or sweat profusely, in which case you need to reapply more often. However, the development of this DNA film means that a single application would suffice for beachgoers, holidaymakers or anyone who fancies some fun in the sun. The potential of DNA films isn't just limited to sunscreen. The moisture-locking properties of such a product promises a potential treatment or prevention method for dry, flaky or pigmented skin, as well as other means. Commenting on the versatility of the material, German said: "Not only do we think this might have applications for sunscreen and moisturizers directly, but if it's optically transparent and prevents tissue damage from the sun and it's good at keeping the skin hydrated, we think this might be potentially exploitable as a wound covering for extreme environments." For now, however, the research is still in the early stages, and a lot more tests will have to be done before anything of this kind appears on the market. So, as far as summer 2017 is concerned, keep applying that sun lotion. Check out our sun safety tips for pointers on best practices, risks and other healthy summer advice. The research was published in the journal Scientific Reports.

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If you have participated in any form of exercise or strenuous activity you have probably experienced some level of muscle soreness. It’s important to be able to distinguish the differences in kinds of soreness. There are two types of soreness that you can feel in your muscles. The first type is called acute muscle soreness and the second is often referred to as DOMS or delayed on set muscle soreness. Acute muscle soreness develops right after you are done with your exercise activity. DOMS usually occurs between 24 and 72 hours after exercise. The acute version of muscle soreness is caused by the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle with causes soreness. DOMS arrives as a result from activity that causes very small muscle tears within the muscle tissue or other surrounding tissues. While there are two different kinds of soreness, it is possible to experience both kinds at the same time. If your soreness lasts for more than 72 hours, or your experiences higher levels of swelling and pain, you may be experiencing something more serious that muscle soreness and should go see your doctor. There are some people that welcome seemingly debilitating levels of muscular soreness. For those of us that would rather not experience the pain of not being able to sit on to the porcelain throne after a hard leg day, we need to realize that muscles soreness can be a good sign that your workouts are effective and your body is ready to build more lean muscle mass. This muscular trauma that causes pain and soreness will help you muscles stimulate muscle protein synthesis to promote muscle growth and strength gains. It should be noted that in extreme cases, excessive muscle soreness can lead to a very serious condition called Rhabdomyolysis. While most people won’t push themselves to reach the uncomfortable levels of physical activity that could lead to this condition, those who are frequently engaging in intense levels of exercise should use caution. If you are still sore from a workout, you would be wise to not engaged in the same workout that brought on the soreness until the soreness subsides. During this time of healing, there are ways that you can ensure muscle soreness does not last longer than it should. This article will provide you with three areas to focus on so you can bounce back quickly and be ready to engage in your next workout. Your body requires adequate nutrients to function optimally. This is even more important when your body is trying to heal from the stress and damage produced following a workout. Proper nutrient intake will help you recover faster and help your muscle rebuild before you start your next workout. Ensuring that you get enough protein and carbohydrates after your workouts will help ensure your muscles have enough amino acids and carbohydrates to repair and refuel for your next workout. Don’t forget about the vital micro nutrients in fruits an vegetables that can also increasing your healing potential. A well balanced diet of lean protein, complex carbs, and healthy fats will give you the best shot of keeping muscle soreness from lasting too long. While resting the muscles you worked is important for recovery, that doesn’t mean you should take a load off on the couch for the next couple days. Restorative movement like active stretching, walking, and other low impact activities can help increase blood flow to your sore muscles. The increased blood flow will ensure that nutrients for healing are flowing to the areas that need repair. If you’re not sure what kinds of low impact activities you can do, give the two routines below a try the next time you feel too sore to complete your normal workout routine. Full Body Stretch Getting enough quality sleep is another critical component to a healthy lifestyle and recovery from muscle soreness. We have written a number of articles on the importance of sleep. Check out this article if you are curious about how sleep affects your workout performance. If you are looking for more info on sleep, check our articles on strategies for quality sleep and strategies for improving sleep. Remember, you usually don’t have to be concerned about muscle soreness. It is often necessary for physical improvement. You also don’t need to necessarily be very sore to know you achieved a good workout.

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These number sense worksheets help students show how numbers can be represented in multiple ways. Included are worksheets for the numbers 11-20. Students will display number sense by filling in the boxes with tally marks, dice, drawings, ten frames, base 10 blocks, numbers, and number words. I put these pages into a sheet protector and let kids use dry erase markers to work on these at math centers. ☛Check out my too!

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In conducting meta-analyses of estimates from a set of studies, researchers often use a statistic denoted by Q to assess the homogeneity of the estimates. When used as the basis of a formal statistical test of homogeneity, Q is commonly referred to a chi-square distribution, and the test is called the Cochran Q test. The name of the test, however, embodies a misunderstanding: Although William G. Cochran wrote about the statistic Q, he did not propose a test based on it. Also, the test generally uses an incorrect null distribution. This entry describes the Q statistic, examines its statistical behavior, and discusses implications for the heterogeneity measure I2 and for a popular method of random-effects meta-analysis. In the main paper in which Q appears, ... Looks like you do not have access to this content.

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IT'S not just Australia that can't decide how to deal with wildfires. The US government is embroiled in a legal wrangle with environmentalists over what to do with the remains of forests that have been partially razed by fire. About 1200 square kilometres of the Bitterroot National Forest on the Montana-Idaho border burnt during wildfires in the summer of 2000. The federal government ordered some of the surviving charred timber to be logged to prevent fires breaking out again. But now environmentalists have won a court ruling allowing them to appeal against the decision. They say the logging will be harmful to the forest and that the burnt trees should be left to regenerate naturally. Last month, US agriculture undersecretary Mark Rey ordered the immediate "salvage" logging of about 160 square kilometres of burnt timber. This would have yielded the government's largest ever sale of timber, around 415,000 cubic metres. ... To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.

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Critics of the Bible have suggested there is no evidence of a mass Hebrew exodus from Egypt. The typical claim is that Egyptian records mention neither this event nor large slave populations, and there is a lack of bones or graves in the wilderness. Such criticisms are factually incorrect: there is archaeological evidence that corresponds to the Bible’s description of the exodus. A Daunting Task It’s important to realize that “proof” of ancient events is extraordinarily rare. Mountains of obvious evidence don’t typically survive three thousand years, even when the event itself is significant. It’s only reasonable to look for remnants, circumstantial evidence, collaborating artifacts, and perhaps some random documents. Of course, insisting that evidence must be found outside the Bible is, itself, an unfair bias. Scripture is part of ancient written records, whether skeptics appreciate it or not. For those not committed to rejecting such things out of hand, archaeological evidence favors a real, historical exodus of Israel from Egypt. Examining evidence fairly means avoiding myths and poor assumptions. Pop culture is not historical evidence. For example, movies such as The Prince of Egypt and The Ten Commandments use the name Rameses for the Pharaoh of the exodus. However, Scripture never identifies Pharaoh using that name. Looking for explicit evidence of the exodus in connection with the reign of Rameses II is an attempt to verify a movie, not the Bible. Skeptics who assume the Bible speaks of Rameses are not only looking at the wrong sources but very possibly the wrong time period. Cultures use different dating systems, not all of which are consistent. Even when there is ample evidence of an occurrence, it can be difficult for historians to know exactly what dates were involved. This is particularly true of Egyptian history, the record of which is erratic. Egyptians sometimes recorded rulers who reigned simultaneously as if they were consecutive, for example. Even experts in Egyptian archaeology would admit that dating anything using ancient Egyptian records requires an inflated level of tolerance. Support from Archaeology Attempting to narrowly date ancient events is difficult. However, biblical scholars typically place the exodus from Egypt somewhere between 1446 and 1225 BC. Within that period, there is ample archaeological evidence to reinforce the account of Scripture. For example: • Pyramids built of mud-and-straw bricks (Exodus 5:7–8) and both written and physical evidence that Asiatic people were enslaved in Egypt (Exodus 1:13–14). • Skeletons of infants of three months old and younger, usually several in one box, buried under homes in a slave town called Kahun (Exodus 1:16), corresponding to Pharaoh’s slaughter of Hebrew infants. • Masses of houses and shops in Kahun, abandoned so quickly that tools, household implements, and other possessions were left behind. The findings suggest the abandonment was total, hasty, and done on short notice (Exodus 12:30–34, 39), consistent with the Israelites’ sudden exit from Egypt in the wake of Passover. • Court advisors used rods that look like snakes (Exodus 7:10–12). This partly corroborates the magical opposition against Moses performed by Pharaoh’s advisors. • The Ipuwer Papyrus, a work of poetry stating, in part, “Plague stalks through the land and blood is everywhere. . . . Nay, but the river is blood . . . gates, columns and walls are consumed with fire . . . the son of the high-born man is no longer to be recognized. . . . The stranger people from outside are come into Egypt. . . . Nay, but corn has perished everywhere.” • The Amarna letters, ancient correspondence between Egyptian and Middle Eastern rulers, blame significant unrest on a people group labeled as Habiru or ‘Apiru (Exodus 9:1). • Discoveries also include evidence of cities such as Jericho being conquered during that timeframe. Several scenarios in the annals of Egyptian rulers dovetail with the biblical book of Exodus. The “early” 1446 BC date of the exodus would align the slaughter of infants (Exodus 1:16–21) with either Thutmose I or Amenhotep I, whose reputations would support such an act. It would place the life of Moses in the same general era as Hatshepsut, a woman who co-ruled Egypt (Exodus 2:5–6) and was at odds with her stepson Thutmose III. He would have had good reason to evict her adopted son, given the chance (Exodus 2:14–15). This would align the liberation of Israel with the rule of Amenhotep II. His army notably stopped military campaigns in 1446 BC (Exodus 14:28), and his eventual successor, Thutmose IV, was scoffed at for being less-than-legitimate (Exodus 11:4–5; 12:29). That is not the only possible match. A minority of Egyptologists advocate for a significant revision of the historical timeline, shifting the “actual date” of some Egyptian dynasties by centuries. One such theory would align the book of Exodus with Amenemhat III, who had no surviving sons and a childless daughter, Sobekneferu (Exodus 2:5–10). Her death ended that Dynasty. Soon after came Neferhotep I, who left behind no mummy (Exodus 14:28), and, although he had a son (Exodus 11:4–5; 12:29), he was instead succeeded by his brother. There Is Evidence of the Exodus In summary, non-biblical archaeological evidence shows that the main details of the book of Exodus are not merely plausible, but they are present in archaeology. That era of Egypt’s history includes elements corresponding to a sizable Hebrew workforce in Egypt, which rapidly evacuated in connection with a time of chaos, under Pharaohs whose histories fit with the details of Exodus, and preceding conquest in the land of Canaan. One Last Bone to Pick This same approach to history applies to the supposed lack of Hebrew remains in the desert between Egypt and Israel. First and foremost, this complaint ignores traditional burial practices of Israel. This included disinterring bodies after a year, in order to rebury the bones in a common family location. Patriarchs such as Jacob and Joseph famously had their bones relocated after death (Exodus 13:19; Joshua 24:32). This practice was the origin of the phrase gathered to his fathers or to sleep with one’s fathers, in parallel to its implications for the afterlife. Nature isn’t prone to preserving remains for long, either, let alone for three thousand years. Worse, one of the consequences for disobedience, about which God warned Israel, was improper burial (Deuteronomy 28:26; cf. 1 Corinthians 10:5). Hasty or slipshod burial would allow scavengers and the elements to eradicate a body relatively quickly. This means there is no “lack” of Hebrew graves or bones in the wilderness—there’s no rational reason to expect such remains to be abundant.

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Before the War World War II was born in the decades before Hitler's 1939 march into Poland. As the United States looked inward, dark forces grew beyond control and aggression went unconfronted. This section follows the path that Oregon and the world took to war. The Legacy of World War I and the Versailles TreatyOregon's Roaring Twenties Bring Mixed RecordOregon Weathers the Great DepressionA Specter Abroad: The Axis Rises from TurmoilIsolationism and Appeasement FailPreparing for War: The Nation Shifts GearsThe Oregon State Defense Council Takes Action

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Lares is the name of a small village north of Cusco, a beautiful place to make an Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. We begin in the Sacred Valley (in Huarán). We climb the narrow part and have the chance to see stone houses with thatched roofs surrounded by herds of llamas, alpacas and guinea pigs. The road is moderate compared to the classic Inca Trail. This road has two steps of 4000 meters (13,200 feet) is recommended why spend three to four days in Cusco before the trip. The Ayllu the Laris inhabit this area later Lares district denominate. Lares district extends from 2200 m.s.n.m. to 4200 m.s.n.m. The district capital is located at an average altitude of 3200 m.s.n.m. Distance from Cusco: Approximately 140 km. Ecological level: Quechua Path: Highway and dirt road. "The Lares formed the Lares culture in what is now the Lares district above it appears that the capital and center of culture Lares not lares-water-calienteshaya been the actual capital of the district that it is no vestige of ancient cultures is or in urban conformation that is completely Spanish, nor in the walls and foundations of buildings, it is thought that the center of the Lares culture was Choquecancha population, displaced and the citadel of Antawala ". In the Colonial era (1535-1824), the whole area of Lares, for in of Choquekancha, was not exploited by the Spaniards for being in a completely rugged terrain, only maintained trade relations for some products. In the Republican era (1824 to present), the region acquires its greatest splendor as part of the Province of Calca, Department of Cusco, Lares acquires the category of District under the Act of 22 October 1,892, with its capital the current town of Lares. Etymologically the word "Lares comes from that other Aymara Laris meaning maternal uncle and sometimes all relative on the mother. With the passage of time is no doubt that for reasons of diction and the law of least effort, staying in Lares ". Many travel agencies offer their services for Lares trek, we will recommend RAP Travel a travel agency in Cusco.

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The most tragic event in Finland’s history is the civil war that took place between January and May 1918. The war was about defeating a socialist revolution and an armed rebellion. Part of it was a liberation war to expel rebellious Russian troops from the newly independent country. The war and its aftermath cost the lives of 36,000 people who were killed in action, sentenced to death during the war, sentenced in special post-war tribunals and, last but not least, as victims of disease in prison camps. The war shaped the political system in Finland and left deep wounds that would take decades to heal. Democracy, however, survived and helped the nation achieve reconciliation after the rebellion. The violence of the Reds was directed at an ideological class enemy and military opponent. The revolutionaries tried to legitimise their actions by revolutionary courts, comrade courts, and punitive measures directed against counter-revolutionaries. The Red administration led by Kullervo Manner gave its army free rein. Intelligence squads dispensed justice in the field. Comrade and military courts passed judgments. The People’s Delegation, which acted as a revolutionary government, had a “department of special affairs”. For the legitimate government, the legal basis of the judgments was problematic. The army applied martial law which the civilian leadership held to be unlawful. The army deployed armed flying squads in the captured areas to arrest Reds, search for weapons and carry out guarding duties. The army had military judges and courts. Commandants wielded emergency powers. Based on the emergency powers, 290 people were executed in Tampere and 247 in Vyborg. The first government of independent Finland, led by P. E. Svinhufvud, was not properly prepared for the January 1918 rebellion, even though the revolution had been in the making since November. The government was even less prepared for the numbers of prisoners taken when the rebellion was defeated. In the final stages of the war, at the end of April and beginning of May 1918, the Whites and the Germans who had intervened in southern Finland captured some 80,000 Reds or suspected Reds. The prisoners were initially under the responsibility of the army. Starting from May, the responsibility over the prisoners was shifted to the government or civil administration. There were at first 64 prison camps. By the summer, the number was down to 13. The largest camps were in Hämeenlinna (11,500), Hennala near Lahti (10,900), Vyborg (10,400), Tampere (10,000), Suomenlinna (10,000), Tammisaari (8,700) and Riihimäki (8,500). The number of Reds who died in the prison camps was 11,600. Large numbers of prisoners who were waiting for their trial in the camps or who had already been convicted, succumbed to diseases. The biggest killer was the so-called Spanish influenza, which arrived in Finland in June 1918. After the war, the government, led by Svinhufvud, and the parliament wanted to ensure the lawfulness of the dispensation of justice. Until then, justice had been dispensed on the basis of martial law enforced by the military, which the government did not consider legitimate because it was born of Russian dictation during autonomy. At the end of May 1918, the parliament passed a law on special courts for cases of treason. Based on the law, 140 new courts of law were established to handle cases of treason. Each court consisted of five members: a legally qualified chairman, a legally qualified member, an officer and two laymen. In addition, a special appellate court was instated to handle appeals. Cases were tried on the basis of the existing criminal law. These special courts processed 75,500 cases and issued 67,800 judgments. The number of people convicted of treason was 6,400. The number of people convicted of assistance to treason was 55,700. Two thousand people were convicted of robbery. Seizures carried out by members of the Red Guards were considered to be robberies. The courts ordered 555 death sentences (0.8 per cent of the convictions). Of the death sentences, 113 were carried out. The most common sentence (47 per cent of the sentences) was 2 to 3 years imprisonment. Eighty-eight per cent of those convicted were given a suspended sentence. Those who received a suspended sentence were released from the prison camp. Some 60,000 people were deprived of their citizen’s rights, which also meant a temporary loss of voting rights. |Manner of death||Supporters of Manner||Supporters of Svinhufvud||Others||Total| |Killed in action||5,199||3,414||790||9,403| |Executed, shot, murdered||7,370||1,424||926||9,720| |Died at prison camp||11,652||4||1,790||13,446| |Died after release from prison camp||607||–||6||613| Reductions of sentences The law on suspended prison sentences was approved on 20 June 1918. Most of the imprisoned Reds were released on the basis of the law. At the end of October, Svinhufvud, elected as head of state in May, converted the sentences of 10,200 prisoners, who had been sentenced to a maximum of four years, into suspended sentences. At the beginning of December, Svinhufvud reduced the sentences of 6,500 prisoners who had been sentenced to a maximum of six years. Death sentences were converted into life sentences, life sentences were reduced to 12 years imprisonment and all other sentences were reduced by one third. This decision meant that about 75 per cent of the prisoners still in prison camps on 15 September were released. At the end of 1918, there were 6,100 Reds still imprisoned, most of whom were serving their sentence in the Tammisaari forced labour camp. At the same time, Svinhufvud exonerated criminals and those guilty of summary executions who had fought on the government side. This decision has subsequently been criticised. Also the entire process has faced a lot of criticism, especially as mortality in prison camps was catastrophically high. Underlying causes included the fear of a new coup and the severe shortage of food in the country. The 1918 war events contributed to the fact that the Finnish head of state received extraordinary great powers in the 1919 constitution in comparison to the parliament. The president was given the right to dissolve the parliament, appoint and dismiss governments, be in charge of foreign policy, act as commander-in-chief of the Defence Forces and appoint the highest officials. This semi-parliamentary system survived until the year 2000.

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Includes Ctenicera spp. Pest description and crop damage Wireworms are the soil-dwelling larvae of click beetles. Adult click beetles are slender, tan to nearly black, and about 0.37 inch long. Larvae are hard, segmented, 0.37 to 0.5 inch long and dark yellow or brown. They resemble mealworms. Wireworms injure seedlings by feeding on roots, tubers, or bulbs, or boring into stems. Damage is more common in spring planted crops where the soil has a high organic content, such as fields that recently have been in or adjacent to alfalfa, pasture, or uncontrolled weeds. Wireworms do not significantly damage older plants. Management-biological, cultural, tactical Management-chemical control: HOME USE - bifenthrin (as a mix with zeta-cypermethrin), Management-chemical control: COMMERCIAL USE - bifenthrin (Brigade 2EC) at 0.15 to 0.3 lb ai/a at planting or 0.05 to 0.15 lb ai/a at lay-by or 0.033 to 0.1 lb ai/a foliar. PHI 21 days. REI 12 hr. See label instructions. Do not exceed 0.5 lb ai/a per year. - chloropicrin (Telone)-Preplant. - chlorpyrifos (Lorsban Advanced) at 1.88 lb ai/a. PHI 125 days. REI 24 hr. Preplant broadcast, incorporated 4 to 6 inches. One application only. RESTRICTED USE IN OREGON. - ethoprop (Mocap 15G) at 0.24 to 0.315 lb ai/1,000 row ft (incorporate 2 to 4 inches after treatment). REI 48 hr or 72 hr if rainfall is less than 25 inches. - phosmet (Imidan) at 1 lb ai/a foliar or plantbed treatment. PHI 7 days. REI 4 days seedbed and 5 days foliar. Do not exceed 4.67 lb ai/a per season. - thiamethoxam (Platinum) at 0.078 to 0.125 lb ai/a. REI 12 hr. Spray directly on the seed pieces in the furrow. Do not exceed 0.125 lb ai/a per season. See label for recommended application instructions.

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Brake based on Coulomb friction Modelica Standard Library The Rotational Brake (or Brake) component models a brake. A frictional torque acts between the housing and a flange and a controlled normal force presses the flange to the housing to increase friction. The normal force applied to the braking surface is the product of a parameter, fnmax, and a normalized input signal, fnormalized. When the absolute angular velocity is not zero, the friction torque is a function of the velocity dependent friction coefficient μ⁡w , the normal force, fn, and a geometric constant, cgeo, which takes into account the geometry of the device and the assumptions on the friction distributions. The geometric constant is calculated as where ri is the inner radius, ro is the outer radius, and N is the number of friction interfaces. The positive part of the friction characteristic, μ⁡w,w≥0, is defined by the μpos parameter as a two-dimensional table (array) that specifies the sliding friction coefficients at given relative angular velocities. Each row has the form wrel,μ⁡wrel. The first column must be ordered, 0≤w1<w2<⋯<wm. To add rows, right-click on the value and select Edit Matrix Dimension. Only linear interpolation is supported. Flange of left shaft Flange of right shaft Conditional Support Flange Optional heat port Real input; normalized force Table of sliding friction coefficients at given relative velocities peak⁢μpos1,2 is the static friction coefficient Geometry constant containing friction distribution assumption Maximum normal force Use Heat Port True (checked) means the heat port is enabled use Support Flange True (checked) means the support flange is enabled The velocity reinitializes when ω≤ωsmall Gain driving the relative motion between the friction elements to 0 when locked. This parameter should only be non-zero when using the model with fixed-step integration. The component described in this topic is from the Modelica Standard Library. To view the original documentation, which includes author and copyright information, click here. 1-D Mechanical Overview Rotational Clutches and Brakes Download Help Document What kind of issue would you like to report? (Optional)

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CC-MAIN-2020-29

https://www.maplesoft.com/support/help/maplesim/view.aspx?path=componentLibrary%2F1Dmechanics%2Frotational%2FclutchesBrakes%2FBrake

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Thompson & Morgan®: Seed Germination Guide Coping with Tiny Seeds Tiny seeds, almost as fine as dust, such as begonia and calceolaria, can be difficult to handle. Sometimes, in fact, the foil packet seems to contain nothing except a trace of dust-sized particles. Here's how to make a success of a tricky task. 1. Use a small pan or pot for sowing, about 4 or 5in (10 or 12.5cm) is adequate. 2. Fill the pan or pot to overflowing with the seed compost, then firm it first with your fingers, then with a wooden presser. 3. Pour a heaped teaspoon of silver sand into the seed packet and shake to mix sand and seed. 4. Sow the seed direct from the packet, tapping it slowly to release the sand-seed mixture evenly over the compost. 5. Do not cover the seed with compost, simply press them into the surface with the wooden presser. 6. Water the compost from underneath by standing the tray or pot in a bowl of tepid water. 7. Cover with a piece of glass, cling film or seal inside a polythene bag to keep the compost moist and the atmosphere slightly humid. 8. Remember that very fine seeds have a lower germination rate than normal-sized ones and the correct temperature for germination is very important. Have another question? Return to the Customer Service Help page or send an e-mail directly to Customer Service.

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http://www.tmseeds.com/Coping

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