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mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jet engine | These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 horsepower (HP)
.
Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft.
Types of jet engine: There are a large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of jet propulsion.
Airbreathing: Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound.
Turbojet: A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a compressor (axial, centrifugal, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the combustor, and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle. The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to increased momentum of the gas flowing through the engine, producing thrust. All the air entering the compressor is passed through the combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below.
Turbofan: Turbofans differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine. Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range airliners.
Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more drag. Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have a higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent.
Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass, depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less.
Advanced technology engine: The term Advanced technology engine refers to the modern generation of jet engines. The principle is that a turbine engine will function more efficiently if the various sets of turbines can revolve at their individual optimum speeds, instead of at the same speed. The true advanced technology engine has a triple spool, meaning that instead of having a single drive shaft, there are three, in order that the three sets of blades may revolve at different speeds. An interim state is a twin-spool engine, allowing only two different speeds for the turbines.
Ram compression: Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the Brayton cycle. Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in the inlet or diffuser. A ram engine thus requires a substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function. Ramjets are considered the simplest type of air breathing jet engine because they have no moving parts in the engine proper, only in the accessories.
Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds. Rather, they use supersonic combustion. They are efficient at even higher speed. Very few have been built or flown.
Non-continuous combustion:
Other types of jet propulsion:
Rocket: The rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of reaction engine, but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. However some definitions treat it as a form of jet propulsion.
Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space.
This type of engine is used for launching satellites, space exploration and crewed access, and permitted landing on the Moon in 1969.
Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-to-weight ratio.
However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient.
An approximate equation for the net thrust of a rocket engine is:
F
N
=
m
˙
g
0
I
sp,vac
−
A
e
p
{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}\,g_{0}\,I_{\text{sp,vac}}-A_{e}\,p\;}
Where
F
N
{\displaystyle F_{N}}
is the net thrust,
I
sp,vac
{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}}
is the specific impulse,
g
0
{\displaystyle g_{0}}
is a standard gravity,
m
˙
{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
is the propellant flow in kg/s,
A
e
{\displaystyle A_{e}}
is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and
p
{\displaystyle p}
is the atmospheric pressure.
Hybrid: Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion.
Water jet: A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that uses a jet of water. The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal compressor and nozzle. The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a Diesel or gas turbine.
General physical principles: All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards.
Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed.
Propelling nozzle: A propelling nozzle produces a high velocity exhaust jet. Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy. The total pressure and temperature don't change through the nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up.
The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle. The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes. It may be as high as the 1000 Kelvin exhaust gas temperature for a supersonic afterburning engine or 2200 K with afterburner lit. The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at Mach 3+.
Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions. To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so a convergent-divergent nozzle is needed on high-speed aircraft.
The engine thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71.
The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor.
Thrust:
Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines: This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations.
A jet engine at rest, as on a test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust. How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it. This is a measure of its efficiency. If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jet engine | Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71.
The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor.
Thrust:
Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines: This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations.
A jet engine at rest, as on a test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust. How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it. This is a measure of its efficiency. If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust. If a change is made to an internal part which allows the air/combustion gases to flow more smoothly the engine will be more efficient and use less fuel. A standard definition is used to assess how different things change engine efficiency and also to allow comparisons to be made between different engines. This definition is called specific fuel consumption, or how much fuel is needed to produce one unit of thrust. For example, it will be known for a particular engine design that if some bumps in a bypass duct are smoothed out the air will flow more smoothly giving a pressure loss reduction of x% and y% less fuel will be needed to get the take-off thrust, for example. This understanding comes under the engineering discipline Jet engine performance. How efficiency is affected by forward speed and by supplying energy to aircraft systems is mentioned later.
The efficiency of the engine is controlled primarily by the operating conditions inside the engine which are the pressure produced by the compressor and the temperature of the combustion gases at the first set of rotating turbine blades. The pressure is the highest air pressure in the engine. The turbine rotor temperature is not the highest in the engine but is the highest at which energy transfer takes place ( higher temperatures occur in the combustor). The above pressure and temperature are shown on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram.
The efficiency is further modified by how smoothly the air and the combustion gases flow through the engine, how well the flow is aligned (known as incidence angle) with the moving and stationary passages in the compressors and turbines. Non-optimum angles, as well as non-optimum passage and blade shapes can cause thickening and separation of Boundary layers and formation of Shock waves. It is important to slow the flow (lower speed means less pressure losses or Pressure drop) when it travels through ducts connecting the different parts. How well the individual components contribute to turning fuel into thrust is quantified by measures like efficiencies for the compressors, turbines and combustor and pressure losses for the ducts. These are shown as lines on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram.
The engine efficiency, or thermal efficiency, known as
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}
. is dependent on the Thermodynamic cycle parameters, maximum pressure and temperature, and on component efficiencies,
η
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r
{\displaystyle \eta _{compressor}}
,
η
c
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n
{\displaystyle \eta _{combustion}}
and
η
t
u
r
b
i
n
e
{\displaystyle \eta _{turbine}}
and duct pressure losses.
The engine needs compressed air for itself just to run successfully. This air comes from its own compressor and is called secondary air. It does not contribute to making thrust so makes the engine less efficient. It is used to preserve the mechanical integrity of the engine, to stop parts overheating and to prevent oil escaping from bearings for example. Only some of this air taken from the compressors returns to the turbine flow to contribute to thrust production. Any reduction in the amount needed improves the engine efficiency. Again, it will be known for a particular engine design that a reduced requirement for cooling flow of x% will reduce the specific fuel consumption by y%. In other words, less fuel will be required to give take-off thrust, for example. The engine is more efficient.
All of the above considerations are basic to the engine running on its own and, at the same time, doing nothing useful, i.e. it is not moving an aircraft or supplying energy for the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic and air systems. In the aircraft the engine gives away some of its thrust-producing potential, or fuel, to power these systems. These requirements, which cause installation losses, reduce its efficiency. It is using some fuel that does not contribute to the engine's thrust.
Finally, when the aircraft is flying the propelling jet itself contains wasted kinetic energy after it has left the engine. This is quantified by the term propulsive, or Froude, efficiency
η
p
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}
and may be reduced by redesigning the engine to give it bypass flow and a lower speed for the propelling jet, for example as a turboprop or turbofan engine. At the same time forward speed increases the
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}
by increasing the Overall pressure ratio.
The overall efficiency of the engine at flight speed is defined as
η
o
=
η
p
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}
.
The
η
o
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}
at flight speed depends on how well the intake compresses the air before it is handed over to the engine compressors. The intake compression ratio, which can be as high as 32:1 at Mach 3, adds to that of the engine compressor to give the Overall pressure ratio and
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}
for the Thermodynamic cycle. How well it does this is defined by its pressure recovery or measure of the losses in the intake. Mach 3 manned flight has provided an interesting illustration of how these losses can increase dramatically in an instant. The North American XB-70 Valkyrie and Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3 each had pressure recoveries of about 0.8, due to relatively low losses during the compression process, i.e. through systems of multiple shocks. During an 'unstart' the efficient shock system would be replaced by a very inefficient single shock beyond the inlet and an intake pressure recovery of about 0.3 and a correspondingly low pressure ratio.
The propelling nozzle at speeds above about Mach 2 usually has extra internal thrust losses because the exit area is not big enough as a trade-off with external afterbody drag.
Although a bypass engine improves propulsive efficiency it incurs losses of its own inside the engine itself. Machinery has to be added to transfer energy from the gas generator to a bypass airflow. The low loss from the propelling nozzle of a turbojet is added to with extra losses due to inefficiencies in the added turbine and fan. These may be included in a transmission, or transfer, efficiency
η
T
{\displaystyle \eta _{T}}
. However, these losses are more than made up by the improvement in propulsive efficiency. There are also extra pressure losses in the bypass duct and an extra propelling nozzle.
With the advent of turbofans with their loss-making machinery what goes on inside the engine has been separated by Bennett, for example, between gas generator and transfer machinery giving
η
o
=
η
p
η
t
h
η
T
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}\eta _{T}}
.
The energy efficiency (
η
o
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}
) of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components:
propulsive efficiency (
η
p
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}
): how much of the energy of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jet engine | The energy efficiency (
η
o
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}
) of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components:
propulsive efficiency (
η
p
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}
): how much of the energy of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet.
cycle efficiency (
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}
): how efficiently the engine can accelerate the jet
Even though overall energy efficiency
η
o
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}
is:
η
o
=
η
p
η
t
h
{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}
for all jet engines the propulsive efficiency is highest as the exhaust jet velocity gets closer to the vehicle speed as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy. For an airbreathing engine an exhaust velocity equal to the vehicle velocity, or a
η
p
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}
equal to one, gives zero thrust with no net momentum change. The formula for air-breathing engines moving at speed
v
{\displaystyle v}
with an exhaust velocity
v
e
{\displaystyle v_{e}}
, and neglecting fuel flow, is:
η
p
=
2
1
+
v
e
v
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2}{1+{\frac {v_{e}}{v}}}}}
And for a rocket:
η
p
=
2
(
v
v
e
)
1
+
(
v
v
e
)
2
{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2\,({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})}{1+({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})^{2}}}}
In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is cycle efficiency; a jet engine is a form of heat engine. Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature. The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures.
The combustion efficiency of most aircraft gas turbine engines at sea level takeoff conditions
is almost 100%. It decreases nonlinearly to 98% at altitude cruise conditions. Air-fuel ratio ranges from 50:1 to 130:1. For any type of combustion chamber there is a rich and weak limit to the air-fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. The range of air-fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity. If the
increasing air mass flow reduces the fuel ratio below certain value, flame extinction occurs.
Consumption of fuel or propellant: A closely related (but different) concept to energy efficiency is the rate of consumption of propellant mass. Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured by specific fuel consumption, specific impulse, or effective exhaust velocity. They all measure the same thing. Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others.
For air-breathing engines such as turbojets, energy efficiency and propellant (fuel) efficiency are much the same thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of energy. In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust, and this means that a high energy propellant gives better propellant efficiency but can in some cases actually give lower energy efficiency.
It can be seen in the table (just below) that the subsonic turbofans such as General Electric's CF6 turbofan use a lot less fuel to generate thrust for a second than did the Concorde's Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojet. However, since energy is force times distance and the distance per second was greater for the Concorde, the actual power generated by the engine for the same amount of fuel was higher for the Concorde at Mach 2 than the CF6. Thus, the Concorde's engines were more efficient in terms of energy per distance traveled.
Thrust-to-weight ratio: The thrust-to-weight ratio of jet engines with similar configurations varies with scale, but is mostly a function of engine construction technology. For a given engine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust-to-weight is, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the lift needed to carry the engine weight, or to accelerate the mass of the engine.
As can be seen in the following table, rocket engines generally achieve much higher thrust-to-weight ratios than duct engines such as turbojet and turbofan engines. This is primarily because rockets almost universally use dense liquid or solid reaction mass which gives a much smaller volume and hence the pressurization system that supplies the nozzle is much smaller and lighter for the same performance. Duct engines have to deal with air which is two to three orders of magnitude less dense and this gives pressures over much larger areas, which in turn results in more engineering materials being needed to hold the engine together and for the air compressor.
Comparison of types: Propeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines. Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small. However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high propulsive efficiency.
On the other hand, turbojets accelerate a much smaller mass flow of intake air and burned fuel, but they then reject it at very high speed. When a de Laval nozzle is used to accelerate a hot engine exhaust, the outlet velocity may be locally supersonic. Turbojets are particularly suitable for aircraft travelling at very high speeds.
Turbofans have a mixed exhaust consisting of the bypass air and the hot combustion product gas from the core engine. The amount of air that bypasses the core engine compared to the amount flowing into the engine determines what is called a turbofan's bypass ratio (BPR).
While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust produced by a turbofan system.
The net thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan can also be expanded as:
F
N
=
m
˙
e
v
h
e
−
m
˙
o
v
o
+
B
P
R
(
m
˙
c
v
f
)
{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}_{e}v_{he}-{\dot {m}}_{o}v_{o}+BPR\,({\dot {m}}_{c}v_{f})}
where:
Rocket engines have extremely high exhaust velocity and thus are best suited for high speeds (hypersonic) and great altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15.
Altitude and speed: With the exception of scramjets, jet engines, deprived of their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the speed of sound. The inlet system's job for transonic and supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of the compression.
The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by flammability – at very high altitudes the air becomes too thin to burn, or after compression, too hot. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jet engine | At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15.
Altitude and speed: With the exception of scramjets, jet engines, deprived of their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the speed of sound. The inlet system's job for transonic and supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of the compression.
The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by flammability – at very high altitudes the air becomes too thin to burn, or after compression, too hot. For turbojet engines altitudes of about 40 km appear to be possible, whereas for ramjet engines 55 km may be achievable. Scramjets may theoretically manage 75 km. Rocket engines of course have no upper limit.
At more modest altitudes, flying faster compresses the air at the front of the engine, and this greatly heats the air. The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach 5–8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and this consumes significant energy. The exception to this is scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15 or more, as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again have no particular speed limit.
Noise: The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources. These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s.
The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet with the surrounding air. In the subsonic case the noise is produced by eddies and in the supersonic case by Mach waves. The sound power radiated from a jet varies with the jet velocity raised to the eighth power for velocities up to 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s) and varies with the velocity cubed above 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s). Thus, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass turbofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets, such as rockets, turbojets, and ramjets, are the loudest. For commercial jet aircraft the jet noise has reduced from the turbojet through bypass engines to turbofans as a result of a progressive reduction in propelling jet velocities. For example, the JT8D, a bypass engine, has a jet velocity of 400 m/s (1,450 ft/s) whereas the JT9D, a turbofan, has jet velocities of 300 m/s (885 ft/s) (cold) and 400 m/s (1,190 ft/s)(hot).
The advent of the turbofan replaced the very distinctive jet noise with another sound known as "buzz saw" noise. The origin is the shockwaves originating at the supersonic fan blade tip at takeoff thrust.
Cooling: Adequate heat transfer away from the working parts of the jet engine is critical to maintaining strength of engine materials and ensuring long life for the engine.
After 2016, research is ongoing in the development of transpiration cooling techniques to jet engine components.
Operation: In a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has a separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of rotation.
Depending on the make and model, a jet engine may have an N1 gauge that monitors the low-pressure compressor section and/or fan speed in turbofan engines. The gas generator section may be monitored by an N2 gauge, while triple spool engines may have an N3 gauge as well. Each engine section rotates at many thousands RPM. Their gauges therefore are calibrated in percent of a nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation.
See also: Air turboramjet
Balancing machine
Components of jet engines
Intake momentum drag
Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket turbine engine
Spacecraft propulsion
Thrust reversal
Turbojet development at the RAE
Variable cycle engine
Water injection (engine)
Notes:
References:
Bibliography:
External links: Media related to Jet engines at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of jet engine at Wiktionary
Media about jet engines from Rolls-Royce
How Stuff Works article on how a Gas Turbine Engine works
Influence of the Jet Engine on the Aerospace Industry
An Overview of Military Jet Engine History, Appendix B, pp. 97–120, in Military Jet Engine Acquisition (Rand Corp., 24 pp, PDF)
Basic jet engine tutorial (QuickTime Video)
An article on how reaction engine works
The Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine and Its Operation: Installation Engineering. East Hartford, Connecticut: United Aircraft Corporation. February 1958. Retrieved 29 September 2021. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jewish laws on war | Characteristics: A mandatory war is to be distinguished from a "voluntary war" (מלחמת רשות; milḥemet reshūt), that is to say, a battle waged of free choice, which requires the approbation of the Sanhedrin, presumably in order to impose a religious and moral check on reckless warfare. It is also to be distinguished from a "religious war" (מלחמת מצוה; milḥemet mitzvah), which is restricted to those nations mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, such as Amalek and the nations of Canaan. The biblical command, in the case of the Canaanite inhabitants, was to exterminate them and to annex their territory, whereas others who made peace with Israel could be enslaved and forced to pay tribute.
For all practical purposes, a mandatory war can be described as a defensive war.
General overview: Specifically relating to the halachic laws governing the Jewish nation, Spanish Jewish rabbi and scholar, Menahem Meiri, has described the conditions needed for there to be a "mandatory war", saying that all wars, excepting those made for the conquest of the Land of Israel (such as at the time of Joshua), are to be deemed as "voluntary wars". A ruler cannot compel the Jewish people to fight in such "voluntary wars" (so-named because the ruler of that nation is either angry at his enemy, or simply wishes to show his prowess, or to extend his territorial domain), unless it be by the authorization of the greater Sanhedrin, composed of seventy-one judges. However, if there were a case whereby the nation of Israel had been attacked by an enemy for any reason, that would be tantamount to a battle waged in a religious cause ("religious war"), in which case it is the bounden duty of all in Israel to fight and resist the enemy, hence: a mandatory war (or battle waged in duty bound).
Maimonides further explains that whenever Israel finds itself fighting a battle in a religious cause, such as when an oppressor has come upon them in war to destroy them, the people of Israel need not obtain prior permission from the Rabbinic court to fight, but may go forth to the battle, and compel others to do the same.
Wars fought to redeem captives, such as those wars waged by Abraham to free Lot, and by David to free Jewish women and children in Ziklag (1 Sam. 30), are generally categorized as defensive wars.
The Hebrew expressions, Milḥemet mitzvah (religious war) and Milḥemet ḥovah (mandatory war), are sometimes used interchangeably, since they include the reactive defensive wars when Jewish habitations were attacked. Rabbi Yehuda, however, distinguishes between these two expressions.
Rabbinic discussions: [When you go out to war against your enemies, and see horses and chariots and an army larger than your own, you shall not be afraid of them, for the Lord your God is with you, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt, etc. (Deut. 20:1–ff.)] What does the saying here advanced pertain to? Said Rabbi Yehuda: 'The matter concerns a religious war (milḥemet mitzvah). However, in a mandatory war (milḥemet ḥovah), all go forth [into battle], even a bridegroom from his room and a bride from her bridal-chamber.' Our Mishnah [in Soṭah speaks of] when you go out to war against your enemies. The writing [in Mishnah Soṭah] speaks about the voluntary war (milḥemet ha-reshūt) [fought at Israel's own discretion].
One of the fine points arising from the rabbinic discussions on the subject is that, whenever Israel voluntarily wages a battle of free choice against another nation, unto Israel would apply all the conditions mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 20:1–ff.) and in Mishnah Soṭah (chapter 8). Although certain persons were permitted by Deuteronomy, chapter 20, to leave the field before a battle began, this was allowed, according to rabbinical opinion, only in case of a voluntary war. Wherefore, a man who has betrothed a wife and has yet to consummate that marriage, or who has planted a vineyard and has yet to partake of its fruit, or who has built a new house and who has not yet lived in that house for a year's time, etc. is exempt from participating in that war. However, if Israel were faced with an existential threat, the conditions of Deuteronomy (chapter 20) and of Mishnah Soṭah (chapter 8) would not apply, as not even a bridegroom is exempt from that war, but must rally behind Israel, and go forth to fight in Israel's defense. A mandatory war is, therefore, tantamount to a "religious war" and, as such, the general principle applies to everyone: "He that is currently engaged in performing one biblical commandment (i.e. defending Israel), he is exempt from doing another biblical commandment (i.e. cohabiting with his bride, etc.)" (העוסק במצוה פטור מן המצוה).
Jewish soldiers conscripted in foreign armies: Although the laws governing a Mandatory war pertain to wars conducted in the Land of Israel, because of an existential threat to the Jewish people, it is still permissible for Jewish soldiers serving in foreign armies to set-out and rescue other Jewish and Gentile soldiers who had been taken captive by enemy forces, since the saving of Jewish life is tantamount to a Religious war, and may be waged without obtaining permission from the Court.
Warfare and the Sabbath-day: In Tractate Eruvin [45a] it was explained that the nations of the world who lay siege to the cities of Israel on the Sabbath-day, the people of Israel are not permitted to go out against them on the Sabbath-day with their armaments, but rather they (the besieged) are to shut themselves up before them and try to observe the laws of Sabbath as much as possible. What does the saying here advanced pertain to? This pertains to a case where it is certain that they have come to take away only money, or objects of money-value. However, if they had come to take away lives, even if it were only a doubtful case, the people of Israel are permitted to go out to battle against them and they desecrate the Sabbath on their account, in order to rescue them. If there was a Jewish city situated along the frontier of the Land of Israel where non-Jewish forces had laid siege to the city, even in such cases where they only came to take away bales of hay and straw, it is permitted for the Jewish nation to go out in battle against the invading army and to desecrate the Sabbath-day in order to save the city.
Elsewhere [ibid.], it was explained that even in the remaining cities and towns of Israel, it is one's bounden duty to go out to battle on their behalf, in order to assist them, and when they have eventually rescued their fellow countrymen, they are allowed to return to their place [on the Sabbath-day] with their own armaments in hand, seeing that if they were not allowed to do so they would refrain from assisting their brethren in future conflicts.
Ethical question: An ethical question was raised in the early 20th-century about whether or not one is permitted to give-up his own life in order to avert danger to the Jewish people as a whole, both in war and non-war situations, in which the answer posited by Abraham Isaac Kook (1865–1935) and by Shlomo Zalman Pines (1874–1954) was an unequivocal yes, although each man gave different reasons for this allowance. According to Rabbi Kook, "we expose ourselves to the dangers of killing and being killed in accordance with the nature of the world."
See also: Armed conflict
Declaration of war
Judaism and warfare
Jus ad bellum
Just war theory
Law of war
Laws of armed conflict
References:
Notes:
Further reading: Grunblatt, Joseph (1968). "Violence and Some Aspects of the Judaic Tradition". Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought. 10 (2). Rabbinical Council of America (RCA): 42–47. JSTOR 23256251.
Kimelman, Reuven (2023). "Judaism and the Ethics of War". The Cambridge Companion to Religion and War. pp. 215–240. doi:10.1017/9781108884075.013. ISBN 978-1-108-88407-5.
== Bibliography == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jungle warfare | History:
Pre-modern: Throughout world history, forests have played significant roles in many of the most historic battles. For example, in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest between the Romans and the Germanic tribes in 9 CE, the Germans used the forest to ambush the Romans. In ancient China, the Chinese Empire planted forests on its strategic borderland to thwart nomadic attacks. For example, the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) constructed and maintained an extensive defensive forest in present-day Hebei.
In the Amazon rainforest, there were fighting and wars between the neighboring tribes of the Jivaro. Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar, practised headhunting for trophies and headshrinking.
Nicaragua guerillas:
World War II:
Conventional jungle warfare: At the start of Pacific War in the Far East, the Japanese Imperial Forces were able to advance on all fronts. In the Malayan Campaign, time and again they infiltrated through the jungle to bypass static British positions based on road blocks so that they could cut the British supply line and attack their defences from all sides.
In early 1942, the fighting in Burma at the start of the Burma Campaign took on a similar aspect and resulted in one of the longest retreats in British military history. Most members of the British Indian Army left Burma with the belief that the Japanese were unstoppable in the jungle.
The Chindits were a special force of 3,500 that in February 1942 launched a deep penetration raid, code-named Operation Longcloth, into Japanese occupied Burma. They went in on foot and used mules to carry supplies. The operation was not a military success but was a propaganda boost for the Allies because it showed that Allied forces could successfully move and fight in jungle terrain well away from roads. On the back of the propaganda success, Orde Wingate, the eccentric commander of the Chindits, was given the resources to increase his command to divisional size and the USAAF supplied the 1st Air Commando Group to support his operations. The availability of air transport revolutionized Wingate's operational choices. In February 1944, Operation Thursday was launched, and air transport support supplied 1st Air to allow the Chindits to set up air supplied bases deep behind enemy lines from which aggressive combat patrols could be sent out to interdict Japanese supply lines and disrupt rear echelon forces. That in turn forced the Japanese 18th Division to pull frontline troops from the battle against X Force, which was advancing through Northern Burma, to protect the men building the Ledo Road. When the Japanese closed on a base and got within artillery range, the base could be abandoned and then set up in another remote location. The ability to sustain the bases that relied totally on air power in the coming decades would prove a template for many similar operations.
After the first Chindits expedition, thanks to the training the regular forces were receiving and the example of the Chindits and new divisional tactics, the regular units of the Fourteenth Army started to get the measure of both the jungle and the enemy. When the Japanese launched their late 1943 Arakan offensive they infiltrated Allied lines to attack the 7th Indian Infantry Division from the rear, overrunning the divisional HQ. Unlike previous occasions on which this had happened, the Allied forces stood firm against the attack and supplies were dropped to them by parachute. In the Battle of the Admin Box from 5 February to 23 February, the Japanese were unable to break through the heavily-defended perimeter of the box. The Japanese switched their attack to the central front, but again, the British fell back into defensive box of Imphal and the Kohima redoubt. In falling back to the defensive positions around Imphal, the leading British formations found their retreat cut by Japanese forces, but unlike previously, they took that attitude that the Japanese who were behind them were just as cut off as the British. The situation maps of the fighting along the roads leading to Imphal resembled a slice of marble cake, as both sides used the jungle to outflank each other. Another major change by the British was that use of air support both as an offensive weapon to replace artillery and as a logistical tool to transport men and equipment. For example, the 5th Indian Infantry Division was airlifted straight from the now-quieter Arakan front up to the central front and were in action within days of arriving. By the end of the campaigning season, both Kohima and Imphal had been relieved, and the Japanese were in full retreat.
The lessons learnt in Burma on how to fight in the jungle and how to use air transport to move troops around would lay the foundations of how to conduct large-scale jungle campaigns in future wars.
Unconventional jungle warfare: Immediately after the fall of Malaya and Singapore in 1942, a few British officers, such as Freddie Spencer Chapman, eluded capture and escaped into the central Malaysian jungle, where they helped to organize and train bands of lightly-armed local ethnic Chinese communists into a capable guerrilla force against the Japanese occupiers. What began as desperate initiatives by several determined British officers probably inspired the subsequent formation of the above-mentioned early jungle-warfare forces.
The British and the Australians contributed to the development of jungle warfare as the unconventional, low-intensity, guerrilla-style type of warfare understood today. V Force and Force 136 were composed of small bodies of soldiers and irregulars, equipped with no more than small arms and explosives but were rigorously trained in guerrilla warfare-style tactics, particularly in close-quarters combat, and fought behind enemy lines. They were joined in Burma by American led Kachin guerrillas were armed and coordinated by the American liaison organisation, OSS Detachment 101, which led, armed, and co-ordinated them.
Another small force operating in the Far East was the Australian-led Z Special Unit, which carried out a total of 81 covert operations in the South West Pacific theatre, some of which involved jungle warfare.
Cold War:
British experience during Malayan Emergency: After the war, early skills in jungle warfare were further honed in the Malayan Emergency, when in 1948 guerrilla fighters of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) turned against the Commonwealth. In addition to jungle discipline, field craft, and survival skills, special tactics such as combat tracking (first using native trackers), close-quarter fighting (tactics were developed by troopers who were protected only with fencing masks and stalked and shot each other in the jungle training ground with air rifles), small team operations (which led to the typical four-man special operations teams) and tree jumping (parachuting into the jungle and through the rain forest canopy) were developed from Borneo's native Iban people to actively take the war to the Communist guerrillas, instead of reacting to incidents that were initiated by them.
Of greater importance was the integration of the tactical jungle warfare with the strategic "winning hearts and minds" psychological, economic, and political warfare as a complete counter-insurgency package. The Malayan Emergency was declared over in 1960, as the surviving Communist guerrillas were driven to the jungle near the Thai border, where they remained until they gave up their armed struggle in 1989.
Cuban Revolution:
Brazilian military government guerrilla:
Portuguese Colonial War: In the 1960s and early 1970s, Portugal was engaged in jungle warfare operations in Africa against the independentist guerrillas of Angola, Portuguese Guinea and Mozambique. The operations were part of what is collectively known as the "Portuguese Colonial War". In fact, there were three different wars: the Angolan Independence War, the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence and the Mozambican War of Independence. The situation was unique in that small armed forces, those of Portugal, conducted three large-scale counterinsurgency wars at the same time, each in a different theatre of operations and separated by thousands of kilometres from the others. For those operations, Portugal developed its own counterinsurgency and jungle warfare doctrines. In the counterinsurgency operations, the Portuguese organized their forces into two main types, the grid (quadrilha) units and the intervention units. The grid units were each in charge of a given area of responsibility in which they were responsible to protect and keep the local populations from influence from the guerrillas. The intervention forces, mostly composed of special units (paratroopers, marines, commandos etc.) were highly-mobile units that were used to conduct strategic offensive operations against the guerrillas or to temporary reinforcing grid units under heavy attack.
Vietnam War: The British experience in counterinsurgency was passed onto the Americans during their involvement in the Vietnam War, where the battlegrounds were again the jungle. Much British strategic thinking on counterinsurgency tactics in a jungle environment was passed on through BRIAM (British Advisory Mission) to South Vietnam headed by Sir Robert Thompson, a former Chindit and the Permanent Secretary of Defense for Malaya during the Emergency.
The Americans further refined jungle warfare by the creation of such dedicated counterinsurgency special operations troops as the Special Forces (Green Berets), Rangers, Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols (LRRP), and Combat Tracker Teams (CTT).
During the decade of active U.S. combat involvement in the Vietnam War (1962–1972), jungle warfare became closely associated with counter insurgency and special operations troops.
However, although the American forces managed to have mastered jungle warfare at a tactical level in Vietnam, they were unable to install a successful strategic program in winning a jungle-based guerrilla war. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jungle warfare | Much British strategic thinking on counterinsurgency tactics in a jungle environment was passed on through BRIAM (British Advisory Mission) to South Vietnam headed by Sir Robert Thompson, a former Chindit and the Permanent Secretary of Defense for Malaya during the Emergency.
The Americans further refined jungle warfare by the creation of such dedicated counterinsurgency special operations troops as the Special Forces (Green Berets), Rangers, Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols (LRRP), and Combat Tracker Teams (CTT).
During the decade of active U.S. combat involvement in the Vietnam War (1962–1972), jungle warfare became closely associated with counter insurgency and special operations troops.
However, although the American forces managed to have mastered jungle warfare at a tactical level in Vietnam, they were unable to install a successful strategic program in winning a jungle-based guerrilla war. Hence, the American military lost the political war in Vietnam for failing to destroy the logistics bases of the Viet Cong and the Vietnamese People's Army along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
With the end of the Vietnam War, jungle warfare fell into disfavor among the major armies in the world, namely, those of the U.S.-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact, which focused their attention to conventional warfare with a nuclear flavor that was to be fought on the jungleless European battlefields.
American special operations troops that were created for the purpose of fighting in the jungle environment, such as LRRP and CTT, were disbanded, and other jungle-warfare-proficient troops, such as the Special Forces and Rangers, went through a temporary period of decline until they found their role in counterterrorism operations in the 1980s.
Central American Crisis:
Post-Cold War: The end of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s marked the beginning of the end of a number of proxy wars that had been fought between the superpowers in the jungles of Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. In the euphoria at the end of the Cold War, many Western nations were quick to claim the peace dividend and reinvested resources to other priorities.
Jungle warfare was reduced in scope and priority in the regular training curriculum of most conventional Western armies. The nature of major military operations in the Middle East and Central Asia saw the need to put an emphasis upon desert warfare and urban warfare training in both the conventional and the unconventional warfare models.
Conflicts in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru:
Chittagong Hill Tracts:
Jungle units and training schools: The following military and police forces have specialized units that are trained and equipped to conduct jungle warfare:
Argentina: the Argentine Army has four companies of Cazadores de Monte (Jungle Hunters).
Brazil: the Brazilian Army has six Jungle Infantry Brigades: 1st, 2nd, 16th, 17th, 22nd and 23rd Jungle Infantry Brigades and others units, and the Jungle Warfare Training Center (CIGS). Brazilian Special Forces, Commandos, Parachute Infantry and Marine Corps are trained in jungle warfare too. The SOF of some State Military Police Forces, like the Military Police of São Paulo's Comandos e Operações Especiais, the Military Police of Minas Gerais's Batalhão de Operações Especiais (BOPE)/COMAF, the Military Police of Rio de Janeiro's Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais (which has an agreement with the CIGS) and the Military Police of Maranhão's Companhia de Operações de Sobrevivência em Área Rural (COSAR) has training or are specialized in jungle operations. Jungle artillery is made by the 1st and the 10th Jungle Field Artillery Group.
Brunei:
Royal Brunei Armed Forces (RBAF)
Royal Brunei Land Force (RBLF)
Gurkha Reserve Unit (GRU)
Royal Brunei Land Force Regiment (RBLFR)
Royal Brunei Navy (RBN)
Naval Surface Action Group (NSAG)
Royal Brunei Air Force (RBAF)
No. 236 Squadron
Parachute Airborne Tactical Delivery Unit (PATDU)
Royal Brunei Police Force (RBPF)
Special Operations Squad (PGK)
Cambodia:
Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF)
Royal Cambodian Army
911th Special Forces Regiment
B-70
All infantry divisions and mechanized infantry brigade can fight in the jungle.
Royal Cambodian Navy
Naval Infantry Company
Royal Gendarmerie
Infantry Battalion
Colombia: Brigada de Fuerzas Especiales, Batallones de Selva.
Ecuador: the Ecuadorian Army maintains three units composed of jungle troops: the 17th, 19th and 21st Jungle Infantry Brigades (Brigadas de Infantería de Selva). In addition, it has an independent jungle battalion with personnel recruited from the native population of the jungle: the 23rd Special Operations Training Battalion (Batallón Escuela de Operaciones Especiales 23, or BEOES 23). It has also a training school for jungle operations, the Escuela de Selva "Cap. Giovanny Calles".
Indonesia:
Indonesian Army
Combat Reconnaissance Platoon (Tontaipur) are Kostrad's special unit which expertise in Reconnaissance operations, it is trained in jungle warfare in accordance with the terrain of the tropical country.
India:
The Indian Army maintains an elite Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School which is used to train domestic and foreign units in methods for countering irregular warfare.
Malaysia
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability (MPRT)
Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia
Forest Ranger
Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF)
Malaysian Army
10th Parachute Brigade (10 PARA BDE)
21st Special Service Group (GGK)
Border Regiment
Royal Armoured Corps (KAD)
Royal Malay Regiment
Royal Ranger Regiment (RRD)
Territorial Army Regiment
Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN)
PASKAL
Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF)
Royal Malaysian Air Force Regiment (RMAFR)
HANDAU
Infantry Security Group
PASKAU
Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA)
Special Task and Rescue (STAR)
Royal Malaysia Police (RMP)
General Operations Force
Special Operations Command (PGK)
Special Actions Unit (UTK)
VAT 69 Commando (VAT 69)
UNGERIN
Myanmar:
Tatmadaw
Myanmar Army
Airborne Infantry Division (AID)
Armoured Infantry Battalions (AIB)
Border Guard Forces (BGF)
Light Infantry Divisions (LID)
Special Forces Brigade (SFB)
Myanmar Navy
Myanmar Navy SEALs
Naval Infantry Battalion (NIB)
Myanmar Police Force
Border Guard Police (BGP)
Combat Police Battalions (SWAT)
Forestry Security Police Force
Philippines
Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)
Philippine Army (PA)
All infantry divisions, armor division and combined arms brigade can fight in the jungle.
Light Reaction Regiment (LRR)
Scout Ranger
Special Forces Regiment (Airborne)
Philippine Navy (PN)
Naval Special Operations Command (NAVSOCOM)
Philippine Marine Corps (PMC)
Force Reconnaissance Group (FRG)
Marine Brigades
Marine Rifle Battalions (MRB)
Marine Security and Escort Group (MSEG)
Marine Scout Snipers (MSS)
Philippine Air Force (PAF)
710th Special Operations Wing (710th SPOW)
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Park Ranger
Philippine National Police (PNP)
Regional Mobile Force Battalion (RMFB)
Special Action Force (SAF)
Thailand
Ministry of Interior (MOI)
Department of Provincial Administration (DOPA)
Volunteer Defense Corps (VDC)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE)
Royal Forest Department (RFD)
Forest Ranger
Park Ranger
Small Ranger Unit (SRU)
Royal Thai Armed Forces (RTARF)
Royal Thai Army (RTA)
31st Infantry Regiment, King Bhumibol's Guard
All infantry, cavalry, and mechanized infantry divisions can fight in the jungle.
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols Company (LRRP)
Royal Thai Army Special Warfare Command (RTASWC)
Thahan Phran
Royal Thai Navy (RTN)
Mekong Riverine Unit (MRU)
Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC)
Marine Division
1st Marine Regiment
2nd Marine Regiment
3rd Marine Regiment
Marine Task Forces (MTF)
Marine 61st Special Operations Center
Marines Task Unit 411
Paramilitary Marine Regiment
RECON
Royal Thai Navy SEALs
Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF)
RTAF Security Force Command
Special Operations Regiment (SOR)
Royal Thai Police (RTP)
Border Patrol Police (BPP)
Aerial Reinforcement Division (ARD) aka Police Aerial Reinforcement Unit (PARU)
Naresuan 261
Special Forces Company (SFC)
All Border Patrol Police Regional Divisions can fight in the jungle.
Special unit Border Patrol Police Regional Divisions
4th Border Patrol Police Regional Divisions
43th Border Patrol Police Sub-Division
SINGA Special Operations Team
44th Border Patrol Police Sub-Division
Long Range Surveillance Unit (LRSU)
United States: The U.S. Army 25th Infantry Division is the primary jungle warfare unit in its size. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Jungle warfare | Special unit Border Patrol Police Regional Divisions
4th Border Patrol Police Regional Divisions
43th Border Patrol Police Sub-Division
SINGA Special Operations Team
44th Border Patrol Police Sub-Division
Long Range Surveillance Unit (LRSU)
United States: The U.S. Army 25th Infantry Division is the primary jungle warfare unit in its size. The 25th Infantry Division conducts military operations primarily in the Asia-Pacific region; it also operates the Jungle Operations Training Course, Jungle Environment Working Group, and the Lightning Academy Jungle School.
Jungle warfare training:
India: The Counter-Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS) located in Vairengte, Mizoram, India, is the primary jungle warfare training center for Indian forces.
Brazil: The Jungle Warfare Training Center (CIGS) in Brazil is the primary jungle warfare training center for Brazilian forces. They seek to copy the capacities of units of homologous commands.
United States: The Jungle Operations Training Center (JOTC) located at Schofield Barracks in Oahu, Hawaii is the primary jungle warfare training center for American forces. Opened in its present rendition in 2013, JOTC is operated by the 25th Infantry Division and primarily trains personnel of the 25th Infantry Division, special forces, and foreign partners. Hawaii was chosen as the location for JOTC due to its climate, geography, capacity, and operational history in jungle training within the Pacific.
Jungle warfare training is not new to this organization in Hawaii or the United States. During World War II the JOTC, also known as the Pacific Combat Training Center, was established in Hawaii to teach soldiers survival and fighting skills in tropical environments. Over 300,000 U.S. military personnel were trained in jungle fighting prior to deploying throughout the Pacific. Between 1956 and 1965, this same installation in Hawaii was home to the Jungle and Guerilla Warfare Training Center followed by the Recondo School from 1971 to 1979. The U.S. Asia-Pacific Rebalance Strategy necessitated jungle warfare training for the U.S. military be increased in priority. JOTC's revival at its original location in Hawaii is in part due to closure of the Fort Sherman, Panama JOTC location in 1999.
Another jungle warfare training center, Camp Gonsalves, is operated by the United States Marine Corps on northern Okinawa Island, Japan.
Notes:
References: Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History (illustrated ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 511. ISBN 0-618-12742-9.
Further reading: Newsinger, John (2015). British Counterinsurgency 2nd edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Baudrier, Michael (2005). Love & Terror in Malaya. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1-4120-5171-1.
Chapman, Spencer (2003) [1949]. The Jungle is Neutral. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press.
Forty, George (1999). Japanese Army handbook 1939-1945. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing.
Marchall, Brig. Gen. S. L. A.; Hackworth., Lt. Col. David H (5 February 2005) [1966?]. Vietnamprimer: Lessons Learned." Headquarters, Department of the Army, U.S. Army. Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on 5 February 2005.
Taber, Robert (1965). War of the Flea: Classic Study of Guerrilla Warfare. London: Granada Publishing Ltd.
External links:
Jungle Warfare, The Game*
Jungle, Japanese and the Australian Army: learning the lessons of New Guinea
Combat Tracker Teams: Dodging an Elusive Enemy
Jungle Survival tips
U.S. WWII Newsmap featuring Jungle Warfare, hosted by the UNT Libraries Digital Collections
Counter Insurgency Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS)India
A 1989 U.S. Army news archive about the 7th Infantry Division (Light) participating in Jungle Warfare training.
Praaq Special Forces |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Just war theory | Origins:
Ancient Egypt: A 2017 study found that the just war tradition can be traced as far back as to Ancient Egypt. Egyptian ethics of war usually centered on three main ideas, these including the cosmological role of Egypt, the pharaoh as a divine office and executor of the will of the gods, and the superiority of the Egyptian state and population over all other states and peoples. Egyptian political theology held that the pharaoh had the exclusive legitimacy in justly initiating a war, usually claimed to carry out the will of the gods. Senusret I, in the Twelfth Dynasty, claimed, "I was nursed to be a conqueror...his [Atum's] son and his protector, he gave me to conquer what he conquered." Later pharaohs also considered their sonship of the god Amun-Re as granting them absolute ability to declare war on the deity's behalf. Pharaohs often visited temples prior to initiating campaigns, where the pharaoh was believed to receive their commands of war from the deities. For example, Kamose claimed that "I went north because I was strong (enough) to attack the Asiatics through the command of Amon, the just of counsels." A stele erected by Thutmose III at the Temple of Amun at Karnak "provides an unequivocal statement of the pharaoh's divine mandate to wage war on his enemies." As the period of the New Kingdom progressed and Egypt heightened its territorial ambition, so did the invocation of just war aid the justification of these efforts. The universal principle of Maat, signifying order and justice, was central to the Egyptian notion of just war and its ability to guarantee Egypt virtually no limits on what it could take, do, or use to guarantee the ambitions of the state.
India: The Indian Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, offers the first written discussions of a "just war" (dharma-yuddha or "righteous war"). In it, one of five ruling brothers (Pandavas) asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion then ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like proportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.
In Sikhism, the term dharamyudh describes a war that is fought for just, righteous or religious reasons, especially in defence of one's own beliefs. Though some core tenets in the Sikh religion are understood to emphasise peace and nonviolence, especially before the 1606 execution of Guru Arjan by Mughal Emperor Jahangir, military force may be justified if all peaceful means to settle a conflict have been exhausted, thus resulting in a dharamyudh.
East Asian: Chinese philosophy produced a massive body of work on warfare, much of it during the Zhou dynasty, especially the Warring States era. War was justified only as a last resort and only by the rightful sovereign; however, questioning the decision of the emperor concerning the necessity of a military action was not permissible. The success of a military campaign was sufficient proof that the campaign had been righteous.
Japan did not develop its own doctrine of just war but between the 5th and the 7th centuries drew heavily from Chinese philosophy, and especially Confucian views. As part of the Japanese campaign to take the northeastern island Honshu, Japanese military action was portrayed as an effort to "pacify" the Emishi people, who were likened to "bandits" and "wild-hearted wolf cubs" and accused of invading Japan's frontier lands.
Ancient Greece and Rome: The notion of just war in Europe originates and is developed first in ancient Greece and then in the Roman Empire.
It was Aristotle who first introduced the concept and terminology to the Hellenic world that called war a last resort requiring conduct that would allow the restoration of peace. Aristotle argues that the cultivation of a military is necessary and good for the purpose of self-defense, not for conquering: "The proper object of practising military training is not in order that men may enslave those who do not deserve slavery, but in order that first they may themselves avoid becoming enslaved to others" (Politics, Book 7).
In ancient Rome, a "just cause" for war might include the necessity of repelling an invasion, or retaliation for pillaging or a breach of treaty. War was always potentially nefas ("wrong, forbidden"), and risked religious pollution and divine disfavor. A "just war" (bellum iustum) thus required a ritualized declaration by the fetial priests. More broadly, conventions of war and treaty-making were part of the ius gentium, the "law of nations", the customary moral obligations regarded as innate and universal to human beings.
Christian views: Christian theory of the Just War begins around the time of Augustine of Hippo The Just War theory, with some amendments, is still used by
Christians today as a guide to whether or not a war can be justified.
War may be necessary and right, even though it may not be good. In the case of a country that has been invaded by an occupying force, war may be the only way to restore justice.
Saint Augustine: Saint Augustine held that individuals should not resort immediately to violence, but God has given the sword to government for a good reason (based upon Romans 13:4). In Contra Faustum Manichaeum book 22 sections 69–76, Augustine argues that Christians, as part of a government, need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when they are forced to do so by a government. Augustine asserted that was a personal and philosophical stance: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition. The sacred seat of virtue is the heart."
Nonetheless, he asserted, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could be stopped by only violence would be a sin. Defense of oneself or others could be a necessity, especially when it is authorized by a legitimate authority:They who have waged war in obedience to the divine command, or in conformity with His laws, have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government, and in this capacity have put to death wicked men; such persons have by no means violated the commandment, "Thou shalt not kill."While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine nonetheless originated the very phrase itself in his work The City of God:
But, say they, the wise man will wage Just Wars. As if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of just wars, if he remembers that he is a man; for if they were not just he would not wage them, and would therefore be delivered from all wars.
Augustine further taught:
No war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety.
J. Mark Mattox writes,In terms of the traditional notion of jus ad bellum (justice of war, that is, the circumstances in which wars can be justly fought), war is a coping mechanism for righteous sovereigns who would ensure that their violent international encounters are minimal, a reflection of the Divine Will to the greatest extent possible, and always justified. In terms of the traditional notion of jus in bello (justice in war, or the moral considerations which ought to constrain the use of violence in war), war is a coping mechanism for righteous combatants who, by divine edict, have no choice but to subject themselves to their political masters and seek to ensure that they execute their war-fighting duty as justly as possible.
Isidore of Seville: Isidore of Seville writes:
Those wars are unjust which are undertaken without cause. For aside from vengeance or to fight off enemies no just war can be waged.
Peace and Truce of God: The medieval Peace of God (Latin: pax dei) was a 10th century mass movement in Western Europe instigated by the clergy that granted immunity from violence for non-combatants.
Starting in the 11th Century, the Truce of God (Latin: treuga dei) involved Church rules that successfully limited when and where fighting could occur: Catholic forces (e.g. of warring barons) could not fight each other on Sundays, Thursdays, holidays, the entirety of Lent and Advent and other times, severely disrupting the conduct of wars. The 1179 Third Council of the Lateran adopted a version of it for the whole church.
Saint Thomas Aquinas: The just war theory by Thomas Aquinas has had a lasting impact on later generations of thinkers and was part of an emerging consensus in Medieval Europe on just war. In the 13th century Aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war. Aquinas was a Dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of the Bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Saint Augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the Western canon. Aquinas' views on war drew heavily on the Decretum Gratiani, a book the Italian monk Gratian had compiled with passages from the Bible. After its publication in the 12th century, the Decretum Gratiani had been republished with commentary from Pope Innocent IV and the Dominican friar Raymond of Penafort. Other significant influences on Aquinas just war theory were Alexander of Hales and Henry of Segusio.
In Summa Theologica Aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war, and he set out criteria for a just war. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Just war theory | In the 13th century Aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war. Aquinas was a Dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of the Bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Saint Augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the Western canon. Aquinas' views on war drew heavily on the Decretum Gratiani, a book the Italian monk Gratian had compiled with passages from the Bible. After its publication in the 12th century, the Decretum Gratiani had been republished with commentary from Pope Innocent IV and the Dominican friar Raymond of Penafort. Other significant influences on Aquinas just war theory were Alexander of Hales and Henry of Segusio.
In Summa Theologica Aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war, and he set out criteria for a just war. According to Aquinas, three requirements must be met. Firstly, the war must be waged upon the command of a rightful sovereign. Secondly, the war needs to be waged for just cause, on account of some wrong the attacked have committed. Thirdly, warriors must have the right intent, namely to promote good and to avoid evil. Aquinas came to the conclusion that a just war could be offensive and that injustice should not be tolerated so as to avoid war. Nevertheless, Aquinas argued that violence must only be used as a last resort. On the battlefield, violence was only justified to the extent it was necessary. Soldiers needed to avoid cruelty and a just war was limited by the conduct of just combatants. Aquinas argued that it was only in the pursuit of justice, that the good intention of a moral act could justify negative consequences, including the killing of the innocent during a war.
Renaissance and Christian Humanists: Various Renaissance humanists promoted Pacificist views.
John Colet famously preached a Lenten sermon before Henry VIII, who was preparing for a war, quoting Cicero "Better an unjust peace rather than the justest war."
Erasmus of Rotterdam wrote numerous works on peace which criticized Just War theory as a smokescreen and added extra limitations, notably The Complaint of Peace and the Treatise on War (Dulce bellum inexpertis).
A leading humanist writer after the Reformation was legal theorist Hugo Grotius, whose De jura belli ac pacis re-considered Just War and fighting wars justly.
First World War: At the beginning of the First World War, a group of theologians in Germany published a manifesto that sought to justify the actions of the German government. At the British government's request, Randall Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury, took the lead in collaborating with a large number of other religious leaders, including some with whom he had differed in the past, to write a rebuttal of the Germans' contentions. Both German and British theologians based themselves on the just war theory, each group seeking to prove that it applied to the war waged by its own side.
Contemporary Catholic doctrine: The just war doctrine of the Catholic Church found in the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, in paragraph 2309, lists four strict conditions for "legitimate defense by military force:"
The damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting, grave and certain.
All other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective.
There must be serious prospects of success.
The use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated.
The Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church elaborates on the just war doctrine in paragraphs 500 to 501, while citing the Charter of the United Nations:
If this responsibility justifies the possession of sufficient means to exercise this right to defense, States still have the obligation to do everything possible "to ensure that the conditions of peace exist, not only within their own territory but throughout the world". It is important to remember that "it is one thing to wage a war of self-defense; it is quite another to seek to impose domination on another nation. The possession of war potential does not justify the use of force for political or military objectives. Nor does the mere fact that war has unfortunately broken out mean that all is fair between the warring parties".
The Charter of the United Nations ... is based on a generalized prohibition of a recourse to force to resolve disputes between States, with the exception of two cases: legitimate defence and measures taken by the Security Council within the area of its responsibilities for maintaining peace. In every case, exercising the right to self-defence must respect "the traditional limits of necessity and proportionality".
Therefore, engaging in a preventive war without clear proof that an attack is imminent cannot fail to raise serious moral and juridical questions. International legitimacy for the use of armed force, on the basis of rigorous assessment and with well-founded motivations, can only be given by the decision of a competent body that identifies specific situations as threats to peace and authorizes an intrusion into the sphere of autonomy usually reserved to a State.
Pope John Paul II in an address to a group of soldiers said the following: Peace, as taught by Sacred Scripture and the experience of men itself, is more than just the absence of war. And the Christian is aware that on earth a human society that is completely and always peaceful is, unfortunately, an utopia and that the ideologies which present it as easily attainable only nourish vain hopes. The cause of peace will not go forward by denying the possibility and the obligation to defend it.
Russian Orthodox Church: The War and Peace section in the Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church is crucial for understanding the Russian Orthodox Church's attitude towards war. The document offers criteria of distinguishing between an aggressive war, which is unacceptable, and a justified war, attributing the highest moral and sacred value of military acts of bravery to a true believer who participates in a justified war. Additionally, the document considers the just war criteria as developed in Western Christianity to be eligible for Russian Orthodoxy; therefore, the justified war theory in Western theology is also applicable to the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the same document, it is stated that wars have accompanied human history since the fall of man, and according to the gospel, they will continue to accompany it. While recognizing war as evil, the Russian Orthodox Church does not prohibit its members from participating in hostilities if there is the security of their neighbours and the restoration of trampled justice at stake. War is considered to be necessary but undesirable. It is also stated that the Russian Orthodox Church has had profound respect for soldiers who gave their lives to protect the life and security of their neighbours.
Just war tradition: The just war theory, propounded by the medieval Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas, was developed further by legal scholars in the context of international law. Cardinal Cajetan, the jurist Francisco de Vitoria, the two Jesuit priests Luis de Molina and Francisco Suárez, as well as the humanist Hugo Grotius and the lawyer Luigi Taparelli were most influential in the formation of a just war tradition. The just war tradition, which was well established by the 19th century, found its practical application in the Hague Peace Conferences (1899 and 1907) and in the founding of the League of Nations in 1920. After the United States Congress declared war on Germany in 1917, Cardinal James Gibbons issued a letter that all Catholics were to support the war because "Our Lord Jesus Christ does not stand for peace at any price... If by Pacifism is meant the teaching that the use of force is never justifiable, then, however well meant, it is mistaken, and it is hurtful to the life of our country."
Armed conflicts such as the Spanish Civil War, World War II and the Cold War were, as a matter of course, judged according to the norms (as established in Aquinas' just war theory) by philosophers such as Jacques Maritain, Elizabeth Anscombe and John Finnis. Other scholars such as Robert L. Holmes cited a presumptive moral imperative prohibiting violence against all innocent people as the prima facie basis for questioning whether the norms of just war theories could adequately serve as a rational moral justification for military conflict within the nuclear age.
The first work dedicated specifically to just war was the 15th-century sermon De bellis justis of Stanisław of Skarbimierz (1360–1431), who justified war by the Kingdom of Poland against the Teutonic Knights. Francisco de Vitoria criticized the conquest of America by the Spanish conquistadors on the basis of just-war theory. With Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius, just war theory was replaced by international law theory, codified as a set of rules, which today still encompass the points commonly debated, with some modifications.
Just-war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just-war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just-war theories aim "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice".
The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of jus ad bellum) and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of jus in bello).
In 1869 the Russian military theorist Genrikh Antonovich Leer theorized on the advantages and potential benefits of war. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Just war theory | Just-war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just-war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just-war theories aim "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice".
The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of jus ad bellum) and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of jus in bello).
In 1869 the Russian military theorist Genrikh Antonovich Leer theorized on the advantages and potential benefits of war.
The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin defined only three types of just war.
But picture to yourselves a slave-owner who owned 100 slaves warring against a slave-owner who owned 200 slaves for a more "just" distribution of slaves. Clearly, the application of the term "defensive" war, or war "for the defense of the fatherland" in such a case would be historically false, and in practice would be sheer deception of the common people, of philistines, of ignorant people, by the astute slaveowners. Precisely in this way are the present-day imperialist bourgeoisie deceiving the peoples by means of "national ideology" and the term "defense of the fatherland" in the present war between slave-owners for fortifying and strengthening slavery.
The anarcho-capitalist scholar Murray Rothbard (1926-1995) stated that "a just war exists when a people tries to ward off the threat of coercive domination by another people, or to overthrow an already-existing domination. A war is unjust, on the other hand, when a people try to impose domination on another people or try to retain an already-existing coercive rule over them."
Jonathan Riley-Smith writes:
The consensus among Christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought. The just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries—that violence is an evil that can, in certain situations, be condoned as the lesser of evils—is relatively young. Although it has inherited some elements (the criteria of legitimate authority, just cause, right intention) from the older war theory that first evolved around AD 400, it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars, including crusades: first, that violence could be employed on behalf of Christ's intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him; and second, that it was a morally neutral force that drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators.
Criteria: The just war theory has two sets of criteria, the first establishing jus ad bellum (the right to go to war), and the second establishing jus in bello (right conduct within war).
Jus ad bellum: Competent authority
Only duly constituted public authorities may wage war. "A just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice. Dictatorships (e.g. Hitler's regime) or deceptive military actions (e.g. the 1968 US bombing of Cambodia) are typically considered as violations of this criterion. The importance of this condition is key. Plainly, we cannot have a genuine process of judging a just war within a system that represses the process of genuine justice. A just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice".
Probability of success
According to this principle, there must be good grounds for concluding that aims of the just war are achievable. This principle emphasizes that mass violence must not be undertaken if it is unlikely to secure the just cause. This criterion is to avoid invasion for invasion's sake and links to the proportionality criteria. One cannot invade if there is no chance of actually winning. However, wars are fought with imperfect knowledge, so one must simply be able to make a logical case that one can win; there is no way to know this in advance. These criteria move the conversation from moral and theoretical grounds to practical grounds. Essentially, this is meant to gather coalition building and win approval of other state actors.
Last resort
The principle of last resort stipulates that all non-violent options must first be exhausted before the use of force can be justified. Diplomatic options, sanctions, and other non-military methods must be attempted or validly ruled out before the engagement of hostilities. Further, in regard to the amount of harm—proportionally—the principle of last resort would support using small intervention forces first and then escalating rather than starting a war with massive force such as carpet bombing or nuclear warfare.
Just cause
The reason for going to war needs to be just and cannot, therefore, be solely for recapturing things taken or punishing people who have done wrong; innocent life must be in imminent danger and intervention must be to protect life. A contemporary view of just cause was expressed in 1993 when the US Catholic Conference said: "Force may be used only to correct a grave, public evil, i.e., aggression or massive violation of the basic human rights of whole populations."
Jus in bello: Once war has begun, just war theory (jus in bello) also directs how combatants are to act or should act:
Distinction
Just war conduct should be governed by the principle of distinction. The acts of war should be directed towards enemy combatants, and not towards non-combatants caught in circumstances that they did not create. The prohibited acts include bombing civilian residential areas that include no legitimate military targets, committing acts of terrorism or reprisal against civilians or prisoners of war (POWs), and attacking neutral targets. Moreover, combatants are not permitted to attack enemy combatants who have surrendered, or who have been captured, or who are injured and not presenting an immediate lethal threat, or who are parachuting from disabled aircraft and are not airborne forces, or who are shipwrecked.
Proportionality
Just war conduct should be governed by the principle of proportionality. Combatants must make sure that the harm caused to civilians or civilian property is not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated by an attack on a legitimate military objective. This principle is meant to discern the correct balance between the restriction imposed by a corrective measure and the severity of the nature of the prohibited act.
Military necessity
Just war conduct should be governed by the principle of military necessity. An attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. This principle is meant to limit excessive and unnecessary death and destruction.
Fair treatment of prisoners of war
Enemy combatants who surrendered or who are captured no longer pose a threat. It is therefore wrong to torture them or otherwise mistreat them.
No means malum in se
Combatants may not use weapons or other methods of warfare that are considered evil, such as mass rape, forcing enemy combatants to fight against their own side or using weapons whose effects cannot be controlled (e.g., nuclear/biological weapons).
Ending a war: Jus post bellum: In recent years, some theorists, such as Gary Bass, Louis Iasiello and Brian Orend, have proposed a third category within the just war theory. "Jus post bellum is described by some scholars as a new “discipline,” or as “a new category of international law currently under construction". Jus post bellum concerns justice after a war, including peace treaties, reconstruction, environmental remediation, war crimes trials, and war reparations. Jus post bellum has been added to deal with the fact that some hostile actions may take place outside a traditional battlefield. Jus post bellum governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals, and publicly labelled terrorists. The idea has largely been added to help decide what to do if there are prisoners that have been taken during battle. It is, through government labelling and public opinion, that people use jus post bellum to justify the pursuit of labelled terrorist for the safety of the government's state in a modern context. The actual fault lies with the aggressor and so by being the aggressor, they forfeit their rights for honourable treatment by their actions. That theory is used to justify the actions taken by anyone fighting in a war to treat prisoners outside of war.
See also: Appeasement
Christian pacifism
Democratic peace theory
Deterrence theory
Peace and conflict studies
Right of conquest
Moral equality of combatants
References:
Further reading: Benson, Richard. "The Just War Theory: A Traditional Catholic Moral View", The Tidings (2006). Showing the Catholic view in three points, including John Paul II's position concerning war.
Blattberg, Charles. Taking War Seriously. A critique of just war theory.
Brough, Michael W., John W. Lango, Harry van der Linden, eds., Rethinking the Just War Tradition (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2007). Discusses the contemporary relevance of just war theory. Offers an annotated bibliography of current writings on just war theory.
Brunsletter, D., & D. O'Driscoll, Just war thinkers from Cicero to the 21st century (Routledge, 2017). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Just war theory | "The Just War Theory: A Traditional Catholic Moral View", The Tidings (2006). Showing the Catholic view in three points, including John Paul II's position concerning war.
Blattberg, Charles. Taking War Seriously. A critique of just war theory.
Brough, Michael W., John W. Lango, Harry van der Linden, eds., Rethinking the Just War Tradition (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2007). Discusses the contemporary relevance of just war theory. Offers an annotated bibliography of current writings on just war theory.
Brunsletter, D., & D. O'Driscoll, Just war thinkers from Cicero to the 21st century (Routledge, 2017).
Butler, Paul (2002–2003). "By Any Means Necessary: Using Violence and Subversion to Change Unjust Law". UCLA Law Review. 50: 721 – via HeinOnline.
Churchman, David. Why we fight: the origins, nature, and management of human conflict (University Press of America, 2013) online.
Crawford, Neta. "Just War Theory and the US Countertenor War", Perspectives on Politics 1(1), 2003. online
Elshtain, Jean Bethke, ed. Just war theory (NYU Press, 1992) online.
Evans, Mark (editor) Just War Theory: A Reappraisal (Edinburgh University Press, 2005)
Fotion, Nicholas. War and Ethics (London, New York: Continuum, 2007). ISBN 0-8264-9260-6. A defence of an updated form of just war theory.
Heindel, Max. The Rosicrucian Philosophy in Questions and Answers – Volume II (The Philosophy of War, World War I reference, ed. 1918), ISBN 0-911274-90-1 (Describing a philosophy of war and just war concepts from the point of view of his Rosicrucian Fellowship)
Gutbrod, Hans. Russia's Recent Invasion of Ukraine and Just War Theory ("Global Policy Journal", March 2022); applies the concept to Russia's February 2022 invasion of Ukraine.
Holmes, Robert L. On War and Morality (Princeton University Press, 1989.
Khawaja, Irfan. Review of Larry May, War Crimes and Just War, in Democratiya 10, ([1]), an extended critique of just war theory.
Kwon, David. Justice after War: Jus Post Bellum in the 21st Century (Washington, D.C., Catholic University of America Press, 2023). ISBN 978-0-813236-51-3
MacDonald, David Roberts. Padre E. C. Crosse and 'the Devonshire Epitaph': The Astonishing Story of One Man at the Battle of the Somme (with Antecedents to Today's 'Just War' Dialogue), 2007 Cloverdale Books, South Bend. ISBN 978-1-929569-45-8
McMahan, Jeff. "Just Cause for War," Ethics and International Affairs, 2005.
Nájera, Luna. "Myth and Prophecy in Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda's Crusading "Exhortación" Archived 11 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, in Bulletin for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies, 35:1 (2011). Discusses Sepúlveda's theories of war in relation to the war against the Ottoman Turks.
Nardin, Terry, ed. The ethics of war and peace: Religious and secular perspectives (Princeton University Press, 1998) online
O'Donovan, Oliver. The Just War Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Steinhoff, Uwe. On the Ethics of War and Terrorism (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007). Covers the basics and some of the most controversial current debates.
Walzer, Michael. Arguing about War, (Yale University Press, 2004). ISBN 978-0-300-10978-8
External links: "Just war theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Catholic Teaching Concerning Just War at Catholicism.org
"Just War" In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Keane and Niall Ferguson (3 June 1999) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Kite | History: The kite has been claimed as the invention of the 5th-century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (also Mo Di, or Mo Ti) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban, or Kungshu Phan). Materials ideal for kite building were readily available including silk fabric for sail material; fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line; and resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework. By 549 AD, paper kites were certainly being flown, as it was recorded that in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat (not bowed) and often rectangular. Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Kites were decorated with mythological motifs and legendary figures; some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying.
After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, known as the patang in India, where thousands are flown every year on festivals such as Makar Sankranti.
Kites were known throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand, with the assumption being that the knowledge diffused from China along with the people. Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and wood were used in religious ceremonies to send prayers to the gods. Polynesian kite traditions are used by anthropologists to get an idea of early "primitive" Asian traditions that are believed to have at one time existed in Asia.
Kites were late to arrive in Europe, although windsock-like banners were known and used by the Romans. Stories of kites were first brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, and kites were brought back by sailors from Japan and Malaysia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Konrad Kyeser described dragon kites in Bellifortis about 1400 AD. Although kites were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries they were being used as vehicles for scientific research.
In 1752, Benjamin Franklin published an account of a kite experiment to prove that lightning was caused by electricity.
Kites were also instrumental in the research of the Wright brothers, and others, as they developed the first airplane in the late 1800s. Several different designs of man-lifting kites were developed. The period from 1860 to about 1910 became the European "golden age of kiting".
In the 20th century, many new kite designs are developed. These included Eddy's tailless diamond, the tetrahedral kite, the Rogallo wing, the sled kite, the parafoil, and power kites. Kites were used for scientific purposes, especially in meteorology, aeronautics, wireless communications and photography. The Rogallo wing was adapted for stunt kites and hang gliding and the parafoil was adapted for parachuting and paragliding.
The rapid development of mechanically powered aircraft diminished interest in kites. World War II saw a limited use of kites for military purposes (survival radio, Focke Achgelis Fa 330, military radio antenna kites).
Kites are now mostly used for recreation. Lightweight synthetic materials (ripstop nylon, plastic film, carbon fiber tube and rod) are used for kite making. Synthetic rope and cord (nylon, polyethylene, kevlar and dyneema) are used as bridle and kite line.
Materials: Designs often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. The finest Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand painted. On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly folded for storage or transport. Cheaper mass-produced kites are often made from printed polyester rather than silk.
Tails are used for some single-line kite designs to keep the kite's nose pointing into the wind. Spinners and spinsocks can be attached to the flying line for visual effect. There are rotating wind socks which spin like a turbine. On large display kites these tails, spinners and spinsocks can be 50 feet (15 m) long or more.
Modern aerobatic kites use two or four lines to allow fine control of the kite's angle to the wind. Traction kites may have an additional line to de-power the kite and quick-release mechanisms to disengage flyer and kite in an emergency.
Practical uses: Kites have been used for human flight, military applications, science and meteorology, photography, lifting radio antennas, generating power, aerodynamics experiments, and much more.
Military applications: Kites have been used for military purposes in the past, such as signaling, delivery of ammunition, and for observation, both by lifting an observer above the field of battle and by using kite aerial photography.
Kites were first used in warfare by the Chinese. During the Song dynasty the Fire Crow, a kite carrying incendiary powder, a fuse, and a burning stick of incense was developed as a weapon.
According to Samguk Sagi, in 647 Kim Yu-sin, a Korean general of Silla rallied his troops to defeat rebels by using flaming kites which also frightened the enemy.
Russian chronicles mention Prince Oleg of Novgorod use of kites during the siege of Constantinople in 906: "and he crafted horses and men of paper, armed and gilded, and lifted them into the air over the city; the Greeks saw them and feared them".
Walter de Milemete's 1326 De nobilitatibus, sapientiis, et prudentiis regum treatise depicts a group of knights flying kite laden with a black-powder filled firebomb over the wall of city.
Kites were also used by Admiral Yi of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) of Korea. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), Admiral Yi commanded his navy using kites. His kites had specific markings directing his fleet to perform various orders.
In the modern era the British Army used kites to haul human lookouts into the air for observation purposes, using the kites developed by Samuel Franklin Cody. Barrage kites were used to protect shipping during the Second World War. Kites were also used for anti-aircraft target practice.
Kites and kytoons were used for lofting communications antenna. Submarines lofted observers in rotary kites.
Palestinians from the Gaza Strip have flown firebomb kites over the Israel–Gaza barrier, setting fires on the Israeli side of the border, hundreds of dunams of Israeli crop fields were burned by firebomb kites launched from Gaza, with an estimated economic loss of several millions of shekels.
Science and meteorology: Kites have been used for scientific purposes, such as Benjamin Franklin's famous experiment proving that lightning is electricity. Kites were the precursors to the traditional aircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft. Alexander Graham Bell experimented with very large man-lifting kites, as did the Wright brothers and Lawrence Hargrave. Kites had a historical role in lifting scientific instruments to measure atmospheric conditions for weather forecasting. Francis Ronalds and William Radcliffe Birt described a very stable kite at Kew Observatory as early as 1847 that was trialled for the purpose of supporting self-registering meteorological instruments at height.
Radio aerials and light beacons: Kites can be used for radio purposes, by kites carrying antennas for MF, LF or VLF-transmitters. This method was used for the reception station of the first transatlantic transmission by Marconi. Captive balloons may be more convenient for such experiments, because kite-carried antennas require a lot of wind, which may be not always possible with heavy equipment and a ground conductor. It must be taken into account during experiments, that a conductor carried by a kite can lead to high voltage toward ground, which can endanger people and equipment, if suitable precautions (grounding through resistors or a parallel resonant circuit tuned to transmission frequency) are not taken.
Kites can be used to carry light effects such as lightsticks or battery powered lights.
Kite traction: Kites can be used to pull people and vehicles downwind. Efficient foil-type kites such as power kites can also be used to sail upwind under the same principles as used by other sailing craft, provided that lateral forces on the ground or in the water are redirected as with the keels, center boards, wheels and ice blades of traditional sailing craft. In the last two decades several kite sailing sports have become popular, such as kite buggying, kite land boarding, kite boating and kite surfing. Snow kiting has also become popular in recent years.
Kite sailing opens several possibilities not available in traditional sailing:
Wind speeds are greater at higher altitudes
Kites may be maneuvered dynamically which increases the force available dramatically
There is no need for mechanical structures to withstand bending forces; vehicles or hulls can be very light or dispensed with all together
Underwater kites: Underwater kites are now being developed to harvest renewable power from the flow of water. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Kite | Efficient foil-type kites such as power kites can also be used to sail upwind under the same principles as used by other sailing craft, provided that lateral forces on the ground or in the water are redirected as with the keels, center boards, wheels and ice blades of traditional sailing craft. In the last two decades several kite sailing sports have become popular, such as kite buggying, kite land boarding, kite boating and kite surfing. Snow kiting has also become popular in recent years.
Kite sailing opens several possibilities not available in traditional sailing:
Wind speeds are greater at higher altitudes
Kites may be maneuvered dynamically which increases the force available dramatically
There is no need for mechanical structures to withstand bending forces; vehicles or hulls can be very light or dispensed with all together
Underwater kites: Underwater kites are now being developed to harvest renewable power from the flow of water.
A kite was used in minesweeping operations from the First World War: this was a foil "attached to a sweep-wire submerging it to the requisite depth when it is towed over a minefield" (OED, 2021). See also paravane.
Cultural uses: Kite festivals are a popular form of entertainment throughout the world. They include large local events, traditional festivals which have been held for hundreds of years and major international festivals which bring in kite flyers from other countries to display their unique art kites and demonstrate the latest technical kites.
Many countries have kite museums. These museums may have a focus on historical kites, preserving the country's kite traditions.
Asia: Kite flying is popular in many Asian countries, where it often takes the form of "kite fighting", in which participants try to snag each other's kites or cut other kites down. Fighter kites are usually small, flattened diamond-shaped kites made of paper and bamboo. Tails are not used on fighter kites so that agility and maneuverability are not compromised.In Afghanistan, kite flying is a popular game, and is known in Dari as Gudiparan Bazi. Some kite fighters pass their strings through a mixture of ground glass powder and glue, which is legal. The resulting strings are very abrasive and can sever the competitor's strings more easily. The abrasive strings can also injure people. During the Taliban rule in Afghanistan, kite flying was banned, among various other recreations.
In Pakistan, kite flying is often known as Gudi-Bazi or Patang-bazi. Although kite flying is a popular ritual for the celebration of spring festival known as Jashn-e-Baharaan (lit. Spring Festival) or Basant, kites are flown throughout the year. Kite fighting is a very popular pastime all around Pakistan, but mostly in urban centers across the country (especially Lahore). The kite fights are at their highest during the spring celebrations and the fighters enjoy competing with rivals to cut-loose the string of the others kite, popularly known as "Paecha". During the spring festival, kite flying competitions are held across the country and the skies are colored with kites. When a competitor succeeds in cutting another's kite loose, shouts of 'wo kata' ring through the air. Cut kites are reclaimed by chasing after them. This is a popular ritual, especially among the country's youth, and is depicted in the 2007 film The Kite Runner (although that story is based in neighboring Afghanistan). Kites and strings are a big business in the country and several different types of string are used, including glass-coated, metal, and tandi. Kite flying was banned in Punjab, India due to more than one motorcyclist death caused by glass-coated or metal kite strings. Kup, Patang, Guda, and Nakhlaoo are some of the popular kite brands; they vary in balance, weight and speed.
In Indonesia kites are flown as both sport and recreation. One of the most popular kite variants is from Bali. Balinese kites are unique and they have different designs and forms; birds, butterflies, dragons, ships, etc. In Vietnam, kites are flown without tails. Instead small flutes are attached allowing the wind to "hum" a musical tune. There are other forms of sound-making kites. In Bali, large bows are attached to the front of the kites to make a deep throbbing vibration, and in Malaysia, a row of gourds with sound-slots are used to create a whistle as the kite flies. Malaysia is also home to the Kite Museum in Malacca.
Kite are also popular in Nepal, especially in hilly areas and among the Pahadi and Newar communities, although people also fly kites in Terai areas. Unlike India, people in Nepal fly kites in August – September period and is more popular in time of Dashain.
Kites are very popular in India, with the states of Gujarat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab notable for their kite fighting festivals. Highly maneuverable single-string paper and bamboo kites are flown from the rooftops while using line friction in an attempt to cut each other's kite lines, either by letting the cutting line loose at high speed or by pulling the line in a fast and repeated manner. During the Indian spring festival of Makar Sankranti, near the middle of January, millions of people fly kites all over northern India. Kite flying in Hyderabad starts a month before this, but kite flying/fighting is an important part of other celebrations, including Republic Day, Independence Day, Raksha Bandhan, Viswakarma Puja day in late September and Janmashtami. An international kite festival is held every year before Uttarayan for three days in Vadodara, Surat and Ahmedabad.
Kites have been flown in China since ancient times. Weifang is home to the largest kite museum in the world. It also hosts an annual international kite festival on the large salt flats south of the city. There are several kite museums in Japan, UK, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, Thailand and the USA. In the pre-modern period, Malays in Singapore used kites for fishing.
In Japan, kite flying is traditionally a children's play in New Year holidays and in the Boys' Festival in May. In some areas, there is a tradition to celebrate a new boy baby with a new kite (祝い凧). There are many kite festivals throughout Japan. The most famous one is "Yōkaichi Giant Kite Festival" in Higashiōmi, Shiga, which started in 1841. The largest kite ever built in the festival is 62 feet (19 m) wide by 67 feet (20 m) high and weighs 3,307 pounds (1,500 kg). In the Hamamatsu Kite Festival in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, more than 100 kites are flown in the sky over the Nakatajima Sand Dunes, one of the three largest sand dunes in Japan, which overlooks the Enshunada Sea. Parents who have a new baby prepare a new kite with their baby's name and fly it in the festival. These kites are traditional ones made from bamboo and paper.
Europe: In Greece and Cyprus, flying kites is a tradition for Clean Monday, the first day of Lent. In the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, traditional Bermuda kites are made and flown at Easter, to symbolise Christ's ascent. In Fuerteventura a kite festival is usually held on the weekend nearest to 8 November lasting for 3 days.
Polynesia: Polynesian traditional kites are sometimes used at ceremonies and variants of traditional kites for amusement. Older pieces are kept in museums. These are treasured by the people of Polynesia.
South America: In Brazil, flying a kite is a very popular leisure activity for children, teenagers and even young adults. Mostly these are boys, and it is overwhelmingly kite fighting a game whose goal is to maneuver their own kites to cut the other persons' kites' strings during flight, and followed by kite running where participants race through the streets to take the free-drifting kites. As in other countries with similar traditions, injuries are common and motorcyclists in particular need to take precautions.
In Chile, kites are very popular, especially during Independence Day festivities (September 18).
In Peru, kites are also very popular. There are kite festivals in parks and beaches mostly on August.
In Colombia, kites can be seen flown in parks and recreation areas during August which is calles as windy. It is during this month that most people, especially the young ones would fly kites.
In Guyana, kites are flown at Easter, an activity in which all ethnic and religious groups participate. Kites are generally not flown at any other time of year. Kites start appearing in the sky in the weeks leading up to Easter and school children are taken to parks for the activity. It all culminates in a massive airborne celebration on Easter Monday especially in Georgetown, the capital, and other coastal areas. The history of the practice is not entirely clear but given that Easter is a Christian festival, it is said that kite flying is symbolic of the Risen Lord. Moore describes the phenomenon in the 19th century as follows:
A very popular Creole pastime was the flying of kites. Easter Monday, a public holiday, was the great kite-flying day on the sea wall in Georgetown and on open lands in villages. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Kite | It is during this month that most people, especially the young ones would fly kites.
In Guyana, kites are flown at Easter, an activity in which all ethnic and religious groups participate. Kites are generally not flown at any other time of year. Kites start appearing in the sky in the weeks leading up to Easter and school children are taken to parks for the activity. It all culminates in a massive airborne celebration on Easter Monday especially in Georgetown, the capital, and other coastal areas. The history of the practice is not entirely clear but given that Easter is a Christian festival, it is said that kite flying is symbolic of the Risen Lord. Moore describes the phenomenon in the 19th century as follows:
A very popular Creole pastime was the flying of kites. Easter Monday, a public holiday, was the great kite-flying day on the sea wall in Georgetown and on open lands in villages. Young and old alike, male and female, appeared to be seized by kite-flying mania. Easter 1885 serves as a good example. "The appearance of the sky all over Georgetown, but especially towards the Sea Wall, was very striking, the air being thick with kites of all shapes and sizes, covered with gaily coloured paper, all riding bravely on the strong wind.
The exact origins of the practice of kite flying (exclusively) at Easter are unclear. Bridget Brereton and Kevin Yelvington speculate that kite flying was introduced by Chinese indentured immigrants to the then colony of British Guiana in the mid 19th century. The author of an article in the Guyana Chronicle newspaper of May 6, 2007 is more certain:
Kite flying originated as a Chinese tradition to mark the beginning of spring. However, because the plantation owners were suspicious of the planter class (read "plantation workers"), the Chinese claimed that it represented the resurrection of Jesus Christ. It was a clever argument, as at that time, Christians celebrated Easter to the glory of the risen Christ. The Chinese came to Guyana from 1853–1879.
World records: There are many world records involving kites. The world's largest kites are inflatable single-line kites. The world record for the largest kite flown for at least 20 minutes is "The Flag of Kuwait".
The world record for most kites flown simultaneously was achieved in 2011 when 12,350 kites were flown by children on Al-Waha beach in Gaza Strip.
The single-kite altitude record is held by a triangular-box delta kite. On 23 September 2014 a team led by Robert Moore, flew a 129 square feet (12 m2) kite to 16,009 feet (4,880 m) above ground level. The record altitude was reached after eight series of attempts over a ten-year period from a remote location in western New South Wales, Australia. The 9.2 feet (3 m) tall and 19.6 feet (6 m) wide Dunton-Taylor delta kite's flight was controlled by a winch system using 40,682 feet (12,400 m) of ultra high strength Dyneema line. The flight took about eight hours from ground and return. The height was measured with on-board GPS telemetry transmitting positional data in real time to a ground-based computer and also back-up GPS data loggers for later analysis.
In popular culture: The Kite Runner, a 2005 novel by Khaled Hosseini dramatizes the role of kite fighting in pre-war Kabul.
The Peanuts cartoon character Charlie Brown was often depicted having flown his kite into a tree as a metaphor for life's adversities.
"Let's Go Fly a Kite" is a song from the Mary Poppins film and musical.
In the Disney animated film Mulan, kites are flown in the parade.
In the film Shooter, a kite is used to show the wind direction and wind velocity.
"Kite" is a 1978 song celebrating kite flying and appears on Kate Bush's first album, The Kick Inside.
General safety issues: There are safety issues involved in kite-flying. Kite lines can strike and tangle on electrical power lines, causing power blackouts and running the risk of electrocuting the kite flier. Wet kite lines or wire can act as a conductor for static electricity and lightning when the weather is stormy. Kites with large surface area or powerful lift can lift kite fliers off the ground or drag them into other objects. In urban areas there is usually a ceiling on how high a kite can be flown, to prevent the kite and line infringing on the airspace of helicopters and light aircraft. It is also possible for fighter kites to kill people, as happened in India when three spectators were killed in separate incidents during Independence Day, August, 2016—precipitating a ban on certain types of enhanced line.
The government of Egypt banned kite-flying in July 2020, seizing 369 kites in Cairo and 99 in Alexandria, citing both safety and national security concerns.
Designs: Bermuda kite
Bowed kite, e.g. Rokkaku
Cellular or box kite
Chapi-chapi
Delta kite
Foil, parafoil or bow kite
Leading edge inflatable kite
Malay kite see also wau bulan (Moon kite)
Tetrahedral kite
Sled kite
Gallery:
Types: Fighter kite
Indoor kite
Inflatable single-line kite
Kytoon - a hybrid tethered craft comprising both a lighter-than-air balloon as well as a kite lifting surface
Man-lifting kite
Rogallo parawing kite
Stunt (sport) kite
Water kite
See also:
References:
External links:
The earliest depiction of kite flying in European literature in a panorama of Ternate (Moluccas) 1600.
Mathematics and aeronautical principles of kites.
Kitecraft and Kite Tournaments (1914)—A free public domain e-book
Trivedi, Parthsarathi; et al. "Aerodynamics of Kites" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Eyes on Brazil |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Kulbit | Aircraft known to be able to execute the "Kulbit": The following aircraft are currently known to be able to execute the "Kulbit":
F-22 Raptor
MiG-29OVT
Sukhoi Su-30
Sukhoi Su-35
Sukhoi Su-37
Sukhoi Su-47 Berkut
Sukhoi Su-57
All have performed the Kulbit in airshow displays in the past.
References:
External links: A page containing a movie file of the Kulbit maneuver (listed as "Somersault, loop min radius")
Video showing the Su-30MKI Flanker showing off its Thrust Vectoring and doing a Cobra and a Kulbit |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | Lanchester's linear law: For ancient combat, between phalanxes of soldiers with spears for example, one soldier could only ever fight exactly one other soldier at a time. If each soldier kills, and is killed by, exactly one other, then the number of soldiers remaining at the end of the battle is simply the difference between the larger army and the smaller, assuming identical weapons.
The linear law also applies to unaimed fire into an enemy-occupied area. The rate of attrition depends on the density of the available targets in the target area as well as the number of weapons shooting. If two forces, occupying the same land area and using the same weapons, shoot randomly into the same target area, they will both suffer the same rate and number of casualties, until the smaller force is eventually eliminated: the greater probability of any one shot hitting the larger force is balanced by the greater number of shots directed at the smaller force.
Lanchester's square law: Lanchester's square law is also known as the N-square law.
Description: With firearms engaging each other directly with aimed shooting from a distance, they can attack multiple targets and can receive fire from multiple directions. The rate of attrition now depends only on the number of weapons shooting. Lanchester determined that the power of such a force is proportional not to the number of units it has, but to the square of the number of units. This is known as Lanchester's square law.
More precisely, the law specifies the casualties a shooting force will inflict over a period of time, relative to those inflicted by the opposing force. In its basic form, the law is only useful to predict outcomes and casualties by attrition. It does not apply to whole armies, where tactical deployment means not all troops will be engaged all the time. It only works where each unit (soldier, ship, etc.) can kill only one equivalent unit at a time. For this reason, the law does not apply to machine guns, artillery with unguided munitions, or nuclear weapons. The law requires an assumption that casualties accumulate over time: it does not work in situations in which opposing troops kill each other instantly, either by shooting simultaneously or by one side getting off the first shot and inflicting multiple casualties.
Note that Lanchester's square law does not apply to technological force, only numerical force; so it requires an N-squared-fold increase in quality to compensate for an N-fold decrease in quantity.
Example equations: Suppose that two armies, Red and Blue, are engaging each other in combat. Red is shooting a continuous stream of bullets at Blue. Meanwhile, Blue is shooting a continuous stream of bullets at Red.
Let symbol A represent the number of soldiers in the Red force. Each one has offensive firepower α, which is the number of enemy soldiers it can incapacitate (e.g., kill or injure) per unit time. Likewise, Blue has B soldiers, each with offensive firepower β.
Lanchester's square law calculates the number of soldiers lost on each side using the following pair of equations. Here, dA/dt represents the rate at which the number of Red soldiers is changing at a particular instant. A negative value indicates the loss of soldiers. Similarly, dB/dt represents the rate of change of the number of Blue soldiers.
d
A
d
t
=
−
β
B
{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} A}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\beta B}
d
B
d
t
=
−
α
A
{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} B}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\alpha A}
The solution to these equations shows that:
If α=β, i.e. the two sides have equal firepower, the side with more soldiers at the beginning of the battle will win;
If A=B, i.e. the two sides have equal numbers of soldiers, the side with greater firepower will win;
If A>B and α>β, then Red will win, while if A<B and α<β, Blue will win;
If A>B but α<β, or A<B but α>β, the winning side will depend on whether the ratio of β/α is greater or less than the square of the ratio of A/B. Thus, if numbers and firepower are unequal in opposite directions, a superiority in firepower equal to the square of the inferiority in numbers is required for victory; or, to put it another way, the effectiveness of the army rises proportionate to the square of the number of people in it, but only linearly with their fighting ability.
The first three of these conclusions are obvious. The final one is the origin of the name "square law".
Relation to the salvo combat model: Lanchester's equations are related to the more recent salvo combat model equations, with two main differences.
First, Lanchester's original equations form a continuous time model, whereas the basic salvo equations form a discrete time model. In a gun battle, bullets or shells are typically fired in large quantities. Each round has a relatively low chance of hitting its target, and does a relatively small amount of damage. Therefore, Lanchester's equations model gunfire as a stream of firepower that continuously weakens the enemy force over time.
By comparison, cruise missiles typically are fired in relatively small quantities. Each one has a high probability of hitting its target, and carries a relatively powerful warhead. Therefore, it makes more sense to model them as a discrete pulse (or salvo) of firepower in a discrete time model.
Second, Lanchester's equations include only offensive firepower, whereas the salvo equations also include defensive firepower. Given their small size and large number, it is not practical to intercept bullets and shells in a gun battle. By comparison, cruise missiles can be intercepted (shot down) by surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft guns. So it is important to include such active defenses in a missile combat model.
Lanchester's law in use: Lanchester's laws have been used to model historical battles for research purposes. Examples include Pickett's Charge of Confederate infantry against Union infantry during the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, the 1940 Battle of Britain between the British and German air forces, and the Battle of Kursk.
In modern warfare, to take into account that to some extent both linear and the square apply often, an exponent of 1.5 is used.: 7-5–7-8 Lanchester's laws have also been used to model guerrilla warfare.
Attempts have been made to apply Lanchester's laws to conflicts between animal groups. Examples include tests with chimpanzees and ants. The chimpanzee application was relatively successful. A study of Australian meat ants and Argentine ants confirmed the square law, a study of fire ants did not confirm the square law.
Helmbold Parameters: The Helmbold Parameters provide quick, concise, exact numerical indices, soundly based on historical data, for comparing battles with respect to their bitterness and the degree to which side had the advantage. While their definition is modeled after a solution of the Lanchester Square Law's differential equations, their numerical values are based entirely on the initial and final strengths of the opponents and in no way depend upon the validity of Lanchester's Square Law as a model of attrition during the course of a battle. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | : 7-5–7-8 Lanchester's laws have also been used to model guerrilla warfare.
Attempts have been made to apply Lanchester's laws to conflicts between animal groups. Examples include tests with chimpanzees and ants. The chimpanzee application was relatively successful. A study of Australian meat ants and Argentine ants confirmed the square law, a study of fire ants did not confirm the square law.
Helmbold Parameters: The Helmbold Parameters provide quick, concise, exact numerical indices, soundly based on historical data, for comparing battles with respect to their bitterness and the degree to which side had the advantage. While their definition is modeled after a solution of the Lanchester Square Law's differential equations, their numerical values are based entirely on the initial and final strengths of the opponents and in no way depend upon the validity of Lanchester's Square Law as a model of attrition during the course of a battle.
The solution of Lanchester's Square Law used here can be written as:
a
(
t
)
=
cosh
(
λ
t
)
−
μ
sinh
(
λ
t
)
d
(
t
)
=
cosh
(
λ
t
)
−
μ
−
1
sinh
(
λ
t
)
ε
=
λ
T
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a(t)&=\cosh(\lambda t)-\mu \sinh(\lambda t)\\d(t)&=\cosh(\lambda t)-\mu ^{-1}\sinh(\lambda t)\\\varepsilon &=\lambda T\end{aligned}}}
where
t
{\displaystyle t}
is the time since the battle began,
a
(
t
)
{\displaystyle a(t)}
and
d
(
t
)
{\displaystyle d(t)}
are the surviving fractions of the attacker's and defender's forces at time
t
{\displaystyle t}
,
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
is the Helmbold intensity parameter,
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
is the Helmbold defender's advantage parameter,
T
{\displaystyle T}
is the duration of the battle, and
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is the Helmbold bitterness parameter.
If the initial and final strengths of the two sides are known it is possible to solve for the parameters
a
(
T
)
{\displaystyle a(T)}
,
d
(
T
)
{\displaystyle d(T)}
,
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
, and
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
. If the battle duration
T
{\displaystyle T}
is also known, then it is possible to solve for
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
.
If, as is normally the case,
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is small enough that the hyperbolic functions can, without any significant error, be replaced by their series expansion up to terms in the first power of
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
, and if we adopt the following abbreviations for the casualty fractions
F
A
=
1
−
a
(
T
)
F
D
=
1
−
d
(
T
)
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F_{A}&=1-a(T)\\F_{D}&=1-d(T)\end{aligned}}}
then the following approximate relations hold:
ε
=
F
A
F
D
μ
=
F
A
/
F
D
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon &={\sqrt {F_{A}F_{D}}}\\\mu &=F_{A}/F_{D}\end{aligned}}}
That
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is a kind of "average" (specifically, the geometric mean) of the casualty fractions justifies using it as an index of the bitterness of the battle.
We note here that for statistical work it is better to use the natural logarithms of the Helmbold Parameters. We will call them, in an obvious notation,
log
μ
{\displaystyle \log \mu }
,
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
, and
log
λ
{\displaystyle \log \lambda }
.
Major findings: See Helmbold (2021):
The Helmbold parameters
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
and
log
μ
{\displaystyle \log \mu }
are statistically independent, i.e., they measure distinct features of a battle.
The probability that the defender wins, P(Dwins), is related to the defender's advantage parameter via the logistic function, P(Dwins) = 1 / (1 + exp(-z)), with z = -0.1794 + 5.8694 * logmu. This logistic function is almost exactly skew-symmetric about logmu = 0, rising from P(Dwins) = 0.1 at logmu = -0.4, through P(DWins) = 0.5 at logmu = 0, to P(Dwins) = 0.9 at logmu = +0.4. Because the probability of victory depends on the Helmbold advantage parameter rather than the force ratio, it is clear that force ratio is an inferior and untrustworthy predictor of victory in battle.
While the defender's advantage varies widely from one battle to the next, on average it has been practically constant since 1600CE.
Most of the other battle parameters (specifically the initial force strengths, initial force ratios, casualty numbers, casualty exchange ratios, battle durations, and distances advanced by the attacker) have changed so slowly since 1600CE that only the most acute observers would be likely to notice any change over their nominal 50-year military career.
Bitterness (
log
ε
{\displaystyle \log \varepsilon }
), casualty fractions (
F
A
{\displaystyle F_{A}}
and
F
D
{\displaystyle F_{D}}
in the above notation), and intensity (
log
λ
{\displaystyle \log \lambda }
) also changed slowly before 1939CE. But since then they have followed a startlingly steeper declining curve.
Some observers have noticed a similar post-WWII decline in casualties at the level of wars instead of battles.
See also: Attrition warfare
Lotka–Volterra equations similar mathematical model for predator-prey dynamics
Maneuver warfare
Petrie multiplier similar mathematical model for sexism
Lewis Fry Richardson
Salvo combat model
References:
Bibliography: Czarnecki, Joseph. N-Squared Law: An Examination of one of the Mathematical Theories behind the Dreadnought Battleship Naval Weapons of the World
Dupuy, Col T N (1979). Numbers, Predictions and War. Macdonald and Jane's.
Helmbold, Robert L. (14 February 1961a). Lanchester Parameters for Some Battles of the Last Two Hundred Years. CORG Staff Paper CORG-SP-122.
Helmbold, Robert L. (1961b). "Lanchester's Equations, Historical Battles, and War Games". Proceedings of the Eighth Military Operations Research Society Symposium, 18–20 October 1961.
Helmbold, Robert L. (12 May 2021). The Key to Victory: Machine Learning the Lessons of History. ISBN 9781668525289.
Lanchester, Frederick W. (1916). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lanchester's laws | N-Squared Law: An Examination of one of the Mathematical Theories behind the Dreadnought Battleship Naval Weapons of the World
Dupuy, Col T N (1979). Numbers, Predictions and War. Macdonald and Jane's.
Helmbold, Robert L. (14 February 1961a). Lanchester Parameters for Some Battles of the Last Two Hundred Years. CORG Staff Paper CORG-SP-122.
Helmbold, Robert L. (1961b). "Lanchester's Equations, Historical Battles, and War Games". Proceedings of the Eighth Military Operations Research Society Symposium, 18–20 October 1961.
Helmbold, Robert L. (12 May 2021). The Key to Victory: Machine Learning the Lessons of History. ISBN 9781668525289.
Lanchester, Frederick W. (1916). Aircraft in Warfare.
Niall J. MacKay Lanchester combat models, Mathematics Today, 2006, Vol 42/5, pages 170–173.
External links: "Kicking Butt By the Numbers: Lanchester's Laws", a Designer's Notebook column by Ernest Adams in the Gamasutra webzine |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Land warfare | Land forces: Land forces include personnel, weapons platforms, vehicles, and support elements operating on land to accomplish assigned missions and tasks.
Infantry: Infantry are soldiers who fight primarily on foot with small arms in organized military units. However, they may be transported to the battlefield by ships, automobiles, skis, cargo planes, or other means.
Combat vehicles: Combat vehicles provide the means to mobilize heavy firepower to engage opposing forces including other combat vehicles. Combat vehicles are usually equipped to drive in rugged terrain. They are usually protected against other common threats with armor and other countermeasures.
Examples of combat vehicles include main battle tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and self-propelled artillery.
Artillery: Historically, artillery (from French artillerie) refers to any engine used for the discharge of projectiles during the war. The term also describes ground-based troops, who primarily manned such weapons. The word is derived from the Old French verb attilier, meaning "to equip".
This term includes coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships using their ability to deny access through the threat of coastal fire. It also includes land-based field artillery. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.
Combined arms: Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects, such as, self-propelled artillery, mechanized infantry, aircraft and so forth.
By landscape and climate: Arctic warfare
Desert warfare
Jungle warfare
Mountain warfare
Urban warfare
Notes:
Further reading: Christopher Tuck. Understanding Land Warfare. London–NY: Routledge, 2014. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | History: In the days of sail, the ship's boats were used as landing craft. These utility boats were sufficient, if inefficient, in an era when Marines were effectively light infantry, participating mostly in small-scale campaigns in far-flung colonies against less well-equipped indigenous opponents.
In order to support amphibious operations during the landing in Pisagua (1879) by carrying significant quantities of cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore, the Government of Chile built flat-bottomed landing craft, called Chalanas. They transported 1,200 men in the first landing and took on board 600 men in less than 2 hours for the second landing.: 40
Origins: During World War I, the mass mobilization of troops equipped with rapid-fire weapons quickly rendered such boats obsolete. Initial landings during the Gallipoli campaign took place in unmodified ship's boats that were extremely vulnerable to attack from the Turkish shore defenses.
In February 1915, orders were placed for the design of purpose built landing craft. A design was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 'X' Lighters with a spoon-shaped bow to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp.
The first use took place after they had been towed to the Aegean and performed successfully in the 6 August landing at Suvla Bay of IX Corps, commanded by Commander Edward Unwin.
'X' Lighters, known to the soldiers as 'Beetles', carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet 6 inches long, 21 feet wide, and 7 ft 6 inches deep (32.2 m × 6.4 m × 2.3 m deep). The engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at a speed of approximately 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph). The boats had bulletproof sides and a ramp at the bow for disembarkation. A plan was devised to land British heavy tanks from pontoons in support of the Third Battle of Ypres, but this was abandoned.
The Imperial Russian Navy soon followed suit, building a series of similar landing motor barges of the so-called Bolinder-class, named after the supplier of the diesels installed in them. These, however, proved too small and unseaworthy for their intended Black Sea theater — they were intended for the planned Marmara Sea landings. Instead, a new class was designed, based on the widespread pattern of the Black Sea merchant steamers. These were typically very light at the bow, having all their machinery concentrated at the stern, which allowed easy beaching on any gently sloping coast, and often were equipped with a bow ramp for fast unloading. This resulted in a 1300-ton, 1500 hp Elpidifor-class, named after the Rostov-on-Don merchant Elpidifor Paramonov, whose eponymous grain carrier served as a pattern on which they were based. With a 1.8 m loaded draft, and equipped with the ballast tanks and reinforced hull for safe beaching, they were able to land 1000 troops with their train at virtually any available beach. While the landings for which they were created never happened, the ships themselves turned out quite useful and had a long career, supporting the Caucasus Campaign and later as minesweepers, gunboats and utility transports.
Spain purchased 26-28 X-Lighters. During the Rif War, they were used in the Alhucemas landing, arguably the first major amphibious landing in which tanks were disembarked in large numbers.
During the inter-war period, the combination of the negative experience at Gallipoli and economic stringency contributed to the delay in procuring equipment and adopting a universal doctrine for amphibious operations in the Royal Navy.
Despite this outlook, the British produced the Motor Landing Craft in 1920, based on their experience with the early 'Beetle' armoured transport. The craft could put a medium tank directly onto a beach. From 1924, it was used with landing boats in annual exercises in amphibious landings. A prototype motor landing craft, designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes, was built and first sailed in 1926.: 11 It weighed 16 tons and had a box-like appearance, having a square bow and stern. To prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a crude waterjet propulsion system was devised by White's designers. A Hotchkiss petrol engine drove a centrifugal pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern, and steering it, according to how the jet was directed. Speed was 5-6 knots and its beaching capacity was good. By 1930, three MLC were operated by the Royal Navy.
The United States revived and experimented in their approach to amphibious warfare between 1913 and mid-1930s, when the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps became interested in setting up advanced bases in opposing countries during wartime; the prototype advanced base force officially evolved into the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) in 1933.
In 1939, during the annual Fleet Landing Exercises, the FMF became interested in the military potential of Andrew Higgins's design of a powered, shallow-draught boat. These LCPL, dubbed the 'Higgins Boats', were reviewed and passed by the U.S. Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair. Soon, the Higgins boats were developed to a final design with a ramp – the LCVP, and were produced in large numbers. The boat was a more flexible variant of the LCPR with a wider ramp. It could carry 36 troops, a small vehicle such as a jeep, or a corresponding amount of cargo.
Second World War:
Specialized infantry landing craft: In the run-up to WWII, many specialized landing craft, both for infantry and vehicles, were developed. At the start of World War II, the Japanese led the world in landing craft design.
The Daihatsu-class landing craft was lowered to disembark cargo upon riding up onto a beach. After reviewing photos of a Daihatsu landing craft, this was adopted by American landing craft designer Andrew Higgins in developing the Landing Craft, Personnel (Large) (LCP(L)) into the Landing Craft, Personnel (Ramped) (LCP(R)) and later the Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel (LCVP). However, the Daihatsu landing craft was more seaworthy than an LCVP due to its hull design. It was constructed of a metal hull and powered by a diesel engine. Victor Harold Krulak, a native of Denver, who joined the Marines after graduating from Annapolis in 1934, witnessed the Japanese use small vessels like the Daihatsu-class. In 1937, a lieutenant in an intelligence outfit during the 1937 Battle of Shanghai, when the Japanese were trying to conquer China, he used a telephoto lens to take pictures of Japanese landing craft with a square bow that became a retractable ramp, Krulak noted that the boats' droppable ramps enabled troops to quickly disembark from the bow, rather than having to clamber over the sides and splash into the surf. Envisioning those ramps as answering the Marines' needs in a looming world war, Lieutenant Krulak showed the photographs to his superiors, who passed on his report to Washington. But two years later, he found that the Navy had simply filed it away with a notation saying it was the work of “some nut out in China.” He persevered, building a balsa wood model of the Japanese boat design and discussing the retractable ramp concept with the New Orleans boat builder Andrew Higgins. That bow design became the basis for the thousands of Higgins landing craft of World War II. As according to Victor H. Krulak "the Japanese were light years ahead of us in landing craft design".
In November 1938, the British Inter-Service Training and Development Centre proposed a new type of landing craft. Its specifications were to weigh less than ten long tons, to be able to carry the thirty-one men of a British Army platoon and five assault engineers or signallers, and to be so shallow drafted as to be able to land them, wet only up to their knees, in eighteen inches of water. All of these specifications made the Landing Craft Assault; a separate set of requirements were laid down for a vehicle and supplies carrier, although previously the two roles had been combined in the Motor Landing Craft.
J. S. White of Cowes built a prototype to the Fleming design. Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the River Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite to those that make a craft suitable for beaching. The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal mahogany planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. DIHT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel, in this case Hadfield's Resista 1⁄4.
The Landing Craft Assault remained the most common British and Commonwealth landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the Royal Navy on D-Day. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US-UK nomenclature system. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the River Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite to those that make a craft suitable for beaching. The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal mahogany planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. DIHT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel, in this case Hadfield's Resista 1⁄4.
The Landing Craft Assault remained the most common British and Commonwealth landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the Royal Navy on D-Day. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US-UK nomenclature system.: 10
The Landing Craft Infantry was a stepped up amphibious assault ship, developed in response to a British request for a vessel capable of carrying and landing substantially more troops than the smaller Landing Craft Assault (LCA). The result was a small steel ship that could land 200 troops, traveling from rear bases on its own bottom at a speed of up to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The original British design was envisioned as being a "one time use" vessel which would simply ferry the troops across the English Channel, and were considered an expendable vessel. As such, no troop sleeping accommodations were placed in the original design. This was changed shortly after initial use of these ships, when it was discovered that many missions would require overnight accommodations.
The first LCI(L)s entered service in 1943 chiefly with the Royal Navy (RN) and United States Navy. Some 923 LCI were built in ten American shipyards and 211 provided under lend-lease to the Royal Navy.
Specialized vehicle landing craft: Following the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre 's (ISTDC) successful development of the infantry carrying LCA, attention turned to the means of efficiently delivering a tank to a beach in 1938. Enquiries were made of the army as to the heaviest tank that might be employed in a landing operation. The army wanted to be able to land a 12-ton tank, but the ISTDC, anticipating weight increases in future tank models specified 16 tons burthen for Mechanised Landing Craft designs. Another limit on any design was the need to land tanks and other vehicles in less than approximately 2+1⁄2 ft of water (0.76 m).
Design work began at John I. Thornycroft Ltd. in May 1938 with trials completing in February 1940. Constructed of steel and selectively clad with armour plate, this shallow-draft, barge-like boat with a crew of 6, could ferry a tank of 16 long tons to shore at 7 knots (13 km/h). Depending on the weight of the tank to be transported the craft might be lowered into the water by its davits already loaded or could have the tank placed in it after being lowered into the water.
Although the Royal Navy had the Landing Craft Mechanised at its disposal, in 1940 Prime Minister Winston Churchill demanded an amphibious vessel capable of landing at least three 36-ton heavy tanks directly onto a beach, able to sustain itself at sea for at least a week, and inexpensive and easy to build. Admiral Maund, Director of the Inter-Service Training and Development Centre (which had developed the Landing Craft Assault), gave the job to naval architect Sir Roland Baker, who within three days completed initial drawings for a 152-foot (46 m) landing craft with a 29-foot (8.8 m) beam and a shallow draft. Ship builders Fairfields and John Brown agreed to work out details for the design under the guidance of the Admiralty Experimental Works at Haslar. Tank tests with models soon determined the characteristics of the craft, indicating that it would make 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) on engines delivering about 700 hp (520 kW). Designated the LCT Mark 1, 20 were ordered in July 1940 and a further 10 in October 1940.
The first LCT Mark 1 was launched by Hawthorn Leslie in November 1940. It was an all-welded 372-ton steel-hulled vessel that drew only 3 feet (0.91 m) of water at the bow. Sea trials soon proved the Mark 1 to be difficult to handle and almost unmanageable in some sea conditions. The designers set about correcting the faults of the Mark 1 in the LCT Mark 2. It was longer and wider, with 15-and-20-pound (6.8 and 9.1 kg) armoured shielding added to the wheelhouse and gun tubs.
The Mark 3 had an additional 32-foot (9.8 m) midsection that gave it a length of 192 feet (59 m) and a displacement of 640 tons. Even with this extra weight, the vessel was slightly faster than the Mark 1. The Mk.3 was accepted on 8 April 1941. The Mark 4 was slightly shorter and lighter than the Mk.3, but had a much wider beam (38 ft 9 in (11.81 m)) and was intended for cross channel operations as opposed to seagoing use. When tested in early assault operations, like the ill-fated Allied raid on Dieppe in 1942, the lack of manoeuvring ability led to the preference for a shorter overall length in future variants, most of which were built in the United States.
When the United States entered the war in December 1941, the U.S. Navy had no amphibious vessels at all, and found itself obliged to consider British designs already in existence. One of these, advanced by K.C. Barnaby of Thornycroft, was for a double-ended LCT to work with landing ships. The Bureau of Ships quickly set about drawing up plans for landing craft based on Barnaby's suggestions, although with only one ramp. The result, in early 1942, was the LCT Mark 5, a 117-foot (36 m) craft that could accommodate five 30-ton or four 40-ton tanks or 150 tons of cargo. This 286-ton landing craft could be shipped to combat areas in three separate water-tight sections aboard a cargo ship or carried pre-assembled on the flat deck of a Landing Ship, Tank (LST). The Mk.5 would be launched by heeling the LST on its beam to let the craft slide off its chocks into the sea, or cargo ships could lower each of the three sections into the sea where they were joined together.
Development of Landing Ships: A further development was the Landing Ship, Tank designation, built to support amphibious operations by carrying significant quantities of vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore. The British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940 demonstrated to the Admiralty that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery of tanks and other vehicles in amphibious assaults upon the continent of Europe. The first purpose-built LST design was HMS Boxer. To carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (Boxer, Bruiser, and Thruster) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.
In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with the United States Navy's Bureau of Ships with regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building further Boxers in the US. During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded. The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMS Boxer at only 10 knots but had a similar load while drawing only 3 feet forward when beaching.
Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries, destroyer escorts, and assorted landing craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943.
Other:
Landing Craft Navigation (LCN): Nine-ton Landing Craft Navigation (LCN) were used by British "Combined Operations Assault Pilotage Parties" (Royal Marine and Special Boat Service crew) for surveying landing sites.
Landing Craft Control (LCC): The Landing Craft Control (LCC) were 56-foot (17 m) U.S. Navy vessels, carrying only the crew (Scouts and Raiders) and newly developed radar. Their main job was to find and follow the safe routes in to the beach, which were lanes that had been cleared of obstacles and mines. There were eight in the entire Normandy invasion (two per beach). After leading in the first wave, they were to head back out and bring in the second wave. After that, they were used as all-purpose command and control assets during the invasion.
Very small landing craft, or amphibians, were designed. The U.S.-designed Landing Vehicle Tracked, was an amphibious (and sometimes armored) personnel carrier. These were operated by Army personnel, not naval crews and had a capacity of about three tons. The British introduced their own amphibian, the Terrapin.
Landing Craft Utility (LCU): A Landing Craft Utility (LCU) was used to transport equipment and troops to the shore. It was capable of transporting tracked or wheeled vehicles and troops from amphibious assault ships to beachheads or piers.
The Landing Ship Dock (LSD) came as a result of a British requirement for a vessel that could carry large landing craft across the seas at speed. The first LSD came from a design by Sir Roland Baker and was an answer to the problem of launching small craft rapidly. The "Landing Ship Stern Chute", which was a converted train ferry, was an early attempt. Thirteen Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) could be launched from these ships down the chute. The Landing Ship Gantry was a converted tanker with a crane to transfer its cargo of landing craft from deck to sea—15 LCMs in a little over half an hour.
The design was developed and built in the US for the USN and the Royal Navy. The LSD could carry 36 LCM at 16 knots. It had a large open compartment at the back. Opening a stern door and flooding special compartments opened this area to the sea so that LCI-sized vessels could enter or leave. It took one and a half hours for the dock to be flooded down and two and half to pump it out. When flooded they could also be used as docks for repairs to small craft.
Due to their small size, most amphibious ships were not given names and were just given serial numbers, e.g., LCT 304. The LSTs were an exception to this, since they were similar in size to a small cruiser. In addition, three British-built LSTs were named: HMS Boxer, HMS Bruiser and HMS Thruster; these were all larger than the U.S. design and had proper funnels.
Special craft: It was soon realized that battleships, cruisers and destroyers could not necessarily provide all the fire support (including suppressive fire) that an amphibious assault might need. Therefore, specialized vessels were developed that incorporated various direct and indirect fire weapons. These included guns and rockets which could be mounted on landing craft and landing ships. As part of the final barrage before an assault, the landing area would be plastered by these types.
Amphibious landing craft of WWII were generally fitted out with minimal weaponry. LCA crews were issued with .303 inch Lewis Guns, which were mounted in a light machine gun shelter on the forward-port side of the craft; these could be used both as anti-aircraft protection and against shore targets. Later models were fitted with two 2-inch mortars, and two Lewis or .303 Bren light machine guns. LCM 1 crews were issued with Lewis guns, and many LCM 3s had .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns mounted for anti-aircraft protection. Opportunities for troops on board to use their own weapons presented themselves.
LCIs and LCTs carried heavier weapons, such as the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, on each side of the bridge structure. LSTs had a somewhat heavier armament.
Some landing craft were converted for special purposes either to provide defence for the other landing craft in the attack or as support weapons during the landing.
Landing Craft Assault (Hedgerow): The LCA(HR) was a converted British LCA. It carried a battery of 24 spigot mortars, the Royal Navy's Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon, instead of personnel. The mortars were fired as a barrage onto the beach to clear mines and other obstructions. Having discharged its mortars and its duty, the LCA(HR) would leave the beach area. They were towed to the beach by larger craft, such as the LCTs that carried the Royal Engineer assault teams with their specialist vehicles and equipment, who would complete the beach clearance.
Three flotillas (of 18, 18 and 9 craft) were used at Juno, Gold and Sword beaches.
Landing Craft Flak: The Landing Craft Flak (LCF) was a conversion of the LCT that was intended to give anti-aircraft support to the landing. They were first used in the Dieppe Raid early in 1942. The ramp was welded shut, and a deck built on top of the Tank deck. They were equipped with several light anti-aircraft guns—a typical fitting was eight 20 mm Oerlikons and four QF 2 pdr "pom-poms" and had a crew of 60. On British examples, the operation of the craft was the responsibility of RN crew and the guns were manned by Royal Marines. They carried two naval officers and two marine officers.
Landing Craft Gun: The Landing Craft Gun (LCG) was another LCT conversion intended to give supporting fire to the landing. Apart from the Oerlikon armament of a normal LCT, each LCG(Medium) had two British Army 25 pounder gun-howitzers in armoured mountings, while LCG(L)3 and LCG(L)4 both had two 4.7-inch naval guns (12 cm). Crewing was similar to the LCF. LCGs played a very important part in the Walcheren operations in October 1944.
Landing Craft Rocket: The Landing Craft Tank (Rocket), LCT(R), was an LCT modified to carry a large set of launchers for the British RP-3 "60 lb" rockets mounted on the covered-over tank deck. The full set of launchers was "in excess of" 1,000 and 5,000 reloads were kept below. The firepower was claimed to be equivalent to 80 light cruisers or 200 destroyers.
The method of operation was to anchor off the target beach, pointing towards the shore. The distance to the shore was then measured by radar and the elevation of the launchers set accordingly. The crew then vanished below (apart from the commanding officer who retreated to a special cubby hole to control things) and the launch was then set off electrically. The launch could comprise the entire set or individual ranks of rockets.
A full reload was a very labor-intensive operation and at least one LCT(R) went alongside a cruiser and got a working party from the larger ship to assist in the process.
Landing Craft Support: The Landing Craft Support was used to give some firepower close in.
The Landing Craft Support (Medium) (LCS(M)), Mark 2 and Mark 3 were used by the British forces at Normandy. The crew was Royal Navy, with Royal Marines to operate the weapons: two 0.5 inch Vickers machine guns and a 4-inch mortar to fire smoke shells.
The Fairmile H Landing Craft Support (Large) had armour added to its wooden hull and a turret with an anti-tank gun fitted. The LCS(L) Mark 1 had a Daimler armoured car turret with its QF 2–pdr (40 mm) gun. The Mark 2 had a QF 6–pdr (57 mm) anti–tank gun.
The American Landing Craft Support was larger, each was armed with a 3-inch gun (7.6 cm), various smaller guns, and ten MK7 rocket launchers.
Inflatable landing craft: Inflatable boats were often used to transport amphibious troops from high speed transports and submarines. The United States used a 7-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Small) (LCR-S) and a 10-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Large) (LCR-L). |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | The Fairmile H Landing Craft Support (Large) had armour added to its wooden hull and a turret with an anti-tank gun fitted. The LCS(L) Mark 1 had a Daimler armoured car turret with its QF 2–pdr (40 mm) gun. The Mark 2 had a QF 6–pdr (57 mm) anti–tank gun.
The American Landing Craft Support was larger, each was armed with a 3-inch gun (7.6 cm), various smaller guns, and ten MK7 rocket launchers.
Inflatable landing craft: Inflatable boats were often used to transport amphibious troops from high speed transports and submarines. The United States used a 7-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Small) (LCR-S) and a 10-man Landing Craft, Rubber (Large) (LCR-L).
The first and last instances of the large use of rubber boats in amphibious operations in World War II were the Makin Island raid in 1942 and the landing of the 1st Battalion 6th Marines Battle of Tarawa in 1943 where the Battalion commander Major William K. Jones was nicknamed "Admiral of the Condom Fleet".
Landing Craft Group and wartime training: After Pearl Harbor, the U.S. Army and Navy began intense planning for the transport of millions of men into combat and the training for amphibious operations. By June 1942, Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet (AFAF) established headquarters at Norfolk (Virginia) under the command of Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt. Temporary headquarters for a transport command were set up in an old American Export Line transport ship that had been built for the Army in World War I.: 66–67 Within the transport command, a Landing Craft Group was created to prepare the crews of landing ships.
"The training of landing craft crews under the direction of Captain W.P.O. Clarke began at the end of June 1942," according to Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison. Clarke was given orders to "secure, organize, and train crews for approximately 1,800 landing craft" including LSTs and LCIs, which at that time were still in the design phase.: 70
To man and support such landing craft, the Navy ordered that 30,000 men and 3,000 officers be trained in a matter of months, but initially the Landing Craft Group consisted only of Capt. Clarke, two officers and a yeoman. In creating training programs, Clarke studied blueprints for the new craft and "from these paper drawings he prepared ship's organizations for each type. This was the first textbook for crews assigned to the large landing craft. From this, they were to be trained in what their duties were to be, what the ship would be like, and how it would be expected to operate.": 67
In August 1942, Capt. Clarke was told about Operation Torch and secret plans to invade North Africa the following November. He had only a few months to train thousands of men, most of whom were just out of indoctrination school. "They were the butchers, the bakers, and the light bulb makers of American youth. War was new to them, and organized Navy life was strange," observed Lt. Eric Burton, a Naval officer who wrote By Sea and by Land, a semi-official account published during the War about amphibious combat.
Capt. Clarke created hydrographic, maintenance, medical, and communications training programs, and a section to train Army shore parties how to unload landing craft. He set up a training facility at Solomons Island, and held exercises on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay around the clock, day and night.
On 1 September 1942, the Amphibious Force and its Landing Craft Group rented the Nansemond Hotel, a popular resort hotel on Virginia Beach near Norfolk, to use as a headquarters building. Eventually, 40 major amphibious operations would be planned at the old hotel. For several weeks, Gen. George S. Patton worked on plans for the invasion of North Africa out of the Nansemond.
"Captain Clarke had less than two months, about one-third of what had been considered the minimum, to train these men to conduct night ship-to-shore landings," wrote Samuel Eliot Morison about the preparations for Operation Torch. "Considering the time limitations, his performance was remarkable." Clarke was awarded the Legion of Merit for the accomplishment. According to the Presidential citation, he and the Landing Craft Group "brought these ships and craft to a high state of readiness for combat operations in all subsequent major amphibious operations in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean theatres.
Early Cold War developments: Despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation.
The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956 (the Suez War). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a battalion-sized airborne assault was made. Two of the other carriers involved, HMS Bulwark and HMS Albion, were converted in the late 1950s into dedicated "commando carriers".
The US Navy built five Iwo Jima-class landing platform helicopter vessels in the 1950s and 1960s, and various converted fleet and escort carriers for the purpose of providing a helicopter amphibious assault capability. The first of the type envisaged was the escort carrier USS Block Island, which never actually saw service as an amphibious assault ship. Delays in the construction of the Iwo Jima class saw other conversions made as a stopgap measure; three Essex-class aircraft carriers (Boxer, Princeton, and Valley Forge) and one Casablanca-class escort carrier (Thetis Bay) were converted into Boxer and Thetis Bay class amphibious assault vessels. Helicopter amphibious assault techniques were developed further by American forces in the Vietnam War and refined during training exercises.
Current landing craft:
Amphibious mechanized utility and landing craft: Mechanized utility and landing craft were the kind used during the second world war and, while the mechanized landing craft of today are similar in construction, many improvements have been made. For example, landing craft (such as the LCM-8 of the US Navy) are capable of a military lift of 183 metric tons (180 long tons) at a speed of 22 km/h (14 mph), carrying even heavy equipment, such as M1 Abrams tanks. Landing craft can mount several machine guns or similar weapons for the defense of troops and/or vehicle crews inside.
Air-cushioned landing craft: The air-cushioned landing craft (Landing Craft Air Cushion, or LCAC in the US Navy) is based on small to mid-sized multi-purpose hovercraft, Also known as "over the beach" ("OTB") craft, they allow troops and material to access more than 70 percent of the world's coastline, while only approximately 15 percent of that coastline is available to conventional landing craft. Like the mechanized landing craft, they are usually equipped with mounted machine guns, although they also support grenade launchers and heavy weapons. These vehicles are commonly used in the United States Navy, the Royal Navy, the Russian Navy, and the Hellenic Navy.
Landing barges: Landing barges were adaptations of British Thames barges and lighters as landing craft. In size, they came between the landing craft and landing ships. They were used at all beaches during the landings at Normandy and were manned by British crews.
Some were fitted with engines, while others were towed to the beach. They were used for defence, transportation, supply (food, water and oil) and repair (fitted out with workshops).
Those fitted for vehicle carrying had a ramp fitted in place at the rear and they had to back onto beaches. They would work from ships and coasters to the shore and back.
Two flotillas were made up of "flak barges" to provide defence of the beaches. Like landing craft, flak barges carried A/A guns: two 40 mm Bofors and two 20 mm Oerlikon, with army gunners and naval crew.
The Landing Barge, Kitchen (LBK) was fitted with a large superstructure containing the galley. With a crew of 20 plus, they could carry food for 800 for a week and provide 1,600 hot and 800 cold meals a day, including freshly baked bread.
See also: Balikpapan-class landing craft heavy
LCM-1E
Mark 8 Landing Craft Tank
Ramped craft logistic
Notes:
References: Navy Fact File: Landing Craft, Air Cushioned Archived 21 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Assn. (usslci.com)
NavSource.org Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Data and Photo Index
USS Rankin (AKA-103): Her Landing Craft
Hersey, John. "U.S.S. LCI 226". Life, March 27, 1944, pp. 53–61. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Landing craft | With a crew of 20 plus, they could carry food for 800 for a week and provide 1,600 hot and 800 cold meals a day, including freshly baked bread.
See also: Balikpapan-class landing craft heavy
LCM-1E
Mark 8 Landing Craft Tank
Ramped craft logistic
Notes:
References: Navy Fact File: Landing Craft, Air Cushioned Archived 21 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Assn. (usslci.com)
NavSource.org Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) Data and Photo Index
USS Rankin (AKA-103): Her Landing Craft
Hersey, John. "U.S.S. LCI 226". Life, March 27, 1944, pp. 53–61.
US Navy, ONI 226, Allied Landing Craft and Ships, April 1944
External links:
Recollections of veterans who served on WW2 landing craft at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 May 2020) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law enforcement | History: Law enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China, paqūdus in Babylonia, curaca in the Inca Empire, vigiles in the Roman Empire, and Medjay in ancient Egypt. Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on the civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically enslaved people, soldiers, officers of a judge, or hired by settlements and households. Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers, firefighters, watchmen, city guards, and bodyguards.
By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages, forces such as the Santa Hermandades, the shurta, and the Maréchaussée provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection. In England, a complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings, groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings ("hundreds") were overseen by a reeve; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves. In feudal Japan, samurai were responsible for enforcing laws.
The concept of police as the primary law enforcement organization originated in Europe in the early modern period; the first statutory police force was the High Constables of Edinburgh in 1611, while the first organized police force was the Paris lieutenant général de police in 1667. Until the 18th century, law enforcement in England was mostly the responsibility of private citizens and thief-takers, albeit also including constables and watchmen. This system gradually shifted to government control following the 1749 establishment of the London Bow Street Runners, the first formal police force in Britain. In 1800, Napoleon reorganized French law enforcement to form the Paris Police Prefecture; the British government passed the Glasgow Police Act, establishing the City of Glasgow Police; and the Thames River Police was formed in England to combat theft on the River Thames. In September 1829, Robert Peel merged the Bow Street Runners and the Thames River Police to form the Metropolitan Police. The title of the "first modern police force" has still been claimed by the modern successors to these organizations.
Following European colonization of the Americas, the first law enforcement agencies in the Thirteen Colonies were the New York Sheriff's Office and the Albany County Sheriff's Department, both formed in the 1660s in the Province of New York. The Province of Carolina established slave-catcher patrols in the 1700s, and by 1785, the Charleston Guard and Watch was reported to have the duties and organization of a modern police force. The first municipal police department in the United States was the Philadelphia Police Department, while the first American state police, federal law enforcement agency was the United States Marshals Service, both formed in 1789. In the American frontier, law enforcement was the responsibility of county sheriffs, rangers, constables, and marshals. The first law enforcement agency in Canada was the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary, established in 1729, while the first Canadian national law enforcement agency was the Dominion Police, established in 1868. By the 19th century, improvements in technology, greater global connections, and changes in the sociopolitical order led to the establishment of police forces worldwide. National, regional, and municipal civilian law enforcement agencies exist in practically all countries; to promote their international cooperation, the International Criminal Police Organization, also known as Interpol, was formed in September 1923. Technology has made an immense impact on law enforcement, leading to the development and regular use of police cars, police radio systems, police aviation, police tactical units, and police body cameras.
Law enforcement agencies: Most law enforcement is conducted by some law enforcement agency, typically a police force. Civilians generally staff police agencies, which are typically not a military branch. However, some militaries do have branches that enforce laws among the civilian populace, often called gendarmerie, security forces, or internal troops. Social investment in enforcement through such organizations can be massive in terms of the resources invested in the activity and the number of people professionally engaged to perform those functions.
Law enforcement agencies are limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction. These are typically organized into three basic levels: national, regional, and municipal. However, depending on certain factors, there may be more or less levels, or they may be merged: in the United States, there are federal, state, and local police and sheriff agencies; in Canada, some territories may only have national-level law enforcement, while some provinces have national, provincial, and municipal; in Japan, there is a national police agency, which supervises the police agencies for each individual prefecture; and in Niger, there is a national police for urban areas and a gendarmerie for rural areas, both technically national-level. In some cases, there may be multiple agencies at the same level but with different focuses: for example, in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are both national-level federal law enforcement agencies, but the DEA focuses on narcotics crimes, while the ATF focuses on weapon regulation violations.
Various segments of society may have their own specialist law enforcement agency, such as the military having military police, schools having school police or campus police, or airports having airport police. Private police may exist in some jurisdictions, often to provide dedicated law enforcement for privately-owned property or infrastructure, such as railroad police for private railways or hospital police for privately-owned hospital campuses.
Depending on various factors, such as whether an agency is autonomous or dependent on other organizations for its operations, the governing body that funds and oversees the agency may decide to dissolve or consolidate its operations. Dissolution of an agency may occur when the governing body or the agent itself decides to end operations. This can occur due to multiple reasons, including criminal justice reform, a lack of population in the jurisdiction, mass resignations, efforts to deter corruption, or the governing body contracting with a different agency that renders the original agency redundant or obsolete. According to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, agency consolidation can occur to improve efficiency, consolidate resources, or when forming a new type of government.
See also: Outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area
Law enforcement by country
Vigilantism
Criminal law
Parking enforcement officer
References:
== External links == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | Early sources and history: The first traces of a law of war come from the Babylonians. It is the Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon, which in 1750 B.C., explains its laws imposing a code of conduct in the event of war: I prescribe these laws so that the strong do not oppress the weak. In ancient India, the Mahabharata and the texts of Manou's law urged mercy on unarmed or wounded enemies. The Bible and the Qur'an also contain rules of respect for the adversary. It is always a matter of establishing rules that protect civilians and the defeated.
Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, and other agents in war and to mitigate the worst effects of war have a long history. The earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Old Testament (Torah). In the Indian subcontinent, the Mahabharata describes a discussion between ruling brothers concerning what constitutes acceptable behavior on a battlefield, an early example of the rule of proportionality:
One should not attack chariots with cavalry; chariot warriors should attack chariots. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to scare him nor to defeat him ... War should be waged for the sake of conquest; one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him.
An example from the Book of Deuteronomy 20:19–20 limits the amount of environmental damage, allowing only the cutting down of non-fruitful trees for use in the siege operation, while fruitful trees should be preserved for use as a food source. Similarly, Deuteronomy 21:10–14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the victors of a war, then not desired anymore, be let go wherever they want, and requires them not to be treated as slaves nor be sold for money.
In the early 7th century, the first Sunni Muslim caliph, Abu Bakr, whilst instructing his Muslim army, laid down rules against the mutilation of corpses, killing children, females and the elderly. He also laid down rules against environmental harm to trees and slaying of the enemy's animals:
Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.
In the history of the early Christian church, many Christian writers considered that Christians could not be soldiers or fight wars. Augustine of Hippo contradicted this and wrote about 'just war' doctrine, in which he explained the circumstances when war could or could not be morally justified.
In 697, Adomnan of Iona gathered Kings and church leaders from around Ireland and Scotland to Birr, where he gave them the 'Law of the Innocents', which banned killing women and children in war, and the destruction of churches.
Apart from chivalry in medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war, reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse to restrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants continued with Hugo Grotius and his attempts to write laws of war.
Modern sources: The modern law of war is made up from three principal sources:
Lawmaking treaties (or conventions)—see § International treaties on the laws of war below.
Custom. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties, which can refer to the continuing importance of customary law as articulated by the Martens Clause. Such customary international law is established by the general practice of nations together with their acceptance that such practice is required by law.
General Principles. "Certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance. For instance, the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity, all of which are part of customary international law, always apply to the use of armed force."
Positive international humanitarian law consists of treaties (international agreements) that directly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations and achieving widespread consent.
The opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. These laws define both the permissive rights of states as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories.
The Treaty of Armistice and Regularization of War signed on November 25 and 26, 1820 between the president of the Republic of Colombia, Simón Bolívar and the Chief of the Military Forces of the Spanish Kingdom, Pablo Morillo, is the precursor of the International Humanitarian Law. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed and ratified by the United States and Mexico in 1848, articulates rules for any future wars, including protection of civilians and treatment of prisoners of war. The Lieber Code, promulgated by the Union during the American Civil War, was critical in the development of the laws of land warfare.
Historian Geoffrey Best called the period from 1856 to 1909 the law of war's "epoch of highest repute." The defining aspect of this period was the establishment, by states, of a positive legal or legislative foundation (i.e., written) superseding a regime based primarily on religion, chivalry, and customs. It is during this "modern" era that the international conference became the forum for debate and agreement between states and the "multilateral treaty" served as the positive mechanism for codification.
The Nuremberg War Trial judgment on "The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity" held, under the guidelines Nuremberg Principles, that treaties like the Hague Convention of 1907, having been widely accepted by "all civilised nations" for about half a century, were by then part of the customary laws of war and binding on all parties whether the party was a signatory to the specific treaty or not.
Interpretations of international humanitarian law change over time and this also affects the laws of war. For example, Carla Del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia pointed out in 2001 that although there is no specific treaty ban on the use of depleted uranium projectiles, there is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the effect of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there may be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violates general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. This is because in the future it may be the consensus view that depleted uranium projectiles breach one or more of the following treaties: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations, the Genocide Convention, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I, the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, the Chemical Weapons Convention, and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.
Purposes of the laws: It has often been commented that creating laws for something as inherently lawless as war seems like a lesson in absurdity. But based on the adherence to what amounted to customary international humanitarian law by warring parties through the ages, it was believed by many, especially after the eighteenth century, that codifying laws of war would be beneficial.
Some of the central principles underlying laws of war are:
Wars should be limited to achieving the political goals that started the war (e.g., territorial control) and should not include unnecessary destruction.
Wars should be brought to an end as quickly as possible.
People and property that do not contribute to the war effort should be protected against unnecessary destruction and hardship.
To this end, laws of war are intended to mitigate the hardships of war by:
Protecting both combatants and protected non-combatants from unnecessary suffering.
Safeguarding certain fundamental human rights of protected persons who fall into the hands of the enemy, particularly prisoners of war, the wounded and sick, children, and protected civilians.
Facilitating the restoration of peace.
The idea that there is a right to war concerns, on the one hand, the jus ad bellum, the right to make war or to enter war, assuming a motive such as to defend oneself from a threat or danger, presupposes a declaration of war that warns the adversary: war is a loyal act, and on the other hand, jus in bello, the law of war, the way of making war, which involves behaving as soldiers invested with a mission for which all violence is not allowed. In any case, the very idea of a right to war is based on an idea of war that can be defined as an armed conflict, limited in space, limited in time, and by its objectives. War begins with a declaration (of war), ends with a treaty (of peace) or surrender agreement, an act of sharing, etc.
Principles of the laws of war: Military necessity, along with distinction, proportionality, humanity (sometimes called unnecessary suffering), and honor (sometimes called chivalry) are the five most commonly cited principles of international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | In any case, the very idea of a right to war is based on an idea of war that can be defined as an armed conflict, limited in space, limited in time, and by its objectives. War begins with a declaration (of war), ends with a treaty (of peace) or surrender agreement, an act of sharing, etc.
Principles of the laws of war: Military necessity, along with distinction, proportionality, humanity (sometimes called unnecessary suffering), and honor (sometimes called chivalry) are the five most commonly cited principles of international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict.
Military necessity is governed by several constraints: an attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective, and the harm caused to protected civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.
Distinction is a principle under international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict, whereby belligerents must distinguish between combatants and protected civilians.
Proportionality is a principle under international humanitarian law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict, whereby belligerents must make sure that the harm caused to protected civilians or civilian property is not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage expected by an attack on a legitimate military objective. However, as Robbie Sabel, Professor of international law at the Hebrew University, who has written on this topic, notes: “Anyone with experience in armed conflict knows that you want to hit the enemy’s forces harder than they hit you… if you are attacked with a rifle, there is no rule that stipulates that you can only shoot back with a rifle, but using a machine gun would not be fair, or that if you are attacked with only one tank you cannot shoot back with two.”
Humanity is a principle based on the 1907 Hague Convention IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land restrictions against using arms, projectiles, or materials calculated to cause suffering or injury manifestly disproportionate to the military advantage realized by the use of the weapon for legitimate military purposes. In some countries, weapons are reviewed prior to their use in combat to determine if they comply with the law of war and are not designed to cause unnecessary suffering when used in their intended manner. This principle also prohibits using an otherwise lawful weapon in a manner that causes unnecessary suffering.
Honour is a principle that demands a certain amount of fairness and mutual respect between adversaries. Parties to a conflict must accept that their right to adopt means of injuring each other is not unlimited, they must refrain from taking advantage of the adversary's adherence to the law by falsely claiming the law's protections, and they must recognize that they are members of a common profession that fights not out of personal hostility but on behalf of their respective States.
Example substantive laws of war: To fulfill the purposes noted above, the laws of war place substantive limits on the lawful exercise of a belligerent's power. Generally speaking, the laws require that belligerents refrain from employing violence that is not reasonably necessary for military purposes and that belligerents conduct hostilities with regard for the principles of humanity and chivalry.
However, because the laws of war are based on consensus (as the nature of international law often relies on self-policing by individual states), the content and interpretation of such laws are extensive, contested, and ever-changing.
The following are particular examples of some of the substance of the laws of war, as those laws are interpreted today.
Declaration of war: Section III of the Hague Convention of 1907 required hostilities to be preceded by a reasoned declaration of war or by an ultimatum with a conditional declaration of war.
Some treaties, notably the United Nations Charter (1945) Article 2, and other articles in the Charter, seek to curtail the right of member states to declare war; as does the older Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928 for those nations who ratified it.See certified true copy of the text of the treaty in League of Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 94, p. 57 (No. 2137).
Lawful conduct of belligerent actors: Modern laws of war regarding conduct during war (jus in bello), such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions, provide that it is unlawful for belligerents to engage in combat without meeting certain requirements. Article 4(a)(2) of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War recognizes Lawful Combatants by the following characteristics:
(a) That of being commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates;
(b) That of having a fixed distinctive sign recognizable at a distance;
(c) That of carrying arms openly; and
(d) That of conducting their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
Impersonating enemy combatants by wearing the enemy's uniform is possibly allowed, however the issue is unsettled. Fighting in that uniform is unlawful perfidy, as is the taking of hostages.
Combatants also must be commanded by a responsible officer. That is, a commander can be held liable in a court of law for the improper actions of their subordinates. There is an exception to this if the war came on so suddenly that there was no time to organize a resistance, e.g. as a result of a foreign occupation.
People parachuting from an aircraft in distress: Modern laws of war, specifically within Protocol I additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, prohibits attacking people parachuting from an aircraft in distress regardless of what territory they are over. Once they land in territory controlled by the enemy, they must be given an opportunity to surrender before being attacked unless it is apparent that they are engaging in a hostile act or attempting to escape. This prohibition does not apply to the dropping of airborne troops, special forces, commandos, spies, saboteurs, liaison officers, and intelligence agents. Thus, such personnel descending by parachutes are legitimate targets and, therefore, may be attacked, even if their aircraft is in distress.
Red Cross, Red Crescent, Magen David Adom, and the white flag: Modern laws of war, such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions, also include prohibitions on attacking doctors, ambulances or hospital ships displaying a Red Cross, a Red Crescent, Magen David Adom, Red Crystal, or other emblem related to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. It is also prohibited to fire at a person or vehicle bearing a white flag, since that indicates an intent to surrender or a desire to communicate.
In either case, people protected by the Red Cross/Crescent/Star or white flag are expected to maintain neutrality, and may not engage in warlike acts. In fact, engaging in war activities under a protected symbol is itself a violation of the laws of war known as perfidy. Failure to follow these requirements can result in the loss of protected status and make the individual violating the requirements a lawful target.
Applicability to states and individuals: The law of war is binding not only upon states as such but also upon individuals and, in particular, the members of their armed forces. Parties are bound by the laws of war to the extent that such compliance does not interfere with achieving legitimate military goals. For example, they are obliged to make every effort to avoid damaging people and property not involved in combat or the war effort, but they are not guilty of a war crime if a bomb mistakenly or incidentally hits a residential area.
By the same token, combatants that intentionally use protected people or property as human shields or camouflage are guilty of violations of the laws of war and are responsible for damage to those that should be protected.
Mercenaries: The use of contracted combatants in warfare has been an especially tricky situation for the laws of war. Some scholars claim that private security contractors appear so similar to state forces that it is unclear if acts of war are taking place by private or public agents. International law has yet to come to a consensus on this issue.
Remedies for violations: During conflict, punishment for violating the laws of war may consist of a specific, deliberate and limited violation of the laws of war in reprisal.
After a conflict ends, persons who have committed or ordered any breach of the laws of war, especially atrocities, may be held individually accountable for war crimes. Also, nations that signed the Geneva Conventions are required to search for, try and punish, anyone who had committed or ordered certain "grave breaches" of the laws of war. (Third Geneva Convention, Article 129 and Article 130.)
Combatants who break specific provisions of the laws of war are termed unlawful combatants. Unlawful combatants who have been captured may lose the status and protections that would otherwise be afforded to them as prisoners of war, but only after a "competent tribunal" has determined that they are not eligible for POW status (e.g., Third Geneva Convention, Article 5.) At that point, an unlawful combatant may be interrogated, tried, imprisoned, and even executed for their violation of the laws of war pursuant to the domestic law of their captor, but they are still entitled to certain additional protections, including that they be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial." (Fourth Geneva Convention Article 5.)
International treaties on the laws of war: List of declarations, conventions, treaties, and judgments on the laws of war:
1856 Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law abolished privateering.
1863 United States military adopts the Lieber Code, a compilation of extant international norms on the treatment of civilians assembled by German scholar Franz Lieber. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | At that point, an unlawful combatant may be interrogated, tried, imprisoned, and even executed for their violation of the laws of war pursuant to the domestic law of their captor, but they are still entitled to certain additional protections, including that they be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial." (Fourth Geneva Convention Article 5.)
International treaties on the laws of war: List of declarations, conventions, treaties, and judgments on the laws of war:
1856 Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law abolished privateering.
1863 United States military adopts the Lieber Code, a compilation of extant international norms on the treatment of civilians assembled by German scholar Franz Lieber.
1864 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field.
1868 St. Petersburg Declaration, officially the Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight, renounced the usage of explosive projectiles with a mass of less than 400 grams.
1874 Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War (Brussels Declaration). Signed in Brussels 27 August. This agreement never entered into force, but formed part of the basis for the codification of the laws of war at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference.
1880 Manual of the Laws and Customs of War at Oxford. At its session in Geneva in 1874 the Institute of International Law appointed a committee to study the Brussels Declaration of the same year and to submit to the Institute its opinion and supplementary proposals on the subject. The work of the Institute led to the adoption of the Manual in 1880 and it went on to form part of the basis for the codification of the laws of war at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference.
1899 Hague Conventions consisted of three main sections and three additional declarations:
I – Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II – Laws and Customs of War on Land
III – Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864
Declaration I – On the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
Declaration II – On the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases
Declaration III – On the Use of Bullets Which Expand or Flatten Easily in the Human Body
1907 Hague Conventions had thirteen sections, of which twelve were ratified and entered into force, and two declarations:
I – The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II – The Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debts
III – The Opening of Hostilities
IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land
V – The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land
VI – The Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities
VII – The Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-ships
VIII – The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines
IX – Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War
X – Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention
XI – Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War
XII – The Creation of an International Prize Court [Not Ratified]*
XIII – The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War
Declaration I – extending Declaration II from the 1899 Conference to other types of aircraft
Declaration II – on the obligatory arbitration
1909 London Declaration concerning the Laws of Naval War largely reiterated existing law, although it showed greater regard to the rights of neutral entities. Never went into effect.
1922 The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty (6 February)
1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare. Never adopted in a legally binding form.
1925 Geneva protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare.
1927–1930 Greco-German arbitration tribunal
1928 General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy (also known as the Pact of Paris or Kellogg-Briand Pact)
1929 Geneva Convention, Relative to the treatment of prisoners of war.
1929 Geneva Convention on the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field,
1930 Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament (22 April)
1935 Roerich Pact
1936 Second London Naval Treaty (25 March)
1938 Amsterdam Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War. (Officially the Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War. Amsterdam, 1938). This convention was never ratified.
1938 League of Nations declaration for the "Protection of Civilian Populations Against Bombing From the Air in Case of War
1945 United Nations Charter (entered into force on October 24, 1945)
1946 Judgment of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
1947 Nuremberg Principles formulated under UN General Assembly Resolution 177, 21 November 1947
1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
1949 Geneva Conventions
Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field
Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea
Geneva Convention III Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War
Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
1971 Zagreb Resolution of the Institute of International Law on Conditions of Application of Humanitarian Rules of Armed Conflict to Hostilities in which the United Nations Forces May be Engaged
1974 United Nations Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict
1977 United Nations Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
1977 Geneva Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts
1977 Geneva Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts
1978 Red Cross Fundamental Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts
1980 United Nations Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (CCW)
1980 Protocol I on Non-Detectable Fragments
1980 Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices
1980 Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons
1995 Protocol IV on Blinding Laser Weapons
1996 Amended Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices
Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention), 28 November 2003 (entered into force 12 November 2006)
1994 San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea
1994 ICRC/UNGA Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict
1994 UN Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel.
1996 The International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons
1997 Ottawa Treaty - Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction
1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (entered into force 1 July 2002)
2000 Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (entered into force 12 February 2002)
2005 Geneva Protocol III Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem
2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions (entered into force 1 August 2010)
2017 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (entered into force 22 January 2021)
See also:
Notes:
References:
Citations:
General sources: Greenberg, Joel (2011), "Illegal Targeting of Civilians", www.crimesofwar.org, archived from the original on 2013-07-06, retrieved 4 July 2013
Johnson, James Turner (198), Just War Tradition and the Restraint of War: A Moral and Historical Inquiry, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
Lamb, A. (2013), Ethics and the Laws of War: The moral justification of legal norms, Routledge
Moreno-Ocampo, Luis (9 February 2006), OTP letter to senders re Iraq (PDF), International Criminal Court
Moseley, Alex (2009), "Just War Theory", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Roberts, Adam; Guelff, Richard, eds. (2000), Documents on the Laws of War (Third ed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Law of war | (2013), Ethics and the Laws of War: The moral justification of legal norms, Routledge
Moreno-Ocampo, Luis (9 February 2006), OTP letter to senders re Iraq (PDF), International Criminal Court
Moseley, Alex (2009), "Just War Theory", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Roberts, Adam; Guelff, Richard, eds. (2000), Documents on the Laws of War (Third ed.), Oxford University press, ISBN 978-0-19-876390-1
Texts and commentaries of 1949 Geneva Conventions & Additional Protocols
Walzer, Michael (1997), Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (2nd ed.), New York: Basic Books, archived from the original on 2011-09-10
Further reading: Witt, John Fabian. Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History (Free Press; 2012) 498 pages; on the evolution and legacy of a code commissioned by President Lincoln in the Civil War
External links: War & law index Archived 2014-08-15 at the Wayback Machine—International Committee of the Red Cross website
International Law of War Association
The European Institute for International Law and International Relations
The Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project
Law of War Manual, U.S. Department of Defense (2015, updated December 2016) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Light infantry | History:
Ancient history: The concept of a skirmishing screen is a very old one and was already well-established in Ancient Greece and Roman times in the form, for example, of the Greek peltast and psiloi, and the Roman velites. As with the so-called "light infantry" of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the same time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in open order as skirmishers that made them light infantry and that hoplites fought in the battle line in a phalanx formation that made them heavy infantry.
Modern history: Early regular armies of the modern era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In particular, the French Army employed detachments of German and Balkan mercenaries to serve as patrols in the rough country until a permanent corps of Mountain Fusiliers (Fusiliers des Montagnes) was raised in the 1740s. In the 17th century, dragoons were sometimes employed as the skirmishers of their day, as mounted infantrymen who rode into battle but dismounted to fight, giving them a mobility lacking to regular foot soldiers.
In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a light company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more agile men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the ordinary infantry but often in widely dispersed groups, necessitating an understanding of skirmish warfare. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary and would fight ahead of the mainline to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position.
During the period 1777–1781, the Continental Army of the United States adopted the British Army practice of seasonally drafting light infantry regiments as temporary units during active field operations, by combining existing light infantry companies detached from their parent regiments.
Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and wore rifle green uniforms. These became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger and Schützen (sharpshooter) regiments in German-speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs and the sharpshooters tirailleurs. The Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from frontier areas. They were gradually absorbed into the line infantry becoming a hybrid type that proved successful against the French, to the extent that Napoleon recruited several units of Austrian army Grenzer to his own army after victory over Austria in 1809 compelled the Austrians to cede territories from which they were traditionally recruited. In Portugal, 1797, companies of Caçadores (Hunters) were created in the Portuguese Army, and in 1808 led to the formation of independent "Caçador" battalions that became known for their ability to perform precision shooting at long distances.
Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, and their swords were light curved sabres; as opposed to the heavy, straighter swords of other infantry officers. Orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drums (since the sound of a bugle carries further and it is difficult to move fast when carrying a drum). Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments (or converted existing ones) of light infantry. These were considered elite units, since they required specialised training with emphasis on self-discipline, manoeuvre and initiative to carry out the roles of light infantry as well as those of ordinary infantry.
By the late 19th century, the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice. Some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments.
On the eve of World War I, the British Army included seven light infantry regiments. These differed from other infantry only in maintaining such traditional distinctions as badges that included a bugle-horn, dark green home service helmets for full dress, and a fast-stepping parade ground march.
Contemporary: Today the term "light" denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. Light infantry units lack the greater firepower, operational mobility and protection of mechanized or armored units, but possess greater tactical mobility and the ability to execute missions in severely restrictive terrain and in areas where weather makes vehicular mobility difficult.
Light infantry forces typically rely on their ability to operate under restrictive conditions, surprise, violence of action, training, stealth, field craft, and fitness levels of the individual soldiers to compensate for their reduced lethality. Despite the usage of the term "light", forces in a light unit will normally carry heavier individual loads vis-à-vis other forces; they must carry everything they require to fight, survive and win due to lack of vehicles. Although units like the 101st Airborne (Air Assault) and the 82nd Airborne Division are categorized as Air Assault Infantry and Airborne Infantry respectively, they fall under the overall concept of light infantry. They are typically infantry intended for difficult terrain such as mountains or arctic conditions (US Marines) (Royal Marines, United States Army 10th Mountain Division, United States Army 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Mountain), Italian Army Alpini, French Army 27ème bataillon de chasseurs alpins) or jungle (1st Scout Ranger Regiment, Brazilian Army Jungle Infantry Brigades).
In the 1980s, the United States Army increased light forces to address contingencies and increased threats requiring a more deployable force able to operate in restrictive environments for limited periods. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division (light), 7th Infantry Division (light), 10th Mountain Division (light infantry), 25th Infantry Division, and the 75th Ranger Regiment. Operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U.S. Forces, mostly light, deployed to Panama within a 48-hour period to execute combat operations. On 30 September 1985, the 29th Infantry Division (Maryland and Virginia Army National Guard) was reactivated at Fort Belvoir, Virginia as the only light Infantry Division in the US Army's reserve components.
During the Falklands War in 1982, both Argentina and the United Kingdom made heavy use of light infantry and its doctrines during the campaign, most notably the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (Argentina) and 25th Infantry Regiment (Argentina) and the British Parachute Regiment and Royal Marines of 3 Commando Brigade. Due to the rocky and mountainous terrain of the Falkland Islands, operations on the ground were only made possible with the use of light infantry because the use of mechanized infantry or armour was severely limited by of the terrain, leading to the "Yomp" across the Falklands, in which Royal Marines and Paras yomped (and tabbed) with their equipment across the islands, covering 56 miles (90 km) in three days carrying 80-pound (36 kg) loads after disembarking from ships at San Carlos on East Falkland, on 21 May 1982.
During the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability. This scrutiny has resulted in the Stryker Brigade Combat Team, a greater focus on task organized units (such as Marine Expeditionary Units) and a reduction of purely light forces.
Despite their reduction, light forces have proven successful in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom), underlining the continued need for light infantry.
National examples:
Argentina: Mountain Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores de Montaña
Jungle Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores de Monte
Austria:
Belgium: 12th-13th Battalion of the Line
1st Regiment Jagers te Paard, mechanized reconnaissance battalion
2nd/4th Regiment Mounted Rifles, mechanized reconnaissance battalion with electronic warfare unit
Regiment Carabiniers Prins Boudewijn – Grenadiers
Brazil: There are three light infantry brigades, (4ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve de Montanha, 11ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve and 12ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve Aeromóvel), and an airborne infantry brigade (Brigada de Infantaria Paraquedista). The 12º Light Infantry Brigade and the Airborne Infantry Brigade both belong to the Força de Ação Rápida Estratégica (Quick Strategic Action Force), which is composed of units capable of rapidly engaging in combat anywhere in Brazil.
Canada: Each of the three regular army regiments (Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Royal Canadian Regiment and Royal 22e Régiment) maintains their third battalion as light infantry capable in airborne, mountain, and amphibious operations, with varying degrees of capability. All reserve infantry units are classed as light infantry, all with varying degrees of capability. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Light infantry | The 12º Light Infantry Brigade and the Airborne Infantry Brigade both belong to the Força de Ação Rápida Estratégica (Quick Strategic Action Force), which is composed of units capable of rapidly engaging in combat anywhere in Brazil.
Canada: Each of the three regular army regiments (Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Royal Canadian Regiment and Royal 22e Régiment) maintains their third battalion as light infantry capable in airborne, mountain, and amphibious operations, with varying degrees of capability. All reserve infantry units are classed as light infantry, all with varying degrees of capability.
Denmark: Schleswig Regiment of Foot
Finland: Finnish Jäger troops, volunteers from Finland in Germany trained as Jägers
Guard Jaeger Regiment, a Finnish Army unit
Jaeger Brigade, a unit of the Finnish Army
Para Jägers, Special Operations Airborne Infantry in the Finnish Army
Utti Jaeger Regiment, the Finnish Army training and development centre for special forces and helicopter operations
Sissi troops can also be considered light infantry
Finnish infantry units are also known as Jäger (Finnish pl. Jääkärit, Swedish pl. Jägarna), a legacy of a Finnish volunteer Jäger battalion formed in Germany during World War I to fight for the liberation of Finland from Russia.
France:
Ancien régime: The Chasseur designation was given to certain regiments of French light infantry (Chasseurs à pied) or light cavalry (Chasseurs à cheval).
The Chasseurs à pied (light infantry) were originally recruited from hunters or woodsmen. The Chasseurs à Pied, as the marksmen of the French army, were considered an elite. The first unit raised was Jean Chrétien Fischer's Free Hunter Company in 1743. Early units were often a mix of cavalry and infantry. In 1776, all Chasseurs units were re-organized into six battalions, each linked to a cavalry regiment (Chasseurs à cheval). In 1788, the link between infantry battalions and cavalry regiments was broken.
Revolution and Napoleon: In 1793, the Ancien Régime's Chasseur battalions were merged with volunteer battalions in new units called Light Infantry half-brigades (demi-brigades d’infanterie légère). In 1803, the half-brigades were renamed regiments. These units had three battalions of three regular Chasseurs companies, one elite Carabiniers company and one reconnaissance voltigeurs company.
In Napoléon's Imperial Guard, many units used names linked to light infantry:
Chasseurs à pied: three regiments (1809–1815; 1815–1815; 1815–1815). The regiments were the elite of the light infantry regiments.
Fusilier-Chasseurs: a single regiment, originally the first Guard Fusilier Regiment (1809–1815)
Voltigeur: 16 regiments, originally two regiments of Tirailleurs-chasseur and two regiments of Conscrits-chasseurs (1810–1815), then twelve new regiments (1811–1815). These regiments were expected to become Chasseurs à pieds.
Flanqueurs-Chasseurs: two regiments, from drafted Forest Service members (1811–1815; 1813–1815)
In Bourbon royalist
Chasseurs Britanniques: battalion-sized corps of royalist volunteers.
19th century: The Napoleonic light infantry regiments existed until 1854, but there were very few differences between them and the line infantry regiments, so the 25 remaining light infantry regiments were transformed to line infantry in 1854.
Chasseurs à pied: The Duke of Orléans, heir to the throne, created in 1838 a new light infantry unit, the Tirailleurs battalion. It soon became, under the name Chasseur à Pied, the main light infantry unit in the French Army. The number of battalions grew up steadily through the century. The current Chasseurs battalions drew their lineage form this unit.
Chasseurs alpins: Some of Chasseurs à pied battalions were converted to specialized mountain units as Bataillons de Chasseurs Alpins in 1888, as an answer to the Italian Alpine (Alpini) regiments stationed along the Alpine frontier.
Chasseurs Forestiers: The Chasseurs forestiers (Forest Huntsmen) were militarized units of the Forest Service. They were organized in companies. They existed between 1875 and 1924.
Infanterie Légère d'Afrique (African Light Infantry) were penal battalions forming part of the French forces serving in North Africa. These units were recruited mainly from convicted military criminals from all branches of the French Army, who had finished their sentences in military prisons but still had time to serve before their engagement periods were finished.
Zouaves: The Zouaves battalions and regiments were colonial troops, formed originally by Algerians, then by European settlers and colonists. The first Zouave battalion was created in 1831 and changed its recruiting to Europeans in 1841. During the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, effective use was made of Zouaves and Chasseurs à pied (see above) in evolving light infantry tactics that went further than merely screening the main battle line. At the Battle of Solferino these newly organized skirmishers operated as independent groups that were able to disrupt their Austrian opponents by sudden flank assaults.
Tirailleurs: Tirailleurs (Skirmishers) were light infantry who formed a shallow line ahead of the line of battle during the Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars and subsequently. The name was also used for the locally recruited colonial troops in the French Empire between 1841 and 1962.
20th century: Chasseurs à pied: The Chasseurs à pieds evolved during the mid 20th century into mechanized infantry units (Chasseurs mécanisés) or armored division infantry (Chasseurs portés). After World War Two, all Chasseur units were organized on the mechanized infantry model.
Chasseurs alpins: The Chasseurs alpins, mountain warfare units of the French Army created in 1888.
Chasseurs pyrénéens and Chasseurs pyrénéens were the short-lived (1939–1940) mountain warfare units formed in the Pyrénées.
Chasseurs-Parachutistes: The Chasseurs-parachutistes were airborne infantry units formed in 1943 from Air Force infantry compagnies transferred to the Army.
Zouaves and Tirailleurs: After the independence of the countries that made up the French Colonial Empire, the Zouaves and the Tirailleurs units, save for one, were disbanded.
Modern French Army Light Infantry: 7th Chasseurs Alpins Battalion
13th Chasseurs Alpins Battalion
16th Chasseur Battalion
27e bataillon de chasseurs alpins
1st Tirailleur Regiment
1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment
Although the traditions of these different branches of the French Army are very different, there is still a tendency to confuse one with the other. For example, when World War I veteran Léon Weil died, the AFP press agency stated that he was a member of the 5th "Regiment de Chasseurs Alpins". It was in fact the 5th Bataillon.
Germany:
Hungary:
India: The Indian Army of 1914 included ten regiments with "Light Infantry" in their titles. These were the:
Most of these regiments lost their separate identity as a result of extensive amalgamations in 1922. The modern Indian Army retains the Maratha Light Infantry and the Sikh Light Infantry.
Of the 28 infantry regiments of the modern Indian Army, the following ten are designated as "Rifles". They are distinguished by their black rank badges, black buttons on their service and ceremonial uniforms and a beret in a darker shade of green than other regiments. Two paramilitary forces—the Assam Rifles and the Eastern Frontier Rifles—also follow the traditions of a rifle regiment.
Ireland: The Irish famously employed "Cethernacht" or Kern as light infantry. These usually made up the bulk of Gaelic and even later Anglo Norman Irish armies during the Middle Ages to renaissance era's. Traditionally armed with javelins and swords while wearing no armour, in later periods they were equipped with caliver muskets while still using little to no armour. They were notably effective while employed in tandem with heavily armed "Galloglaich" or anglicised Gallowglass. They could provide effective support to heavily armed troops as well as endlessly harassing enemies in difficult terrain.
Today, all infantry battalions of the Irish Army are light infantry soldiers.
Italy: Most of the states of the Italian peninsula had their own units of skirmishers before Italian unification. One of the few that survived it were the Sardinian Bersaglieri, who were formed in 1836. They became some of the most iconic soldiers in Italian Army and were its "quick reaction force". The Alpini are the Italian Army's elite mountain troops, founded in 1875. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Light infantry | Traditionally armed with javelins and swords while wearing no armour, in later periods they were equipped with caliver muskets while still using little to no armour. They were notably effective while employed in tandem with heavily armed "Galloglaich" or anglicised Gallowglass. They could provide effective support to heavily armed troops as well as endlessly harassing enemies in difficult terrain.
Today, all infantry battalions of the Irish Army are light infantry soldiers.
Italy: Most of the states of the Italian peninsula had their own units of skirmishers before Italian unification. One of the few that survived it were the Sardinian Bersaglieri, who were formed in 1836. They became some of the most iconic soldiers in Italian Army and were its "quick reaction force". The Alpini are the Italian Army's elite mountain troops, founded in 1875. Although they may not seem a true "light infantry" unit, (they were assigned their own artillery, carried double load of everything, and had a slower marching pace of 45 steps per minute), the Alpini were trained as jagers and skirmishers, introducing the use of skis and climbing training for all of their recruits. Those two corps still exist today, but in recent years the Bersaglieri have become a mechanised infantry unit, working closely with armoured units, and up until the mid-1990s had their own tank and artillery units. Other units that can be classified as light infantry are:
The Folgore Parachute Brigade, created in 1963, is the only airborne unit in the Italian Army. Apart from one light cavalry regiment, it comprises three airborne infantry and two special force regiments.
The Friuli Air Assault Brigade was originally an Italian Army mechanised brigade. In 2000 it converted to a fully airmobile role and is part of the "Friuli" Division. It is composed of three light aviation regiments and one infantry regiment—66th Reggimento Fanteria Aeromobile "Trieste"—the only regiment in the Italian Army to be fully airmobile.
The San Marco Marine Brigade of the Italian Navy comprises three regiments. The First is an amphibious assault unit, the Second carries out force protection, boarding and search and seizure procedures on ships and the Third is a training unit. Given that it has almost only light vehicles (the heaviest being the amphibious Arisgator and AAV7 landing vehicles) and is tasked to operate in harsh terrain (shore lines, lagoons, deserts, mountains, jungles), it is one of the purest "light infantry" units in the Italian Armed Forces.
The 13th and 7th regiments of the Carabinieri were created during WW2 as highly mobile infantry. They are still deployed to war zones as light infantry and military law enforcement units. The Carabinieri also have some domestic law enforcement units trained as light or airmobile infantry. The Squadrone Eliportato "Cacciatori di Calabria (nicknamed the Falchi d'Aspromonte, meaning "Hawks of the Aspromonte") is tasked with opposing the "Camorra" criminal organisation, who are numerous and typically armed with military-grade weapons acquired on the black market, and operate deep within the mountainous region of the Aspromonte. The Squadrone Eliportato Cacciatori di Sardegna was created by the Carabinieri to reduce the spree of banditry (mainly kidnapping) that afflicted the innermost areas of Sardinia.
Myanmar: As of current, it's reported that Myanmar Army has total of 10 units designated as a "Light Infantry Division" and 20 units designated as "Military Operation Command". Two units are mostly similar in term of organisational structure. One of the main differences is that LIDs are mostly numbered in double digits like 11, 22, 33, 44 whereas MOCs are numbered sequelly. Both commands 10 battalions. While not that obvious, one of the main difference in term of organisational structure is that LIDs' 10 battalions are all Light Infantry whereas for MOC, it's 7 Infantry Battalions (Motorised) and 3 Infantry Battalions (Mechanised). Both have an intermediate layer between the Battalions and Division HQ called Tactical Operation Command. A TOC is a unit that commands up to 3 battalions. Essentially, LIDs are made up of 3 TOC and 1 battalion under HQ as reserve whereas MOCs are made up of 2 TOC (Motorised) and 1 TOC (Mechanised) with an IB (Motorised) under HQ as reserve. As for the command structure, LIDs are directly answerable to the Commander in Chief of Army whereas MOCs are subordinate to their respective Regional Military Command. As for unit patches, LIDs have their own division patches where MOCs do not have distinctive patches and wear RMC's patch instead. LIDs in Burmese are called ခြေမြန်တပ်မဌာနချုပ် (တမခ) whereas MOCs are called စစ်ဆင်ရေးကွပ်ကဲမှုဌာနချုပ် (စကခ). Both Light Infantry Divisions and MOCs are have an officer ranked Brigadier General as their General Officer Commanding, Colonel as Second in Command and Lieutenant Colonel as Division Chief of Staff (informally Division G/A/Q).
Units designated as "Light Infantry Divisions" are
Military Operation Commands:
Units designated as "Military Operation Commands" are
Since No. (11) Light Infantry Division has already been reformed, No. (11) Military Operation Command was not formed
Netherlands: Garderegiment Grenadiers en Jagers, guards regiment, an amalgamation of the Garderegiment Grenadiers and the Garderegiment Jagers. Consists of one air mobile infantry battalion
Regiment Limburgse Jagers, line infantry (former 2nd Infantry Regiment). Consists of one armoured infantry battalion
Korps Pandoeren, was a Khoekhoen militia united that served the Dutch East India Company during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Norway: Hærens Jegerkommando, the armed forces competence center for ranger, airborne and counter-terrorist duty in the Norwegian Army
Jegerkompaniet, the Norwegian Army's northernmost unit
Marinejegerkommandoen, a maritime special forces unit
Kystjegerkommandoen, coastal units
Grensejeger, border rangers at the border between Russia and Norway
Poland: Wojska Obrony Terytorialnej, Territorial Defence Force 17 light infantry brigades
Portugal: Portuguese light infantry soldiers were known as caçadores (literally "huntsmen"). Initially organized as a light company in each of the line infantry regiments, the caçadores were later organized as independent battalions. They constituted the elite light infantry of the Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War, being considered by the Duke of Wellington as the "fighting cocks of his army". They wore distinctive brown uniforms as an early form of camouflage.
The caçadores units were disbanded by the Army reorganization of 1911, but were recreated in 1926 as high readiness units, responsible for defending the border and other strategic points of the Country until the line units could be mobilized. In the 1950s, the designation caçadores started to be also given to the expeditionary provisional light infantry battalions and independent companies responsible for reinforcing the overseas territories garrisons. These units constituted the bulk of the Portuguese forces engaged in the several theatres of the Portuguese Overseas War, from 1961 to 1975. Colonial troops with this title also existed, being recruited among both Portuguese European settlers and from indigenous populations. In the 1950s, the Portuguese Air Force formed a unit of paratroopers called caçadores paraquedistas ("parachutist hunters"). Additional battalions of caçadores paraquedistas were later created in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea. At the beginning of the 1960s, Portuguese Army raised special forces companies of that were named caçadores especiais (special huntsmen). The caçadores especiais wore a brown beret in the colour of the uniforms of the caçadores of the Peninsular War. These units were later abolished and the brown beret started to be used by most of the units of the Portuguese Army.
In 1975, the designation "caçadores" was discontinued in the Portuguese Armed Forces. All former units of caçadores were redesigned as "infantry". Currently, every infantry soldier of the Portuguese Army is known as atirador. Today, the Portuguese Army uses the designation "light infantry" as a generic collective classification of the Paratroopers, Commandos and Special Operations troops, while the remaining infantry is classified as "motorized/mechanized infantry".
Rhodesia: The Rhodesian Light Infantry was a regular regiment of the Rhodesian Army, unique in having the traditions of light infantry while serving as a modern Commando regiment. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Light infantry | The caçadores especiais wore a brown beret in the colour of the uniforms of the caçadores of the Peninsular War. These units were later abolished and the brown beret started to be used by most of the units of the Portuguese Army.
In 1975, the designation "caçadores" was discontinued in the Portuguese Armed Forces. All former units of caçadores were redesigned as "infantry". Currently, every infantry soldier of the Portuguese Army is known as atirador. Today, the Portuguese Army uses the designation "light infantry" as a generic collective classification of the Paratroopers, Commandos and Special Operations troops, while the remaining infantry is classified as "motorized/mechanized infantry".
Rhodesia: The Rhodesian Light Infantry was a regular regiment of the Rhodesian Army, unique in having the traditions of light infantry while serving as a modern Commando regiment.
Romania: Vânători de Munte, or "Mountain Huntsmen" are the elite mountain units of the Romanian Army since their establishment in 1916
Vânători, or "Huntsmen", were the elite Romanian light infantry units until their disbanding in 1947
Russia: The Imperial Russian Army, which was heavily influenced by the Prussian and Austrian military systems, included fifty Jäger or yegerskii [егерский] regiments in its organisation by 1812, including the Egersky Guards Regiment. They were mostly united with line infantry regiments in 1833, when almost all Russian infantry began to receive the same training; including skirmishing. At the same time strelkovyi [стрелковый] battalions were introduced. These undertook light infantry functions when the skirmishing skills of line infantry were insufficient.
Spain: Historically the Spanish infantry included several battalions of light infantry that were designated as Cazadores. These units were incorporated into the ordinary infantry following army reorganization in the early 1930s. Until 2006 the modern Spanish Army maintained a Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña "Aragón I" (Mountain Huntsmen Brigade "Aragón I")
Sweden: Jägare, elite units in the Swedish Armed Forces
Fallskärmsjägarna, the Parachute Rangers
Swedish Parachute Ranger School
Ö-Nerike skvadron, Intelligence squadron
Vadsbo skvadron, Airborne squadron
Army Ranger Battalion, Arctic warfare rifles
Kustjägarna, Coastal Rangers
Livbataljon, Life Guards Battalion
Somalia: Danab, which translates to "Lightning" are the elite commandos units of the Somali Armed Forces.
United Kingdom: The British Army first experimented with light infantry in the French and Indian War, to counter the tactics used by the French-allied Native Americans. Along with secondment of regular infantry, several specialised units were raised (including Rogers' Rangers and the 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot), though most if not all had been disbanded by the middle of the 1760s. From 1770, all regular battalions were required to designate one of their ten companies a "Light Company", though their training in skirmishing was poor and inconsistent.
Dedicated rifle and light infantry regiments began to be formed or converted in the Napoleonic Wars, to counter the French Chasseurs. A new battalion of the 60th Royal Americans (later the King's Royal Rifle Corps) was raised in 1797, and an "Experimental Corps of Riflemen" (later the 95th Rifles and then the Rifle Brigade) in 1800. Both were equipped with green jackets and Baker rifles. Some extant regiments began to be designated "Light Infantry" at this point, receiving skirmishing training but generally still equipped with red coats and muskets. In the Peninsular War, a Light Brigade and later a Light Division were formed, at some points incorporating Portuguese Caçadores. By the Crimean War, rifles had become universal and tactics had substantially changed. This meant that the distinctions between light and line infantry were effectively limited to details such as name, a rapid march of 140 steps per minute, buglers instead of drummers and fifers, a parade drill which involved carrying rifles parallel to the ground ("at the trail") and dark green cloth helmets instead of dark blue. Light infantry badges always incorporated bugle horns as a central feature.
In the Second World War, the use of light infantry was revived in what became the British Commandos and the Parachute Regiment. Because of the nature of their role and deployment, they were more lightly equipped than most infantry battalions. The Parachute Regiment has survived to this day, while the Royal Marine Commandos are directly descended from those units formed in the Second World War.
Most of the old light infantry and rifle regiments were administratively grouped in a new Light Division in 1968. The British Army ordered regimental amalgamations in 1957, 1966, 1990 and 2003. The Rifles (the largest infantry regiment in the British Army) was formed in 2007 from the amalgamation of the regiments of the Light Division. The Rifles maintain the traditional quick parade march of all British light infantry, the Rifle Brigade's "rifle green" No 1 dress with blackened buttons and black leather belts, and many other traditions and "golden threads" of its parent regiments. The only rifle regiment not to become part of the Rifles was the Royal Gurkha Rifles. Following a series of amalgamations and one disbandment, none of the historic Light Infantry regiments now survive as separate entities within the modern British Army.
Today, "Light role infantry" is a designation that can be applied to an infantry battalion of any regiment. Light role infantry are not (by default) equipped with armoured vehicles (unlike Armoured Infantry or Mechanised Infantry).
United States:
Colonial and Revolutionary War: In 1780, General George Washington published an order of battle which included a corps of light infantry, under the command of General Lafayette. The light infantry participated in several major battles of the southern states in 1781, including the Battle of Yorktown. The entire Continental Army was dismissed after the war, with all regiments disbanded in 1784.
19th Century: In 1808, the United States Army created its first Regiment of Riflemen. During the War of 1812 three more Rifle Regiments were raised but disbanded after the war. The Rifle Regiment was disbanded in 1821.
In the Mexican–American War Colonel Jefferson Davis created and led the Mississippi Rifles.
Riflemen were listed as separate to infantry up to the American Civil War.
During the Civil War, Sharpshooter regiments were raised in the North with several companies being raised by individual states for their own regiments.
20th Century: In the early years of World War 2 the US military saw the need for light forces. They designated the 82nd Division as the 82nd Airborne Division and reactivated the 101st division as the 101st Airborne Division in 1942. In 1943, the United States formed the 10th Light Division (Alpine), re-designated as the 10th Mountain Division in 1944. In 1983, General John A. Wickham Jr., Chief of Staff of the United States Army, announced the creation of five light infantry divisions to increase the U.S. Army's ability to deploy quickly. These included the 7th Infantry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 6th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, as well as the 29th Infantry Division of the Army National Guard.
Modern US Military Light Infantry: 82nd Airborne Division
101st Airborne Division
10th Mountain Division
25th Infantry Division
11th Airborne Division
In 2022 The US Army reactivated the 11th Airborne Division by reflagging two infantry brigades from the 25th Infantry division. Its mission is to conduct infantry operations in the Arctic.
See also: Heavy cavalry
Heavy infantry
Light cavalry
Line infantry
Roman infantry tactics, strategy and battle formations
Similar types of unit
Long-range reconnaissance patrol
Marksman
Rifleman
Sharpshooter
Skirmisher
References and notes:
Further reading: The Partisan in War, a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789.
Beattie, Daniel J. (1986). "The Adaptation of the British Army to Wilderness Warfare, 1755–1763", Adapting to Conditions: War and Society in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Maarten Ultee (University of Alabama Press), 56–83.
Chet, Guy. "The Literary and Military Career of Benjamin Church: Change or Continuity in Early American Warfare", Historical Journal of Massachusetts 35:2 (Summer 2007): 105–112
Chet, Guy (2003). Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast. University of Massachusetts Press.
Pargellis, Stanley McCrory. "Braddock's Defeat", American Historical Review 41 (1936): 253–269.
Pargellis, Stanley McCrory (1933). Lord Loudoun in North America. Yale University Press.
External links: Skirmishers and light infantry during the Napoleonic Wars
A Historical Perspective on Light Infantry |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Limited war | Examples:
American Indians: Many American Indians practiced limited warfare or similar behaviors. Eastern groups at the time of contact with Europeans often would not kill all enemies but would capture many for adoption to replenish their own populations. That is related to mourning wars. The Aztec did flower wars to keep subordinate nations symbolically defeated and capture sacrificial victims, who were symbolically adopted. The wars left noncombatants and materials without risk of physical harm.
Crimean War: For the Crimean War, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston decided to fight a limited war against Russia since waging a total war would have required massive reform of the armed forces.
Korean War: At the beginning of the Korean War, US President Harry S. Truman and General Douglas MacArthur strongly disagreed with each other. Truman believed in the containment of North Korea north of the 38th parallel. MacArthur pressed for the destroying and routing (rollback) of North Korea. The disagreement escalated to the end of MacArthur's command and career after he had exasperated and frustrated Truman's limited war policy. Truman gave the following reasons for the policy:
"The Kremlin [Soviet Union] is trying, and has been trying for a long time, to drive a wedge between us and the other nations. It wants to see us isolated. It wants to see us distrusted. It wants to see us feared and hated by our allies. Our allies agree with us in the course we are following. They do not believe that we should take the initiative to widen the conflict in the Far East. If the United States were to widen the conflict, we might well have to go it alone.... If we go it alone in Asia, we may destroy the unity of the free nations against aggression. Our European allies are nearer Russia than we are. They are in far greater danger.... Going it alone brought the world to the disaster of World War II.... I do not propose to strip this country of its allies in the face of Soviet danger. The path of collected security is our only sure defense against the dangers that threaten us."
Vietnam War: The concept of limited war was also used in the Vietnam War by the United States under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson as part of a strategy to contain the spread of communism without provoking a wider confrontation with the Soviet Union. Richard Barnet, who quit the State Department in 1963 after because he disagreed with Kennedy's incremental Vietnam escalation, described his misgivings in 1968: "The President had rejected major military intervention as a conscious policy, but he had set in force the bureaucratic momentum that would make it a certainty."
War of Attrition: The War of Attrition, fought between Israel and Egypt from 1967 to 1970, mostly consisted of artillery shelling, aerial warfare, and small-scale raids.
Falklands War: Often seen as a "textbook example of a limited war - limited in time, in location, in objectives and in means," the Falklands War was fought over the course of 10 weeks and ended with just over 1000 casualties on both sides.
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia: The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, part of the Kosovo War, was a limited war for NATO, which predominantly used a large-scale air campaign to destroy Yugoslav military infrastructure from high altitudes.
Second Sino Indian War: The Second Sino-Indian War was fought in 1967 between China and India in the Sikkim sector of the Line of Actual Control. It is also known as the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes.
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Administrative (all arms): Access control
Cantonment: a temporary or semi-permanent military quarters; in South Asia, the term cantonment also describes permanent military stations.
Chief of defence
Cloak and Dagger
Combat information center
Command (military formation)
Command center
Command and control
Commander-in-chief
Command hierarchy
Defense diplomacy
Defence minister
Directive control
Force multiplication
Military facility
Logistics
Materiel (also matériel)
Military supply chain management
Multi-factor authentication
Nuclear football
Operational level of war
Permissive action link
Plausible deniability
Security clearance
Situation room: a room in a government headquarters etc where senior high-ranking military officials in authority find out the latest information about something serious that is happening, and proceed to make decisions about what to do.
Staff
Staging area
Stratocracy
War cabinet
Intelligence: Signals intelligence (SIGINT) and signals intelligence in modern history
Electronic intelligence (ELINT)
High-frequency direction finding (nicknamed huff-duff) is the common name for a type of radio direction finding employed especially during the two world wars.
Communications intelligence (COMINT)
Human intelligence (HUMINT)
Imagery intelligence (IMINT)
Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT)
Open-source intelligence (OSINT)
Doctrinal: Ad-hoc
Battle management language
COGCON
DEFCON
Ersatz
Tactical formation
Gold Codes
LERTCON
Multiservice tactical brevity code
Rainbow codes
On land: Demilitarized zone (DMZ): Area that is specifically established to be free from military presence or action. Often used to create a buffer between two conflicting states to prevent accidental border skirmishes and established by treaty or a third party peace keeper.
No man's land: land that is not occupied or, more specifically, land that is under dispute between countries or areas that will not occupy it because of fear or uncertainty, or for tactical or strategical considerations. No man's land was what the Allied Expeditionary Force under the command of General Pershing would refer to the land separating the fronts of the two opposing armies, as it was deadly to be there.
Arms and services: Artillery includes any engine used for the discharge of large projectiles.
Artillery battery: an organized group of artillery pieces (previously artillery park).
Also see below Artillery
Doctrinal: These terms are used for talking about how armed forces are used.
Many of the terms below can be applied to combat in other environments although most often used in reference to land warfare.
Ambush: carrying out a surprise attack on an enemy that passes by a concealed position.
Artillery barrage: a line or barrier of exploding artillery shells, created by continuous and co-ordinated fire of a large number of guns.
Battalia: an army or a subcomponent of an army such as a battalion in battle array (common military parlance in the 17th century).
Blockade: a ring of naval vessels surrounding a specific port or even an entire nation. The goal is to halt the movement of goods which could help the blockaded nation's war effort.
Booby trap
Breach: a gap in fortified or battle lines.
Breakout: exploiting a breach in enemy lines so that a large force (division or above) passes through.
Bridgehead and its varieties known as beachheads and airheads.
Camouflet
Chalk: a group of paratroopers or other soldiers that deploy from a single aircraft. A chalk often corresponds to a platoon-sized unit for air assault operations, or a company-minus-sized organization for airborne operations. For air transport operations, it can consist of up to a company-plus-sized unit. Frequently, a load of paratroopers in one aircraft, prepared for a drop, is also referred to as a stick.
Charge: a large force heads directly to an enemy to engage in close quarters combat, with the hope of breaking the enemy line.
Chequered retreat, (retraite en échiquier, Fr.) a line or battalion, alternately retreating and facing about in the presence of an enemy, exhibiting a deployment like chequered squares
Column: a formation of soldiers marching in files in which the files is significantly longer than the width of ranks in the formation.
Command and control
Counterattack
Counter-battery fire
Coup de grâce: a death blow intended to end the suffering of a wounded soldier; also applied to severely damaged ships (called scuttling when applied to friendly ships).
Coup de main: a swift pre-emptive strike.
Debellatio: to end a war by complete destruction of a hostile state. More severe than sacking.
Decisive victory: an overwhelming victory for one side, often shifting the course of conflict.
Defilade: a unit or position is "defiladed" if it is protected from direct exposure to enemy fire; see also Hull-down.
DUSTOFF: a now traditional call sign for US Army Air Ambulance helicopter operations engaging in MEDEVAC.
Echelon formation: a military formation in which members are arranged diagonally.
Encirclement: surrounding enemy forces on all sides, isolating them.
Enfilade: a unit (or position) is "enfiladed" when enemy fire can be directed along the long axis of the unit. For instance, a trench is enfiladed if the enemy can fire down the length of the trench. May also refer to placing a unit in a position to enfilade, or the position so enfiladed.
Envelope
Extraction point: the location designated for reassembly of forces and their subsequent transportation out of the battle zone.
Fabian strategy: avoiding pitched battles in order to wear down the enemy in a war of attrition.
Fighting withdrawal: pulling back military forces while maintaining contact with the enemy.
File: a single column of soldiers.
Fire in the hole
Flanking maneuver: to attack an enemy or an enemy unit from the side, or to maneuver to do so.
Forlorn hope: a band of soldiers or other combatants chosen to take the leading part in a military operation, such as an assault on a defended position, where the risk of casualties is high.
Frontal assault or frontal attack: an attack toward the front of an enemy force.
Garrison: a body of troops holding a particular location on a long-term basis.
Ground zero
Guerrilla tactics: attacking the enemy and the subsequent breaking off of contact and retreating; also referred to as "hit-and-run tactics".
Hit-and-run
Hors de combat: a unit out of the fight, surrendered, wounded (when incapacitated), and so on.
Infantry square, pike square, or schiltron
Infiltration
Intent
Interdiction: to attack and disrupt enemy supply lines.
Killing field
Lodgement: an enclave made by increasing the size of a bridgehead.
Mission-type tactics
MEDEVAC: the tactical medical evacuation of wounded from the field of battle by air, bringing them to a higher level of medical care and treatment, e.g. from a forward field location or a forward aid station to a combat support hospital, forward surgical team or other treatment facility able to provide significant stabilizing care or definitive treatment to the injured.
Melee or Mêlée
Mess: A place where troops gather for their meals
Mikes: Minutes. When used in normal vernacular speaker will say will be ready in X-Mikes where X represents number of minutes.
Mobile columns, or movable columns (French: colomnes mobiles or troupes en activité) — in contrast to stationary troops troupes sédentaire. This may be used as a bureaucratic description to describe the function for which troops are raised for example the regiments of the Highland Fencible Corps were raised for garrison duties while Scottish line regiments in the British Army were raised to fight anywhere; or it may be an operational description.
No quarter given: all enemy troops are to be killed, even those who surrender. Also referred to as "take no prisoners".
Overwatch: tactical technique in which one unit is positioned in a vantage position to provide perimeter surveillance and immediate fire support for another friendly unit.
Patrolling
Parthian shot
Phalanx
Pickets (or picquets): sentries or advance troops specifically tasked with early warning of contact with the enemy. A soldier who has this job is on "picket duty", and may also be referred to as a "lookout." (see also Vedette, a mounted sentry or outpost)
Pincer maneuver
Pitched battle
Pocket: see "salient".
Pyrrhic victory: a victory paid for so dearly that it potentially could lead to a later defeat ("a battle won, a war lost").
Raid
Rank: a single line of soldiers.
Reconnaissance
Reconnoitre: to go to an area (reconnoitering) to find out information of the exact location of an enemy force.
Retreat: withdrawal of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout).
Rout: disorderly withdrawal of troops from a battlefield following a defeat, either real or perceived.
Sack: the destruction and looting of a city, usually after an assault.
Safe-guard: individual soldiers or detachments placed to prevent resources (often farms full of crops and livestock) from being looted or plundered
Salients: a pocket or "bulge" in a fortified or battle line. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a "re-entrant".
Scorched earth: the deliberate destruction of resources in order to deny their use to the enemy. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Raid
Rank: a single line of soldiers.
Reconnaissance
Reconnoitre: to go to an area (reconnoitering) to find out information of the exact location of an enemy force.
Retreat: withdrawal of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout).
Rout: disorderly withdrawal of troops from a battlefield following a defeat, either real or perceived.
Sack: the destruction and looting of a city, usually after an assault.
Safe-guard: individual soldiers or detachments placed to prevent resources (often farms full of crops and livestock) from being looted or plundered
Salients: a pocket or "bulge" in a fortified or battle line. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a "re-entrant".
Scorched earth: the deliberate destruction of resources in order to deny their use to the enemy.
Scuttlebutt: For gossip or water fountain.
Scuttling: the deliberate destruction of a ship to prevent its capture and use by an enemy. Commonly used as a coup de grâce, but has also been a protest (as after the First World War).
Shield wall: the massed use of interconnected shields to form a wall in battle.
Shield wall (fortification): the highest and thickest wall of a castle protecting the main assault approach.
Shoot and scoot: a type of fire-and-movement tactic used by artillery to avoid counter-battery fire.
Siege: a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition, often accompanied by an assault in the later phase.
Siege en régle: A siege where a city or fortress is invested but no bombardment or assault takes place. Instead, the besieger attempts to persuade the defenders to surrender through negotiation, inducement, or through privations such as starvation. This may be done because the fortress is too strong for the attackers to capture through bombardment and assault, or because if the fortification when captured is undamaged it immediately becomes a functional strong point for the former besiegers.
Circumvallation: a line of fortifications built by the attackers around the besieged fortification facing towards it.
Contravallation: a second line of fortifications behind the circumvallation facing away from the enemy fort to protect the besiegers from attacks by allies of the besieged.
Escalade: the act of scaling defensive walls or ramparts with the aid of ladders, a prominent feature of siege warfare in medieval times.
Chevaux de frise: sword blades chained together to incapacitate people trying to charge into a breach in the walls.
Investment: surrounding an enemy fort (or town) with armed forces to prevent entry or escape.
Military mining, undermining of defence positions either fortifications or enemy front line trenches (see also camouflet).
Parallel trenches
Sapping: digging approach trench towards enemy fortifications within range of the besieged guns.
Siege engines: specialised weapons used to overcome fortifications of a besieged fort or town; in modern times, the task has fallen to large artillery pieces.
Siege train: specialised siege artillery moved in a column by road or by rail.
Siege tower: a wooden tower on wheels constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching the defensive walls of a fortification.
Sortie (also "to sally (forth)"): a sudden attack against a besieging enemy from within a besieged fort or town.
Surrender at discretion: unconditional surrender instead of surrendering with terms.
Skirmish
Switch position: A defensive position oblique to, and connecting, successive defensive positions paralleling the front.
thunder run: quick surprise penetration attack deep into enemy territory, designed to confuse and potentially break enemy lines and take a city.
Vedette, a mounted sentry or outpost, who has the function of bringing information, giving signals or warnings of danger, etc.
Withdrawal (military): retreat (i.e., pulling back) of troops from a battlefield (can be either orderly or unorderly; fighting or by rout)
Ordnance: These terms concern identification of means of combat to inflict damage on the opponent.
Edged: Weapons that inflict damage through cutting or stabbing.
Bayonet
Bill (weapon)
Danish axe
Halberd
Hands
Knife or Dagger
Lance
Polearm or poleaxe
Pike (weapon)
Partisan (weapon)
Sabre
Spear
Sword
Projectile munitions: Munitions are weapons and ordnance that inflict damage through impact.
Individual: Bow (weapon)
Crossbow
Sling (weapon) and slingshot (hand catapult)
Firearms
Carbine
Machine gun
Musket
Pistol
Revolver
Rifle
Shotgun
Submachine gun
Artillery: Crew-served, non-vehicle mounted weapons
Ballista
Catapult
Mangonel
Onager (siege weapon)
Trebuchet
Guns
Bombard (weapon)
Cannon
Autocannon
Basilisk
Bombard
Carronade
Culverin
Demi-cannon
Demi-culverin
Falconet
Hand cannon
Minion
Saker
Gun
Field gun
Naval artillery
Howitzer
Mortar (weapon)
Explosives: Explosive ordnance causes damage through release of chemical energy.
Artillery shell
Bangalore torpedo
Camouflet
Grenade
Hand grenade
Rifle grenade (see also Grenade launcher)
Rocket propelled grenade
Land mine
Anti-tank mine
Anti-personnel mine
Incendiary: Incendiary ordnance causes damage through release of heat.
Flamethrower
Greek fire
Napalm
White phosphorus
Vehicles: Armoured car
Chariot
Half-track
Armoured personnel carrier
Tank
Tank destroyer
Engineering: See also List of fortifications
Abatis: a defensive obstacle consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row.
Banquette, or fire step
Barbed wire
Bartizan: a cylindrical turret or sentry post projecting beyond the parapet of a fort or castle
Bastion
Bastion fortress: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as star fort or Trace italienne).
Battery: an artillery position, which may be fortified.
Berm
Blast wall: a barrier for protection from high explosive blast.
Blockhouse: a) Medieval and Renaissance - a small artillery tower, b) 18th and 19th centuries - a small colonial wooden fort, c) 20th century - a large concrete defensive structure.
Breastwork
Bulwark
Bunker: a heavily fortified, mainly underground, facility used as a defensive position; also commonly used as command centres for high-level officers.
Caponier: a defensive firing position either projecting into, or traversing the ditch of a fort.
Carnot wall: a wall pierced with loopholes, sited above the scarp of a ditch but below the rampart.
Casemate: a vaulted chamber for protected storage, accommodation or if provided with an embrasure, for artillery
Castle
Medieval fortification
Arrow slit (arrow loop, loophole)
Barbican
Chemin de ronde
Concentric castle
Drawbridge
Gatehouse
Keep or donjon
Moat
Machicolation
Murder-hole
Portcullis
Citadel
Counterscarp: the opposing side of a ditch in front of a fortification, i.e., the side facing it.
Counterscarp gallery: a firing position built into the counterscarp wall of the ditch.
Counter mine: anti-siege tunnel dug by a fortification's defenders below an attacker's mine with the intent of destroying it before the attackers are able to damage (the foundations of) the fortification's walls.
Coupure
Covertway
Defensive fighting position; for example, a rifle pit, sangar or fox hole.
Demi-lune
Ditch: a dry moat.
Dragon's teeth: Triangular obstacles acting as roadblocks for armoured vehicles.
Dutch Water Line: a series of water-based defensive measures designed to flood large areas in case of attack.
Earthworks
Embrasure: an opening in a parapet or casemate, for a gun to fire through.
Fascine is a bundle of sticks or similar, were used in military defences for revetting (shoring up) trenches or ramparts, especially around artillery batteries, or filling in ditches and trenches during an attack.
Flèche: an arrow shaped outwork, smaller than a ravelin or a lunette, with 2 faces with a parapet and an open gorge
Fort
Fortification
Fortress
Gabion: a large basket filled with earth, used to form a temporary parapet for artillery
Glacis: a bank of earth sloping away from the fort, to protect it from direct artillery fire
Gorge: opening at the rear of an outwork for access by defending troops from the main defensive position
Hill fort (New Zealand: Pa (Māori))
Lunette: an outwork consisting of a salient angle with two flanks and an open gorge.
Magazine: a protected place within a fort, where ammunition is stored and prepared for use.
Mining: a siege method used since antiquity against a walled city, fortress or castle, where tunnels are dug to undermine the foundations of the walls; also see counter-mine. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Flèche: an arrow shaped outwork, smaller than a ravelin or a lunette, with 2 faces with a parapet and an open gorge
Fort
Fortification
Fortress
Gabion: a large basket filled with earth, used to form a temporary parapet for artillery
Glacis: a bank of earth sloping away from the fort, to protect it from direct artillery fire
Gorge: opening at the rear of an outwork for access by defending troops from the main defensive position
Hill fort (New Zealand: Pa (Māori))
Lunette: an outwork consisting of a salient angle with two flanks and an open gorge.
Magazine: a protected place within a fort, where ammunition is stored and prepared for use.
Mining: a siege method used since antiquity against a walled city, fortress or castle, where tunnels are dug to undermine the foundations of the walls; also see counter-mine.
Outwork: a minor defence, built or established outside the principal fortification limits, detached or semidetached.
Parapet: a wall at the edge of the rampart to protect the defenders.
Pillbox: a small concrete guard post.
Polygonal fort: a later type of fort without bastions.
Rampart: The main defensive wall of a fortification.
Ravelin: a triangular fortification in front of bastion as a detached outwork.
Redan: a V-shaped salient angle toward an expected attack, made from earthworks or other material.
Redoubt: a fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort, which can be constructed of earthworks, stone or brick.
Reduit: an enclosed defensive emplacement inside a larger fort; provides protection during a persistent attack.
Sangar: a small temporary fortified position with a breastwork originally of stone, but built of sandbags and similar materials in modern times.
Sally port
Sapping
Scarp: the side of a ditch in front of a fortification facing away from it.
Sconce: a small protective fortification, such as an earthwork, often placed on a mound as a defensive work for artillery.
Sea fort: a coastal fort entirely surrounded by the sea, either built on a rock or directly onto the sea bed.
Slighting: the deliberate destruction of an (abandoned) fortification without opposition from its (former) occupants and/or defenders.
Sortie
Star fort: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as Bastion fortress or Trace italienne).
Team room:
Tenaille (archaic Tenalia): an advanced pincer-shaped defensive work in front of the main defences of a fortress.
Terreplein: the fighting platform on top of a rampart, behind the parapet.
Tête-de-pont: a temporary defensive work defending a bridge at the end closest to the enemy.
Trace italienne: a star-shaped fortress surrounding a town or city (also known as Bastion fortress or star fort).
Trench
Geographic: Defile: a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains. It has its origins as a military description of a pass through which troops can march only in a narrow column or with a narrow front.
Debouch:
To emerge from a defile or similar into open country;
A fortification at the end of a defile;
Water that flows out of a defile into a wider place such as a lake.
Naval:
Arms and services: These terms concern combat arms and supporting services of armed forces used in naval warfare.
Strike package
Doctrinal: These terms concern the type of use of naval armed forces.
Blockade
Coup de grâce: a final shot intended to finish off a sinking (enemy) ship (which should be distinguished from scuttling).
Crossing the Tee
Conn
Vanguard—the leading part of an advancing military formation
Line astern, line ahead, or line of battle
Over-the-beach capability
Raking fire
Scuttling
Weather gage
Operational: Adrift: Loose and out of control. Typically applied to a ship or vessel that has lost power and is unable to control its movement.
Aft: Any part of the ship closer to the stern than you currently are.
All Hands: The entire ship's crew to include all officers and enlisted.
Aye, Aye: Response acknowledging and understanding a command.
Bow: Front of the ship.
Below: Any deck beneath the one you are currently on.
Burner, Burner Go: Afterburner on full power
Carry on: An order given to continue work or duties.
Cast off: To throw off, to let go, to unfurl.
Colours: Raising and lowering of the National Ensign, the National flag, and organization flags.
Fathom: Unit of measurement generally used for depth from sea level to sea floor.
General Quarters: Battle stations. Generally set when the ship is about to engage in battle or hostile activities.
Helocasting:
Jettison: To throw or dispose of something over the side of the ship.
Ladder: Also known as a ladder well. Much like civilian stairs, however much steeper.
Leave: Vacation time nearly completely free unless an emergency recall occurs.
Shore leave or Liberty (US): Permission to leave the ship/base to enjoy non-work activities.
Maritime Insertion:
Mid-watch: Tends to be the midnight to 0400 watch. Also known as "balls to four" due to military time equivalent 0000-0400.
Needle alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed.
Port Side: Left hand side of the ship.
Quarters: Generally the morning assembly of all hands for muster and accountability.
Starboard: Right hand side of the ship.
Ready 5/Alert 5: Aircraft on standby on flight deck ready to be launched in 5 minutes or less.
Ready room: Room on an aircraft carrier where aircrew conduct much of their pre-flight and post-flight briefs.
Round Down: The stern of the Carrier where the Flight Deck Started.
Smoke in the air: Used by Naval Aviators/Aircrew for locked-on incoming missiles at visual range.
Sea skimming: Low level flight procedure for missiles/fighter aircraft to avoid radar detection.
Stern: Rear of the ship.
Taps: Lights out, time to sleep.
Turn to: Start working.
Working Aloft: Working above the highest deck, generally performing maintenance on the ship's mast or antennas.
Ordnance: Naval artillery
Sea mine
Powerhead
Speargun
Supercavitating ammunition
Supercavitating torpedo
Torpedo
Turret
Underwater firearm
Vessels: Aircraft carrier
Helicopter carrier
Escort carrier
Fleet carrier
Light carrier
Fighter catapult ship
Catapult aircraft merchant ship
Merchant aircraft carrier
Aircraft maintenance carrier
Interdiction assault ship
Flagship
Special service ship
Troopship
Ship's tender
Attack transport
Battlecarrier
Battleship
Dreadnought
Pocket battleship
Seaplane tender
Sloop
Battlecruiser
Cruiser
Heavy cruiser
Armored cruiser
Light cruiser
Scout cruiser
Strike cruiser
Destroyer
Destroyer escort
Destroyer flotilla leader
Destroyer depot ship
Frigate
Corvette
Aerodynamically alleviated marine vehicle
Ground-effect vehicle
Hovercraft
Landing Craft Air Cushion
Landing craft depot ship
Merchant cruiser
Stealth ship
Surface effect ship
Submarine
Submarine tender
Midget submarine
Cruiser submarine
Hunter-killer submarine
Ballistic missile submarine
Guided missile submarine
Submarine chaser
Submarine aircraft carrier
Torpedo boat
Amphibious command ship
Amphibious assault ship
Amphibious transport dock
Dock landing ship
Expeditionary transfer dock
Littoral combat ship
Coastal defence ship
Barracks ship
Mexeflote
Rhino ferry
Patrol boat
Research vessel
Survey ship
Dry dock
Torpedo trials craft
Guard ship
Cable layer
Cable repair ship
Cargo ship
Attack cargo ship
Vehicle cargo ship
Dry cargo ship
Replenishment oiler
Oil tanker
Maritime prepositioning ship
Offshore supply ship
Container ship
Hospital ship
Fast combat support ship
Expeditionary fast transport
Salvage ship
Instrumentation ship
Fleet ocean tug
Riverine command ship
Special operations insertion ship
High-speed transport
Maritime security cutter
Medium endurance cutter
High endurance cutter
Fast response cutter
Marine protector
Landing ship
Tank landing ship
Icebreaker
Heavy icebreaker
Inland construction tender
Seagoing buoy tender
Coastal buoy tender
Logistic support ship
Arsenal ship
Floating battery
Training ship
Minelayer
Mine countermeasures vessel
Minesweeper
Gunboat
Riverine gunboat
Dock landing ship
Monitor
Breastwork monitor
Riverine monitor
Technical research ship
Self defense test ship
Self-propelled radar station
Fast sea frame
Crane ship
Aviation logistics support ship
Moored training ship
Naval trawler
Engineering: Air cavity system
Electrohydrodynamics
Internal drive propulsion
Magnetohydrodynamic drive
Pump-jet
Supercavitation
Supercavitating propeller
Air:
Arms and services: These terms concern combat arms and supporting services of armed forces used in air warfare.
Flight (military unit)
Operational: Airspeed alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of established military terms | Flight (military unit)
Operational: Airspeed alive: Airspeed indicator showing increasing speed.
Smoke in the air: used by pilots/aircrew for locked-on incoming missiles at visual range.
Sortie: used by air forces to indicate an aircraft mission count (flew seven sorties) or in the sense of a departure (the aircraft sortied).
Squadron hack
Doctrinal: These terms concern the type of use of aviation armed forces.
Aircraft marshalling
Tactics: Aerial ramming
Bombing: specifically area bombing, carpet bombing and pattern bombing.
Glider snatch pick-up
Sortie: a mission flown by an aircraft
Ordnance: Bomb
Missile
Aircraft: Airship
Attacker
Bomber
Dirigible, balloon
Fighter
Fighter bomber
Spotter plane
Stealth aircraft
Strike aircraft
Engineering:
Space:
Arms and services: Space corps
Space force
Doctrinal: Strategic Defense Initiative
See also: Glossary of German military terms
Glossary of military abbreviations
List of NATO country codes
List of British ordnance terms
List of equipment used in World War II
List of government and military acronyms
List of military slang terms
List of military tactics
List of World War II electronic warfare equipment
List of U.S. security clearance terms
List of aviation, avionics, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations
List of aviation mnemonics
References:
External links: A Dictionary of Military Architecture: Fortification and Fieldworks from the Iron Age to the Eighteenth Century by Stephen Francis Wyley, drawings by Steven Lowe
Victorian Forts glossary Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. A more comprehensive version has been published as A Handbook of Military Terms by David Moore at the same site
Military Earthworks Terms Archived 2007-02-17 at the Wayback Machine by the National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior
Military Terms Dictionary Lookup on military terms offering you clear definitions by some of the most reliable reference works in this field.
Military acronyms and abbreviations |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | Mixed nationality units:
Historic: 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot. Composed of 'foreign Protestants'.
Boer foreign volunteers
Hohenlohe Regiment of France during the Bourbon Restoration.
International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War
Islamic Legion
Kenpeitai Auxiliary units consisted of regional ethnic forces that were organized in areas occupied by the Japanese.
King's African Rifles
The SS (particularly the Waffen-SS) made extensive use of foreigners during World War II. For more information, see: Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts
Rhodesian Light Infantry (initially all-Rhodesian, this unit became the "Foreign Legion" of the Rhodesian Army)
Mahal – non-Israeli volunteers who fought for Israel in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. There is to this day a voluntary program called Mahal in the Israeli army.
Afghan mujahideen
Bosnian mujahideen were foreign Muslim volunteers who fought on the Bosniak side during the Bosnian War.
Current:
Also including nationals: Tercio de Extranjeros, or Tercio, or Spanish Legion - prior to 1987 and in the 2000s, after the abandonment of conscription, the Spanish Army is again accepting foreigners from select nationalities. The Legion today accepts male and female native Spanish speakers, mostly from Central American and South American states. Recruits are required to have a valid Spanish residence permit.
Only including foreigners: French Foreign Legion - Officer corps predominantly French
International Freedom Battalion – An armed group of leftist foreign volunteers that fight in support of the Rojava Revolution in Syria.
Ukraine has requested for foreign volunteers to join the International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine to help defend the country from the 2022 Russian invasion.
Units by nationality:
American: During both world wars, American volunteers served on the allied side before the US joined the war. During World War I, there were even a few Americans who volunteered to fly for the Imperial German Flying Corps.
The Lafayette Escadrille in the French Air Force, World War I
A number of American pilots flew with No. 32 Squadron RAF during World War I
The 7th Air Escadrille (also known as the Kościuszko Squadron) in the Polish Air Force, Polish-Soviet War
The Lincoln Brigade on the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War
The Eagle Squadrons in the Royal Air Force, World War II
The Flying Tigers in the Republic of China Air Force, World War II
Before the US entered the war, many Americans joined the Canadian Forces, especially the RCAF, and served in ordinary Canadian units.
Rachel Cox in Into the Dust and Fire records the history of five Ivy Leaguers (Chuck Bolte, Jack Brister, Bill Durkee, Heyward Cutting, and Robert Cox) who enlisted in the British Army and became the first Americans to fight the Nazis
The Crippled Eagles – American volunteers in Rhodesia (1965–1979)
Albanian: The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg was a division of the German Waffen-SS that was developed around a nucleus of Albanian volunteers, named after Albanian medieval lord George Kastrioti Skanderbeg. It was better known for murdering, raping, and looting in predominantly Serb areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort.
Bangladeshi: 8,000 young men from Bangladesh volunteered to enlist in the PLO in 1987
Belgian: Units from modern-day Belgium (then the Austrian Netherlands or United Kingdom of the Netherlands) served in the French armies of both the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
The Belgian Legion during the Franco-Mexican War of 1864-1866
The 6 Février Battalion, part of the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War was made up of French and Belgians. Their citizenship rights were revoked as a result of their decision to serve in a foreign army.
Two Belgian units fought in the Waffen SS during the Second World War
British: During the Peninsular War, many Britons joined Spanish regular and irregular forces.
The state-sponsored Auxiliary Legion of the First Carlist War.
The British Legions in the South American Wars of Independence during the 19th century.
The British Free Corps of the Waffen SS in World War II.
2,500 British fought in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the republicans.
In the Paraguay Revolution of 1922, British pilots fought in the Escuela de Aviación Militar.
Many Britons fought during the American Civil War for both the United States and Confederate States. 67 British soldiers in the Union Army received the Medal of Honor.
Dozens of British volunteers joined Croatian units and fought in the Yugoslav Wars between 1991 and 1995, most of them on the King Tomislav Brigade.
Hundreds of British Nationals served in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War in the 1970s.
A couple of dozen British volunteers joining several units of the Ukrainian military, particularly of the Ukrainian Foreign Legion, and the Azov Assault Brigade
Bulgarian: Bulgarian Volunteer Corps. Fought for the Russian Empire during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.
Bosnian: Bosnia and Herzegovina has seen some 300 people join the conflict in Syria and Iraq, making it one of the top per capita exporters of foreign fighters in Europe.
The Bosnian War attracted large numbers of foreign fighters and mercenaries from various countries. Volunteers came to fight for a variety of reasons including religious or ethnic loyalties, but mostly for money.
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar, composed mainly of Bosnian Muslims with some Catholic Croats, and mostly German officers
The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama, composed of German officers and Bosnian Muslim soldiers fought in World War II on the Axis' side
Chinese: The Chinese People's Volunteer Army that fought in the Korean War was nominally composed of volunteers sent by the People's Republic of China even though it was in fact composed of regular troops of the People's Liberation Army.
Croatian: 20 to 30 Croatians fought as part of the far-right Azov volunteer battalion against Russian-backed rebels in eastern Ukraine since 2014
A total of 456 international volunteers from as many as 35 countries participated in the Croatian War of Independence (139 English, 69 French, 55 Germans, 33 Hungarians, 27 Dutch, 15 Australians)
The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 373rd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The 392nd (Croatian) Infantry Division, as part of German Wehrmacht, fought in World War II
The Croatian Air Force Legion, as part of German Luftwaffe fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The Croatian Anti-Aircraft Legion, as part of German Luftwaffe fought in World War II on the Axis' side
The Croatian Naval Legion, as part of the German Kriegsmarine, fought in World War II on the Black Sea
The Italian-Croatian Legion, unit of about 1,000 Croatian volunteers fighting for the Royal Italian Army
Four Croatian Provisional Infantry Regiments of the French Imperial Army fought in the Napoleonic Wars.
The Royal Cravat Cavalry Regiment of the French Royal Army founded in 1667 and disbanded in 1815
Czech: The Czechoslovak Legion, which fought on various fronts of WW1, as well as the Russian Civil War.
1st Czechoslovak Army Corps in the Soviet Union.
Estonian: In 1944, some 2,000 Estonians served in the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 during the Continuation War.
Filipino: Two hundred fifty French mercenaries served with British forces that invaded Manila in 1762. They changed sides and fought for the Spanish.
In the 1770s, the Spanish colonial army in the Philippines had an Infantry Company of Cavite Malabars
Filipinos served in the French military during the Cochinchina Campaign.
Filipinos served in the Ever Victorious Army.
The Philippine Revolutionary Army included commissioned officers who were American, Chinese, Cuban, English, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish.
The Philippine Constabulary in its early years had commissioned officers from Belgium, Cuba, England, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Philippines, Poland, Puerto Rico, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey.
Twenty-four Filipinos served in the French Army during World War I.
Some Americans served in the Philippine National Guard.
Filipinos fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War.
During the Pacific War, Filipinos served in various pro-Japanese militias:
The Bisigbakal ñg Tagala (Tagalog "Iron Arm of Tagala") was formed in January 1945 to assist the Japanese in maintaining peace and order in Manila. The Bisig Bakal received weapons, uniforms, and training from the Japanese.
About five thousand Filipinos served in a militia called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944 and was issued around two thousand rifles by the Japanese. Its headquarters was located at the Christ the King compound in Quezon City. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | Twenty-four Filipinos served in the French Army during World War I.
Some Americans served in the Philippine National Guard.
Filipinos fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War.
During the Pacific War, Filipinos served in various pro-Japanese militias:
The Bisigbakal ñg Tagala (Tagalog "Iron Arm of Tagala") was formed in January 1945 to assist the Japanese in maintaining peace and order in Manila. The Bisig Bakal received weapons, uniforms, and training from the Japanese.
About five thousand Filipinos served in a militia called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944 and was issued around two thousand rifles by the Japanese. Its headquarters was located at the Christ the King compound in Quezon City. The organization was active in the Manila area, and in the nearby provinces of Rizal, Laguna, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija. This militia made its last stand at Marikina in 1945. Other militias similar to the Makapili were: the Borong-Borong Gang, Kaigun Hatai, and Nishimura Butai.
The Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal (Tagalog "National Hope of the Children of Rizal") consisted of Ganáps in Pililla, Rizal, who were organized into a semi-military unit with the assistance of the Japanese. Also known as Pampar, they wore blue denim uniforms with short pants and were drilled along Japanese military lines. They performed sentry duties for the Japanese, and functioned as auxiliary troops of the Japanese army. They independently conducted raids against guerrilla camps.
The Yoin, incorrectly known as U.N. or United Nippon, were members of the Japanese Auxiliary Army drawn from the ranks of the Ganáp Party. They were trained for military purposes and wore Japanese regular uniforms. They were used as replacements in the ranks of Japanese infantry. Their counterparts in the Japanese Empire were the Koreans, Formosans, and Manchuokuans pressed into the Japanese army.
Some Americans and some Japanese fought with Filipino guerrillas.
One American joined the Huks.
One Italian pilot participated in the overthrow of the Marcos administration.
Filipinos, recruited by the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, fought in the Soviet–Afghan War. (See Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani)
One German ex-paratrooper participated in the 1989 coup
Filipinos hired by private military companies worked in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Filipinos fought in the Syrian Civil War.
Forty foreign fighters, from Indonesia, Malaysia, Yemen, and Chechnya, fought in the Siege of Marawi.
Finnish: As part of the Jäger Movement, a Finnish battalion was formed and served under the German Empire against the Russian Empire.
1,408 Finns volunteered to serve in the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking, against the USSR.
French: Foreign Legion - A wing of the French Army which recruits foreign nationals.
9,000 French fought in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War in the side of the Republicans. some also fought for the Nationalists
Some French emigres who fled to Britain fought in the British Army of the Napoleonic Wars.
Charlemagne Regiment of the SS fought for Germany in the Second World War.
Chasseurs Britanniques of the Napoleonic Wars.
Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism a collaborationist force of French who fought Soviet partisans for Nazi Germany.
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of French volunteers fought alongside the Croats in the King Tomislav Brigade.
7 Independent Company (Rhodesia).
German: Landsknecht
Hessian (soldier)
King's German Legion in the Napoleonic Wars.
During the American Civil War Germany was the place of birth for thousands of Union soldiers. Several German speaking regiments existed such as the 9th Ohio Infantry, or the 74th Pennsylvania Infantry.
In the Spanish Civil War, the state-sponsored Condor Legion fought for the Nationalists, while the Thaelmann Battalion fought for the Republicans.
From 1991 to 1994, during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War, a number of former Bundeswehr and East-German army members fought alongside the Croats in the King Tomislav Brigade. The brigade's executive officer at the time of the outbreak of the Bosnian Croat War was former Bundeswehr officer Jürgen Schmidt, who died while leading his troops against Bosnian Muslim forces near Gornji Vakuf, in January 1993. In another action, a German-volunteer patrol, led by former Bundeswehr member Michael Homeister, ambushed and killed two Serbs manning an observation post.
Greek: The Greek Battalion of Balaklava participated in the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768–1774, 1787–1792 and 1806–1812 on the side of the Russian Empire.
The Greek Volunteer Guard, fought in the Bosnian War on the side of the Army of Republika Srpska.
The Greek Volunteer Legion, fought in the Crimean War on the side of the Russian Empire.
Indian: The Free Indian Legion was a volunteer legion made up of Indian POWs. The legion was first part of the Wehrmacht but transferred to the Waffen-SS late in the war.
Battaglione Azad Hindoustan.
Irish: See also Irish military diaspora.
The Irish Brigade in the French Army from 1690 and through the eighteenth century.
The Irish Legion fought for Imperial France during the Napoleonic Wars
1st Regiment Venezuelan Rifles – Irish regiment that was part of the British Legions fighting in the South American Wars of Independence took part in the Venezuelan War of Independence.
St. Patrick's Battalion in the Mexican Army during the Mexican–American War.
The Irish Brigade which served on the Union side in the American Civil War in the 1860s
Irish commandos in the Boer Army during the Boer War
Connolly Column, fought for the Spanish republic in the Spanish Civil War.
The Irish Brigade which fought for the Nationalist rebels in the Spanish Civil War
Irish Papal Battalion fought for the Papal States prior to Italian Unification.
Irish Regiment of Canada fought in WW1 and WW2 for Canada along with the Irish Fusillers (Canadian).
South African Irish Regiment fought for the Union of South Africa both in WW1 and WW2 and was later transformed to a reserve unit which still forms part of the modern Republic of South African Army.
Israeli: Mahal – Program for non-Israelis between the age of 18–24 to serve in the IDF.
Italian: The Redshirts of Giuseppe Garibaldi fought in Southern Italy and Uruguay.
Corpo Truppe Volontarie in the Spanish Civil War.
Division Garibaldi fought under Josip Broz Tito's command as a part of NOVJ in Dalmatia and Bosnia, during the Second World War
Japanese: Kempeitai Auxiliary units included colonial subjects such as Formosans, Indochinese, Koreans, and Malays. Foreigners included Chinese, Filipinos and Manchuokuans.
Former Japanese soldiers fought alongside anti-colonial guerrillas in the First Indochina War, Indonesian National Revolution, and the Malayan Emergency. They also fought on both sides of the Chinese Civil War.
Korean: Korean Augmentation to the United States Army
Moroccan: Fuerzas Regulares Indígenas in the 1934 Asturian uprising and the Spanish Civil War.
Nepalese: Gurkhas in the British Army.
Gorkhas in the Indian Army.
Gurkha Contingent in the Singapore Police Force
Gurkha Reserve Unit – a similar type force in Brunei.
Foreign Legion in the French Army.
Polish: Brigades in the Spanish Civil War.
Polish Lancers and other Polish forces in the Army of Napoleon.
Polish Volunteers in many wars and revolutions of the 19th century, including Spring of Nations, Crimean War (on Turkish side) and The Paris Commune.
The Blue Army, fought on the western front for the Allies during WW1.
The Polish Legions, which fought for the Central Powers.
Polish Volunteers served in the RAF during WW2.
Portuguese: Legião Viriato in the Spanish Civil War.
Rhodesian: There were hundreds of foreign volunteers in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. The Rhodesian Army accepted foreign volunteers, almost all of whom were required to speak English, as they were integrated into regular units (usually the Rhodesian Light Infantry) alongside locally based soldiers. The exception was 7 Independent Company, a short-lived unit made up entirely of French-speaking personnel, led by francophone officers, which existed between 1977 and 1978.
Russian: The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation have since 2010 or so begun to recruit CIS volunteers. See Armed Forces of the Russian Federation#Personnel.
A number of Russian soldiers would fight for Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War as part of the Freedom of Russia Legion.
Soviet Volunteer Group, between 1937-1941 as part of the Republic of China Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Some Russians fought for the Allies on the Western Front of WW1 as part of the Russian Legion. They were former members of the Russian Expeditionary Force. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of foreign volunteers | The Rhodesian Army accepted foreign volunteers, almost all of whom were required to speak English, as they were integrated into regular units (usually the Rhodesian Light Infantry) alongside locally based soldiers. The exception was 7 Independent Company, a short-lived unit made up entirely of French-speaking personnel, led by francophone officers, which existed between 1977 and 1978.
Russian: The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation have since 2010 or so begun to recruit CIS volunteers. See Armed Forces of the Russian Federation#Personnel.
A number of Russian soldiers would fight for Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War as part of the Freedom of Russia Legion.
Soviet Volunteer Group, between 1937-1941 as part of the Republic of China Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Some Russians fought for the Allies on the Western Front of WW1 as part of the Russian Legion. They were former members of the Russian Expeditionary Force.
A small group of White Russian emigres fought for Nationalist Spain as part of the Spanish Legion.
Asano Brigade, a unit of White Russian Emigres in Manchukuo.
Various Russian collaborators, nicknamed Hiwis fought in both the Wehrmacht and the Waffen SS.
Russian Emigres served in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps, a multinational volunteer force of the Shanghai International Settlement.
Serbian: Serbian Militia was a Serbian military unit of the Habsburg-Austrian army consisting of Serbs that existed between 1686–1704.
Serbian Hussar Regiment was a military unit of the Russian Imperial Army which consisted of Serbian colonists in Russia.
International Legion (Ukraine) spokesman confirms that there are indeed Serbian volunteers fighting in the legion alongside other volunteers.
Volunteers from both Serbia
and the Bosnian Serb entity, Republika Srpska, fought on the Russian side in the Donbas since the first military conflict in Ukraine in 2014
The Serb Volunteer Guard, Fought in the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War supporting the Serb forces like the Army of Republika Srpska
The Serbian Guard was a Serbian volunteer organization, armed wing of the Serbian Renewal Movement, active in Croatia in 1991
Kninjas were Serbian volunteer organization commanded by Dragan Vasiljković, active in Croatia
White Eagles were Serbian volunteer organization, armed wing of the Serbian Radical Party, active in Bosnia and Croatia
Over 1,000 ethnic Serbs volunteered for the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen at General Phelps' office, most of whom were either ideologically or otherwise motivated to fight against the Partisans.
The Serbian Volunteer Corps was an Axis collaborationist group during WWII that helped fight against partisan forces in Serbia
First Serbian Volunteer Division was a military formation of the First World War. This independent volunteer unit was primarily made up of South Slav Habsburg prisoners of war, detained in Russia
Scottish: Scots have a long history of service in the armies of Kings of France since at least the ninth century. The Scottish Guard was formally created by the French King Charles VII in 1422, and existed until the end of the Bourbon Restoration period in 1830.
South African: South African 32 Battalion
Spanish: The Blue Division of World War II fighting with Germany against the USSR.
The Blue Legion was formed late in the Second World War out of Blue Division soldiers who refused to leave after Franco required all Spaniards to leave Axis forces.
The 9th Armoured Company of the Free French Forces, which consisted of Spanish Republican exiles
The Spanish Legion accepts foreign recruits.
Swedish: 1,600 Swedes fought for the anti-communist side of the Finnish Civil War.
Swedish volunteers took part in the Estonian War of Independence.
Swedish Volunteer Corps fighting for the Finnish side in the Winter War.
Swedish Voluntary Air Force fighting for the Finnish side in the Winter War.
Swedish Volunteer Company fighting for the Finnish side in the Continuation War.
Swedish Volunteer Battalion fighting for the Finnish side in the Continuation War.
Hundreds of Swedes volunteered in the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking to fight against the USSR.
Swiss: Pontifical Swiss Guard
Swiss mercenaries served under the flags of many European nations including the British, Dutch, French and Spanish; as well as continue to serve as the military of the Holy See.
Taiwanese: Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman
Takasago Volunteers were volunteer soldiers in the Imperial Japanese Army recruited from the Taiwanese aboriginal tribes during World War II.
Ukrainian: The 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) was made up nearly entirely of ethnic Ukrainians.
The Ukrainian Liberation Army was a division of the Wehrmacht that fought all over Europe.
The Nachtigall Battalion was a battalion of the Wehrmacht made up of Ukrainian nationalists who fought against the USSR.
The Roland Battalion was a battalion of the Wehrmacht made up of Ukrainian nationalists who fought against the USSR.
The Roland and Nachtigall battalions were later reorganized into the 201st Schutzmannschaft.
The Ukrainian National Army fought against the USSR in the last days of WWII.
Thousands of Hiwis were of Ukrainian origin.
From several hundred to several thousand nationalist Ukrainians served in UNA-UNSO expeditionary units. UNSO took part in the Transnistrian War 1990-1992, the Chechen War 1994-1996 ("Viking" unit), and the war in Georgia 1991-1993 ("Argo" unit).
Foreign volunteers joined the International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine to defend Ukraine from the Russian Invasion in 2022.
Yugoslav: Yugoslav brigadistas (Spanish: brigadistas yugoslavos), a contingent from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who fought beside the Republican faction (In support of the government of the Second Spanish Republic).
The 1st Yugoslav Volunteer Brigade, fought in World War II under Red Army command. Later became part of the Yugoslav Army.
See also: List of militaries that recruit foreigners
Europäische Freiwillige of the Second World War
Foreign legions
Foreign fighter
Mercenary
Military volunteer
Mujahideen
Spanish Civil War and Foreign Involvement
Foreign support in the Winter War
White Tights, alleged Baltic female snipers in Chechnya
Spanish American wars of independence
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military occupations | Contemporary occupations:
Historical occupations: Events before the Hague Convention of 1907 are out of scope.
1907–1919 (miscellaneous):
World War I and immediate aftermath:
1920–1946 (miscellaneous):
World War II: build up and immediate aftermath:
1947–1959:
1960–1979:
1980–1999:
2000–2019:
2020–present:
See also: Russian-occupied territories
Israeli-occupied territories
Military occupations by the Soviet Union
Peacekeeping – military deployments for peace-keeping purposes
List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
Annexation
Revanchism
For a list of states that have seceded unilaterally see List of states with limited recognition
For a list of cases where territory is disputed between countries, see List of territorial disputes
Bibliography: Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO (2015), Occupation/Annexation of a Territory: Respect for International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Consistent EU Policy (PDF)
Chapman, Jessica M. (2013). Cauldron of Resistance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States, and 1950s Southern Vietnam. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5061-7.
Footnotes and references:
Footnotes:
=== References === |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | World War I: See also List of military engagements of World War I
Albion (1917) — German capture of Oesel, Dagö and Moon Islands (now Saaremaa, Hiiumaa and Muhu).
Hush (1917) — Planned Allied amphibious landing on the Belgian coast.
Kaiserschlacht ('Kaiser's battle') (1918) — German spring offensive using armies released from the Eastern Front composed of 4 offensives:
Blücher-Yorck (1918)
Gneisenau (1918)
Georgette (1918)
Michael (1918)
Strafexpedition (Punitive Expedition) (1916) — operation by the Austro-Hungarian Army against Italy (Italian northern front): the largest mountain battle ever fought.
Z-O (1918) — British raid on Zeebrugge.
World War II: See List of World War II military operations
Cold War era:
Asia: Pig Bristle (1946) — Unusual Australian operation to fly pig bristles needed to manufacture paint brushes out of China during the Chinese Civil War
Ajax (1953) — Anglo-American plan for Iranian coup d'état that deposed Mohammed Mosaddeq and reinstalled Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Operation Desert Hawk (1965) — Pakistani Military operation in the disputed Rann of kutch area against Indian offensive.
Atilla (1974) — Turkish invasion of Cyprus, leading to subsequent occupation of northern Cyprus
Operation Seroja (1975) — Indonesian invasion of East Timor, the largest Military Operation conducted by Indonesian military, leading to subsequent Integration of East Timor to Indonesia until 1999
Cactus (1988) — Indian armed forces oust Tamil nationalist mercenaries of PLOTE who instigated a coup in Malé in the Maldives.
Operation Chengiz Khan (1971) — Pakistan Air Force launches preemptive attacks on Indian air bases.
Claret (1964) — British SAS, NZSAS and Australian SASR patrols into Indonesia
Jock Scott (1952) — British rounding up of suspected insurgents at the beginning of the Mau Mau Uprising
Anvil (1954) — British counter-insurgency operation in Nairobi during the Mau Mau Uprising
Eagle Claw (1980) — Attempted rescue of American hostages held in Tehran.
Earnest Will (1987–88) — American protection of Kuwaiti oil tankers in the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War
Eager Glacier (1987–88) — U.S. spy planes gather intelligence about Iran.
Nimble Archer (1987) — U.S. retaliates for Iranian missile attack on reflagged Kuwaiti tanker.
Praying Mantis (1988) — U.S. retaliates against Iran for mining frigate.
Prime Chance (1987–88) — Special operations to protect Kuwaiti tankers, run largely from barges in the northern Persian Gulf.
Evening Light (1980) — failed U.S. attempt to rescue embassy hostages in Tehran
Gibraltar (1965)
Grand Slam (1965)
Lucky Alphonse (1956) — British sweep of Troodos area on Cyprus for EOKA
Meghdoot (1984) — Indian military's capture of the majority of Siachen Glacier.
Nimrod (1980) — rescue of hostages in the Iranian embassy, London
Paul Bunyan (1976) — UN forces remove a tree in the Korean Demilitarized Zone
Sparrowhawk I, II and III (1956) — British operations against EOKA on Cyprus.
Team Spirit (1976–1993) — Annual joint exercise with South Korean forces.
Dwarka (1965) — Pakistan Navy's attack on the Indian coastal town of Dwarka on 7 September 1965. This was the first use of a Navy in the Indo-Pakistan Wars.
Trident (1971) — Indian Navy's bombing and blockade of Karachi Port, Pakistan.
Storm-333 (1979) — Storming Afghan Political and military headquarters
Grand Junction (1968) — North Korea's TET 1968 attempt to attack US assets in Seoul.
Europe: Berlin Airlift of 1948:
Vittles — US part of the Berlin Airlift
Planefare — British part of the Berlin Airlift.
Gladio (?) — Stockpiles of weapons in Italy, Switzerland, Austria and other countries for resistance to Soviet occupiers.
Gold (1954) — covert American tunnel under the Berlin Wall
Neptune (1964) — Soviet-led counterintelligence operation.
Reforger — Annual American exercise to "return forces to Germany".
Retail (1946) — British clearance of naval mines laid in Albanian waters.
Silver (1949) — covert British communications tap in Austria
Danube (1968) — Warsaw Pact invasion to halt Czechoslovakia's "Prague Spring" reforms
Banner (1969–2007) Deployment of British troops to Northern Ireland to prevent sectarian killings and support the police during the 1969–1997 armed campaign of the Provisional IRA. Operation Banner resulted in over 700 British Armed Forces deaths and 303 police deaths at the hands of native Irish Republicans. 307 people were killed by the British troops, about 51% of whom were civilians and 42% of whom were members of republican paramilitaries.
South America: Brother Sam (1964) — A US government contingency plan to support the military coup that overthrew the Brazilian constitutional president João Goulart, if the coup had faced armed resistance
The track down operation (1967) — that captured and executed Che Guevara
Condor (1970s) — — A campaign run by then South American Military Dictatorships' intelligence services with United States' support, which goal was extrajudicial and secretly, find, capture and eliminate political dissidents who, had succeeded to escape political repression in their homelands but could be found in any of these other countries.
Central America and the Caribbean: Fortune (1950s) — 1951 CIA plan for a coup in Guatemala. Executed as Success.
Success (1954) — 1954 CIA coup in Guatemala.
Northwoods (1960s) — plan to incite war between the United States and Cuba.
Peter Pan (1960s) — transfer of Cubans to the US
Operation Pluto (1961) — plan to invade Cuba and overthrow its government using a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles.
Mongoose (1962) — plan for information gathering, sabotage, civil insurrection and overthrow of the Cuban government.
Phibriglex (1962) — US plan and mock invasion by its armed forces of a Caribbean island. The exercise took place on Vieques and the purpose of the mock invasion was to overthrow a fictitious leader called "Ortsac", whose name was, in fact, Castro spelled backwards. It occurred in August, shortly before the Cuban Missile Crisis. It is also known by the names Operation Ortsac, Operation Swift Strike II and Exercise Phibriglex-62.
Anadyr (1962) — Cuban-Soviet plan to base nuclear weapons in Cuba; the cause of the Cuban Missile Crisis
Kama (1962) — Soviet plan to forward-base seven Soviet ballistic missile submarines in Mariel, Cuba (part of Anadyr)
Power Pack (1965) — US deployment with OEA military support in the Dominican Republic
Waverider (1972) —
Acid Gambit — Rescue of Kurt Muse.
Bushmaster — Security operations near US facilities.
Urgent Fury (1983) — US invasion of Grenada
Contras covert operation (1980s) — Covert operations undertaken by Ronald Reagan's administration to provide financial, military, logistic and supply support for the Contras
Golden Pheasant (1988) — US deployment in Honduras
Just Cause (1989) — US invasion of Panama
Southern Africa: Hurricane (1972–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against ZIPRA and ZANU guerillas in Mashonaland.
Overload (1974) — Rhodesian security forces operation to establish protected villages.
Savannah (1975–76) — South African intervention in Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA).
Carlota (1977) — Cuban Deployment to counter South African attacks to Angola.
Dingo (1977) — Rhodesian attack on camps in Mozambique.
Tangent (1977–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against insurgents in Matabeleland.
Favour (1978–1980) / — Training of former insurgents to serve as security force auxiliaries in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Reindeer (1978) — South African airborne attack on South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) base at Cassinga, Angola.
Rekstok (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Saffraan (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Zambia.
Klipklop (1980) — South African disruption of SWAPO logistics in Angola.
Sceptic (1980) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Dingo (1977) — Rhodesian attack on camps in Mozambique.
Tangent (1977–1980) / — Operations by Rhodesian security forces against insurgents in Matabeleland.
Favour (1978–1980) / — Training of former insurgents to serve as security force auxiliaries in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
Reindeer (1978) — South African airborne attack on South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) base at Cassinga, Angola.
Rekstok (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Saffraan (1979) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Zambia.
Klipklop (1980) — South African disruption of SWAPO logistics in Angola.
Sceptic (1980) — South African attack on SWAPO bases in Angola.
Protea (1981) — South African attack on SWAPO bases near Ongiva and Xangongo, Angola.
Carnation (1981) — South African skirmishes with SWAPO forces along the Angolan border.
Meebos (1982) — South African destruction of SWAPO's "East Front" HQ at Mupa, Angola.
Askari (1983) — South African attack on SWAPO and People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) forces in Angola.
Phoenix (1983) — South African response to mass SWAPO infiltration of South-West Africa
Alpha Centauri (1986) — South African operation in support of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) in Angola.
Moduler (1987) — South African operation to reverse the FAPLA advance on Mavinga and Jamba.
Hooper (1988) — South African operation followup to Modular in pursuit of retreating FAPLA forces.
Packer (1988) — South African operation to push FAPLA and Cuban forces north of the Cuito River, following Hooper
Chad: Bison (1969–1972) — French intervention to counter FROLINAT insurgency.
Tacaud (1978–1980) — Operation to avoid FROLINAT rebels taking Chad's capital.
Manta (1983–1984) — Intervention in the Chadian-Libyan conflict.
Épervier (1986–2014) — French military presence in Chad originally designed to counter Libyan expansion in Northern Chad, then continued to support Chad during the Sudanese backed Chadian Civil War and later focused on counterterrorism against jihadi threats in the Sahel region.
Congo/Zaire: Dragon Blanc (1964) — Operation White Dragon – Cancelled Belgian airborne intervention in Bunia – Congo
Dragon Noir (1964) — Operation Black Dragon – Belgian airborne intervention in Paulis – Congo
Dragon Rouge (1964) — Operation Red Dragon – Belgian airborne intervention in Stanleyville – Congo
Dragon Vert (1964) — Operation Green Dragon – Cancelled Belgian airborne intervention in Watsa – Congo
Verveine (1977) — French intervention in Shaba – Zaire
Bonite/Léopard (1978) — French airborne intervention in Kolwezi – Zaire
Red Bean (1978) — Belgian airborne intervention in Kolwezi – Zaire
Central African Republic: Barracuda (1979–1981) — Occupation of Bangui, Central African Republic as a peace-keeping intervention after the overthrow of Emperor Bokassa.
Caban (1979) — Capture of Bangui airport as a prelude to Operation Barracuda in order to overthrow Emperor Bokassa.
Falklands War (1982): Rosario — Argentine joint operation
Algeciras — Planned Argentine sabotage raid.
Azul — Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands
Corporate — British recapture of the islands
Paraquet — British recapture of South Georgia.
Black Buck — British long-range bombing raid
Keyhole — British commando raid on Thule Island
Purple Warrior — British training exercise incorporating lessons from the Falklands War
Sutton — British amphibious landings on San Carlos Water
Other: Argus (1959) — test of nuclear bombs in the upper atmosphere.
Blowdown (1963) — Australia/US/UK simulated nuclear explosion in a rain forest.
Cyclone (1979) — US covert aid to Afghan mujahideen fighting the Soviets.
El Dorado Canyon (1986) — US strikes against Libya
Morning Light (1978) — Joint Canadian-US effort to recover Kosmos 954, a nuclear-powered Soviet RORSAT.
Operation Morris Dance (1987) — Australian response to the first of the 1987 Fijian coups d'état.
Mount Hope III (1988) — covert recovery of a crashed Soviet-made Mil helicopter from Africa.
Nuclear testing List of all known named nuclear tests.
Indochina War: Adolphe (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Atlante (1954) — French operation to pacify the local populace between Da Nang and Nha Trang and re-establish the sovereignty of the Bảo Đại government.
Bretagne (1952–1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Brochet (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Camargue (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Castor (1953) — French airborne operation to establish a fortified airhead in Điện Biên Province.
Ceinture (1947) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Condor (1954) — French relief attempt of Dien Bien Phu.
Hirondelle (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Léa (1947) — French airborne attempt to capture the leaders of the Viet Minh.
Lorraine (1952) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Masterdom (1945–1946) — French and British Armies operation against Viet Minh in Indochina after the Liberation from Japan.
Mouette (1953) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Papillon (1947) — French operation against Viet Minh in Indochina.
Pollux (1953) — French evacuation of troops stationed in Lai Châu Province.
Vulture (1954) — Aborted American air support of French troops against the Viet Minh around Dien Bien Phu.
Korean War: Operation Roll-Up (1949) — Refurbishment and redeployment of World War II equipment.
Blue Hearts (1950) — UN amphibious landings at Pohang.
Courageous (1951) — Movement of UN infantry units up the Imjin River.
Tomahawk (1951) — Deployment of airmobile forces in the Battle of the Imjin River.
Commando (1951) — Attack to the Jamestown Line.
Chromite (1950) — UN invasion at Inchon.
Little Switch (1953) — Exchange of sick and wounded prisoners of war between United Nations and North Korean/Chinese forces.
Big Switch (1953)
Ripper (1951) — UN movements towards the 38th parallel to recapture Seoul.
Operation Moolah (1953) — psychological operation against Communist MiG-15 pilots to defect.
Vietnam War: Arc Light (1965) — US B-52 bombing campaign in Vietnam
Attleboro (1966) — U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) air mobile operations in Tây Ninh.
Babylift (1975) — mass evacuation/airlift of orphans from South Vietnam to the U.S. and other countries
Barrel Roll (1964–73) — the bombing of Laos by U.S. forces, to support the Royal Laotian Army and CIA-trained Hmong.
Steel Tiger (1965–68)
Tiger Hound (1965–68)
Silver Bayonet (1965) — First major combat operation of the 1st Air Cavalry Div.
Commando Hunt (1968–72) — U.S. bombing of the Ho Chi Minh trail
Bolo (1967) — Decoy mission to disguise the electronic signature of combat aircraft.
Chopper (1962) — Major air mobile offensive near Saigon.
Cedar Falls (1967) — Attack on National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NVA or Viet Cong) positions in Bến Cát (the Iron Triangle)
Dewey Canyon (1971) — Offensive against NVA communication lines in Laos.
Enhance Plus (1972) — Resupply of military equipment and consumables to the government of South Vietnam.
Flaming Dart (1965) — Reprisal bombing attacks by the U.S. Air Force against NVA units.
Frequent Wind (1975) — Helicopter evacuation of U.S. citizens before the fall of Saigon.
Game Warden (1965) — first major U.S. riverine patrol operation. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | bombing of the Ho Chi Minh trail
Bolo (1967) — Decoy mission to disguise the electronic signature of combat aircraft.
Chopper (1962) — Major air mobile offensive near Saigon.
Cedar Falls (1967) — Attack on National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NVA or Viet Cong) positions in Bến Cát (the Iron Triangle)
Dewey Canyon (1971) — Offensive against NVA communication lines in Laos.
Enhance Plus (1972) — Resupply of military equipment and consumables to the government of South Vietnam.
Flaming Dart (1965) — Reprisal bombing attacks by the U.S. Air Force against NVA units.
Frequent Wind (1975) — Helicopter evacuation of U.S. citizens before the fall of Saigon.
Game Warden (1965) — first major U.S. riverine patrol operation. Later Swift Boat operations included:
Ballistic Charge
Beacon Star
Beacon Torch
Bear Bite
Bear Claw
Beau Charger
Beau Diddley
Beaver Cage
Bold Mariner
Boone
Canyon
Daring Rebel
Deckhouse Five (1967)
DeSoto
Dragon Fire
Fortress Ridge
Seahawk
Sea Tiger
Market Time (1965)
Hastings (1966) — U.S. and ARVN counter-offensive operations in Quảng Trị
Homecoming (1973) — repatriation of U.S. prisoners of war from Vietnam
Leap Frog (1968) — Systematic canvassing of the opinions of senior ARVN officers by U.S. military intelligence on likely NLF actions.
Menu (1969) — U.S. bombing of Cambodia
Malheur (1967) — Twin phased Search and destroy operations in Quảng Ngãi
Pegasus (1968) — Resupply and relief operations to U.S. Marines besieged at Khe Sanh
Phoenix (1968) — CIA-organized assassination campaign against influential NLF operatives in South Vietnam
Rich (1968) — Combined arms assault near the Bến Hải River in the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone
Linebacker (1972) — Strategic bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong, and mining of Haiphong harbour.
Ranch Hand (1961–71) — Spraying of herbicides (including Agent Orange) by aircraft and ground forces.
Trail Dust
Rolling Thunder (1967–68) — Bombing of North Vietnam
Sealords (1968) — Mekong Delta and inland waterways campaign by the U.S. Navy in Vietnam
Starlite (1965) — United States Marine Corps actions near Chu Lai.
Sunrise (1962) — Relocation of Vietnamese peasantry around Saigon to "strategic hamlets."
Tailwind (1970) — Alleged use of nerve gas against U.S. defectors in Laos.
Toan Thang 42 (1970) — ARVN incursion into Cambodia
Union I and II (1967) — American Marines in the Quế Sơn Valley. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Ranch Hand (1961–71) — Spraying of herbicides (including Agent Orange) by aircraft and ground forces.
Trail Dust
Rolling Thunder (1967–68) — Bombing of North Vietnam
Sealords (1968) — Mekong Delta and inland waterways campaign by the U.S. Navy in Vietnam
Starlite (1965) — United States Marine Corps actions near Chu Lai.
Sunrise (1962) — Relocation of Vietnamese peasantry around Saigon to "strategic hamlets."
Tailwind (1970) — Alleged use of nerve gas against U.S. defectors in Laos.
Toan Thang 42 (1970) — ARVN incursion into Cambodia
Union I and II (1967) — American Marines in the Quế Sơn Valley.
March–April 1958: Operation Booster Shot, nationwide
22 January 1959 – 19 April 1961: Project Hotfoot (Laos), nationwide
December 1958: North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, in Military Region 3 (MR 3)
25 December 1959: 1960 Laotian coups, in Military Region 5 (M5)
10 August 1960: 1960 Laotian coups, in MR 5
13–16 December 1960: Battle of Vientiane, in MR 5
17 January 1961 – 30 September 1974: Operation Momentum, in Military Region 2 (MR 2)
31 January – 6 June 1961: Battle of Ban Pa Dong, in Military Region 1 (MR 1)
13 March – August 1961: Operation Millpond, nationwide, (cancelled)
13 December 1961 – 10 September 1962: Operation Pincushion, in Military Region 4 (MR 4)
January – 5 May 1962: Battle of Luang Namtha, in MR 1
25 May 1963: Chinese Road in MR 1
Summer 1963 – 1972: Operation Hardnose, in MR 3 and MR 4
November 1963 – January 1964: Battle of Lak Sao, in MR 3
Late 1963 – mid-1967: Wapi Project, in MR 4
18 April 1964: 1964 Laotian coups, in MR 5
19–29 July 1964: Operation Triangle, in MR1, MR2, and MR 5
19 July 1964 – March 1973: Unity (military operation), in MR 2 and MR 4
4 August 1964: 1964 Laotian coups, in MR 5
14 December 1964 – 22 February 1973: Operation Barrel Roll, in MR 2
31 January 1965: 1965 Laotian coups, in MR 5
3 April 1965 –11 November 1968: Operation Steel Tiger in MR 3 and MR 4
Late 1965: Operation Star (Laos), in MR 3
5 December 1965 – end of 1968: Operation Tiger Hound in MR 3 and MR 4
17 February 1966: Battles of Nakhang, in MR 2
23 May 1966: Second Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
August 1966 – January 1968: Battle of Nam Bac, in MR 1
21 October 1966: 1966 Laotian coup, in MR 5
6 January 1967: Third Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
9 January 1967: Ban Naden raid, in MR 3
29 July – 1 August 1967: 1967 Opium War, on Burmese border of MR 1
23 January 1968: Battle of Ban Houei Sane, in MR 3
10–11 March 1968: Battle of Lima Site 85, in MR 2
26 November 1968 – 7 January 1969: Operation Pigfat, in MR 2
28 February 1969: Fourth Battle of Nakhang, in MR 2
17 March – 7 April 1969: Operation Raindance, in MR2
12 March 1969: Battles of Bouamlong, in MR 2
18–27 June 1969: Campaign Toan Thang, in MR 2
21–26 June 1969: Operation Left Jab in MR 4
1–15 July 1969: Operation Off Balance, in MR 2
28 July – 17 October 1969: Operation Junction City Jr., in MR 3
6 August – 30 September 1969: Kou Kiet, in MR 2
13 September 1969 – 25 April 1970: Campaign 139, in MR 2
20 September 1969 – 9 March 1970: Operation Diamond Arrow, in MR 4
15 November 1968 – 29 March 1969: Operation Commando Hunt, in MR 3 and MR 4
2–26 July 1970: Operation Maeng Da, in MR 3
31 August – mid-December 1970: Operation Honorable Dragon, in MR 4
11–13 September 1970: Operation Tailwind, in MR 4
26 September 1970 – 7 January 1971: Operation Counterpunch, in MR 2
19 October – 13 November 1970: Tchepone Operation, in MR 3
1 January – May 1971: Project Copper, in MR 4
5 January – 11 February 1971: Operation Silver Buckle, in MR 3
2 February – late May 1971: Campaign 74B, in MR 2
8 February – 25 March 1971: Operation Lam Son 719, in MR 4
16 February – 29 March 1971: Operation Desert Rat, in MR 3
2 April – 20 August 1971: Operation Phalat, along Thai border of MR 1
7 April – 27 June 1971: Operation Xieng Dong, in MR 1
15 May – late September 1971: Operation Phoutah, in MR 3
9–11 June 1971: Operation Phiboonpol, in MR 4
27 July – 31 October 1971: Operation Sayasila, in MR 4
5 August – 25 September 1971: Phou Khao Kham, in MR 5
September 1971: Operation Sourisak Montry, along Thai border of MR 1
1–9 November 1971: Operation Bedrock (Laos), in MR 4
1 November – 23 December 1971: Operation Thao La, in MR 4
17 December 1971 – 30 January 1972: Campaign Z, in MR 2
30 December 1971 – 16 March 1972: Operation Maharat, in MR 1 and MR 5
1 February – 17 March 1972, Operation Strength I, in MR 2
11 February – ca. 31 March 1972, Operation Sinsay in MR 4
6–30 March 1972: Operation Strength II, in MR 2
1–27 April 1972: Operation Fa Ngum, in MR 4
June 1972: Operation Sourisak Montry VIII, along Thai border of MR 1
15 June – 19 October 1972: Operation Black Lion, in MR 4
26 July – 27 September 1972: Operation Phou Phiang II, in MR 2
18 October 1972 – 22 February 1973: Operation Black Lion III, in MR 4
28 October – 27 December 1972: Campaign 972, on the MR2/MR 3 boundary
21 November 1972 – 22 February 1973: Operation Black Lion V, in MR 4
7 December 1972 – early May 1973: The Vinh wiretap
6 January – 5 February 1973: Operation Maharat II, in MR 5
18 January – March 1973: Operation Phou Phiang III, in MR 2
20 August 1973: 1973 Laotian coup, in MR 5
Post–Cold War:
Asia: Safed Sager (1999) — Indian Air Force operations in the Kargil War.
Operation Swift Retort (2019) — Pakistan Air Force retaliatory air operation during the 2019 conflict with India.
Sri Lankan Civil War: Vadamarachchi Operation (1997) — military offensive carried out by the Sri Lankan military
Operation Riviresa (1995) — operation launched by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces to capture the Jaffna Peninsula.
Operation Jayasikurui (1997–1999) —
2008–2009 Sri Lankan Army Northern offensive (2008–2009) — Final major operation of the country's 25-year-old civil war.
Jaffna University Helidrop (1987) — First of the operations launched by the Indian forces (IPKF) aimed at disarming the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) by force and securing the town of Jaffna. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Operation Swift Retort (2019) — Pakistan Air Force retaliatory air operation during the 2019 conflict with India.
Sri Lankan Civil War: Vadamarachchi Operation (1997) — military offensive carried out by the Sri Lankan military
Operation Riviresa (1995) — operation launched by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces to capture the Jaffna Peninsula.
Operation Jayasikurui (1997–1999) —
2008–2009 Sri Lankan Army Northern offensive (2008–2009) — Final major operation of the country's 25-year-old civil war.
Jaffna University Helidrop (1987) — First of the operations launched by the Indian forces (IPKF) aimed at disarming the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) by force and securing the town of Jaffna.
Operation Pawan (1987) — Indian mission to take control of Jaffna
Rwanda: Clean Corridor (1994) — Escort of Tutsi military forces to Kigali by the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR).
Green Beam (1990) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians in Rwanda.
Ippocampo (1994) — Italian codename for evacuation of Italian civilians from Rwanda.
Noroît (1990) — French codename for evacuation of civilians from Kigali at the start of the Rwandan Civil War.
Silver Back (1994) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians and withdrawal of Belgian armed forces in Rwanda.
Tamar (1994) — Australian contribution to peacekeeping in Rwanda.
Turquoise (1994) — French led intervention in Rwanda to protect displaced persons.
Congo/Zaire: Antilope (1997) — French Army evacuation of French and foreign citizens from Pointe-Noire.
Artemis (2003) — French led EU contribution to UN peace keeping mission during Ituri conflict, Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO).
Blue Beam (1991) — Belgian military intervention and evacuation of civilians in Zaire.
Caravan (2003) — Canadian contribution to the French-led Interim Emergency Multinational Force in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Green Stream (1997) — Belgian military evacuation of civilians in Zaire.
Malebo (1996) — French Army hostage rescue operation in Zaire.
Mistral (2003) — South African contribution to the Mission of the United Nations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) including the Force Intervention Brigade.
Pélican (1997) — French Army evacuation of French and foreign citizens from Brazzaville.
Teutonic (2005) — SANDF assistance to DRC transitional government.
Horn of Africa: Addition (2000) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Atalanta (2008–present) — EU military presence off the coast of Somalia to act against piracy.
Deliverance (1993) — Canadian mission to Somalia.
Eastern Exit (1991) — US evacuation of its embassy in Somalia.
Espresso (2002) — South African contribution to the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Operation Gothic Serpent (1993) — United States special operation with the primary mission of capturing faction leader Mohamed Farrah Aidid in Somalia.
Iskoutir (1992–1999) — French Army intervention for enforcement of ceasefire during and after the Djiboutian Civil War.
Restore Hope (1992) — American name for UNITAF, humanitarian intervention in Somalia.
Oryx (1992–1993) — French Army contribution to Operation Restore Hope.
Solace (1992) — Australian deployment in Somalia.
Mano River Region: Barras (2000) — Rescue of British hostages/soldiers and SAS destruction of a rebel group in Sierra Leone.
Espadon (1997) — French codename for evacuation of French civilians during Sierra Leone Civil War.
Licorne (2002) — French Army contribution to the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire.
Montego (2003) — South African contribution to United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL).
Phillis (2004) — Evacuation of British citizens from Ivory Coast.
Providence (2003) — French codename for evacuation of French and foreign civilians from Monrovia during Second Liberian Civil War.
Sharp Edge (1990–1991) — Evacuation of Americans from Liberia.
Shining Express (2003) — Evacuation of Americans from Liberia.
Central Africa: African Union Mission in Burundi (2003–2004) — African Union mission to Burundi, later replaced by United Nations Operation in Burundi.
Boali (2002–2013) — French intervention in the Central African Republic during the Central African Republic Bush War. It is replaced by Operation Sangharis.
EUFOR Tchad/RCA (2007–2009) — French led EU peace keeping mission in Chad and Central African Republic during Chadian Civil War.
MINURCAT (2009–2010) — UN mission that succeeded EUFOR Tchad/RCA.
Sangaris (2013–2016) — Peace-keeping intervention in Central African Republic.
Libya: Unified Protector (2011) — NATO led intervention during the Libyan Civil War to enforce United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.
Ellamy (2011) — British contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Harmattan (2011) — French contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Mobile (2011) — Canadian contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Odyssey Dawn (2011) — US contribution to the operation Unified Protector.
Sudan: Azure (2005) — Australian name for UN peace keeping mission in Sudan (UNMIS). [1]
Cordite (2004) — South African observer mission to the African Union mission in Darfur.
Nilo (2005) — Italian name for UN peace keeping mission in Sudan (UNMIS).
Western Sahara: Lamantin (1977–1978) — French Army intervention in Mauritania during the Western Sahara conflict.
MINURSO (1991–present) — UN peace keeping mission in Western Sahara.
Zimbabwe: Liberation (2002) — Seizure of Asian-owned assets in Zimbabwe.
Murambatsvina (2005) — Zimbabwe government's attack on residential district loyal to opposition groups.
Other Africa: Albatros (1993–94) — Italian contribution to UN peace keeping mission in Mozambique (UNOMOZ).
Azalée (1995) — French reaction to the mercenary led coup in Comoros.
Boleas (1998) — South African and Botswanan military intervention in Lesotho.
Corymbe (1990–present) — French Navy prepositioning off Gulf of Guinea acting against piracy and serving as backup for a potential evacuation of EU citizens from Western Africa in case of conflict.
Tanker Two (2002) — South African Navy mission to shadow Greenpeace's MV Esperanza and prevent interception of the Pacific Teal, a plutonium transport.
East Timor: Astute (2006) — Deployment of Australian military forces to East Timor following the May 2006 civil unrest.
Citadel — Australia's contribution to the United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET). Later ongoing peacekeeping actions were known as Operation Tanager.
Chiron — Training of East Timorese military forces by the Australian Defence Force.
Faber — Deployment of United Nations military observers to East Timor in support of the UNAMET-monitored popular consultation.
Poinciana (1975) — Or Operasi Flamboyan (a name of a tropical tree); seaborne capture of Dili in 1975.
Seroja (1975) — Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975.
Stabilise — Also spelled as Operation Stabilize; Australian Defence Force's involvement in the multinational force United Nations International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) in East Timor
Scorched earth — Or Operasi Sapu Bersih in Indonesian, also known as Operation Clean Sweep; campaign of violence and arson allegedly committed by the TNI-supervised pro-integration militias following the 1999 United Nations supervised plebiscite.
Spitfire — Evacuation of foreign nationals from East Timor by Australian defence assets, as a result of post-referendum violence.
Toucan — Canada's contribution to the United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)
Warden — Military operation involving all contributing forces conducted under the multinational peacekeeping mission known as United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET)
Croatian War of Independence 1991–1995: Operation Otkos 10 (end Oct-Nov 1991) — Croatian actions against Serbian forces on area from Mount Bilogora to Mount Papuk (on west of Slavonia).
Operation Orkan 91 (1991) — Follow-up Croatian offensive after Otkos 10. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Spitfire — Evacuation of foreign nationals from East Timor by Australian defence assets, as a result of post-referendum violence.
Toucan — Canada's contribution to the United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)
Warden — Military operation involving all contributing forces conducted under the multinational peacekeeping mission known as United Nations' International Force in East Timor (INTERFET)
Croatian War of Independence 1991–1995: Operation Otkos 10 (end Oct-Nov 1991) — Croatian actions against Serbian forces on area from Mount Bilogora to Mount Papuk (on west of Slavonia).
Operation Orkan 91 (1991) — Follow-up Croatian offensive after Otkos 10.
Harmony (1992) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), which was created in February 1992 to ensure the protection and demilitarization of three UN Protected Areas in Croatia.
Operation Tigar (July 1992) — Croatian military actions in occupied Dubrovnik hinterland, held by Serbian and Montenegrin regulars.
Medački džep (September 1993) — Croatian offensive against Serbian forces with aim of relieving the city of Gospić from Serb shelling attacks.
Bljesak ("Flash") (March 1995) — Croatian offensive against Serbian forces, with aim of liberating occupied western Slavonia.
Oluja ("Storm") (August 1995) — Croatian major offensive against most areas under control of Serbian forces.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992–1995: Operation Corridor '92 (24 June 1992 – 6 October 1992) — Bosnian Serb operation against Bosnian Croat forces in Bosnian Posavina.
Maritime Monitor (July 1992 – November 1992) — in support of UN resolutions 713 and 757, operation which subsequently became:
Sky Monitor (October 1992 – April 1993) — Monitoring by NAEW of unauthorized flights in the airspace of Bosnia-Herzegovina during the Bosnian War.
Maritime Guard (November 1992 – June 1993) — in support of UN Resolution 787.
Balbuzard (January 1993 – December 1995) — French military action aiming to liberate hostages in Sarajevo and ensure the safety of already deployed French elements of UNPROFOR in case of a potential evacuation.
Deny Flight (April 1993 – December 1995) — NATO operation preventing the violation of the Bosnia-Herzegovina airspace, declared No-Fly Zone.
Sharp Guard (June 1993 – October 1996) — Co-ordinated WEU and NATO evolution of Operation Maritime Guard in continuing support of UN Resolution 787.
Neretva '93 (September 1993 – October 1993) — Offensive of Bosnian Muslim forces against Bosnian Croats in northern and eastern Herzegovina.
Operation Tvigi '94 (24 January 1994) — Bosnian Croat attack on village of Here.
Bøllebank ("Hooligan-bashing" in Danish) (29 April 1994) — UN-forces' use of tanks against Bosnian Serbian forces.
Operation Tiger (2 June 1994 – 21 August 1994) — Offensive of pro-government Bosniak forces against forces of Fikret Abdić.
Amanda (25 October 1994) — Danish UN-forces' second engagement against Bosnian Serbian forces.
Operation Cincar (20 October 1994 – 3 November 1994) — Joint Bosniak-Croat offensive to take control of Kupres from the VRS.
Operation Spider (4 November 1994 – Summer 1995) — Republika Srpska and Serbian Krajina offensive in northwestern Bosnia.
Operation Winter '94 (29 November 1995 – 24 December 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno area.
Operation Leap 1 (7 April 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno-Bosansko Grahovo area.
Operation Leap 2 (4 June 1995 – 10 June 1995) — Croatian offensive in Livno-Bosansko Grahovo area.
Operation Krivaja '95 (6 July 1995 – 11 July 1995) — Bosnian Serb operation to take control of the Srebrenica enclave.
Operation Stupčanica '95 (25 July 1995 – 26 July 1995) — Bosnian Serb operation to take control of the Žepa enclave.
Operation Summer '95 (25 July 1995 – 29 July 1995) — Croatian offensive in western Bosnia.
Sword '95 (1995) — Bosnian Serbian offensive against Bosnian-Muslim forces in western Bosnia.
Operation Deliberate Force (August – September 1995) — NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Operation Maestral (8 September 1995 – 15 September 1995) — Major Croatian offensive in western Bosnia.
Operation Sana (13 September 1995 – 13 October 1995) — Bosnian offensive in northwestern Bosnia.
Operation Una (18 September 1995 – 19 September 1995) — Croatian operation against Bosnian Serb Army.
Operation Southern Move (8 October 1995 – 11 October 1995) — Croatian offensive in area around Mrkonjić Grad.
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Post Bosnian War): Joint Endeavor (December 1995) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina which established IFOR
Joint Guard (December 1996 – 1998) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina which established SFOR
Joint Forge (1998–2004) — NATO peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina following Operation Joint Guard
EUFOR Althea (2004–) — European Union peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina following Operation Joint Forge, replacing IFOR and SFOR.
Kosovo War 1999: Allied Force (1999) — NATO's air campaign in Yugoslavia
Megaphone (2000) — Canada's return of equipment used in Kosovo
Quadrant (1999–2002) — Canada's mission in Kosovo
Joint Guardian (1999 – ) — NATO operation which established KFOR
Republic of Macedonia: Able Sentry (1993–1994) — Berlin Brigade deployed as part of Multi-National United Nations Protection Forces (UNPROFOR) to the Republic of Macedonia to establish Camp Able Sentry and monitor sanctions imposed by NATO against Serbia/Kosovo. *This mission was later taken over by the (then) Germany-based, 3rd Infantry Div (Mech).
Echo (1998–2000) — Canada sending air forces to Aviano, Italy to enforce a no-fly zone over Balkan region (UNSFOR and UNKFOR).
Essential Harvest (2001) — month-long NATO mission of disarming ethnic Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia.
Forage (2001–2002) — Canadian contribution to NATO's Essential Harvest.
Kinetic (1999–2000) — Canada's contribution to NATO's mission KFOR to secure Kosovo and the Republic of Macedonia and to provide humanitarian needs to displaced persons.
Mountain Storm (2007) — Republic of Macedonia's special police operation against Albanian extremists.
Haiti: Constable (1997) — Canada's contribution to the United Nations Mission in Haiti
Uphold Democracy (1994–1995) — U.S. led multinational intervention aimed at removing the military regime after the 1991 coup in Haiti. This operation was later replaced by UNMIH.
New Horizon (1995–1996) — U.S. mission in support (and under the command) of United Nations Mission in Haiti
Secure Tomorrow (2004) — US led multinational force, authorized by the UN as the Multinational Interim Force (MIF) which was replaced by the MINUSTAH.
Carbet (2004) — French codename for peace-keeping intervention in Haiti.
MINUSTAH (2004–present) — United Nations peace-keeping presence in Haiti.
Persian Gulf War: Desert Shield (1990–1991) — American buildup prior to Gulf War
Busiris (1990–1991) — Presence of French Army elements stationed in the UAE as deterrent against potential Iraqi Army action
Salamandre (1990–1991) — Deployment of French Army in preparation of operations Busiris and Daguet.
Desert Storm (1991) — Gulf War
Artimon — French Navy enforcement of UN resolutions 661 and 665 during the Gulf War
Daguet ("Brocket deer") — French codename for operations during the Gulf War
Damask — Royal Australian Navy deployment to the Persian Gulf.
Desert Sabre — The ground campaign which began on 24 February 1991.
Granby — British codename for operations during the Gulf War
Locusta ("Locust") — Italian codename for operations during the Gulf War.
Phèdre — French Navy codename for surveillance of Suez Canal. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Desert Storm (1991) — Gulf War
Artimon — French Navy enforcement of UN resolutions 661 and 665 during the Gulf War
Daguet ("Brocket deer") — French codename for operations during the Gulf War
Damask — Royal Australian Navy deployment to the Persian Gulf.
Desert Sabre — The ground campaign which began on 24 February 1991.
Granby — British codename for operations during the Gulf War
Locusta ("Locust") — Italian codename for operations during the Gulf War.
Phèdre — French Navy codename for surveillance of Suez Canal.
Ace Guard (1991) — (NATO) Allied Command Europe Mobile Force for Turkey South Border Reinforcement (based at Diyarbakir AFB)
Iraq (post-Gulf War): Provide Comfort (1991–1996) — Security and humanitarian aid to Kurds in northern Iraq and No-Fly Zone North of 36°N over Iraq.
Airone (1991) — Italian codename for Operation Provide Comfort.
Haven (1991) — Security and humanitarian aid to Kurds in Northern Iraq.
Libage (1991) — French codename for Operation Provide Comfort in the Turkey-Iraq border area.
Ramure (1991) — French codename for Operation Provide Comfort in the Iran-Iraq border area.
Record (1991–2001) — Canadian mission to secure Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.
Southern Watch (1991–2003) — No-Fly Zone South of 33°N over Iraq.
Alysse (1992–2003) — French codename for contribution to Operation Southern Watch.
Bolton (1997–2001) — UK Royal Air Force Contribution to Southern Watch.
Resinate South (2001–2003) — UK Contribution to Southern Watch including Response Options.
Southern Breeze (1991) — Demining operations of Kuwaiti waters.
Desert Strike (1996) — retaliation attacks on Iraq.
Determination (1998) — Canadian deployment in the Persian Gulf to force Iraq to comply with United Nations inspection agreements.
Northern Watch (1997–2003) — No-Fly Zone North of 36°N over Iraq.
Resinate North (2001–2003) — UK Contribution to Northern Watch including Response Options.
Desert Fox (1998) — Bombing campaign on military Iraqi targets.
Desert Falcon (1991–2003) United States PATRIOT missile defense of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Israel from the Iraqi Scud missile threat.
Georgia: Russo-Georgian War (2008) Russia — military operation repelling Georgian attack on South Ossetia
Operation Clear Field (2008) Georgia — Failed Attempt to Capture Tskhinvali
Armenia (First Nagorno-Karabakh War): Wedding in the Mountains (1992) — Invasion of the town of Shusha of Azerbaijan by the Armenian Armed Forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Middle East: Blow to the Head (2010) — operation against the militants in the insurgent Yemeni town of Sa'dah in the Saada Governorate.
Scorched Earth (2009) — was the code-name of a Yemeni military offensive in the northern Saada Governorate .
Baliste (2006) — French codename for evacuation of EU civilians during Lebanon War.
Diapason (1994) — French codename for evacuation of EU civilians during the Yemeni Civil War.
Musketeer (1956) — Tripartite operation aiming at gaining control of Suez Canal and removing Gamal Abdel Nasser from power in Egypt.
Global War on Terrorism and other associated activity:
Afghanistan War: Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan (2001–2014) ISAF — US led invasion of Afghanistan following the September 11 attacks, aiming to attack al-Qaeda and deny it a safe haven in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power.
Arès (2003–2007) — French Special Forces contribution to the operation Enduring Freedom.
Épidote (2002–2014) — French Army training of Afghan Army officers.
Héraclès (2001–2002) — French Navy contribution to the initial phase of operation Enduring Freedom.
Pamir (2001–2014) — French Land Army contribution to the operation Enduring Freedom.
Freedom's Sentinel (2015–2021) RSM — Afghan and US led counterterrorism operations against the remnants of Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan
Resolute Support (2015–2021) RSM — NATO-led training, advising, and assistance mission in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
Operation Allied Welcome (2021–present) — Evacuation of US citizens, green card holders, Special Immigrant VISA holders, and their families.
Iraq War: New Dawn (2010–2011)
Iraqi Freedom (2003–2011) — US led invasion of Iraq under the claim that Saddam Hussein was producing WMDs.
See Iraq Operations Since 2003
Sahel: Serval (2013) — French intervention in Mali to counter AQIM progress.
Barkhane (2014) — French counter-terrorism activities in Sahel region to eradicate AQIM presence.
Rijke (2015) — Unconfirmed codename for rescue mission of Dutch hostage Sjaak Rijke detained in Mali since 2011.
Syrian War: Chammal (2014–present) — French airstrikes in Iraq and Syria to disrupt ISIS progress.
Timber Sycamore (2012–present) — US and Jordan funding, training and arms supply program to support Syrian rebel forces in Syrian Civil War.
Operation Shader (2014–present) — UK operations in Iraq and Syria to counter ISIS.
Operation Shah Euphrates (2015)
Operation Euphrates Shield (2016–2017)
Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate (2017–present)
Operation Olive Branch (2018–2019) — Turkish offensive in Syria against the PYD and the YPG.
Operation Peace Spring (2019)
Operation Spring Shield (2020)
Other military counter-terrorist operations: Eagle Assist (2001) — Surveillance and protection of US skies by NATO military aircraft.
Noble Eagle (2001) — US military operations to prevent terrorism in the United States.
Enduring Freedom – Kyrgyzstan (2001)
Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (2002) US military operations and civic assistance based in Djibouti.
Enduring Freedom – Philippines (2002) US military operations in the Philippines against Abu Sayyaf insurgents.
Enduring Freedom – Pankisi Gorge (2002)
Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (2007) US military operations against terrorists in the Sahara/Sahel region of Africa.
Enduring Freedom – Caribbean and Central America (2008)
Terrorist operations: Bojinka (1995) — Aborted Al-Qaeda plot to bomb eleven aircraft over Asia, and/or assassinate Pope John Paul II in the Philippines.
Jibril (2001) — Aborted Jemaah Islamiah plan to bomb US, Australian, Israeli and British targets in Singapore. Also known as Operation C.
Death Trains (2004) — Unverified name given by Al-Qaeda for the Madrid train bombings.
Wagon (2003) — Unverified name given by Al-Qaeda for an aborted plan to bomb the London Underground and attack Heathrow Airport.
Black Tornado (2008) — Name given to the Mumbai shooting and bombing attacks perpetrated by Lashkar-e-Taiba.
Counter-terrorism drills: Fast Forward (2005) Mock evacuation of downtown Washington.
Firework Fanfare (2005) Mock evacuation of towns in Oklahoma.
Highline (2005) Counter-terrorist exercise in Collingwood, Melbourne.
Operation Red Dragon (2009) Training of military and civil medical and other units in response to a mock chemical attack on a sporting event.
TriPOD (2004) Plan to mass inoculate New York City citizens in the event of a biological attack.
Preventive counter-terrorist operations: Active Endeavour — NATO naval forces in the Mediterranean.
Sirius (2005) — Canadian military participation in Operation Active Endeavour.
Asparagus — Investigation and arrest into suspected Islamist terrorists in Belgium by Belgian police.
Atlas (2003) — counter-terrorism initiatives implemented by the New York Police Department.
Crevice (2004) — British counterterrorism action.
Green Quest (2001) — US Customs anti-money laundering operations targeting Al-Barakat transactions.
Kratos (2002) — Development and implementation of "shoot-to-kill" anti-terrorist policies by the London Metropolitan Police.
Laverda (2003) — London Metropolitan Police surveillance operations against Islamist demonstrations.
Liberty Shield (2003) — Department of Homeland Security operations to enhance security at US installations, and to detain selected foreign nationals.
NYShield (2003) — New York state plan to secure transport centres and nodes.
Safe Commerce (2004) — Implementation of new measures and technology to improve maritime cargo screening.
Sentinelle (2015–present) — Deployment of military troops on French territory following terror attacks.
Vigilance (2001) — Counter-terrorist operations conducted by the state of Arizona.
Reactive counter-terrorist operations: Alliance (2002) — Australian and Indonesian joint investigations into the 2002 Bali bombings.
Bali Assist (2002) — Australian evacuation of killed and injured foreign nationals from Indonesia after the 2002 Bali bombings. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Laverda (2003) — London Metropolitan Police surveillance operations against Islamist demonstrations.
Liberty Shield (2003) — Department of Homeland Security operations to enhance security at US installations, and to detain selected foreign nationals.
NYShield (2003) — New York state plan to secure transport centres and nodes.
Safe Commerce (2004) — Implementation of new measures and technology to improve maritime cargo screening.
Sentinelle (2015–present) — Deployment of military troops on French territory following terror attacks.
Vigilance (2001) — Counter-terrorist operations conducted by the state of Arizona.
Reactive counter-terrorist operations: Alliance (2002) — Australian and Indonesian joint investigations into the 2002 Bali bombings.
Bali Assist (2002) — Australian evacuation of killed and injured foreign nationals from Indonesia after the 2002 Bali bombings.
Seal (2004) — Arrest of suspected Islamist militants in Spain following the Madrid train bombings.
Support (September 11–14, 2001) — Canadian Forces operations after the September 11, 2001 attacks
Tigris (2004) — Spanish investigations into Islamist organisations in Spain.
Yellow Ribbon (2001) — Transport Canada's operations after the September 11, 2001 attacks
Other/Unknown: Abacus — Plan to use the Canadian Forces to maintain and restore vital public services in the event of disruption by the Year 2000 problem.
Artisan — Canadian Forces contribution to the Rinas Airfield Rehabilitation Project in Tirana, Albania.
Breakwater [2] (2006) — Australian air and sea operation targeting border incursions by foreign fishing boats off its northern coastline.
Bright Star (1981) — American exercise to reinforce allies in the middle east.
Chaperon — Canada's contribution to the United Nations of one military observer to the United Nation Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP).
Celesta — Australian naval surveillance in Australia's southern waters against illegal fishing.
Cranberry — Australian naval surveillance in Australia's northern waters against smuggling and illegal fishing.
Eclipse — Deployment of Canadian soldiers to east Africa in support of the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE).
Flavius (1988) — SAS action against the IRA in Gibraltar.
Fusion (2003) — Canada's combined contribution to Allied Harmony and Concordia.
Garden Plot — US Army plan for assistance to civil authorities.
Héphaïstos (1986–present) — French Army support to forest firefighting activities during summers.
Highjump (1947) — US Naval expedition to Antarctica.
Neptune Spear (2011) — US Navy SEALs operation that killed Osama bin Laden.
Nunalivut (2006) — Canadian naval deployment in the Arctic.
Parabellum (2007) — Italian Mafia-Iraq arms deal investigation.
Power Geyser (2005) — Military security support to the 2005 Presidential inauguration.
Prudence (1999–1999) — Canada's participation in the Mission des Nations Unies dans la République Centrafricaine (MINURCA).
Relex (2001) — Australian defence force operations to secure Australia's northern maritime approaches against illegal immigration. Reactivated in 2004 as Operation Relex II.
Sure Victory (1997) — Sri Lankan counter-insurgency operations against the Tamil Tigers.
Exercise Unified Spirit — Large NATO exercise held every two years to train the armed forces of member nations in joint and combined operations.
Operation Vijay (1999) — Indian operations against Pakistan during the Kargil war
"Operation Tor Tander (Operation Black Thunderstorm)" (2009) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Rah-e-Nijat (Operation Path to Salvation)" (2009) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Rah-e-Rast (Operation Right Path)" (2009–2010) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates
"Operation Zarb-e-Azb (Operation Prophet's Sword)" (2014) — Pakistani military operation against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
"Operation Khyber 1,2,3,4 (Khyber 1,2,3,4)" (2014–2017 continue) — Pakistani military operation in Khyber agency and surrounding areas against Taliban terrorists and their affiliates.
Law enforcement:
Other anti-narcotic operations: Century (1996) — ill-fated Essex police / Royal Ulster Constabulary operation to pressure persons of interest for information about a drug-related triple murder.
Corona (2001) — Miami police operations against heroin trafficking by the Latin Kings.
Falcon (2004) — anti-pedophilia raid against companies handling credit card payments.
Final Count (2001) — Miami police operations against heroin trafficking by the John Aragon Heroin Organization.
Web Tryp (2004) — American sting operation against sellers of psychedelics online.
Mocha (2005) — New South Wales and federal police investigation into drug smuggling at Sydney airport.
Outta Towner (2005) — Chicago police operations against heroin trafficking.
Panzer (1998) — Australian National Crime Authority investigation into organised crime by outlaw motorcycle gangs (bikies).
Safe Streets (2002) — Anti-drug trafficking operations by Philadelphia police.
Topaz (2004) — United Nations convened operations against drug-smuggling in Central Asia.
Operation Bayonet (2017) — Multinational effort to take down darknet site AlphaBay among others.
Anti-child pornography operations: Auxin (2004) — Australian anti-child pornography effort.
Pin (2003) — British-led anti-child pornography effort.
Operations against intellectual property theft: Buccaneer (2001) — International raid on unauthorized software distribution.
D-Elite (2005) — US raid on software infringement operations.
Fastlink (2004) — International operation against illegally copied computer software.
Site Down (2005) — International effort against illegally distributed films.
Other operations: Ill Wind (1986–89) — FBI investigation into defense contractor bribery and fraud.
Fast Forward (2005) — Mock evacuation of downtown Washington.
Falcon (2005) — Widespread dragnet led by the United States Marshals Service.
Gunrunner (2005–present) — A United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) project to stop the flow of firearms into Mexico, to deprive drug cartels of weapons.
Wide Receiver (2006–2008) — A failed sting operation in which ATF attempted allowed guns to travel to Mexico in an attempt to track them to drug lords. The plan failed, and most guns were lost as they moved into Mexico.
Fast and Furious (2009–2011) — A similar operation that caused a scandal when guns allowed to "walk" were used in several violent crimes.
Jackdraw (2004) — London Metropolitan Police operations to prevent and deter pickpocketing.
Last Call (2005) Texas operation aimed against drunkenness in bars.
Midas (2003) — Australian anti-money laundering operations by AUSTRAC.
Midnight Jackal (2009) Pakistani coup attempt
Minstead (1998) — Metropolitan police operation directed at a serial rapist.
Olympic Games (2008) Joint Israeli/American software attack on Iranian nuclear facilities.
Perseus (1998) — British Transit Police.
Purana (2003) — Investigation of Melbourne, Victoria's underworld.
Sundevil (1999) — Nationwide United States Secret Service crackdown on illegal computer hacking activities.
Swamp 81 (1981) — Metropolitan police operation that may have sparked the Brixton riots.
Trident (1998) — Crackdown by London's Metropolitan Police against drug-related gun crime in the black community. Later expanded to Operation Trafalgar.
Thermcon (1987) — FBI operation that targeted environmental activists.
Anaconda (2002–2008) — French Army operation against illegal gold mining in French Guiana.
Tassergal (2007) — French Army operation against illegal fishing in French Guiana waters.
Harpie (2008–2016) — French Army operation against illegal gold mining. Successor of Opération Anaconda.
Temperer (2017) — British Prime Minister Theresa May deployed armed forces on city streets in response to the Manchester Arena Bombing and the subsequent raising of the terror threat level from 'Severe' to 'Critical'.
Varsity Blues (2019) — FBI investigation into college admissions fraud
See also:
U.S. Involved Law Enforcement Operations:
Humanitarian operations: Ezra and Nehemiah (aka Ali Baba) (1950–1952) — Mass migration/airlift of Iraqi Jews from Iraq to Israel.
Central (1998) — Canada's assistance to Central America after the devastation of Hurricane Mitch.
Anode (2000) — Australian military contribution as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands.
Assistance (1997) — Canadian assistance to Manitoba after major flooding of the Red River.
Hajji Baba (1952) — United States assistance to Hajj pilgrims.
Helpem Fren (2000) — Pidgin for helping friend, multinational assistance to the Solomon Islands under the aegis of RAMSI.
Hawkeye (20 September 1989 – 17 November 1989) — Canada's assistance to St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands after the devastation of Hurricane Hugo.
Navy Help Darwin (1974) — Australian Naval assistance to Darwin after Cyclone Tracy. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military operations | Central (1998) — Canada's assistance to Central America after the devastation of Hurricane Mitch.
Anode (2000) — Australian military contribution as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands.
Assistance (1997) — Canadian assistance to Manitoba after major flooding of the Red River.
Hajji Baba (1952) — United States assistance to Hajj pilgrims.
Helpem Fren (2000) — Pidgin for helping friend, multinational assistance to the Solomon Islands under the aegis of RAMSI.
Hawkeye (20 September 1989 – 17 November 1989) — Canada's assistance to St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands after the devastation of Hurricane Hugo.
Navy Help Darwin (1974) — Australian Naval assistance to Darwin after Cyclone Tracy.
Pakistan Assist (2005) — Australian Defence Force humanitarian operations providing support after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.
Peregrine (2003) — British Columbia forest fire fighting assistance by soldiers.
Persistence (1998) — Canadian operation at Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia to recover bodies after crash of SwissAir Flight 111.
Pyramid (1996) — Victoria, British Columbia Canadian Army Reserve assistance by soldiers after heavy snowstorm (1 metre deep) in Victoria, British Columbia.
Recuperation (1998) — Canadian assistance after major snowstorms in eastern Canada.
Sumatra Assist (2005) — Australian Defence Force humanitarian operations following the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake.
Torrent (1999) — Canadian assistance after the 1999 İzmit earthquake in Turkey.
Lichi (2000) — South African rescue operations in Mozambique after major flooding due to Cyclone Eline.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
Tsunami Assist
Sea Wave which included:
Mother (mainland relief)
Mandat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
Rainbow (Sri Lanka)
Castor (Maldives)
Ghambir (Indonesia)
Dorca (2004) — French assistance in Darfur.
Unison (2005) — Canadian response to Hurricane Katrina.
Other: Timeline of United States military operations
List of amphibious assault operations
List of Nuclear Tests
Project Daedalus (British Interplanetary Society study to create a plausible design for an interstellar probe)
Project Longshot
Project Jennifer 1974 CIA lifting of a sunken Soviet submarine
Project RAND
Project Vanguard
Norwegian military operations abroad
Non-military operations: Bojinka — terrorist plot by al-Qaida members Ramzi Yousef and Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, foiled in 1995
Clambake — anti-Scientology
Red Dog — Foiled invasion of Dominica by KKK-aligned white-supremacist mercenaries
References:
External links: Canadian Department of National Defence — Past Operations
The Art of Naming Operations
A Name Too Far
WW2DB: List of Axis Operations
WW2DB: List of Allied Operations
: عملية Operación Opération Operation 行动 Операция: A poem by Moez Surani comprising the names of military operations by member states of the United Nations from the founding of the UN to the present.
Bibliography: Conboy, Kenneth and James Morrison (1995). Shadow War: The CIA's Secret War in Laos. Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-825-0. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military strategies and concepts | Concepts:
Economic concepts: Salaries – Always pay your troops on time.
Asymmetric costs – ensure the cost of enemy losses (or objectives) is at least an order of magnitude higher than the costs of attacking.
Budget like a business – Ensure there is sufficient funds and revenue streams to finish the war.
Strategic concepts: Center of gravity (military) – The hub of all power and movement on which everything depends, the point at which all energies should be directed
Culminating point – The point at which a military force is no longer able to perform its operations
Decisive point – A geographic place, specific key event, critical system, or function that allows commanders to gain a marked advantage over an enemy and greatly influence the outcome of an attack
DIME(FIL) – The elements of national power diplomacy, information, military, and economics, often included are financial, intelligence, and law enforcement see MIDLIFE
Expediency – War is a matter of expedients – von Moltke
Fog, friction, chance – War is characterized by fog, friction, and chance
Golden Bridge – To leave an opponent an opportunity to withdraw in order to not force them to act out of desperation – Sun Tzu
Iron Calculus of War – Resistance = Means x Will – Clausewitz
Moral ascendancy – Moral force is the trump card for any military event because as events change, the human elements of war remain unchanged – Du Piq
OODA loop – Decision-making occurs in a recurring cycle of observe-orient-decide-act. An entity (whether an individual or an organization) that can process this cycle quickly, observing and reacting to unfolding events more rapidly than an opponent, can thereby "get inside" the opponent's decision cycle and gain the advantage – Boyd
Paradoxical nature – The nature of strategy is a paradoxical and does not follow a linear pattern – Luttwak
Positive ends – The possibility of taking advantage of a new security environment to create conditions for long-term peace – Wass de Czege
Primary Trinity – (1) primordial violence, hatred, and enmity; (2) the play of chance and probability; and (3) war's element of subordination to rational policy – Clausewitz
Secondary Trinity – People, Army, and Government – Clausewitz
Principles of war:
Objective (Direct every military operation towards a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective)
Offensive (Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative)
Mass (Concentrate combat power at the decisive place and time)
Economy of Force (Allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts)
Maneuver (place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible application of combat power)
Unity of Command (For every Objective, ensure Unity of effort under one responsible commander)
Security (Never permit the enemy to acquire an unexpected advantage)
Surprise (Strike the enemy at a time, at a place, or in a manner for which he is unprepared)
Simplicity (Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and clear, concise orders to ensure thorough understanding) – US Army FM 3.0
Systems approach – Nation-states operate like biological organisms composed of discrete systems. These systems included: leadership, organic essentials, infrastructure, population, and the military – Warden
Tipping point – The point at which "the momentum for change becomes unstoppable." – Gladwell
VUCA – Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity characterize the strategic environment – U.S. Army War College
Weinberger-Powell Doctrine – A list of questions have to be answered affirmatively before military action is taken by the United States:
Is a vital national security interest threatened?
Do we have a clear attainable objective?
Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed?
Have all other non-violent policy means been fully exhausted?
Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement?
Have the consequences of our action been fully considered?
Is the action supported by the American people?
Do we have genuine broad international support?
Strategies:
Defensive strategies: Boxing maneuver – A strategy used to "box in" and force an attack on all sides at once
Choke point – A use of strategic geography, usually in a narrow area, intended to concentrate the enemy into a confined area where the defender can maximize his forces
Defence in depth – A strategy to delay rather than prevent the advance of the attackers by buying time and causing additional casualties by yielding space so that the momentum of the attack is lost and the attacking force can be attacked on its flanks
Elastic Defense - A strategy to flexibly absorb then repel the advance of attackers through carefully planned integrated fighting positions.
Fortification – A semi-permanent or permanent defensive structure that gives physical protection to a military unit
Fabian strategy – Wearing down the enemy by using attrition warfare and indirection, while avoiding pitched battles or frontal assaults. Named after Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in his defense against Carthage. See Pyrrhic warfare
Military district – An area controlled by a military force, for administrative purposes rather than combat. Also known as Wehrkreis in German
Scorched earth – Destroying anything that might be of use to the enemy while retreating, or advancing
Turtling – Continuous reinforcement of the military front until it has reached its full strength, then an attack with the now-superior force
Withdrawal – A retreat of forces while maintaining contact with the enemy
High ground - An area of elevated terrain which can be useful in combat. Can provide structural advantages for positions of troops and weaponry which can be thrown or fired from above.
Offensive strategies: Air supremacy – A degree of air superiority where a side holds complete control of air power over opposing forces. Control of the air is the aerial equivalent of Command of the sea.
Attrition warfare – A strategy of wearing down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous loss of personnel and material. Used to defeat enemies with low resources and high morale.
Bait and bleed – To induce rival states to engage in a protracted war of attrition against each other "so that they bleed each other white", similar to the concept of Divide and conquer
Battle of annihilation – The goal of destroying the enemy military in a single planned pivotal battle
Bellum se ipsum alet – A strategy of feeding and supporting an army with the potentials of occupied territories
Blitzkrieg – A method of warfare where an attacking force, spearheaded by a dense concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and then dislocates the defenders, using speed and surprise to encircle them with the help of air superiority.
Blockade / Siege / Investment – An attempt to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, usually taking place by sea
Clear and hold – A counter-insurgency strategy in which military personnel clear an area of guerrillas or other insurgents, and then keep the area clear of insurgents while winning the support of the populace for the government and its policies.
Coercion – Compelling the enemy to involuntarily behave in a certain way by targeting the leadership, national communications, or political-economic centers
Command of the sea – A degree of naval superiority where a side holds complete control of naval power over opposing forces. Control of the sea is the naval equivalent of Air Supremacy
Counter-offensive – A strategic offensive taking place after the enemy's front line troops and reserves have been exhausted, and before the enemy has had the opportunity to assume new defensive positions. Tactic is usually implemented through surging at the enemy after their attack.
Counterforce – A strategy used in nuclear warfare of targeting military infrastructure (as opposed to civilian targets)
Countervalue – The opposite of counterforce; targeting of enemy cities and civilian populations. Used to distract the enemy.
Decapitation – Achieving strategic paralysis by targeting political leadership, command and control, strategic weapons, and critical economic nodes
Deception – A strategy that seeks to deceive, trick, or fool the enemy and create a false perception in a way that can be leveraged for a military advantage
Diversion - Any kind of attack used to divert the enemies' defenses away from where you intend to launch an incursion or strike.
Defeat in detail – Bringing a large portion of one's own force to bear on small enemy units in sequence, rather than engaging the bulk of the enemy force all at once. Similar to divide and conquer
Denial – A strategy that seeks to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war
Distraction – An attack by some of the force on one or two flanks, drawing up to a strong frontal attack by the rest of the force
Encirclement – Both a strategy and tactic designed to isolate and surround enemy forces
Ends, Ways, Means, Risk – Strategy is much like a three legged stool of ends, ways, means balanced on a plane of varying degree of risk
Enkulette – A strategy used often in the jungle that aims at attacking the enemy from behind.
Exhaustion – A strategy that seeks to erode the will or resources of a country
Feint – A maneuver designed to distract or mislead, done by giving the impression that a certain maneuver will take place, while in fact another, or even none, will.
Flanking maneuver – Involves attacking the opponent from the side, or rear
Guerrilla tactics – Involves ambushes on enemy troops. Usually used by insurgency. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military strategies and concepts | Exhaustion – A strategy that seeks to erode the will or resources of a country
Feint – A maneuver designed to distract or mislead, done by giving the impression that a certain maneuver will take place, while in fact another, or even none, will.
Flanking maneuver – Involves attacking the opponent from the side, or rear
Guerrilla tactics – Involves ambushes on enemy troops. Usually used by insurgency.
Heavy force – A counterinsurgency strategy that seeks to destroy an insurgency with overwhelming force while it is still in a manageable state
Human wave attack – An unprotected frontal attack where the attacker tries to move as many combatants as possible into engaging close range combat with the defender
Hybrid warfare - Employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare, and cyberwarfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy, lawfare and foreign electoral intervention.
Incentive – A strategy that uses incentives to gain cooperation
Indirect approach – Dislocation is the aim of strategy. Direct attacks almost never work, one must first upset the enemy's equilibrium, fix weakness and attack strength, Eight rules of strategy: 1) adjust your ends to your means, 2) keep your object always in mind, 3) choose the line of the least expectation, 4) exploit the line of least resistance, 5) take the line of operations which offers the most alternatives, 6) ensure both plans and dispositions are flexible, 7) do not throw your weight into an opponent while he is on guard, 8) do not renew an attack along the same lines if an attack has failed
Interior lines – Placing one's forces in between the enemy forces and attacking each in turn in order to allow one's forces to have better communications and allows one to mass all of one's forces against a part of the enemies'
Limited war – A war in which the belligerents do not expend all of the resources at their disposal, whether human, industrial, agricultural, military, natural, technological, or otherwise in a specific conflict.
Maneuver warfare - a military strategy which attempts to defeat the enemy by incapacitating their decision-making through shock and disruption
Motitus - A Motitus or Motti is a double envelopment manoeuvre, using the ability of light troops to travel over rough ground to encircle and defeat enemy troops with limited mobility. By cutting the enemy columns or units into smaller groups, a mobile force can restrict the mobility of a stronger enemy and defeat it in detail. The name comes from the Finnish word for a cubic meter of firewood, and the strategy was used extensively during the Winter War.
Penetration – A direct attack through enemy lines, then an attack on the rear once through
Periclean strategy – The two basic principles of the "Periclean Grand Strategy" were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension
Persisting strategy – A strategy that seeks to destroy the means by which the enemy sustains itself
Pincer ambush – A U-shaped attack with the sides concealed and the middle held back until the enemy advances, at which point the concealed sides ambush them
Pincer maneuver – Allowing the enemy to attack the center, sometimes in a charge, then attacking the flanks of the charge
Punishment – A strategy that seeks to push a society beyond its economic and physiological breaking point
Rapid Decisive Operations – Compelling the adversary to undertake certain actions or denying the adversary the ability to coerce or attack others.
Raiding – Attacking with the purpose of removing the enemy's supply or provisions
Refusing the flank – Holding back one side of the battle line to keep the enemy from engaging with that flank. The refused flank is held by smallest force necessary to hold out against the enemy's attack while concentrating the main battle force against the enemies' center or other flank
Separation of insurgents – A counterinsurgency strategy should first seek to separate the enemy from the population, then deny the enemy reentry, and finally execute long enough to deny the insurgent access
Shape, Clear, Hold, Build – The counterinsurgency theory that states the process of winning an insurgency is shape, clear, hold, build
Siege – Continuous attack by bombardment on a fortified position, usually by artillery, or surrounding and isolating it in at attempt to compel a surrender
Shock and awe – A military doctrine using overwhelming power to try to achieve rapid dominance over the enemy
Swarming – Military swarming involves the use of a decentralized force against an opponent, in a manner that emphasizes mobility, communication, unit autonomy and coordination/synchronization.
Theater strategy – Concepts and courses of action directed toward securing the objectives of national and multinational policies and strategies through the synchronized and integrated employment of military forces and other instruments of national power
Total war – Conflict in which belligerents engage with all available resources
Troop surge – Deploying a large number of troops into theatre in order to overcome resistance and act as a defence
Turning movement – An attack that penetrates the enemy's flank, then curls into its rear to cut it off from home
Win without fighting – Sun Tzu argued that a brilliant general was one that could win without killing anybody
Crescent Strategy - Turkish commanders used this strategy. The soldiers act like a crescent and take the enemy in the middle of the crescent and surround it.
See also: List of established military terms
List of military tactics
Military science
Military strategy
Military tactics
Sun Tzu and The Art of War
Tactical formation
Thirty-Six Stratagems
References:
External links: Strategic Theories and Concepts |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military tactics | General: Exploiting prevailing weather – the tactical use of weather as a force multiplier has influenced many important battles throughout history, such as the Battle of Waterloo.
Fire attacks – reconnaissance by fire is used by apprehensive soldiers when they suspect the enemy is nearby.
Force concentration – the practice of concentrating a military force against a portion of an enemy force.
Night combat – combat that takes place at night. It often requires more preparation than combat during daylight and can provide significant tactical advantages and disadvantages to both the attacker and defender.
Reconnaissance – a mission to obtain information by visual observation or other detection methods, about the activities and resources of the enemy or potential enemy, or about the meteorologic, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area.
Smoke screening – the practice of creating clouds of smoke positioned to provide concealment, allowing military forces to advance or retreat across open terrain without coming under direct fire from the enemy.
Eight classic maneuvers of warfare: Penetration of the center: This involves exploiting a gap in the enemy line to drive directly to the enemy's command or base. Two ways of accomplishing this are separating enemy forces then using a reserve to exploit the gap (e.g., Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)) or having fast, elite forces smash at a weak spot (or an area where your elites are at their best in striking power) and using reserves to hold the line while the elite forces continue forward, exploiting the gap immediately (i.e., blitzkrieg).
Attack from a defensive position: Establishing a strong defensive position from which to defend and attack your opponent (e.g., Siege of Alesia and the Battle of the Granicus). However, the defensive can become too passive and result in ultimate defeat.
Single envelopment: A consolidated prong (flank) beating its opponent opposite end, and with the aid of holding attacks, attack an opponent in the rear. Sometimes, the establishment of a strong, hidden force behind a weak flank will prevent your opponent from carrying out their own single envelopment. (e.g., Battle of Rocroi).
Double envelopment: Both flanks defeat their opponent opposite and launch a rear attack on the enemy center. Its most famous use was Hannibal's tactical masterpiece, the Battle of Cannae, and it was frequently used by the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front of World War II. It was also executed to perfection by Khalid ibn al-Walid in the decisive Battle of Yarmuk in 636 AD.
Attack in oblique order: This involves placing your flanks in a slanted fashion (refusing one's flank) or giving a vast part of your force to a single flank (e.g., Battle of Leuthen). The latter can be disastrous, however, due to the imbalance of force.
Feigned retreat: Having a frontal force fake a retreat, drawing the opponent in pursuit and then launching an assault with strong force held in reserve (such as the Battle of Maling and the Battle of Hastings). However, a feigned retreat may devolve into a real one, such as in the Battle of Grunwald.
Indirect approach: Having a minority of your force demonstrate in front of your opponent while the majority of your force advance from a hidden area and attack the enemy in the rear or flank (e.g., Battle of Chancellorsville).
Crossing the "T": a classic naval maneuver which maximizes one side's offensive firepower while minimizing that of the opposing force (e.g., Battle of Trafalgar).
Tactics:
Deception: In the 4th century BCE, Sun Tzu said "the Military is a Tao of deception". Diversionary attacks, feints, decoys; there are thousands of tricks that have been successfully used in warfare, and still have a role in the modern day.
Perfidy: Combatants tend to have assumptions and ideas of rules and fair practices in combat. Those who raise surrender flags to lure their attackers in the open, or who act as stretcher bearers to deceive their targets, tend to get especially disliked.
False flag: An ancient ruse de guerre – in the days of sail, it was permissible for a warship to fly the flag of an enemy power, so long as it properly hoisted its true colors before attacking. Wearing enemy uniforms and using enemy equipment to infiltrate or achieve surprise is also permissible though they can be punished as spies if caught behind enemy lines.
Demoralization (warfare): A process in psychological warfare that can encourage them to retreat, surrender, or defect by deterioration of the opposite force's morale rather than defeating them in a regular warfare.
Disinformation
Military camouflage
Stealth technology
Feint
Electronic countermeasures
Electronic counter-countermeasures
Radio silence – while traveling, a fleet will refrain from communicating by radio to avoid detection by enemy forces
Holding attack
Defensive: Electronic countermeasures
Offensive: Use of a Kill zone
Small unit:
See also: List of established military terms
List of military operations
List of military strategies and concepts
Military strategy
Tactical formation
References:
Works cited: Glantz, David (November 2010). Barbarossa Derailed: The Battle for Smolensk, 10 July – 10 September 1941: The German Advance to Smolensk, the Encirclement Battle and the First and Second Soviet Counter-Offensives, 10 July – 24 August 1941. Vol. I. Solihull: Helion. ISBN 978-1-906033-72-9.
External links: Tactical |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military writers | A: Pierre Emmanuel Albert, Baron Ducasse
Stephen Ambrose
Raymond Aron
B: Andrew Bacevich
Ali Bader Iraq war
Bao Ninh – The Sorrow of War (about the Vietnam War)
Thomas P.M. Barnett
Alberto Bayo – Latin American revolutionary, A Manual of Guerrilla Warfare
Marc Becker
Antony Beevor – several books on the Second World War; also on the Spanish Civil War
Don Bendell – Crossbow, The B-52 Overture, Valley of Tears, Snake-Eater, Criminal Investigation Detachment
David Bercuson
Friedrich von Bernhardi
Eric Arthur Blair (aka George Orwell) – Homage to Catalonia
Mark Bowden
John Boyd – inventor of the OODA Loop or decision cycle, Energy-Maneuverability, Aerial Attack Study, "Discourse on Winning & Losing", Destruction & Creation
Gary Brecher – War Nerd
Ahron Bregman – books on the Arab–Israeli conflict
Bernard Brodie
Don Brown – Treason, Hostage, Defiance, Last Fighter Pilot, Malacca Conspiracy
C: Tobias Capwell (born c. 1973) – American curator, historian of arms and armour, and jouster
Lazare Carnot
Caleb Carr – military historian, Lessons of Terror, The Devil Soldier
Nigel Cawthorne – POW histories: The Bamboo Cage, The Iron Cage
Chanakya – Arthashastra
Winston Churchill – The River War, The Gathering Storm
Robert M. Citino – German Way of War, Quest for Decisive Victory, Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm, Death of the Wehrmacht: The German Campaigns of 1942, Wehrmacht Retreats: Fighting a Lost War, 1943
Tom Clancy – Rainbow Six, Splinter Cell, Net Force
Carl von Clausewitz – military theorist, On War
Menno van Coehoorn
John Colomb
Julian Corbett – Edwardian British Naval theorist, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy
Anthony Cordesman
James Corum
Martin van Creveld – expanded theory of war proponent
Arthur Currie
D: Giulio Douhet
Mikhail Dragomirov – Russian military theoretician
Pierre Emmanuel Albert, Baron Ducasse
Gwynne Dyer
E: Jacey Eckhart
Jeff Edwards – Torpedo
Stuart E. Eizenstat
Alonso de Ercilla – La Araucana
F: Bernard Fall
Ferdinand Foch – Des Principes de la Guerre (On the Principles of War) in 1903 and De la Conduite de la Guerre (On the Conduct of War) in 1904
Frederick II of Prussia
Sextus Julius Frontinus – Stratagemata
J.F.C. Fuller – theoretician of tank warfare
Paul Fussell
G: Pierre Marie Gallois
Azar Gat
Charles de Gaulle – Vers l'Armée de Métier (1934), La France et son Armée (1938) (partial bibliography of de Gaulle's military writings; influence of de Gaulle's military writings in Nazi Germany)
David Glantz – preeminent authority on the Red Army during World War II
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz – 19th-century general and theorist
Jack Granatstein
Lester W. Grau
Robert Greene – The 33 Strategies of War, The 48 Laws of Power
George Grivas
Heinz Guderian – German general, developed principles of Blitzkrieg, Achtung – Panzer!
Ernesto Che Guevara – Argentinian revolutionary, diary outlined the guerrilla war being fought in Bolivia. Guerrilla Warfare
Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert
H: David Hackworth
Bruce Barrymore Halpenny – Airfields, World War Two, Bomber and Fighter Command
Thomas X. Hammes
Victor Davis Hanson
Gustav Hasford
Joel Hayward
Herodotus
Jonathan House
Sir Michael Howard
I: Kanji Ishiwara – Sekai Saishū Senron (On World Final War)
J: Jiang Ziya – Six Secret Teachings
Michael Johns – foreign policy and national security analyst and writer
Antoine Henri Jomini – General, wrote on the Napoleonic Wars including Precis de l'Art de la Guerre (Precis on the Art of War) and Traité des grandes opérations militaires (Treatise on Grand Military Operations)
Josephus – The Wars of the Jews
Ernst Jünger – Storm of Steel
K: Herman Kahn
John Keegan – military historian
Paul Kennedy
David Kilcullen
Howard Kippenberger – New Zealand general and military historian
Henry Kissinger
Shen Kuo – Dream Pool Essays
L: John Knox Laughton
T. E. Lawrence – author of Seven Pillars of Wisdom, colloquially known as "Lawrence of Arabia"
Leo VI the Wise – Byzantine emperor (Taktika)
"Yank" Levy – author of pamphlet Guerrilla Warfare
John David Lewis
B. H. Liddell-Hart – proponent of the "indirect approach"
William S. Lind
Liu Bowen – Huolongjing
Stephen B. Luce
Edward Luttwak – theorist, identified the 'Dynamic Paradox' of strategy
M: Douglas Macgregor
Niccolò Machiavelli – political theorist, The Prince and Dell'arte della guerra (The Art of War)
Alfred Thayer Mahan – naval strategist
Dennis Hart Mahan – military theorist and Engineering professor at West Point, wrote Advanced Guard, Outpost and Detachment Service of Troops, with essential Principles of Strategy and Grand Tactics, commonly known as Outpost
Stepan Makarov – Russian vice admiral, innovator, naval strategist
Erich von Manstein – prominent German general in World War II
Mao Zedong – Chinese leader and guerrilla theorist, On Guerrilla Warfare
Carlos Marighella – Brazilian "urban guerrilla", Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla
Tyrone G. Martin – USS Constitution expert
Maurice – Byzantine Emperor and traditional author of the military treatise Strategikon
Frederick Maurice – soldier, military writer
Maurice of Nassau
Gordon McCormick – theorist on the "Magic Diamond" model of counter-insurgency
Steven Metz
Billy Mitchell
Helmuth von Moltke the Elder – theorist and strategist; "father" of mission-type tactics and the German field manual for unit commanders
François-Henri de Montmorency
Robin Moore – The Hunt for Bin Laden: Task Force Dagger
Miyamoto Musashi – The Book of Five Rings
N: Napoleon I of France
Abdul Haris Nasution
Sönke Neitzel – author of Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying
Michel Ney
O: Weston Ochse
P: Sarah C. Paine
Mason Patrick – Major General, Chief of US Army Air Service and US Army Air Corps, The US in the air
Ralph Peters
Ardant du Picq – French military theorist, Battle Studies
Lucien Poirier
Polyaenus
H. John Poole
Douglas Porch
R: Sima Rangju – The Methods of the Sima
Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus – De Re Militari
Erwin Rommel – German field marshal during World War II, Infantry Attacks (Infanterie greift an), armored battle theory
Cornelius Ryan – The Longest Day, A Bridge Too Far, The Last Battle
S: Philip Sabin
Thomas Schelling
Sigismund von Schlichting – 19th-century infantry theorist
Ayesha Siddiqa
Lynette Silver
Richard Simpkin – military theorist
Thomas Smith
Vasily Sokolovsky
David Stahel – military historian with a focus on Operation Barbarossa and the Battle of Moscow
Hew Strachan – military historian
Sun Bin – claimed descent from Sun Tzu, and was considered Sun Tzu II, Sun Bin Bing Fa
Sun Tzu – general, The Art of War
Alexander Suvorov – general, The Science of Victory (Russian: Наука побеждать)
T: Aeneas Tacticus
A.J.P. Taylor
Wallace Terry
Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War
Eduard Totleben
Hugh Trenchard
Yamamoto Tsunetomo – Hagakure
Barbara Tuchman – historian
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
U: Matthew Uttley
V: Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban
Vegetius
Julius von Verdy du Vernois – 19th-century general and theorist
Võ Nguyên Giáp – Vietnamese general who played a key role in the First Indochina War and later the Vietnam War. Known for his role at the Battle of Dien Ben Phu and the Battle of Khe Sanh. Some of his works include Big Victory, Great Task; People's Army, People's War; Ðiện Biên Phủ; and We Will Win. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of military writers | Taylor
Wallace Terry
Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War
Eduard Totleben
Hugh Trenchard
Yamamoto Tsunetomo – Hagakure
Barbara Tuchman – historian
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
U: Matthew Uttley
V: Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban
Vegetius
Julius von Verdy du Vernois – 19th-century general and theorist
Võ Nguyên Giáp – Vietnamese general who played a key role in the First Indochina War and later the Vietnam War. Known for his role at the Battle of Dien Ben Phu and the Battle of Khe Sanh. Some of his works include Big Victory, Great Task; People's Army, People's War; Ðiện Biên Phủ; and We Will Win.
W: Wang Li – the Master of Ghost Valley
H. G. Wells
Bing West – military historian
Gordon Williamson (writer) military reference books
Garnet Wolseley
Wu Qi – Wuzi
X: Xenophon – Anabasis and Hellenica
Wang Xiangsui – Unrestricted Warfare
Y: Jiao Yu
Z: Zhuge Liang – strategist from The Three Kingdoms era, The General's Garden
See also: Lists of authors
Military history
List of authors in war – writers who served in and wrote about war, including memoirs and fiction
List of Chinese military texts
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Ancient:
Before 1000 BC: Siege of Aratta (c. 2600 BC) this siege is semi or entirely mythical.
Siege of Uruk (c. 2580 BC)
Siege of Qabra (1780 BC)
Siege of Hiritum (1764 BC)
Siege of Larsa (1763 BC)
Siege of Avaris (c. 1550 BC)
Siege of Sharuhen (c. 1530 BC)
Siege of Megiddo (c. 1457 BC)
Siege of Jericho (c. 1400 BC)
Siege of Dapur (1269 BC)
10th century BC: Siege of Rabbah (10th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Samuel 11–12)
Siege of Abel-beth-maachah (10th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Samuel 20:15–22)
Siege of Gezer (10th century BC)
Sack of Jerusalem (925 BC) by Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I
9th century BC: Siege of Gath (city) (ca. 830 BC) (Bible Reference: II Kings 12:17/18)
Siege of Samaria (ancient city) (9th century BC) (Bible Reference: II Kings 6:24 – 7:7)
8th century BC: Siege of Tyre (724–720 BC) by the Assyrians under Shalmaneser V and Sargon II
Siege of Gezer (c. 733 BC)
Siege of Hermopolis (701 BC)
Siege of Azekah (701 BC)
Siege of Lachish (701 BC)
Siege of Jerusalem (701 BC) by the Assyrians under Sennacherib
Siege of Tyre (701 BC) by the Assyrians under Sennacherib
7th century BC: Siege of Babylon (689 BC)
Siege of Tyre (671 BC) by the Assyrians under Esarhaddon
Siege of Tyre (663 BC) by the Assyrians under Ashurbanipal
Fall of Ashdod (635 BC)
Fall of Assur (614 BC)
Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)
Fall of Harran (610 BC)
Siege of Harran (609 BC)
6th century BC: Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Tyre (586–573 BC) by Nebuchadnezzar II
Siege of Sardis (547 BC)
Siege of Gaza (525 BC)
Siege of Memphis (525 BC)
5th century BC:
4th century BC:
3rd century BC: Siege of Messene (295 BC) – Wars of the Diadochi
Siege of Thebes (292–291 BC)
Siege of Athens (287 BC)
Siege of Syracuse (278 BC) – Part of the Pyrrhic War
Siege of Lilybaeum (278 BC) – Part of the Pyrrhic War
Siege of Sparta (272 BC) – Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese
Siege of Agrigentum (261 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Aspis (255 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Siege of Drepana (249–241 BC) – Part of the First Punic War
Battle of "The Saw" (238 BC) – Part of the Mercenary War
Siege of Tunis (238 BC) – Part of the Mercenary War
Siege of Medion (231 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Issa (230–229 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Epidamnus (229 BC) – First Illyrian War
Siege of Saguntum (219 BC) – casus belli for the Second Punic War
Siege of Casilinum (216–215 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Petelia (215 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Arpi (213 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC) – the Roman siege
Siege of Capua (211 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Agrigentum (210 BC) – Second Punic War
Battle of Cartagena (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Manduria (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Caulonia (209 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Bactra (208–206 BC)
Siege of Utica (204 BC) – Second Punic War
Siege of Abydos (200 BC) – Cretan War (205–200 BC)
2nd century BC: Siege of Gythium (195 BC) – War against Nabis
Siege of Eucratideia (169 BC)
Siege of Carthage (149–146 BC) by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Siege of Numantia (134–133 BC) by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Siege of Cirta (113 BC) – Jugurthine War
1st century BC: Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC) – First Mithridatic War
Siege of Mytilene (81 BC)
Siege of Cyzicus (73 BC) – Third Mithridatic War
Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC) by Pompey the Great
Siege of the Atuatuci (57 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Avaricum (52 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Alesia (52 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Uxellodunum (51 BC) – Gallic Wars
Siege of Massilia (49 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Utica (49 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Alexandria (48–47 BC) – Caesar's Civil War
Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC) by Herod the Great
Siege of Aracillum (25 BC) – Cantabrian Wars
1st century A.D. to 5th century:
1st century: Siege of Uspe (49)
Siege of Camulodunum (60–61)
Siege of Yodfat (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Gush Halav (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Zealot Temple Siege (68) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Jerusalem (70) – the Roman siege by Titus
Siege of Masada (72–73 or 73–74) – First Jewish–Roman War
2nd century: Battle of Sarmisegetusa (106) – Trajan's Dacian Wars
Siege of Hatra (117) – Trajan's Parthian campaign
Siege of Hatra (193) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
Siege of Byzantium (194–196) by forces of Septimius Severus. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | to 5th century:
1st century: Siege of Uspe (49)
Siege of Camulodunum (60–61)
Siege of Yodfat (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Gush Halav (67) – First Jewish–Roman War
Zealot Temple Siege (68) – First Jewish–Roman War
Siege of Jerusalem (70) – the Roman siege by Titus
Siege of Masada (72–73 or 73–74) – First Jewish–Roman War
2nd century: Battle of Sarmisegetusa (106) – Trajan's Dacian Wars
Siege of Hatra (117) – Trajan's Parthian campaign
Siege of Hatra (193) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
Siege of Byzantium (194–196) by forces of Septimius Severus.
Siege of Hatra (197) – by Septimius Severus during Roman–Parthian Wars
3rd century: Siege of Jicheng (213)
Siege of Hatra (220s) by Sasanians under Ardashir I
Siege of Chencang (229) – Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions
Siege of Aquileia (238) – Year of the Six Emperors
Siege of Hatra (240-241) by Sasanians under Shapur I
Siege of Philippopolis (250)
Siege of Thessalonica (254)
Siege of Dura-Europos (256)
Siege of Tyana (272)
Siege of Palmyra (272)
4th century: Siege of Byzantium (324) – Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Siege of Nisibis (337) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Singara (344) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Nisibis (347) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Nisibis (350) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Autun (356)
Siege of Senonae (356)
Siege of Amida (359) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Singara (360) – Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
Siege of Aquileia (361)
Siege of Pirisabora (363) – Julian's Persian War
Siege of Maiozamalcha (363) – Julian's Persian War
Siege of Adrianople (378) – Gothic War (376–382)
5th century: Siege of Asti (402)
Siege of Florence (405)
Siege of Rome (408–410)
Siege of Arles (411)
Siege of Valence (411)
Siege of Bazas (413)
Sack of Trier (413)
Siege of Massilia (413)
Siege of Theodosiopolis (421) – Roman–Sasanian War (421–422)
Siege of Arles (425)
Siege of Hippo Regius (430–431)
Siege of Narbonne (436–437)
Siege of Noviodunum (437)
Siege of Viminacium (441) by Attila
Siege of Naissus (442) by Attila
Siege of Sirmium (442) by Attila
Siege of Ratiaria (447) by Attila
Siege of Metz (451) by Attila
Siege of Aurelianum (451) by Attila
Siege of Aquileia (452) by Attila
Siege of Castrum Cainonense (463)
Siege of Singidunum (472)
Siege of Taragona (472)
Siege of Rome (472) by Ricimer
Siege of Papyrius (484–488)
Siege of Ravenna (490–493) – Ostrogothic conquest of Italy
Siege of Nisibis (498)
Medieval:
6th century:
7th century:
8th century: Siege of Bergamo (701)
Siege of Taranton (702) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Tyana (707–708) by the Umayyads
Siege of Anchialus (708) – Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Siege of Turanda (712) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the Umayyads
Siege of Toulouse (721) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Angers (722)
Siege of Nicaea (727) by the Umayyads
Siege of Kamarja (729) by the Turgesh
Siege of Bordeaux (732) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Avignon (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Narbonne (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Nîmes (737) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Synnada (740) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Laon (741)
Siege of Loches (742)
Siege of Emesa (745) – Third Fitna
Siege of Wasit (749–750) – Abbasid Revolution
Siege of Melitene (750)
Siege of Narbonne (752–59) – Umayyad invasion of Gaul
Siege of Pavia (755)
Siege of Rome (756)
Siege of Pavia (756)
Siege of Suiyang (757) - known because of acts of cannibalism.
Siege of Sythen (758)
Siege of Bourbon (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Clermont (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Chantelle (761) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Bourges (762) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Thouars (762) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Kamacha (766) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Toulouse (767) – Aquitanian War
Siege of Syke (771) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Pavia (773–774) – Lombard kingdom conquered by Charlemagne
Siege of Syburg (775) – Saxon Wars
Siege of Syburg (776) – Saxon Wars
Siege of Barbād (776)
Siege of Zaragoza (778) by Charlemagne
Siege of Germanikeia (778) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Semaluos (780) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Nakoleia (782) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Huesca (797)
Siege of Trsat (799)
9th century: Siege of Barcelona (800–801) by Louis the Pious
Siege of Lucera (802)
Siege of Canburg (805)
Siege of Patras (805 or 807) by the Slavs of the Peloponnese
Siege of Melitene (805) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Heraclea (806) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Tortosa (809) by Louis the Pious
Siege of Serdica (809) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Venice (810)
Siege of Debeltos (812) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Baghdad (812–813) – Fourth Fitna
Siege of Mesembria (812) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Adrianople (813) – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
Siege of Constantinople (821–822)
Siege of Arkadiopolis (823)
Siege of Kaysum (824) – Fourth Fitna
Siege of Syracuse (827–828) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege and sack of Amorium (838) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Paris (845) – Viking expansion
Siege of Rome (846)
Siege of Marand (848)
Capture of Faruriyyah (862) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Dowina (864)
Siege of Baghdad (865) – Abbasid civil war (865–866)
Siege of Ragusa (866–868) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Syracuse (868) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Dumbarton (870) – Viking expansion
Siege of Melite (870) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Bari (870–871) – Frankish conquest of the Emirate of Bari
Siege of Salerno (871–872)
Siege of Syracuse (877–878) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of al-Mukhtarah (881) – Zanj Rebellion
Siege of Asselt (882) – Viking expansion
Siege of Euripos (883) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Rochester (885)
Siege of Paris (885–886) – Viking expansion
Siege of Buttington (893) |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | of Baghdad (865) – Abbasid civil war (865–866)
Siege of Ragusa (866–868) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Syracuse (868) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Dumbarton (870) – Viking expansion
Siege of Melite (870) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of Bari (870–871) – Frankish conquest of the Emirate of Bari
Siege of Salerno (871–872)
Siege of Syracuse (877–878) – Muslim conquest of Sicily
Siege of al-Mukhtarah (881) – Zanj Rebellion
Siege of Asselt (882) – Viking expansion
Siege of Euripos (883) – Arab–Byzantine Wars
Siege of Rochester (885)
Siege of Paris (885–886) – Viking expansion
Siege of Buttington (893) – Viking expansion
Siege of Bergamo (894)
Siege of Rome (896)
Siege of Spoleto (896)
Siege of Amida (899)
10th century:
11th century:
12th century: Siege of Haifa (1100) – Crusades
Siege of Le Mans (1100)
Second siege of Arsuf (1101) – Crusades
Siege of Caesarea (1101) – Crusades
Siege of Latakia (1101–1103)
Siege of Acre (1102) – Crusades
Siege of Arundel (1102)
Siege of Bridgnorth (1102)
Siege of Jaffa (1102) – Crusades
Siege of Tripoli (1102–1109) – Crusades
Siege of Acre (1103) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1103)
Siege of Acre (1104) – Crusades
Siege of Takrit (sometime between 1105 and 1107) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Alamut (sometime between 1106 and 1109) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Shahdez (1107) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Nuremberg (1105)
Siege of Cologne (1106)
Siege of Apamea (1106) – Crusades - conflicts with the Assassins
Siege of Apamea (September 1106) – Crusades - conflicts with the Assassins
Siege of Malatya (1106)
Siege of Castellum Arnaldi (1106) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1107)
Siege of Hebron (1107) – Crusades
Siege of Douai (1107)
Siege of Dyrrhachium (1107–1108) – Byzantine–Norman wars
Siege of Uclés (1108) – Reconquista
Siege of Bratislava (1108)
Siege of Sidon (1108) – Crusades
Siege of Jableh (1109) – Crusades
Siege of Nakło (1109)
Siege of Głogów (1109)
Siege of Baalbek (1110)
Siege of Beirut (1110) – Crusades
Siege of Novara (1110)
Siege of Sidon (1110) – Norwegian Crusade
Siege of Atarib (1110) – Crusades
Siege of Le Puiset (1111)
Siege of Vetula (1111) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1111–1112) – Crusades
Siege of Nicaea (1113) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Hornburg Castle (1113)
Siege of Mousson (1113)
Siege of Bar (1113)
Siege of Cologne (1114)
Siege of Kafartab (1115) – Crusades
Siege of Jaffa (1115) – Crusades
Siege of Marqab (1116) – Crusades
Siege of Alamut (1117–1118) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Lambsar (1117–1118) – Nizari–Seljuk conflicts
Siege of Laodicea (1119) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Sozopolis (1120) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Jerash (1121) – Crusades
Siege of Mainz (1121)
Siege of Tbilisi (1121–1122) – Georgian–Seljuk wars
Siege of Aschaffenburg Castle (1122)
Siege of Faulquemont Castle (1122)
Siege of Zardana (1122) – Crusades
Siege of Balis (1122) – Crusades
Siege of Kharput (1123) – Crusades
Siege of Jaffa (1123) – Crusades
Siege of Schulenburg Castle (1123)
Siege of Manbij (1124)
Siege of Azaz (1124) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1124) – Crusades
Siege of Aleppo (1124–1125) – Crusades
Siege of Raffaniya (1126) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Rahba (1127)
Siege of Bayonne (1130–1131)
Siege of De'an (1132) – Jin–Song Wars
Siege of Kastamone (1132)
Siege of Kastamone (1133)
Siege of Savur (1134) – Crusades
Siege of Gangra (1135)
Siege of Montferrand (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Anazarbos (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Vahka (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Antioch (1137) – Crusades
Siege of Kafartab (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Aleppo (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Shaizar (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Buza'a (1138) – Crusades
Siege of Coria (1138) – Reconquista
Siege of Baalbek (1139)
Siege of Oreja (1139) – Reconquista
Siege of Neocaesarea (1139–1140)
Siege of Weinsberg (1140)
Siege of Banias (1140) – Crusades
Siege of Coria (1142) – Reconquista
Siege of Lisbon (1142) - Reconquista
Siege of Li Vaux Moise (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Edessa (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Al-Bira (1144) – Crusades
Siege of Edessa (1146) – Crusades
Siege of Almería (1147) – Reconquista
Siege of Lisbon (1147) – Reconquista
Siege of Tortosa (1148) – Reconquista
Siege of Damascus (1148) – Second Crusade
Siege of Turbessel (1150) – Crusades
Siege of Jerusalem (1152) – Crusades
Siege of Ascalon (1153) – Crusades
Siege of Braničevo (1154)
Siege of Tortona (1155)
Siege of Brindisi (1155–1156)
Siege of Shirakawa-den (1156)
Siege of Baghdad (1157)
Siege of Banias (1157) – Crusades
Siege of Shaizar (1157) – Crusades
Siege of Casalia (1157–1158) – Crusades
Siege of Harim (1158) – Crusades
Siege of Milan (1158) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Crema (1159–1160) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Sanjō Palace (1160) – the main action of the Heiji Rebellion took place in Kyoto
Siege of Ani (1161) – Georgian–Seljuk wars
Siege of Milan (1161–62) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Harim (1164)
Siege of Banias (1164)
Siege of Alexandria (1167) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Wexford (1169) – the first major clash of the Norman invasion of Ireland
Siege of Damietta (1169) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Kerak (1170) – Crusades
Siege of Sinjar (1170)
Siege of Kerak (1173) – Crusades
Siege of Derbent (1173) – Caspian expeditions of the Rus'
Siege of Alexandria (1174)
Siege of Alessandria (1174–1175) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Homs (1175)
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Harim (1164)
Siege of Banias (1164)
Siege of Alexandria (1167) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Wexford (1169) – the first major clash of the Norman invasion of Ireland
Siege of Damietta (1169) – Crusader invasions of Egypt
Siege of Kerak (1170) – Crusades
Siege of Sinjar (1170)
Siege of Kerak (1173) – Crusades
Siege of Derbent (1173) – Caspian expeditions of the Rus'
Siege of Alexandria (1174)
Siege of Alessandria (1174–1175) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Northern Italy cities
Siege of Homs (1175)
Siege of Montferrand (1175)
Siege of Sinjar (1175)
Siege of Azaz (1176)
Siege of Masyaf (1176)
Siege of Harim (1177) – Crusades
Siege of Demmin (1177) – Brandenburg–Pomeranian conflict
Siege of Claudiopolis (1179) – Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Siege of Jacob's Ford (1179) – Crusades
Siege of Nara (1180) – Genpei War
Siege of Beirut (1182) – Crusades
Siege of Mosul (1182
Siege of Amida (1183)
Siege of Hiuchi (1183) – Genpei War
Siege of Fukuryūji (1183) – Genpei War
Siege of Tell Khalid (1183)
Siege of Kerak (1183) – Crusades
Siege of Hōjūjidono (1184) – Genpei War
Siege of Santarém (1184)
Siege of Kerak (1184) – Crusades
Sack of Thessalonica (1185) by the Normans
Siege of Mayyafariqin (1185)
Siege of Lovech (1187)
Siege of Kerak (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Tiberias (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Toron (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Ascalon (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Jerusalem (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Tyre (1187) – Crusades
Siege of Saone (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Shughr-Bakas (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Bourzey (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Trapessac (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Baghras (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Safed (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Belvoir (1188) – Crusades
Siege of Acre (1189–1191) – Third Crusade
Siege of Naples (1191)
Siege of Jaffa (1192) – Third Crusade
Siege of Verneuil (1194)
Siege of Loches (1195)
Siege of Aumâle (1196)
Siege of Jaffa (1197) – Crusades
Siege of Toron (1197–1198) – Crusade of 1197
Siege of Châlus (1199)
Siege of Montferrand (1199)
13th century: Siege of Varna (1201) – Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Siege of Zadar (1202) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Constantinople (1203) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Château Gaillard (1203–1204) – French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)
Siege of Constantinople (1204) – Part of the Fourth Crusade
Siege of Trebizond (1205–1206) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Cologne (1205–1206) – German throne dispute
Siege of Tripoli (1207) – Crusades
Siege of Antalya (1207) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Beverin (1208) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Carcassonne (1209) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Bram (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Al-Dāmūs (1210) – Reconquista
Siege of Cēsis (1210) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Minerve (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Termes (1210) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Montferrand (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Castelnaudary (1211) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Beverin (1211) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Viljandi (1211) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Weissensee (1212) – German throne dispute
Siege of Ganja (1213)
Siege of Sinope (1214) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Zhongdu (1215) – Genghis Khan conquers Zhongdu, now Beijing
Siege of Rochester castle (1215) – King John's Danish mercenaries attempt to take the castle of Rochester during the First Baron's war.
Siege of Beaucaire (1216) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Dover Castle (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Windsor Castle (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Hertford (1216) – First Barons' War
Siege of Lincoln Castle (1217) – First Barons' War
Siege of Toulouse (1217–18) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Mount Tabor (1218) – Crusades
Siege of Damietta (1218) – Fifth Crusade
Siege of Marmande (1219) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1219) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Caesarea (1220) – Crusades
Siege of Castelnaudary (1220–1221) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Bamyan (1221) – Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
Siege of Nishapur (1221) – Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
Siege of Reval (1221) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Trebizond (1222–1223) – Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
Siege of Reval (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Fellin (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Reval (1223) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Lohu (1223–1224) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of La Rochelle (1224)
Siege of Tartu (1224) – Livonian Crusade
Siege of Jaén (1225) – Reconquista
Siege of Avignon (1226) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Toulouse (1226) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Akhlat (1229)
Siege of Jaén (1230) – Reconquista
Siege of Beirut (1231–1232)
Siege of Amida (1232)
Siege of Kaifeng (1232–1233) – Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
Siege of Burriana (1233) – Reconquista
Siege of Caizhou (1233–1234) – Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
Siege of Constantinople (1235) – a joint Bulgarian-Nicaean siege on the capital of the Latin Empire.
Siege of Bilär (1236) – Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
Siege of Córdoba (1236) – Reconquista
Siege of Ryazan (1237) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kolomna (1237–1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Moscow (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Vladimir (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kozelsk (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Brescia (1238) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Mt. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Bilär (1236) – Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
Siege of Córdoba (1236) – Reconquista
Siege of Ryazan (1237) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kolomna (1237–1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Moscow (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Vladimir (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Kozelsk (1238) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Brescia (1238) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Mt. Tebulosmta (1238-1250) - Mongol invasions of Durdzuketia
Siege of Faenza (1239) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Jerusalem (1239) – Crusades
Siege of Kiev (1240) – Mongol invasion of Rus'
Siege of Esztergom (1242) – First Mongol invasion of Hungary, Citadel of Esztergom,Turoc, Nyitra, Győr, Pannonhalma, Székesfehérvár, Segesd, Varasd, Kemlék, Csázma, Zágráb, Trogir, Veszprém, Tihany, Moson, Sopron, Vasvár, Zala, Léka, Pozsony, Komárom, Fülek and Abaújvár besieged but successfully resisted
Siege of Viterbo (1243) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Montségur (1243–1244) – Albigensian Crusade
Siege of Jerusalem (1244) by the Khwarezmians
Siege of Damascus (1245)
Siege of Jaén (1245–46) – Reconquista
Siege of Ascalon (1247) – Crusades
Siege of Parma (1247–1248) – Part of the wars between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Lombard League
Siege of Seville (1247–1248) – Reconquista
Siege of Aachen (1248)
Siege of Homs (1248–1249)
Siege of Damietta (1249) – Seventh Crusade
Siege of Naples (1252)
Siege of Cologne (1252)
Siege(s) of Gerdkuh (1253–1270) - Mongol campaign against the Nizaris
Siege of Mehrin (1253)
Siege of Tun (1253)
Siege of Tun (1256)
Siege of Maymun-Diz (1256)
Siege of Alamut (1256)
Siege of Lambsar (1256–1257)
Siege of Cologne (1257)
Siege of Baghdad (1258)
Siege of Mayyafariqin (1258–1259)
Siege of Diaoyu Castle (1259) – Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
Siege of Al-Bira (1259) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Aleppo (1260)
Siege of Constantinople (1260) – Nicaean–Latin wars
Siege of Cologne (1262)
Siege of Königsberg (1262–1265) – Prussian uprisings
Siege of Bartenstein (1264) – Prussian uprisings
Siege of al-Bira (1264–1265) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Fall of Arsuf (1265)
Siege of Kenilworth (1266) – Second Barons' War
Siege of Safed (1266)
Siege of Xiangyang (1267–1273) – Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
Siege of Antioch (1268)
Fall of Krak des Chevaliers (1271)
Siege of Tripoli (1271)
Siege of Al-Bira (1272) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Al-Rahba (1272) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Al-Bira (1275) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Algeciras (1278–1279) – Reconquista
Siege of Berat (1280–1281)
Siege of Margat (1282)
Siege of Messina (1282)
Siege of Trebizond (1282)
Siege of Albarracín (1284)
Siege of Acre (1291)
Siege of Rumkale (1292)
Capture of Berwick (1296) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Lille (1297) – Franco-Flemish War
Siege of Damascus (1299–1300) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
14th century: Siege of Ruad (1302)
Siege of Buda by Charles I. (1302)
Siege of Stirling Castle (1304) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Rhodes (1306–1310)
Siege of Buda by Charles I. (1307)
Siege of Gibraltar (1309) – First siege of Gibraltar, by Juan Alfonso de Guzman el Bueno in the Reconquista
Siege of Algeciras (1309–10) – Reconquista
Siege of Almería (1309) – Reconquista
Siege of Warangal (1310)
Siege of Florence (1312)
Siege of Al-Rahba (1312–1313) – Mongol invasions of the Levant
Siege of Roxburgh (1314) – First War of Scottish Independence
Second siege of Gibraltar (1315) – Second siege of Gibraltar, by the Nasrid caid Yahya in the Reconquista
Siege of Carlisle (1315) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Christmemel (1315) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of Warangal (1318)
Siege of Berwick (1318) – First War of Scottish Independence
Siege of Padua (1319–1320), by Cangrande I della Scala, lord of Verona
Siege of Bursa (1320–1326) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Warangal (1323)
Siege of Villa di Chiesa (1323–1324)
Siege of Bristol (1326) – Invasion of England (1326)
Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331) – Byzantine-Ottoman wars
Siege of Medvėgalis (1329) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of Kasagi (1331) – Genkō War
Siege of Akasaka (1331) – Genkō War
Third siege of Gibraltar – Third siege of Gibraltar (1333), by a Marinids army, led by Abd al-Malik in the Reconquista
Siege of Chihaya (1333) – Genkō War
Siege of Berwick (1333)
Fourth siege of Gibraltar – Fourth siege of Gibraltar (1333), by King Alfonso XI of Castile in the Reconquista
Siege of Kamakura (1333) – End of Ashikaga shogunate. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Nicomedia (1333–1337) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Kanegasaki (1337)
Siege of Kuromaru (1339)
Siege of Tournai (1340) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Vannes (1342) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Hennebont (1342) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Algeciras (1342–1344) – Reconquista
Siege of Caffa (1346)
Siege of Aiguillon (1346) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1346–1347) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1349) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Gibraltar (1349–1350) – Fifth siege of Gibraltar, by Alfonso XI in the Reconquista
Siege of Saint-Jean-d'Angély (1351) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Rennes (1356–57) – War of the Breton Succession
Siege of Chartres (1360) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Kaunas (1362) – Lithuanian Crusade
Siege of León (1368)
Siege of Algeciras (1369) – Reconquista
Siege of Limoges (1370) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Gibraltar (1374) – Moors of Fez cede Gibraltar to the Granadan Moors until 1410
Siege of Philadelphia (1378–1390) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Moscow (1382)
Siege of Sofia (1382 or 1385)
Siege of Ypres (1383) – Despenser's Crusade
Siege of Lisbon (1384) – 1383–1385 Portuguese interregnum
Siege of Tbilisi (1386) – Timur's invasions of Georgia
Siege of Isfahan (1387)
Siege of Tarnovo (1393)
Siege of Anjudan (1393)
Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
15th century: Siege of Sivas (1400)
Siege of Damascus (1400)
Siege of Smyrna (1402)
Siege of Birtvisi (1403) – Timur's invasions of Georgia
Siege of Mercq (1405) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Marienburg (1410) – in the aftermath of the Battle of Grunwald
Siege of Constantinople (1411) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars, during the Ottoman Interregnum
Sixth Siege of Gibraltar (1411) - Granadan Moors regain control from Fez
Siege of Bourges (1412) – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of Harfleur (1415) – reopening of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Rouen (1418–1419) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Đông Quan (1418–1428) – Lam Sơn uprising
Siege of Ceuta (1419)
Siege of Sarai (1420)
Siege of Meaux (1421–1422) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Constantinople (1422) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)– Byzantine-Ottoman and Ottoman-Venetian Wars
Siege of Golubac (1428)
Siege of Orléans (1428–1429) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Inverness (1429)
Siege of Paris (1429) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Malta (1429)
Siege of Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of La Charité (1429) – Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
Siege of Compiègne (1430) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Angkor (1431)
Siege of Pouancé (1432) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Pilsen (1433–34) – Hussite Wars
Siege of Gaeta (1435)
Siege of Saint-Denis (1435) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Calais (1436) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Seventh Siege of Gibraltar (1436) – seventh siege of Gibraltar, by the count of Niebla in the Reconquista
Siege of Tangiers (1437)
Siege of Belgrade (1440)
Siege of Tartas (1440–1442) – Part of the Hundred Years' War
Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)
Siege of Metz (1444)
Siege of Rhodes (1444)
Siege of Balkh (1447)
Siege of Herat (1448)
Siege of Svetigrad (1448)
Siege of Krujë (1450)
Siege of Constantinople (1453) – Byzantine-Ottoman Wars
Early modern:
15th century: Siege of Marienburg (1454) – Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)
Siege of Berat (1455)
Siege of Belgrade (1456) – Part of Ottoman wars in Europe
Siege of Deventer (1456)
Siege of Marienburg (1457–1460) – Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)
Siege of Roxburgh (1460)
Siege of Trebizond (1460–1461)
Siege of Harlech Castle (1461–68) – Part of Wars of the Roses. Longest siege in British history. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Longest siege in British history.
Siege of Shahrukhiya (1461–63)
Siege of Hostalric (1462) – Catalan Civil War
Eighth Siege of Gibraltar (1462), by a Castilian army in the Reconquista
Siege of Mytilene (1462)
Siege of Barcelona (1462) – Catalan Civil War
Siege of Jajce (1463)
Siege of Jajce (1464)
Siege of Barcelona (1465) – Catalan Civil War
Ninth Siege of Gibraltar (1466–1467), by the Duke of Medina Sidonia
Siege of Krujë (1466–67)
Siege of Krujë (1467)
Siege of Negroponte (1470) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)
Siege of Barcelona (1472), during the Catalan Civil War
Siege of Shkodra (1474)
Siege of Neuss (1474–1475) – Burgundian Wars
Siege of Burgos (1475–1476) – War of the Castilian Succession
Siege of Neamț Citadel (1476)
Siege of Krujë (1477–1478)
Siege of Shkodra (1478–1479)
Siege of Gdov (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480-1481)
Siege of Izborsk (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Izborsk (1480) (2nd) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Pskov (1480) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Rhodes (1480) – First siege of Rhodes
Sieges of Otranto (1480–1481)
Siege of Fellin (1481) – Russian-Livonian War (1480–81)
Siege of Hainburg (1482) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Utrecht (1483) – Second Utrecht Civil War
Siege of Vienna (1485) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Retz (1486) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Wiener Neustadt (1487) – Austrian-Hungarian War (1477–1488)
Siege of Málaga (1487) – Granada War
Siege of Granada (1491–1492)
Siege of Boulogne (1492)
Siege of Samarkand (1494)
Siege of Samarkand (1496)
Siege of Samarkand (1497)
16th century: Siege of the Castle of Saint George (1500) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)
Siege of Tabriz (1501)
Siege of Samarkand (1501)
Siege of Smolensk (1502) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Kabul (1504)
Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)
Tenth Siege of Gibraltar (1506) – by the Duke of Medina Sidonia
Siege of Anjadiva (1506)
Siege of Cannanore (1507)
Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)
Siege of Padua (1509) – War of the League of Cambrai
Siege of Gongenyama (1510)
Spanish conquest of Tripoli (1510)
Portuguese conquest of Goa (1510)
Siege of Mirandola (1511) – War of the League of Cambrai
Capture of Malacca (1511)
Siege of Aden (1513)
Siege of Dijon (1513) – War of the League of Cambrai
Siege of Smolensk (1514) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Arai (1516)
Siege of Cairo (1517)
Siege of Opochka (1517) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Polotsk (1518) – Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars
Siege of Allenstein (1521) – Polish–Teutonic War (1519–21)
Siege of Pampeluna (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Tenochtitlan (1521) – fall of the Aztec Empire.
Siege of Mézières (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Tournai (1521) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Belgrade (1521)
Siege of Knin (1522)
Siege of Genoa (1522) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Rhodes (1522) – Second siege of Rhodes
Siege of Marseille (1522–1524) – Italian War of 1521–26
Conquest of Kalmar (1523)
Conquest of Stockholm (1523)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1523–1524) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Edo (1524)
Siege of Pavia (1524–25) – Italian War of 1521–26
Siege of Sambhal (1526)
Siege of Calicut (1526)
Siege of Kamakura (1526)
Sack of Rome (1527) – War of the League of Cognac
Siege of Naples (1528) – War of the League of Cognac
Capture of Peñón of Algiers (1529)
Siege of Vienna (1529) – First siege of Vienna
Siege of Florence (1529–1530) – War of the League of Cognac
Siege of Buda (1530) by Wilhelm von Roggendorf and Bálint Török
Siege of Diu (1531)
Siege of Güns (1532)
Siege of Maribor (1532)
Siege of Coron (1532–1534)
Siege of Baghdad (1534) – by Ottomans
Siege of Tunis (1534)
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
Siege of Chittorgarh (1535)
Siege of Cusco (1536–1537)
Siege of Klis (1536–1537)
Siege of Musashi-Matsuyama (1537)
Siege of Corfu (1537) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)
Siege of Diu (1538)
Siege of Castelnuovo (1539) – Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)
Siege of Koriyama (1540–1541)
Siege of Buda (1540) by Leonhard von Fels and Niklas Salm
Fall of Agadir (1541)
Siege of Buda (1541) – capture of the city of Buda by the Turkish Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent, as he invaded central Hungary
Algiers expedition (1541)
Siege of Uehara (1541)
Siege of Fukuyo (1542)
Siege of Kuwabara (1542)
Siege of Pest (1542) – an attempt to recapture Buda from the Turks
Siege of Perpignan (1542) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Toda Castle (1542–1543)
Siege of Nagakubo (1543)
Siege of Landrecies (1543) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Esztergom (1543)
Siege of Nice (1543) – Italian War of 1542–1546
Siege of Kojinyama (1544)
Siege of Kōriyama Castle (1544)
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Dizier (1544) – Italian War of 1542–46
Sieges of Boulogne (1544–46) – Italian War of 1542–46
Siege of Ryūgasaki (1545)
Siege of Takatō (1545)
Siege of Kawagoe Castle (1545–1546)
Second siege of Diu (1546)
Siege of Uchiyama (1546)
Siege of Shika Castle (1546–1547)
Siege of Van (1548) – Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–55)
Siege of Aden (1548)
Siege of Kajiki (1549)
Siege of Fukashi (1549)
Siege of Beijing (1550)
Capture of Mahdia (1550)
Sieges of Toishi (1550–51)
Siege of Gozo (1551)
Siege of Mirandola (1551–1552) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Tripoli (1551)
Siege of Eger (1552)
Siege of Temesvár (1552)
Siege of Muscat (1552)
Siege of Metz (1552–53) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Kazan (1552) – Part of the Russo-Kazan wars
Siege of Hormuz (1552–54)
Siege of Eger (1552) – Part of Ottoman–Habsburg wars
Siege of Katsurao (1553)
Siege of Iwatsurugi Castle (1554)
Siege of Kiso Fukushima (1554)
Siege of Kannomine (1554)
Siege of Matsuo (1554)
Siege of Siena (1554–55) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Oran (1556)
Siege of Katsurayama (1557)
Siege of Kotte (1557–58) – Sinhalese–Portuguese War
Siege of Calais (1558) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Narva (1558) – Livonian War
Siege of Thionville (1558) – Italian War of 1551–1559
Siege of Bahrain (1559)
Siege of Dorpat (1558) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1558) - Livonian War
Siege of Dorpat (1559) - Livonian War
Siege of Lais (1559) - Livonian War
Siege of Fellin (1560) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1560) – Livonian War
Siege of Leith (1560)
Siege of Marune (1560)
Siege of Moji (1561)
Siege of Odawara (1561)
Siege of Kaminogō Castle (1562)
Siege of Inverness (1562)
Siege of Rouen (1562) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Weissenstein (1562) - Livonian War
Siege of Musashi-Matsuyama (1563)
Siege of Orleans (1563) – French Wars of Religion
Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir (1563)
Capture of Älvsborg – Northern Seven Years' War
Siege of Concepción (1564)
Siege of Chauragarh (1564)
Siege of Kuragano (1565)
Great Siege of Malta (1565)
Siege of Minowa (1566)
Siege of Szigetvár (1566) – Ottoman siege during which Suleiman the Magnificent died
Siege of Valenciennes (1566–67) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Inabayama Castle (1567)
Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–68)
Siege of Ranthambore (1568)
Siege of Chartres (1568)
Siege of Malacca (1568)
Siege of Hachigata (1568)
Siege of Odawara (1569)
Siege of Kanbara (1569)
Siege of Kakegawa (1569)
Siege of Tachibana (1569)
Siege of Varberg (1569) – Northern Seven Years' War
Siege of Ogucji Castle (1569)
Siege of Hanazawa (1570)
Siege of Chōkō-ji (1570)
Siege of Kanegasaki (1570)
Siege of Nicosia, Cyprus (1570) – Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War
Siege of Famagusta, Cyprus (1570–71) – Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War
Siege of Reval (1570–71) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1570–71) - Livonian War
Siege of Ishiyama Honganji (1570–1580) – longest siege in Japanese history
Siege of Chale (1571) - War of the league of Indies
Siege of Fukazawa (1571)
Siege of Moscow (1571) – Part of Russo-Crimean Wars
Sieges of Nagashima (1571, 1573, 1574)
Siege of Mount Hiei (1571)
Siege of Futamata (1572)
Siege of Iwamura Castle (1572)
Siege of Mons (1572) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Middelburg (1572–74) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573), assault on the Huguenot city of La Rochelle during the French Wars of Religion.
Siege of Sancerre (1572–1573) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Haarlem (1572–1573) – conducted by the Spanish against the Dutch during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1572–73) - Livonian War
Siege of Noda Castle (1573)
Siege of Odani Castle (1573)
Siege of Hikida Castle (1573)
Siege of Ichijōdani Castle (1573)
Siege of Alkmaar (1573) – turning point in the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leiden (1573–1574) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Wesenberg (1574) – Livonian War
Siege of Itami (1574)
Siege of Takatenjin (1574)
Siege of Tunis (1574)
Siege of Limahong (1574)
Siege of Yoshida Castle (1575)
Siege of Nagashino (1575)
Siege of Schoonhoven (1575) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Zierikzee (1575–1576)) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Mitsuji (1576)
Siege of Takabaru (1576)
Siege of Antwerp (1576) – during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nanao (1577)
Siege of Shigisan (1577)
Siege of Reval (1577) – Livonian War
Siege of Danzig (1577) – Danzig rebellion
Siege of Gvozdansko (1577–1578)
Siege of Kōzuki Castle (1578)
Siege of Otate (1578)
Siege of Deventer (1578) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Miki (1578–1580)
Siege of Itami (1579)
Siege of Maastricht (1579) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Polotsk (1579) – Livonian War
Siege of Velikiye Luki – Livonian War
Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle (1580) – Second Desmond Rebellion
Siege of Steenwijk (1580–1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Smerwick (1580) – Second Desmond Rebellion
Siege of Takatenjin (1580–1581)
Siege of Hijiyama (1581)
Siege of Tottori (1581)
Siege of Minamata Castle (1581)
Siege of Narva (1581) – Livonian War
Siege of Weissenstein (1581) - Livonian War
Siege of Pskov (1581–1582) – Livonian War
Siege of Niezijl (1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Takamatsu (1582)
Siege of Takatō (1582)
Siege of Uozu (1582)
Siege of Lochem (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lier (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eindhoven (1583) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Godesberg (1583)
Siege of Kaganoi (1584)
Siege of Takehana (1584)
Siege of Kanie (1584)
Siege of Suemori (1584)
Siege of Ypres (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ghent |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | War
Siege of Weissenstein (1581) - Livonian War
Siege of Pskov (1581–1582) – Livonian War
Siege of Niezijl (1581) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Takamatsu (1582)
Siege of Takatō (1582)
Siege of Uozu (1582)
Siege of Lochem (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lier (1582) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eindhoven (1583) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Godesberg (1583)
Siege of Kaganoi (1584)
Siege of Takehana (1584)
Siege of Kanie (1584)
Siege of Suemori (1584)
Siege of Ypres (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ghent (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Antwerp (1584–1585) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Bruges (1584) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Brussels (1584–85) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Toyama (1585)
Siege of Negoro-ji (1585)
Siege of Ōta Castle (1585)
Siege of IJsseloord (1585) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Iwaya Castle (1586)
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1586) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Grave (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Venlo (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Axel (1586) – Eighty Years' War
Second siege of Neuss (July 1586)
Siege of Rheinberg (1586–1590) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ganjaku (1587)
Siege of Akizuki (1587)
Siege of Kagoshima (1587)
Siege of Sluis (1587) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Johor (1587)
Siege of Kraków (1587) – War of the Polish Succession (1587–88)
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1588) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kurokawa Castle (1589)
Siege of Hachigata (1590)
Siege of Paris (1590) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Odawara Castle (1590)
Siege of Shimoda (1590)
Siege of Oshi (1590)
Siege of Zutphen (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Deventer (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Knodsenburg (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Hulst (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nijmegen (1591) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Rouen (1591–1592) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Caudebec (1592) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Busanjin (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Dongrae (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Steenwijk (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Bihać (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Pyongyang (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Coevorden (1592) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Jinju (1592) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Pyongyang (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Haengju (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Geertruidenberg (1593) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Sisak (1593) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Jinju (1593) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Coevorden (1593–1594) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Groningen (1594) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Enniskillen (1594) – Tyrone's Rebellion
Siege of Morlaix (1594) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Fort Crozon (1594) – Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
Siege of Huy (1595) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Caracas (1595) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Le Catelet (1595) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Groenlo (1595) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Doullens – French Wars of Religion
Siege of San Juan (1595) during the Anglo–Spanish War
Siege of Calais (1596) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Hulst (1596) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Eger (1596) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Amiens (1597) – French Wars of Religion
Siege of Rheinberg (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Meurs (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Groenlo (1597) – during the Eighty Years' War
Siege of Namwon (1597) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Bredevoort (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Enschede (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ootmarsum (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Oldenzaal (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Lingen (1597) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1598)
Siege of Ulsan (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Second siege of Ulsan (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Suncheon (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Sacheon (1598) – Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)
Siege of Schenckenschans (1599) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Zaltbommel (1599) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Cahir Castle (1599) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Rees (1599) – Eighty Years' War
17th century: Siege of San Andreas (1600) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ueda (1600)
Siege of Fushimi (1600)
Siege of Ōtsu (1600)
Siege of Shiroishi (1600)
Siege of Hataya (1600)
Siege of Kaminoyama (1600)
Siege of Hasedō (1600)
Siege of Tanabe (1600)
Siege of Udo (1600)
Siege of Yanagawa (1600)
Siege of Pernau (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Fellin (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dorpat (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Rheinberg (1601) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Ostend (1601–04) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nagykanizsa (1601) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Donegal (1601) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Kinsale (1601–02) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Wolmar (1601) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1601) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Fellin (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dunboy (1602) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Grave (1602) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1602–1603) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Sluis (1604) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1604) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Kromy (1605) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)
Siege of Lingen (1605) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kandahar (1605–06)
Siege of Malacca (1606) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1602) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Dunboy (1602) – Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Siege of Grave (1602) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Buda (1602–1603) – Long Turkish War
Siege of Sluis (1604) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Weissenstein (1604) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Kromy (1605) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)
Siege of Lingen (1605) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Kandahar (1605–06)
Siege of Malacca (1606) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of Ganja (1606) – Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18)
Siege of Groenlo (1606) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Tory Island (1608) – O'Doherty's rebellion
Siege of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra (1608–10) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Fellin (1600) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Weissenstein (1608) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Pärnu (1609) – Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)
Siege of Smolensk (1609–11) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Kalmar (1611) – Kalmar War
Storming of Kristianopel (1611) – Kalmar War
Siege of Moscow (1612) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Smolensk (1613–17) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Tikhvin (1613) – Ingrian War
Siege of Gdov (1614) – Ingrian War
Siege of Aachen (1614) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Osaka (1614–15)
Siege of Pskov (1615) – Ingrian War
Siege of Gradisca (1616) – Uskok War
Siege of Gradisca (1617) – Uskok War
Siege of Pilsen (1618) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Moscow (1618) – Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Siege of Budweis (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Kassa (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Vienna (1619) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Bad Kreuznach (1620) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Neuhäusel (1621) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Jean-d'Angély (1621) – Huguenot rebellions
Blockade of La Rochelle (1621–22) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Montauban (1621) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Pressburg (1621) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Riga (1621) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of Jülich (1621–22) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Frankenthal (1621–1623) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Ormuz (1622)
Siege of Royan (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Nègrepelisse (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Montpellier (1622) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom (1622) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Heidelberg (1622) – Thirty Years' War
Capture of Mannheim (1622) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Araya Castle (1622–1623) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Breda (1624–1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Gavi (1625)
Siege of Genoa (1625)
Recapture of Bahia (1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Verrua (1625)
Siege of Koknese (1625) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of Dorpat (1625) – Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)
Siege of San Juan (1625) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1625)
Siege of Oldenzaal (1626) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1627) – Anglo-French War (1627–1629)
Siege of Wolfenbüttel (1627) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Nienburg (1627) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Groenlo (1627) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of La Rochelle (1627–1628) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Stralsund (1628) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Glückstadt (1628) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Batavia (1628–29)
Siege of Mantua (1629–30)
Siege of Casale Monferrato (1629–31)
Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Privas (1629) – Huguenot rebellions
Siege of Alès (1629) – Huguenot rebellions
Sack of Magdeburg (1631) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Maastricht (1632) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Nuremberg (1632) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dorogobuzh (1632) – Smolensk War
Siege of Smolensk (1632–33) – Smolensk War
Siege of Daulatabad (1633)
Siege of Hameln (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Hagenau (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Konstanz (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Rheinfelden (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Regensburg (1633) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Belaya (1634)
Siege of Überlingen (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Regensburg (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lüshun (1634)
Siege of Hildesheim (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Nördlingen (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Minden (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Heidelberg (1634) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Leuven (1635) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Schenkenschans (1635–1636) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Mainz (1635) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dôle (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of La Capelle (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Le Câtelet (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Magdeburg (1636) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Corbie (1636) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Leipzig (1637) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Breda (1637) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Landrecies (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Venlo (1637) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leucate (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hara Castle (1637–1638)
Siege of Azov (1637–1642) – Part of Russo-Turkish Wars
Siege of Saint-Omer (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Battle of Breisach (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lemgo (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Baghdad (1638) by Ottomans
Siege of Hesdin (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Relief of Thionville (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Leucate (1637) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hara Castle (1637–1638)
Siege of Azov (1637–1642) – Part of Russo-Turkish Wars
Siege of Saint-Omer (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Battle of Breisach (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lemgo (1638) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Baghdad (1638) by Ottomans
Siege of Hesdin (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Relief of Thionville (1639) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Salses (1639–1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Casale (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Galle (1640) – Dutch-Portuguese War
Siege of Turin (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Arras (1640) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Neunburg (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Wolfenbüttel (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of São Filipe (1641–1642) – Portuguese Restoration War
Siege of Dorsten (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Göttingen (1641) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Perpignan (1641–1642) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Glogau (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Olmütz (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Brieg (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Leipzig (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Hull (1642) – First English Civil War
Siege of Portsmouth (1642) – First English Civil War
Second siege of Glogau (1642) – Thirty Years' War
Sieges of Bradford (1642–1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Reading (1642–1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Chichester (1642) – First English Civil War
Siege of Rocroi (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Thionville (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Worcester (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lichfield (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Gloucester (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Sierck (1643) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hull (1643) – First English Civil War
Siege of Newcastle (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lathom House (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Überlingen (1644) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lyme Regis (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of York (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lincoln (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Lleida (1644) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Gravelines (1644) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Oxford (1644–1646) – First English Civil War
Siege of Sas van Gent (1644) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Philippsburg (1644) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Montgomery Castle (1644) – First English Civil War
Sieges of Taunton (1644–1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Duncannon (1645) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Chester (1645) – First English Civil War
Great Siege of Scarborough Castle (1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Carlisle (1644) – First English Civil War
Siege of Brünn (1645) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Mardyck (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Bristol (1645) – First English Civil War
Siege of Béthune (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Lillers (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Saint-Venant (1645) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Hulst (1645) – Eighty Years' War
Siege of Worcester (1646) – First English Civil War
Siege of Mardyck (1646) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Dunkirk (1646) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Augsburg (1646) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Lindau (1647) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Armentières (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Landrecies (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Ypres (1647) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Memmingen (1647) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Candia (Crete) (1648–69) – claimed as the second-longest siege in history
Siege of Pembroke (1648) – Second English Civil War
Siege of Colchester (1648) – Second English Civil War
Siege of Prague (1648) – Thirty Years' War
Siege of Inverness (1649)
Siege of Zbarazh (1649) – Khmelnytsky uprising
Siege of Dublin (1649)
Siege of Drogheda (1649) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Wexford (1649) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Waterford (1649–1650) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Inverness (1650)
Siege of Kilkenny (1650) – Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Siege of Clonmel (1650) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Charlemont (1650) – Irish Confederate Wars
Cromwell's Siege of Limerick City, Ireland (1651) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Barcelona (1651–1652), during the Catalan Revolt
Siege of Galway (1651–1652) – Irish Confederate Wars
Siege of Arras (1654) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Smolensk (1654) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Landrecies (1655) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Santo Domingo (1655) – Anglo-Spanish War (1654–60)
Siege of Kraków (1655) – Second Northern War
Siege of Danzig (1655–60) – Second Northern War
Siege of Jasna Góra (1655) – during The Deluge
Siege of Valenciennes (1656) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Zamość (1656) – Second Northern War
Siege of Warsaw (1656) – Second Northern War
Siege of Nöteborg (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Nyenschantz (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dyneburg (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Riga (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dorpat (1656) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Bidar (1657)
Siege of Kraków (1657) – Second Northern War
Siege of Dorpat (1657) – Russo-Swedish War (1656–58)
Siege of Dunkirk (1658) – Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)
Siege of Toruń (1658) – Second Northern War
Siege of Badajoz (1658) – Portuguese Restoration War
Siege of Copenhagen (1658–1659) Second Northern War, |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Swedes defeated by Danish and Dutch defenders
Siege of Kolding (1658) – Second Northern War
Siege of Lyakhavichy (1660) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Fort Zeelandia (1661–1662) – Sino-Dutch conflicts
Siege of Érsekújvár (1663) – Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)
Siege of Hlukhiv (1664) – Russo-Polish War (1654–67)
Siege of Valência de Alcântara (1664)
Siege of Novi Zrin Castle (1664) in northern Croatia – Austro-Turkish War (1663–64)
Siege of Léva (1664) – Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)
Siege of Purandhar (1665)
Siege of Charleroi (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Tournai (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Douai (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Lille (1667) – War of Devolution
Siege of Dole (1668) – War of Devolution
Siege of Solovetsky Monastery (1668–76) – eight years
Siege of Groenlo (1672) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Groningen (1672) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Kamenets (1672) – Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76)
Siege of Maastricht (1673) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Bonn (1673) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Besançon (1674) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Ponda (1675)
Siege of Maastricht (1676) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Philippsburg (1676) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Valenciennes (1676–77) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Freiburg (1677) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Cambrai (1677) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Malmö (1677) – Scanian War
Siege of Ghent (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Ypres (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Puigcerdà (1678) – Franco-Dutch War
Siege of Stralsund (1678) – Scanian War
Siege of Vienna (1683) – siege of Vienna during the Great Turkish War
Siege of Luxembourg (1684) – War of the Reunions
Siege of Genoa (1684) – War of the Reunions
Siege of Buda (1684), Austrian army tried to take Buda from Ottoman Turkey
Siege of Santa Maura (1684) – Morean War
Siege of Sinj (1684) – Morean War
Siege of Sinj (1685) – Morean War
Siege of Bijapur (1685–86)
Siege of Cojor (1685) – Morean War
Siege of Érsekújvár (1685) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Kelefa (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Navarino (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Buda (1686) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Modon (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Nauplia (1686) – Morean War
Siege of Pécs (1686) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Golconda (1687)
Siege of Castelnuovo (1687) – Morean War
Siege of Monemvasia (1687–1690) – Morean War
Siege of the Acropolis (1687) – Morean War
Siege of Bangkok (1688) – Siamese revolution of 1688
Siege of Negroponte (1688) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Belgrade (1688) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Knin (1688) – Morean War
Siege of Philippsburg (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mannheim (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Frankenthal (1688) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Derry (1689) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Kaiserswerth (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mainz (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Larache (1689)
Siege of Pemaquid (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Carrickfergus (1689) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Bonn (1689) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Gingee (1689–1698)
First siege of Athlone (1690), Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Kanina (1690) – Morean War
Siege of Niš (1690) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Cork (1690) – Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Belgrade (1690) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Québec City (1690) – First siege of Québec City
Siege of Jinji (1690–1698)
Siege of Limerick (1691), Williamite War in Ireland
Second siege of Athlone (1691), Williamite War in Ireland
Siege of Mons (1691) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Cuneo (1691) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Candia (1692) – Morean War
Siege of Namur (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Embrun (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ebernburg (1692) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Belgrade (1693) – Great Turkish War
Siege of Huy (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Charleroi (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Pinerolo (1693) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Chios (1694) – Morean War
Siege of Palamos (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Gerona (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Huy (1694) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ceuta (1694–1727) – claimed as the longest siege in history
Siege of Casale (1695) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Namur (1695) – Nine Years' War
Capitulation of Diksmuide (1695) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Mombasa (1696–1698) – Omani–Portuguese conflicts
Siege of Pemaquid (1696) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Fort Nashwaak (1696) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ath (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Barcelona (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Ebernburg (1697) – Nine Years' War
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1697)
18th century: Siege of Riga (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Tönning (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Riga (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Narva (1700) – Great Northern War
Siege of Kaiserswerth (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Donas (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Castiglione (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Borgoforte (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Guastalla (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venlo (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stevensweert (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Roermond (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Nöteborg (1702) – Great Northern War
Siege of Liége (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Rheinberg (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hulst (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Augustine (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Andernach (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Governolo (1702) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Neubourg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Kehl (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bonn (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Thorn (1703) – Great Northern War
Siege of Nago (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Arco (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Breisach (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Huy (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Limburg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Augsburg (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Guadeloupe (1703) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Castello de Vide (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Wagingera (1704)
Siege of Barcelona (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Portalegre (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Vercelli (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Rain (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Narva (1704) – Great Northern War
Siege of Dorpat (1704) – Great Northern War
Siege of Villingen (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Fort Isabella (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gibraltar (1704) – eleventh siege of Gibraltar, by Sir George Rooke's Anglo-Dutch fleet
Siege of Ulm (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar (1704–05) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ivree (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landau (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Verrua (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1704) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Colonia del Sacramento (1704–1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of St. John's (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Valencia de Alcantara (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Albuquerque (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Huy (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Liège (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Huy (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Chivasso (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Mirandola (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Nice (1705–06) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Zoutleeuw (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hagenau (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Badajoz (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Zandvliet (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Diest (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of San Mateo (1705) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Tripoli (1705) - Tripolitanian-Tunisian War (1704-1709)
Siege of Alcantara (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Hagenau (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Turin (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Oostende (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Menin (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Alicante (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Dendermonde (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ath (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pavia (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cuenca (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pizzigetone (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Elche (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cartagena (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Casale (1706) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Milan (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Villena (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Xàtiva (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Port Royal (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Toulon (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gaeta (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Pensacola (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Susa (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Lérida (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Morella (1707) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Oran (1707–1708) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Terki (1708) – Murat Kuchukov Movement
Siege of Tortosa (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Exilles (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Lille (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Fenestrelles (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of San Felipe (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Leffinghe (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Denia (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Ghislain (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Brussels (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Alicante (1708–09) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Ghent (1708) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Veprik (1709) – Great Northern War
Siege of Tournai (1709) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Mons (1709) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Viborg (1710) – Great Northern War
Siege of Reval (1710) – Great Northern War
Siege of Douai (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Béthune (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Aire (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Saint Venant (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Port Royal (1710) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gerona (1710–1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Kassa (1711) – Rákóczi's War of Independence
Siege of Aren fort (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venasque (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stralsund (1711–15) – Great Northern War
Siege of Castel-Leon (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cardona (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landrecies (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Marchiennes (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Douai (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | of Aren fort (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Venasque (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Stralsund (1711–15) – Great Northern War
Siege of Castel-Leon (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Cardona (1711) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Landrecies (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Marchiennes (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Douai (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Second siege of Le Quesnoy (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Bouchain (1712) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gerona (1712–1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Tönning (1713–1714) – Great Northern War
Siege of Landau (1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Barcelona (1713–14) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Freiburg (1713) – War of the Spanish Succession
Siege of Gurdaspur (1715)
Siege of Brahan (1715) – Jacobite rising of 1715
Siege of Inverness (1715) – Jacobite rising of 1715
Siege of Temeşvar (1716) – Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)
Siege of Belgrade (1717) – Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)
Siege of Fredriksten (1718) – Great Northern War
Siege of Isfahan (1722)
Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar (1727) – by a Spanish army
Siege of Oran (1732) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Kehl (1733) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Pizzighettone (1733) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Danzig (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Gaeta (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Trarbach (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Capua (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Philippsburg (1734) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Messina (1734–1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Ganja (1734–1735) – Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35)
Siege of Syracuse (1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Trapani (1735) – War of the Polish Succession
Siege of Colonia del Sacramento (1735–1737) – Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)
Siege of Perekop (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Azov (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Banja Luka (1737) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Ochakov (1737) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Kandahar (1737–1738)
Siege of Mehadia (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Orsova (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Belgrade (1739) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Portobello (1739) – victory of British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Azov (1736) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Banja Luka (1737) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Ochakov (1737) – Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)
Siege of Kandahar (1737–1738)
Siege of Mehadia (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Orsova (1738) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Belgrade (1739) – Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739)
Siege of Portobello (1739) – victory of British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of St. Augustine (1740) – War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Fort Mose (1740) – War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Trichinopoly (1741)
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1741) – failed British siege by Edward Vernon in the War of Jenkins' Ear
Siege of Brieg (1741) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Santiago (1741) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Neisse (1741)
Siege of Glatz (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Eger (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mirandola (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Modena (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Prague (1742) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of La Guaira (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Eger (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Blockade of Straubing (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Trichinopoly (1743)
Siege of Ingolstadt (1743) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mosul (1743) – Ottoman–Persian War (1743–46)
Siege of Kars (1744) – Ottoman–Persian War (1743–46)
Siege of Menin (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ypres (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Furnes (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Prague (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Cuneo (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Freiburg (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tabor (1744) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tournai (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Louisbourg (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Port Toulouse (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Siege of Annapolis Royal (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War)
Fall of Ghent (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Oudenarde (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ostend (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Tortona (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Kosel (1745) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Culloden House (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Carlisle (November 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Carlisle (December 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort Augustus (December 1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Stirling Castle (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Brussels (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Inverness (1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort Augustus (March 1746) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Blair Castle (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Fort William (1745) – Jacobite rising of 1745
Siege of Genoa (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Mons (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Namur (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Madras (1746) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Genoa (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Hulst (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1747) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Maastricht (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Cuddalore (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Pondicherry (1748) – War of the Austrian Succession
Siege of Arcot (1751) – Second Carnatic War
Siege of Trichinopoly (1751–52) – Second Carnatic War
Siege of Fort St Philip (1756) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Pirna (1756) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Prague (1757) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Fort William Henry (1757) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Schweidnitz (1757) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Breslau (1757) – Seven Years' War
Blockade of Liegnitz (1757) – Seven Years' War
Blockade of Stralsund (1757–1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Küstrin (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Schweidnitz (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Louisbourg (1758) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Olmütz (1758) – by the Prussian army of Frederick the Great during the Seven Years' War
Siege of Neisse (1758) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Madras (1758–1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Masulipatam (1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Québec (1759) – Second siege of Québec, during the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Münster (1759) – Seven Years' War
Second siege of Münster (1759) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Fort Loudoun (1760) – Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Siege of Glatz (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Dresden (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Breslau (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Wittenberg (1760) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Pondicherry (1760–1761) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1761) – Seven Years' War
Sieges of Kolberg (1759, 1760, and 1761) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Havana (1762) – Seven Years' War. British fleet headed by George Keppel, 3rd Earl of Albemarle lays siege to Spanish controlled Havana for a month.
Siege of Schweidnitz (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Almeida (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Ambur (1767) – First Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Khotyn (1769) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Bender (1770) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Giurgevo (1771) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Silistria (1773) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Melilla (1774), during Hispano-Moroccan wars
Siege of Boston (1775–1776) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Schweidnitz (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Almeida (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Cassel (1762) – Seven Years' War
Siege of Ambur (1767) – First Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Khotyn (1769) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Bender (1770) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Giurgevo (1771) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Silistria (1773) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Siege of Melilla (1774), during Hispano-Moroccan wars
Siege of Boston (1775–1776) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort St. Jean (1775) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Stanwix (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Henry (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Mifflin (1777) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Pondicherry (1778) – Anglo-French War (1778–1783)
Siege of Fort Vincennes (1779) – American Revolutionary War
Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779–83) – fourteenth siege of Gibraltar, by a Spanish-French army in the American Revolutionary War
Siege of Savannah (1779) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Tellicherry (1779–82) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Charleston (1780) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Kastania (1780)
Siege of Vellore (1780–82) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Pensacola (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Watson (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Fort Motte (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Augusta (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Ninety-Six (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Yorktown (1781) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Negapatam (1781) – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Siege of Brimstone Hill (1782) – Anglo-French War (1778–1783)
Siege of Fort Henry (1782) – American Revolutionary War
Siege of Cuddalore (1783) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Mangalore (1783–1784) – Second Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Nargund (1785) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Karginsk (1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Kizlyar (July 1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Battle of Grigoriopolis 1785 — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Kizlyar (August 1785) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Badami (1786) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Bahadur Benda (1787) – Maratha–Mysore War
Siege of Ochakov (1788) – Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
Siege of Khotin (1788) – Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)
Siege of Anapa (1788) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Belgrade (1789) – Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)
Siege of Izmail (1789–1790) – Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
Siege of Oran (1790–1792) – Conflicts between Spain and Algiers
Siege of Anapa (1790) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Darwar (1790–1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Koppal (1790–1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Bangalore (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Coimbatore (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Anapa (1791) — Sheikh Mansur Movement
Siege of Goorumconda (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Nundydroog (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Savendroog (1791) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Seringapatam (1792) – Third Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Thionville (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Battle of Verdun (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Lille (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Battle of Limburg (1792) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Maastricht (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Condé (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Bellegarde (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Valenciennes (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Pondicherry (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Lyon (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Landau (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Dunkirk (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Le Quesnoy (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Toulon (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Maubeuge (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Fort-Louis (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Angers (1793) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of San Fiorenzo (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Bastia (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Landrecies (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Collioure (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Ypres (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Calvi (1794) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Roses (1794–95) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mannheim (1795) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Mantua (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition, French besieging
Siege of Kehl (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Hüningen (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Port of Spain (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of San Juan de Puerto Rico (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of Malta (1798–1800), |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | French besieging
Siege of Kehl (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Hüningen (1796–97) – War of the First Coalition
Siege of Port of Spain (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of San Juan de Puerto Rico (1797), during the Anglo-Spanish War
Siege of Malta (1798–1800), during the French Revolutionary Wars
Siege of Corfu (1798–99) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of El Arish (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Jaffa (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Acre (1799) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Mantua (1799) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Seringapatam (1799) – Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Modern military sieges:
19th century: Siege of Genoa (1800) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Fort Bard (1800) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Fort Julien (1801) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Porto Ferrajo (1801) – War of the Second Coalition
Siege of Alexandria (1801) – French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Siege of Ahmednagar (1803) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Aligarh (1803) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Erivan (1804) – Russo-Persian War (1804–13)
Siege of Delhi (1804) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Deeg (1804) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Bharatpur (1805) – Second Anglo-Maratha War
Siege of Santo Domingo (1805)
Siege of Gaeta (1806) – Invasion of Naples (1806)
Siege of Magdeburg (1806) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Belgrade (1806) – First Serbian uprising
Siege of Hameln (1806) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Stralsund (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Montevideo (1807) – during the British invasions of the River Plate
Siege of Kolberg (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition
Siege of Danzig (1807) – War of the Fourth Coalition, French siege of Prussians and Russians
Siege of Buenos Aires (1807) – during the British invasions of the River Plate
Battle of Copenhagen (1807) – Bombarded by British fleet and by ground forces commanded by Arthur Wellesley
Siege of Sveaborg (1808) – Finnish War
Siege of Erivan (1808) – Russo-Persian War (1804–13)
First siege of Zaragoza (1808) – Peninsular War
Siege of Barcelona (1808) – Peninsular War
Battle of Valencia (1808) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Gerona (1808) – Peninsular War
Siege of Roses (1808) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Zaragoza (1808–1809) – Peninsular War
Siege of Chaves (1809) – Peninsular War
Third siege of Girona (1809) – Peninsular War
Siege of Cádiz (1810–1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Santa Maura (1810) – Adriatic campaign
Siege of Astorga (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Lérida (1810) – Peninsular War
First siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1810) – Peninsular War by the French Marshal Michel Ney
Siege of Mequinenza (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Almeida (1810) – Peninsular War
Siege of Tortosa (1810–11) – Peninsular War
Siege of Olivenza (1811) – Peninsular War
First siege of Badajoz (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Figueras (1811) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Badajoz (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Tarragona (1811) – Peninsular War
Siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1811) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of Montevideo (1811) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Tarifa (1811–1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Valencia (1811–1812) – Peninsular War
Second siege of Montevideo (1812–14) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812) – Peninsular War by Arthur Wellesley
Siege of Cuautla (1812) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of Badajoz (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Huajuapan de León (1812) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of the Salamanca Forts (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Astorga (1812) – Peninsular War
First siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1812) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Riga (1812) – French invasion of Russia
Siege of Fort Mackinac (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Detroit (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Harrison (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Wayne (1812) – War of 1812
Siege of Burgos (1812) – Peninsular War
Siege of Danzig (1813) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Acapulco (1813) – Mexican War of Independence
Siege of Fort Meigs (1813) – failed British siege of American garrison during the War of 1812
Siege of Tarragona (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of Pamplona (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of San Sebastián (1813) – Peninsular War
Siege of Chillán (1813) – Chilean War of Independence
Second siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1813) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Cattaro (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Mainz (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Zara (1813) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Maturin (es) (1813–1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Hamburg (1813–1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Metz (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Third siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Antwerp (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Ragusa (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1814) – War of the Sixth Coalition
First siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Valencia (Venezuela) (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Prairie du Chien (1814) – War of 1812
Siege of Fort Erie (1814) – War of 1812
Siege of Aragua de Barcelona (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Santa Fe de Bogotá (es) (1814) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Fort St. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Philip (1815) – War of 1812
Siege of Ancona (1815) – Neapolitan War
Siege of Gaeta (1815) – Neapolitan War
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (es) (1815) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of Angostura (es) (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Barcelona (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Second siege of Angostura (es) (1817) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Cartagena de Indias (es) (1820–21) – Spanish American wars of independence
First siege of El Callao (es) (1821) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Tripolitsa (1821) – by the Greeks against the Ottomans, during the Greek War of Independence
Siege of the Acropolis (1821–22) – by the Greeks against the Ottomans, during the Greek War of Independence
Fourth siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1822) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Pasto (es) (1822) – Spanish American wars of independence
Fifth Siege of Puerto Cabello (1823) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of Pamplona (1823) – 1823 French invasion of Spain
First, second, and third sieges of Missolonghi (1822, 1823, 1825–1826)
Second siege of El Callao (es) (1824–1826) – Spanish American wars of independence
Siege of the Acropolis (1826–27) – by the Ottomans against the Greeks, during the Greek War of Independence
Siege of Antwerp (1832) – conducted by French forces against a Dutch garrison after the Ten Days' Campaign.
Siege of Jerusalem (1834) Peasants' Revolt of 1834 (Palestine)
Siege of Puerto Cabello (es) (1835) – Reforms Revolution (Venezuela)
Siege of the Alamo (1836) – Texas Revolution
Siege of Herat (1837–38)
Siege of Akmolinsk (1838)
Siege of Aktau (1838)
Third siege of El Callao (es) (1838)
Siege of Akhoulgo (1839)
Great Siege of Montevideo (1843–1851)
Siege of Fort Texas (1846) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Los Angeles (1846) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Pueblo de Taos (1847) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Puebla (1847) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Veracruz (1847) – Mexican–American War. First U.S. amphibious landing
Siege of Messina (1848) – Sicilian revolution of 1848
Siege of San José del Cabo (1848) – Mexican–American War
Siege of Peschiera del Garda (1848) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Osoppo (1848) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Venice (1849) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Rome (1849) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Buda (1849) – during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–49
Siege of La Serena (1851) – 1851 Chilean Revolution
Siege of Calafat (1854) – Crimean War
Siege of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (1854) – Crimean War
Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55) – Crimean War
Siege of Taganrog (1855) – Crimean War
Siege of Kars (1855) – Crimean War
Siege of Medina Fort (1857) – Toucouleurs besiege French for 97 days
Siege of Delhi (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Cawnpore (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Lucknow (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Arrah (1857) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Jhansi (1858) – Indian Rebellion of 1857
Siege of Đà Nẵng (1858–1860)
Siege of Tourane (1858–1860)
Siege of Saigon (1859)
Siege of Ancona (1860) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Messina (1860–61) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Civitella del Tronto (1860–61) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Gaeta (1860–1861) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Fort Sumter (1861) – Union soldiers in Fort Sumter surrendered after a few days of bombardment by Confederate forces starting the American Civil War.
Siege of Tubac (1861) – Apache Wars
Siege of New Orleans (1862) – Union Army besieged a Confederate city in the American Civil War
Siege of Vicksburg (1863) – Union Army besieged a Confederate city in the American Civil War.
Siege of Port Hudson (1863) – Union Army surrounded Confederate river stronghold for 48 days.
Siege of Puebla (1863) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Petersburg (1864–1865) – American Civil War
Siege of Fort Ampola (1866) – Italian Risorgimento
Fourth siege of El Callao (1866) – naval battle between Spain and Peru (and her allies)
Siege of Querétaro (1867) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Mexico City (1867) – Second French intervention in Mexico
Siege of Humaitá (1867-8) - Paraguayan War
Siege of Hakodate (1869)
Capture of Rome (1870) – Italian Risorgimento
Siege of Strasbourg (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Toul (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Metz (1870) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Paris and the Paris Commune (1870–71)
Siege of Belfort (1870–71) – Franco-Prussian War
Siege of Cartagena (1873–1874)
Siege of Pamplona (1874) – First Spanish Republic
Siege of Plevna (1877–1878) – Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)
Siege of the Bears Paw (1877) – final engagement of the Nez Perce War. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Eshowe (1879) – Anglo–Zulu War
Fifth siege of El Callao (1880) – Chilean naval blockade and bombardment of El Callao (Peru), during the War of the Pacific
Siege of Miraflores (1880) – Chilean siege of Lima (Peru), during the War of the Pacific
Siege of Marabastad (1881) – First Boer War
Siege of Khartoum (1884–85) – Mahdist War
Siege of Tuyên Quang (1884–85) – Sino-French War
Siege of Lapa (1893) – Federalist Revolution
Siege of Mek'elè (1896) – First Italo-Ethiopian War
Siege of Santiago (1898) – Spanish–American War
First siege of San Juan (1898) – Spanish–American War
Second siege of San Juan (1898) – Spanish–American War
Siege of Manila (1898) – Spanish–American War
Siege of Baler (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Masbate (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Zamboanga (1898–99) – Philippine Revolution
Siege of Apia (1899) – Second Samoan Civil War
Siege of Bucaramanga (1899) – Thousand Days' War (Colombia)
Siege of Mafeking (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of Kimberley (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of Ladysmith (1899–1900) – Second Boer War
Siege of the International Legations (1900) – Boxer Rebellion
20th century: Siege of San Cristobal (1901) – Thousand Days' War (Venezuela)
Siege of La Victoria (1902)- Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1902–1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of La Guaira (1902–1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of Castle San Carlos (1903)- Naval blockade of Venezuela
Siege of Ciudad Bolivar (1903)- Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)
Siege of Port Arthur (1904–05) Russo-Japanese War
Siege of Scutari (1912–13) – First Balkan War
Siege of Adrianople (1912–13) – First Balkan War
Siege of Vidin (1913) – Second Balkan War
Siege of Veracruz (1914) – Mexican Revolution
Battle of Liège (1914) – World War I
Siege of Namur (1914) – World War I
Siege of Maubeuge (1914) – World War I
Siege of Toma (1914) – World War I
Siege of Przemyśl (1914–15) – World War I
Siege of Antwerp (1914) – World War I
Siege of Tsingtao (1914) – World War I
Defense of Van (1915) – World War I
Siege of Novogeorgievsk (1915) – World War I
Siege of Kaunas (1915) – World War I
Siege of Kut (1915–16) – World War I
Siege of Medina (1916–19) – World War I
Battle of Jerusalem (1917) – World War I
Siege of Najaf (1918) – World War I
Siege of Aintab (1920–1921) – Franco-Turkish War
Siege of Perekop (1920) – Russian Civil War
Siege of Naco (1929) – Escobar Rebellion
Siege of Cuartel de la Montaña (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Cuartel de Loyola (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Gijón (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Oviedo (1936) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of the Alcázar (1936) – Second Spanish Republic militias besieged the Alcázar of Toledo in the Spanish Civil War
Siege of Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza (1936–1937) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Madrid (1936–1939) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Gandesa (1938) – Spanish Civil War
Siege of Warsaw (1939) – World War II
Siege of Lwów (1939) – World War II
Siege of Hegra Fortress (1940) – World War II
Siege of Calais (1940) – World War II
Siege of Lille (1940) – World War II
Siege of Malta (1940–1943) – World War II
Siege of Giarabub (1940–1941) – World War II
Siege of Saïo (1941) – World War II
Siege of Tobruk (1941) – World War II
Siege of Brest Fortress (1941) – World War II
Siege of Mogilev (1941) – World War II
Siege of Odessa (1941) – World War II
Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944) – also known as the 900-Day Siege, probably the most gruesome in history, World War II.
Siege of Rogatica (1941) – World War II
Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942) – World War II
Siege of Yenangyaung (1942) – World War II
Siege of Stalingrad (1942–1943) – World War II
Siege of Turjak (1943) – World War II
Siege of Imphal (1944) – World War II
Siege of Kohima (1944) – World War II
Siege of Myitkyina (1944) – World War II
Siege of Mount Song (1944) – World War II
Siege of Hengyang (1944) – World War II
Siege of La Rochelle (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Dunkirk (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Bastogne (1944) – World War II
Siege of Budapest (1944–1945) – World War II
Siege of Breslau (1945) – World War II
Siege of Berlin (1945) – World War II
Siege of Jerusalem (1947–1948) – 1948 Arab–Israeli War – Palestinian Arabs laid siege to the Jewish quarters of Jerusalem, but were driven back. Siege was resumed in May by regular Jordanian and Egyptian forces. Ended in armistice.
Siege of Changchun (1948) – Chinese Civil War
Berlin Blockade (1948–49) – No military action, but the tactic to starve a city by cutting her supply lines is a feature of a siege. The famous Berlin Air Lift supplied the city with food, coal, medical supplies and other goods for nearly a year.
Siege of Surakarta (1949) - Indonesian National Revolution
Blockade of Wonsan (1951–53) – Korean War
Siege of Dien Bien Phu (1954) – Vietnamese Viet Minh forces besieged French forces, effecting a final defeat on France's colonial occupation.
Siege of Sidi Ifni (1957–58) – Ifni War
Siege of Jadotville (1961) – Congo Crisis
Siege of Puerto Cabello (1962) – Venezuelan political crisis
Siege of Erenköy (1964) – Turkish Cypriots holding out against attacking Greek and Greek Cypriot forces. Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Siege of Plei Me (1965) - Vietnam War
Encirclement of Jerusalem (1967) – Six-Day War
Siege of Sana'a (1967–68) – North Yemen Civil War
Siege of Khe Sanh (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Huế (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Da Nang (1968) – Vietnam War
Siege of Owerri (1968) – Nigerian Civil War
Siege of Jolo (1974) – Moro conflict
Siege of Saigon (1975) – Vietnam War
Siege of Tel al-Zaatar (1976) – Lebanese Civil War
Grand Mosque seizure (1979)
Siege of Khost (1980–91) – Soviet–Afghan War
Siege of Aleppo (1980) – Islamist uprising in Syria
Siege of Abadan (1980–81) – Iran–Iraq War
Siege of Hama (1982) better known as Hama massacre, Islamist uprising in Syria. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Siege of Beirut (1982) – 1982 Lebanon War
Siege of Urgun (1983–84) – Soviet–Afghan War
Badaber uprising (1985) – Soviet–Afghan War
War of the Camps (1985–88) – Lebanese Civil War
Siege of Basra (1987) – Iran–Iraq War
Siege of Jeffna (1987) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Battle of Kokavil (1990) – Sri Lankan Civil War
First Battle of Elephant Pass (1991) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Siege of Kijevo (1991) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Vukovar (1991) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Dubrovnik (1991–92) – Croatian War of Independence
Siege of Stepanakert (1991–92) – First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Siege of Sarajevo (1992–96) – Bosnian War
Siege of Mostar (1992–93,1993–94) – Bosnian War
Siege of Doboj (1992) – Bosnian War
Siege of Žepa (1992-95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Bihać (1992–95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Tkvarcheli (1992–93) – War in Abkhazia (1992–93)
Siege of Smoluća (1992) - Bosnian War
Siege of Goražde (1992–95) – Bosnian War
Siege of Srebrenica (1993–1995) – Bosnian War
Battle of Grozny (1994–1995) – First Chechen War
Battle of Jaffna (1995) – Sri Lankan Civil War
Siege of Junik (1998) – Kosovo War
Siege of Mitú (1998) - Colombian conflict
Battle of Grozny (1999–2000) – Second Chechen War
21st century: Siege of Kunduz (2001) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (2002) – Second Intifada
Siege of Monrovia (2003) – Second Liberian Civil War
Siege of Sadr City (2004–2008) – Iraq War
Siege of Sangin (2006–2007) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of Musa Qala (2006) – War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Siege of Bint Jbeil (2006) – Second Lebanon War
Siege of Al Amarah (2006) – Iraq War
Siege of UK bases in Basra (2007) – Iraq War
Siege of Nahr el-Bared (2007) – 2007 Lebanon Conflict
Blockade of the Gaza Strip (2007–present) – Gaza–Israel conflict
Siege of Lal Masjid (2007) – War in North-West Pakistan
Siege of Baidoa (2008) - Somali Civil War
Siege of Misrata (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
First Battle of Zawiya (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
Siege of Daraa (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Homs (2011–2014) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Baniyas (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Talkalakh (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Hama (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Latakia (2011) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Sirte (2011) – First Libyan Civil War
Siege of Dammaj (2011–12, 2013–14) – Yemeni Revolution / Houthi insurgency in Yemen
Siege of Northern Homs (2012–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Aleppo (2012–2016) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Nubl and Al-Zahraa (2012–2016) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Menagh Air Base (2012–2013) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Bani Walid (2012) – Factional violence in Libya (2011–14)
Siege of Base 46 (2012) – Syrian Civil War
First siege of Wadi Deif (2012–2013) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Darayya and Muadamiyat (2012-2016) – Syrian Civil War
Zamboanga City crisis (2013) – Moro conflict
Siege of Eastern Ghouta (2013–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of PK5 district (2013-2020) – Central African Republic Civil War (2012-present)
Siege of Wadi Barada (2013–2017) – Syrian Civil War
Second siege of Wadi Deif (2014) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Sloviansk (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of the Luhansk Border Base (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of Amirli (2014) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Ilovaisk (2014) – Russo-Ukrainian War
Siege of Saqlawiyah (2014) - Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Kobanî (2014–2015) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Al-Fu'ah and Kafriya (2015–2018) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Taiz (2015-present)– Yemeni Civil War
Cizre operation (2015) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Silvan (2015) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Sur (2015–2016) – Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Cizre (2015–2016) Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)
Siege of Fallujah (2016) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Sirte (2016) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Derna (2016–2018) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Mosul (2016–2017) – Iraqi Civil War
Siege of Tabqa (2017) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Marawi (2017) – Moro conflict
Siege of Sidi Akribesh (2017) – Second Libyan Civil War
Siege of Al Hudaydah (2018) — Yemeni Civil War
Siege of Baghuz Fawqani (2019) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of the Jabara Valley (2019) – Yemeni Civil War
Siege of Ras al-Ayn (2019) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Farabougou (2020) – Mali War
Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah (2021) – Syrian Civil War
Battle of Palma (2021) - Insurgency in Cabo Delgado
Siege of Panjshir (2021) – Republican insurgency in Afghanistan
Siege of Tigray (2021-2023) – Tigray War
Al Sina’a prison siege (2022) – Syrian Civil War
Siege of Djibo (2022-present) - Jihadist insurgency in Burkina Faso
Siege of Chernihiv (2022) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of Mariupol (2022) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of Moura (2022) - better known as Moura massacre, |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of sieges | Mali War
Siege of Kawkareik (2022) – Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Siege of Ti Bwar (2022) Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Blockade of the Republic of Artsakh (2022–2023) - aftermath of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
Siege of Paraskoviivka (2023) – Russo-Ukrainian War (2022)
Siege of El Obeid (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Zalingei (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of El Geneina (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Diling (2023-2024) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Timbuktu (2023) - Mali War
Siege of the 16th Infantry Division base (2023) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Gaza City (2023) - Israel–Hamas war
Al-Shifa Hospital siege (2023) - Israel–Hamas war
Siege of Al-Qarara (2023)- Israel–Hamas war
Siege of Babanusa (2024) - War in Sudan (2023)
Siege of Khan Yunis (2024) - - Israel–Hamas war (battle since 2023, siege completed in 2024)
Nasser Hospital siege (2024)
Siege of Myawaddy (2024) – Myanmar civil war (2021–present)
Siege of El Fasher (2024) - War in Sudan (2023) (battle since 2023, siege completed in 2024)
Police sieges: A police siege is a standoff between law enforcement officers and armed criminals, suspects, or protesters.
Siege of Sidney Street (1911) England
Attica Siege (1971) United States of America
Munich Olympic massacre (1972) Germany
Wounded Knee Incident (1973) United States of America
Norrmalmstorg robbery (1973) Sweden
Huntsville Prison siege (1974) United States of America
Spaghetti House siege (1975) England
Balcombe Street Siege (1975) England
Hanafi Siege (1977) United States of America
MOVE Siege (1978) United States of America
Iranian Embassy Siege (1980) England
Siege of the Libyan Embassy in London (1984) United Kingdom
Palace of Justice siege (1985) Colombia
Oka Crisis (1990) Quebec, Canada
Ruby Ridge Siege (1992) United States of America
Waco Siege (1993) United States of America
Chiapas conflict (1994–late 2010s) Chiapas, Mexico
Gustafsen Lake Standoff (1995) British Columbia, Canada
Montana Freemen Siege (1996) United States of America
Japanese embassy hostage crisis (1996–1997) Peru
Republic of Texas Davis Mountain Resort siege (1997) United States of America
Sauk Siege (2000) Malaysia
Moscow theater hostage crisis (2002) Russia
Beslan hostage crisis (2004) Russia
Manila Peninsula siege (2007) Philippines
Napier shootings (2009) New Zealand
Siege of Complexo do Alemão's slums, major urban conflict in Rio de Janeiro (2010) Brazil
Hectorville siege (2011) Australia
Wukan protests (2011) China
Siege of Eker (2012) Bahrain
Sydney hostage crisis (2014) Australia
Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege (2015) France
2016 Yerevan hostage crisis (2016) Armenia
Kidapawan jail siege (2017) Philippines
Brighton siege (2017) Australia
Siege of the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2019)
Siege of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (2019)
2022 Iraq parliament siege (2022) Iraq
Siege of the Villa Rossa Hotel (2022) Somalia
Bannu counterterrorism centre siege (2022) Pakistan
2023 Karachi police station siege (2023) Pakistan
2024 Mogadishu SYL Hotel attack and siege (2024) Somalia
Other: Gwangju uprising (1980) South Korea
Storming of the Legislative Council Complex (2019) Hong Kong
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | 1899–1902 Second Boer War: The term "concentration camp" was used to describe camps operated by the British Empire in South Africa during the Second Boer War in the years 1900–1902. As Boer farms were destroyed by the British under their "scorched earth" policy, many tens of thousands of women and children were forcibly moved into the concentration camps. Over 26,000 Boer women and children were to perish in these concentration camps.
Six officers from the Bushveldt Carbineers were court-martialed for massacring POWs and civilians. Lieutenants Harry Morant, Peter Handcock, and George Witton were each found guilty of murder and sentenced to death. Morant and Handcock were executed, while Witton was reprieved and served a short prison sentence. Two of the other defendants, Major Robert Lenehan and Lieutenant Henry Picton, were found guilty of lesser charges. They were dismissed from the military and deported from South Africa after being found guilty of neglecting one's duty and manslaughter, respectively. The last defendant, Captain Alfred Taylor, was acquitted.
1899–1902 Philippine–American War: Reported American war crimes and atrocities during the Philippine–American War included the summary execution of civilians and prisoners, burning of villages, and torture. 298,000 Filipinos were also moved to concentration camps, where thousands died.
In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger wrote: "The present war is no bloodless, opera bouffe engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog".
In response to the Balangiga massacre, which wiped out a U.S. company garrisoning Samar town, U.S. Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith launched a retaliatory march across Samar with the instructions: "I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in actual hostilities against the United States".
1904–1908: Herero Wars: In August, German General Lothar von Trotha defeated the Ovaherero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of dehydration. In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans, only to suffer a similar fate. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama and an unknown number of San died in the parallel Herero and Namaqua genocide. Once defeated, thousands of Hereros and Namas were also imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of diseases, abuse, and exhaustion. German soldiers also regularly engaged in gang rapes before killing the women or leaving them in the desert to die; a number of Herero women were also forced into involuntary prostitution.: 31
1912-1913: Balkan Wars: The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians and helped inspire later atrocities including war crimes during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars.
Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by Serbian and Montenegrin armies and paramilitaries. According to contemporary accounts, between 10,000 and 25,000 Albanians were killed or died because of hunger and cold during that period; many of the victims were children, women and the elderly. In addition to the massacres, some civilians had their tongues, lips, ears and noses severed. Philip J. Cohen also cited Durham as saying that Serbian soldiers helped bury people alive in Kosovo. American relief commissioner Willar Howard said in a 1914 Daily Mirror interview that General Carlos Popovitch would shout, "Don't run away, we are brothers and friends. We don't mean to do any harm." Peasants who trusted Popovitch were shot or burned to death, and elderly women unable to leave their homes were also burned. Yugoslavia from a Historical Perspective, a 2017 study published in Belgrade by the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, said that villages were burned to ashes and Albanian Muslims forced to flee when Serbo-Montenegrin forces invaded Kosovo in 1912. Some chronicles cited decapitation as well as mutilation.
Serbian army also brutally suppressed the Tikveš uprising and terrorized the Bulgarian population in the rebelling regions. According to some sources 363 civilian Bulgarians were killed in Kavadarci, 230 - in Negotino and 40 - in Vatasha.
1914–1918: World War I: World War I was the first major international conflict to take place following the codification of war crimes at the Hague Convention of 1907, including derived war crimes, such as the use of poisons as weapons, as well as crimes against humanity, and derivative crimes against humanity, such as torture, and genocide. Before, the Second Boer War took place after the Hague Convention of 1899. The Second Boer War (1899 until 1902) is known for the first concentration camps (1900 until 1902) for civilians in the 20th century.
1915–1920: First and Second Caco War: During the First (1915) and Second (1918–1920) Caco Wars waged during the United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), human rights abuses were committed against the native Haitians population. Overall, American troops and the Haitian gendarmerie killed several thousands of Haitian civilians during the rebellions between 1915 and 1920, though the exact death toll is unknown.
Mass killings of civilians were allegedly committed by United States Marines and their subordinates in the Haitian gendarmerie. According to Haitian historian Roger Gaillard, such killings involved rape, lynchings, summary executions, burning villages and deaths by burning. Internal documents of the United States Army justified the killing of women and children, describing them as "auxiliaries" of rebels. A private memorandum of the Secretary of the Navy criticized "indiscriminate killings against natives". American officers who were responsible for acts of violence were given Creole names such as "Linx" for Commandant Freeman Lang and "Ouiliyanm" for Lieutenant Lee Williams. According to American journalist H. J. Seligman, Marines would practice "bumping off Gooks", describing the shooting of civilians in a manner which was similar to killing for sport.
During the Second Caco War of 1918–1919, many Caco prisoners were summarily executed by Marines and the gendarmerie on orders from their superiors. On June 4, 1916, Marines executed caco General Mizrael Codio and ten others after they were captured in Fonds-Verrettes. In Hinche in January 1919, Captain Ernest Lavoie of the gendarmerie, a former United States Marine, allegedly ordered the killing of nineteen caco rebels according to American officers, though no charges were ever filed against him due to the fact that no physical evidence of the killing was ever presented.
The torture of Haitian rebels and the torture of Haitians who were suspected of rebelling against the United States was a common practice among the occupying Marines. Some of the methods of torture included the use of water cure, hanging prisoners by their genitals and ceps, which involved pushing both sides of the tibia with the butts of two guns.
1921–1927: Rif War: During the Rif War, Spanish forces used chemical weapons against Berber rebels and civilians in Morocco. These attacks marked the first widespread employment of gas warfare in the post-WWI era. The Spanish army indiscriminately used phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin and mustard gas against civilian populations, markets and rivers. Spain signed the Geneva Protocol in 1925, that prohibited chemical and biological warfare, while simultaneously employing these weapons across the Mediterranean.
According to Miguel Alonso, Alan Kramer and Javier Rodrigo in the book Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945: Aggression, Occupation, Annihilation: "Apart from deciding not to use chemical weapons, Franco's campaign to 'cleanse Spain' resembled that in Morocco: intelligence-gathering through torture, summary executions, forced labour, rape, and the sadistic killing of military prisoners."
Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were reported, including castration and severing heads, noses and ears, which were collected by Spanish legionnaries as war trophies and worn as necklaces or spiked on bayonets.
On August 9, 1921, the Massacre of Monte Arruit occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed by Riffian forces after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near Al Aaroui following a 12-day siege.
1923–1932: Pacification of Libya: The Pacification of Libya resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica by Italy. 80,000 or over a quarter of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica perished during the pacification.
100,000 Bedouin citizens were ethnically cleansed by expulsion from their land. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were reported, including castration and severing heads, noses and ears, which were collected by Spanish legionnaries as war trophies and worn as necklaces or spiked on bayonets.
On August 9, 1921, the Massacre of Monte Arruit occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed by Riffian forces after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near Al Aaroui following a 12-day siege.
1923–1932: Pacification of Libya: The Pacification of Libya resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica by Italy. 80,000 or over a quarter of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica perished during the pacification.
100,000 Bedouin citizens were ethnically cleansed by expulsion from their land.
Specific war crimes alleged to have been committed by the Italian armed forces against civilians include deliberate bombing of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly, rape and disembowelment of women, throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death and running over others with tanks, regular daily executions of civilians in some areas, and bombing tribal villages with mustard gas bombs beginning in 1930.
1927-1949: Chinese Civil War: During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.
Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror. During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals. Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace. From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.
During the December 1930 Futian incident, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong. Between 1931 and 1934 in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet, the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor. According to Li Weihan, a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous mass graves throughout the CSR [Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi] that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." Zhang Wentian, another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre" The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as “class enemies,” worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists.
During the Siege of Changchun the People's Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade; this blockade caused the starvation of tens to 150 thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.
At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords. The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power. The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure. Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.
In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign; the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (還鄉團), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs. The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.
1935–1937: Second Italo-Abyssinian War: Italian use of mustard gas against Ethiopian soldiers in 1936 violated the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which bans the use of chemical weapons in warfare.
Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of dum-dum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the Gondrand massacre), and the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.
Yekatit 12—In response to the unsuccessful assassination of Rodolfo Graziani on 19 February 1937, thousands of Ethiopians were killed, including all of the monks residing at Debre Libanos, and over a thousand more detained at Danan who were then exiled either to the Dahlak Islands or Italy.
The Ethiopians recorded 275,000 combatants killed in action, 78,500 patriots (guerrilla fighters) killed during the occupation, 17,800 civilians killed by aerial bombardment and 30,000 in the February 1937 massacre, 35,000 people died in concentration camps, 24,000 patriots executed by Summary Courts, 300,000 people died of privation due to the destruction of their villages, amounting to 760,300 deaths.
1936–1939: Spanish Civil War: At least 50,000 people were executed during the Spanish Civil War. In his updated history of the Spanish Civil War, Antony Beevor writes, "Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives. The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000." Julius Ruiz concludes that "although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain."
César Vidal puts the number of Republican victims at 110,965. In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzón, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951. Among the murders and executions investigated was that of poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca.
1939–1945: World War II:
1946–1954: Indochina War: The French Union's struggle against the independence movement backed by the Soviet Union and China claimed 400,000 to 1.5 million Vietnamese lives from 1945 to 1954. In the Haiphong massacre of November 1946, about 6,000 Vietnamese were killed by French naval artillery. The French employed electric shock treatment during interrogations of the Vietnamese, and nearly 10,000 Vietnamese perished in French concentration camps.
According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Viet Minh assassinated 100,000–150,000 civilians during the war, while Benjamin Valentino estimates that the French were responsible for 60,000 to 250,000 civilian deaths.
About French massacres and war crimes during the conflict, Christopher Goscha wrote on The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: "Rape became a disturbing weapon used by the Expeditionary Corps, as did summary executions. Young Vietnamese women who could not escape approaching enemy patrols smeared themselves with any stinking thing they could find, including human excrement. Decapitated heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political colors also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day." |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Decapitated heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political colors also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day."
1947–1948: Malagasy Uprising: During the French suppression of the pro-independence Malagasy Uprising, numerous atrocities were carried out such as mass killings, village burnings, torture, war rape, collective punishment, and throwing live prisoners out of airplanes (death flights). Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died in the fighting, along with about 800 French soldiers and other Europeans.
1948 Arab–Israeli War: Several massacres were committed during this war which could be described as war crimes. Nearly 15,000 people, mostly combatants and militants, were killed during the war, including 6,000 Jews and about 8,000 Arabs (mostly Muslims).
1945–1949: Indonesian War of Independence: South Sulawesi Campaign, about 4,500 civilians killed by Pro-Indonesian and Indonesian forces and pro-Dutch and Dutch colonial forces (KNIL).
Rawagede massacre: about 431 civilians killed by Dutch forces
Bersiap massacre: about 25,000 Indo-European civilians, Dutch, and loyalists killed by Indonesian nationalist forces.
Indonesian National Revolution: About 100–150,000 Chinese, Communists, Europeans (French, German, British), pro-Dutch etc. were killed by Indonesian nationalist forces and Indonesian youth.
1948–1960: Malayan Emergency: War crimes: In the Batang Kali massacre, about 24 unarmed villagers were killed by British troops. The British government claimed that these villagers were insurgents attempting to escape but this was later known to be entirely false as they were unarmed, nor actually supporting the insurgents nor attempting to escape after being detained by British troops. No British soldier was prosecuted for the murder at Batang Kali.
War crimes: includes beating, torturing, and killing by British troops and communist insurgents of non-combatants.
War crimes: As part of the Briggs Plan devised by British General Sir Harold Briggs, 500,000 people (roughly ten percent of Malaya's population) were eventually removed from the land and interned in guarded camps called "New Villages". The intent of this measure was to isolate villagers from contact with insurgents. While considered necessary, some of the cases involving the widespread destruction went beyond justification of military necessity. This practice was prohibited by the Geneva Conventions and customary international law which stated that the destruction of property must not happen unless rendered absolutely necessary by military operations.
1950–1953: Korean War:
United States perpetrated crimes:
North Korean perpetrated crimes: Rudolph Rummel estimated that the North Korean Army executed at least 500,000 civilians during the Korean War with many dying in North Korea's drive to conscript South Koreans to their war effort. Throughout the conflict, North Korean and Chinese forces routinely mistreated and tortured U.S. and UN prisoners of war. Mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of all U.S. POWs died during this period. In violation of the Geneva Conventions which explicitly stated that captor states must repatriate prisoners of war to their homeland as quickly as possible, North Korea detained South Korean POWs for decades after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists' themselves had claimed they had captured 70,000 South Koreans.: 141
South Korean perpetrated crimes:
1952–1960: Mau Mau uprising: In attempt to suppress the insurgency in Kenya, British colonial authorities suspended civil liberties within the country. In response to the rebellion, many Kikuyu were relocated. According to British authorities 80,000 were interned. Caroline Elkins estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were moved into concentration camps. Other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. Most of the remainder – more than a million – were held in "enclosed villages". Although some were Mau Mau guerillas, many were victims of collective punishment that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands suffered beatings and sexual assaults during "screenings" intended to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Significant numbers were murdered; official accounts describe some prisoners being roasted alive. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes". The British colonial police used a "metal castrating instrument" to cut off testicles and fingers. "By the time I cut his balls off", one settler boasted, "he had no ears, and his eyeball, the right one, I think, was hanging out of its socket. Too bad, he died before we got much out of him." According to David Anderson, the British hanged over 1,090 suspected rebels: far more than the French had executed in Algeria during the Algerian War. Another 400 were sentenced to death but reprieved because they were under 18 or women. The British declared some areas prohibited zones where anyone could be shot. It was common for Kikuyu to be shot because they "failed to halt when challenged."
The Chuka Massacre, which happened in Chuka, Kenya, was perpetrated by members of the King's African Rifles B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on June 13, 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. It is found out that most of the people executed were actually belonged to the Kikuyu Home Guard – a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight an increasingly powerful and audacious guerrilla enemy. The commanding officer of the soldiers responsible, Major Gerald Griffiths, was court-martialed for murder. He was found guilty and sentenced to 7 years in prison. In an atmosphere of atrocity and reprisal, the matter was swept under the carpet and nobody else ever stood trial for the massacre.
The Hola massacre was an incident during the conflict in Kenya against British colonial rule at a colonial detention camp in Hola, Kenya. By January 1959 the camp had a population of 506 detainees of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp". This more remote camp near Garissa, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process" or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action – as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability.
The Lari massacre in the settlement of Lari occurred on the night of 25–26 March 1953, in which Mau Mau militants herded Kikuyu men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, killing anyone who attempted to escape. Official estimates place the death toll from the Lari massacre at 74 dead.
Mau Mau militants also tortured, mutilated and murdered Kikuyu on many occasions. Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow Africans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found.
1954–1962: Algerian War: The insurgency began in 1945 and was revived in 1954, winning independence in the early 1960s. The French army killed thousands of Algerians in the first round of fighting in 1945. After the Algerian independence movement formed a National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, the French Minister of the Interior joined the Minister of National Defense in 1955 in ordering that every rebel carrying a weapon, suspected of doing so, or suspected of fleeing, must be shot. French troops executed civilians from nearby villages when rebel attacks occurred, tortured both rebels and civilians, and interned Arabs in camps, where forced labor was required of some of them. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow Africans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found.
1954–1962: Algerian War: The insurgency began in 1945 and was revived in 1954, winning independence in the early 1960s. The French army killed thousands of Algerians in the first round of fighting in 1945. After the Algerian independence movement formed a National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, the French Minister of the Interior joined the Minister of National Defense in 1955 in ordering that every rebel carrying a weapon, suspected of doing so, or suspected of fleeing, must be shot. French troops executed civilians from nearby villages when rebel attacks occurred, tortured both rebels and civilians, and interned Arabs in camps, where forced labor was required of some of them. 2,000,000 Algerians were displaced or forcibly resettled during the war, and over 800 villages were destroyed from 1957 to 1960.
Other French crimes included deliberate bombing, torture and mutilation of civilians, rape and sexual assaults, disembowelment of pregnant women, imprisonment without food in small cells, throwing detainees from helicopters and into the sea with concrete on their feet, and burying people alive.
The FLN also indulged in a large amount of atrocities, both against French pieds-noirs and against fellow Algerians whom they deemed as supporting the French or simply as refusing to support the Liberation effort. These crimes included killing unarmed children, women and the elderly, rape and disembowelment or decapitation of women and murdering children by slitting their throats or banging their heads against walls. French sources estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN during the war. The FLN also killed 30,000 to 150,000 in people in post-war reprisals.
1955–1975: Vietnam War:
United States perpetrated crimes: During the war 95 U.S. Army personnel and 27 U.S. Marine Corps personnel were convicted by court-martial of the murder or manslaughter of Vietnamese.: 33
"Vietnam War Crimes Working Group" – Briefly declassified (1994) and subsequently reclassified (2002) documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing endemic war crimes committed by U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. Substantiating 320 incidents by Army investigators, includes seven massacres from 1967 through 1971 in which at least 137 South Vietnamese civilians died (not including the ones at My Lai), 78 other attacks on noncombatants in which at least 57 were killed, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted, and 141 instances in which U.S. soldiers tortured civilian detainees or prisoners of war.
South Korean perpetrated crimes:
North Vietnamese and Vietcong perpetrated crimes: Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were alleged to have been killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975.
1965 Indo-Pakistani War: Sepoy Maqbool Hussain was a Pakistani soldier who was wounded and captured by Indian forces during the 1965 War. For the next 40 years, Maqbool was deprived of his rights and was subjected to violent torture during which his Indian counterparts pulled out his finger nails, cut out his tongue since he didn't chant anti Pakistan slogans and various other brutal acts which would've been a violation of the Geneva accords.
Late 1960s – 1998: The Troubles: War crimes: Various unarmed male civilians (some of whom were named during a 2013 television programme) were shot, two of them (Patrick McVeigh, Daniel Rooney) fatally, in 1972, allegedly by the Military Reaction Force (MRF), an undercover military unit tasked with targeting Irish Republican Army paramilitaries during the last installment of the Troubles. Two brothers, whose names and casualty status were not mentioned in an article regarding the same matter in The Irish Times, ran a fruit stall in west Belfast, and were shot after being mistaken for IRA paramilitaries.
War crimes: The British security forces employed widespread torture and waterboarding on prisoners in Northern Ireland during interrogations in the 1970s. Liam Holden was wrongfully arrested by the security forces for the murder of a British Army soldier and became the last person in the United Kingdom to be sentenced to hang after being convicted in 1973, largely on the basis of an unsigned confession produced by torture. His death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and he spent 17 years behind bars. On 21 June 2012, in the light of CCRC investigations which confirmed that the methods used to extract confessions were unlawful, Holden had his conviction quashed by the Court of Appeal in Belfast, at the age of 58. Former Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) interrogators during the Troubles admitted that beatings, the sleep deprivation, waterboarding, and the other tortures were systematic, and were, at times, sanctioned at a very high level within the force.
War crimes: The British Army and the RUC also operated under a shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland, under which suspects were alleged to have been deliberately killed without any attempt to arrest them. In four separate cases considered by the European court of human rights – involving the deaths of ten IRA men, a Sinn Féin member and a civilian – seven judges ruled unanimously that Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights guaranteeing a right to life had been violated by Britain.
War crimes: British soldiers and police colluded with loyalist paramilitaries, such as the attacks by the Glenanne group, which carried out a string of attacks against Irish Catholics and nationalists in an area of Northern Ireland known as the "murder triangle" and also carried out some attacks in the Republic of Ireland. Evidence suggests that the group was responsible for the deaths of about 120 civilians. The Cassel Report investigated 76 killings attributed to the group and found evidence that British security forces were involved in 74 of those. One former member, RUC officer John Weir, said his superiors knew of the group's activities but allowed it to continue. Attacks attributed to the group include the Dublin and Monaghan bombings (which killed 34 civilians), the Miami Showband killings, the Reavey and O'Dowd killings and the Hillcrest Bar bombing.
1971 Bangladesh Liberation War:
1970–1975: Cambodian civil war: The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, commonly known as the Cambodia Tribunal, is a joint court established by the Royal Government of Cambodia and the United Nations to try senior members of the Khmer Rouge for crimes against humanity committed during the Cambodian Civil War. The Khmer Rouge killed many people due to their political affiliation, education, class origin, occupation, or ethnicity.
1973 Yom Kippur war:
1975-1999: Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor: During the 1975 invasion and the subsequent occupation, a significant portion of East Timor's population died. Researcher Ben Kiernan says that "a toll of 150,000 is likely close to the truth", although estimates of 200,000 or higher have been suggested.
1975–1990: Lebanese Civil War:
1978–2021: Civil war in Afghanistan: This war ravaged the country for over 40 years, with several foreign actors playing important roles during different periods. From 2001 until 2021, US and other NATO troops took part in the fighting in Afghanistan in the "War on Terror" that is also treated in the corresponding section below.
During the war against the Coalition and Afghan government, the Taliban committed war crimes including massacres, suicide bombing, terrorism, and targeting civilians. United Nations reports have consistently blamed the Taliban and other anti-government forces for the majority of civilian deaths in the conflict, with the Taliban responsible for 75% of civilian deaths in 2011. The Taliban also perpetrated mass rapes and executions of surrendered soldiers.
Following the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban has also executed civilians and captured insurgents during the ongoing Republican insurgency in Afghanistan.
1980–2001: Internal conflict in Peru:
1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War: Over 100,000 civilians other than those killed in Saddam's genocide are estimated to have been killed by both sides of the war by R.J.Rummel.
1986–1994: Uganda: The Times reports (November 26, 2005 p. 27):
Almost 20 years of fighting... has killed half a million people. Many of the dead are children... The LRA [a cannibalism cult] kidnaps children and forces them to join its ranks. And so, incredibly, children are not only the main victims of this war, but also its unwilling perpetrators... The girls told me they had been given to rebel commanders as "wives" and forced to bear them children. The boys said they had been forced to walk for days knowing they would be killed if they showed any weakness, and in some cases forced even to murder their family members... every night up to 10,000 children walk into the centre of Kitgum... because they are not safe in their own beds... more than 25,000 children have been kidnapped ...this year an average of 20 children have been abducted every week.
The International Criminal Court has launched an investigation and has issued indictments against LRA leaders. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | 27):
Almost 20 years of fighting... has killed half a million people. Many of the dead are children... The LRA [a cannibalism cult] kidnaps children and forces them to join its ranks. And so, incredibly, children are not only the main victims of this war, but also its unwilling perpetrators... The girls told me they had been given to rebel commanders as "wives" and forced to bear them children. The boys said they had been forced to walk for days knowing they would be killed if they showed any weakness, and in some cases forced even to murder their family members... every night up to 10,000 children walk into the centre of Kitgum... because they are not safe in their own beds... more than 25,000 children have been kidnapped ...this year an average of 20 children have been abducted every week.
The International Criminal Court has launched an investigation and has issued indictments against LRA leaders.
1991–1999: Yugoslav wars:
1991–1995: Croatian War of Independence: Also see List of ICTY indictees for a variety of war criminals and crimes during this era.
1992–1995: Bosnian War:
1998–1999: Kosovo War:
1990–2000: Liberia / Sierra Leone: From The Times March 28, 2006 p. 43:
"Charles Taylor, the former Liberian President who is one of Africas most wanted men, has gone into hiding in Nigeria to avoid extradition to a UN war crimes tribunal... The UN war crimes tribunal in Sierra Leone holds Mr Taylor responsible for about 250,000 deaths. Throughout the 1990s, his armies and supporters, made up of child soldiers orphaned by the conflict wreaked havoc through a swath of West Africa. In Sierra Leone he supported the Revolutionary United Front (R.U.F) whose rebel fighters were notorious for hacking off the limbs of civilians.
Current action – Indicted on 17 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the UN, which has issued an international warrant for his arrest. As of April 2006 located, extradited, and facing trial in Sierra Leone but then transferred to the Netherlands as requested by the Liberian government. As of the status of the main state actor in the war crimes in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the ongoing war crimes tribunal in the Hague for violating the UN sanctions, Libya's Muamar Gaddafi was elected to the post of President of the African Union. As of late January, 2011, Exxon/Mobile has resumed explorationary drilling in Libya after the exchange of the Lockerbie bombing terrorist was returned to Libya and Libya was taken off terrorist list by the Bush administration with the legal stipulation that Libya could never be prosecuted for past war crimes(regardless of guilt)in the future.
1990: Gulf War:
1991–2000/2002: Algerian Civil War: During the Algerian Civil War of the 1990s, a variety of massacres occurred through the country, many being identified as war crimes. The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) has avowed its responsibility for many of them, while for others no group has claimed responsibility. In addition to generating a widespread sense of fear, these massacres and the ensuing flight of population have resulted in serious depopulation of the worst-affected areas. The massacres peaked in 1997 (with a smaller peak in 1994), and were particularly concentrated in the areas between Algiers and Oran, with very few occurring in the east or in the Sahara.
1994–1996/1999–2009: Russia-Chechnya Wars: During the First Chechen War (1994–1996) and Second Chechen War (1999–2000 battle phase, 2000–2009 insurgency phase) there were many allegations of war crimes and terrorism against both sides from various human rights organizations.
1998–2006: Second Congo War: Civil war 1998–2002, est. 5 million deaths; war "sucked in" Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia, as well as 17,000 United Nations peacekeepers, its "largest and most costly" peace mission and "the bloodiest conflict since the end of the Second World War."
Fighting involves Mai-Mai militia and Congolese government soldiers. The Government originally armed the Mai-Mai as civil defence against external invaders, who then turned to banditry.
100,000 refugees living in remote disease ridden areas to avoid both sides
Estimated 1000 deaths a day according to Oxfam:
"The army attacks the local population as it passes through, often raping and pillaging like the militias. Those who resist are branded Mai-mai supporters and face detention or death. The Mai-mai accuse the villagers of collaborating with the army, they return to the villages at night and extract revenge [sic]. Sometimes they march the villagers into the bush to work as human mules."
In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti Pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman". Makelo asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.
2003–2017: Iraqi conflict: During the Iraq War
Blackwater Baghdad shootings On September 16, 2007, Blackwater military contractors shot and killed 17 Iraqi civilians in Nisour Square, Baghdad. The fatalities occurred while a Blackwater Personal Security Detail (PSD) was escorting a convoy of US State Department vehicles en route to a meeting in western Baghdad with United States Agency for International Development officials. The shooting led to the unraveling of the North Carolina-based company, which since has replaced its management and changed its name to Xe Services.
Beginning in 2004, accounts of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, including torture, rape, sodomy, and homicide of prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq (also known as Baghdad Correctional Facility) came to public attention. These acts were committed by military police personnel of the United States Army together with the CIA. In January 2014, evidence accuses British troops of being involved in widespread torture and abuse towards Iraqi civilians and prisoners.
War crimes: 2006 al-Askari Mosque bombing by Al-Qaeda. The bombing was followed by retaliatory violence with over a hundred dead bodies being found the next day and well over 1,000 people killed in the days following the bombing – by some counts, over 1,000 on the first day alone.
The Mahmudiyah rape and killings were the gang-rape and murder of 14-year-old Iraqi girl Abeer Qassim Hamza al-Janabi and the murder of her family by United States Army soldiers on March 12, 2006. It occurred in the family's house to the southwest of Yusufiyah, a village to the west of the town of Al-Mahmudiyah, Iraq. Other members of al-Janabi's family murdered by Americans included her 34-year-old mother Fakhriyah Taha Muhasen, 45-year-old father Qassim Hamza Raheem, and 6-year-old sister Hadeel Qassim Hamza Al-Janabi. The two remaining survivors of the family, 9-year-old brother Ahmed and 11-year-old brother Mohammed, who were at school during the massacre, were orphaned by the event.
War crimes: Iraqi insurgent groups have committed many armed attacks and bombings targeting civilians. According to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr insurgents killed over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to June 2006, giving the first official count for the victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly attacks. Iraq Body Count project data shows that 33% of civilian deaths during the Iraq War resulted from execution after abduction or capture. These were overwhelmingly carried out by unknown actors including insurgents, sectarian militias and criminals. See: Iraq War insurgent attacks, List of suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003 and List of massacres of the Iraq War for a more comprehensive list.
2006 Lebanon War: Allegations of war crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War refer to claims of various groups and individuals, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and United Nations officials, who accused both Hezbollah and Israel of violating international humanitarian law during the 2006 Lebanon War, and warned of possible war crimes. These allegations included intentional attacks on civilian populations or infrastructure, disproportionate or indiscriminate attacks in densely populated residential districts.
According to various media reports, between 1,000 and 1,200 Lebanese citizens (including Hezbollah fighters) were reported dead; there were between 1,500 and 2,500 people wounded and over 1,000,000 were temporarily displaced. Over 150 Israelis were killed (120 military); thousands wounded; and 300,000–500,000 were displaced because of Hezbollah firing tens of thousands of rockets at major cities in Israel.
2003–2020 War in Darfur and Chadian Civil War: During the War in Darfur and the Chadian Civil War, reports of humans rights abuses and genocide surfaced, accusing the Sudanese Armed Forces and Janjaweed militias in Darfur and Eastern Chad.
Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians while many non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim over 400,000 people have been killed. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | According to various media reports, between 1,000 and 1,200 Lebanese citizens (including Hezbollah fighters) were reported dead; there were between 1,500 and 2,500 people wounded and over 1,000,000 were temporarily displaced. Over 150 Israelis were killed (120 military); thousands wounded; and 300,000–500,000 were displaced because of Hezbollah firing tens of thousands of rockets at major cities in Israel.
2003–2020 War in Darfur and Chadian Civil War: During the War in Darfur and the Chadian Civil War, reports of humans rights abuses and genocide surfaced, accusing the Sudanese Armed Forces and Janjaweed militias in Darfur and Eastern Chad.
Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians while many non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim over 400,000 people have been killed.
In September 2004, the World Health Organization estimated there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the beginning of the conflict, an 18-month period, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate the following month put the number of deaths for the six-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticised, because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence. A more recent British Parliamentary Report has estimated that over 300,000 people have died, and others have estimated even more.
2008–2009 Gaza War: There were allegations of war crimes by both the Israeli military and Hamas. Criticism of Israel's conduct focused on the proportionality of its measures against Hamas, and on its alleged use of weaponised white phosphorus. Numerous reports from human right groups during the war claimed that white phosphorus shells were being used by Israel, often in or near populated areas. In its early statements the Israeli military denied using any form of white phosphorus, saying "We categorically deny the use of white phosphorus". It eventually admitted to its limited use and stopped using the shells, including as a smoke screen. The Goldstone report investigating possible war crimes in the 2009 war accepted that white phosphorus is not illegal under international law but did find that the Israelis were "systematically reckless in determining its use in build-up areas". It also called for serious consideration to be given to the banning of its use as an obscurant.
1983 - 2009 Sri Lankan Civil War: There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the conflict in 2009. The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by the government of Sri Lanka; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.
A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the civil war found "credible allegations" which, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the Tamil Tigers. The panel has called on the UNSG to conduct an independent international inquiry into the alleged violations of international law. The Sri Lankan government has denied that its forces committed any war crimes and has strongly opposed any international investigation. It has condemned the UN report as "fundamentally flawed in many respects" and "based on patently biased material which is presented without any verification".
2011–present: Syrian civil war: International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring. Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well. The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties and war crimes, often through bombings. In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports of torture in state prisons. Over 470,000 people were killed in the war by 2017.
2015–present: Kurdish–Turkish conflict: According to the U.S. State Department 2016 Human Rights Report, in February 2016, Turkish security forces killed at least 130 people, including unarmed civilians, who had taken shelter in the basements of three buildings in the town of Cizre. A domestic NGO, The Human Rights Association (HRA), said the security forces killed more than 300 civilians in the first eight months of 2016. In March 2017, the United Nations voiced "concern" over the Turkish government's operations and called for an independent assessment of the "massive destruction, killings and numerous other serious human rights violations" against the ethnic Kurdish minority.
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war: UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that "indiscriminate attacks on populated areas anywhere, including in Stepanakert, Ganja and other localities in and around the immediate Nagorno-Karabakh zone of conflict, were totally unacceptable". Amnesty International stated that both Azerbaijani and Armenian forces committed war crimes during recent fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, and called on Azerbaijani and Armenian authorities to immediately conduct independent, impartial investigations, identify all those responsible, and bring them to justice.
2020–2022: Tigray War: During the Tigray War, which included fighting between the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers and Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) forces in the Tigray Region, the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) described the 9–10 November 2020 Mai Kadra massacre committed by Tigray youth group "Samri" in its 24 November 2020 preliminary report as "grave human rights violations which may amount to crimes against humanity and war crimes".
2022–present: Russo-Ukrainian War: During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, multiple buildings such as airports, hospitals, kindergartens were bombed. There has been abuse of prisoners of war.
In April 2022 bodies of civilians murdered by Russian forces were found in the town of Bucha, which had been left after the occupation of the town. It was confirmed at least more than 300 bodies were in mass graves or stranded on the streets of the city. As of 22 April 2022 there have been more than 500 confirmed bodies.
The Siege of Mariupol started on 24 February 2022 and ended on 20 May 2022. It has been confirmed at thousands of lives have been claimed through the siege and that the city has been reduced to rubble.
On 21 April 2022, Satellite images showed mass graves around the besieged city of Mariupol. It has been confirmed at least 9,000+ bodies have been found since. On the same day Vladimir Putin ordered troops to blockade the Azovstal Steel Plant, the last Ukrainian controlled place in the besieged city of Mariupol. The steel plant had more than 1,000 Ukrainians confirmed inside of it.
On 17 March 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights Maria Lvova-Belova for war crimes of deportation and illegal transfer of children from occupied Ukraine to Russia.
On 13 June 2023, Russian troops murdered 6 civilians in Sumy Oblast near Seredyna-Buda, mutilated their bodies, and then mined the place to kill people who tried to retrieve their bodies. They also blocked retrieval of bodies for 2 more days. This case is currently being investigated by Ukrainian authorities.
2023–present: Israel–Hamas war: An ongoing armed conflict between Israel and Palestinian militant groups led by Hamas began on 7 October 2023 with a coordinated surprise attack on Israel.
In April 2024, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) adopted a resolution calling for Israel to be held accountable for possible war crimes and crimes against humanity in the Gaza Strip, and demanding a halt to all arms sales to the country. 28 countries voted in favor, 13 abstained, and six voted against. Israel's ambassador accused the UN of anti-Israeli bias.
See also: Crimes against humanity
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
Russian war crimes
Soviet war crimes
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
Democide
Ethnic cleansing
Geneva Conventions
Genocide
Genocides in history
Genocide of indigenous peoples
The Holocaust
International humanitarian law
International law
Laws of war
List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
List of genocides
List of most-wanted Nazi war criminals, according to the Simon Wiesenthal Center
List of war criminals
Mass killings under communist regimes
Mass murder
Military history
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Second Sino-Japanese War
Spanish Civil War
Bosnian War
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Torture
War crime
World War I
World War II
Notes:
References:
External links: 1944–1945 Killing of Allied POWs in Europe
A Criminological Analysis of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq By Ronald C. Kramer and Raymond J. Michalowski
Kramer, Alan: Atrocities, in: 1914-1918-online. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | List of war crimes | International Encyclopedia of the First World War. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lists of battles | Alphabetical list: List of battles (alphabetical)
Chronological:
By era: List of battles before 301
List of battles 301–1300
List of battles 1301–1600
List of battles 1601–1800
List of battles 1801–1900
List of battles 1901–2000
List of battles in the 21st century
By war: List of battles of the Eighty Years' War (1566–1648)
Lists of battles of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815)
List of American Civil War battles (1861–1865)
List of costliest American Civil War land battles
List of naval battles of the American Civil War
List of military engagements of World War I (1914–1918)
List of World War II battles (1939–1945)
Lists of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (1955–1975)
List of military engagements during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–2024)
List of engagements during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war (2023–2024)
By death toll: List of battles by casualties
By geographic location:
By participant:
By state participant:
By participating commander: List of Ottoman battles in which the sultan participated
Military career of Napoleon § Battle record summary
Military career of George Washington § Summaries of Washington's Revolutionary War battles
By type: Battles are generally presumed to have been land/field battles, unless otherwise stated.
Lists of aerial operations and battles
Air raids on Australia, 1942–1943
Air raids on Hong Kong during WWII
Aircraft carrier operations during World War II
List of air operations during the Battle of Europe
List of Allied attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz
List of strategic bombing over Germany in World War II
List of strategic bombing over the United Kingdom in World War II
List of amphibious assault operations
List of military operations on ice
List of naval battles
List of naval and land-based operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II
List of sieges
See also:
External links and references: World History Database, Alphabetic Listing of Battles Index of World battles. Archived from the original.
Radford, Robert, Great Historical Battles. An extensive list of important battles and influential leaders, from -490 BC to present times.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Lists of weapons | By time period: List of medieval weapons
List of premodern combat weapons
List of American Civil War weapons
List of World War I weapons
List of World War II weapons
List of ship classes of World War II
List of Korean War weapons
List of Vietnam War weapons
List of 20th-century weapons
By type: List of anti-aircraft weapons
List of anti-aircraft guns
List of surface-to-air missiles
List of aircraft weapons
List of fighter aircraft
List of artillery
List of firearms
List of assault rifles
List of battle rifles
List of blow forward firearms
List of bolt-action rifles
List of bullpup firearms
List of carbines
List of delayed blowback firearms
List of grenade launchers
List of machine guns
List of multiple-barrel firearms
List of pistols
List of recoilless rifles
List of revolvers
List of rifles
List of rocket launchers
List of semi-automatic pistols
List of semi-automatic rifles
List of shotguns
List of sniper rifles
List of submachine guns
List of flamethrowers
List of martial arts weapons
List of man-portable anti-tank systems
List of military vehicles
List of missiles
List of practice weapons
List of rockets
Lists of swords
List of types of spears
List of torpedoes
Naval ship
List of auxiliary ship classes in service
List of naval ship classes in service
List of submarine classes in service
By country: List of artillery by country
List of service rifles of national armies
Soviet Union
List of equipment of the Soviet Ground Forces
List of armored fighting vehicles of the Soviet Union
List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS
List of ships of the Soviet Navy
United States
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of weapons of the U.S. Marine Corps
Weapons-related: List of aircraft
List of armoured fighting vehicles
List of chemical warfare agents
List of handgun cartridges
List of rifle cartridges
Fictional: List of magical weapons
List of mythological weapons |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loitering munition | History:
First development and terminology: Initially, loitering munitions were not referred to as such but rather as "suicide UAVs" or "loitering missiles". Different sources point at different projects as originating the weapon category. The failed US AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow program or the 1980s initial Israeli Delilah variants are mentioned by some sources. The Iranian Ababil-1 was produced in the 1980s but its exact production date is unknown. The Israeli IAI Harpy was produced in the late 1980s.
Early projects did not use the "loitering munition" nomenclature, which emerged much later; they used terminology existing at the time. For instance the AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow was described in a 1988 article: the Tacit Rainbow unmanned jet aircraft being developed by Northrop to loiter on high and then swoop down on enemy radars could be called a UAV, a cruise missile, or even a standoff weapon. But it is most definitely not an RPV.
Initial role in suppression of enemy air defense: The response to the first generation of fixed installation surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) such as S-75 and S-125 was the development of the anti-radiation missiles (ARMs) such as AGM-45 Shrike and other means to attack fixed SAM installations, as well as developing SEAD doctrines. The Soviet counter-response was the use of mobile SAMs such as 2K12 Kub with intermittent use of radar. Thus, the SAM battery was only visible for a small period of time, during which it was also a significant threat to high-value Wild Weasel fighters. In Israel's 1982 Operation Mole Cricket 19 various means including UAVs and air-launched Samson decoys were used over suspected SAM areas to saturate enemy SAMs and to bait them to activate their radar systems, which were then attacked by ARMs.
In the 1980s, a number of programs, such as the IAI Harpy or the AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow, integrated anti-radiation sensors into a drone or missile air frames coupled with command and control and loitering capabilities. This allowed the attacking force to place relatively cheap munitions in place over suspected SAM sites, and to attack promptly the moment the SAM battery is visible. This integrated the use of a drone as a baiting decoy with the attack role into one small and relatively cheap platform in comparison to the alternative wild weasel jet fighter.
Evolution into additional roles: Starting in the 2000s, loitering weapons have been developed for additional roles beyond the initial SEAD role, ranging from relatively long-range strikes and fire support down to tactical, very short-range battlefield use. A documented use of loitering munitions was in the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in which an IAI Harop was used against a bus being used as a troop transport for Armenian soldiers. The ZALA Lancet and several Shahed drones, including the HESA Shahed 136, have been used by Russia in the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, while Ukraine has fielded loitering munitions such as the UJ-25 Skyline or the American-made AeroVironment Switchblade, which is deployed at the platoon level and fits in a backpack.
During conflicts in the 2010s and 2020s, conventional armies and non-state militants alike began modifying common commercial racing drones into an "FPV loitering munition" by the attachment of a small explosive, so-named because of the first-person view (FPV) they provide the operator. Explosive ordnance such as an IED, grenade, mortar round or an RPG warhead are fitted to an FPV drone then deployed to aerial bomb tactical targets. FPV drones also allow direct reconnaissance during the drone's strike mission.
After the Russian invasion of Ukraine began in 2022, both Russian and Ukrainian forces were producing thousands of FPV drones every month by October 2023, many of which were donated by volunteer groups. Escadrone Pegasus and the Vyriy Drone Molfar are two examples of the low-cost drones that rapidly evolved in 2022–23 during the war. In 2022, the UK Government announced it was providing "hundreds of loitering munitions" to Ukraine. On 9 November 2023, Ukrainian soldiers claimed to have used a civilian-donated FPV drone to destroy a Russian Tor missile system on the Kupiansk front, showcasing the potential cost-effectiveness of fielding such munitions. A Tor missile system costs some $24 million dollars to build, which could buy 14,000 FPV drones.
Characteristics: Loitering munitions may be as simple as an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with attached explosives that is sent on a potential kamikaze mission, and may even be constructed with commercially-available quadcopters with strapped-on explosives.
Purpose-built munitions are more elaborate in flight and control capabilities, warhead size and design, and onboard sensors for locating targets. Some loitering munitions use a human operator to locate targets whereas others, such as IAI Harop, can function autonomously searching and launching attacks without human intervention. Another example is UVision HERO solutions – the loitering systems are operated remotely, controlled in real time by a communications system and equipped with an electro-optical camera whose images are received by the command and control station.
Some loitering munitions may return and be recovered by the operator if they are unused in an attack and have enough fuel; in particular this is characteristic of UAVs with a secondary explosive capability. Other systems, such as the Delilah do not have a recovery option and are self-destructed in mission aborts.
Countermeasures: Russia uses ZALA Lancet drones in Ukraine. Since spring 2022 Ukrainian forces have been building cages around their artillery pieces using chain link fencing, wire mesh and even wooden logs as part of the construction. One analyst told Radio Liberty that such cages were "mainly intended to disrupt Russian Lancet munitions." A picture supposedly taken from January 2023 shows the rear half of a Lancet drone that failed to detonate due to such cages. Likewise Ukrainian forces have used inflatable decoys and wooden vehicles, such as HIMARS, to confuse and deceive Lancet drones.
Ukrainian soldiers report shooting down Russian drones with sniper rifles. Russian soldiers use electronic warfare to disable or misdirect Ukrainian drones and have reportedly used the Stupor anti-drone rifle, which uses an electromagnetic pulse that disrupts a drone's GPS navigation. A Royal United Services Institute study in 2022 found that Russian Electronic Warfare units, in March and April 2022, knocked out or shot down 90% of Ukrainian drones that they had at the start of the war in February 2022. The main success was in jamming GPS and radio links to the drones.
Both Ukraine and Russia rely on electronic warfare to defeat FPV drones. Such jammers are now used on Ukrainian trenches and vehicles. Russian forces have built jammers that can fit into a backpack. And now pocket-size jammers exist for soldiers. As of June 2023 Ukraine was losing 5-10,000 drones a month, or 160 per day, according to
Ukrainian soldiers.
This has led to Russia creating wire guided FPV drones, similar to a wire-guided missile or even wire-guided torpedoes. One drone captured by Ukrainian forces had 10.813 km of fibre optic cable. Such guidance would make the link between operators and FPV drone immune to jamming. It would also allow for much faster updates from the drone. However these drones would lack the manoeuvrability that wireless drones enjoy. Ukraine has also responded by using autonomous drones tasking to ensure that a jammed drone can hit a target. In March 2024 footage put on social media showed a Ukrainian FPV drone being jammed just before it struck a target. Despite the loss of operator control it still managed to strike the target.
Russian tanks have been fitted with rooftop slat armor at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine which could provide protection against loitering munitions in some circumstances. Some Ukrainian tanks taking part in the 2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive were also spotted using roof screens.
On 21 March 2024, recent footage of the submarine Tula showed that it has been fitted with a slat armor to prevent drone strikes, the first ocean-going asset to carry such a modification.
Comparison to similar weapons: Loitering munitions fit in the niche between cruise missiles and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs).
The following table compares similar size-class cruise missiles, loitering munitions, and UCAVS:
Whereas some cruise missiles, such as the Block IV Tomahawk, have the ability to loiter and have some sensory and remote control features, their primary mission is typically strike and not target acquisition. Cruise missiles, as their name implies, are optimized for long-range flight at constant speed both in terms of propulsion systems and wings or lifting body design. They are often unable to loiter at slow fuel-efficient speeds which significantly reduces potential loiter time even when the missile has some loiter capabilities.
Conversely almost any UAV could be piloted to crash onto a target and most could be fitted with an improvised explosive warhead. However the primary use of a UAV or UCAV would be for recoverable flight operations carrying reconnaissance equipment and/or munitions. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loitering munition | The following table compares similar size-class cruise missiles, loitering munitions, and UCAVS:
Whereas some cruise missiles, such as the Block IV Tomahawk, have the ability to loiter and have some sensory and remote control features, their primary mission is typically strike and not target acquisition. Cruise missiles, as their name implies, are optimized for long-range flight at constant speed both in terms of propulsion systems and wings or lifting body design. They are often unable to loiter at slow fuel-efficient speeds which significantly reduces potential loiter time even when the missile has some loiter capabilities.
Conversely almost any UAV could be piloted to crash onto a target and most could be fitted with an improvised explosive warhead. However the primary use of a UAV or UCAV would be for recoverable flight operations carrying reconnaissance equipment and/or munitions. While many UAVs are explicitly designed with loitering in mind, they are not optimized for a diving attack, often lacking forward facing cameras, lacking in control response-speed which is unneeded in regular UAV flight, and are noisy when diving, potentially providing warning to the target. UAV's, being designed as multi-use platforms, often have a unit cost that is not appropriate for regular one-time expendable mission use.
The primary mission of a loitering munition is reaching the suspected target area, target acquisition during a loitering phase, followed by a self-destructive strike, and the munition is optimized in this regard in terms of characteristics (e.g. very short engine lifetime, silence in strike phase, speed of strike dive, optimization toward loitering time instead of range/speed) and unit cost (appropriate for a one-off strike mission).
Ethical and international humanitarian law concerns: Loitering munitions that are capable of making autonomous attack decisions (man out of the loop) raise moral, ethical, and international humanitarian law concerns because a human being is not involved in making the actual decision to attack and potentially kill humans, as is the case with fire-and-forget missiles in common use since the 1960s. Whereas some guided munitions may lock-on after launch or may be sensor fuzed, their flight time is typically limited and a human launches them at an area where enemy activity is strongly suspected, as is the case with modern fire-and-forget missiles and airstrike planning. An autonomous loitering munition, on the other hand, may be launched at an area where enemy activity is only probable, and loiter searching autonomously for targets for potentially hours following the initial launch decision, though it may be able to request final authorization for an attack from a human. The IAI Harpy and IAI Harop are frequently cited in the relevant literature as they set a precedent for an aerial system (though not necessarily a precedent when comparing to a modern naval mine) in terms of length and quality of autonomous function, in relation to a cruise missile for example.
List of users and producers: As of 2023, loitering munitions are used by the armed forces of several countries, including:
Argentina – HERO 30, HERO 120
Armenia – HRESH, BEEB 1800, AW21
Australia – Drone 40, Innovaero OWL
Azerbaijan – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, Orbiter 1K, SkyStriker, STM Kargu, Qirği, Quzgün
Belarus – UBAK-25 Chekan
Brazil – Anshar
China – IAI Harpy, CH-901, WS-43, ASN-301
France - Switchblade, Colibri, Larinae
Georgia - Delta-WB Warmate
Greece – Attalus, Aihmi AHM-1X
Indonesia – Rajata
India – Nagastra-1, IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, SkyStriker, Warmate, Trinetra, ALS-50, Johnnette JM-1, Shaurya-1, Kadet Loitering Aerial Munition, Overwatch PHOLOS
Iran – Karrar, Shahed 131, Shahed 136 (loitering capabilities disputed), Hesa Ababil-2, Raad 85, Arash-2, Meraj-521, Meraj-532, Zhubin, Shahin-1, Shahed 238 and possibly others
Israel – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, IAI Harpy NG, IAI Green Dragon, IAI Rotem L, Orbiter 1K, Delilah, SkyStriker, Spike Firefly, HERO loitering munitions series, Viper, Lanius, Point Blank, SpyX, and upgraded variants.
Lithuania – Switchblade
Morocco – IAI Harop
Poland – WB Electronics Warmate
Portugal – UAVision Elanus
Russia – ZALA Kub-BLA ("Cube"), ZALA Lancet, Geran-1, Geran-2
Serbia – Gavran, Osica, Komarac, Vila 1
Singapore – IAI Harop
Slovakia – AX-2 Predator
South Africa – Paramount N-Raven
South Korea – Devil Killer, IAI Harpy
Spain - Q-SLAM-40
Sudan – Kamin-25
Taiwan – NCSIST Chien Hsiang, NCSIST Fire Cardinal
Turkey Robit UAV AZAB, – IAI Harpy, STM Kargu, STM Alpagu, Transvaro-Havelsan Fedai, LENTATEK Kargı, Roketsan-STM Alpagut
Turkmenistan – SkyStriker
UAE – QX-1, Hunter SP, Hunter 2-S, Hunter 5, Hunter 10, Shadow 25, Shadow 50, RW-24, N-Raven
United Kingdom – Switchblade, Overwatch PHOLOS
United States – ALTIUS-600M, AeroVironment Switchblade, Phoenix Ghost, Raytheon Coyote, HERO 120, Point Blank.
Ukraine – RAM II, Switchblade, ST-35 Silent Thunder, Phoenix Ghost, Warmate, Bober, AQ-400 Scythe, UJ-25 Skyline, Overwatch PHOLOS, QinetiQ Banshee, ALTIUS-600M
Yemen – (Houthis) – Qasef-1/2K, Shahed 131, Shahed 136, Samad-2/3, Shahed-101
See also: Boeing Persistent Munition Technology Demonstrator
Flying bomb
Low Cost Autonomous Attack System
Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery System
Television guidance
V-1 flying bomb
XM501 Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System
References:
External links: Media related to Loitering munition at Wikimedia Commons |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loss of Strength Gradient | Decreasing relevance: Boulding also argued that the loss-of-strength gradient was becoming less relevant in modern warfare due to easier transportation and the rise of strategic air and missile power. He claimed that a 20th-century "military revolution" allowed for a "substantial diminution in the cost of transportation of organized violence of all kinds, especially of organized armed forces", as well as "an enormous increase in the range of the deadly projectile."
On the other hand, another scholar contended that the loss-of-strength gradient continues to be relevant, and if there has been a reduction in the concept's significance, it was only temporary, as transportation is not becoming permanently easy, and air power is not permanently replacing the need for forward deployed ground forces.
See also: Blue-water navy
Culminating point
Defence in depth
Expeditionary warfare
Power projection
Strategic depth
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Loss-of-strength gradient | Decreasing relevance: Boulding also argued that the loss-of-strength gradient was becoming less relevant in modern warfare due to easier transportation and the rise of strategic air and missile power. He claimed that a 20th-century "military revolution" allowed for a "substantial diminution in the cost of transportation of organized violence of all kinds, especially of organized armed forces", as well as "an enormous increase in the range of the deadly projectile."
On the other hand, another scholar contended that the loss-of-strength gradient continues to be relevant, and if there has been a reduction in the concept's significance, it was only temporary, as transportation is not becoming permanently easy, and air power is not permanently replacing the need for forward deployed ground forces.
See also: Blue-water navy
Culminating point
Defence in depth
Expeditionary warfare
Power projection
Strategic depth
== References == |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Official definitions:
United States: Low-intensity conflict is defined by the US Army as:
... a political-military confrontation between contending states or groups below conventional war and above the routine, peaceful competition among states. It frequently involves protracted struggles of competing principles and ideologies. Low-intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of the armed forces. It is waged by a combination of means, employing political, economic, informational, and military instruments. Low-intensity conflicts are often localized, generally in the Third World, but contain regional and global security implications.
The manual also says:
... successful LIC operations, consistent with US interests and laws, can advance US international goals such as the growth of freedom, democratic institutions, and free market economies. ... US policy recognizes that indirect, rather than direct, applications of US military power are the most appropriate and cost-effective ways to achieve national goals in a LIC environment. The principal US military instrument in LIC is security assistance in the form of training, equipment, services and combat support. When LIC threatens friends and allies, the aim of security assistance is to ensure that their military institutions can provide security for their citizens and government. ... The United States will also employ combat operations in exceptional circumstances when it cannot protect its national interests by other means. When a US response is called for, it must be in accordance with the principles of international and domestic law. These principles affirm the inherent right of states to use force in individual or collective self-defense against armed attack.
Relations with terrorism: Boaz Ganor notes that scholars once labeled terrorism as "low-intensity warfare." However, this terminology has become obsolete due to the intricate nature of multidimensional warfare and the mass impact of contemporary terrorist attacks, such as the September 11 attacks.
Implementation:
Weapons: As the name suggests, in comparison with conventional operations the armed forces involved operate at a greatly reduced tempo, with fewer soldiers, a reduced range of tactical equipment and limited scope to operate in a military manner. For example, the use of air power, pivotal in modern warfare, is often relegated to transport and surveillance, or used only by the dominant side of conflict in asymmetric warfare such as a government forces against insurgents. Artillery and multiple rocket launchers are often not used when LIC occurs in populated areas. The role of the armed forces is dependent on the stage of the insurrection, whether it has progressed to armed struggle or is in an early stage of propaganda and protests. Improvised explosive devices are commonly used by insurgents, militias and sometimes government forces such as barrel bombs in low intensity conflicts. The majority of casualties in low intensity conflicts tend to be resulting from small arms and improvised explosive devices.
Intelligence: Intelligence gathering is essential to an efficient basis of LIC operation instructions. Electronic and signal gathering intelligence, ELINT and SIGINT, proves largely ineffective against low-intensity opponents. LIC generally requires more hands-on HUMINT methods of information retrieval.
Stages: In the first stages of insurrection, much of an army's work is "soft" – working in conjunction with civil authorities in psychological operations, propaganda, counter-organizing, so-called "hearts and minds." If the conflict progresses, possibly into armed clashes, the role develops with the addition of the identification and removal of the armed groups – but again, at a low level, in communities rather than throughout entire cities.
Examples:
Burma: Myanmar (Burma) has regularly conducted limited low-intensity military campaigns against the independence movement of the Karen people in an area of southeast Burma (roughly corresponding to a Burmese administrative region called the Kayin State), which has actively pursued independence since January 1949. While allegedly limited and low-intensity in that the territories occupied in force by central government forces are returned (as they cannot be held permanently as yet) at the end of the offensives (with the stated, but sometimes unstated, purpose of weakening the opposition and independence movements), human rights organizations and national governments outside of Burma question the veracity of, and sometimes outright refute, these claims.
Sudan: The governments of Sudan have also engaged in limited military offensives (analogous to Burma's "annual dry season offensives") against various armed opposition and independence movements, which have often escalated into full-scale warfare, particularly in the south and Darfur, but also until recently in the east. These military actions (First Sudanese Civil War and Second Sudanese Civil War) have, over time, continued to ravage the areas in dispute and contribute greatly to the poor conditions in those regions as well as the various human rights violations that have occurred (and in some cases are still occurring) there.
German occupation of France: German occupation of Western Europe during World War II, notably the occupation of France, shared many aspects with more recent cases of LIC, such as the "Hearts and minds" stage early on, establishment of puppet governments, strong propaganda aimed at isolating resistance movements, and support to domestic friendly forces (such as the Milice in France).
German occupation of Poland: In Poland from 1939 to 1945 there was a strong partisan movement. Partisan forces (mainly AK and BCh organizations), although less numerous than the German army, organized a strong resistance movement; in the years 1941-44 a successful action was carried out against the expulsion of Poles from the Zamość region. Besides, the "Polish underground" destroyed hundreds of German transports of military supplies throughout the war. In Poland there was also a secret order and many non-military resistance organizations like "Zegota" which helped thousands of Jews save their lives. When the Red Army entered Poland in 1944, the Poles wanted to support them in the fight against the Germans, but the Soviets betrayed them, even though during Operation Tempest, the partisans significantly accelerated the Russian attack, the Russians arrested or killed thousands of members of the Polish Underground State, nor did the Soviets also help support the Warsaw Uprising. In total, throughout the war, hundreds of thousands of people (up to 700,000) served in the ranks of the Polish underground, and even every sixth Pole helped polish partizants but partizantes did not have more than 50,000 firearms.
Northern Ireland: The conflict, known as The Troubles, was a sectarian and ethno-nationalistic conflict, fuelled by historical events and longstanding oppression by the UK's military and security services. By the mid-1960s, the Northern Ireland civil rights movement began organizing Irish Catholics to protest, among other factors, disenfranchisement, abuses of power such as discrimination in the housing and job markets perpetuated by the ruling governments in the United Kingdom and its devolved subsidiary, known as Stormont. When these peaceful protests were met with brutal attacks by both the police and loyalist gangs given free rein to attack these protesters. On its face, it had a religious dimension although despite use of the terms 'Protestant' and 'Catholic' to refer to the two warring sides, it was not a religious conflict. For most, these were mostly just terms of identity. A key issue was the status of Northern Ireland. Unionists and loyalists, who descended from colonists who arrived during the Ulster Plantation, displacing all but a handful of native clans and farmers, were Ulster Protestants and wanted Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. Irish nationalists and republicans, who were mostly Irish Catholics, wanted to end the Partition of Ireland, leave the United Kingdom and reunite with the 26 counties that had formed the Republic of Ireland following partition.
The main participants in the Troubles were republican paramilitaries such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA); loyalist paramilitaries such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA); British state security forces such as the British Army, Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), Ulster Defense Regiment, MI5, and lesser known groups like the Force Research Unit; and political activists. The security forces of the Republic of Ireland played a smaller role. Republicans carried out a guerrilla campaign against British forces as well as a bombing campaign against infrastructural, commercial and political targets. Loyalists attacked occasionally republicans/nationalists, but focused primarily on the wider Catholic community in what they described as retaliation. At times, there were bouts of sectarian tit-for-tat violence, as well as feuds within and between paramilitary groups. The British security forces undertook policing and counter-insurgency, primarily against suspected republicans. This included the internment without trial of anyone accused of being, or supporting, Republicans. Investigations also revealed significant collusion between British state forces and loyalist paramilitaries, and furthermore loyalist paramilitaries such as the Glenanne gang included serving members of the Ulster Defense Regiment and Royal Ulster Constabulary.
Guerrilla warfare: the main challenge to low-intensity warfare: Low-intensity warfare's main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be state sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces or combine for far-ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes or even form conventional units. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Investigations also revealed significant collusion between British state forces and loyalist paramilitaries, and furthermore loyalist paramilitaries such as the Glenanne gang included serving members of the Ulster Defense Regiment and Royal Ulster Constabulary.
Guerrilla warfare: the main challenge to low-intensity warfare: Low-intensity warfare's main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be state sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces or combine for far-ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes or even form conventional units. Based on their level of sophistication and organization, they can shift between all those modes as the situation demands, as guerrilla warfare is flexible, not static.
Guerrilla tactics are based on intelligence, ambush, deception, sabotage, and espionage, undermining an authority by long, low-intensity confrontation. It can be quite successful against an unpopular foreign or local regime, as demonstrated by the Vietnam War. A guerrilla army may increase the cost of maintaining an occupation or a colonial presence above what the foreign power may wish to bear. Against a local regime, guerrillas may make governance impossible by terror strikes and sabotage or even a combination of forces to depose their local enemies in conventional battle. Those tactics are useful in demoralizing an enemy and raising the morale of the guerrillas. In many cases, guerrilla tactics allow a small force to hold off a much larger and better equipped enemy for a long time, as in Russia's Second Chechen War and the Second Seminole War fought in the swamps of Florida, United States. Guerrilla tactics and strategy are summarized below and are discussed extensively in standard reference works such as Mao's On Guerrilla Warfare.
Three-phase Maoist model:
Mao/Giap approach: Mao's theory of people's war divides warfare into three phases. In the first phase, the guerrillas gain the support of the population by attacking the machinery of government and distributing propaganda. In the second phase, escalating attacks are made on the government's military and vital institutions. In the third phase, conventional fighting is used to seize cities, overthrow the government, and take control of the country. Mao's seminal work On Guerrilla Warfare, has been widely distributed and applied, nowhere more successfully than in Vietnam, under the military leader and theorist Võ Nguyên Giáp. Giap's People's War, People's Army closely followed the Maoist three-stage approach but with greater emphasis on flexible shifting between mobile and guerrilla warfare, and opportunities for a spontaneous "general uprising" of the masses, in conjunction with guerrilla forces.
Organization: Guerrilla organization can range from small local rebel groups with a few dozen participants to tens of thousands of fighters, deploying from tiny cells to formations of regimental strength. In most cases, there is a leadership aiming for a clear political objective. The organization is typically structured into political and military wings, sometimes allowing the political leadership plausible deniability of military attacks. The most fully elaborated guerrilla warfare structure was seen by the Chinese and Vietnamese communists during the revolutionary wars of East and Southeast Asia.
A simplified example of this more sophisticated organizational type, which was used by revolutionary forces during the Vietnam War, is shown below.
Types of operations: Guerrilla operations typically include a variety of attacks on transportation routes, individual groups of police or military, installations and structures, economic enterprises, and targeted civilians. Attacking in small groups and using camouflage and often captured weapons of that enemy, the guerrilla force can constantly keep pressure on its foes and diminish its numbers and still allow escape with relatively few casualties. The intention of such attacks is only military but also political in aiming to demoralize target populations or governments or by goading an overreaction that forces the population to take sides for or against the guerrillas. Examples range from chopping off limbs in various internal African rebellions to the suicide bombings of Palestine and Sri Lanka to sophisticated maneuvers by Viet Cong and NVA forces against military bases and formations.
Surprise and intelligence: For successful operations, surprise must be achieved by guerrillas. If the operation has been betrayed or compromised, it is usually called off immediately. Intelligence is also extremely important, and detailed knowledge of the target's dispositions, weaponry, and morale is gathered before any attack. Intelligence can be harvested in several ways. Collaborators and sympathizers usually provide a steady flow of useful information. If working clandestinely, guerrilla operatives may disguise their membership in the insurgent operation and use deception to ferret out needed data. Employment or enrollment as a student may be undertaken near the target zone, community organizations may be infiltrated, and even romantic relationships struck up in intelligence gathering. Public sources of information are also invaluable to the guerrilla, from the flight schedules of targeted airlines, to public announcements of visiting foreign dignitaries, to US Army Field Manuals. Modern computer access via the World Wide Web makes harvesting and collation of such data relatively easy. The use of on the spot reconnaissance is integral to operational planning. Operatives will "case" or analyze a location or potential target in depth- cataloging routes of entry and exit, building structures, the location of phones and communication lines, the presence of security personnel, and a myriad of other factors. Finally, intelligence is concerned with political factors such as the occurrence of an election or the impact of the potential operation on civilian and enemy morale.
Relationships with the civil population: Relationships with civil populations are influenced by whether the guerrillas operate among a hostile or friendly population. A friendly population is of immense importance to guerrillas, providing shelter, supplies, financing, intelligence, and recruits. The "base of the people" is thus the key lifeline of the guerrilla movement. In the early stages of the Vietnam War, American officials "discovered that several thousand supposedly government-controlled 'fortified hamlets' were in fact controlled by Viet Cong guerrillas, who 'often used them for supply and rest havens.'" Popular mass support in a confined local area or country, however, is not always strictly necessary. Guerrilla and revolutionary groups can still operate by using the protection of a friendly regime, drawing supplies, weapons, intelligence, local security, and diplomatic cover. The Al Qaeda organization is an example of the latter type, drawing sympathizers and support primarily from the wide-ranging Muslim world, even after American attacks eliminated the umbrella of a friendly Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
An apathetic or hostile population makes life difficult for guerrillas, and strenuous attempts are usually made to gain their support. They may involve not only persuasion but also a calculated policy of intimidation. Guerrilla forces may characterize a variety of operations as a liberation struggle, but that may or may not result in sufficient support from affected civilians. Other factors, including ethnic and religious hatreds, can make a simple national liberation claim untenable. Whatever the exact mix of persuasion or coercion used by guerrillas, relationships with civil populations are one of the most important factors in their success or failure.
Use of terror: Terror is used to focus international attention on the guerrilla cause, liquidate opposition leaders, extort cash from targets, intimidate the general population, create economic losses, and keep followers and potential defectors in line. The widespread use of terror by guerrillas and their opponents is a common feature of modern guerrilla conflicts, with civilians attempting to mollify both sides. At times, a civil population may be the main targets of guerrilla attacks, as in Palestinian operations against Israeli civilians. Such tactics may backfire and cause the civil population to withdraw its support or to back countervailing forces against the guerrillas.
Withdrawal: Guerrillas must plan carefully for withdrawal once an operation has been completed or if it is going badly. The withdrawal phase is sometimes regarded as the most important part of a planned action, as getting entangled in a lengthy struggle with superior forces is usually fatal to insurgent, terrorist or revolutionary operatives. Withdrawal is usually accomplished using a variety of different routes and methods and may include quickly the scouring of the area for loose weapons, the cleaning-up of evidence, and the disguising as peaceful civilians. In the case of suicide operations, withdrawal considerations by successful attackers are moot, but such activity as eliminating traces of evidence and hiding materials and supplies must still be done.
Logistics: Guerrillas typically operate with a smaller logistical footprint than to conventional formations, but their logistical activities can be elaborately organized. A primary consideration is to avoid depending on fixed bases and depots, which are comparatively easy for conventional units to locate and destroy. Mobility and speed are the keys; wherever possible, the guerrilla must live off the land or draw support from the civil population in which it is embedded. In that sense, "the people" become the guerrilla's supply base. The financing of terrorist or guerrilla activities ranges from direct individual contributions (voluntary or non-voluntary) to the actual operation of business enterprises by insurgent operatives to bank robberies and kidnappings to the complex financial networks that are based on kin, ethnic and religious affiliation used by modern jihadist/jihad organizations.
Permanent and semi-permanent bases form part of the guerrilla logistical structure, which are usually located in remote areas or in cross-border sanctuaries that are sheltered by friendly regimes. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | A primary consideration is to avoid depending on fixed bases and depots, which are comparatively easy for conventional units to locate and destroy. Mobility and speed are the keys; wherever possible, the guerrilla must live off the land or draw support from the civil population in which it is embedded. In that sense, "the people" become the guerrilla's supply base. The financing of terrorist or guerrilla activities ranges from direct individual contributions (voluntary or non-voluntary) to the actual operation of business enterprises by insurgent operatives to bank robberies and kidnappings to the complex financial networks that are based on kin, ethnic and religious affiliation used by modern jihadist/jihad organizations.
Permanent and semi-permanent bases form part of the guerrilla logistical structure, which are usually located in remote areas or in cross-border sanctuaries that are sheltered by friendly regimes. They can be quite elaborate, such as in the tough VC/NVA fortified base camps and tunnel complexes encountered by US forces during the Vietnam War. Their importance can be seen by the hard fighting sometimes engaged in by communist forces to protect those sites. However, when it became clear that defense was untenable, communist units typically withdrew without sentiment.
Terrain: Guerrilla warfare is often associated with a rural setting, which was indeed the case with the definitive operations of Mao and Giap, and the mujahadeen of Afghanistan. Guerrillas, however, have successfully operated in urban settings, such as in Argentina and Cyprus. In both cases, guerrillas rely on a friendly population to provide supplies and intelligence. Rural guerrillas prefer to operate in regions providing plenty of cover and concealment, especially heavily forested and mountainous areas. Urban guerrillas, rather than melting into the mountains and jungles, blend into the population and also depend on a support base among the people. Rooting guerrillas out of both types of areas can be difficult.
Foreign support and sanctuaries: Foreign support in the form of soldiers, weapons, sanctuary, or statements of sympathy for guerrillas is not strictly necessary, but it can greatly increase the chances of an insurgent victory. Foreign diplomatic support may bring the guerrilla cause to international attention, putting pressure on local opponents to make concessions or garnering sympathetic support and material assistance. Foreign sanctuaries can add heavily to guerrilla chances, furnishing weapons, supplies, materials, and training bases. Such shelter can benefit from international law, particularly if the sponsoring regime is successful in concealing its support and in claiming plausible deniability for attacks that are by operatives based in its territory.
The VC and NVA made extensive use of such international sanctuaries during their conflict, and the complex of trails, way-stations and bases snaking through Laos and Cambodia (the famous Ho Chi Minh Trail) was the logistical lifeline that sustained their forces in South Vietnam. Another case in point is the Mukti Bahini guerrillas, who fought alongside the Indian Army in the 14-day Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 against Pakistan, which led to the independence of Bangladesh. In the post-Vietnam era, al-Qaeda also made effective use of remote territories, such as Afghanistan under the Taliban regime, to plan and execute its operations. That foreign sanctuary eventually broke down with American attacks against the Taliban and al-Qaeda after the September 11 attacks.
Guerrilla initiative and combat intensity: Since they can choose when and where to strike, guerrillas usually have the tactical initiative and the element of surprise. The planning for an operation may take weeks, months, or even years with a constant series of cancelations and restarts, as the situation changes. Careful rehearsals and "dry runs" are usually conducted to work out problems and details. Many guerrilla strikes are not undertaken unless clear numerical superiority can be achieved in the target area, a pattern typical of VC/NVA and other "people's war" operations. Individual suicide bomb attacks offer another pattern, typically involving only the individual bomber and his support team, but they too are spread or metered out based on prevailing capabilities and political winds.
Whatever approach is used, the guerrilla holds the initiative and can prolong his survival by varying the intensity of combat. Attacks are spread out over quite a range of time, from weeks to years. During the interim periods, the guerrilla can rebuild, resupply, and plan. During the Vietnam War, most communist units, including mobile NVA regulars using guerrilla tactics, spent only a few days per month fighting. While they might be forced into an unwanted battle by an enemy sweep, most of the time was spent in training, intelligence gathering, political and civic infiltration, propaganda indoctrination, construction of fortifications, or foraging for supplies and food. The large numbers of such groups striking at different times, however, gave the war its "around-the-clock" quality.
Low-intensity counter operations or counter-guerrilla warfare:
Principles: The low-intensity fighter or guerrilla can be difficult to beat, but certain principles of counter-insurgency warfare are well known since the 1950s and 1960s and have been successfully applied.
Classic guidelines: The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert in Malaysia, offers several such guidelines. Thompson's underlying assumption is that of a country minimally committed to the rule of law and better governance. Numerous other regimes, however, give such considerations short shrift, and their counterguerrilla operations have involved mass murder, genocide, starvation as well as the massive spread of terror, torture and execution. The totalitarian regimes of Stalin and Hitler are classic examples, as are the lesser but comparable measures of dictatorships fighting "dirty wars" in South America. Elements of Thompson's moderate approach are adapted here:
A viable competing vision that comprehensively mobilizes popular support. There must be a clear political counter-vision, which can overshadow, match, or neutralize the guerrilla vision. That can range from granting political autonomy to economic development measures in the affected region. The vision must be integrated approach, involving political, social, and economic and media influence measures.
Reasonable concessions where necessary. Action also must be taken at a lower level to resolve legitimate grievances. It may be tempting for the counter-insurgent side simply to declare guerrillas "terrorists" and to pursue a harsh liquidation strategy. Brute force, however, may not be successful in the long run. Action does not mean capitulation, but sincere steps, such as removing corrupt or arbitrary officials, cleaning up fraud, or collecting taxes honestly can do much to undermine the guerrillas' appeal.
Economy of force. The counter-insurgent regime must not overreact to guerrilla provocations, which may indeed be what the guerrilla seeks to create a crisis in the civilian morale. Police level actions should guide the effort and take place in a clear framework of legality, even if under a state of emergency. Civil liberties and other customs of peacetime may have to be suspended, but again, the counter-insurgent regime must exercise restraint and cleave to orderly procedures. Clear steps must be taken to curb brutality and retaliation by the security or "freelance" forces.
Big unit action may sometimes be necessary. If police action is not sufficient to stop insurgents, military sweeps may be necessary. Such "big battalion" operations may be needed to break up significant guerrilla concentrations and split them into small groups that can be controlled by combined civic-military action.
Mobility. Mobility and aggressive small unit action is extremely important for the counter-insurgent regime. Heavy formations must be lightened to aggressively locate, pursue, and fix insurgent units. Huddling in static strongpoints simply concedes the field to the insurgents, who must be kept on the run constantly by aggressive patrols, raids, ambushes, sweeps, cordons, etc.
Systematic intelligence effort. Every effort must be made to gather and organize useful intelligence. A systematic process must be set up to do so, ranging from casual questioning of civilians to structured interrogations of prisoners. Creative measures must also be used, including the use of double agents or even bogus "liberation" or sympathizer groups to help reveal insurgent personnel or operations.
Methodical clear and hold. An "ink spot" clear and hold strategy must be used by the counter-insurgent regime, which divides the conflict area into sectors and assigns priorities between them. Control must expand outward like an ink spot on paper, systematically neutralizing and eliminating the insurgents in one sector of the grid, before proceeding to the next. It may be necessary to pursue holding or defensive actions elsewhere while priority areas are cleared and held.
Careful deployment of mass popular forces and special units. Specialist units can be used profitably, including commando squads, long range reconnaissance, "hunter-killer" patrols, defectors who can track or persuade their former colleagues like the Kit Carson units in Vietnam, and paramilitary style groups. Strict control must be kept over specialist units to prevent the emergence of violent vigilante-style reprisal squads that undermine the government's program. Mass forces include village self-defence groups and citizen militias organized for local defence and security.
Foreign assistance must be limited and carefully used. Such aid should be limited to material and technical support and small cadres of specialists. Unless that is done, the foreign helper may find itself "taking over" the local war and being sucked into a lengthy commitment, thus providing the guerrillas with valuable propaganda opportunities. Such a scenario occurred with the United States in Vietnam.
Low-intensity operations: Low-intensity operations consist of the deployment and use of soldiers in situations other than war. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Low-intensity conflict | Specialist units can be used profitably, including commando squads, long range reconnaissance, "hunter-killer" patrols, defectors who can track or persuade their former colleagues like the Kit Carson units in Vietnam, and paramilitary style groups. Strict control must be kept over specialist units to prevent the emergence of violent vigilante-style reprisal squads that undermine the government's program. Mass forces include village self-defence groups and citizen militias organized for local defence and security.
Foreign assistance must be limited and carefully used. Such aid should be limited to material and technical support and small cadres of specialists. Unless that is done, the foreign helper may find itself "taking over" the local war and being sucked into a lengthy commitment, thus providing the guerrillas with valuable propaganda opportunities. Such a scenario occurred with the United States in Vietnam.
Low-intensity operations: Low-intensity operations consist of the deployment and use of soldiers in situations other than war. For states, these operations are usually conducted against non-state actors and are given terms like counter-insurgency, anti-subversion, and peacekeeping. Violent non-state actors often conduct low-intensity operations against states, often in insurgencies.
See also: Divide and rule
Fourth-generation warfare
Guerrilla warfare
Grey-zone (international relations)
Irregular warfare
Military operations other than war
New Wars
Political warfare
Reagan Doctrine
Violent non-state actor
References:
Further reading: Asprey, Robert. War in the Shadows, ISBN 0-595-22593-4
British Army (ed.). Land Operations, Volume III, Counter Revolutionary Operations, 1969.
Buffaloe, David. Conventional Forces in Low-Intensity Conflict: The 82nd Airborne at Firebase Shkin, Afghanistan [1], October 2004.
Hammes, Thomas X.. The Sling and the Stone, Zenith Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7603-2059-4
Mikulaschek, Christoph, Saurabh Pant, and Beza Tesfaye. 2020. "Winning Hearts and Minds in a Civil War: Governance, Leadership Change, and Support for Violent Groups in Iraq", American Journal of Political Science. doi:10.1111/ajps.12527.
van Creveld, Martin. The Transformation of War. The Free Press, 1991. ISBN 0-02-933155-2
External links: A wide-ranging gathering of Special Operations / Low Intensity Conflict (SO/LIC) related topics |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Machine gun | Modern overview: Unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to continue firing for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays, the term is restricted to relatively heavy crew-served weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition feeding is replete. Machine guns are used against infantry, low-flying aircraft, small boats and lightly/unarmored land vehicles, and can provide suppressive fire (either directly or indirectly) or enforce area denial over a sector of land with grazing fire. They are commonly mounted on fast attack vehicles such as technicals to provide heavy mobile firepower, armored vehicles such as tanks for engaging targets too small to justify the use of the primary weaponry or too fast to effectively engage with it, and on aircraft as defensive armament or for strafing ground targets, though on fighter aircraft true machine guns have mostly been supplanted by large-caliber rotary guns.
Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours; other automatic weapons overheat after less than a minute of use. Because they become very hot, the great majority of designs fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, or removable barrels which allow a hot barrel to be replaced.
Although subdivided into "light", "medium", "heavy" or "general-purpose", even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms. Medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle; when carried on foot, the machine gun and associated equipment (tripod, ammunition, spare barrels) require additional crew members.
Light machine guns are designed to provide mobile fire support to a squad and are typically air-cooled weapons fitted with a box magazine or drum and a bipod; they may use full-size rifle rounds, but modern examples often use intermediate rounds. Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod. The heavy machine gun is a term originating in World War I to describe heavyweight medium machine guns and persisted into World War II with Japanese Hotchkiss M1914 clones; today, however, it is used to refer to automatic weapons with a caliber of at least 12.7 mm (0.5 in), but less than 20 mm (0.8 in). A general-purpose machine gun is usually a lightweight medium machine gun that can either be used with a bipod and drum in the light machine gun role or a tripod and belt feed in the medium machine gun role.
Machine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common. A common aiming system for direct fire is to alternate solid ("ball") rounds and tracer ammunition rounds (usually one tracer round for every four ball rounds), so shooters can see the trajectory and "walk" the fire into the target, and direct the fire of other soldiers.
Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50 BMG machine gun, are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a long-distance shot at 7,382 ft (2,250 m) with a .50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight. This led to the introduction of .50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, such as the Barrett M82.
Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, whether the cartridge is fired from a closed bolt or an open bolt, and whether the action used is locked or is some form of blowback.
Fully automatic firearms using pistol-caliber ammunition are called machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size; those using shotgun cartridges are almost always referred to as automatic shotguns. The term personal defense weapon (PDW) is sometimes applied to weapons firing dedicated armor-piercing rounds which would otherwise be regarded as machine pistols or SMGs, but it is not particularly strongly defined and has historically been used to describe a range of weapons from ordinary SMGs to compact assault rifles. Selective-fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles.
Assault rifles are a compromise between the size and weight of a pistol-caliber submachine gun and a full-size battle rifle, firing intermediate cartridges and allowing semi-automatic and burst or full-automatic fire options (selective fire), sometimes with both of the latter presents.
Operation: Many machine guns are of the locked breech type, and follow this cycle:
Pulling (manually or electrically) the bolt assembly/bolt carrier rearward by way of the cocking lever to the point bolt carrier engages a sear and stays at rear position until trigger is activated making bolt carrier move forward
Loading fresh round into chamber and locking bolt
Firing round by way of a firing pin or striker (except for aircraft medium calibre using electric ignition primers) hitting the primer that ignites the powder when bolt reaches locked position.
Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward
Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually, the recoil spring (also known as main spring) tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, belt or box.
Cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear.
The operation is basically the same for all locked breech automatic firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. There are also multi-chambered formats, such as revolver cannon, and some types, such as the Schwarzlose machine gun etc., that do not lock the breech but instead use some type of delayed blowback.
Design: Most modern machine guns are of the locking type, and of these, most utilize the principle of gas-operated reloading, which taps off some of the propellant gas from the fired cartridge, using its mechanical pressure to unlock the bolt and cycle the action. The first of these was invented by the French brothers Claire, who patented a gas operated rifle, which included a gas cylinder, in 1892. The Russian PK machine gun is a more modern example. Another efficient and widely used format is the recoil actuated type, which uses the gun's recoil energy for the same purpose. Machine guns, such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this second kind. A cam, lever or actuator absorbs part of the energy of the recoil to operate the gun mechanism.
An externally actuated weapon uses an external power source, such as an electric motor or hand crank, to move its mechanism through the firing sequence. Modern weapons of this type are often referred to as Gatling guns, after the original inventor (not only of the well-known hand-cranked 19th century proto-machine gun, but also of the first electrically powered version). They have several barrels each with an associated chamber and action on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that load, cock, and fire each mechanism progressively as it rotates through the sequence; essentially each barrel is a separate bolt-action rifle using a common feed source. The continuous nature of the rotary action and its relative immunity to overheating allow for a very high cyclic rate of fire, often several thousand rounds per minute. Rotary guns are less prone to jamming than a gun operated by gas or recoil, as the external power source will eject misfired rounds with no further trouble; but this is not possible in the rare cases of self-powered rotary guns. Rotary designs are intrinsically comparatively bulky and expensive and are therefore generally used with large rounds, 20 mm in diameter or more, often referred to as Rotary cannon – though the rifle-calibre Minigun is an exception to this. Whereas such weapons are highly reliable and formidably effective, one drawback is that the weight and size of the power source and driving mechanism makes them usually impractical for use outside of a vehicle or aircraft mount.
Revolver cannons, such as the Mauser MK 213, were developed in World War II by the Germans to provide high-caliber cannons with a reasonable rate of fire and reliability. In contrast to the rotary format, such weapons have a single barrel and a recoil-operated carriage holding a revolving chamber with typically five chambers. As each round is fired, electrically, the carriage moves back rotating the chamber which also ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to be fired with the barrel and loads the next round into the chamber. The action is very similar to that of the revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name. A Chain gun is a specific, patented type of Revolver cannon, the name, in this case, deriving from its driving mechanism.
As noted above, firing a machine gun for prolonged periods produces large amounts of heat. In a worst-case scenario, this may cause a cartridge to overheat and detonate even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and keep firing until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or jammed; this is known as cooking off (as distinct from runaway fire where the sear fails to re-engage when the trigger is released). To guard against cook-offs occurring, some kind of cooling system or design element is required. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Machine gun | The action is very similar to that of the revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name. A Chain gun is a specific, patented type of Revolver cannon, the name, in this case, deriving from its driving mechanism.
As noted above, firing a machine gun for prolonged periods produces large amounts of heat. In a worst-case scenario, this may cause a cartridge to overheat and detonate even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and keep firing until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or jammed; this is known as cooking off (as distinct from runaway fire where the sear fails to re-engage when the trigger is released). To guard against cook-offs occurring, some kind of cooling system or design element is required. Early machine guns were often water-cooled and while this technology was very effective, (and was indeed one of the sources of the notorious efficiency of machine guns during the First World War ), the water jackets also added considerable weight to an already bulky design; they were also vulnerable to the enemies' bullets themselves. Armour could be provided, and in WW I the Germans in particular often did this; but this added yet more weight to the guns. Air-cooled machine guns often feature quick-change barrels (often carried by a crew member), passive cooling fins, or in some designs forced-air cooling, such as that employed by the Lewis Gun. Advances in metallurgy and the use of special composites in barrel liners have allowed for greater heat absorption and dissipation during firing. The higher the rate of fire, the more often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool. To minimize this, most air-cooled guns are fired only in short bursts or at a reduced rate of fire. Some designs – such as the many variants of the MG42 – are capable of rates of fire in excess of 1,200 rounds per minute. Motorized Gatling guns can achieve the fastest firing rates of all, partly because this format involves extra energy being injected into the system from outside, instead of depending on energy derived from the propellant contained within the cartridges, partly because the next round can be inserted simultaneously with or before the ejection of the previous cartridge case, and partly because this design intrinsically deals with the unwanted heat very efficiently – effectively quick-changing the barrel and chamber after every shot. The multiple guns that comprise a Gatling being a much larger bulk of metal than other, single-barreled guns, they are thus much slower to rise in temperature for a given amount of heat, while at the same time they are also much better at shedding the excess, as the extra barrels provide a larger surface area from which to dissipate the unwanted thermal energy. In addition to that, they are in the nature of the design spun at very high speed during rapid fire, which has the benefit of producing enhanced air-cooling as a side-effect.
In weapons where the round seats and fires at the same time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to prevent the round from firing before it is seated properly. Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears. When a sear is in place, it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion. Some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear. Other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber. Almost all machine guns have a "safety" sear, which simply keeps the trigger from engaging.
History: The first successful machine-gun designs were developed in the mid-19th century. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly mechanical loading, first appeared in the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; as discussed above, this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well.
While technical use of the term "machine gun" has varied, the modern definition used by the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute of America is "a fully automatic firearm that loads, fires and ejects continuously when the trigger is held to the rear until the ammunition is exhausted or pressure on the trigger is released." This definition excludes most early manually operated repeating arms the Gatling gun and such as volley guns like the Nordenfelt gun.
Medieval: The first known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were medieval organ guns. An early example of an attempt at the mechanisation of one of these would be an 'engine of war' produced in the mid-1570s in England capable of firing from 160 to 320 shots 4, 8, 12 or 24 bullets at a time at a rate of fire up to roughly 3 times the rate of fire of the typical arquebusier of the day. It was also claimed that the gun could be reloaded 'as often as you like' and fired no matter the weather though the English government never adopted the weapon despite testing being carried out at the Tower of London. The first firearms to have the ability to fire multiple shots from a single barrel without a full manual reload were revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s. One is a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580. Another is a revolving arquebus, produced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597.
17th century: True repeating long arms were difficult to manufacture prior to the development of the unitary firearm cartridge; nevertheless, lever-action repeating rifles such as the Kalthoff repeater and Cookson repeater were made in small quantities in the 17th century.
Perhaps the earliest examples of predecessors to the modern machine gun are to be found in East Asia. According to the Wu-Pei-Chih, a booklet examining Chinese military equipment produced during the first quarter of the 17th century, the Chinese army had in its arsenal the 'Po-Tzu Lien-Chu-P'ao' or 'string-of-100-bullets cannon'. This was a repeating cannon fed by a hopper containing balls which fired its charges sequentially. The way it worked was similar to the Perkins steam gun of 1824 or the Beningfield electrolysis gun of 1845 only slow-burning gunpowder was used as the propelling force in place of steam or the gases produced by electrolysis. Another repeating gun was produced by a Chinese commoner, Dai Zi, in the late 17th century. This weapon was also hopper-fed and never went into mass production.
In 1655, a way of loading, aiming and shooting up to 6 wall muskets 60 times in a minute for a total rate of fire of 360 shots per minute was mentioned in The Century of Inventions by Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester, though, like all the inventions mentioned in the book, it is uncertain if it was ever built.
It is sometimes claimed (i.e. in George Morgan Chinn's the Machine Gun) that in 1663 the first mention of the automatic principle of machine guns was in a paper presented to the Royal Society of England by Palmer, an Englishman who described a volley gun capable of being operated by either recoil or gas. However, no one has been able to find this paper in recent times and all references to a multi-shot weapon by a Palmer during this period appear to be referring to a somewhat more common Kalthoff repeater or Lorenzoni-system gun. Despite this, there is a reference in 1663 to at least the concept of a genuine automatic gun that was presented to Prince Rupert, though its type and method of operation are unknown.
18th century: In 1708, it was reported from Constantinople that a French officer had invented a very light cannon that could fire from a single barrel 30 shots in 2 and a half minutes for a total rate of fire of 12 shots a minute.
In 1711, a French lawyer called Barbuot presented to the parliament of Dijon a crank-operated 'war machine' made up of 10 carbine barrels and loaded via a 'drum' capable of firing in vollies. It was said to be accurate at 400 to 500 paces and to strike with enough force to pierce 2 or 3 men at a time when close. It was also claimed to be able to shoot 5 or 6 times before infantry came within musket range or cavalry within pistol range and with no more space between each shot than the time needed to prime a pistol, cock it and release the hammer as well as being nearly as manoeuvrable as cavalry. An alternative and heavier version was said to be able to throw grenades and it was also proposed to equip the machine with a bellows for clearing smoke that built up during firing.
Another early revolving gun was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called "The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a manually operated 1.25 in. (32 mm) caliber, flintlock cannon with a revolver cylinder able to fire 6–11 rounds before reloading by swapping out the cylinder, intended for use on ships. It was one of the earliest weapons to be referred to as a machine gun, being called such in 1722, though its operation does not match the modern usage of the term. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Machine gun | An alternative and heavier version was said to be able to throw grenades and it was also proposed to equip the machine with a bellows for clearing smoke that built up during firing.
Another early revolving gun was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called "The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a manually operated 1.25 in. (32 mm) caliber, flintlock cannon with a revolver cylinder able to fire 6–11 rounds before reloading by swapping out the cylinder, intended for use on ships. It was one of the earliest weapons to be referred to as a machine gun, being called such in 1722, though its operation does not match the modern usage of the term. According to Puckle, it was able to fire round bullets at Christians and square bullets at Turks. However, it was a commercial failure and was not adopted or produced in any meaningful quantity.
In 1729, a report was written in France on a machine capable of firing 600 balls in a few minutes.
In 1720, a French inventor called Philippe Vayringe invented a small cannon that could fire 16 shots in succession, which he demonstrated before the Duke of Lorraine. In 1737, it was mentioned that Jacob de Weinholtz, a Dane who was serving in the Portuguese army, had invented a cannon capable of firing 20 to 30 shots a minute though requiring 15 people to work it. The cannons were brought along with a Portuguese fleet sent to India to take part in a colonial war in the 1740s. Also in 1737, it was mentioned that a German engineer had invented a 10-pounder cannon capable of firing 20 times in a minute. In 1740, a cannon able to shoot 11 times per minute was developed by a Frenchman called Chevalier de Benac. Meanwhile, not long after in England, in 1747 a cannon able to simultaneously charge and discharge itself 20 times in a minute was invented by James Allis and presented to the Royal Society of England. In 1750, in Denmark, a Prussian known as Captain Steuben of the Train of Artillery invented a breech-loading cannon worked by 4 people and fed by paper cartridges capable of firing 24 times in a minute and demonstrated it to the King of Denmark along with some other high-ranking officials in the same year. In 1764, Frenchman Ange Goudar wrote in his work The Chinese Spy that he had assisted in Paris in the proofing of a 'great gun' capable of firing 60 times in a minute. In 1773, another cannon capable of firing 23 or 24 times in a minute and cleaning itself after every shot was invented by Thomas Desaguliers. In 1775, it was mentioned that in England two large cannons invented by an unidentified matross at Woolwich had achieved a rate of fire of 59 shots in 59 and a half seconds.
Also in 1775, a breech-loading volley gun, similar to the later mitrailleuse, was invented by a Frenchman called Du Perron which was worked by 3 or 4 men and capable of discharging 24 barrels 10 times a minute for a total rate of fire of 240 shots per minute.
In 1776, a gun capable of charging and discharging itself 120 times 'by the motion of one hand only' in a minute was invented in England by an inventor from the county of Westmoreland.
In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a "new improved gun", which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds; unlike older repeaters using complex lever-action mechanisms, it used a simpler system of superposed loads, and was loaded with a single large paper cartridge. Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high.
In 1779, a machine made up of 21 musket barrels worked by 3 men was produced by a British inventor called William Wilson Wright which he claimed could be fired 3 times quicker than a single man could load and fire a musket 3 times.
In 1788, a Swiss soldier invented a machine worked by 10 men capable of discharging 300 balls in 3 minutes.
Also in 1788, it was reported that a Prussian officer had invented a gun capable of firing 400 balls one after the other.
In 1790, a former officer in the French military known as Joseph-François-Louis Grobert invented a 'ballistic machine' or 'pyroballistic machine' with multiple barrels operated by 4 men and a continuous rotational movement capable of firing 360 rifle shots a minute in a variety of calibers.
In 1792, a French artist known as Renard invented a piece of ordnance that could be operated by one man and fired 90 shots a minute.
Also in 1792, a French mechanic called Garnier invented a musket battery made up of 15 barrels capable of firing 300 shots in 2 minutes for a total rate of fire of 150 shots a minute or 10 shots per minute per barrel and of being operated by one man.
19th century: In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapid-firing weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, mostly volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double-barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun, though the Nock gun used the otherwise-undesirable "chain fire" phenomenon (where multiple chambers are ignited at once) to propagate a spark from a single flintlock mechanism to multiple barrels. Pepperbox pistols also did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple manually operated barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared cylinder and linked advancing the cylinder to cocking the hammer. However, these were still manually operated.
In 1805, a British inventor from Northampton designed a cannon that would prime, load and fire itself 10 times a minute.
In 1806, a Viennese copper engraver and mechanic known as Mr Putz invented a machine cannon that could load, fire and clean itself once every second or potentially up to 60 times a minute though the rate of fire was limited by the overheating of the barrel.
In 1819, an American inventor from Baltimore designed a gun with 11 barrels that could fire 12 times in a minute for a total rate of fire of 132 shots a minute.
In 1821, a muzzle-loading repeating cannon capable of firing 30 shots in 6 minutes or 5 shots per minute was demonstrated in England by the French-American "Fire King" Ivan Ivanitz Chabert. It was worked by a "wheel" fed by paper cartridges from a store attached to the cannon and ignited using a match from a match-holder somewhere else on the cannon.
In 1825 an Italian book attempting to catalogue all topographic features of all known countries on Earth mentioned that in France there were 'mechanical rifles' used to defend warehouses that were capable of firing 120 shots without reloading.
In 1828, a swivel gun that did not need cleaning or muzzle-loading and was capable of being made to any dimensions and used as an ordinary cannon at a moment's notice and firing 40 shots a minute was invented by a native of Ireland.
Also in 1828 a revolver cannon capable of firing 12 shots a minute and worked by 2 artillerymen was invented by a Frenchman called Lesire-Fruyer. In 1854 this cannon would be put on display at the French Museum of the Marine.
In France, in 1831, a mechanic from the Vosges department invented a lever-operated cannon that could fire 100 shots a minute.
In 1832, a machine capable of firing 500 rifle shots a minute was devised by Hamel, a French mechanic.
In the 1830s, General Sir John Scott Lillie, a British veteran of the Peninsula War invented the "Lillie Rifle battery".
In the mid-1830s, a machine gun was designed by John Steuble (Swiss), who tried to sell it to the Russian, English and French governments. The English and Russian governments showed interest but the former refused to pay Steuble, who later sued them for this transgression, and the latter tried to imprison him. The French government showed interest at first and while it noted that mechanically there was nothing wrong with Steuble's invention it turned him down, stating that the machine both lacked novelty and could not be usefully employed by the army. The gun was reportedly breech-loading, fed by cartridges from some kind of hopper and could fire 34 barrels of one-inch calibre 4 or 6 times for a total of 136 or 204 shots a minute.
A biography of William Lyon Mackenzie mentions that in 1839 a Detroit-based inventor was working on a cannon that could be fired 50 to 60 times in a minute.
In 1842, Dr. Thomson or Thompson, an American, invented a cannon fed by pre-loaded breech-pieces with 4 barrels that was operated by means of a revolving cylinder and could be fired 50 times in as many seconds or even up to 500 times in 500 seconds.
In 1846, Mr. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Machine gun | The gun was reportedly breech-loading, fed by cartridges from some kind of hopper and could fire 34 barrels of one-inch calibre 4 or 6 times for a total of 136 or 204 shots a minute.
A biography of William Lyon Mackenzie mentions that in 1839 a Detroit-based inventor was working on a cannon that could be fired 50 to 60 times in a minute.
In 1842, Dr. Thomson or Thompson, an American, invented a cannon fed by pre-loaded breech-pieces with 4 barrels that was operated by means of a revolving cylinder and could be fired 50 times in as many seconds or even up to 500 times in 500 seconds.
In 1846, Mr. Francis Dixon, an American, invented a cannon that loaded, primed and discharged itself through the use of a brake at a rate of fire of 30 to 40 shots a minute. A variation of it was worked by clockwork-like machinery and could be made to move by itself a certain distance along rails before firing 10 times and returning to its original position.
Also in 1846, in Canada, inventor Simeon "Larochelle" Gautron, invented a cannon that was similar to a wooden model of a repeating cannon he constructed in 1836 but for which he had made a number of improvements since then which could be fired 10 or 12 times in a minute when the typical muzzle-loading cannon of the day could be fired at only a fraction of that speed, and an English newspaper reporting on it claimed it could be fired up to 60 times in the same period of time, and clean itself after every shot. It was worked by a crank, could be worked by one man when the typical cannon of the day required twelve or more, was fed by paper cartridges from a revolving cylinder and used separate percussion caps for ignition. Larochelle tried to interest the Canadian military in his invention but was turned down for reasons of complexity and expense which, while it drew some criticism from the French language Canadian press, led to the inventor discontinuing development of it in favour of more profitable activities. A model of Larochelle's cannon is still on display at the Musee National des Beaux-Arts du Quebec.
In 1847, a short description of a prototype electrically ignited mechanical machine gun was published in Scientific American by J.R. Nichols. The model described is small in scale and works by rotating a series of barrels vertically so that it is feeding at the top from a "tube" or hopper and could be discharged immediately at any elevation after having received a charge, according to the author.
In 1848, the Italian Cesare Rosaglio announced his invention of a machine gun capable of being operated by a single man and firing 300 rifle shots a minute or 12,000 in an hour after taking into account the time needed to reload the "tanks" of ammunition.
In June 1851, a model of a 'war engine' allegedly capable of firing 10,000 ball cartridges in 10 minutes was demonstrated by a British inventor called Francis McGetrick.
In 1852, a rotary cannon using a unique form of wheellock ignition was demonstrated by Delany, an Irish immigrant to America.
In 1854, a British patent for a mechanically operated machine gun was filed by Henry Clarke. This weapon used multiple barrels arranged side by side, fed by a revolving cylinder that was in turn fed by hoppers, similar to the system used by Nichols. The gun could be fired by percussion or electricity, according to the author. In the percussion version of the gun, firing was carried out by separate percussion caps and the breeches could contain either loose powder and balls or paper cartridges. A model of this weapon, said to be capable of firing 1800 shots in a minute with great precision at 2000 yards and drawn by two horses, was constructed and tested though apparently not adopted for the military. In the same year, water cooling was proposed for machine guns by Henry Bessemer, along with a water cleaning system, though he later abandoned this design. In his patent, Bessemer describes a hydropneumatic delayed-blowback-operated, fully automatic cannon. Part of the patent also refers to a steam-operated piston to be used with firearms but the bulk of the patent is spent detailing the former system.
In America, a patent for a machine gun-type weapon was filed by John Andrus Reynolds in 1855. Another early American patent for a manually operated machine gun with a blowback-operated cocking mechanism was filed by C. E. Barnes in 1856.
In France and Britain, a mechanically operated machine gun was patented in 1856 by Frenchman Francois Julien. This weapon was a cannon that fed from a type of open-ended tubular magazine, only using rollers and an endless chain in place of springs.
The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a "coffee-mill gun" because of its resemblance to a coffee mill, was invented by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War. The weapon featured mechanized loading using a hand crank linked to a hopper above the weapon. The weapon featured a single barrel and fired through the turning of the same crank; it operated using paper cartridges fitted with percussion caps and inserted into metal tubes that acted as chambers; it was therefore functionally similar to a revolver. The weapon was demonstrated to President Lincoln in 1861. He was so impressed with the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500 apiece. The Union Army eventually purchased a total of 70 of the weapons. However, due to antiquated views of the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use.
The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling, was the first to offer controlled, sequential fire with mechanical loading. The design's key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a hand-operated crank for sequential high-speed firing. It first saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian war and North-West Rebellion. Many were sold to other armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used into the early 20th century until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or canister shot. The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position, which increased the vulnerability of their crews. Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke, making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century. Gatling guns were targeted by artillery they could not reach, and their crews were targeted by snipers they could not see. The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires, since against poorly equipped indigenous armies it did not face such threats.
In 1864, in the aftermath of the Second Schleswig War, Denmark started a program intended to develop a gun that used the recoil of a fired shot to reload the firearm though a working model would not be produced until 1888.
In 1870, a Lt. Holsten Friberg of the Swedish army patented a fully automatic recoil-operated firearm action and may have produced firing prototypes of a derived design around 1882: this was the forerunner to the 1907 Kjellman machine gun, though, due to rapid residue buildup from the use of black powder, Friberg's design was not a practical weapon.
Also in 1870, the Bavarian regiment of the Prussian army used a unique mitrailleuse-style weapon in the Franco-Prussian war. The weapon was made up of four barrels placed side by side that replaced the manual loading of the French mitrailleuse with a mechanical loading system featuring a hopper containing 41 cartridges at the breech of each barrel. Although it was used effectively at times, mechanical difficulties hindered its operation and it was ultimately abandoned shortly after the war ended (de).
Maxim and World War I: The first practical self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884 by Sir Hiram Maxim. The Maxim machine gun used the recoil power of the previously fired bullet to reload rather than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs such as the Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons. Maxim also introduced the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the barrel, to reduce overheating. Maxim's gun was widely adopted, and derivative designs were used on all sides during the First World War. The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns. First World War combat experience demonstrated the military importance of the machine gun. The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919.
Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP 18) as well as lighter machine guns (the first light machine gun deployed in any significant number being the Madsen machine gun, with the Chauchat and Lewis gun soon following) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns. |
mil_tactics_continued_pretraining.csv | Machine gun | The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns. First World War combat experience demonstrated the military importance of the machine gun. The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919.
Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP 18) as well as lighter machine guns (the first light machine gun deployed in any significant number being the Madsen machine gun, with the Chauchat and Lewis gun soon following) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns. The biggest single cause of casualties in World War I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation.
Another fundamental development occurring before and during the war was the incorporation by gun designers of machine gun auto-loading mechanisms into handguns, giving rise to semi-automatic pistols such as the Borchardt (1890s), automatic machine pistols and later submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918).
Aircraft-mounted machine guns were first used in combat in World War I. Immediately this raised a fundamental problem. The most effective position for guns in a single-seater fighter was clearly, for the purpose of aiming, directly in front of the pilot; but this placement would obviously result in bullets striking the moving propeller. Early solutions, aside from simply hoping that luck was on the pilot's side with an unsynchronized forward-firing gun, involved either aircraft with pusher props like the Vickers F.B.5, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and Airco DH.2, wing mounts like that of the Nieuport 10 and Nieuport 11 which avoided the propeller entirely, or armored propeller blades such as those mounted on the Morane-Saulnier L which would allow the propeller to deflect unsynchronized gunfire. By mid 1915, the introduction of a reliable gun synchronizer by the Imperial German Flying Corps made it possible to fire a closed-bolt machine gun forward through a spinning propeller by timing the firing of the gun to miss the blades. The Allies had no equivalent system until 1916 and their aircraft suffered badly as a result, a period known as the Fokker Scourge, after the Fokker Eindecker, the first German plane to incorporate the new technology.
Interwar era and World War II: As better materials became available following the First World War, light machine guns became more readily portable; designs such as the Bren light machine gun replaced bulky predecessors like the Lewis gun in the squad support weapon role, while the modern division between medium machine guns like the M1919 Browning machine gun and heavy machine guns like the Browning M2 became clearer. New designs largely abandoned water jacket cooling systems as both undesirable, due to a greater emphasis on mobile tactics; and unnecessary, thanks to the alternative and superior technique of preventing overheating by swapping barrels.
The interwar years also produced the first widely used and successful general-purpose machine gun, the German MG 34. While this machine gun was equally able in the light and medium roles, it proved difficult to manufacture in quantity, and experts on industrial metalworking were called in to redesign the weapon for modern tooling, creating the MG 42. This weapon was simpler, cheaper to produce, fired faster, and replaced the MG 34 in every application except vehicle mounts since the MG 42's barrel changing system could not be operated when it was mounted.
Cold War: Experience with the MG 42 led to the US issuing a requirement to replace the aging Browning Automatic Rifle with a similar weapon, which would also replace the M1919; simply using the MG 42 itself was not possible, as the design brief required a weapon which could be fired from the hip or shoulder like the BAR. The resulting design, the M60 machine gun, was issued to troops during the Vietnam War.
As it became clear that a high-volume-of-fire weapon would be needed for fast-moving jet aircraft to reliably hit their opponents, Gatling's work with electrically powered weapons was recalled and the 20 mm M61 Vulcan was designed; as well as a miniaturized 7.62 mm version initially known as the "mini-Vulcan" and quickly shortened to "minigun" soon in production for use on helicopters, where the volume of fire could compensate for the instability of the helicopter as a firing platform.
Human interface: The most common interface on light machine guns is a pistol grip and trigger with a buttstock attached. Vehicle and tripod mounted machine guns usually have spade grips. Earlier machine guns commonly featured hand cranks, and modern externally powered machine guns, such as miniguns, commonly use an electronic button or trigger on a joystick. In the late 20th century, scopes and other complex optics became more common rather than the more basic iron sights.
Loading systems in early manual machine guns were often from a hopper of loose (un-linked) cartridges. Manually operated volley guns usually had to be reloaded all at once (each barrel reloaded by hand, or with a set of cartridges affixed to a plate that was inserted into the weapon). With hoppers, the rounds could often be added while the weapon was firing. This gradually changed to belt-fed systems, which were either held by a person (the shooter or a support person), or in a bag or box. Some modern vehicle machine guns use linkless feed systems.
Modern machine guns are commonly mounted in one of four ways. The first is a bipod, often integrated with the weapon, common on light and medium machine guns. Another is the tripod, usually found on medium and heavy machine guns. On ships, vehicles, and aircraft, machine guns are usually mounted on a pintle mount, a steel post that is connected to the frame or body of the vehicle. The last common mounting type is as part of a vehicle's armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of an aircraft's armament. These are usually electrically fired and have complex sighting systems, for example, the US Helicopter Armament Subsystems.
See also: Glock switch
List of firearms
List of machine guns
List of multiple barrel machine guns
References:
External links:
Discover Military Machine Guns
"From Gatling to Browning" Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine—September 1945 article in Popular Science
"How Machine Guns Work" – HowStuffWorks article on the operation of Machine Guns, animated diagrams are included
The REME Museum of Technology – machine guns
U.S. patent 15,315 – A patent for an early automatic cannon
Vickers machine gun site |