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Taj Mahal stands on the bank of River Yamuna, which otherwise serves as a wide trench shielding the Great Red Fort of Agra, the centre of the Mughal Empire, until they moved their capital to Delhi in 1637. The Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful masterpieces of architecture in the world. Agra, situated about 200 km south of New Delhi. Taj Mahal was under the Muslim Emperors who ruled Northern India between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Mughals were the descendents of two of the most skilled warriors in history, the Turks and the Mongols. The Mughal dynasty reached its highest strength and fame during the reign of their early Emperors, Akbar, Jehangir, and Shah Jehan. Taj Mahal Agra was built by the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan in 1631 in the remembrance of his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal, a Muslim Persian princess. She passed while accompanying her husband in Behrampur in a campaign to crush an uprising, after giving birth to their 14th child. Her death firmed the emperor. When Mumtaz Mahal was alive, she requested the emperor, that he should build the Taj, should not marry again, be kind to their children and he should visit the tomb on her death anniversary. He kept the first and second promises. Construction began in 1631 and was completed in 22 years. Twenty thousand people were positioned to work on it. It was designed by the Iranian architect Istad Usa and it is best appreciated when the architecture and its adornments are linked to the passion that inspired it. Having buried her down at Behrampur, it was time to build a tomb there itself. It was virtually impossible to transfer all the marble there, as it would cost a fortune and a lifetime. So, astoundingly her grave was uprooted and brought to Agra, be transferred to the monument, completed twenty two years later. The architectural complex is comprised of five main elements: the Darwaza or main gateway, the Bageecha or garden, the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khana or rest house, and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum. The actual Tomb is situated inside the Taj. The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base with a huge white marble terrace on which rests the dome flanked by four narrowing towers. Within the dome lies the jewel-inlaid cenotaph of the queen. Most impressive are the black and white chessboard marble floor, the four tall minarets at the corners of the structure, and the majestic dome in the middle. The impressive pietra dura artwork includes geometric elements, plants and flowers, mostly common in Islamic architecture The only uneven object in the Taj is the chest of the emperor, which was built beside the queens, as a late addition. The dome is made of white marble, and has a background that works its magic of colours through their reflection and transforms the view of the Taj.

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One of the big questions—and there are many —that occupy Killam Scholar and kinesiology researcher Walter Herzog is why a muscle generates more force after it is stretched than a muscle that has not changed length. At the heart of this question is the understanding of how our muscles work. If Herzog and his lab are correct, a new model may be needed. Researcher Tim Leonard is looking for answers. He’s been part of Herzog’s lab for most of his adult life. He started his undergraduate degree at the University of Calgary when he was 17. Since then, he’s enjoyed a successful, productive and well-decorated academic career. Leonard is the only individual to win the Canadian Society of Biomechanics Award for his master’s degree and for his PhD. He also won the Western Area Association of Grad Studies Award (an association of American and Canadian Universities from the prairies) and the University of Calgary’s J.B. Hyne Research Innovation Award. These awards recognize innovative research as well as the innovative use of technology. To study the question of stretched muscle force, Leonard had to devise a way to measure the contractile force of a single myofibril, the microscopic building blocks of our muscles. But how do you grab, stretch and measure the spring of something that is only a few microns long? The challenge led Leonard to upstate New York and Cornell University, where he found the facilities necessary to construct his nanotechnology micro levers. “It’s kind of one of these things you’d see in a science fiction movie,” says Leonard. “You've got people working in these super-clean rooms, dressed up in these puffy suits with slippers on their feet, and masks so they don’t contaminate the air with their hair or skin cells.” Leonard points out that he didn’t invent the process he used to create his silicon-nitride cantilevers. The real genius was adapting the existing technology to fit his needs. “I really just said, ‘these should be what I need them to be’ and for me it was really just a stepping stone to get to the actual science and so maybe that’s what the awards were for.” The cantilevers are incredibly tiny and need to be stored and carried in a sealed case, since the force of wind created just by walking across the room would be enough to snap them instantly. On the microscope slide, the levers become a powerful tool and helped to suggest that there is another actor at work in the stretched muscle contraction problem—titin, the largest known natural protein. Despite its size, and the fact that we have a lot of it in our muscles, bio-mechanists aren't exactly sure what titin does. “People have looked at it as a spring, or like a big Slinky, that helps keep the proteins lined up,” say Leonard. “But over the last few years there’s been evidence that titin is not just a passive molecular spring, but that it may actually contribute to active sources.” Leonard thinks that titin could partially contribute to the increase in force in a stretched muscle. “If titin is actually producing a little bit of what we could call active force, that’s quite novel.” “Quite novel” is a polite way of saying that Leonard’s award-winning research—as part of Herzog’s team—will likely change or at least amend our understanding of how our muscles contract. “I think we could argue that instead of muscle being a two-filament structure, that maybe there’s a third filament, which is titin, and that titin plays a role that’s not purely passive.” Understanding the role that titin plays in active force production may one day further our understanding of how diseases like cerebral palsy can be more effectively treated, or how we can more effectively train our athletes to go faster, higher and stronger.

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- Prayer and Worship - Beliefs and Teachings - Issues and Action - Catholic Giving - About USCCB By Jem Sullivan, Ph.D. What is your family’s favorite meal? Is it a holiday recipe, a simple weeknight dinner, or a gourmet dessert treat? The Second Vatican Council teaches that “the treasures of the Bible are to be opened more lavishly, so that richer fare may be provided for the faithful at the table of God’s Word “(Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, 51). Is the Bible a special table around which your family gathers, as if for a favorite meal? As we consider ways to share the Old Testament in the family we discover that the Bible, whether prominently displayed or gathering dust on a shelf, offers rich spiritual nourishment for children, teenagers and adults in your home. It is said that we live in the Age of Information. The information superhighway moves us through the high speed traffic of news conveyed through television, the Internet, blogs, and instant messaging. We may have instant and high speed access to information at our fingertips. But the search for human happiness and daily wisdom remains. What is the place of the Bible in this Information Age? The Catechism tells us that, the books of the Old Testament “are a storehouse of sublime teaching on God and of sound wisdom on human life, as well as a wonderful treasury of prayers; in them, too, the mystery of our salvation is present in a hidden way.” (CCC 122, quoting Dei Verbum 15) Much of the Old Testament takes the form of stories. The way God teaches resounds with human imagination. Through the rich tapestry of biblical narratives we learn about God’s love and fidelity in the face of human doubt, apathy and infidelity. In the drama of the biblical stories is reflected our own journeys of faith with our daily joys, struggles, and hopes. Old Testament stories are especially compelling for young children who, with their natural capacity for awe and wonder, marvel at the unfolding of God’s saving action and living presence in the world. Biblical stories that reveal weakness and sin are opportunities to discuss, at age appropriate levels, our humanness in light of God’s love and mercy. Through the biblical range of human experiences we learn God’s ways and our response of faith. To bring the Old Testament to life, assign family members to gather artistic images that depict biblical stories and themes. Let the painting, sculpture, stained glass, or piece of sacred music serve as a discussion starter for family reflection on God’s word expressed in artistic forms. The Psalms are a rich storehouse of prayers. In spite of overloaded family schedules taking brief moments to pray together the Liturgy of the Hours, whether Morning or Evening Prayer, connects your home to the Church’s rhythm of praise, thanksgiving and intercession. Handy Catholic resources now available make daily praying of Morning and Evening Prayer simple and sustainable. Finally, lectio divina is another practical way to feast on the Old Testament in your home. This ancient Christian practice is being recovered in our time and strongly encouraged during the 2008 Bishops Synod on the Word of God and in Pope Benedict’s Exhortation following the Synod. Through the steps of lectio divina - reading, meditation, prayer and contemplation - the wisdom of the Old Testament can bear rich fruit in your home and may even become your family’s favorite spiritual food. - - - Jem Sullivan, Ph.D., serves as staff to the USCCB Secretariat of Evangelization and Catechesis. She is the author of a Study Guide to the United States Adult Catholic Catechism and The Beauty of Faith: Christian Art and the Gospel published by Our Sunday Visitor, and writes on a variety of catechetical themes. By accepting this message, you will be leaving the website of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. This link is provided solely for the user's convenience. By providing this link, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops assumes no responsibility for, nor does it necessarily endorse, the website, its content, or

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Farmers in Wisconsin are constantly looking for ways to improve profitability and productivity of their farming systems while still protecting soil and water resources. Cover crops are one tool that can provide a wealth of benefits into our Wisconsin crop rotations. Cover crops can enhance soil quality by increasing soil organic matter, stimulating greater soil biological activity, reducing soil erosion and utilizing extra soil nutrients. The University of Wisconsin - Discovery Farms Program has monitored on-farm water quality from crop fields since 2001. Data from several farms across the state show that a significant amount of annual nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment losses occur either before vegetative canopy in the spring or in the fall after crop harvest. Cover crops can provide protection for the soil during critical times when cropland is more vulnerable to nutrient and sediment losses. Below are factsheets and helpful resources when trying to decide how and when cover crops may fit into your management system. Video courtesy of Sand County Foundation's YouTube page. Michigan State University's Cover Crops Education Page Midwest Cover Crops Council Frost Seeding Clover into Winter Wheat - Published by University of Wisconsin Winter Rye after Corn Silage - Published by University of Wisconsin Also find articles of interest on cover crops in the following newsletters: January and May 2010, June 2009

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SARASOTA, Fla. (AP) - A large red tide bloom that's about 12 miles long and six miles wide is lingering off the Charlotte-Sarasota County coastline and killing fish. The Herald-Tribune (http://bit.ly/Pcv7WP) reports that September and October are the most common months for red tide blooms which are caused by toxic algae. Area hotel owners and tourism officials are hopeful that the problem won't worsen or spread. The red tide effects are limited to southern Sarasota and Charlotte counties. No dead fish or bad air quality were reported on beaches north of Venice. Red tide naturally occurs in the Gulf of Mexico. The bloom is deadly for fish, marine mammals, sea turtles and other sea life. The toxins also can become airborne and cause breathing problems for people with asthma or other respiratory diseases. (Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)

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First we have the monarch butterflies. These incredible creatures spend their summer days in the northern parts and then migrate (leaving for another place) to the south for the winter. They travel thousands of miles - some almost 2900 km from Canada to Mexico. Just looking at a map, you can see how far Canada is from Mexico, but these little butterflies fly all the way to protect themselves from the cold winters. Traveling so much certainly does tire them out, which is why some of them cannot make a return trip. These butterflies have never been to these foreign places, but they still make the trip successfully. How do they do it? A map showing the monarch butterfly migration. They travel from Canada to Mexico. Then there are the Green sea turtles (or the scientific term is chelonia mydas) who swim for months and months in the east direction to migrate from a sea in Brazil in South America to an island called Ascension Island, which is about 3200 km away. Apparently these turtles were hatched on this island, and after they grow up in South America, they return to their birthplace, the Ascension Island, to hatch their own eggs. Another example is that of some crabs that are willing to walk about 240 km from deep water to shallow water, just to lay their eggs. These creatures have some kind of inborn compass or instinct that tells them where to go and at what is the right time for migration. No one has taught them this, most of them have never been to the new place, but they still manage to migrate safely. Scientists till today, cannot give good, complete explanations for these migrations. It probably is just one of nature's powers and mysteries.....

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Health & Medicine - Overview The Museum's collections of medical science artifacts represent nearly all aspects of health and medical practice. Highlights include early X-ray apparatuses, such as one of Wilhelm Roentgen's tubes, penicillin mold from Alexander Fleming’s experiments, and Jonas Salk's original polio vaccine. More recent acquisitions include the first artificial heart implanted in a human, the earliest genetically engineered drugs, and materials related to David, the "Bubble Boy." Other artifacts range from artificial limbs and implant devices to bloodletting and dental instruments, beauty products, and veterinary equipment. The contents of a medieval apothecary shop and an 1890s drugstore form part of the collections, along with patent and alternative medicines. The collections also document the many differing perspectives on health and medical issues, from patients, family members, doctors, nurses, medical students, and out-of-the-mainstream health practitioners.

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Dr. Judy Theriot and the others at University of Louisville Pediatrics are busy. "A lot of kids with the flu," she said. "A lot of kids with other respiratory viruses." So with up and down, roller coaster weather - record warm weather early in the week and then a 40-degree drop in 24 hours - you'd think they'd be expecting business to pick up as more people come down with illness. Dr. Theriot said you'd think wrong. "It has nothing to do with how cold or hot it is or the changes or fluctuation in temperature," she said. Dr. Theriot said you get colds and the flu because of viruses and viruses have nothing to do with the weather. They're spread through people. "They cough in your face," she said. "You're around them in closed spaces or you touch infected objects." So why does the myth of winter colds persist? Dr. Theriot said it's all because of our environment. We're not outside as much, so we have more chances to spread our illnesses. "They kind of cycle around the world and people catch rhinovirus more in the wintertime but again, it might be from our habits too," she said. Mom and dad were right about a couple of things: wash your hands and get your flu shot. Dr. Theriot said that really will keep you from getting sick no matter the weather!

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Michael Cruz is a great example of someone that has fully embraced the benefits of putting technology to use in a classroom setting. For five years, he taught courses at San Jose State University’s College of Business ranging from web marketing to entrepreneurship. He now focuses on technology and productivity. | Name: Michael Cruz Evernote is a great application for educators. It’s usefulness can range from planning a course to delivering a lesson plan to capturing feedback after class. I experimented with using Evernote while I was teaching courses at San Jose State University. It proved to be an excellent classroom companion. Here are some ways to use Evernote to achieve your teaching goals. As a teacher, my Evernote use falls into three categories: - Prior to class - During class - After class Prior to class - Plan and organize your classes with tags: Using tags is a great way to organize your classes on a week-to-week basis or on a class-by-class basis. For example, if you know that there is certain content that has to be taught during the second week of the school year, then for all related content you can use the tag “week 2″. Once you’ve created this system you can keep adding additional items throughout the year. - Standards database: Compile standards of achievements for your particular grade or subject. You can even share them with teachers, parents, administrators and students using Evernote’s sharing features. - Professional development: If you use the summer break or vacations to improve your skills or continue your education, keep all your notes, resources, lessons and new ideas learned in Evernote. This also works well for teacher in-services, conferences, workshops and seminars that you attend. - Classroom templates: Templates are a great way to save time when grading and assessing your students. If you use templates such as grade sheets or student assessment forms, keep them in Evernote so you have them at your fingertips throughout the year. - Prepare for your absence: Use Evernote’s shared notebooks as a way to keep your class up and running even if you aren’t there. Evernote makes it easy to share a notebook with the substitute teacher. Consider sharing lesson plans, worksheets, answer keys and examples of completed work. This can ensure your class keeps moving even if you aren’t there. - Share a notebook with your class: After you create a public notebook, share the URL with your class. This way anything you add can be viewed by your students (or their parents). Here’s an example of a public notebook that I created for an entrepreneurship class. - Whiteboard photos: Taking snapshots of the whiteboard is a favorite use of mine. Take photographs of the whiteboard before the start of the class, and again at the end. This gives you an accurate time stamped snapshot of what you were working on, on any given date. You can title or tag each photo based on the lecture number to make searching for specific photos easier. Also, you can share the photos with students that miss a class, so that they have the day’s notes. - Keep handouts handy: Keep all of the handouts, worksheets, templates, study guides and assignments that you frequently use in Evernote, where they are easily searchable and accessible. - Simplify grading: Scan graded tests, including scantrons and add them to Evernote. You can then enter them into your preferred grade-book or spreadsheet when you have time. This is also great if you have a teacher’s assistant. You can share the notebook with them and have them help with the grading process. - Keep your extracurriculars in order: If you participate in any committees or coach a team, you can use Evernote to keep track of all the different research, notes and information associated with it. Again, shared notebooks are a great way to keep your committee on the same page and makes for an easy way to share collective knowledge about a project. To get more productivity tips for teachers you can visit my website http://www.michaelcruz.com and sign up for my e-mail list. Evernote Education Series - Evernote at School: The Montclair Kimberley Academy’s 1:1 Program, plus Q&A Webinar - How Evernote helped me through college - 10 Evernote Tips for School - How my students started using Evernote Join the discussion about Evernote for Schools on our forum. Learn from educators and share your own experiences, best practices and tips.

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During the last decade the tile industry has reinvented the way ceramic tiles are decorated. With the advent of inkjet technology being incorporated into this process there is no longer a need for screen or roller printing methods, freeing the industry up to many different opportunities. As with screen and roller printing, the image of the design is first scanned, then modified on a computer. However, by utilizing the key advantages of digital imaging the design can be almost instantly transferred to the inkjet printing machine, which is fully equipped with the essential inks to print any design with any desired color. The non-impact technology that the inkjet printer utilizes enables manufactures to decorate any type of tile, including relief tile, just as easy as traditional flat tile. This is done by using a print style called Drop on Demand (DoD) and by utilizing a special type of printing device called a piezoelectric printhead. These let the printer create an identical picture of the digital image by propelling tiny drops of ink (measured in picoliters) onto the tile. Because the inkjet machines fit perfectly into the manufacturing process, it is no wonder how they improve efficiency, yet allow for a higher degree of customization by allowing virtually an infinite possibility of design. What We Used Before In the not too distant past the entire ceramic tile industry were slaves to screen and roller printing. While not bad, technology has since proven these methods to be rather inefficient. Not only are they more time consuming, but they can produce large amounts of waste. A key benefit of the inkjet printer is not just the fact that you can load an image of almost unlimited length, but at any time during the printing process you can change that image instantaneously. With the older methods your design capability is more limited, and changing designs can prove to be time consuming and expensive. The biggest hindrance of the older methods is that the production line needs to briefly stop while the design is applied to the tile. Because inkjet printing allows a seamless application of the image, it can speed up the production rate up to five times! You must also consider the green benefit for embracing this new technology. Besides the screen and roller printers taking longer, they must also be replaced from time to time. You must also replace the film, adhesives, chemicals, and emulsion from the process as well, creating an unnecessary amount of waste. Simply put, an inkjet printer reproduces a digital image by propelling a continuous stream of ink droplets onto the tile. With virtually no setup time, this shortens the period from idea to product immensely. As mentioned earlier, this allows relief tile, as well as fragile tile, to be decorated without any additional effort other than programming in the design. Although standard inkjet printers are only equipped with enough memory to decorate about 30 12×12 ceramic tiles, like most computers additional memory can be added to create a virtually limitless possibility of unique designs. Factor in the ability to easily adjust to any size and texture and it’s easy to see how inkjet technology is revolutionizing the ceramic tile industry. Another key factor is that all of your design information can be stored digitally. This allows the manufacturer to reproduce any image with a push of a button, with alterations to the design or size easily changeable. In today’s market the demand for stone tile is declining as it is now so simple to replicate these images, despite the fact they inherently fluctuate in their design. Not only do you get the same aesthetic cosmetic design, but because the engineered stone is actually technical porcelain it is not only stronger and more durable, but it is much easier on the environment. Products such as StonePeak’s Limestone Ebony combine the subtle beauty of a soft hue with the uniqueness of the limestone’s design. By using engineered stones you not only receive the green benefits of manufacturing the tile instead of cutting it from a quarry, but Limestone Ebony contains 84% recycled material. Combine this with superior strength of porcelain and a through-body color you have an eco-friendly tile that will look spectacular for a lifetime.

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Invasion of Kuwait Reasons for Invasion Despite close foreign relations during the Iran-Iraq War, the relationship between Iraq and Kuwait quickly deteriorated after the war. This happened for a number of reasons, many of which can be attributed to blunders and miscalculations by Saddam Hussein. Kuwait loaned Iraq $8.2 billion during the Iran-Iraq war, a sum that Hussein did not think he would be expected to repay. When Kuwait refused to pardon the debt, the friendship between the two countries began to strain. Miscommunication with the United States On July 25, 1990, the Iraqi High Command met with the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, to discuss the military activity of Iraq. In this meeting Glaspie stated that "we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait." On the 2nd of August 1990, the Iraqi military invaded Kuwait. Kuwaiti forces resisted, but were quickly over-whelmed. In the air, Kuwaiti Mirage F1 and A-4 Skyhawk pilots claimed to have shot down several Iraqi helicopters, but none of these claims have been confirmed. Following five weeks of aerial bombardment from US and allied warplanes on targets in Iraq and Kuwait, a 4 day ground war started on 23 February 1991, and Kuwait was liberated.

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• Whiteboard and whiteboard marker • Post it notes • Cut outs, print our characters and make body parts moveable • Foams letters or magnetic letters (Great for title sequence to add some interest) • Roll out modelling clay and use cookie cutters • Modelling clay (Make shapes or characters) • Toys eg. Legos, action figures • Objects eg. Stationery, cutlery, buttons, paddle pop sticks • Create a set out of a box. • Document change: Set the camera to take photos in intervals and document change eg. The sky, a plant growing etc. Students have fabulous ideas and the best intentions, unfortunately their abilities can restrict the production of these ideas. Modelling clay characters can be difficult. I found these great people and bird add on pieces to push into clay. They make fabulous creatures without needing any modelling skills (and they are fun to make). Here are some scaffolding activities I use as an introduction to build confidence: • With a whiteboard, create the illusion of writing your name with your finger. • Make a piece of paper fold up and then unfold by itself. (Done by reversing slides) • Make buttons follow each other in a line Here are some ideas for animations: • Convert a fairytale, fable or nursery rhyme. • Adapt a movie story line • Create a Music Film clip • Convey a message ‘Save the Environment' • Re-write history • Create characters from a novel students are reading Here are a few You Tube videos I like to show students to give provide inspiration: The Animals Save the Planet - Energy Efficient Penguin (There are many others in this series) There was a Time Deadline - Post it Stop Motion Ping Pong Ball Stop Motion

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Unlike some of their American cousins, European cicadas make their appearance annually rather than once every thirteen or seventeen years. This means they are part of the fabric of rural life instead of an occasional noteworthy or horrendous occurrence. Perhaps nowhere are they more loved than in the south of France, in the area known as Provence. If the rooster, or coq, to use his French title, is the animal kingdom member who is officially symbolic of France, then the cicada, or cigale, is the symbol of Provence. Jean de LaFountaine immortalized him in his "Fables". Most English-language fable collections carry the story of the Ants and the Grasshopper but in the French "Fables de LaFountaine" it is le cigale who passes the glorious days of summer in song. The cigale is a creature of summertime. Appearing near the end of June in Provence, he is never heard after mid-September. His song (and only the males are heard) may sound monotonous to the uninitiated, but the strident rasp of this tiny lyrist is varied according to the circumstances. Like most male singing, it is a sexual call, sometimes reaching around 160 decibels. As a song of love it is languorous and deep. Alarmed, it becomes raucous and short. To hear this version, carefully catch a cigale and turn him over on his back. Stroke his belly with a blade of grass or a broom straw and he will immediately began to give voice. ”Voice” is perhaps the wrong word to use, as no larynx action is involved. When you have a male on his back as described above, you can actually see the vibrations of the lower chest. This is not sound-producing but sound-modifying; the actual sound is produced in the hollow stomach of the male. It has been compared to the hollow interior of a guitar. The sound itself is produced by the rapid retraction (from 300 to 900 times a second) of a muscle on each side of the "music box". Below 22 degrees Centigrade, the resounding sections of this "music box" lose their elasticity. For this reason the males are silent during rain or after sundown. What is interesting about this strident creature is that it is completely deaf, having no tympanic features, i.e. no ears. It depends on its eyes to alert itself to the approach of enemies. If you walk into its field of vision it will immediately fall silent. And it has a very large field of vision : It has a pair of huge eyes with 14,000 facets as well as three small stemmed eyes on the top of its head. Males and females are alike in this respect, which leads to the assumption that the mating call is recognized by vibration in the atmosphere rather than by sound itself. Regardless of how the two sexes find each other, they do, and procreation is abundant. Each female lays between 300 and 400 eggs, depositing them in the dry twig of almost any type of plant after cutting a slit in the bark with a drill, or "rostre" carried on its lower body. Ten eggs are laid at each site. The female dies soon after this, but the larvae later appear at the same slit in the bark by which the eggs were introduced. After tearing its protective envelope, each individual larva remains suspended until it dries in the sun and takes on a protective hardening of its exterior. It then drops to the ground and burrows into the soil. It will spend four years underground, digging long tunnels in search of roots, from which it sucks sap as nourishment. Both larvae and adults live exclusively on sap of various plants, which is extracted by means of a facial appendage resembling a large soda straw, functioning very much like a syringe. The larvae undergo several metamorphisms during their time underground. In cold weather they curl up and remain dormant, in hot weather they grow bigger. At this point they are still blind. Finally, one fine day in June, they emerge, cling to small twigs while shedding the grub form, and wait for their wings to dry before starting an adult life of several weeks. For the entomologist the cicada is a homopterous insect, having four transparent or nearly-transparent wings. The French say that these wings form a "roof" over the insect when they are folded in rest. The French also say (and I don’t know if this is true or not) that cicadas of Provence are the only ones in the world who do not damage the plants they use for nourishment and egg-laying. As said earlier, the people of Provence are very fond of their cigales. You will often see glazed orange, cream and black ceramic reproductions of the insect, many times life size, attached to the exterior walls of homes. I have several enameled lapel pins in the form of a cigale; unfortunately, outside of Provence, friends ask me why I have a cockroach on my jacket. Perhaps the true charm of the cigale is that it symbolizes summertime and the people of Provence are people of the sun. After a winter of blustery mistral, the wind that blows incessantly from the north-northwest, after perhaps a December with frost on the ground in the early mornings, perhaps even a January with one or two days of snow, what could be better than to spend a drowsy afternoon in July or August under a spreading plane tree, with the air around you hot and dry, vibrating with the melody of the cigales?

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What is Geography?While the word geography is derived from Greek and literally means "to write about the earth," the subject of geography is much more than describing "foreign" places or memorizing the names of capitals and countries. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the world - its human and physical features - through an understanding of place and location. Geographers study where things are and how they got there. My favorite definitions for geography are "the bridge between the human and physical sciences" and "the mother of all sciences." Geography looks at the spatial connection between people, places, and the earth. How is Geography Different from Geology?Many people have an idea of what a geologist does but don't have any idea of what a geographer does. While geography is commonly divided into human geography and physical geography, the difference between physical geography and geology is often confusing. Geographers tend to study the surface of the earth, its landscapes, its features, and why they are where they are. Geologists look deeper into the earth than do geographers and study its rocks, the internal processes of the earth (such as plate tectonics and volcanoes), and study periods of earth history many millions and even billions of years ago. How Does One Become a Geographer?An undergraduate (college or university) education in geography is an important beginning to becoming a geographer. With a bachelor's degree in geography, a geography student can begin working in a variety of fields. While many students begin their career after achieving an undergraduate education, others continue on. A master's degree in geography is very helpful for the student who desires to teach at the high school or community college level, to be a cartographer or GIS specialist, of work in business or government. A doctorate in geography (Ph.D.) is necessary if one wishes to become a full professor at a university. Although, many Ph.D.s in geography continue on to form consulting firms, become administrators in government agencies, or attain high-level research positions in corporations or think-tanks. The best resource for learning about colleges and universities that offer degrees in geography is the annual publication of the Association of American Geographers, the Guide to Programs in Geography in the United States and Canada. What Does a Geographer Do?Unfortunately, the job title of "geographer" is not often found in companies or government agencies (with the most notable exception of the U.S. Census Bureau). However, more and more companies are recognizing the skill that a geographically-trained individual brings to the table. You'll find many geographers working as planners, cartographers (map makers), GIS specialists, analysis, scientists, researchers, and many other positions. You'll also find many geographers working as instructors, professors, and researchers at schools, colleges, and universities.

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According to the recently released annual survey by the Apiary Inspectors of America (AIA) and the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), more than a third of U.S. managed honeybee colonies—those set up for intensified pollination of commercial crops—failed to survive this past winter. Since 2006, the decline of the U.S.’s estimated 2.4 million beehives—commonly referred to as colony collapse disorder (CCD)—has led to the disappearance of hundreds of thousands of colonies: Hives are found empty with honey, larvae, and the queen intact, but with no bees and no trail left behind. The cause remains unknown, but appears to be a combination of factors impacting bee health and increasing their susceptibility to disease. Heavy losses associated with CCD have been found mainly with larger migratory commercial beekeepers, some of whom have lost 50-90 percent of their colonies. A “keystone” species—one that has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass—bees are our key to global food security and a critical part of the food chain. Flowering plants that produce our food depend on insects for pollination. There are other pollinators—butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and birds—but the honeybee is the most effective, pollinating over 100 commercial crops nationwide, including most fruit, vegetables, and nuts, as well as alfalfa for cattle feed and cotton, with a value estimated between $15-$20 billion annually. As much as one of every three bites of food we eat comes from food pollinated by insects. Without honeybees, our diet would be mostly meatless, consisting of rice and cereals, and we would have no cotton for textiles. The entire ecosystem and the global food economy potentially rests on their wings. Experts now believe bees are heading for extinction and are racing to pinpoint the culprit, increasingly blaming pesticide usage. U.S. researchers have reported finding 121 different pesticides in samples of bees, wax, and pollen. New parasites, pathogens, fungi, and poor nutrition stemming from intensive farming methods are also part of the equation. Three years ago, U.S. scientists unraveled the genetic code of the honeybee and uncovered the DNA of a virus transmitted by the Varroa mite—Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV)—found in almost all of the hives impacted by CCD. Researchers have also found the fungus Nosema ceranae and other pathogens such as chalkbrood in some affected hives throughout the country. Other reported theories include the effects of shifting spring blooms and earlier nectar flow associated with broader global climate and temperature changes, the effects of feed supplements from genetically modified crops, such as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), and the effects of cell phone transmissions and radiation from power lines that may be interfering with a bee’s navigational capabilities. (Last year, a study revealed that a contaminant from heat-exposed HFCS might be killing off the bees.) However, according to a recent congressional report on CCD, contributions of these possible factors have not been substantiated. The industrial bee business and the demands of intensified food production could also be playing a role in the bees’ demise. Widespread migratory stress brought about by increased needs for pollination could be weakening the bees’ immune systems. Most pollination services are provided by commercial migratory beekeepers who travel from state to state and provide pollination services to crop producers. These operations are able to supply a large number of bee colonies during the critical phase of a crop’s bloom cycle, when bees pollinate as they collect nectar. A hive might make five cross-country truck trips each year, chasing crops, and some beekeepers can lose up to 10 percent of their queens during one cross country trip. Bees are overworked and stressed out. California’s almond crop is a prime example of our reliance on bees’ industriousness for our agriculture success. The state grows 80 percent of the world’s almonds, making it our largest agricultural export and bringing in a whopping $1.9 billion last year. The crop—with nearly 740,000 acres of almond trees planted—uses 1.3 million colonies of bees, approximately one half of all bees in the U.S., and is projected to grow to 1.5 million colonies. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is now predicting that Central Valley almond growers will produce about 1.53 billion pounds of almonds this year, up 8.5 percent last year. To meet the demand, bee colonies are trucked farther and more often than ever before and demand for bees has dramatically outstripped supply. Bee colonies, which a decade ago rented for $60, cost as much as $170 this February in California. Few organic beekeepers have reported bee losses, suggesting that natural and organic bee keeping methods may be the solution. In addition, organic farmers who maintain wildlife habitat around their farms are helping to encourage bees to pollinate their crops. “The main difference between our farm and our conventional neighbors is the amount of wildlife and insect habitat that we have around the edge of our farm,” said Greg Massa, who manages Massa Organics, a fourth generation 90-acre certified organic rice farm near Chico. Massa started growing organic almonds six years ago, and works with a small, organic beekeeper in Oregon who brings in 30 hives to his farm. Massa’s farm has a large wildlife corridor which has been revegetated with native plants and covered in mustard, wild radish, and vetch, a favorite of bees and also a good nitrogen source for his rice crop. Time might be running out for the bees, but there are simple actions we can take to make a difference. First, support organic farmers who don’t use pesticides and whose growing methods work in harmony with the natural life of bees. In particular, buy organic almonds. Don’t use pesticides in your home garden, especially at mid-day when bees most likely forage for nectar. You can also plant good nectar sources such as red clover, foxglove, bee balm, and other native plants to encourage bees to pollinate your garden. Provide clean water; even a simple bowl of water is beneficial. Buy local honey; it keeps small, diversified beekeepers in business, and beekeepers keep honeybees thriving. In addition, you can start keeping bees yourself. Backyard and urban beekeeping can actively help bring back our bees. Finally, you can work to preserve more open cropland and rangeland. Let’s use our political voices to support smart land use, the impact of which will not only result in cleaner water, soil, and air, but also just might help save the humble honeybee.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation. Traditional NSAIDs block COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that the body uses to manufacture substances called prostaglandins. Since COX-1 prostaglandins are stomach-protective, blocking this enzyme is associated with gastrointestinal toxicity, a known side effect of these drugs. Newer NSAIDs (called COX-2 inhibitors) block primarily COX-2 prostaglandins associated with pain, fever, and inflammation, and might be less risky to the stomach. However, this is not proven, and some COX-2s have been taken off the market due to excess risk of heart attacks attributable to their use. Drugs in this family include: - Aspirin, alternatively called acetylsalicylic acid or ASA (Adprin-B, Anacin, Arthritis Foundation Aspirin, Ascriptin, Aspergum, Asprimox, Bayer, BC, Bufferin, Buffex, Cama, Cope, Easprin, Ecotrin, Empirin, Equagesic, Fiorinal, Fiorital, Halfprin, Heartline, Genprin, Lanorinal, Magnaprin, Measurin, Micrainin, Momentum, Norwich, St. Joseph, Zorprin) - Celecoxib (Celebrex) - Choline salicylate (Arthropan) - Choline salicylate/magnesium salicylate (Tricosal, Trilisate) - Diclofenac potassium (Cataflam, Voltaren Rapide) - Diclofenac sodium (Arthrotec, Voltaren, Voltaren SR, Voltaren-XR) - Diclofenac sodium/misoprostol (Arthrotec) - Diflunisal (Dolobid) - Etodolac (Lodine, Lodine XL) - Fenoprofen calcium (Nalfon) - Flurbiprofen (Ansaid) - Ibuprofen (Advil, Arthritis Foundation Ibuprofen, Bayer Select Ibuprofen, Dynafed IB, Genpril, Haltran, IBU, Ibuprin, Ibuprohm, Menadol, Midol IB, Motrin, Nuprin, Saleto) - Indomethacin (Indochron E-R, Indocin, Indocin SR, Indomethacin, Indomethacin SR, Novo-Methacin) - Ketoprofen (Actron, Orudis, Orudis KT, Oruvail) - Ketorolac tromethamine (Toradol) - Magnesium salicylate (Doan's, Magan, Mobidin, Backache Maximum Strength Relief, Bayer Select Maximum Strength Backache, Momentum Muscular Backache Formula, Nuprin Backache, Mobigesic, Magsal) - Meclofenamate sodium (Mecolfen, Meclomen) - Mefenamic acid (Ponstan, Ponstel) - Nabumetone (Relafen) - Naproxen (EC-Naprosyn, Napron X, Naprosyn) - Naproxen sodium (Aleve, Anaprox, Anaprox DS, Naprelan) - Oxaprozin (Daypro) - Piroxicam (Feldene) - Salsalate or salicylic acid (Amigesic, Argesic-SA, Arthra-G, Disalcid, Marthritic, Mono-Gesic, Salflex, Salgesic, Salsitab) - Sodium salicylate (Pabalate) - Sodium thiosalicylate (Rexolate) - Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine EN-tabs, Salazopyrin, SAS-500) - Sulindac (Clinoril) - Tolmetin sodium (Tolectin, Tolectin DS) - and others Besides reducing pain and inflammation, aspirin and, to a lesser extent, other NSAIDs interfere with cells in the blood called platelets, which facilitate clotting. Arginine is an amino acid found in many foods, including dairy products, meat, poultry, and fish. Supplemental arginine has been proposed as a treatment for various conditions, including heart problems. Arginine has been found to stimulate the body's production of gastrin, a hormone that increases stomach acid. Because excessive acid can irritate the stomach, there are concerns that arginine could be harmful for individuals taking drugs that are also hard on the stomach (such as NSAIDs). It may be best not to mix arginine with NSAIDs unless approved by your doctor. The herb feverfew is primarily used for the prevention and treatment of migraine headaches. NSAIDs are also used for migraines, so there is a chance that some individuals might use both the herb and drug at once, a combination that may present risks. The biggest concern with NSAIDs is that they can cause stomach ulcers, which may progress to bleeding or perforation without pain or other warning symptoms. This stomach damage is due to drug interference with the body's protective prostaglandins. Newer NSAIDs called COX-2 inhibitors may be less likely to produce this side effect. Feverfew also affects prostaglandins. Thus, combining it with an NSAID might increase the risk of stomach problems. The herb garlic is taken to lower cholesterol, among many other proposed uses. One of the possible side effects of garlic is a decreased ability of the blood to clot, leading to an increased bleeding tendency. Therefore, you should not combine garlic and aspirin or other NSAIDs except under medical supervision. The herb ginkgo is used to treat Alzheimer's disease and ordinary age-related memory loss, among many other uses. Some evidence suggests that ginkgo might also decrease the ability of the blood to clot, probably through effects on platelets. However, one double-blind study found that ginkgo does increase the anticoagulant effects of aspirin; another found that while it did not interact with the antiplatelet drug . But, the herb did interact slightly with the related drug cilostazol. Taken together, this evidence still suggests that one should not take ginkgo while using aspirin or other NSAIDs except under medical supervision. A sugarcane-derived form of the supplement policosanol is used to reduce cholesterol levels. It also interferes with platelet clumping, creating potential benefit as well as a risk of interactions with blood-thinning drugs. For example, a 30-day, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 27 individuals with high cholesterol levels found that policosanol at 10 mg daily markedly reduced the ability of blood platelets to clump together. Another double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 37 healthy volunteers found evidence that the blood-thinning effect of policosanol increased as the dose was increased—the larger the policosanol dose, the greater the effect. Yet another double-blind placebo-controlled study of 43 healthy volunteers compared the effects of policosanol (20 mg daily), aspirin (100 mg daily), and policosanol and aspirin combined at these same doses. The results again showed that policosanol substantially reduced the ability of blood platelets to stick together, and that the combined therapy exhibited additive effects. Based on these findings, it would be advisable to avoid combining aspirin or other NSAIDs with sugarcane policosanol except under medical supervision. : Beeswax policosanol is substantially different from sugarcane policosanol, and is described separately PC-SPES is an herbal combination that has shown promise for the treatment of prostate cancer. One case report suggests that PC-SPES might increase risk of bleeding complications if combined with blood-thinning medications. Subsequent evidence has indicated that PC-SPES contains the strong prescription blood thinner warfarin, making this interaction inevitable. Potassium citrate and other forms of citrate (for example, calcium citrate, magnesium citrate) may be used to prevent kidney stones. These agents work by making the urine less acidic. This effect on the urine may lead to decreased blood levels and therapeutic effects of several drugs, including aspirin and other salicylates (choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, salsalate, sodium salicylate, sodium thiosalicylate). It may be advisable to avoid these citrate compounds during therapy with aspirin or salicylates except under medical supervision. One study suggests that reishi impairs platelet clumping. This creates the potential for an interaction with any blood-thinning medication. Dong QuaiSt. John's Wort St. John's wort is primarily used to treat mild to moderate depression. The herb dong quai is often recommended for menstrual disorders such as dysmenorrhea, PMS, and irregular menstruation. Certain NSAIDs, including most notably piroxicam, can cause increased sensitivity to the sun, amplifying the risk of sunburn or skin rash. Because St. John's wort and dong quai may also cause this problem, taking these herbal supplements during NSAID therapy might add to this risk. It may be a good idea to wear a sunscreen or protective clothing during sun exposure if you take one of these herbs while using an NSAID. The substance vinpocetine is sold as a dietary supplement for the treatment of age-related memory loss and impaired mental function. Vinpocetine is thought to inhibit blood platelets from forming clots. For this reason, it should not be combined with medications or natural substances that impair the blood’s ability to clot normally, as this may lead to excessive bleeding. One study found only a minimal interaction between the blood-thinning drug warfarin (Coumadin) and vinpocetine, but prudence dictates caution anyway. Vitamin E appears to add to aspirin's blood-thinning effects. One study suggests that the combination of aspirin and even relatively small amounts of vitamin E (50 mg daily) may lead to a significantly increased risk of bleeding. In another study of 28,519 men, vitamin E supplementation at a low dose of about 50 IU (international units) daily was associated with an increase in fatal hemorrhagic strokes, the kind of stroke caused by bleeding within the brain. However, there was a reduced risk of the more common ischemic stroke, caused by obstruction of a blood vessel in the brain, and the two effects were found essentially to cancel each other out. Weak evidence from one animal study hints that vitamin E might reduce stomach inflammation caused by NSAIDs. The bottom line: Seek medical advice before combining vitamin E and aspirin. The herb white willow , also known as willow bark, is used to treat pain and fever. White willow contains a substance that is converted by the body into a salicylate similar to aspirin. It is therefore possible that taking NSAIDs and white willow could lead to increased risk of side effects, just as would occur if you combined NSAIDs with aspirin. Based on their known effects or constituents, the herbs dong quai(Angelica sinensis) horse chestnut(Aesculus hippocastanum) red clover(Trifolium pratense) , and the substances (oligomeric proanthocyanidins) might conceivably present an increased risk of bleeding if combined with aspirin. Potassium citrate, sodium citrate, and potassium-magnesium citrate are sometimes used to prevent . These supplements reduce urinary acidity and can, therefore, lead to decreased blood levels and effectiveness of NSAIDs. ) and other hot peppers used in chili and various dishes contain as their "hot" ingredient capsaicin, a substance that is thought to be stomach-protective. For years, people have believed that spicy foods were a cause of stomach ulcers. However, preliminary evidence suggests that cayenne peppers might actually help protect the stomach against ulcers caused by aspirin and possibly other NSAIDs. In a study involving 18 healthy human volunteers, one group received chili powder, water, and aspirin; the control group received only water and aspirin. Chili powder was found to significantly protect the stomach against damage from aspirin, a known stomach irritant. It was suggested that this protective effect might result from capsaicin-induced stimulation of blood flow in the lining of the stomach. Further support for this theory comes from a study in rats, which found that capsaicin protected the stomach against damage caused by aspirin, ethanol (drinking alcohol), and acid. Increasing the dose of capsaicin brought even greater benefit, as did increasing the time between giving capsaicin and the other agents. An earlier study in rats found that capsaicin exerted similar protection against aspirin damage. Some researchers have used this data to advocate chili or capsaicin as treatment for peptic ulcer disease, but check with your doctor before trying to self-treat this serious condition. Colostrum is the fluid that new mothers' breasts produce during the first day or two after birth. It gives newborns a rich mixture of antibodies and growth factors that help them get a good start. According to one study involving rats, taking colostrum from cows (bovine colostrum) as a supplement might help protect against the ulcers caused by NSAIDs. Folate (also known as folic acid) is a B vitamin that plays an important role in many vital aspects of health, including preventing neural tube birth defects and possibly reducing the risk of heart disease. Because inadequate intake of folate is widespread, if you are taking any medication that depletes or impairs folate even slightly, you may need supplementation. There is some evidence that NSAIDs might produce this effect. In test tube studies, many NSAIDs have been found to interfere with folate activity. In addition, a study of 25 people with arthritis receiving the drug sulfasalazine found evidence of folate deficiency. In another report, a woman taking 650 mg of aspirin every 4 hours for 3 days experienced a significant fall in blood levels of folate. Based on this preliminary evidence, folate supplementation may be warranted if you are taking drugs in the NSAID family. Licorice root ( ), a member of the pea family, has been used since ancient times as both food and medicine. Preliminary evidence suggests that a specific form of licorice called DGL (deglycyrrhizinated licorice) might help protect the stomach against damage caused by the use of aspirin and possibly other NSAIDs. (DGL is a modified version of licorice that is safer to use.) In a double-blind study of 9 healthy human volunteers, participants were given aspirin alone (325 mg) or aspirin (325 mg) plus DGL (175 mg). Stomach damage (as measured by blood loss) was found to be about 20% less when DGL was given with aspirin. As part of the same study, DGL was also found to reduce stomach damage caused by aspirin in rats, though the benefit was small. It is possible that larger doses of DGL might provide greater protection. Test tube studies suggest that aspirin promotes the loss of vitamin C through the urine, which could lead to tissue depletion of the vitamin. In addition, low vitamin C levels have been noted in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, and this has been attributed to aspirin therapy taken for this condition. If you take aspirin regularly, vitamin C supplementation may be advisable. The supplement policosanol is a mixture of numerous related substances, and its exact composition varies with its source. Policosanol made from sugar cane appears to reduce cholesterol levels. Policosanol from beeswax may help protect the stomach from damage caused by NSAIDs. However, it is not clear whether beeswax policosanol might amplify the "blood thinning" effect of anti-inflammatory drugs in the same manner as sugarcane policosanol, as described Based on chondroitin’s chemical similarity to the anticoagulant drug heparin, it has been suggested that chondroitin might have anticoagulant effects as well. There are no case reports of any problems relating to this, and studies suggest that chondroitin has at most a mild anticoagulant effect. Nonetheless, prudence suggests that chondroitin should not be combined with NSAIDs except under physician supervision.

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Socrates, an Athenian Greek of the second half of the fifth century bc, wrote no philosophical works but was uniquely influential in the later history of philosophy. His philosophical interests were restricted to ethics and the conduct of life, topics which thereafter became central to philosophy. He discussed these in public places in Athens, sometimes with other prominent intellectuals or political leaders, sometimes with young men, who gathered round him in large numbers, and other admirers. Among these young men was Plato. Socrates' philosophical ideas and - equally important for his philosophical influence - his personality and methods as a 'teacher' were handed on to posterity in the 'dialogues' that several of his friends wrote after his death, depicting such discussions. Only those of Xenophon (Memorabilia,Apology, Symposium) and the early dialogues of Plato survive (for example Euthyphro, Apology, Crito). Later Platonic dialogues such as Phaedo, Symposium and Republic do not present the historical Socrates' ideas; the 'Socrates' appearing in them is a spokesman for Plato's own ideas. Socrates' discussions took the form of face-to-face interrogations of another person. Most often they concerned the nature of some moral virtue, such as courage or justice. Socrates asked what the respondent thought these qualities of mind and character amounted to, what their value was, how they were acquired. He would then test their ideas for logical consistency with other highly plausible general views about morality and goodness that the respondent also agreed to accept, once Socrates presented them. He succeeded in showing, to his satisfaction and that of the respondent and any bystanders, that the respondent's ideas were not consistent. By this practice of 'elenchus' or refutation he was able to prove that politicians and others who claimed to have 'wisdom' about human affairs in fact lacked it, and to draw attention to at least apparent errors in their thinking. He wanted to encourage them and others to think harder and to improve their ideas about the virtues and about how to conduct a good human life. He never argued directly for ideas of his own, but always questioned those of others. None the less, one can infer, from the questions he asks and his attitudes to the answers he receives, something about his own views. Socrates was convinced that our souls - where virtues and vices are found - are vastly more important for our lives than our bodies or external circumstances. The quality of our souls determines the character of our lives, for better or for worse, much more than whether we are healthy or sick, or rich or poor. If we are to live well and happily, as he assumed we all want to do more than we want anything else, we must place the highest priority on the care of our souls. That means we must above all want to acquire the virtues, since they perfect our souls and enable them to direct our lives for the better. If only we could know what each of the virtues is we could then make an effort to obtain them. As to the nature of the virtues, Socrates seems to have held quite strict and, from the popular point of view, paradoxical views. Each virtue consists entirely in knowledge, of how it is best to act in some area of life, and why: additional 'emotional' aspects, such as the disciplining of our feelings and desires, he dismissed as of no importance. Weakness of will is not psychologically possible: if you act wrongly or badly, that is due to your ignorance of how you ought to act and why. He thought each of the apparently separate virtues amounts to the same single body of knowledge: the comprehensive knowledge of what is and is not good for a human being. Thus his quest was to acquire this single wisdom: all the particular virtues would follow automatically. At the age of 70 Socrates was charged before an Athenian popular court with 'impiety' - with not believing in the Olympian gods and corrupting young men through his constant questioning of everything. He was found guilty and condemned to death. Plato's Apology, where Socrates gives a passionate defence of his life and philosophy, is one of the classics of Western literature. For different groups of later Greek philosophers he was the model both of a sceptical inquirer who never claims to know the truth, and of a 'sage' who knows the whole truth about human life and the human good. Among modern philosophers, the interpretations of his innermost meaning given by Montaigne, Hegel, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche are especially notable. Socrates, an Athenian citizen proud of his devotion to Athens, lived his adult life there engaging in open philosophical discussion and debate on fundamental questions of ethics, politics, religion and education. Going against the grain of the traditional education, he insisted that personal investigation and reasoned argument, rather than ancestral custom, or appeal to the authority of Homer, Hesiod and other respected poets, was the only proper basis for answering these questions. His emphasis on argument and logic and his opposition to unquestioning acceptance of tradition allied him with such Sophists of a generation earlier as Protagoras, Gorgias and Prodicus, none of whom was an Athenian, but all of whom spent time lecturing and teaching at Athens (see Sophists). Unlike these Sophists Socrates did not formally offer himself or accept pay as a teacher. But many upper-class young Athenian men gathered round him to hear and engage in his discussions, and he had an inspirational and educational effect upon them, heightening their powers of critical thought and encouraging them to take seriously their individual responsibility to think through and decide how to conduct their lives. Many of his contemporaries perceived this education as morally and socially destructive - it certainly involved subverting accepted beliefs - and he was tried in 399 bc before an Athenian popular court and condemned to death on a charge of 'impiety': that he did not believe in the Olympian gods, but in new ones instead, and corrupted the young. Scholars sometimes mention specifically political motives of revenge, based on guilt by association: a number of prominent Athenians who were with Socrates as young men or were close friends did turn against the Athenian democracy and collaborated with the Spartans in their victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian war. But an amnesty passed by the restored democracy in 403 bc prohibited prosecution for political offences before that date. The rhetorician Polycrates included Socrates' responsibility for these political crimes in his Accusation of Socrates (see Xenophon, Memorabilia I 2.12), a rhetorical exercise written at least five years after Socrates' death. But there is no evidence that, in contravention of the amnesty, Socrates' actual accusers covertly attacked him, or his jurors condemned him, on that ground. The defences Plato and Xenophon constructed for Socrates, each in his respective Apology, imply that it was his own questioning mind and what was perceived as the bad moral influence he had on his young men that led to his trial and condemnation. Socrates left no philosophical works, and apparently wrote none. His philosophy and personality were made known to later generations through the dialogues that several of his associates wrote with him as principal speaker (see Socratic dialogues). Only fragments survive of those by Aeschines of Sphettus and Antisthenes, both Athenians, and Phaedo of Elis (after whom Plato's dialogue Phaedo is named). Our own knowledge of Socrates depends primarily on the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of the military leader and historian Xenophon. Plato was a young associate of Socrates' during perhaps the last ten years of his life, and Xenophon knew him during that same period, though he was absent from Athens at the time of Socrates' death and for several years before and many years after. We also have secondary evidence from the comic playwright Aristophanes and from Aristotle. Aristotle, although born fifteen years after Socrates' death, had access through Plato and others to first-hand information about the man and his philosophy. Aristophanes knew Socrates personally; his Clouds (first produced c.423 bc) pillories the 'new' education offered by Sophists and philosophers by showing Socrates at work in a 'thinkery', propounding outlandish physical theories and teaching young men how to argue cleverly in defence of their improper behaviour. It is significant that in 423, when Socrates was about 45 years old, he could plausibly be taken as a leading representative in Athens of the 'new' education. But one cannot expect a comic play making fun of a whole intellectual movement to contain an authentic account of Socrates' specific philosophical commitments. However, the literary genre to which Plato's and Xenophon's Socratic works belong (along with the other, lost dialogues) also permits the author much latitude; in his Poetics Aristotle counts such works as fictions of a certain kind, alongside epic poems and tragedies. They are by no means records of actual discussions (despite the fact that Xenophon explicitly so represents his). Each author was free to develop his own ideas behind the mask of Socrates, at least within the limits of what his personal experience had led him to believe was Socrates' basic philosophical and moral outlook. Especially in view of the many inconsistencies between Plato's and Xenophon's portraits (see §7 below), it is a difficult question for historical-philosophical interpretation whether the philosophical and moral views the character Socrates puts forward in any of these dialogues can legitimately be attributed to the historical philosopher. The problem of interpretation is made more difficult by the fact that Socrates appears in many of Plato's dialogues - ones belonging to his middle and later periods (see Plato §§10-16) - discussing and expounding views that we have good reason to believe resulted from Plato's own philosophical investigations into questions of metaphysics and epistemology, questions that were not entered into at all by the historical Socrates. To resolve this problem - what scholars call the 'Socratic problem' - most agree in preferring Plato to Xenophon as a witness. Xenophon is not thought to have been philosopher enough to have understood Socrates well or to have captured the depth of his views and his personality. As for Plato, most scholars accept only the philosophical interests and procedures, and the moral and philosophical views, of the Socrates of the early dialogues, and, more guardedly, the Socrates of 'transitional' ones such as Meno and Gorgias, as legitimate representations of the historical personage. These dialogues are the ones that predate the emergence of the metaphysical and epistemological inquiries just referred to. However, even Plato's early dialogues are philosophical works written to further Plato's own philosophical interests. That could produce distortions, also; and Xenophon's relative philosophical innocence could make his portrait in some respects more reliable. Moreover, it is possible, even probable, that in his efforts to help his young men improve themselves Socrates spoke differently to the philosophically more promising ones among them - including Plato - from the way he spoke to others, for example Xenophon. Both portraits could be true, but partial and needing to be combined (see §7). The account of Socrates' philosophy given below follows Plato, with caution, while giving independent weight also to Xenophon and to Aristotle. Xenophon's Apology of Socrates, Symposium and Memorabilia (or Memoirs) may well reflect knowledge of Plato's own Apology and some of his early and middle period dialogues, as well as lost dialogues of Antisthenes and others. Xenophon composed the Memorabilia over many years, beginning only some ten years after Socrates' death, avowedly in order to defend Socrates' reputation as a good man, a true Athenian gentleman, and a good influence upon his young men. The same intention motivated hisApology and Symposium. Anything these works contain about Socrates' philosophical opinions and procedures is ancillary to that apologetic purpose. Plato's Apology, of course, is similarly apologetic, but it and his other early dialogues are carefully constructed discussions, strongly focused upon questions of philosophical substance. Plato evidently thought Socrates' philosophical ideas and methods were central to his life and to his mission. Xenophon's and Plato's testimony are agreed that Socrates' discussions consistently concerned the aretai, the recognized 'virtues' or excellences of character (see Aret), such as justice, piety, self-control or moderation (sophrosyn), courage and wisdom; what these individual characteristics consist in and require of a person, what their value is, and how they are acquired, whether by teaching or in some other way. In his Apology and elsewhere Plato has Socrates insist that these discussions were always inquiries, efforts made to engage his fellow-discussants in coming jointly to an adequate understanding of the matters inquired into. He does not himself know, and therefore cannot teach anyone else - whether by means of these discussions or in some other way - either how to be virtuous or what virtue in general or any particular virtue is. Furthermore, given his general characterization of virtue (see §§4-5), Plato's Socrates makes a point of suggesting the impossibility in principle of teaching virtue at all, by contrast with the Sophists who declared they could teach it. Virtue was not a matter of information about living or rote techniques of some sort to be handed on from teacher to pupil, but required an open-ended personal understanding that individuals could only come to for themselves. Xenophon, too, reports that Socrates denied he was a teacher of aret, but he pays no attention to such issues of philosophical principle. He does not hesitate to show Socrates speaking of himself as a teacher (see Apology 26, Memorabilia I 6.13-14), and describes him as accepting young men from their fathers as his pupils (but not for a fee), and teaching them the virtues by displaying his own virtues to them for emulation, as well as through conversation and precepts. Perhaps Socrates did not insist on holding to strict philosophical principles in dealing with people on whom their point would have been lost. In his Apology Plato's Socrates traces his practice of spending his days discussing and inquiring about virtue to an oracle delivered at the shrine of Apollo at Delphi. Xenophon also mentions this oracle in his Apology. A friend of Socrates', Chaerephon, had asked the god whether anyone was wiser than Socrates; the priestess answered that no one was. Because he was sure he was not wise at all - only the gods, he suspected, could actually know how a human life ought to be led - Socrates cross-examined others at Athens with reputations for that kind of wisdom. He wanted to show that there were people wiser than he and thus discover the true meaning of the oracle - Apollo was known to speak in riddles requiring interpretation to reach their deeper meaning. In the event, it turned out that the people he examined were not wise, since they could not even give a self-consistent set of answers to his questions: obviously, true knowledge requires at least that one think and speak consistently on the subjects one professes to know. So he concluded that the priestess's reply had meant that of all those with reputations for wisdom only he came close to deserving it; he wisely did not profess to know these things that only gods can know, and that was wisdom enough for a human being. Because only he knew that he did not know, only he was ready earnestly to inquire into virtue and the other ingredients of the human good, in an effort to learn. He understood therefore that Apollo's true intention in the oracle had been to encourage him to continue his inquiries, to help others to realize that it is beyond human powers actually to know how to live - that is the prerogative of the gods - and to do his best to understand as far as a human being can how one ought to live. The life of philosophy, as led by him, was therefore something he was effectively ordered by Apollo to undertake. We must remember that Socrates was on trial on a charge of 'impiety'. In tracing his philosophical vocation back to Apollo's oracle, and linking it to a humble recognition of human weakness and divine perfection, he was constructing a powerful rebuttal of the charges brought against him. But it cannot be literally true - if that is what he intended to say - that Socrates began his inquiries about virtue only after hearing of the oracle. Chaerephon's question to Apollo shows he had established a reputation in Athens for wisdom before that. That reputation cannot have rested on philosophical inquiries of another sort. In Plato's Phaedo Socrates says he had been interested as a young man in philosophical speculations about the structure and causes of the natural world, but he plainly did not take those interests very far; and in any event, his reputation was not for that kind of wisdom, but wisdom about how to lead a human life. In fact we do not hear of the duty to Apollo in Xenophon, or in other dialogues of Plato, where we might expect to find it if from the beginning Socrates thought Apollo had commanded his life of philosophizing. However, we need not think Socrates was false to the essential spirit of philosophy as he practised it if in looking back on his life under threat of condemnation for impiety he chose, inaccurately, to see it as initially imposed on him by Apollo's oracle. Despite its impressiveness, Socrates' speech failed to convince his jury of 501 male fellow citizens, and he died in the state prison by drinking hemlock as required by law. His speech evidently offended the majority of the jurors by its disdain for the charges and the proceedings; Xenophon explains his lofty behaviour, which he thinks would otherwise have been lunatic - and damaging to his reputation - by reporting that he had told friends in advance that as a 70-year-old still in possession of his health and faculties it was time for him to die anyhow, before senility set in. Furthermore, his 'divine sign' - the 'voice' he sometimes heard warning him for his own good against a contemplated course of action - had prevented him from spending time crafting a defence speech. (This voice seems to have been the basis for the charge of introducing 'new' gods.) So he would do nothing to soften his manner in order to win his freedom. Even if this story is true, Plato could be right that Socrates put on a spirited, deeply serious defence of his life and beliefs - one that he thought should have convinced the jurors of his innocence, if only they had judged him intelligently and fairly. In cross-examining those with reputations for wisdom about human affairs and showing their lack of it, Socrates employed a special method of dialectical argument that he himself had perfected, the method of 'elenchus' - Greek for 'putting to the test' or 'refutation'. He gives an example at his trial when he cross-examines Meletus, one of his accusers (Plato, Apology 24d-27e). The respondent states a thesis, as something he knows to be true because he is wise about the matter in question. Socrates then asks questions, eliciting clarifications, qualifications and extensions of the thesis, and seeking further opinions of the respondent on related matters. He then argues, and the respondent sees no way not to grant, that the original thesis is logically inconsistent with something affirmed in these further responses. For Socrates, it follows at once that the respondent did not know what he was talking about in stating his original thesis: true knowledge would prevent one from such self-contradiction. So the respondent suffers a personal set-back; he is refuted - revealed as incompetent. Meletus, for example, does not have consistent ideas about the gods or what would show someone not to believe in them, and he does not have consistent ideas about who corrupts the young, and how; so he does not know what he is talking about, and no one should take his word for it that Socrates disbelieves in the gods or has corrupted his young men. In many of his early dialogues Plato shows Socrates using this method to examine the opinions of persons who claim to be wise in some matter: the religious expert Euthyphro on piety (Euthyphro), the generals Laches and Nicias on courage (Laches), the Sophist Protagoras on the distinctions among the virtues and whether virtue can be taught (Protagoras), the rhapsodist Ion on what is involved in knowing poetry (Ion), the budding politician Alcibiades on justice and other political values (Alcibiades), the Sophist Hippias on which was the better man, Odysseus or Achilles (Lesser Hippias), and on the nature of moral and aesthetic beauty (Greater Hippias). They are all refuted - shown to have mutually inconsistent ideas on the subject discussed (see Plato §§4, 6, 8-9). But Socrates is not content merely to demonstrate his interlocutor's lack of wisdom or knowledge. That might humiliate him into inquiring further or seeking by some other means the knowledge he has been shown to lack, instead of remaining puffed up with self-conceit. That would be a good thing. But Socrates often also indicates clearly that his cross-examination justifies him and the interlocutor in rejecting as false the interlocutor's original thesis. Logically, that is obviously wrong: if the interlocutor contradicts himself, at least one of the things he has said must be false (indeed, all of them could be), but the fact alone of self-contradiction does not show where the falsehood resides. For example, when Socrates leads Euthyphro to accept ideas that contradict his own definition of the pious as whatever pleases all the gods, Socrates concludes that that definition has been shown to be false (Euthyphro 10d-11a), and asks Euthyphro to come up with another one. He does not usually seem to consider that perhaps on further thought the additional ideas would seem faulty and so merit rejection instead. Socrates uses his elenctic method also in discussion with persons who are not puffed up with false pride, and are quite willing to admit their ignorance and to reason out the truth about these important matters. Examples are his discussions with his long-time friend Crito on whether he should escape prison and set aside the court's death sentence (Plato, Crito), and with the young men Charmides, on self-control (Charmides), and Lysis and Menexenus, on the nature of friendship (Lysis). Socrates examines Crito's proposal that he escape on the basis of principles that he presents to him for his approval, and he, together with Crito (however half-heartedly), rejects it when it fails to be consistent with them. And he examines the young men's successive ideas about these virtues, rejecting some of them and refining others, by relying on their own acceptance of further ideas that he puts to them. Again, he is confident that the inconsistencies brought to light in their ideas indicate the inadequacy of their successive proposals as to the nature of the moral virtue in question. In many of his discussions, both with young men and the allegedly wise, Socrates seeks to know what some morally valuable property is - for example, piety, courage, self-control or friendship (see §5). Rejecting the idea that one could learn this simply from attending to examples, he insisted on an articulated 'definition' of the item in question - some single account that would capture all at once the presumed common feature that would entitle anything to count as a legitimate instance. Such a definition, providing the essence of the thing defined, would give us a 'model' or 'paradigm' to use in judging whether or not some proposed action or person possesses the moral value so defined (Euthyphro 6d-e). Aristotle says (in Metaphysics I, 6) that Socrates was the first to interest himself in such 'universal definitions', and traces to his interest in them Plato's first impetus towards a theory of Forms, or 'separated' universals (see Plato §10). In none of his discussions in Plato's early works does Socrates profess to think an adequate final result has actually been established - about the nature of friendship, or self-control, or piety, or any of the other matters he inquires about. Indeed, on the contrary, these works regularly end with professions of profound ignorance about the matter under investigation. Knowledge is never attained, and further questions always remain to be considered. But Socrates does plainly think that progress towards reaching final understanding has taken place (even if only a god, and no human being, could ever actually attain it). Not only has one discovered some things that are definitely wrong to say; one has also achieved some positive insights that are worth holding onto in seeking further systematic understanding. Given that Socrates' method of discussion is elenctic throughout, what does he think justifies this optimism? On balance, our evidence suggests that Socrates had worked out no elaborate theory to support him here. The ideas he was stimulated to propound in an elenctic examination which went against some initial thesis seemed to him, and usually also to the others present, so plausible, and so supportable by further considerations, that he and they felt content to reject the initial thesis. Until someone came up with arguments to neutralize their force, it seemed the thesis was doomed, as contrary to reason itself. Occasionally Socrates expresses himself in just those terms: however unpalatable the option might seem, it remains open to someone to challenge the grounds on which his conclusions rest (see Euthyphro 15c, Gorgias 461d-462a, 509a, Crito 54d). But until they do, he is satisfied to treat his and his interlocutor's agreement as a firm basis for thought and action. Later, when Plato himself became interested in questions of philosophical methodology in his Meno, this came to seem a philosophically unsatisfactory position; Plato's demand for justification for one's beliefs independent of what seemed on reflection most plausible led him to epistemological and metaphysical inquiries that went well beyond the self-imposed restriction of Socratic philosophy to ethical thought in the broadest sense. But Socrates did not raise these questions. In this respect more bound by traditional views than Plato, he had great implicit confidence in his and his interlocutors' capacity, after disciplined dialectical examination of the issues, to reach firm ground for constructing positive ideas about the virtues and about how best to lead a human life - even if these ideas never received the sort of final validation that a god, understanding fully the truth about human life, could give them. The topics Socrates discussed were always ethical, and never included questions of physical theory or metaphysics or other branches of philosophical study. Moreover, he always conducted his discussions not as theoretical inquiries but as profoundly personal moral tests. Questioner and interlocutor were equally putting their ways of life to what Socrates thought was the most important test of all - their capacity to stand up to scrutiny in rational argument about how one ought to live. In speaking about human life, he wanted his respondents to indicate what they truly believed, and as questioner he was prepared to do the same, at least at crucial junctures. Those beliefs were assumed to express not theoretical ideas, but the very ones on which they themselves were conducting their lives. In losing an argument with Socrates you did not merely show yourself logically or argumentatively deficient, but also put into question the very basis on which you were living. Your way of life might ultimately prove defensible, but if you cannot now defend it successfully, you are not leading it with any such justification. In that case, according to Socrates' views, your way of life is morally deficient. Thus if Menexenus, Lysis and Socrates profess to value friendship among the most important things in life and profess to be one another's friends, but cannot satisfactorily explain under pressure of elenctic investigation what a friend is, that casts serious doubt on the quality of any 'friendship' they might form (Plato, Lysis 212a, 223b). Moral consistency and personal integrity, and not mere delight in argument and logical thought, should therefore lead you to repeated elenctic examination of your views, in an effort to render them coherent and at the same time defensible on all sides through appeal to plausible arguments. Or, if some of your views have been shown false, by conflicting with extremely plausible general principles, it behoves you to drop them - and so to cease living in a way that depends upon accepting them. In this way, philosophical inquiry via the elenchus is fundamentally a personal moral quest. It is a quest not just to understand adequately the basis on which one is actually living, and the personal and moral commitments that this contains. It is also a quest to change the way one lives as the results of argument show one ought to, so that, at the logical limit of inquiry, one's way of life would be completely vindicated. Accordingly, Socrates in Plato's dialogues regularly insists on the individual and personal character of his discussions. He wants to hear the views of the one person with whom he is speaking. He dismisses as of no interest what outsiders or most people may think - provided that is not what his discussant is personally convinced is true. The views of 'the many' may well not rest on thought or argument at all. Socrates insists that his discussant shoulder the responsibility to explain and defend rationally the views he holds, and follow the argument - reason - wherever it may lead. We learn a good deal about Socrates' own principles from both Plato and Xenophon. Those were ones that had stood up well over a lifetime of frequent elenctic discussions and had, as he thought, a wealth of plausible arguments in their favour. Foremost is his conviction that the virtues - self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and related qualities of mind and soul - are essential if anyone is to lead a good and happy life. They are good in themselves for a human being, and they guarantee a happy life, eudaimonia - something that he thought all human beings always wanted, and wanted more than anything else. The virtues belong to the soul - they are the condition of a soul that has been properly cared for and brought to its best state. The soul is vastly more important for happiness than are health and strength of the body or social and political power, wealth and other external circumstances of life; the goods of the soul, and pre-eminently the virtues, are worth far more than any quantity of bodily or external goods. Socrates seems to have thought these other goods are truly good, but they only do people good, and thereby contribute to their happiness, under the condition that they are chosen and used in accordance with virtues indwelling in their souls (see Plato, Apology 30b, Euthydemus 280d-282d, Meno 87d-89a). More specific principles followed. Doing injustice is worse for oneself than being subjected to it (Gorgias 469c-522e): by acting unjustly you make your soul worse, and that affects for the worse the whole of your life, whereas one who treats you unjustly at most harms your body or your possessions but leaves your soul unaffected. On the same ground Socrates firmly rejected the deeply entrenched Greek precept to aid one's friends and harm one's enemies, and the accompanying principle of retaliation, which he equated with returning wrongs for wrongs done to oneself and one's friends (Crito 49a-d). Socrates' daily life gave witness to his principles. He was poor, shabbily dressed and unshod, and made do with whatever ordinary food came his way: such things matter little. Wealth, finery and delicacies for the palate are not worth panting after and exerting oneself to enjoy. However, Socrates was fully capable of relishing both refined and plain enjoyments as occasion warranted (see §7). The Greeks recognized a series of specially prized qualities of mind and character as aretai or virtues. Each was regarded as a distinct, separate quality: justice was one thing, concerned with treating other people fairly, courage quite another, showing itself in vigorous, correct behaviour in circumstances that normally cause people to be afraid; and self-control or moderation, piety and wisdom were yet others. Each of these ensured that its possessor would act in some specific ways, regularly and reliably over their lifetime, having the justified conviction that those are ways one ought to act - agathon (good) and kalon (fine, noble, admirable or beautiful) ways of acting. But each type of virtuous person acts rightly and well not only in regularly recurring, but also in unusual and unheralded, circumstances; the virtue involves always getting something right about how to live a good human life. Socrates thought these virtues were essential if one was to live happily (see §4). But what exactly were they? What was it about someone that made them just, or courageous, or wise? If you did not know that, you would not know what to do in order to acquire those qualities. Furthermore, supposing you did possess a virtue, you would have to be able to explain and defend by argument the consequent ways in which you lived - otherwise your conviction that those are ways one ought to act would be shallow and unjustified. And in order to do that you would have to know what state of mind the virtue was, since that is essential to them (see Plato, Charmides 158e-159a). Consequently, in his discussions Socrates constantly asked for 'definitions' of various virtues: what is courage (Laches); what is self-control or moderation (Charmides), what is friendship (Lysis) and what is piety (Euthyphro). As this context shows, he was asking not for a 'dictionary definition', an account of the accepted linguistic understanding of a term, but for an ethically defensible account of an actual condition of mind or character to which the word in common use would be correctly applied. In later terminology, he was seeking a 'real' rather than a 'nominal' definition (see Definition; Plato §§6-9). Socrates objected to definitions that make a virtue some external aspect of a virtuous action (such as the manner in which it is done - for example its 'quiet' or measured quality in the case of moderation, Charmides 160b-d), or simply the doing of specific types of action, described in terms of their external circumstances (such as, for courage, standing one's ground in battle; Laches 190e-191d). He also objected to more psychological definitions that located a virtue in some non-rational and non-cognitive aspect of the soul (for example, in the case of courage, the soul's endurance or strength of resistance) (Laches 192d-193e). For his own part, he regularly shows himself ready to accept only definitions that identify a virtue with some sort of knowledge or wisdom about what is valuable for a human being. That 'intellectualist' expectation about the nature of virtue, although never worked out to his satisfaction in any Platonic dialogue, is central to Socrates' philosophy. Given that in his discussions he is always the questioner, probing the opinions of his respondent and not arguing for views of his own, we never find Socrates stating clearly what led him to this intellectualism. Probably, however, it was considerations drawn from the generally agreed premise that each virtue is a condition motivating certain voluntary actions, chosen because they are good and fine or noble. He took it that what lies behind and produces any voluntary action is the idea under which it is done, the conception of the action in the agent's mind that makes it seem the thing to do just then. If so, each virtue must be some state of the mind, the possessor of which constantly has certain distinctive general ideas about how one ought to behave. Furthermore, since virtues get this right, these are true ideas. And since a virtuous person acts well and correctly in a perfectly reliable way, they must be seated so deeply in the mind as to be ineradicable and unwaveringly present. The only state of mind that meets these conditions is knowledge: to know a subject is not just to be thoroughly convinced, but to have a deep, fully articulated understanding, being ready with explanations to fend off objections and apparent difficulties and to extend old principles into new situations, and being prepared to show with the full weight of reason precisely why each thing falling under it is and must be so. Each virtue, then, must be knowledge about how one ought to behave in some area of life, and why - a knowledge so deep and rationally secure that those who have it can be counted upon never to change their minds, never to be argued out of or otherwise persuaded away from, or to waver in, their conviction about how to act. In Plato's Protagoras Socrates goes beyond this, and identifies himself with the position, rejected by Protagoras in their discussion, that the apparently separate virtues of justice, piety, self-control, courage and wisdom are somehow one and the same thing - some single knowledge (361a-b). Xenophon too confirms that Socrates held this view (Memorabilia III 9.5). Protagoras defends the position that each of the virtues is not only a distinct thing from each of the others, but so different in kind that a person could possess one of them without possessing the others (329d-e). In opposing him, Socrates sometimes speaks plainly of two allegedly distinct virtues being 'one' (333b). Given this unity of the virtues, it would follow that a person could not possess one without having them all. And in speaking of justice and piety in particular, Socrates seems to go further, to imply that every action produced by virtue is equally an instance of all the standardly recognized virtues: pious as well as just, wise and self-controlled and courageous also. Among his early dialogues, however, Plato's own philosophical interests show themselves particularly heavily in the Protagoras, so it is doubtful how far the details of his arguments are to be attributed to the historical Socrates. The issues raised by Socrates in the Protagoras were, none the less, vigorously pursued by subsequent 'Socratic' philosophers (as Plutarch's report in On Moral Virtue 2 demonstrates). And the positions apparently adopted by Plato's Socrates were taken up and ingeniously defended by the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus (see Stoicism §16). As usual, because of his questioner's role, it is difficult to work out Socrates' grounds for holding to the unity of virtue; and it is difficult to tell whether, and if so how, he allowed that despite this unity there were some real differences between, say, justice and self-control, or courage and piety. Apparently he thought the same body of knowledge - knowledge of the whole of what is and is not good for human beings, and why it is so or not - must at least underlie the allegedly separate virtues. If you did not have that vast, comprehensive knowledge you could not be in the state of mind which is justice or in that which is courage, and so on; and if you did have it you would necessarily be in those states of mind. It seems doubtful whether Socrates himself progressed beyond that point. Efforts to do that were made by Chrysippus and the other philosophers referred to above. And despite denying that all virtues consist in knowledge, Plato in the Republic and Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics VI follow Socrates to the extent of holding, in different ways, that you need to have all the virtues in order to have any one. In Plato's Protagoras Socrates also denies the possibility of weakness of will - being 'mastered' by some desire so as to act voluntarily in a way one knows is wrong or bad (see also Xenophon, Memorabilia III 9.4, IV 5.6.) All voluntary wrongdoing or bad action is due to ignorance of how one ought to act and why, and to nothing else. This would be easy to understand if Socrates were using 'knowing' quite strictly, to refer to the elevated and demanding sort of knowledge described in §5 (sometimes called 'Socratic knowledge'). Someone could know an action was wrong or bad, with full 'Socratic knowledge', only if they were not just thoroughly convinced, but had a deep, fully articulated understanding, being ready with explanations to fend off objections and apparent difficulties, and prepared to show precisely why it was so. That would mean that these ideas were seated so deeply in the mind as to be ineradicable and unwaveringly present. Accordingly, a person with 'Socratic knowledge' could not come to hold even momentarily that the action in question would be the thing to do, and so they could never do it voluntarily. However, Plato's Socrates goes further. He explains his denial of weak-willed action by saying that a person cannot voluntarily do actions which, in doing them, they even believe to be a wrong or bad thing to do (Protagoras 358c-e). He gives a much-discussed, elaborate argument to establish this stronger conclusion, starting from assumptions identifying that which is pleasant with that which is good (352a-357e). These assumptions, however, he attributes only to ordinary people, the ones who say they believe in the possibility of weak-willed action; he makes it clear to the careful reader, if not to Protagoras, that his own view is simply that pleasure is a good thing, not 'the' good (351c-e; see 354b-d). Although some scholars have thought otherwise, Socrates himself does not adopt a hedonist analysis of the good in the Protagoras or elsewhere either in Plato or Xenophon; indeed, he speaks elsewhere against hedonist views (see Hedonism). The fundamental principle underlying his argument - a principle he thinks ordinary people will accept - is that voluntary action is always 'subjectively' rational, in the sense that an agent who acts to achieve some particular sort of value always acts with the idea that what they are doing achieves more of that value than alternatives then thought by them to be available would achieve. If someone performs an overall bad action because of some (lesser) good they think they will get from it, they cannot do it while believing it is bad overall. That would mean they thought they could have got more good by refraining, and their action would violate the principle just stated. Instead, at the time they acted (despite what they may have thought before or after acting), they believed (wrongly and ignorantly) that the action would be good overall for them to do. Thus ignorance, and only ignorance, is responsible for voluntary error. Weakness of will - knowingly pursuing the worse outcome - is psychologically impossible: 'No one does wrong willingly'. The details of this argument may not represent explicit commitments of the historical Socrates. None the less, his denial of weakness of will, understood as presented in Plato's Protagoras, was the centre of a protracted debate in later times. First Plato himself, in Republic IV, then Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics VII, argued against Socrates' conclusion, on the ground that he had overlooked the fact that human beings have other sources of motivation that can produce voluntary actions, besides their ideas about what is good or bad, or right or wrong to do. 'Appetites' and 'spirited desires' exist also, which can lead a person to act in fulfilment of them without having to adopt the idea, in their beliefs about what is best to do, that so acting would be a good thing (see Plato §14; Aristotle §20, 22-23). The Stoics, however, and especially Chrysippus, argued vigorously and ingeniously in defence of Socrates' analysis and against the Platonic-Aristotelian assumption of alternative sources of motivation that produce voluntary action on their own (see Stoicism §19). In fact, during Hellenistic times it was the Socratic, 'unitary' psychology of action that carried the day; the Platonic-Aristotelian alternative, dominant in the 'common sense' and the philosophy of modern times, was a minority view. The issues Socrates raised about weakness of will continue to be debated today. Socrates drew to himself many of the brightest and most prominent people in Athens, securing their fascinated attention and their passionate friendship and support. His effectiveness as a philosopher, and the Socratic 'legend' itself, depended as much on the strength and interest of his personality as on the power of his mind. Plato's and Xenophon's portraits of Socrates as a person differ significantly, however. Plato's Socrates is aloof and often speaks ironically, although also with unusual and deeply held moral convictions; paradoxically, the depth and clarity of his convictions, maintained alongside the firm disclaimer to know what was true, could seem all the stronger testimony to their truth, and made them felt the more strongly as a rebuke to the superficiality of one's own way of living. In Xenophon, Socrates is also sometimes ironical and playful, especially in the Symposium, but his conversation is usually direct, even didactic, and often chummy in tone; his attitudes are for the most part conventional though earnest; and there is nothing to unsettle anyone or make them suspect hidden depths. It is much easier to believe that the Socrates of Plato's dialogues could have had such profound effects on the lives of the brightest of his contemporaries than did the character in Xenophon. That is one reason given for trusting Plato's more than Xenophon's portrait of the historical personage. But perhaps Socrates used the more kindly and genial manner and conventional approach depicted by Xenophon to draw out the best in some of his young men and his friends - ones who would have been put off by the Platonic subtleties. The historical Socrates may have been a more complex person than even Plato presents. Plato and Xenophon both represent Socrates as strongly attracted to good-looking young men in the 'bloom' of their middle to late teens, just the period when they were also coming of age morally and intellectually. In both he speaks of himself as unusually 'erotic' by temperament and constantly 'in love'. But he explains his 'erotic' attachments in terms of his desire to converse with bright and serious young men, to question them about virtue and how best to live a human life, and to draw out what was best in their minds and characters. In Xenophon he describes his love as love for their souls, not their bodies, and he vigorously condemns sexual relations with any young man: using him that way disgraces him and harms him by encouraging a loose attitude as regards physical pleasures Symposium 8). The overheated sexuality of Plato's own accounts (Symposium and Phaedrus) of eros, sexual love, for a young man's beauty as motivating an adult male to pursue philosophical truth into an eternal realm of Forms (see Plato §12) is to be distinguished sharply from Socrates' ideas, as we can gather them from Xenophon and from Plato's own early dialogues. Xenophon emphasizes Socrates' freedom from the strong appetites for food, drink, sex and physical comfort that dominate other people; his enkrateia or self-mastery is the first of the virtues that Xenophon claims for him (Memorabilia I 2.1). He was notorious for going barefoot even in winter and dressing always in a simple cloak. Socrates' self-mastery was at the centre of Antisthenes' portrayal, and is reflected also in several incidents reported in Plato, such as his serene dismissal of the young Alcibiades' efforts to seduce him sexually (Plato, Symposium 217b-219e), or, perhaps when engrossed in a philosophical problem, his standing in the open (during a break in the action while on military service) from morning to night, totally indifferent to everything around him (Symposium 220c-d). This 'ascetic' Socrates, especially as presented by Antisthenes - rejecting conventional comforts and conventional behaviour - became an inspiration for the 'Cynics' of later centuries (see Cynics). Looking back on the early history of philosophy, later philosophers traced to Socrates a major turn in its development. As Cicero puts it: 'Socrates was the first to call philosophy down from the heavens... and compel it to ask questions about life and morality' (Tusculan Disputations V 10-11). Previously it had been concerned with the origins and nature of the physical world and the explanation of celestial and other natural phenomena. Modern scholarship follows the ancients' lead in referring standardly to philosophers before Socrates collectively as 'Presocratics' (see Presocratic philosophy). This includes Democritus, in fact a slightly younger contemporary of Socrates; Cicero's verdict needs adjustment, in that Democritus, independently of Socrates, also investigated questions about ethics and morality. With the sole exception of Epicureanism, which developed separately out of Democritean origins, all the major movements of Greek philosophy after Socrates had roots in his teaching and example. This obviously applies to Plato, whose philosophical development began with a thorough reworking and assimilation of Socratic moral inquiry, and through him to Aristotle and his fellow members of Plato's Academy, Speusippus and Xenocrates and others, as well as to later Platonists. Among Socrates' inner circle were also Aristippus of Cyrene, who founded the hedonist Cyrenaic school (see Aristippus the Elder; Cyrenaics), and Antisthenes, an older rival of Plato's and major teacher in Athens of philosophical dialectic. Both of these figure in Xenophon's Memorabilia (Antisthenes also in his Symposium), where they are vividly characterized in conversation with Socrates. Another Socratic, Euclides, founded the Megarian school (see Megarian school). These 'Socratic schools' developed different themes already prominent in Socrates' own investigations, and competed in the claim to be his true philosophical heirs (see Socratic schools; Dialectical School). In the third to first centuries bc, both the Stoics and their rivals the Academic sceptics claimed to be carrying forward the Socratic tradition. In both cases this was based upon a reading of Plato's dialogues and perhaps other eye-witness reconstructions of Socrates' philosophy. The Academic Arcesilaus interpreted the Platonic Socrates as a sceptical inquirer, avidly searching but never satisfied that the truth on any disputed question had been finally uncovered. He could point to much about Plato's Socrates in support: his modest but firm denial that he possessed any knowledge, and his constant practice of inquiring into the truth by examining others' opinions on the basis of ideas which they themselves accepted, without formally committing himself to these ideas even when he was the one to first suggest them. Arcesilaus, however, applied his sceptical Socratic dialectic to more than the questions of ethics and human life about which Socrates himself had argued, making it cover the whole range of philosophical topics being investigated in his day. The Stoics read the dialogues (especially the Euthydemus and Protagoras) quite differently. They found Socrates espousing a complete doctrine of ethics and the psychology of human action. He posed his questions on the basis of this doctrine, leaving the respondent (and the reader) to recover for themselves the philosophical considerations underlying it. They thus emphasized the conceptions of virtue as knowledge, of virtue as unified in wisdom, and of voluntary action as motivated always by an agent's beliefs about what is best to do, that emerged through Socrates' examination of Protagoras (see §§6-7). They thought these constituted a positive, Socratic moral philosophy, and in their own moral theory they set out to revive and strengthen it with systematic arguments and with added metaphysical and physical speculations of their own. Later Stoics regularly referred to Socrates as a genuine wise man or 'sage', perhaps the only one who ever lived. He had brought to final, systematic perfection his knowledge, along Stoic lines, of what is good and bad for human beings, and what is not, and therefore possessed all the virtues and no vices, and lived unwaveringly the best, happy life, free from emotion and all other errors about human life. It is a tribute to the complexity and enigmatic character of Socrates that he could stand simultaneously as a paragon both of sceptical, non-committal inquiry and life led on that uncommitted basis, and of dogmatic knowledge of the final truth about all things human. The figure of Socrates has continued to fascinate and to inspire ever-new interpretations of his innermost meaning. For Montaigne, he proved that human beings can convincingly and attractively order their own lives from their own resources of mind, without direction from God or religion or tradition. In the nineteenth century Kierkegaard and Nietzsche offered extensive interpretations of him, both heavily dependent upon Hegel's absolute-idealist analysis. Hegel interpreted Socrates as a quintessentially negative thinker, aiming at making people vacillate in their superficial moral beliefs and endorse none of them wholeheartedly, thus hinting that the truth, although universal and objective, lies deep within the freedom of their own subjectivity. For Kierkegaard he represents, on the contrary, the possibility of living wholeheartedly by occupying an unarticulated position somehow beyond the negative rejection but expressed through it: 'infinite absolute negativity'. In Die Geburt der Tragödie (The Birth of Tragedy) Nietzsche treats Socrates principally as having poisoned the 'tragic' attitude that made possible the great achievements of classical culture, by insisting that life should be grounded in rational understanding and justified by 'knowledge'; but his fascinated regard for Socrates led him to return to him repeatedly in his writings. Socrates was paradigmatically a philosopher whose thought, however taken up with logic and abstract argument, is inseparable from the search for self-understanding and from a deeply felt attachment to the concerns of human life. His power to fascinate and inspire is surely not exhausted.JOHN M. COOPER

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Researchers at Disney Research, Zürich, ETH Zürich, and Cornell University have invented a system to digitize facial hair and skin. Capturing facial skin and geometry is a fundamental technology for a variety of computer-based special effects for movies. Conventional face capturing is well established and widely utilized in the entertainment industry to capture a three-dimensional model of an actor's face. However, up to now, no method was capable of reconstructing facial hair or even handling it appropriately. This omission is surprising as facial hair is an important component of our popular culture. The system developed by the Disney Research Laboratory in Zürich constitutes a significant technical breakthrough in the field of digitizing human faces and was presented at ACM SIGGRAPH, the International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques. "Our method captures individual strands of facial hair and stores them separately from the actual human face. This approach allows us to 'shave' people with facial hair virtually with the computer." said Thabo Beeler, a computer scientist at Disney Research, Zürich, who is the main inventor of the technology. The system employs several consumer-grade photo cameras to capture a face in a fraction of a second. The method then automatically detects hairs in the captured images. These hairs are being tracked and followed in the input images, much like we follow a path on a map with our fingers. A mathematical method called multi-view stereo (MVS) reconstructs them in three dimensions. The trick the researchers applied is to remove the hair strands from the input images similar to an artist painting over parts of a picture. This process makes the 3D skin surface to look as if it were digitally shaved. The system was applied to a large variety of different facial hair styles, ranging from designer stubbles all the way to wild mustaches, to demonstrate its robustness. The produced results look very compelling. Prof. Markus Gross, director of Disney Research, Zürich, stated, "The long-term goal of our research is to make facial animation and special effects more realistic and ultimately indistinguishable from reality. This method is going to be a very important step toward this long term goal". Explore further: Researchers develop fast, economical method for high-definition video compositing More information: For more information, please visit the web site at www.disneyresearch.com/research/projects/cv_reconFacialHair_drz.htm

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In Jena, Graph is an interface. It abstracts anything that looks like RDF - storage options, inference, other legacy data sources. The main operations are addition, there are a number of getters to access handlers of various features (query, statistics, reification, bulk update, event manager) . Having handlers, rather than directly including all the operations for each feature reduces the size of the interface and makes it easier to provide default implementations of each feature. Implementing a graph rarely needs to directly implement the interface. More usually, an implementation starts by inheriting from the class GraphBase. A minimal (read-only) implementation just needs to implement Wrapping legacy data often only makes sense as a read-only graph. To provide update operations, just implement the methods which are the methods called from the base implementations of Then for testing with JUnit, inherit from AbstractGraphTest (override tests that don't make sense in a particular circumstance) and provide the getGraph operation to generate a graph instance to test. Where the graph level is minimal and symmetric (e.g. literal as subjects, inclusion of named variables) for easy implementation, the RDF API enforces the RDF conditions and provides a wide variety of convenience operations so writing a program can be succinct, not requiring the application writer to write unnecessary boilerplate code sequences. The ontology API does the same for OWL. If you look at the javadoc, you'll see the APIs are large but the system level interface is small. A graph is turned into a Model by calling ModelFactory.createModelForGraph(Graph). All the key application APIs are interface-based although it's rarely needed to do anything other that use the standard Model-Graph bridge. Data access to the graph all goes via find. All the read operations of application APIs, directly or indirectly, come down to calling Graph.find or a graph query handler. And the default graph query handler works by calling Graph.find, so once find is implemented everything (read-only) works. ARQ's query API, which includes a SPARQL implementation, included. It may not be the most efficient way but importantly all functionality is available and so the graph implementer can quickly get a first implementation up and running, then decide where and when to spend further development time - or whether that's needed at all. An example of this is a prototype Jena-Mulgara bridge (work in progress as of Jan'08). This maps the Graph API to a Mulgara session object, which can be a local Mulgara database or a remote Mulgara server. The prototype is a single class together with a set of factory operations for more convenient creation of a bridge graph wrapped in all Jena's APIs. Implementing graph nodes, for IRIs and for literals is straight forward. Mulgara uses JRDF to represent these nodes and to represent triples. Mapping to and from Jena versions of the same is just the change in naming. Blank nodes are more interesting. A blank node in Jena has an internal label (which is not a URI in disguise). When working at the lowest level of Graph, the code is manipulating things at a concrete, syntactic level. A blank node in Mulgara has an internal id but it can change. It really is the internal node index as I found out by creating a blank node with id=1 and found it turned into rdf:type which was what was really at node slot 1. Paul has been (patiently!) explaining this to me on a Mulgara mailing list. The session interface is an interface onto the RDF data, not an interface to extend the graph details to the client. Both approaches are valid - it's just different levels of abstraction. If the Jena application is careful about blank nodes (not assuming they are stable across transactions, and not deleting all triples involving some blank node, then creating triples involving that blank node) then it all works out. The most important case of reading data within a transaction is safe. Bulk loading is better down via the native Mulgara interfaces anyway. The Jena-Mulgara bridge enables a Jena application to access a Mulgara server through the same interfaces as any other RDF data.

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News > Scientists reconstruct Red Sea parting Researchers at the US National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) have produced a computer simulation that demonstrates how the parting of the Red Sea described in the Book of Exodus could have been caused by strong winds. The study, which is part of a larger project looking into the impact of winds on water depths, was published in the open-access journal Plos One. In it, researchers produced a reconstruction of the likely geography of the Nile Delta during the Old Testament period, which has changed considerably over the intervening centuries. The researchers have identified a stretch of the Nile where a strong east wind could conceivably have pushed the river back at a bend, opening up a walkway across the exposed mud flats and allowing the Israelites to flee the approaching Egyptians. "The simulations match fairly closely with the account in Exodus," Carl Drews of the NCAR told the BBC. "The parting of the waters can be understood through fluid dynamics. The wind moves the water in a way that's in accordance with physical laws, creating a safe passage with water on two sides and then abruptly allowing the water to rush back in." With the burning bush also potentially linked to freak environmental conditions, it remains to be seen how much else of the bible story can be explained by meteorology.

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What are bitcoins, everybody asks. The usual answer is “they are a distributed, semi-anonymous, peer to peer, cryptographic digital currency” or something along those lines, but there is another simpler way to look at bitcoins. Bitcoins are a tech stock – tech because they solve a technological problem and have a technological use, and stock because they can be bought and sold on open market. Imagine a startup arrived in silicon valley one day and said they were going to create a digital currency which would succeed. A digital currency that overcomes the many limitations and fatal flaws of all its predecessors. I wonder how we could quantify it’s value in terms of VC funding, and once it reached a market cap of $300 Million, its value as an acquisition? Let’s look at three start ups who received over $100million each in VC funding. Dropbox has received over $250 Million in venture capital funding, for a service that essentially stores files. AirBnB, a space rental service (generally for holidays) has received $119 Million in funding. HomeAway, a vacation property booking services has raised over $500 Million. And let’s look at a few startups that have sold for over $1billion. Instagram, a simple photo sharing platform, sold to Facebook for $1billion. Youtube, the video sharing site we all know and love, sold to Google for $1.6billion and Doubleclick for $3billion. Yahoo bought an internet radio service for $5.7billion, geocities (now defunct) for $3.6billion, Overture Services Inc for $1.6 Billion and various others. Microsoft purchased Visio software for $1.3 Billion, NaVision for $1.3 Billion, aQuantive for $6.3 Billion, Fast Search and Transfer for $1.1 Billion, Skype for $8.5 Billion and Yammer for $1.2 Billion In the above examples I’ve listed 12 companies that were sold for a total of $36,200,000,000. Just 12 Companies! And let’s not even talk about the tech stocks which have floated on stock exchanges! All of these companies have one thing in common, commerciality. Each requires a monetary transaction of some description to have been worth investing in or buying, in the first place. Now imagine a technology which facilitates the commerciality of all trade. The current market cap of Bitcoins is around $300 Million. If bitcoins are a more commercial, more versatile and more readily traded tech stock (and they are), I don’t think it’s far fetched for bitcoin as a tech stock to be worth more than instagram. In that case their value should increase by 330%. In fact I don’t think its far fetched to suggest bitcoins are a more commercial, readily traded, versatile and also sustainable tech stock than all of the above combined, in which case they are under valued by 11900%. ie. They should be trading at $3284 per bitcoin. In my mind it goes even further. Apple is a company that simply sells computers, phones and software, and its value peaked at around $650 Billion. I think this is a realistic market cap for Bitcoins to hit within 10 years, at a value per coin of $55,000 each. Imagine again for a second that the general public could have invested and the ground level with each of the above companies, ala kick starter. With bitcoins they can, and what’s more, this investment is more secure, more liquid, and more useful than any of the aforementioned investments could ever have been. Bitcoins aren’t just a digital currency, they are a tech stock

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This page lists climate science and climate impact claims that have either not been proven, or have had the claim modified, moved, or expanded to protect the claimant from having to admit the original claim was wrong. This will always be a work in progress. New items will be added as they are examined and will include: - The claim itself – what was stated as factual or predicted? A clear unambiguous statement, such as “50 million climate refugees by 2010″ - Proof of the original claim – website, documents, photos, audio, video that clearly and unambiguously show the claim being made sometime in the past. - A test of the of the claim, and the results – website, documents, photos, audio, video that clearly and unambiguously show the claim not coming true or not meeting the claim. - Proof of change in the claim (if applicable) – often, when the claim fails to materialize, goalposts get moved, such as we saw with the “50 million climate refugees” story that was originally set with a due date of 2010, is now set for the year 2020. The Claim: 50 million climate refugees will be produced by climate change by the year 2010. Especially hard hit will be river delta areas, and low lying islands in the Caribbean and Pacific. The UN 62nd General assembly in July 2008 said: …it had been estimated that there would be between 50 million and 200 million environmental migrants by 2010. The Test: Did population go down in these areas during that period, indicating climate refugees were on the move? The answer, no. The Proof: Population actually gained in some Caribbean Island for which 2010 census figures were available. Then when challenged on these figures, the UN tried to hide the original claim from view. See: The UN “disappears” 50 million climate refugees, then botches the disappearing attempt The Change in claim: Now it is claimed that it will be 10 years into the future, and there will be 50 million refugees by the year 2020.

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The Search for Certainty: A Philosophical Account of Foundations of Mathematics. Marcus Giaquinto. xii + 286 pp. Oxford University Press, 2002. $45. David Hilbert (1862–1943) was arguably the leading mathematician of his time. In struggles over how mathematics was to accommodate new understandings of the infinite, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer was his most fervent opponent. When Hilbert's favorite student, Hermann Weyl, went over to the enemy, saying "Brouwer, that is the revolution," Hilbert was incensed. In a passionate address delivered in 1922, he proclaimed: Weyl and Brouwer . . . seek to provide a foundation for mathematics by pitching overboard whatever discomforts them and declaring an embargo. . . . But this would mean dismembering and mutilating our science, and, should we follow such reformers, we would run the risk of losing a large part of our most valued treasures. Weyl and Brouwer outlaw the general notion of irrational number, of function, even of number-theoretic function, Cantor's [ordinal] numbers of higher number classes, etc. The theorem that among infinitely many natural numbers there is always a least, and even the logical law of the excluded middle, e.g., in the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many: these are examples of forbidden theorems and modes of inference. I believe that impotent as Kronecker was to abolish irrational numbers . . ., no less impotent will their efforts prove today. No! Brouwer's [program] is not as Weyl thinks, the revolution, but only a repetition of an attempted putsch with old methods, that in its day was undertaken with greater verve yet failed utterly. Especially today, when the state power is thoroughly armed and fortified by the work of Frege, Dedekind, and Cantor, these efforts are foredoomed to failure. A decade later Hilbert's own program for the foundations of mathematics lay in tatters, destroyed in an investigation by the young logician Kurt Gödel, which had initially been undertaken in an effort to contribute to that very program. Today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. The infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly. Like a military historian surveying the battlefield long after all the bodies have been cleared away, Marcus Giaquinto coolly revisits the controversies in The Search for Certainty. It all began with a necessary effort by mathematicians to put their house in order. Although the methods of the calculus had proved highly successful, their underlying logic had been in grave need of clarification. Calculus worked with numbers and functions, but no coherent theory of the so-called "real" numbers had been developed, and the notion of function had been stretched in the direction of a frightening arbitrariness. Richard Dedekind's elegant characterization of the real numbers in terms of "cuts" had a distinctly set-theoretic flavor, and Georg Cantor's new push into the "actual" infinite expanded the boundaries of the subject matter of mathematics into what Hilbert later characterized as "Cantor's paradise." But Cantor's infinite was plagued by paradox. The kernel of at least one of these paradoxes could manifest itself in what seemed like everyday reasoning, as Bertrand Russell showed in his famous paradox: If we consider the set S of all those sets that are not members of themselves, then S is a member of itself if and only if it is not a member of itself. This was particularly bad news for Gottlob Frege, whose ambitious logical system for the foundations of mathematics proved vulnerable to Russell's paradox and was thus seen to be inconsistent. The highly influential but rather baroque three-volume Principia Mathematica was Bertrand Russell's effort (with coauthor Alfred North Whitehead) to revive Frege's wrecked program. Paradoxes such as Russell's were to be avoided by slicing up the universe of mathematical discourse into discrete successive "types," with set membership permitted only between adjacent types. Meanwhile, Ernst Zermelo, who never accepted the stringent syntactic demands of formal logical systems, proposed a set of axioms for set theory. By the 1920s, it was realized that Zermelo's axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of Principia. In an important paper appearing in 1930, Zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built from some initial collection of things by iterating indefinitely the operation of forming the set of all subsets of a given set. He observed that his axioms could be construed as being about just this notion. A few years later, in an address on the foundations of mathematics, Kurt Gödel emphasized that rather than being seen as a rival to Principia, when viewed from the perspective of the iterative notion of set Zermelo's system could be seen as the result of eliminating unnecessary complications and artificial restrictions from the Whitehead-Russell system. By the 1940s and '50s, set-theoretic methods had become a crucial part of the mathematician's toolbox. Back in the 1920s, when passions were aflame, Hilbert developed an ingenious strategy by which he intended to overcome his opponents. He would establish the legitimacy of methods that Brouwer and Weyl considered dubious by encapsulating those methods in formal systems whose consistency would then be proved using only methods of which they approved. In a revolutionary paper in 1931, the young Gödel demonstrated not only that consistency could not be proved using only these restrictive methods, but also that the same negative conclusion held even if the entire panoply of methods encapsulated in the systems in question was brought to bear. After Gödel, the foundations of mathematics were seen as inevitably open-ended, with more and more propositions becoming provable as ever more powerful methods were employed. Gödel liked to emphasize that these more powerful methods could be thought of as being essentially a matter of venturing sufficiently far out in the iterative hierarchy of sets. Giaquinto has provided a careful and judicious discussion and analysis of these matters, supplying needed technical background for readers who are not mathematicians. Although foundational questions have ceased to be of much importance to most mathematicians, controversies among specialists continue. Readers of this book will be well prepared to follow the current literature on foundations of mathematics.

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Mechanical engineers can visualize themselves easily in a buzzing power plant or by an old boiler, but how about flying in a sailboat or powerboat, ripping through gorgeous strands of blue sea? Boat design offers adventurous opportunities for those with a natural affinity for the water, to go along with critical thinking skills. William Lasher, professor of mechanical engineering at Pennsylvania State University, who has spent the last decade focused on sail dynamics, says this is a field that becomes passion as much as career. "Yacht design, for example, puts you up against the structural issues of racing boats, focusing on incredibly complex loading conditions," Lasher explains. "Show even a couple percent improvement in the speed and it's a major difference." Lasher utilizes finite element analysis, looking at areas such as hydrodynamic resistance of the boat in flat water versus performance in waves, or, for powerboats, the design of the propeller to correspond with the engine. "When it comes to finite analysis, especially at the higher end of racing boats for structure, one of the places used a lot is in the design of keels," he says. "They hang on the bottom of the boat and it serves the purpose of keeping it from slipping sideways but is made out of lead. Some more recent boats are using canting keels to swing the boat sidewise, shifting from one side to the other to get better stability while dealing with the loads on them. When you're doing that with tens of thousands of pounds, you need to get pretty exact." Where It Begins Lasher says design can often start with a blank sheet of paper. "You're writing down the basic parameters of the boat: how long, wide, weight, how much sailing are you putting on it, what conditions are you sailing in," he says. A velocity prediction program is used to take these parameters and find an equilibrium balance between the forces on the sails and the forces on the hull. Professor Lasher says that boat design can often start with a blank sheet of paper. "The sails are trying to push it forward and sideways and the hull offers resistance," he says. "And that's the most interesting thing about it—how a very complex system interacts with everything else and it's hard to change one thing and not have it affect something else." It's the tradeoffs of constantly putting more sail on it, then needing more stability, he adds, or making the boat wider but then affecting the center of gravity. "You're trying to improve the performance but dealing with the ‘penalty of improvement.'" For cargo ships, Lasher says designing is adjusted more to the economic impact, trying to carry as much cargo as you can safely for the lifespan of the ship and safety of the passengers. "These ships have tremendous loads and need to design a structure to support them; that's what's driving you when you consider the cost if your design is off," he says. "I remember when I was a student we went to a Society of Naval Architects meeting and toured an SL7 (sealand ship) and went down below. You'd be just amazed by the six inch-thick metal plates, how much material goes into it … it's a lot to manage." Where Do I Sign? But how do you get involved? Lasher says a good way is to get a Master's degree in naval architecture as he did, feeling that combining this with a Bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering would give someone a good chance to pick up what boat designing requires. But you must also be committed to continuing to educate yourself long after the diplomas. "There are a number of good books out that outline processes and techniques at various levels," he says. "But the Bible is really Skene's Elements of Yacht Design revised by Kinney." Finally, Lasher says you'll need one more thing: patience. "Someone once said to design a [large] ship you have to take the Empire State Building's structural issues, turn it on its side and run it through waves of 25 knots," he laughs. "Now that's not an easy challenge!" Eric Butterman is an independent writer. Someone once said to design a [large] ship you have to take the Empire State Building's structural issues, turn it on its side and run it through waves of 25 knots. Now that's not an easy challenge! William Lasher, professor of mechanical engineering, Penn State University More on this topic Herbert Mehnert, vice president of engineering for Thomas Built Buses, and Bruce Miles, an engineer for Blue Bird, give us insight into where buses ... Improvements in automotive design, alternative fuels, and IT and wireless technology, combined with stricter federal regulations, are driving research ...

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Saint ZachariasArticle Free Pass Saint Zacharias, English Zachary (born , San Severino, duchy of Benevento [Italy]—died March 14/22, 752, Rome; feast day March 15), pope from 741 to 752. The last of the Greek popes, Zacharias was supposedly a Roman deacon when he succeeded Pope St. Gregory III in November/December 741. His pontificate was devoted to diplomatic relations with the Lombard and Frankish kingdoms and with the Byzantine Empire. He initiated a policy of conciliation with the Lombards while endeavouring to dissuade their rulers, Liutprand and Rachis, from conquering the Byzantine exarchate of Ravenna. Successful, he thus made peace with the Lombards. He maintained amiable relations with the Byzantine emperor Constantine V Copronymus, whom he advised to restore the veneration of icons. Zacharias’s relations with the Franks were similarly cordial, and his correspondence with St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, shows how great his influence was on contemporary events in the Frankish kingdom. In 741 he made Boniface legate and charged him with the reformation of the whole Frankish church. He supported the deposition (751–752) of Childeric III, the last Merovingian king, and authorized the Frankish church to anoint Pippin III the Short as king of the Franks. Zacharias’s action in the transference of the royal crown from the Merovingians to the house of Pippin (Carolingians) began a new era for church and state by establishing the Carolingian-papal alliance, which was to be of the greatest significance in future relations between pope and emperor and was of extreme importance to the theorists and controversialists of the Investiture Controversy (11th and 12th centuries). The latter dispute concerned secular rulers’ right to invest bishops and abbots, which right became one of the paramount aspects in the struggle for power between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. Zacharias is known especially in the East for his Greek translation of the Dialogues of Pope St. Gregory I the Great. What made you want to look up "Saint Zacharias"? Please share what surprised you most...

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North American Dipteran Pollinators: Assessing Their Value and Conservation Status Carol Ann Kearns, University of Colorado at Boulder Full Text: HTML Recent attention to pollinator declines has focused largely on bees and vertebrates. However, few pollination systems are obligate, and pollinators that complement the role of bees may respond differently to environmental disturbance. The conservation status of North American fly pollinators remains undocumented. In this paper, methods for monitoring shifts in dipteran pollinator abundance are discussed. The need for further basic research into pollination by flies is addressed, and the significance of dipteran conservation is considered. anthophilous flies, anthropogenic disturbance, conservation, Diptera, Dipteran conservation, generalist pollinators, North America, pollination, pollinator declines, population fluctuation, redundant pollination systems Ecology and Society. ISSN: 1708-3087

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ECU faculty, students work to authenticate Wright brothers artifact (Apr. 22, 2008) When the Wright Brothers moved to Kitty Hawk to follow the wind more than a century ago, they brought limited household supplies. Their thoughts seemed to be focused more on glider materials at first than basic goods to get their “camp” established. One of the crates that shipped supplies to “W. Wright, Elizabeth City, North Carolina” is believed to have been recycled by the Wrights to create the top of a wooden kitchen table, which resurfaced last month in Kitty Hawk. A leading Wright brothers authority, Dr. Larry Tise, and several of his students at East Carolina University have worked since that time to analyze and authenticate the history of the small wooden table. The table will be shown publicly for the first time April 24 at the Wright Brothers National Memorial site in Kill Devil Hills. It will be presented during a public program at 7 p.m., when Tise and his students will discuss their research and findings on the little known secret flights of the Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk in May 1908. Tise, the Wilbur & Orville Wright Distinguished Professor of History in the Thomas Harriot College of Arts and Sciences, is author of the 2005 work, “Hidden Images: Discovering Details in the Wright Brothers’ Kitty Hawk Photographs 1900-1911.” In that book, Tise used modern computer technology to magnify and examine small areas of the black and white photos made by the Wright brothers to document their life and quest for flight while conducting experiments at Kitty Hawk. Tise admitted he was skeptical when he was first contacted about the table by a Kill Devil Hills resident, but after close examination and further study, he said he is positive it is the same table shown in 1902 photographs of the Wright brothers’ living quarters. How Ron Ciarmello, an Outer Banks jeweler, came to own the table is almost unbelievable: He answered a classified ad earlier this year. A self-described aviation enthusiast, Ciarmello said he spotted the ad and called the telephone number. The person selling the table said her family had it for about a century and had used it through the years in the family laundry room and as a utility table in a family-operated barber shop. The family was moving and had decided to sell it. Ciarmello in his own research located a photo with the table in it on the Library of Congress Website. Ciarmello contacted Tise after seeing his book at the Wright Brothers National Memorial gift shop and finding that the book contained a second image of the table. Tise asked Ciarmello to send him digital images of the table. “When I saw the photos, I was 70 percent sure it was the table, but I wanted to see it in person,” Tise said. Tise travelled to Kitty Hawk and met Ciarmello at the home of Bill Harris, whose grandfather welcomed the Wright brothers to the Outer Banks in 1900. “Bill has vast knowledge of the families in the area for the past century, which was quite helpful. We examined and studied the table for almost three hours. The more we looked, the more we decided this could not be a fluke,” Tise said. The table consists of three “convincing” components: the legs are from a pre-existing writing table and the top is made from the sides of a shipping crate and two remnants of ash rib material used by the Wrights to build their gliders. “The different types of wood combined with the shipping label, a distinctive exposed nail that can be seen in the photos which is in the same place in the table, it was exciting to put all the evidence together,” Tise said. The way the shipping crate has been addressed to Wilbur Wright was consistent with others that had been documented previously by Tise. As for the future of the table, Ciarmello said he would like for it to be permanently displayed

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Everybody knows the most famous vacation destination in Europe. But Rimini, or better ancient Ariminum, is also a city of art with over 22 centuries of history. Rimini is a Roman city and certainly not just any old city, but one of the most important of ancient Rome. The official date of its founding is 268 BC when the Senate of Rome sent 6000 colonists to establish a new settlement there which took the name of the river Marecchia (Ariminus). In the beginning it was a strategic settlement. Then (90 BC) it became a “municipium”, and finally a blossoming city of the Roman empire, with a grand forum (piazza Tre Martiri), two central streets - the cardo maximus (via Garibaldi and IV Novembre) and the decumanus maximus (corso d’Augusto) – and triumphal monuments: the Tiberus Bridge and Augustus’s Arch. And let’s not forget a rarity: the Surgeon’s Domus, a unique medical clinic from the ancient Roman world, miraculously still intact in 2011 AD. Among the great works decided upon by the Senate of Rome, there are the two Roman roads: the via Flaminia and the via Emilia. The first connects Rome to Rimini and ends at Augustus’s Arch. The via Emilia starts at the Tiberus Bridge and runs 100 km to Piacenza. It is a delight to walk among these historic places where cars are not allowed and every five minutes you run into a monument. To begin to get to know Roman Rimini, you must begin at Augustus’s Arch, the most ancient of the surviving Roman arches. Located in a strategic position – marking the end of the via Flaminia – it was commissioned by Emperor Augustus in 27 BC. The tour continues with the Tiberus Bridge. One of the most noteworthy Roman bridges still around, began by Augustus in 14 AD and completed by Tiberus in 21 AD, it is impressive because of its architectonic design, the size of its structures and the building technique used. Not many people know it, but this city also had a large amphitheater – only the Coliseum was larger – that was always crowded and held more than 12,000 spectators, with only 1800 seats not covered. Here a convent and other buildings were built. Today, only the ruins of the amphitheater on the side nearest the sea are visible. Guided tours of the site are organized by the City Museum. The grand finale of the tour must not be missed: a stop in piazza Ferrari at the little Rimini Pompei, the archeological site called the Surgeon’s Domus. This exceptional archeological find was discovered right here: it held the most complete surgical toolset from the Roman era found to date. First visitors will be astonished by the 700 square meter archeological area in which the working instruments of a surgeon who worked inside a house of Ariminum in the 3rd century, used in part for practicing medicine and as a pharmacy, were found. An excavation that the architectonic work protects and emphasizes available for all passersby to see. The structure is set into the urban space around it, integrating itself into the garden of piazza Ferrari. On the inside there is a system of transparent walkways, suspended over the ancient structures, making it easier to visit them. Luck would have it that the Domus is located right next to the Museum, which makes up an important part of the tour of this site. The City Museum houses, in fact, the exceptional surgical instruments found in the domus. For tourist information:

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Nephila jurassica: The biggest spider fossil ever found Spiders are small arthropods, famous for their elasticity, strength and web-making abilities. For some people, spiders are not welcome in the home; as soon as they see one crawling on the ceiling, the first thought that comes to mind is to swat it at once. But spiders predate us humans by a long way. And while sometimes spiders are tiny creatures, a team of scientists has discovered the largest spider fossil ever in a layer of volcanic ash in Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia, China. The research was carried out by Paleontologist Professor Paul Selden, of the University of Kansas, with his team. Named Nephila jurassica, this 165-million-year-old fossil is 2.5 cm in length and has a leg span of almost 9 cm. It is currently the largest known fossilized spider, and is from the family known as Nephilidae, the largest web-weaving spiders alive today. According to research published online in the 20th April, 2011 issue of Biology Letters, this prehistoric spider was female and shows characteristics of the golden orb weaver. Widespread in warmer regions, the golden silk orb weavers are well-known for the fabulous webs they weave. Females of this family weave the largest orb webs known. "When I first saw it, I immediately realized that it was very unique not only because of its size, but also because the preservation was excellent," said ChungKun Shih, study co-author, and a visiting professor at Capital Normal University in Beijing, China. According to a press release: “This fossil finding provides evidence that golden orb-webs were being woven and capturing medium to large insects in Jurassic times, and predation by these spiders would have played an important role in the natural selection of contemporaneous insects.”

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The Egg Matrix Creating a Ubiquitous Information Architecture and Designing Across Devices The Egg Matrix is a tool for planning content, features, and scenarios when creating an information architecture that will exist across multiple devices and touch points. Where Did the Idea Come From? In college, I had an environmental design professor who described the field as such: Architecture is the profession that designs the shell or the structure of the built environment. Interior design is the profession that designs the interactions and spaces inside that built environment. Landscape architecture is the profession that designs the space outside this structure. Environmental design encompasses all three, studying our interactions with the built environment, how we move through it, how we move around it, how we integrate with the natural environment, and so on. I always had the idea of an egg in my head, in part because he described architecture as being like a shell of sorts, and partially because we talked a lot about animal habitats and homes. Environmental design is a human-centered design discipline that covers our physical surroundings. It considers the shared ecology between places and spaces, interiors and exteriors, the mechanic and the organic. Many of the same principles and ideals carry over into the digital space. When the Digital World Spills Over into the Physical World When we design for digital spaces today, it’s no longer safe to assume that the majority of our users will access our information from a similar static setup in an office or home. Digital information travels freely now between devices, locations, and online and offline habitats. In fact, it’s nearly impossible to know the context or situation that surrounds each of our users. It also seems likely that even before we have mastered the art of designing across desktop and mobile platforms, we will find ourselves creating spaces in cars, kiosks, mirrors, table tops, refrigerators, and many other devices. There is no set of rules that tells us how to create the right mix of content and features so that our users will have a seamless experience whenever and wherever they access our information. The Egg Matrix The Egg Matrix is my attempt to create a tool for cataloging the different forces that should be considered when determining the architecture, features, and overall design of a multi-device experience. My hope is that it is flexible enough to be applicable to topical challenges, like designing for mobile vs desktop spaces, but that it also will encompass future needs, such as television or in-car apps. The concept is simple. There is a subset of the experience (the egg) that you can directly control. You are responsible for the structure, the content, the messaging, and the interaction that goes into your design. There are also two equally important forces at play that contribute to the experience and overall success of what you’ve designed. There is the internal composition of the user (the yolk) and the extrinsic environment that the experience takes place in (the nest). You might be able to influence certain aspects of both areas, and you might be able to design around certain scenarios, but you’ll never be responsible for the creation of these realms. By breaking each area down into individual factors, you’ll be able to create a better model for your structure. I’ve broken each field out into the initial factors that I thought were most crucial, but there is certainly room for expansion, refinement, and feedback. Start with a single node of content, and build out from there. What features are needed to interact with that content? How often is the content accessed by the user? What possible contexts might the user be in when accessing the content? What belief systems might he or she be bringing to the experience? The breakdown currently is as follows: The Nest covers environment, location, context, and locomotion. The Egg covers message, content, task, frequency, urgency, privacy, intimacy, tracking, and measurement. The Yolk covers motivations, needs, desires, and knowledge. You may find yourself creating multiple columns for a single content node to cover the array of possible touch points or devices your users might encounter. I included a section called “messaging.” This may relate to a marketing campaign, a company brand message, or a common slogan. It’s important the spaces you design don’t contradict the messaging being broadcast to users. I’ve also included fields for noting tracking and measurements. These are for listing how you plan to measure the experience and what measurement points you’re going to look for. How Do You Know If The Model Is Working? Like any other model, it has to be put into action and tested. Fortunately, this “model” can be tested in several ways. You can gather feed and ask questions of users. You can create a prototype to test. When you’re satisfied with the performance of a prototype, you can design the real deal, and then continue to make refinements with ongoing feedback. I’ve listed the Egg Matrix worksheet here so that others can download it, play around with it, refine it, and provide feedback.

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- Provide the child with a special notebook just for homework assignments. Nothing else is to be written in this notebook. - When homework assignments are completed, the work is put into the special notebook so it can be turned in at school. - Ask teachers to send a note home with the homework assignmnet which parents must sign and return. It is best to have the child do his/her homework at the same time every day. Meals and bedtime are at regular times, and giving homework the same consideration gives it equal importance. Work should usually come before play, especially is the child is having difficulty remembering or completing assignments. A half hour after arriving home from school gives children time for a snack, but not time to get involved in other activities. STUDY HABITS BEGIN AT AN EARLY AGE Good study habits should begin in the first grade. Insist no radio or television be playing while the child is doing homework. Studies have repeatedly shown the most people learn better in a quiet atmosphere. Be willing to help, but don't do your child's work. - Use a homework notebook. - Set a regular time for doing homework. - Check and approve homework before the child goes out to play.

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QUESTION: I ran a virus scan and my program turned up a bunch of things it labeled "third-party" cookies. What are these? ANSWER: When you visit most websites, they place cookies on your browser. These are small bits of data that store your site settings for future visits. This is why you don't have to constantly log into Facebook any time you browse to a new Facebook page. Those are first-party cookies. Third-party cookies are when an advertiser or other third-party service on a site places a cookie. These can often be related to advertising tracking, so it's best to opt out of them in your browser. Try a service like SelectOut. Q: I bought a new computer to replace my 6-year-old desktop. Should I just throw out the old one? A: No, no and no! Computers contain hazardous materials that make it dangerous to just throw them out. Instead, you could try recycling it with help from a site like Earth911. It will tell you where you can take it and any special considerations. Of course, you could give it to a friend or family member that needs a PC, too. Just remember to completely wipe your personal information. . Q: I just gave my teenage daughter her first cell phone. What can I do to make sure she's not visiting any adult sites with it? A: If she does most of her surfing on the house's Wi-Fi, you can use OpenDNS. It filters content at your network router so it protects her from inappropriate sites no matter what gadget she surfs on. If she starts using her gadget's 3G or 4G connection to circumvent those blocks, you can download a filtering browser like Bsecure. On iPhones, however, Apple doesn't have an official way to change the default browser from Safari. You should have a chat with your daughter and make sure she knows what sites are appropriate. Q: I keep seeing online that people recommend buying solid-state hard drives instead of conventional drives. What's the point? A: A solid-state drive is a little brick of flash memory, like a large USB drive. SSDs can make a laptop faster, lighter and more energy efficient. The catch is they can raise the price of a laptop $200 to $300 and they usually don't offer a lot of storage. If you want a performance boost and don't store too many large files on your computer, it's a good upgrade. If you have a lot to store, or need a less expensive option, stick with a conventional drive. Q: Someone told me the photos I take on my smartphone are geotagged. What does this mean? A: Geotagging means your smartphone's GPS attaches a location to the photos you snap. Your photos are tagged with other revealing information, too. You can turn your smartphone's GPS off to stop this. However, that might mess with other useful location services work. If you don't want to keep turning location services on and off, you can use an app like Pixelgarde to strip the GPS data out of photos before you post them online. Kim Komando hosts the nation's largest talk radio show about computers: www.komando.com/listen.

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1852 Vuillemin Map of Spain and Portugal Description: An uncommon and extremely attractive 1852 map of Iberia or Spain and Portugal by A. Vuillemin. The map covers all of Spain and Portugal from France to the Mediterranean Sea and includes the Balearic Islands of Ibiza, Majorca, and Minorca. Throughout, the map identifies various cities, towns, rivers and assortment of additional topographical details. As this map was drawn the Spanish prime minister Juan Bravo Murillo was dismissed form office . Liberal sentiments within Spain were growing rapidly, leading to the Progressive Biennium, in which the Progressive Party tried to replace the conservative liberalism of the Moderate Party and advocated radical liberalism. The map features a beautiful frame style border. Prepared by A. Vuillemin for publication as plate no. 16 in the 1852 Maison Basset edition of Atlas Illustre Destine a l'enseignement de la Geographie elementaire. Date: 1852 (undated) Source: Barbie du Bocage, J. D., Atlas Illustre Destine a l'Enseignement de la Geographie Elementaire, (Paris: Maison Basset) 1852. Cartographer: Alexandre Vuillemin (1812-1880) was a cartographer and an book editor based in Paris, France. Despite a prolific cartographic career, much of Vuillemin's life is shrouded in mystery. What is known is that his studied under the prominent French Auguste Henri Dufour (1798-1865). Vuillemin's most important work his detailed, highly decorative large format Atlas Illustre de Geographie Commerciale et Industrielle. Click here for a list of rare maps from Alexandre Vuillemin. Cartographer: Jean Denis Barbie du Bocage (1760 - 1825) and his son Jean-Guillaume Barbie du Bocage (1795 - 1848) were French cartographers and cosmographers active in Paris during late 18th and early 19th centuries. The elder Barbie du Bocage, Jean Denis, was trained as a cartographer and engraver in the workshops of mapmaking legend J. B. B. d'Anville. At some point Jean Denis held the post of Royal Librarian of France and it was through is associations with d'Anville that the d'Anville collection of nearly 9000 maps was acquired by French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The younger Barbie du Bocage, Jean-Guillaume, acquired a position shortly afterwards at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and, in time, became its head, with the title of Geographe du Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres. Click here for a list of rare maps by the Barbie du Bocage family. Size: Printed area measures 13 in height x 10 inches in width (33.02 x 25.4 centimeters) Condition: Very good. Blank on verso. Map exhibits some soiling and toning, especially to margins. Code: SpainPortugal-vuillemin-1852 (to order by phone call: 646-320-8650) © Geographicus Rare Antique Maps, Kevin Brown, 22/5/2013

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BERKELEY LAKE - The term "summer camp" usually conjures images of outdoor play and physical activity. However, these assumptions are false when it comes to Camp Invention, a summer day camp focused on hands-on education. The nationally acclaimed camp is a weeklong program for rising first- through sixth-graders that combines science and creativity to open up kids' minds and broaden their horizons. Camp Invention uses hands-on activities that teach kids to use their imaginations to invent solutions to problems. The camp consists of five modules to help accomplish this feat. These modules, or classes, encourage kids to take apart used appliances, and then recycle the different parts to create something new. Each module focuses on something different, and the focus ranges from transportation to alien invasion. The unique idea for Camp Invention was developed by the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1990. The camp began as a summer program taking place in two elementary schools, but has since grown to reach more than 800 schools in 46 states. In Georgia, Camp Invention takes place at several elementary schools throughout the summer. At Berkeley Lake Elementary School, students and staff Friday finished a successful week at Camp Invention. Director Kathy Bentley said the camp concentrates on bringing the participants creative, problem-solving experiences that don't involve homework, tests or worksheets. "The kids think of things in different ways here," Bentley said. "They have fun with the hands-on activities." In the "Wild Blue Y'Under" module, campers created different modes of transportation. Sixth-grader Parker Cutler, and her team, the "Motorgirlz," were trying to invent a rolling car that would be faster than the other team's creations. To make their car, the girls and their fellow campers were using supplies from a large table of appliance parts. "We get to use our imagination for these projects," Cutler said. Cutler's friend, fifth-grader Hayley Williams, agreed. "You can create anything you want," Williams said. "There are no limits." The Motorgirlz collectively decided heavier cars rolled faster, so were determined to create a heavy, unique car. "The teacher gives you a general idea about the project," Cutler said. "But you get to make whatever you want." Just down the hall, in the "I Can Invent Module," third-grader Olivia Johnson was surrounded by appliance parts as she concentrated on creating a robot. "I want to make a robot that can cook," Johnson said. "So he can help my mom cook when she is too tired." Johnson was using the cover pieces from a portable CD player for the robot's head, and the case of a graphic calculator as one of the robot's arms. Johnson said her favorite part of camp is taking appliances apart. "You get to see things you never knew about," Johnson said. Third-grader Blake Davis was also working hard on his own invention. Davis was trying to create a shocking device. Camp Invention has stringent safety regulations, so none of the supplies Davis used in his device carry an electric charge. However, Davis used his imagination to overcome his creation's physical short comings. "This is to shock annoying people," Davis said, as he described his invention. At Camp Invention, participants also get a taste of forensic science as they investigate a pretend crime scene. In the "Solve It" Module, campers are encouraged to be detectives and discover who stole an inventor's log. "The kids get really serious and are very observant," Bentley said. "They focus on putting information together." Jack Kraus, a second-grader, said the crime scene investigation was his favorite part of Camp Invention. "I like finding out different clues," Kraus said. With it's unique approach, it's no surprise Camp Invention continues to grow and attract more campers. "The program appeals to a wide range of kids," Bentley said. "Everyone can be successful at Camp Invention." Most people don't expect summer camp to be a haven of knowledge and scientific discovery. But then again, most people don't usually expect science and learning to be so much fun. When asked about her favorite part of Camp Invention, fifth-grader Sarah Krix couldn't decide. "I can't choose," Krix said. "It's all fun and I like everything about it." Camp Invention is clearly breaking the mold for both science and summer camps alike. Todd Bentley, a staff member at Camp Invention, said he loves seeing the kids be inventive and create new things. When asked to describe Camp Invention, Todd Bentley smiled and said, "It's educational fun in disguise."

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Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, takes her life following the defeat of her forces against Octavian, the future first emperor of Rome. Cleopatra, born in 69 B.C., was made Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt, upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII, in 51 B.C. Her brother was made King Ptolemy XIII at the same time, and the siblings ruled Egypt under the formal title of husband and wife. Cleopatra and Ptolemy were members of the Macedonian dynasty that governed Egypt since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. Although Cleopatra had no Egyptian blood, she alone in her ruling house learned Egyptian. To further her influence over the Egyptian people, she was also proclaimed the daughter of Re, the Egyptian sun god. Cleopatra soon fell into dispute with her brother, and civil war erupted in 48 B.C. Rome, the greatest power in the Western world, was also beset by civil war at the time. Just as Cleopatra was preparing to attack her brother with a large Arab army, the Roman civil war spilled into Egypt. Pompey the Great, defeated by Julius Caesar in Greece, fled to Egypt seeking solace but was immediately murdered by agents of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar arrived in Alexandria soon after and, finding his enemy dead, decided to restore order in Egypt. During the preceding century, Rome had exercised increasing control over the rich Egyptian kingdom, and Cleopatra sought to advance her political aims by winning the favor of Caesar. She traveled to the royal palace in Alexandria and was allegedly carried to Caesar rolled in a rug, which was offered as a gift. Cleopatra, beautiful and alluring, captivated the powerful Roman leader, and he agreed to intercede in the Egyptian civil war on her behalf. In 47 B.C., Ptolemy XIII was killed after a defeat against Caesar's forces, and Cleopatra was made dual ruler with another brother, Ptolemy XIV. Julius and Cleopatra spent several amorous weeks together, and then Caesar departed for Asia Minor, where he declared "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered), after putting down a rebellion. In June 47 B.C., Cleopatra bore a son, whom she claimed was Caesar's and named Caesarion, meaning "little Caesar." Upon Caesar's triumphant return to Rome, Cleopatra and Caesarion joined him there. Under the auspices of negotiating a treaty with Rome, Cleopatra lived discretely in a villa that Caesar owned outside the capital. After Caesar was assassinated in March 44 B.C., she returned to Egypt. Soon after, Ptolemy XIV died, likely poisoned by Cleopatra, and the queen made her son co-ruler with her as Ptolemy XV Caesar. With Julius Caesar's murder, Rome again fell into civil war, which was temporarily resolved in 43 B.C. with the formation of the second triumvirate, made up of Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew and chosen heir; Mark Antony, a powerful general; and Lepidus, a Roman statesman. Antony took up the administration of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, and he summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus, in Asia Minor, to answer charges that she had aided his enemies. Cleopatra sought to seduce Antony, as she had Caesar before him, and in 41 B.C. arrived in Tarsus on a magnificent river barge, dressed as Venus, the Roman god of love. Successful in her efforts, Antony returned with her to Alexandria, where they spent the winter in debauchery. In 40 B.C., Antony returned to Rome and married Octavian's sister Octavia in an effort to mend his strained alliance with Octavian. The triumvirate, however, continued to deteriorate. In 37 B.C., Antony separated from Octavia and traveled east, arranging for Cleopatra to join him in Syria. In their time apart, Cleopatra had borne him twins, a son and a daughter. According to Octavian's propagandists, the lovers were then married, which violated the Roman law restricting Romans from marrying foreigners. Antony's disastrous military campaign against Parthia in 36 B.C. further reduced his prestige, but in 34 B.C. he was more successful against Armenia. To celebrate the victory, he staged a triumphal procession through the streets of Alexandria, in which he and Cleopatra sat on golden thrones, and Caesarion and their children were given imposing royal titles. Many in Rome, spurred on by Octavian, interpreted the spectacle as a sign that Antony intended to deliver the Roman Empire into alien hands. After several more years of tension and propaganda attacks, Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, and therefore Antony, in 31 B.C. Enemies of Octavian rallied to Antony's side, but Octavian's brilliant military commanders gained early successes against his forces. On September 2, 31 B.C., their fleets clashed at Actium in Greece. After heavy fighting, Cleopatra broke from the engagement and set course for Egypt with 60 of her ships. Antony then broke through the enemy line and followed her. The disheartened fleet that remained surrendered to Octavian. One week later, Antony's land forces surrendered. Although they had suffered a decisive defeat, it was nearly a year before Octavian reached Alexandria and again defeated Antony. In the aftermath of the battle, Cleopatra took refuge in the mausoleum she had commissioned for herself. Antony, informed that Cleopatra was dead, stabbed himself with his sword. Before he died, another messenger arrived, saying Cleopatra still lived. Antony had himself carried to Cleopatra's retreat, where he died after bidding her to make her peace with Octavian. When the triumphant Roman arrived, she attempted to seduce him, but he resisted her charms. Rather than fall under Octavian's domination, Cleopatra committed suicide on August 30, 30 B.C., possibly by means of an asp, a poisonous Egyptian serpent and symbol of divine royalty. Octavian then executed her son Caesarion, annexed Egypt into the Roman Empire, and used Cleopatra's treasure to pay off his veterans. In 27 B.C., Octavian became Augustus, the first and arguably most successful of all Roman emperors. He ruled a peaceful, prosperous, and expanding Roman Empire until his death in 14 A.D. at the age of 75.

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Medical Foods Policy and Regulatory Developments Global Policy and Regulatory Medical Foods Developments - Codex Alimentarius was created by FAO and WHO in 1963 to develop food standards and guidelines, as well as related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The Codex Alimentarius Commission aims to protect consumer health, ensure fair trade practices, and promote coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations. - The Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses agreed to develop guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods in 1980 and accepted the offer of the United States to prepare a set of proposed draft guidelines for consideration at the next session in 1982. Report of the Twelfth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 81/26. - The draft guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods prepared by the United States were discussed at the 1982 meeting. Report of the Thirteenth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 83/26. - The draft guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods prepared by the United States were also discussed at the 1985 meeting. Report of the Fourteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 85/26. - The Committee developed a standard instead of a guideline in 1987 and agreed to use “foods for special medical purposes” instead of “medical foods.” The Proposed Draft Standard was submitted for step 3 comment. Report of the Fifteenth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 87/26. - The Proposed Draft Standard was submitted to the 1989 session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission for adoption as a draft standard. Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26. - The Committee decided essential information for health professionals should be on the label but was not necessary for consumer labeling. Report of the Meeting of Intergovenmental Working Groups (CX/FSDU 87) and Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26. - Medical foods were to be labeled in accordance with the Codex’s “General Standard for the Labelling of and Claims for Foods for Special Dietary Uses.” Codex Alimentarius Committee on Codex General Standard for Labeling of and Claims for Foods for Special Dietary Uses (1985). - Certain additional provisions were required for labeling medical foods. Specifically, medical foods must label the energy value and the content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, and if applicable, amino acids or essential fatty acids. Osmolality and acid-base balance, where appropriate, must also be on the label. Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26. National Policy and Regulatory Medical Foods Developments - Defines a “food for special dietary use” as a food that has been specially processed or formulated to meet the particular requirements of a person: (a) in whom a physical or physiological condition exists as a result of a disease, disorder, or injury; or (b) for whom a particular effect, including but not limited to weight loss, is to be obtained by a controlled intake of food. 9.9 Foods for Special Dietary Use [Division 24, FDR] - Compiles European Union rulings and resources relating to foods for special medical purposes. - Vitamin-Mineral Amendments, Pub. L. No. 94-278 (1976) - Prohibited the FDA from classifying vitamin and mineral supplements as drugs based solely on their combinations or potency, unless drug claims were made. The legislation also incorporated FDA’s 1941 definition of special dietary use into the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. - Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Pub. L. No. 75-717, § 201 (f), (g), 52 Stat. 1040, 1041 (1938), as amended 21 U.S.C § 321 (f), (g) (1982) - Medical foods were regulated as drugs prior to 1972 according to Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C.321(g)(1)(B). - Orphan Drug Act, Pub. Law. 97-114 (1983) - Congress amended Orphan Drug Act to formally define a medical food in 1988; reaffirmed in 1992, and again in 1996. - Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 and subsequent amendments give the FDA authority to require nutrition labeling of most packaged foods regulated by FDA and requires all nutrient claims and health claims meet FDA regulations. The legislation incorporated the definition of medical foods from the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and exempted medical foods from nutrition labeling, health and nutrient claim requirements, and identified five criteria characteristics of medical food (21 CFR 101.9(J)(8)). FDA incorporated the statutory medical food definition of this Act into 21 U.S.C.343. FDA provided guidance on medical foods indicating that Section 101.9(j)(8) exempted medical foods from nutrition labeling, nutrient content claims, and health claim regulations if the product is: - Specially formulated and processed product for the partial or exclusive feeding of a patient by means of oral intake or enteral feeding by tube; - Intended for the dietary management of a patient who, because of therapeutic or chronic medical needs, has limited or impaired capacity to ingest, digest, absorb, or metabolize ordinary foodstuffs or certain nutrients, or who has other special medically determined nutrient requirements, the dietary management of which cannot be achieved by the modification of the normal diet alone; - Provides nutritional support specifically modified for the management of the unique nutrient needs that result from the specific disease or condition as determined by medical evaluation; - Intended to be used under a medical physician’s supervision; and - Intended only for a patient receiving active and ongoing medical supervision wherein the patient requires medical care on a recurring basis for, among other things, instructions on the use of the medical food. - Medical Foods Equity Act of 2011 (S.311 and H.1311) have been introduced and referred to Committee to provide coverage for medically necessary food under Federal health programs and private health insurance. United States Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration - FDA provided guidance on medical foods in 1997. - FDA announced a new proposed regulations (ANPR) in 1996 but withdrew a couple years later. - Exempted foods for the use solely under medical supervision to meet nutritional requirements for specific medical conditions from certain labeling requirements. 21 C.F.R. §§ 101.9, 101.9 (h) (3),(4) - In 1991, FDA published in the Federal Register information on what a medical food is and the distinctive nutritional and medical supervision requirements of medical foods. - FDA contracted to develop enteral products with high nutritional efficacy to improve tissue repair and shorten convalescence during World War II and to address needs of the aerospace program for easily consumable, low residue, high calorie dietary products. Fisher K, et al. A review of foods for medical purposes. FDA Contract No. 223-75-2090 June 1977; as noted in Hattan DG & Mackey DR. A review of medical foods: Enterally administered formulations used in the treatment of diseases and disorders. Food Drug Cosm. L. J. 44;479-501(1989). - FDA implemented a compliance program for medical foods in 1988, requiring all products to be manufactured according to Current Good Manufacturing Practice regulations. - FDA expressed during rulemaking in 1973 on vitamin and mineral dietary supplements that the Commissioner recognized medical foods as foods. 38 Fed. Reg. at 2152. - FDA reclassified medical foods as “foods for special dietary use” to encourage product development in 1972. 37 Fed Reg. at 18,230. - FDA defined foods for “special dietary uses” in 1941. 21 C.F.R. § 105.3 Non-Government Developments & Reports

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Townships are a product of Indiana’s early history, and Indiana is one of 20 states that currently has some form of township government. A township in the Indiana refers to a small geographic area, ranging in size from 6 to 54 square miles (15.6 km² to 140.4 km²), with 36 square miles (93 km²) being the norm. A civil township is a unit of local government. Township government powers in Indiana have grown to the point that it is difficult to discern the differences between townships, cities and villages. There are, however, significant differences that are important to the people charged with administering township affairs and deciding township policies. Townships and counties are statutory units of government, having only those powers expressly provided or fairly implied by state law. Cities and most villages are vested with home rule powers, meaning they can do almost anything not prohibited by law. State laws authorize townships to perform a wide variety of functions and state laws specify details for performing these functions. Township trustees are elected officials, but many are volunteers, too, who help make their communities better places to live. By far the largest single group of elected officials in Indiana, Township Trustees govern 1,008 townships covering every part of the state. Like most elected officials, the Township Trustee serves a four-year term and many Township Trustees work at other jobs in addition to serving their constituents. Assisting the Township Trustee in managing this very localized form of government is a three-member Township Board. Among its duties are the adoption of the annual budget, serving as a board of finance, and approving township contracts. Indiana law requires that the Township Trustees provide essential services to the residents and businesses of the Township. Because of its "grassroots" structure, the Township Trustee system is designed specifically to quickly meet the needs of the individual in an emergency. The ITA is the only township organization that provides legislative services to the 1008 townships. Our lobbyists meet with law makers on a daily basis while the legislature is in session. The ITA insures that all proposed legislation is studied to assess its impact township government. The ITA is the only association from local government that testifies on proposed bills that impact townships. Members of the state legislature come to the ITA when they have questions about township government. |< Prev||Next >|

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MINNETONKA, Minn. -- Backpacks are lighter this year for ninth graders at Minnetonka High School. "I have most of my textbooks in iBooks," said 9th grader Rachel Marks. That not only makes her load lighter, Marks can highlight text and digitally assemble all of her notes in an iBook, something she can't do in a school textbook. It's just one aspect of a pilot program Minnetonka High School unveiled this year -- to put iPads in the hands of students. "We've long believed in technology as an accelerator of learning," explained Julie Carter, Executive Director of Technology for Minnetonka Public Schools. The district has been digitizing its curriculum for the past decade, and was looking for a way to put that information in the hands of students. Laptops had drawbacks, including price, so when the iPad came along, Minnetonka took notice, and developed a plan that hinged on a key requirement. "Identifying a group of students that we could work with to have a controlled experiment where we could see, 'How does the technology change the learning experience for students?'" said Carter. Minnetonka started by issuing iPads to half the 9th grade class, and using the other half of the class to compare. Teachers quickly noted some changes for the iPad group. "Student engagement," said English teacher Sara Martinson. "They seem to be more involved in what they are doing." The district also saw fewer D's and F's in the iPad group, as well as fewer late and missing assignments. Armed with that information, the district proceeded to give iPads to the other half of the ninth grade. Now, teachers are incorporating the iPad into daily use. Science teacher Drew Danner says it doesn't work for everything, but many applications are proving useful for students, including one that allows students to take tests and have their results recorded in real time. "Now they can go back on their practice tests or their quizzes and they can look at, 'Hey, I need to work on this certain set of problems,'" said Danner. Danner is also able to plug important dates and assignments into students' Google calendars, which they can pull up on their iPads anytime they want. Students' work is saved in "the cloud" so if an iPad should break, or be lost, the work is accessible from any computer or internet device. Carter says so far, there have been few issues of screens breaking, and no iPads have been lost. Looming in the future for Minnetonka, the need to purchase new textbooks for two core subjects. At $100 a pop for a traditional copy, Apple's recent announcement it will be offering more textbooks at $14.99 in iBooks could prove to be a real cost-saver for the district. If this year's pilot project continues to go well, Minnetonka hopes to use iPads at the 10th grade level, and continue expanding from there. Minnetonka has created a series of tutorials for students and teachers to learn how to use and take care of their iPads. You can access that here. (Copyright 2012 by KARE. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)

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Ganglion (GANG-lee-on) cysts are the most common type of soft tissue mass that form under your skin. Most commonly, ganglions are seen on the backside of the wrist and fingers, but they can also develop on your shoulder, elbow, and knee. Ganglions form when tissues surrounding certain joints become inflamed and swell up with lubricating fluid. In some cases, cysts can increase in size when the tissue is irritated and often can disappear spontaneously. Although these masses, which can be painful or painless, sometimes grow, they're not tumors or cancerous. The cause of ganglions is not always clear, however, conditions such as rheumatoid (rue-MAH-toyd) arthritis (arth-RYE-tis) have been associated with these cysts. Occupational factors can also play a role in the development of ganglions. Those occupations that require you to overuse certain joints, such as your wrist and fingers, pose a risk for developing ganglion cysts. A physician recognizes most ganglion cysts during physical examinations, but sometimes X-rays are used to confirm the diagnosis. A procedure called 'aspiration,' or the draining of the contents of the cyst, may be required to distinguish the differences from other causes of swelling. Other treatments for cysts can consist of rest or splinting the affected joint. If the cyst continues to reoccur, a surgeon can remove it.

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By Pure Matters Detailed information on pregnancy and childbirth, including information on birth statistics, pregnancy planning, preconception care, prenatal care, pregnancy discomforts, pregnancy tests, pregnancy risks, pregnancy warning signs, labor and delivery. A pregnancy is divided into three phases, called trimesters. Each trimester has its own significant milestones. The first trimester is the most fragile period, during which all major organs and systems are formed. Most birth defects and miscarriages occur during the first trimester. During the second and third trimester, the fetus is fully formed and grows and matures rapidly. The trimesters are divided as follows: - first trimester: 0 - 12 weeks - second trimester: 12 - 24 weeks - third trimester: 24 - 40 weeks (However, some authorities use the 42 weeks method divided by 3 trimesters with the 1st trimester, 0 - 13 weeks; the 2nd trimester, 14 - 28 weeks; and the 3rd trimester, 29 - 42 weeks.) Listed in the directory below, you will find additional information regarding the three phases of pregnancy, for which we have provided a brief overview.

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Tour by Subject || Tour by Time Period || Introduction || Catalogue || Home Chromolithography was developed in Germany in the 1840s but was not used much in bookbinding until the 1880s, when it became all the rage in England. Whether for entire book covers or only for onlays, many of these illustrations were printed on glazed paper so that the vibrant colors stood out. Childrens books have particularly good examples of this technique. |Tschantre, Gracia. Tin Tan Tales. London: Ernest Nister; New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, ca. 1895.| Introduction || Tour by Time Period || Tour by Subject || Catalogue On exhibit through September 30, 2000, Rare Book Room, fourth floor, University of North Texas Libraries, Weekdays 9:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m. Victorian Bookbinding Home || Rare Book and Texana Collections || Exhibits || UNT Libraries Exhibit by Kenneth Lavender. Web design by Gwen Smith. This page was last modified on Thursday, July 08, 2004. University of North Texas © 2000 - All rights reserved.

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AIDS dementia complex (ADC) can occur in people with . ADC results in changes in multiple neurologic areas: ADC is a common nervous system complication of late-stage HIV infection. HIV destroys white blood cells vital to the immune system. Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc. It is not clearly understood how HIV infection causes ADC. Risk factors that increase your chances of having ADC include: Symptoms usually develop slowly and worsen over time. They are grouped into stages: Walking, balance, and coordination require a great deal of effort at this stage. If you have any of these symptoms, do not assume they are due to ADC. These symptoms may be caused by other conditions. Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. Tests may include: Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include: Anti-HIV drugs are often used to treat ADC. Your doctor will create a medicine plan that is right for you. These drugs are often given in combination. Other medicines may be used along with antiretroviral therapy to treat symptoms of ADC. These may include: ADC occurs in people with HIV. Ways to help reduce the risk of getting HIV include: American Foundation for AIDS Researchhttp://www.amfar.org/ National Association of People with AIDShttp://www.napwa.org/ AIDS Committee of Torontohttp://www.actoronto.org/ Canadian AIDS Societyhttp://www.cdnaids.ca/ AIDS dementia complex. EBSCO Patient Education Reference Center website. Available at: . Updated February 28, 2012. Accessed November 21, 2012. AIDS dementia complex. Project Inform website. Available at: . Updated January 2011. Accessed November 21, 2012. AIDS dementia complex. University of California at San Francisco website. Available at: . Accessed November 21, 2012. HIV-associated dementia. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: . Updated February 10, 2012. Accessed November 21, 2012. Luo X, Carlson KA, Wojna V, et al. Macrophage proteomic fingerprinting predicts HIV-1-associated cognitive impairment. Meehan RA, Brush JA. An overview of AIDS dementia complex. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. Nicholas MK, Lukas R, van Besein K. Textbook of Neurological Surgery. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins; 2011: chap 46. Royal W. HIV-associated Dementia. In: Gilman S, ed. San Diego, CA: MedLink Corp. Still have questions? Contact firstname.lastname@example.org. We are happy to assist you! The #1 daily resource for health and lifestyle news! Your daily resource for losing weight and staying fit. We could all use some encouragement now and then - we're human! Explore your destiny as you discover what's written in your stars. The latest news, tips and recipes for people with diabetes. Healthy food that tastes delicious too? No kidding. Yoga for Back Pain Pets HelpYour Heart Are YouMoney Smart?

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- a. Identify two constellations and the North Star in the night sky. - b. Make a pinhole planetarium and show three constellations. - c. Visit a planetarium. - d. Build a model of a rocket or space satellite. - e. Read and talk about at least one man-made satellite and one natural one. - f. Find a picture of another planet in our solar system. Explain how it is different from Earth. This elective is also part of the World Conservation Award. - a. Learn how to read an outdoor thermometer. Put one outdoors and read it at the same time every day for two weeks. Keep a record of each day's temperature and a description of the weather each day (fair skies, rain, fog, snow, etc.). - b. Build a weather vane. Record wind direction every day at the same hour for two weeks. Keep a record of the weather for each day. - c. Make a rain gauge. - d. Find out what a barometer is and how it works. Tell your den about it. Tell what relative humidity means. - e. Learn to identify three different kinds of clouds. Estimate their heights. - f. Watch the weather forecast on TV every day for two weeks. Describe three different symbols used on weather maps. Keep a record of how many times the weather forecast is correct. - a. Build a crystal or diode radio. Check with your local craft or hobby shop or the nearest Scout shop that carries a crystal radio kit. It is all right to use a kit. - b. Make and operate a battery powered radio, following the directions with the kit. - a. Wire a buzzer or doorbell. - b. Make an electric buzzer game. - c. Make a simple bar or horseshoe electromagnet. - d. Use a simple electric motor. - e. Make a crane with an electromagnetic lift. - a. Help an adult rig and sail a real boat. (Wear your PFD.) - b. Help an adult repair a real boat or canoe. - c. Know the flag signals for storm warnings. - d. Help an adult repair a boat dock. - e. With an adult on board, and both wearing PFDs, row a boat around a 100-yard course that has at least two turns. Demonstrate forward strokes, turns to both sides, and backstrokes. - a. Identify five different kinds of aircraft, in flight if possible, or from models or photos. - b. Ride in a commercial airplane. - c. Explain how a hot-air balloon works. - d. Build and fly a model airplane. (You may use a kit. Every time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.) - e. Sketch and label an airplane showing the direction of forces acting on it (lift, drag, and load). - f. Make a list of some of the things a helicopter can do that other kinds of airplanes can't. Draw or cut out a picture of a helicopter and label the parts. - g. Build and display a scale model airplane. You may use a kit or build it from plans. 7. Things That Go - a. With an adult's help, make a scooter or a Cubmobile. Know the safety rules. - b. With an adult's help, make a windmill. - c. With an adult's help, make a waterwheel. - d. Make an invention of your own design that goes. 8. Cub Scout Band - a. Make and play a homemade musical instrument - cigar-box banjo, washtub bull fiddle, a drum or rhythm set, tambourine, etc. - b. Learn to play two familiar tunes on any musical instrument. - c. Play in a den band using homemade or regular musical instruments. Play at a pack meeting. - d. Play two tunes on any recognized band or orchestra instrument. - a. Do an original art project and show it at a pack meeting. Every project you do counts as one requirement. Here are some ideas for art projects:Cub Scout Art Belt Loop #2, or Pin #2, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, or #11 - Mobile or wire sculpture - Acrylic painting - Watercolor painting - Clay sculpture - Silk screen picture - b. Visit an art museum or picture gallery with your den or family.Cub Scout Art Pin #1 - c. Find a favorite outdoor location and draw or paint it.Cub Scout Art Belt Loop #2 or Pin #11 Cub Scout Art Pin #11 - a. Make a simple papier-mâché mask. - b. Make an animal mask. - c. Make a clown mask. Cub Scout Art Pin #7 - a. Practice holding a camera still in one position. Learn to push the shutter button without moving the camera. Do this without film in the camera until you have learned how. Look through the viewfinder and see what your picture will look like. Make sure that everything you want in your picture is in the frame of your viewfinder. - b. Take five pictures of the same subject in different kinds of light. - 1. Subject in direct sun with direct light. - 2. Subject in direct sun with side light. - 3. Subject in direct sun with back light. - 4. Subject in shade on a sunny day. - 5. Subject on a cloudy day. - c. Put your pictures to use. - 1. Mount a picture on cardboard for display. - 2. Mount a picture on cardboard and give it to a friend. - 3. Make three pictures that show how something happened (tell a story) and write a one-sentence explanation for each. - d. Take a picture in your house. - 1. With available light - 2. Using a flash attachment or photoflood (bright light) 12. Nature Crafts This elective is also part of the World Conservation Award. - a. Make solar prints of three kinds of leaves. - b. Make a display of eight different animal tracks with an eraser print. - c. Collect, press, and label ten kinds of leaves. - d. Build a waterscope and identify five types of water life. - e. Collect eight kinds of plant seeds and label them. - f. Collect, mount, and label ten kinds of rocks or minerals. - g. Collect, mount, and label five kinds of shells. - h. Build and use a bird caller. - a. Learn and show three magic tricks. - b. With your den, put on a magic show for someone else. - c. Learn and show four puzzles. - d. Learn and show three rope tricks. - a. With an adult, help take care of your lawn or flower beds or help take care of the lawn or flower beds of a public building, school, or church. Seed bare spots. Get rid of weeds. Pick up litter. Agree ahead of time on what you will do. - b. Make a sketch of a landscape plan for the area right around your home. Talk it over with a parent or den leader. Show which trees, shrubs, and flowers you could plant to make the area look better. - c. Take part in a project with your family, den, or pack to make your neighborhood or community more beautiful. These might be having a cleanup party, painting, cleaning and painting trash barrels, and removing weeds. (Each time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.) - d. Build a greenhouse and grow twenty plants from seed. You can use a package of garden seeds or use beans, pumpkin seeds, or watermelon seeds. 15. Water and Soil Conservation This elective is also part of the World Conservation Award. - a. Dig a hole or find an excavation project and describe the different layers of soil you see and feel. (Do not enter an excavation area alone or without permission.) - b. Explore three kinds of earth by conducting a soil experiment. - c. Visit a burned-out forest or prairie area, or a slide area, with your den or your family. Talk to a soil and water conservation officer or forest ranger about how the area will be planted and cared for so that it will grow to be the way it was before the fire or slide. - d. What is erosion? Find out the kinds of grasses, trees, or ground cover you should plant in your area to help limit erosion. - e. As a den, visit a lake, stream, river, or ocean (whichever is nearest where you live). Plan and do a den project to help clean up this important source of water. Name four kinds of water pollution. 16. Farm Animals - a. Take care of a farm animal. Decide with your family the things you will do and how long you will do them. - b. Name and describe six kinds of farm animals and tell their common uses. - c. Read a book about farm animals and tell your den about it. - d. With your family or den, visit a livestock exhibit at a county or state fair. - a. With the help of an adult, fix an electrical plug or appliance. - b. Use glue or epoxy to repair something. - c. Remove and clean a drain trap. - d. Refinish or repaint something. - e. Agree with an adult in your family on some repair job to be done and do it. (Each time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.) 18. Backyard Gym - a. Build and use an outdoor gym with at least three items from this list: - 1. Balance board - 2. Trapeze - 3. Tire walk - 4. Tire swing - 5. Tetherball - 6. Climbing rope - 7. Running long jump area - b. Build three outdoor toss games. - c. Plan an outdoor game or gym day with your den. (This can be part of a pack activity). Put your plans on paper. - d. Hold an open house for your backyard gym. There is something about this elective that is different from any other. That is this rule: Whenever you are working on the Swimming elective, you must have an adult with you who can swim. - a. Jump feetfirst into water over your head, swim 25 feet on the surface, stop, turn sharply, and swim back. - b. Swim on your back, using the elementary backstroke, for 30 feet. - c. Rest by floating on your back, using as little motion as possible, for at least one minute. - d. Tell what is meant by the buddy system. Know the basic rules of safe swimming. - e. Do a racing dive from edge of pool and swim 60 feet, using a racing stroke. (You might need to make a turn.) - a. In archery, know the safety rules and how to shoot correctly. Put six arrows into a 4-foot target at a distance of 15 feet. Make an arrow holder. (This can be done only at a district/council day or resident or family camp.) - b. In skiing, know the Skier's Safety and Courtesy Code. Demonstrate walking and kick turn, climbing with a side step or herringbone, a snowplow stop, a stem turn, four linked snowplow or stem turns, straight running in a downhill position or cross-country position, and how to recover from a fall. - c. In ice skating, know the safety rules. From a standing start, skate forward 150 feet; and come to a complete stop within 20 feet. Skate around a corner clockwise and counterclockwise without coasting. Show a turn from forward to backward. Skate backward 50 feet. - d. In track, show how to make a sprint start. Run the 50-yard dash in 10 seconds or less. Show how to do the standing long jump, the running long jump, or high jump. (Be sure to have a soft landing area.) - e. In roller skating (with conventional or in-line skates), know the safety rules. From a standing start, skate forward 150 feet and come to a complete stop within 20 feet. Skate around a corner clockwise and counterclockwise without coasting and show a turn from forward to backward. Skate backward 50 feet. Wear the proper protective clothing. - f. Earn a new Cub Scout Sports pin. (Repeat three times with different sports to earn up to three Arrow Points.)Cub Scout Badminton Pin - a. Take part in a council- or pack-sponsored, money-earning sales program. Keep track of the sales you make yourself. When the program is over, add up the sales you have made. - b. Help with a garage sale or rummage sale. This can be with your family or a neighbor, or it can be a church, school, or pack event. 22. Collecting Things - a. Start a stamp collection. You can get information about stamp collecting at any U.S. post office. - b. Mount and display a collection of emblems, coins, or other items to show at a pack meeting. This can be any kind of collection. Every time you show a different kind of collection, it counts as one requirement. - c. Start your own library. Keep your own books and pamphlets in order by subject. List the title, author, and subject of each on an index card and keep the cards in a file box, or use a computer program to store the information. - a. Look up your state on a U.S. map. What other states touch its borders? - b. Find your city or town on a map of your state. How far do you live from the state capital? - c. In which time zone do you live? How many time zones are there in the U.S.? - d. Make a map showing the route from your home to your school or den meeting place. - e. Mark a map showing the way to a place you would like to visit that is at least 50 miles from your home. 24. American Indian Life - a. American Indian people live in every part of what is now the continental United States. Find the name of the American Indian nation that lives or has lived where you live now. Learn about these people. - b. Learn, make equipment for, and play two American Indian or other native American games with members of your den. Be able to tell the rules, who won, and what the score was. - c. Learn what the American Indian people in your area (or another area) used for shelter before contact with the Europeans. Learn what American Indian people in that area used for shelter today. Make a model of one of these shelters, historic or modern. Compare the kind of shelter you made with the others made in your den. 25. Let's Go Camping - a. Learn about the ten essential items you need for a hike or campout. Assemble your own kit of essential items. Explain why each item is "essential." - b. Go on a short hike with your den, following the buddy system. Explain how the buddy system works and why it is important to you to follow it. Tell what to do if you are lost. - c. Participate with your den in front of the pack at a campfire. - d. Participate with your pack on an overnight campout. Help put up your tent and help set up the campsite. - e. Participate with your den in a religious service during an overnight campout or other Cub Scouting event. - f. Attend day camp in your area. - g. Attend resident camp in your area. - h. Earn the Cub Scout Leave No Trace Award. || The official source for the information shown in this article or section is:| Bear Handbook, 2003 Edition (BSA Supply No. 33451) The text of these requirements is locked and can only be edited by an administrator. Please note any errors found in the above requirements on this article's Talk Page.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

Source: youtube channel funfunfunfunfunfive, wikipedia "Paper Marbling is a method of aqueous surface design, which can produce patterns similar to smooth marble or other stone. The patterns are the result of color floated on either plain water or a viscous solution known as size, and then carefully transferred to an absorbent surface, such as paper or fabric. Through several centuries, people have applied marbled materials to a variety of surfaces. It is often employed as a writing surface for calligraphy, and especially book covers and endpapers in bookbinding and stationery. Part of its appeal is that each print is a unique monotype." The history of Paper Marbling is said to originate in different parts of East Asia. Known to be used in China, Persia, Ottoman Turkey, in Islamic Empires then Europe.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

When reference is made to the value of a property, generally fair market value is meant. Market price is what one might get from the sale of the property in terms of money. Sometimes value and price are the same, most particularly when there is no compulsion to buy or sell. Under other circumstances, there might be a wide difference between the market value of a property and the actual sale price. The appraiser must be careful to consider normal buyers and sellers attitudes for the type of property appraised. The appraiser is estimating actual market value not theoretical value. The immobility of real estate makes it unique. Theoretically, there are no two parcels exactly alike and therefore no means of making a total comparison between properties. Circumstances of one buyer and one seller affect the sale price of a specific property, whereas the actions of many buyers and sellers of similar type properties determine the going rate for the sale or exchange of property on the open market. Among the various types of value that have been designated from time to time are book value, tax value, market value, cash value, capital value, speculative value, par value, true value, exchange value, reproduction value, physical value, replacement value, insurance value, investment value, rental value, face value, depreciated value, leasehold value, sound value, sales value and cost value. The real estate broker should be concerned mostly with the concept of Fair Market Value, or simply market value, for this is the basis upon which most property is generally bought and sold.

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en

More and more people over the age of 50 are being diagnosed with sexually transmitted infections — a development that has a medical journal urging doctors to be more vigilant when treating older patients. The Student BMJ, an international journal published for medical students, says doctors need to ensure that when they are diagnosing older individuals, they aren't ruling out sexually transmitted infections based on age alone. "Sexually transmitted infections are not high on your list of differential diagnoses — but increasing evidence indicates that they should be," as cases of common infections have more than doubled in people aged 50 to 90 years old, the editorial says. According to one study, 80 per cent of the people in that age group are sexually active. One of the authors of the editorial, Rachel von Simson, a medical student at King's College London, said in an email that despite the dramatic rise in infections, there isn't enough awareness and more education is necessary. Von Simson says that it shouldn't be more difficult to educate older adults. "Whilst we have a huge evidence base on what works to educate young people about sex and sexually transmitted infections and we have had lots of campaigns over the years dedicated towards them, we don't have any evidence base on what will work with older adults," she said. "If all the campaigns older adults see are targeted at young adults, it is not surprising that they might take from that that they are not at risk." At the Calgary Sexual Health Centre a program called Seniors A GoGo is helping bring the message to older people in the city, according to the centre's spokeswoman. Pam Krause said that through monologues on sexuality led by seniors and education seminars, Seniors A GoGo is able to educate people who may not have had sex ed when they were in school. "The first year what was interesting was (the seniors) talked about sexuality in a really, really broad way about it being about relationships and love and not being lonely," Krause said. "Then the seniors themselves said the second year, 'I think we actually need to kick it up a notch.' " From there the sessions for Seniors A GoGo involved discussions about condoms and the dangers of unprotected sex. "It's funny, but it is shocking sometimes how uncomfortable people when thinking about older adults and sexuality. So there's this immediate barrier," Krause said. "You can talk to youth about a lot of stuff . . . but as soon as you address anything with older adults, for whatever reason our culture is ill prepared to deal with the fact that people over 50" are still having sex, she said. Krause said that previously there were few resources for seniors making the transition after the death of a spouse or after moving into a seniors' home. Seniors A GoGo helps by opening up a conversation with experts and other seniors so they get the right information. Practicing safe sex is especially important for older people because of their general decline in immunity, von Simson said. If more seniors are aware of the consequences of STIs and more doctors are on the lookout for them, the infections can be caught earlier and are less likely to cause serious harm. Von Simson said that more research is required so that the medical community can get a better handle on STI rates in older people, and how they can be better educated.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

The Life LineMade in United States, North and Central America Winslow Homer, American, 1836 - 1910 Oil on canvas E1924-4-15The George W. Elkins Collection, 1924 LabelThe dramatic rescue from a foundering ship shown here was made possible by a recent innovation in lifesaving technology, the breeches buoy. Secured firmly to ship and shore, the device permitted the transfer of stranded passengers to safety by means of a pulley that was hauled back and forth by crews at either end. Cropped down to its essentials, Homer's composition thrusts us into the midst of the action with massive waves rolling past, drenching the semiconscious woman and her anonymous savior. The Life Line was immediately recognized by critics as a major contribution to American art, portraying a heroic, contemporary subject with both painterly virtuosity and detailed observation. Social Tags [?]landscape [x] nhd 1861 to 1877 maritime [x] rescue [x] seascape [x] victorian [x] waves [x] [Add Your Own Tags] * Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

The Coca-Cola System Announces New Global Targets for Water Conservation and Climate Protection in Partnership With WWF The Coca-Cola Company, in partnership with World Wildlife Fund (WWF), today announced ambitious new targets to improve water efficiency and reduce carbon emissions within its system-wide operations, while promoting sustainable agricultural practices and helping to conserve the world’s most important freshwater basins. “Our sustainability as a business demands a relentless focus on efficiency in our use of natural resources. These performance targets are one way we are engaging to improve our management of water and energy,” said Muhtar Kent, president and CEO of The Coca-Cola Company. “In this resource constrained world, successful businesses will find ways to achieve growth while using fewer resources,” said Carter Roberts, president and CEO of WWF-US. “The Coca-Cola Company’s commitment to conservation responds to the imperative to solve the global water and climate crisis.” The partnership, announced by WWF and The Coca-Cola Company in 2007 with $20 million in funding, has now been extended an additional two years (through 2012) with the Company providing $3.75 million in new funding. The Coca-Cola Company also joined WWF’s Climate Savers program in which leading corporations from around the world work with WWF to dramatically reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. By 2010, Climate Savers companies will collectively cut carbon emissions by 14 million tons annually – the equivalent to taking more than 3 million cars off the road each year. Water Efficiency — Saving 50 billion liters in 2012 The Coca-Cola system will improve its water efficiency 20 percent by 2012, compared to a baseline year 2004. While water use is expected to increase as the business grows, this water efficiency target will eliminate approximately 50 billion liters of that increase in 2012. To support this efficiency target, The Coca-Cola Company and WWF have developed a Water Efficiency Toolkit to help reduce water consumption within bottling plants. This software-based instruction manual has been distributed to managers and operators throughout the Coca-Cola system, providing strategies to shrink the water footprint of their operations. Climate Protection — Preventing 2 million tons of CO(2) emissions The Company has set two emissions reduction targets: 1) grow the business, not the carbon system-wide and 2) a 5 percent absolute reduction in Annex 1 (developed) countries. The emissions targets apply to manufacturing operations in the year 2015 compared to a baseline year of 2004. The Coca-Cola Company and its bottlers anticipate substantial volume growth globally during this period, thus growing the business without growing the carbon is a significant commitment. Without intervention, emissions would grow proportional to volume and reach 7.3 million metric tons in 2015. Thus, the global commitment will prevent the release of more than 2 million metric tons of CO(2) in 2015 – the equivalent of planting 600,000 acres of trees. Supply Chain Sustainability The Coca-Cola Company also will work with WWF to promote more sustainable agricultural practices in an effort to reduce the impact of its supply chain on water resources. This work will initially focus on sugarcane production. The Coca-Cola Company and WWF are working with the Better Sugarcane Initiative to establish standards, evaluate suppliers and set goals for the purchase of sugar. The Coca-Cola Company will identify two additional commodities on which to work in 2009. The Coca-Cola system and WWF are working together to conserve some of the world’s most important freshwater resources, including the Yangtze, Mekong, Danube, Rio Grande/Rio Bravo, Lakes Niassa and Chiuta, the Mesoamerican Reef catchments, and the rivers and streams in the southeastern region of the United States. More than a dozen production plants and/or bottlers in the areas surrounding these rivers are developing and implementing water stewardship plans to serve as models throughout the Coca-Cola system. “Water and energy conservation are areas where we can truly make a difference. Last year, we set a goal to return to communities and to nature an amount of water equal to what we use in our beverages and their production. These targets support our work to achieve that goal,” said Kent. “The expansion of our partnership with WWF demonstrates our shared dedication to achieving large-scale results, and a grounded understanding that collaboration is key if we are to help address the world’s water challenges.” To learn more about the partnership, please visit www.thecoca-colacompany.com or www.worldwildlife.org. About The Coca-Cola Company The Coca-Cola Company is the world’s largest beverage company, refreshing consumers with more than 450 sparkling and still brands. Along with Coca-Cola, recognized as the world’s most valuable brand, the Company’s portfolio includes 12 other billion dollar brands, including Diet Coke, Fanta, Sprite, Coca-Cola Zero, vitaminwater, Powerade, Minute Maid and Georgia Coffee. Globally, we are the No.1 provider of sparkling beverages, juices and juice drinks and ready-to-drink teas and coffees. Through the world’s largest beverage distribution system, consumers in more than 200 countries enjoy the Company’s beverages at a rate of 1.5 billion servings a day. With an enduring commitment to building sustainable communities, our Company is focused on initiatives that protect the environment, conserve resources and enhance the economic development of the communities where we operate. For more information about our Company, please visit our Web site at www.thecoca-colacompany.com. About World Wildlife Fund WWF is the world’s largest conservation organization, working in 100 countries for nearly half a century. With the support of almost 5 million members worldwide, WWF is dedicated to delivering science-based solutions to preserve the diversity and abundance of life on Earth, stop the degradation of the environment and combat climate change. Visit www.worldwildlife.org to learn more.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

During the Star Wars years of the 1980s, Tom Paterson worked at a defense think tank creating elaborate mathematical models to help military commanders quickly decide which weapons to deploy to counter incoming missiles. Inputs from hundreds of sensors had to be combined to generate a consummate picture of events that would be unfolding in a matter of minutes, enabling the fateful choice about when to launch. When the cold war ended, Paterson, like many defense engineers, tried to find a way to apply his skills elsewhere. He ultimately took on a task that made shooting down missiles seem pedestrian. A challenge faced by engineers in the Star Wars program--designing software to pick out critical targets despite an overload of data--carried over to simulations of how drugs work in the metabolic and immune systems that drive the most complex machine we know. This article was originally published with the title Reverse-Engineering Clinical Biology.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

From Abracadabra to Zombies | View All N'kisi & the N'kisi Project N'kisi (pronounced ‘‘in-key-see’’) is a captive bred eight or nine-year-old hand raised African Grey Parrot whose owner, Aimée Morgana, thinks uses language. She doesn't think he just sounds out words. She thinks he communicates with her in language, which would in effect make N'kisi a rational parrot. For example, N'kisi utters "pretty smell medicine" when he wants to describe the aromatherapy oils that Aimée uses.* Furthermore, Aimée says her parrot has a fine sense of humor and knows how to laugh. Imagine having conversations with a humorous parrot. Think of all the things you could talk and joke about, besides aromatherapy. You could discuss the fame that would come to anyone who had a parrot that can think and converse in intelligent discourse, like pretty smell medicine and look at my pretty naked body.* And when some nasty skeptic makes fun of you, the two of you can joke about it. I'm afraid that this story stretches the boundaries of reasonable credibility, though stories of rational parrots go back at least to the 17th century. John Locke, for example, relates a tale of a Portuguese-speaking parrot of some note in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (II.xxvii.8). These cases are more likely cases of self-deception, delusion, and gullibility than of language-using parrots. Listen to this audio clip of N'kisi, Aimée, and a toy that "talks" when a button is pushed. First listen without reading the transcript. Some of it is intelligible, especially after the fourth or fifth repetition, but it is difficult to understand the "conversation," especially with the toy making its sounds as Aimée stimulates her parrot. Some of the tape sounds like gibberish until you are told what to listen for. When you listen while reading the transcript something amazing happens: you can hear just what you're reading. Why is that? The same thing happens when you listen to audio tapes played backward. When you just listen without anyone telling you what to listen for, you usually don't understand anything intelligible. But as soon as someone shows or tells you what to listen for, you can hear the message. Such is the power of suggestion and the way of audio perception. Hearing is a constructive process, like vision, in that bits of sensory data are "filled in" by the brain to produce a visual or auditory perception that is clear and distinct, and in accord with your expectations. Consider the following from an interview with Dr. Irene Pepperberg, Morgana's inspiration, who has been studying Alex, an African Grey Parrot, for many years: We were doing demos at the Media Lab [at MIT] for our corporate sponsors; we had a very small amount of time scheduled and the visitors wanted to see Alex work. So we put a number of differently colored letters on the tray that we use, put the tray in front of Alex, and asked, "Alex, what sound is blue?" He answers, "Ssss." It was an "s", so we say "Good birdie" and he replies, "Want a nut." Well, I don't want him sitting there using our limited amount of time to eat a nut, so I tell him to wait, and I ask, "What sound is green?" Alex answers, "Ssshh." He's right, it's "sh," and we go through the routine again: "Good parrot." "Want a nut." "Alex, wait. What sound is orange?" "ch." "Good bird!" "Want a nut." We're going on and on and Alex is clearly getting more and more frustrated. He finally gets very slitty-eyed and he looks at me and states, "Want a nut. Nnn, uh, tuh." Not only could you imagine him thinking, "Hey, stupid, do I have to spell it for you?" but the point was that he had leaped over where we were and had begun sounding out the letters of the words for us. This was in a sense his way of saying to us, "I know where you're headed! Let's get on with it," which gave us the feeling that we were on the right track with what we were doing.* Dr. Pepperberg thinks the bird is responding cognitively to her questions rather than simply responding to a stimulus. She thinks the bird is getting frustrated, but she has stipulated earlier in the interview: I never claim that Alex has full-blown language; I never would. I'm not going to be able to put Alex on a "T" stand and have you interview him the way you interview me. So, whereas you or I might say "give me the nut or this interview is over" were we parrots with intentionality and language, the parrot's movements and sounds have to be less direct and more complex, so that they have to be interpreted for us by Pepperberg. In her view, Alex is "clearly getting more frustrated" and his frustration culminates with a "very slitty-eyed" expression. But this is Pepperberg's interpretation, as is her hearing the bird sound out the letters of the word 'nut'. It could have been a stutter for all we know, but Pepperberg is facilitating Alex's communication by telling us what she hears. The final paragraph indicates that Pepperberg is having a hard time drawing the line between imagining what a parrot might be thinking and projecting those thoughts into the parrot's movements and sounds. She's also having a hard time getting grant money (NIH turned her down), so she started her own private foundation, the Alex Foundation. When news of N'kisi broke on the pages of BBC online, there was no mention in the article by Alex Kirby of the parrot having conversations with people other than Aimée Morgana. (The story was originally told in USA Today in the February 12, 2001, edition.) Despite the headline "Parrot's oratory stuns scientists," there was no evidence given that the parrot had stunned anyone during a conversation. It seems that Aimée is to her parrot what the facilitator is to her client in facilitated communication, except that the parrot is actually providing data to interpret and is more like clever Hans, the horse that responded to unconscious movements of his master, than a disabled human who may not be providing any content or direction at all to the facilitator. It is Aimée who gives intentionality to the parrot's sounds. She is the one who attributes 'laughter' to his shrieks and conscious awareness to his responses, though those responses could be due to any one of many stimuli, consciously or unconsciously provided by Aimée or items in the immediate environment. Nevertheless, Dr. Jane Goodall, who studies chimpanzees, met N'kisi and said that he provides an "outstanding example of interspecies communication." There is some evidence, however, that much of the work with language-using primates also mistakes subjective validation by scientists for complex linguistic abilities of their animal subjects (Wallman 1992). According to Mr. Kirby, N'kisi not only uses language but has been tested for telepathy and he passed the test with flying colors: In an experiment, the bird and his owner were put in separate rooms and filmed as the artist opened random envelopes containing picture cards. Analysis showed the parrot had used appropriate keywords three times more often than would be likely by chance. Kirby doesn't provide any details about the experiment, so a reader might misinterpret this claim as implying that this parrot did about twice as well as people did in the ganzfeld telepathy experiments. In those experiments, subjects in separate rooms were monitored as one tried to telepathically send information from a picture or video to the other. Typically, there was a 20% chance of guessing what the item was but results as high as 38% were reported in some meta-analyses. If the parrot scored three times better than chance, then he would have gotten 60% correct. The odds of a parrot randomly blurting out words that match up 60% of the time with pictures being looked at simultaneously in another room are so high that there is virtually no way that this could happen by chance. However, as you might suspect, Kirby's claim is a bit misleading. I assume that Kirby was writing about an experiment that was part of the N'kisi project, a joint effort by Morgana and Rupert Sheldrake to test not only the parrot's language-using abilities but his telepathic talents as well. Sheldrake has already validated the telepathic abilities of a dog and thinks the "findings [of this experiment] are consistent with the hypothesis that N'kisi was reacting telepathically to Aimée's mental activity."* The full text of Sheldrake's study published in the peer reviewed Journal of Scientific Exploration is available online. The title of the paper would send most journal editors to their grave, killed by laughter: "Testing a Language-Using Parrot for Telepathy." Fortunately for Sheldrake and his associates there will always be a sympathetic editor for another story like that of J. B. Rhine and the telepathic horse, "Lady Wonder." At least Sheldrake's protocols show some measure of sophistication, unlike Rhine's. Even so, as the editor at the Journal of Scientific Exploration commented: "once again, we have suggestive results, a level of statistical significance that is less than compelling, and the devout wish that further work with refined protocols will ensue."* So, we'll just have to wait and see whether further study of N'kisi supports the telepathic hypothesis. Anyway, here is how Sheldrake set up the experiment. He first compiled a list of 30 words from the bird's vocabulary that "could be represented by visual images." A package of 167 photos from a stock supplier was used for the test. Since only 20 of the photos corresponded to words on the list, the word list was reduced to 20. The word 'camera' was removed from the list because 'N’kisi "used it so frequently to comment on the cameras used in the tests themselves." Thus, they were left with 19 words. During the tests, N’kisi remained in his cage in Aimée’s apartment in Manhattan, New York. There was no one in the room with him. Meanwhile, Aimée went to a separate enclosed room on a different floor. N’kisi could not see or hear her, and in any case, Aimée said nothing, as confirmed by the audio track recorded on the camera that filmed her continuously. The distance between Aimée and N’kisi was about 55 feet. Aimée could hear N’kisi through a wireless baby monitor, which she used to gain ‘‘feedback’’ to help her to adjust her mental state as image sender. Both Aimée and N’kisi were filmed continuously throughout the test sessions by two synchronized cameras on time-coded videotape. The cameras were mounted on tripods and ran continuously without interruption throughout each session. N’kisi was also recorded continuously on a separate audio tape recorder. (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003) According to Sheldrake: We conducted a total of 147 two-minute trials. The recordings of N’kisi during these trials were transcribed blind by three independent transcribers....He scored 23 hits: the key words he said corresponded to the target pictures....If N’kisi said a key word that did not correspond to the photograph, that was counted as a miss, and if he said a key word corresponding to the photograph, that was a hit. (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003) However, sixty of the trials were discarded because in those trials N'kisi either was silent or uttered things that were not key words, i.e., showed no signs of telepathy. A few other trials were discarded because the transcribers did not agree on what N'kisi said. In short, Sheldrake's statistical conclusions are based on the results of 71 of the trials. I'll let the reader decide whether it was proper to omit 40% of the data because the parrot didn't utter a word on the key word list during those trials. Some might argue that those sessions should be counted as misses and that by ignoring so much data where the parrot clearly did not indicate any sign of telepathy is strong evidence that Sheldrake was more interested in confirming his biases than in getting at the truth. N'kisi's misses were listed at 94. Ten of the 23 hits were on the picture that corresponded to the word 'flower', which N'kisi uttered 23 times during the trials. The flower image, selected randomly, was used in 17 trials. The image corresponding to water was used in 10 of the trials. The bird said 'water' in twelve trials and got 2 hits. It seems oddly biased that almost one-third of the images and more than half the hits came from just 2 of the 19 pictures. One of the peer reviewers thought that the fact that the flower word and picture played so heavy a role in the outcome that the paper's results were distorted and that the paper should not be published. The other reviewer accepted Sheldrake's observation that even if you throw out the flower data, you still get some sort of statistical significance. This may be true. However, since the bird allegedly had a vocabulary of some 950 words at the time of the test, omitting sessions where the bird said nothing or said something not on the key list, is unjustifiable. Furthermore, there is no evidence that it is reasonable to assume that when the parrot is by itself uttering words that it is trying to communicate telepathically with Morgana. Or are we to accept Sheldrake's assumption that the parrot turns his telepathic interest off and on, and it was on only when he uttered a word on the key list? That assumption is no more valid that Morgana's belief that the telepathy doesn't work as well when she makes an effort to send a telepathic message to her parrot. In any case, I wonder why Sheldrake didn't do a baseline study, where the parrot was videotaped for two-minutes at a time while Morgana was taking an aromatherapy bath or meditating or doing something unrelated to the key word pictures. Had he made several hundred such clips, he could then have randomly selected 71 and compared them to the 71 clips he used for his analysis. If there was no significant difference between the randomly selected clips and the ones that emerged during the experiment, then the telepathy hypothesis would not be supported. On the other hand, if he found a robust statistically significant difference, then the telepathy hypothesis would be supported. I suggest he do something along these lines when he attempts to replicate his parrot telepathy test. In some trials, N’kisi repeated a given key word. For example, in one trial N’kisi said ‘‘phone’’ three times, and in another he said ‘‘flower’’ ten times, and in the tabulation of data the numbers of times he said these words are shown in parentheses as: phone (3); flower (10). For most of the statistical analyses, repetitions were ignored, but in one analysis the numbers of words that were said more than once in a given trial were compared statistically with those said only once for both hits and misses. For each trial, the key word or words represented in the photograph were tabulated. Some images had only one key word, but others had two or more. For example, a picture of a couple hugging in a pool of water involved two key words, ‘‘water’’ and ‘‘hug.’’ (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003) He calculated 51 hits and 126 misses when repetitions were included. I'm not going to bother with any more detail because by now the overall picture should be clear. Once the statisticians went to work on the data, they were able to provide support for the claim that the data were consistent with the telepathic hypothesis. But nowhere in Sheldrake's paper can I find a claim that the parrot did three times better than expected by chance. In any case, I have to agree with the editor who published Sheldrake's parrot paper: the results have a statistical significance that is less than compelling. However, unlike that editor, my devout wish is that when such studies as these are published in the future, responsible journalists continue to ignore them and recognize them for the rubbish they are. On the other hand, if you happen to think your parrot is psychic, drop Dr. Sheldrake a line. He's set up a page just for you. Sheldrake has responded to this article. His comments and my responses are posted here. books and articles new Grey parrots use reasoning where monkeys and dogs can’t "Christian Schloegl and his team at the University of Vienna, let six parrots choose between two containers, one containing a nut. Both containers were shaken, one eliciting a rattling sound and the other nothing. The parrots preferred the container that rattled, even if only the empty container was shaken....Thus, grey parrots seem to possess ape-like reasoning skills...." [/new] Last updated 16-Aug-2012

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Can You Train Your Pet Cat? Yes, but it won't be easy. A border collie named Chaser has been trained to recognize and respond to 1,022 nouns, according to a New York Times profile published last Monday. The extent of Chaser's vocabulary is astonishing, but it's no surprise that a dog could be trained to sit, stay, or fetch particular objects from under the couch. What about a cat? Is it possible to train your Tabby? Yes, but it's slightly more difficult. Cats were domesticated about 9,000 years ago, and were originally used to hunt mice. It's likely they were selected for their solitary hunting abilities, not for any particular social acuity or inclination to follow instructions. (Dogs, on the other hand, were selected for those very traits.) That doesn't mean you can't train a cat; it just means they won't always respond to the same rewards as dogs. While some dogs are content with a pat on the head and a "good boy!" in exchange for proper behavior, cats typically work for food and might be slower to pick up new tricks. Even so, both species can be trained with the same methods. (The most common are positive reinforcement, clicker training, and targeting.) Cats can be trained to use a toilet bowl instead of a litter box, follow their owners at a command, or perform a high-five. Dogs dohave larger brains than cats, both in absolute terms and relative to the size of their bodies. That feature may have evolved to help them meet the social demands of living in a pack. And a heightened sociability could in turn make them better at reading and responding to human facial expressions and commands. If it's possible to train cats, why don't we do it more often? Cats are less of a bother than dogs when they misbehave. While a hyperactive canine might rip up your curtains and your couch, a problematic cat tends to be disobedient in more subtle ways—like waking you up at 5 a.m. for breakfast. Cats are also quieter and less likely to drool on your belongings or jump on strangers. When cats do develop behavioral problems, their owners are more likely to accept and ignore the issue, rather than embarking on a training protocol. Got a question about today's news? Ask the Explainer Explainer thanks, Christine Bellezza of the Cornell Feline Health Center, Nicholas Dodman of Tufts University, Sandra Sawchuk of the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, and Carlo Siracusa of the University of Pennsylvania Veterinary Hospital. Photograph of a cat by Jupiterimages/Thinkstock.

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Culture has a special historical and social significance in Slovenia. It was primarily thanks to their culture and their common language of Slovene that the people of Slovenia were able to forge themselves into a nation and survive. Language and culture have for centuries compensated Slovenes for the lack of their own state and political institutions. Slovenia is one of those rare countries, if not the only country in the world, where a day of culture is a national holiday. In honour of the poet Slovenia’s national day of culture is 8 February, the anniversary of the death of its greatest poet, France Prešeren , whose wonderful works from the first half of the 19th century are a supreme example of European romanticism. One such work is A Toast , now Slovenia’s national anthem. The relevance of Prešeren’s poetry played a role in the creation of the first real national political programme, which helped to forge the Slovenian national identity. The annual Prešeren Prizes are the highest awards for the most important and momentous achievements in culture. Credit to the protestant One of the most important foundations of Slovenian culture was established by another literary figure, the protestant pastor Primož Trubar , who published the first book in Slovene in 1550. It was then that Slovene officially joined the family of European literary languages. The power of verse and the written word Literature also held a special place in Slovenian culture in the 20th century, when the playwright Ivan Cankar , the poet Srečko Kosovel , contemporary poets like Ciril Zlobec, Kajetan Kovič, Tomaž Šalamun and Dane Zajc and the writers Vitomil Zupan, Drago Jančar, Boris Pahor and Lojze Kovačič all left their mark. Many of their works have been translated into multiple European languages. Further evidence of the importance of books in Slovenian culture is that Slovenia is ranked at the top of European countries in terms of the number of books published per head. In 2010, Ljubljana was selected by Unesco to be the World Book Capital. In 2012, Maribor was the European Capital of Culture Pillars of culture Slovenia has a very well-developed network of cultural institutions, organisations and associations, comparable with the wealthiest and most progressive countries in Europe. The Slovenian Philharmonic is one of the oldest orchestras in Europe, with a history of more than 300 years. There are professional opera and ballet companies in Ljubljana and Maribor, and numerous professional theatre groups , including Drama (Slovenia’s national theatre), the Youth Theatre and the Puppet Theatre Cultural life is rich and varied at the museums, galleries and cultural centres, pride of place among which is taken by Cankarjev Dom There are a host of top festivals in Slovenia, particularly in the summer: the Ljubljana Festival at Križanke, the festival of early music in Brežice , the Primorska Cultural Festival and a series of cultural events under the aegis of Imago Sloveniae . Maribor’s Lent Festival is also a favourite. There are 45 permanent galleries in Slovenia, and over 800 spaces where works of fine art are exhibited permanently or occasionally. The most important in Ljubljana are the Museum of Modern Art, which focuses on modern works, and the National Gallery, whose collection consists of older works. Impressionism made Slovenian painting known throughout Europe in the first half of the 20th century, while the Ljubljana graphic school was renowned after the Second World War. There are five professional orchestras in Slovenia, and a host of musicians who are famed outside the country. The largest concert halls are at the Cankarjev Dom cultural and conference centre, which holds close to a thousand events each year. Slovenia’s own brand of polka music reached its peak in the accordion and ensemble of Slavko Avsenik , while the annual festival in Stična is a feast of choral singing , and the France Marolt folk group have performed their singing and dancing all over the world. The contemporary thrill of classical music is the territory of the Slovenian Philharmonic, particularly its top musicians, flautist Irena Grafenauer , pianist Dubravka Tomšič and soprano Marjana Lipovšek. Laibach have been a highly influential band in the last few decades in modern alternative music. The ethno-pop of Magnifico has gained a rising international profile. The giants of Slovenian pop music are Vlado Kreslin , while Slovenian DJs are welcome on global dancefloors, most notably DJ Umek. Architecture is also a vital part of Slovenian culture. The most famous native architect, Jože Plečnik , was a pioneer of modern Slovenian and European architecture of the 20th century. Ljubljana is famed for his work. Many of Plečnik’s students continued his legacy in the second half of the 20th century. International cultural events Each year Slovenia hosts a number of other events that are renowned further afield. To mention a few: the Exodos dance festival in Ljubljana, the Ana De setnica festival of street theatre, the PEN meeting in Bled and the Vilenica literary festival near Sežana. In short, the range of cultural events, festivals, concerts and exhibitions in Slovenia is enough to satisfy the most demanding of guests. The small size of the market means that many artistic and cultural activities in Slovenia enjoy significant support and subsidies from the government (approximately two-thirds of the requisite funding), and funding from local authorities. It is remarkable that less than 10% of cultural activities’ earnings come from the consumer, i.e. visitors to cultural events. The exception of course is the entertainment industry, notably pop and jazz, where the performers have to rely on their own ingenuity to earn their dues.

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"Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn, an advertising executive and one of the founders of BBDO, in a book called Applied Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output by using the method of brainstorming." -Wikipedia Article on Brainstorming Pages in category "Brainstorming" This category contains only the following page.

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A dramatic drop in the population of puffins at their main North Sea breeding site has alarmed scientists. - Global warming blamed for decline of puffins - Britain's oldest puffin resurfaces - British birds face potential eco-disaster After almost 40 years of breeding success puffin numbers on the Isle of May have plummeted by 30 per cent. It is not known whether the sudden decline is merely a blip or whether the tiny iconic bird has joined the list of sea birds in long term decline in the North Sea. The sudden drop in numbers was revealed in a survey carried out every five years on the island off Scotland's east coast by scientists from the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. The Isle of May is home to the largest colony of puffins in the North Sea and has been the centre of the UK science community's research into the bird for over three decades. Numbers have increased dramatically from a handful of pairs 50 years ago to more than 69,000 pairs at the time of the last count in 2003. Scientists had expected numbers to soar to more than 100,000 pairs this year and are baffled by the loss of almost one in three birds. Professor Mike Harris, Emeritus Research Fellow at the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, who has studied puffins for 36 year, said: "Something worrying appears to have happened over last winter and probably the one before. "Puffins appear to be joining the ranks of other seabirds in the North Sea that are suffering reduced breeding success and decline in numbers." The puffin (Fratercula arctica) is instantly recognisable by its bright red and black eye markings and vivid orange legs and is known as the clown of seabirds. But its comical looks and endearing traits has made it one of the world's favourite birds. Adults arrive back at their breeding colonies in the Shetland and Orkney Islands, Northumberland, Anglesey and the Isle of May in March and April and they leave again in mid-August. They nest in burrows on the cliff tops and rely mainly on sand eels to feed their young. The disappearance of the sand eel due mainly to industrial fishing by factory ships in the North Sea is believed to be one of the main factors in the puffin's decline on May. Bird numbers are assessed by carefully examining burrows for signs of occupation in late April after the birds have cleaned them out ready for breeding. In past surveys the occupancy rate was nearly 100 per cent, but this year it was down to only 70 per cent. Scientists also noticed fewer birds than usual had returned to the island and those that did were underweight compared to previous years suggesting they may have had a difficult winter. Unusually high numbers of puffins, including some ringed on the island in previous years, were washed ashore dead during the last two winters. Professor Harris said: "We need to repeat the survey next year to check the unlikely possibility that a large numbers of puffins took a summer off from visiting the Island. We also need to widen the survey to include other colonies in the North Sea to measure to what extent the puffin population is declining in the area."

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Fly ash isn't just filler in concrete. As a very fine-grained pozzolan, it reacts with the calcium hydroxide that is generated by the hydration reaction of cement and water to take on cementitious properties of its own. The reaction makes concrete stronger, less permeable, and reduces the alkalinity, which can reduce the danger of alkali-silica reactivity in the aggregate—and the need in some parts of the country to import nonreactive aggregate from distant sources. Fly ash concrete is more workable and pumpable. It also hydrates more slowly, which reduces the heat of hydration—critical to reducing cracking in mass concrete placements. All of this makes fly ash concrete more durable than plain portland cement concrete. And concrete with fly ash costs less, because fly ash is typically less expensive than portland cement. Due to all these advantages, fly ash is used in about half the concrete placed today. NRMCA estimates that 15% of cementitious materials in concrete are replaced by fly ash and other supplementary cementitious materials. Typically specified as a percentage replacement for portland cement, both Class C and Class F ash is used at dosages as high as 50% (although 15% is more common). But the percentage of fly ash use has been increasing. To achieve a more sustainable concrete, producers and engineers have been increasing replacement rates. One recent study used fly ash at replacement rates up to 30% with no adverse results on a hard-troweled concrete floor (see “Adding Fly Ash to Concrete Mixes for Floor Construction” CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION Special Floors Issue, November 2007). There is a limit to how much fly ash our industry can use. First, not all fly ash is equal. “Every power plant has its idiosyncrasies” says Morris “Skip” Huffman, former chairman of ACI Committee 232, Fly Ash, and division manager with Headwaters Resources, a marketer of fly ash. “The quality can vary, depending on exactly how the plant is being run. Some fly ashes have higher sulfur trioxide (SO3) contents and are not suitable for use in concrete. Some have problems with higher carbon content or they are too coarse. But the majority of ash, especially in the western U.S., is suitable for use in concrete and can go straight from the plant to the silo.” And contractors often object to using fly ash concrete. These concerns include set time, air content, and strength gain. Some fly ash can retard hydration and lead to longer set times and slower strength gain. And some can lead to loss of entrained air. An experienced concrete producer can easily overcome these issues. In January 2006 CC, (Using High Volume Fly Ash Concrete), Lattimore Materials' Richard Szecsy notes that even at replacement rates as high as 50%, the set time and strength gain can be controlled using admixtures and proportioning.Why a hazardous waste? No one argues that containment pond failures are acceptable—they are not. And no one doubts that there should be tighter regulations governing their design, construction, and maintenance. But to many proponents supporting fly ash use in concrete, regulating final disposal methods is a completely separate matter than designating fly ash as a hazardous waste under Subtitle C. The problem is that the EPA wants more authority than the current law allows. At the September 2009 meeting of the Environmental Council of the States (ECOS), Matt Hale, director of EPA's Office of Resource Conservation & Recovery, said that while he believes that regulating fly ash under Subtitle D would be sufficient to protect public health and the environment, it doesn't provide the EPA with the authority to enforce more stringent disposal requirements. InsideEPA.com reports that the agecy's current proposal is an unusual “hybrid” approach: designating fly ash as hazardous if it's disposed of in a containment pond or landfill but not hazardous when recycled for “beneficial uses.” This proposal could mean that producers and power plants would have to transport, store, and treat fly ash as a hazardous waste in its powder form, but not after it's incorporated into concrete. However well-intended, a hybrid approach to fly ash classification would cause our nation significant problems.

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The study involved the first-ever use on an infectious disease of a new research technique called chemical genetics. Every virus presents scientists with a new kind of genetic code—the challenge is to figure out how to decipher it to gain a fuller understanding of how the virus works and how to combat it. In the past, such research was often slow and laborious. But thanks to chemical genetics—which allows scientists to quickly test how a new virus reacts with thousands of different chemicals—viruses that might have remained indecipherable for years can now be at least partially unlocked in months or even weeks. "Instead of testing out keys in a lock one by one, it's like trying out 50,000 keys all at once," says Yuen. The point of both chemical and classical genetic research is to figure out which genes do what—in effect, to learn to read an organism's genetic language. In classical genetics, scientists usually mutate an organism, see how its functions have changed (a mutated virus might no longer be infectious) and then work back and identify which gene mutated. If a mutated virus loses its ability to infect a cell, then that gene probably has something to do with infectivity. In chemical genetics, explains Dr. Richard Kao, the lead researcher on the HKU study, scientists try do the same by testing thousands upon thousands of chemicals on virus samples. The vast majority won't have any effect, but a handful will. Researchers can then take those virus samples and use further tests to figure out which viral gene has been affected by which chemical. "If we discover that interfering with a certain gene stops the virus from replicating, then we know that gene's function likely has to do with replication," says Kao, a biochemist who brought his passion for chemical genetics to HKU from Harvard University, where the process was first pioneered in the early 1990s. In HKU's SARS study, Kao and his colleagues filled the tiny wells of a small, waffle-like board with samples of the coronavirus cultured in cell lines. Microscopic amounts of different chemical compounds were introduced into each separate well using a $180,000 machine called an automated high-throughput screening platform. Once the chemicals had time to interact with the virus, scientists could examine the results with an inverted microscope. The process was repeated until all 50,240 compounds in their chemical library had been tested, which took a few months. "You'd think it'd be tedious work, but it's really not that bad," says Kao. If the chemical failed to interfere with the virus, as was the case with most of them, researchers would easily see evidence of unchecked infection in the cell lines. But about 1,000 compounds seemed to slow the virus, and 104 of those all but stopped infection. It stood to reason that those compounds were hitting the viral genetic pathways that were most important for infectivity. With help from their collaborators at the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center in New York, Kao and his colleagues discovered that one of 104 compounds inhibited a kind of viral processing inside the cell, six inhibited viral replication and 18 seemed to prevent the virus from entering the cell in the first place. (Kao says further work will be needed to figure out which viral genes the remaining 78 compounds affect. One of them seems to affect both processing and replication.) A number of these compounds could form the basis for promising anti-SARS drugs, and HKU plans to begin animal-testing some of the most effective compounds soon. But the real value of the study is the clearer picture it offers of the SARS virus and the blueprint it provides for research responses to any future emerging diseases, like avian flu. "We can react more rapidly, and we can find new drugs that specifically target the disease," Kao says. "If there's a new virus, we can jump onto this." Around HKU, that's a question of when, not if. HKU's work on SARS and bird flu has helped transform a regional university into a world player in disease research, and its staff understand that they are part of a vital bulwark. "Hong Kong is a very strategic place to be for emerging-infectious-disease work," says Yuen. And when the next would-be superbug pops up, at least scientists will have one more arrow in their quiver.

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Kindergarten Puzzle Games: K (5-6 yrs) Alphabet Crossword is a simple puzzle and vocabulary exercise for preschoolers. The game progresses from A to Z, teaching the child some common words associated with each alphabet. Kids have to fill the crossword puzzle by clicking and dropping the words in the corresponding blank spaces. Through this puzzle game, kids will build and expand their vocabulary as they learn new words, their spellings and their pronunciations.

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Lauretta Underwood, 72, said she can clearly remember the day her mother told her she was about to witness history as she was dropped off at school. Following the landmark Supreme Court case Brown V. Board of Education, which made school segregation unconstitutional, Central High School and the state of Arkansas became a national symbol of integration resistance, according to the Arkansas Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. The school board complied with the law and adopted a plan to integrate, beginning at the high school level and working down to the lower grades starting in 1957, according to the website. On Sept. 2, 1957, nine African American students who volunteered to attend Central High School were stopped by the Arkansas National Guard under the direction of Gov. Orval Faubus, who asserted the students’ entrance to the school would cause violence, the website states. President Dwight Eisenhower brought in the U.S. Army’s 101st Airborne Division to ensure the students were allowed to attend the school on Sept. 25. Mrs. Underwood said mobs of people, many of whom were mothers, were protesting and the soldiers formed a perimeter around the school, but she was not afraid as she entered. “In a way, you felt safe because you knew they were there to keep things under control, and there were tanks and trucks everything — it was like a warzone,” she said. She said, before the airborne division came in, students flocked to the windows as an innocent black man was beaten and dragged down the street by a mob. From her vantage point, she wasn’t exactly sure who stopped the violence, but it appeared the National Guard wasn’t doing much. “Best I can remember, he was just an innocent guy walking down the street, and there was a mob, and they were going to take it out on him,” she said. “The people that were protesting the most were the mothers,” she said. “The fathers were at work. (It was) not all of them, a minority were … protesting.” Some mothers picked up their children from school that first day if they had a class with an African American student, and one of them addressed Earnest Green while he was in study hall, she said. “Most of the mothers who came to get their kids were quiet and respectful, but one (that) came to the door when I was in study hall was not,” she said. “I won’t (repeat) what she said, but it’s still in my memory. He just put his head on his desk — never said a word.” Mrs. Underwood said study hall was the only class she had with Earnest, and speaking was not allowed in the class. She said, although they were never friends, she considered him to be very nice, polite and intelligent. The two also shared a lunch period and after the resistance that day, Earnest ate lunch by himself. “Part of me wanted to get up and join him,” she said. “I knew that was the right and Christian thing to do, however, I did not have the courage to do so, and no one else at my table would go with me.” Mrs. Underwood said after a few days, a group of boys found the courage to sit with Earnest and he gradually made friends at the school. Despite the initial resistance, most students did not go out of their way to make the nine student’s lives difficult, she said. “Most of the kids were pleasant to the nine, or at least ignored them, but there were some who were cruel and harassed them constantly,” she said. “They were the minority. The majority were either nice to them or left them alone.” Mrs. Underwood said the ceremony was held outside in the school’s stadium and Earnest was booed and jeered at as he walked across the stage during rehearsal. A strong police presence was at the actual ceremony, and Mrs. Underwood said she became anxious as Earnest’s name was called out. “I didn’t want them to do that to him,” she said. “He was such a nice guy, so when he called his name, I was holding my breath. There wasn’t one sound, one jeer, one boo one anything — it was just quiet.” Looking back on the historical year, Mrs. Underwood said she had one regret. “I know as a Christian I felt really bad for not befriending Earnest, but I’m happy to see hearts have melted and race relations have improved,” she said. “I pray they will continue to get better.”

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1865 Born in Bombay, where his father was a Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the Bombay School of Art. 1870 Rudyard and his younger sister are taken to England by his parents and placed in Calvinistic foster home were he is nagged, bullied and beaten. 1876 Rudyard's mother returns to England and discovers the mistreatment that her children had endured. Rudyard is removed from the foster home and he is sent to a private school called the United Services College. 1881 Schoolboy Lyrics published. 1882 Rudyard leaves school to return to India. His father, who was then the curator of the museum at Lahore, gets him a job as assistant editor of the English paper, The Civil and Military Gazette, which was published in that city. 1886 Departmental Ditties is published. 1887 After five years as sub-editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Rudyard is sent to Allahabad, several hundred miles to the south, to work on the much more important sister-paper, The Pioneer. The proprietors were starting a weekly edition for home, and he was given the editorship. He publishes Soldier Tales, Indian Tales, and Tales of the Opposite Sex. Among them were such powerful and grusome stories as The Mark of the Beast and The Return of Imray. 1888 Publishes Plain Tales from the Hills his first work which explores the psychological and moral problems of the Anglo-Indians and their relationship with the people they had colonized. Also published are: Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and White, Wee Wee Willie Winkie and Turn overs from "The Civil and Military Gazette" 1889 Rudyard leaves India for England and settles down in Villiers Street, Strand. 1890 The Courting of Dinah Shadd and Other Stories and The City of Dreadful Night are published. 1891 The Light that Failed, Letters of Marque and Life's Handicap are published. 1892 Barrack-Room Ballads, Rhymed Chapter Headings and The Naulahka are published. Rudyard marries Carolyn Balestier, the sister of Wolcott Balestier, who is an American. Because of his health breaking down, Rudyard and his wife settle down in Brattleboro, Vermont where his wife's family had long been established. 1893 Many Inventions is published. 1894 The Jungle Book is published. 1895 The Second Jungle Book is published. 1896 The Seven Seas and Soldier Tales is published. 1897 After a violent arguement with his in-laws, Rudyard and his wife move back to England and settles on a country estate. Captains Courageous is published. 1898 An Almanac of Twelve Sports,The Day's Work and A Fleet in Being are published. 1899 Rudyard goes to South Africa, in the midst of the defeats of the Boer War. His eldest daughter Josephine dies of measles. Stalky and Co. and From Sea to Sea are published. 1900 The Kipling Reader is published. 1901 Kim and War's Brighter Side are published. 1902 Just So Stories is published. 1903 The Five Nations is published. 1904 Traffics and Discoveries is published. 1906 Puck of Pook's Hill is published. 1907 Collected Verse is published. Rudyard Kipling becomes the first English author to recieve the Nobel Prize for Literature. 1909 Actions and Reactions is published. 1910 Rewards and Fairies is published. 1911 A History of England is published. 1912 Collected Verse (British edition) and ,Songs from Books is published. 1914 Rudyard emerges from seclusion as the official writer-up of the new armed forces of the Crown. 1915 The New Army in Training and France in War are published. "Mary Postgate." 1916 Rudyard's son is killed with the Irish Guards. Sea Warfare is published. 1917 A Diversity of Creatures is published. 1919 The Graves of the Fallen and The Years Between are published. 1920 Horace Odes, Book V and Letters of Travel are published. 1923 Elected Lord Rector of St. Andrews University. The Irish Guards in the Great War and Land and Sea are published. 1924 Songs for Youth is published. 1926 Sea and Sussex and Debits and Credits are published. 1927 Songs of the Sea is published. 1928 A Book of Words is published. 1929 Poems, 1886-1929 is published. 1930 Thy Servant A Dog is published. 1932 Limits and Renewals is published. 1934 Collected Dog Stories is published. 1936 January 18th Rudyard Kipling dies of a perforated duodenum. Last modified 1988

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The California Community Colleges Throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century, states established public colleges and universities, funded enrollment expansion, and launched an experiment in social engineering. The result was a transformation of the scope and purpose of American higher education. California can be seen as leading this transformation. California reflected the struggle of most other states to coordinate their respective public institutions. Issues of governance, autonomy, funding, and accountability gained greater importance in local and statewide politics. As the need of higher education in American society increased, the number of public institutions grew. The cost to taxpayers advanced these developments, but it differed in its early development of a coherent organizational structure for public higher education. In the Progressive Era, California established and funded a groundbreaking, geographically dispersed system of public colleges and a multi-campus state university . California Progressives created a social contract and an organizational structure that coupled the promise of broad access to public higher education with a desire to develop institutions of high academic quality—an influential model that John Douglass, in his book The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plans, calls “The California Idea.” A Pivotal Role California played a pivotal role in the development of community colleges and districts in America. Legislation in California produced some of the earliest community colleges in the country. The district college soon became the model for most public community colleges in the nation and other states moved quickly to pass similar legislation. Social, political, and economic forces shaped public higher education in California. Its major personalities include David Starr Jordan, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Hiram Warren, and Clark The first two-year colleges in California began with the recognition by local townspeople that many young high school graduates, unable to take up residence at an often distant college or university (usually for financial reasons), might benefit from college level studies. The founders of these institutions tended to be modest about their aspirations. They wanted to make it clear that they were in no sense proposing to compete with four-year Generally, these colleges were established by an existing high school district as just one more service offered to the community by the democratic school system. It was not long, however, before the "post high school experience" grew into full-fledged junior colleges. Ultimately these institutions became today's "comprehensive" California Community Colleges. some debate the origins of how the junior college came to California, evidence points to William Rainey Harper, President of the University of Chicago. Letters authored by Harper around 1900 noted that he was working with three California Colleges on the junior college idea. However, it was David Starr Jordan, President of Stanford College, who became the most important figure in the junior college movement in California. Jordan's friendship and exchanges with Harper, as well as his tenacious persuit of the separation from the university's lower division, made him one of the most important figures in California's two-year college movement. A California law adopted in 1907 (Upward Extension Law) allowed high schools to offer "postgraduate" classes. Many historians have described this law as the beginning of the California junior college system. The historical record, however, does not support this view. Both extended high schools and two-year colleges appear to have existed before the 1907 law. There is some historical evidence that many California high schools were already offering post diploma courses before the law was passed. William Rainey Harper noted in 1900 that five California colleges were already preparing to convert to junior colleges. These institutions may have converted before 1907 (Witt, p 53). The first use of the Upward Extension Law in the state was Fresno High School around 1910. With the assistance of universities Stanford and Berkeley, a principal and instructors were chosen for the first junior college in California. The school provided courses primarily to prepare persons for work in agriculture or industry. In 1913, Bakersfield, Fullerton, and Long Beach founded junior colleges. Between 1915-1916, Azuza, Chaffey, Riverside, Sacramento, and Santa Ana followed suit. By the end of the decade, California had created the most extensive junior college system in the nation (Witt, p. 53). The Development of Districts in California Another piece of California legislation passed in 1917, the Ballard Act, which provided state and county support for junior colleges. This Act followed the state funding formula for high schools and provided funding to community colleges on a per-student basis. In 1921, the District Junior College Law amended the Ballard Act. This law allowed for the creation of community college districts to fund and administer junior colleges in California (Witt, p. 52-53). With the establishment of college district boards of education, freestanding institutions of higher education were controlled by the electorate, not by an academic elite. This combination of local control and public funding allowed junior colleges to adapt rapidly to the needs of their districts. Local control also contributed to the rise of vocational education, adult education, evening classes, and other innovations that distinguish today's community colleges. This new law had an immediate effect as three junior college districts formed soon after, including Modesto College in September 1921. Eight days later Riverside Junior College reorganized under a district plan, and two months later Sacramento created a college district. California had thirty-one public junior colleges, fourteen of them districts, by 1928. The 1920's and 1930's were a period of increased growth and interest in the community college. By 1930, approximately 150,000 students were enrolled in the community college system (Witt, p 96-113). Most of that growth took place in Illinois, Texas, and California. The second world war created a demand for vocational programs. Many junior colleges participated in the newly approved Civilian Pilot Training Program. The greatest concentration of these programs was in California and Texas. This defense effort provided a boon, increase in scope, and new acceptance for junior college vocational programs. In addition, with students facing military draft, junior colleges began offering accelerated degree programs. For example, San Bernardino Junior College shortened their associate degree to three semesters (Witt, p.119). Throughout the nation, despite the fact that the Selective Service Act of 1940 exempted college and university students from the draft, enrollments declined and small private junior colleges closed. Conversely, California's booming defense industry provided for an establishment of ten new colleges during the war. By 1945, the state had fifty-seven junior colleges (Witt, p. 125-128). Following World War II, colleges were given a boost with the passage of the GI Bill. Under the GI Bill, any honorably discharged veteran who had served ninety days or was injured in the line of duty was entitled to a free college education. The government would pay for tuition, books, and fees at any approved institution. After the decline in enrollments nationwide, colleges scrambled to meet the demand. Once again, California blazed ahead of the nation with the establishment of 18 new public junior colleges in the first five years after the GI Bill passage (Witt, By the end of the 1950's, as the baby boom generation was preparing to graduate from high school, California claimed the largest two-year college enrollment in America. Nearly 300,000 students were part time or adult education students. About 91,000 were enrolled in full-time or certificate programs (Witt, The history of California public higher education from statehood to politics and economic forces eventually resulted in the 1960 California Master Plan for Higher Education. This plan, formulated by a commission headed by Clark Kerr, then president of the University of California, remains the controversial basis of California Higher Education today. By the end of the decade nearly half the states in the nation had adopted similar plans. The controversial plan created a three-tiered system of higher education and placed new restrictions on admissions to state colleges and universities. The upper 41 percent of graduates could enter other state colleges and universities. The remaining students would be diverted to the state's junior colleges. Many complained that the poorest of students were being relegated to two-year colleges. Others felt that the two-year college provided a nurturing environment where students, eliminated from a state university, succeeded. During the 1970's, community colleges nationwide faced a drop in enrollments. California's system felt an enormous 9 percent decrease. In addition, on June 6th, 1978, nearly two-thirds of California's voters passed Proposition 13, reducing the property tax by about 57%. Funding control shifted to the State, with the Legislature increasingly involved in community college operations. A Priceless Treasure Due in part to a national recession, two-year colleges experienced a resurgence after nearly four years of stagnant enrollment. In addition, between 1980 and 1990 minority groups fueled the growth in the nation and contributed to the new wave of Americans entering colleges. Community colleges served as the gateway to higher education for this new wave of students,which called for the restructuring of missions and goals, shared governance, learning styles, and faculty and staff diversity. Ironically, this resurgence was temporarily short lived as increased military spending and a long period of economic growth signaled another downturn in enrollments. Community colleges looked for new ways to reach out into untapped sections of the community (high schools, senior citizen centers, and prisons). These efforts increased enrollments tremendously. During the 1980's, two-year colleges gained increasing attention from the White House, as two-year colleges served more voters and existed in most every congressional district. During an interview with a community college delegation, then President Ronald Reagan called community colleges, "a priceless treasure--close to our homes and work, providing open doors for millions of our fellow citizens...the original higher education melting pot (Witt, p. 264)." Tidal Wave II In the 21st Century new challenges face California Community Colleges. The importance, effectiveness, and role of community college education in the competitive California economy is growing. In March of 2000, the State of California's Little Hoover Commission undertook a study to determine how well community colleges were meeting state goals. The Little Hoover Commission, formally known as the Milton Marks "Little Hoover" Commission on California State Government Organization and Economy, is an independent state oversight agency that was created in 1962. The Commission's mission is to investigate state government operations and, through reports, recommendations and legislative proposals, promote efficiency, economy and improved service. According to the commission, the Department of Finance projects a 25 percent increase from 1996 enrollment. Access to and effectiveness of community colleges is under greater scrutiny due to this projected increase. The commission focused on two issues: first, understanding the evolving mission of the community colleges and the roles community colleges play in post-secondary education; second, reviewing whether community colleges successfully realize their mission. In short, one of the more significant commission findings was that the success of the community colleges depends on the quality of teaching as well as true access to the educational services that individual students need. The commission's findings and recommendations are presented in four sections: - Making Teaching Count: Quality teaching is not prioritized in hiring, professional development, or tenure decisions. - Ensuring Access and Benefit for All: Colleges fail to identify the potential students they intend to serve, the barriers that prevent those populations from benefiting from the colleges, or how resource decisions can best serve access goals. - Aligning Funding with Purpose: Community college funding is baseline and enrollment driven. Funding structures do little to encourage individual colleges or the colleges as a system to promote efficiency, cost effectiveness - Reinvigorating Governance: Community college leadership is bifurcated between state and local decision-makers, both of them bound by procedures intended to give all parties a seat at the table. In the absence of leadership this muddled governance mutes responsibility and accountability for the quality and the cost-effectiveness of services offered. William Rainey Harper's plan to revolutionize higher education is still alive in the ever changing California's community colleges.The associate degree has become an accepted standard of achievement, and millions of students who would have otherwise been unserved find an open gateway in California's on the Community College in America. It's History, Mission, and Management. Ed. George A. Baker III. Greenwood Press, 1994. Sidney W., and Myron Roberts. The California Community Colleges. Field Educational Publications Incorporated, 1973. J.A. The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan. Stanford University Press, 2000. Doors and Open Minds: Improving Access and Quality in California's Community Colleges. State of California Little Hoover Commission, March 2000. http://www.lhc.ca.gov/lhc.html Allen A., James L. Wattenbarger, James F. Gollattscheck, and Joseph E. Suppinger. America's Community Colleges: The First Century, Community College Press, 1994. (p. 34).

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VISAKHAPATNAM: Scores of indigenous plant species with medicinal value are vanishing from the Eastern Ghats and coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh as indiscriminate exploitation and unscientific method of extracting these plants is hampering their regeneration and resulting in escalation of costs of herbal medicines. Biodiversity in the region is being adversely affected by untrained locals extracting medicinal plants unscientifically, without planting and seeding, at the behest of middlemen who are associated with herbal product exporters or Ayurvedic drug manufacturers, point out experts. "Plants like Saptarangi, one of the very few herbs used in anti-diabetic medicines that is found in the marshy lands, is becoming scarce and so is Sidacordisolia that is used for arthritis and rheumatic disorders and is found in the Eastern Ghats," said ayurvedic physician K Jayakrishna. V Susheela, an ayurvedic doctor from Sree Aurvedic Hospital, said, "Plants such as Satavari used for curing gynaecological disorders, Sariba for skin ailments, Aswagandha for curing anxiety plus neurosis and sarpagandha for treating hypertension are in need of adequate conservation. The cost of herbal medicines has risen 4 to 5 times in the last 2 to 3 years due to the limited availability of certain herbs as well as the hike in prices of gold and mercury, which are important mineral ingredients for ayurvedic preparations. Proper inspection from the AYUSH (Ayurveda Yoga Unani Sidha and Homepathy) department is required to check the indiscriminate and unscientific exploitation and trafficking of rare herbal plants." "Deforestation and unscientific extraction are rampant in Eastern Ghats and other coastal belts of AP, which is a treasure house of medicinal plants and herbs. The local tribes are given a few bucks by the middlemen employed by Ayurvedic companies who remove all the endemic plants at the same time without enabling propagation or sowing them elsewhere. These plant collectors don't have the required knowledge of chemistry, botany and Ayurveda and hence scarcity of various species of herbs is rising due to their unscientific activities. Training of these tribals in their local language is needed for scientific extraction of herbs," said Jayakrishna. Zoologist and plant conservationist professor M Rama Murthy also emphasised on the buy-back policy by pharma companies to encourage conservation and propagation of herbal species. While plants such as podapatri to control sugar level and pashanabedhi to remove kidney stones are almost becoming extinct due to indiscriminate exploitation, there are also other useful herbs such as multi-vitamin greens, which are available in plenty but not exploited due to lack of awareness. A scientific approach towards herb collection is the need of the hour," he said.

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Five new names have been approved for Mars: Angustus Labyrinthus, Chronius Mons, Promethei Mons, Sisyphi Tholus, and Thyles Montes. The names Australis Patera, Angusta Patera, and Cavi Frigores have been marked as dropped in the database. New imagery has shown that the two paterae were named using the wrong descriptor term, and the area previously named Cavi Frigores has been incorporated into the adjacent Cavi Angusti. The definition of the descriptor term labyrinthus has been expanded from "Complex of intersecting valleys" to "Complex of intersecting valleys or ridges." See the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature for more information.

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This is the second book wrote by Lee Lehman and presents in a very detailed manner the astrological dignities. It was published in 1989 by Whitford Press. In Chapter 1 - Two Unsung Revolutions in Astrology the author explains how the Copernican Revolution changed the way astrologers understand dignities. At page 18 one can find a table with traditional and modern essential dignities. Chapter 2 - Using Traditional Rulerships Here you'll find many practical examples of charts analyzed using traditional dignities. There are presented five countries (Confederate States of America, Italy, Iran, Switzerland, USSR), five corporations (General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, Coca-Cola, Pepsi), five individuals (Jane Austen, Lewis Carroll, Doyle Arthur, Niccolo Machiavelli, Mark Twain) and one horary chart. Of course, it is always nice to see how the theory applies in practice, but I was expecting from these examples to emphasize the different results which appears when analyzing the charts with traditional and modern dignities. Unfortunately, this is not happening, the charts are analyzed using only traditional dignities. In Chapter 3 - The Origin of Rulerships: A Botanical Interlude you can find out which planer or sign rules every planet. You'll see that onion is ruled by Mars, beans by Venus, holly by Saturn etc. Also, there is a table with the medicinal uses of Jupiter- ruled plants. I didn't test these, but it may be helpful. Chapter 4 - Modern “Rulerships”: Do They Work? The author is trying to prove that modern rulerships aren't working well and to find arguments. She points out that: “when modern astrologers discuss the modern rulerships the criterion appears to be: Which body (planet, asteroid or comet) has qualities which most resembles the sign in question?” So, modern rulerships are assigned counting if a planet qualities are similar with the sign qualities and not looking at the planet strength in a sign. See another quotation: “We haven't any evidence that the ancients thought that Pisces and Jupiter were synonymous. It was a question of the strength of Jupiter in Pisces, not the similarity of Jupiter and Pisces.” Now, I think the idea is pretty clear. I must say that I totally agree with this point of view. Then the charts of Marie Curie, Jeddu Krishnamurti, Adolf Hitler and Death of Dracula are analyzed. This time, Lee Lehman makes an analogy between the charts interpretations with modern and traditional rulerships. The results are pretty good and the lecture enjoyable. Only one problem, from my point of view. It is analyzed the chart “Death of Dracula”, where Lee writes things like: “I have been fascinated by charts of people who are, so to speak, energy sucks”, “Scorpio Sun (life of the vampire)”, etc. Hei, I am from Romania and I tell you there is no vampire. Dracula is just a myth assigned to a Romanian prince, Vlad III of Wallachia. It is true that he was cruel and liked to kill people by impaling them on a sharp pole, but everything else is imagination. Chapter 5 – The Meaning of Each of the Essential Dignities In this chapter you'll find some general characteristics for the five essential dignities: ruler, exaltation, triplicity, term and face. At page 127 is a table with key words associated with these dignities. Starting from these key words Lee Lehman gives many descriptive explanations for dignities, but it just seems to much! There are the same things explained over and over again, it seemed pretty boring to me. In Chapter 6 – A Statistical Interlude the author is trying to determine the influence of terms (both Chaldean and Egyptian) making a few tests. She selected a number of charts from different categories (suicide, scientist, sport champions) and counted the terms for each planet. In the final, we can see that the planet that rules the category (for example, Mars for sport champions) obtained more points that usually, on a normal pattern. Even the results apparently validates the importance of terms I won't give to much credit to such a test. Why? Because I don't see terms so important to determine a person belong to a category or another. For example, more points in the term of Saturn won't drive you to suicide because can be many other (not even major) aspects that can change this influence. Probably, I just don't believe terms are so important an if Lee Lehman is making those test it is clear that she also has doubts. Chapter 7 – Detriment, Falls and Peregrines means several pages where you can find short descriptions for every planet detriment and fall. In Chapter 8 – Conclusions there are the final words. MY EVALUATION: 6 Conclusion. If I would have to say quickly, at my first impression, some words about this book I think would be: “too much noise for nothing”. But, then, if you think for a moment you realize that you can't say “for nothing” because dignities are a very important part in astrology and one could write a whole interesting book about this subject. So, back to my reasoning, why this impression? Why “too much noise for nothing?”. Maybe, because this book presents shortly the five dignities associated with some main characteristics, ideas repeated in different chapters, but the rest of the book is somewhat near the subject. You can read about history, botany, statistics, all connected with dignities, but the book doesn't seem to touch the essential points. It is a surface play. It doesn't have those clear, rational statements that gives you a better understanding of the subject. If a medium astrologer reads this book I don't think will have much to learn and to integrate in his astrological system. Maybe I am a little too harsh, but it is my purpose here to criticize and to present a clear point of view about the astrological books I read. My evaluation is 6.

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Food and nutrients help to form strong teeth and bones, muscles and a healthy body. A balanced diet can also help to protect your child against illness. Children’s need for energy and nutrients is high, but appetites are small and children can be fussy, so it can be a challenge to get your child’s diet right especially when feeding them organic food. But there’s quite a bit at stake because healthy eating aids early learning and childhood development. It’s useful to know that young children can usually regulate their own intake, so remember that pre-school children normally eat the amounts they want, even if it seems they’re not taking in very much. At this age, children are often good at regulating their appetite. If they’re not hungry, insisting on larger amounts of food can create a battle, which you’re likely to lose. Base your child’s intake on the following food groups to help ensure she’s getting all the important nutrients. Make sure your child has a balanced diet, with food from each of the key food groups every day. The food pyramid helps kids to receive all the nutrients growing children need each day from the five food groups. These are: Protein – this includes lean meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, legumes Grains – this includes bread, cereals, rice, pasta and noodles Dairy – this includes milk, yoghurt, and cheese They, and you, will need to eat a number of serves from each group depending on their age and how active they are. Growing children need the following number of serves from each group. Let Mindful Eating be a guiding principle. This table shows the suggested number of serves per day by age: Age in years 3 – 4 4 – 6 4 – 5 1 – 2 1 – 1.5 4 – 7 5 – 9 3 – 4 3 – 5 1 – 2 Sample serves from the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Young children have small appetites, so fibre-rich carbohydrates can be bulky and inhibit the absorption of some minerals. A good mindful eating tip is to gradually introduce higher fibre carbohydrate foods, such as whole wheat pasta and brown rice, so that by the time children are five, they’re eating the same fibre-rich foods as the rest of the family. Giving your baby a pure start to life really begins nine months before birth. It’s not so surprising really, given all that rapid and miraculous cell growth and division is fuelled by you. So what to eat when pregnant is a key issue because that truly is the real baby food! On the other side of the coin, there are some things that are definitely not good. Alcohol, nicotine and other “recreational chemicals” need to be avoided, preferably before you conceive. Enough said on that score. There is no “magic food” to consume. As usual the answer is simple and logical. The best things to eat when you’re pregnant are simply wholesome fresh foods. Plenty of fruits and vegetables, obviously, but choose a balanced diet from each of the five food groups. Although you’re eating for two, remember its quality not quantity that you’re after. Let Mindful Eating be a guiding principle. Just think about what’s going in your mouth and eat what you should, not what you could, and make water you’re preferred drink. The interesting thing about this approach is that you’re likely to feel a whole lot better, be healthier and possibly even shed some unwanted fat, even though that’s not the objective. And remember it’s not good to be dieting during pregnancy without the agreement and oversight of your doctor. Make sure too, that the foods you’re eating contain enough of the key nutrients for pregnancy. Most of us get these through a balanced diet, but you might want to check out choline, usually grouped with the B-complex vitamins. Choline isn’t technically a B vitamin, but it is often included in the B-vitamin family because it does work closely with other B vitamins, especially folic acid Vitamin B9) and cobalamin (Vitamin B12), to process fat and keep the heart and brain healthy. We’ve blogged on choline recently.Pregnancy is a time when the body’s demand for choline is highest. Choline is particularly used to support the fetus’s developing nervous system. I mention it again because studies show intake is low and feedback to our previous blog shows that women don’t know this particular “vitamin”, despite it being an essential nutrient. You can get it through eggs, by the way. Obviously, as an organic baby food company we like to keep abreast of the latest findings on organic food. The University of Barcelona has just released a study that shows that organic tomatoes contain more polyphenolic compounds than conventionally produced tomatoes. Phenolic compounds are organic molecules found in many vegetables and have proven human health benefits. Polyphenols are natural antioxidants and are considered to be of great nutritional interest because their consumption is associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases. Most interesting is the researchers view of why this might be. Organic farming doesn’t use nitrogenous fertilizers; as a result, plants respond by activating their own defense mechanisms, increasing the levels of all antioxidants. It seems that conventionally fertilised plants “don’t have to try so hard” and as a result their production of phenolic compounds is lower. Numerous scientific investigations show that the consumption of these antioxidants has a variety of health benefits. Researchers claim that more studies of clinical evidence are still needed to be able to state that organic products are truly better for our health than conventional ones. Pregnancy is a wonderful time in any woman’s life. A bit of a roller coaster, yes, but it’s full of new feelings and new learning. Unlike many previous generations, first time mothers now have a clearer picture of what they need to know about nutrition when they’re “eating for two”. Eating for two these days is about quality, not quantity, and new research is turning up all sorts of interesting information on some of the critical nutrients first time mothers, indeed all mums, should ensure form part of their dietary intake. The most important nutrients to support pregnancy can be summarised as follows: Biotin • Choline Folate • Iodine Iron • Vitamin A Let’s take a quick look at choline. Choline is clearly important but it appears most pregnant women don’t ingest the recommended daily dose. Choline is a chemical similar to the B-vitamins, and is often lumped in with them, although it is not (yet) an “official” B-vitamin. Although its entire mechanism of action, particularly how it interacts with other nutrients, is not completely understood, it seems too often work in concert with folate and an amino acid called methionine. Although the human body can make some choline it is generally recognised that it is important to get dietary choline as well. So what does choline do? It’s long been understood that choline helps in the development of the neural tube. In the developing baby, the neural tube is the embryo’s very early central nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord. This really is early development because by four and a half weeks portions of the brain are already forming! Choline also has some other very important protective roles. It seems it helps in the prevention of miscarriage and stillbirth. It has been found that mothers in the bottom 25% for choline intake have a four times greater risks of having a child with neural tube defects compared with women in the highest 25% of intake. Along with choline’s brain development function it can also impact on your child’s lifelong learning and memory capacity. But now we’re finding out it does even more. Researchers at Cornell University, USA, found that increased choline intake during pregnancy could reduce stress levels in the child and lower the chances of it developing hypertension and diabetes later in life. Although adults may take choline, the amount of choline that one is exposed to while still in the womb has a stronger effect over time. What can you do? Australian dietary guidelines recommend a minimum intake of 440mg/day of choline. Many women just don’t get that much. Choline can be found in foods like eggs, beef liver and, you won’t be surprised, breast milk! For comparison 1 large whole egg contains about 112mg, a nice 100g serving of pan-fried calf’s liver can deliver 418mg. 100gm of tofu will give about 28mg and a serve of cauliflower about twice that. Of course, you can take a good supplement designed for pregnant women, but be careful here. The Bellamy’s team did a little checking and there is at least one very well known brand out there selling a pregnancy supplement that does not contain any choline! In fact, the only prenatal supplement we could find that contains choline is Zycia Natal Nutrients, available from pharmacies. Use Mindful Eating here, too, and don’t take too much. You only need what’s required. More won’t help. If you’d like to know more about Bellamy’s Organic and the certified organic baby foods we make, click on this link. The Cornell paper on reducing stress levels can be found at:

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Mali has been engrossed in civil war since January 2012, when separatists in Mali’s northern Azawad region began demanding independence from the southern, Bamako-based government. After forcing the Malian military from the north, however, the separatist forces soon became embroiled in a conflict of their own, between the original Mouvement National pour la Libération de l’Azawad (MNLA) and extremist Islamist splinter factions closely linked with Al-Qaeda. On 11 January 2013, France responded to Mali’s urgent request for international assistance and initiated ‘Operation Serval’ to aid the recapture of Azawad and defeat the extremist group. From the 18th, West African states began reinforcing French forces with at least 3,300 extra troops. In a BBC ’From Our Own Correspondent’ editorial, Hugh Schofield wrote of ‘la Francafrique’, or France’s considerable interests in West Africa held over from the end of formal empire. In fits and spurts, France has sought to extract itself from la Francafrique and to seek a new relationship with the continent. But in the complex world of post-colonial relationships, such a move is difficult. France retains strong economic, political, and social links with West Africa. Paris, Marseille, and Lyon are home to large expatriate African communities. Opinions at l’Elycée Palace, too, have wildly shifted over the years. Jacques Chirac, at least according to Schofield, was ‘a dyed-in-the-wool Guallist’, and an ideological successor to a young François Mitterand who, in 1954, defiantly pronounced that ‘L’Algérie, c’est la France’. Nicolas Sarkozy, on the other hand, dramatically distanced himself both from Chirac and from the la Francafrique role. The problem is, at least in part, topographical in nature. West Africa’s geography is dangerous, vast, and difficult to subordinate. On the eve of much of West Africa’s independence from France in 1961, R J Harrison Church spoke of the so-called Dry Zone, the area running horizontally from southern Mauritania across central Mali and Niger, as the great “pioneer fringe” of the region’s civilization. David Hilling, in his 1969 Geographical Journal examination, added that by “taming” the Saharan interior, France gained an important strategic advantage over their British rivals in the early twentieth century, enjoying access to resources unavailable along the coast. But, as A T Grove discussed in his 1978 review, “colonising” West Africa was much easier said than done, and the French left a West Africa mired in dispute, open to incursions, and still heavily reliant on the former imperial power. The French relationship with the region’s extreme geography was difficult at best; political boundaries were similar to those of the Arabian Peninsula and the Rub ‘al-Khali in particular: fluid, ill-defined, and not always recognised by local peoples. European-set political boundaries only exacerbated tensions between indigenous constituencies who had little or no say in the border demarcations. French and African efforts to dam the Niger River, for instance, were hampered by high costs, arduous terrain, and political instability well into the 1960s. On independence, the French left what infrastructure they could, mostly in West Africa’s capital and port cities; the vast interiors were often left to their own devices. As a result of these events, France has maintained a large military, economic, and social presence in the region ever since. The difficulty is that such areas under weak political control, such as the Malian, Somalian, and Sudanese deserts, have become havens for individuals who wish to operate outside international and national law. R J Harrison Church, 1961, ‘Problems and Development of the Dry Zone of West Africa‘, The Geographical Journal 127 187-99. David Hilling, 1969, ‘The Evolution of the Major Ports of West Africa‘, The Geographical Journal 135 365-78. A T Grove, 1978, ‘Geographical Introduction to the Sahel‘, The Geographical Journal 144 407-15. Ieuan Griffiths, 1986, ‘The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries‘, The Geographical Journal 152 204-16. ‘Le Mali attend le renfort des troupes ouest-africaines‘, Radio France Internationale, 19 January 2013, accessed 19 January 2013. Hugh Schofield, ‘France and Mali: An “ironic” relationship’, BBC News, 19 January 2013, accessed 19 January 2013.

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Big Data is one of the hottest topics out there. Big data is a foundational element in IT’s quartet of Next Big Things: Social, Mobile, Analytics and Cloud. But, as the real world keeps reminding us, it is possible to make bad predictions and decisions even if you use tons of big data to make them. The 9/11 attacks showed how even highly sophisticated intelligence agencies can fail to pick out highly relevant signals amidst the mountains of data being analyzed. Our recent financial crisis showed how even the best and brightest can fail to detect an approaching catastrophic storm. The failure of so many professional forecasters to accurately predict the 2012 presidential election shows that you can find almost any answer you want in all that big data. Big data is indeed incredibly useful in all kinds of endeavors, but only in the hands of talented professionals who know what they are doing and are aware of its pitfalls and limitations. What are some of these limitations? In thinking about this question over the last few years, I started to notice that a number of subtle, non-intuitive concepts that I learned many years ago as a physics student seem to apply to the world of big data and information-based predictions in highly complex systems. Let me explain. Over 300 years ago, Isaac Newton laid down the foundations of classical mechanics with the publication of his Laws of Motion. The elegant mathematical models of Newtonian physics depict a world in which objects exhibit deterministic behaviors, that is, the same objects, subject to the same forces, will always yield the same results. These models make perfect predictions within the accuracy of their human-scale measurements. Classical mechanics works exceptionally well for describing the behavior of objects that are more or less observable to the naked eye. It accurately predicts the motion of planets as well as the flight of a baseball. But, the idea of scientific determinism, which would in principle enable us to predict the future behavior of any object in the universe, began to fall apart in the early 20th century. Classical mechanics could not explain the counter-intuitive and seemingly absurd behavior of energy and matter at atomic as well as cosmological scales. Once you start dealing with atoms, molecules, exotic subatomic particles, black holes and the Big Bang, you find yourself in a whole different world, with somewhat bizarre behaviors like the tunneling effect, which are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics and relativity. The orderly, deterministic world of classical physics gives way to a world of wave functions, probability distributions, uncertainty principles, and wave-particle dualities. Instead of a deterministic world, we now have a world based on probabilities. You cannot predict all the future states of an object or a particle based on its present state. You can map out its behavior, but only as probability distributions of all the possible states it could be at. Moreover, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells you that it is impossible to know the exact state of a particle. You cannot simultaneously determine its exact position and velocity with any great degree of accuracy no matter how good your measurement tools are. The world is intrinsically unpredictable. In addition, there is no such thing as absolute reality. In classical mechanics something either has the properties of a particle, e.g., a planet, a baseball; or of a wave, e.g, light, sound. In quantum mechanics all objects exhibit both kinds of properties. The concept of wave-particle duality explains that reality depends on what question you are asking and what experiment you perform to answer the question. The very act of observing an object will change the object being observed. Any instruments used to measure its properties will invariable alter the properties being measured. This transition, from a world view based on scientific determinism to one based on probability distributions, uncertainty principles and subjective reality is not intuitive and difficult to get used to. Even Albert Einstein had trouble accepting it, and famously said “God does not play dice with the universe.” Stephen Hawking, one of world’s top theoretical physicists, concluded in this brilliant lecture: “ . . .it seems Einstein was doubly wrong when he said, God does not play dice. Not only does God definitely play dice, but He sometimes confuses us by throwing them where they can’t be seen. . . The universe does not behave according to our pre-conceived ideas. It continues to surprise us.” But, the worlds of the very small, as well as the very large, are not the only ones that exhibit counter-intuitive, seemingly magical behaviors. So is the world of highly complex systems, especially those systems whose components and interrelationships are themselves quite complex, as is the case with systems biology and evolution. Such is also the case with organizational and sociotechnical systems whose main components are people. Even though these chaotic systems are in principle deterministic, their dynamic, non-linear nature renders them increasingly unpredictable and accounts for their emergent behavior. New terms, like long tails, Freakonomics and black swan theory, – every bit as fanciful as quarks, charm and strangeness, – have begun to enter our lexicon. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an example of a discipline that has transitioned from its original classical, deterministic approach to an approach more suitable to a highly complex, inherently unpredictable topic like intelligence. AI was one of the hottest areas in computer sciences , in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of the AI leaders in those days were convinced that you could build a machine as intelligent as a human being based on logical deductions and the kind of step-by-step reasoning that humans use when solving puzzles or proving theorems. They obtained considerable government funding in the US, UK and Japan to implement their vision. But eventually it became clear that all these various projects had grossly underestimated the difficulties of developing any kind of AI system based on logic programming and deductive reasoning. The field went through a so-called AI winter in the 1980s. But things started to change in the 1990s when AI switched paradigms and embraced data mining and information analytics, the precursors of today’s Big Data. Instead of trying to program computers to act intelligently, AI embraced a statistical, brute force approach based on analyzing vast amounts of information using powerful computers and sophisticated algorithms. We discovered that such a statistical, information-based approach produced something akin to intelligence or knowledge. Moreover, unlike the earlier programming-based projects, the statistical approaches scaled very nicely. The more information you had, the more powerful the supercomputers, the more sophisticated the algorithms, the better the results. Deep Blue IBM's chess playing supercomputer, demonstrated the power of such a statistical approach by beating then reigning chess champion Gary Kasparov in a celebrated match in May of 1997. Since that time, analyzing or searching large amounts of information has become increasingly important and commonplace in a wide variety of disciplines. Today, most of us use search engines as the primary mechanism for finding information in the World Wide Web. Researchers have been developing sophisticated question-answering systems, which can successfully analyze the nuances and context embedded in a complex, natural language question and come up with the right answer. Watson, IBM’s Question Answering computer, which in February of 2011 won the Jeopardy! Challenge against the two best human Jeopardy! players, is an example of such a system. Economics is another discipline that has had to make the transition from a world of relatively simple mathematical models to one governed by the sophisticated analysis of real world information. During the 1960s, a number of economists, most prominently those associated with the Chicago School of Economics, based their work on what NY Times columnist David Brooks referred to as “the era of economic scientism: the period when economists based their work on a crude vision of human nature (the perfectly rational, utility-maximizing autonomous individual) and then built elaborate models based on that creature.” Paul Krugman called such models, an “idealized vision of an economy in which rational individuals interact in perfect markets . . . gussied up with fancy equations” in a 2009 NY Times Magazine article, How did Economists get it so Wrong? The elegant, mathematic theories of economic scientism managed to convince a number of powerful government leaders that free markets could self-adjust to just about any problems, thus requiring a very limited, circumscribed role for government. Alan Greenspan, the Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1987-2006, for example, was one of the believers in this well-behaved, self-adjusting economic order. Even when the financial system began to show signs of the coming crisis, Greenspan continued to hold on to his beliefs that derivatives and other financial instruments were extraordinarily useful in distributing risks, thus lessening the need for regulating the increasingly complex financial markets. It wasn’t until October of 2008 that, in testimony before Congress, Greenspan finally acknowledged that perhaps he may have been partially wrong and was now in “a state of shocked disbelief.” A whole slew of new ideas is now sweeping the field of economics. The new breed of economists are creating a field that has much more in common with empirical sciences than with pure math. Following in the best tradition of physics, chemistry, biology and the social sciences, they are grounding economics on observation and experiments. Theories arise out of empirical analysis, and must reflect the realities, and therefore the inconsistencies and messiness of the real world they aim to explain. They are trying to take into account the social, cognitive and emotional factors that go into the economic decisions that people make. In discipline after discipline, we are beginning to learn how to deal with the very messy world of big data and complex systems, and how to best apply our learning to make good decisions and good predictions. One of the hardest parts of that learning is the need to let go of our preconceived notions of scientific determinism and get used to living in a world of probabilities, uncertainties and subjective realities. God does indeed like to play games with the universe, but He leaves enough hints around so we too can play the game and keep moving forward. Irving Wladawsky-Berger is a former vice-president of technical strategy and innovation at IBM. He is a strategic advisor to Citigroup and is a regular contributor to CIO Journal.

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What is Long-Term Care? Individuals need long-term care when a chronic condition, trauma, or illness limits their ability to carry out basic self-care tasks, called activities of daily living (ADLs), (such as bathing, dressing or eating), or instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) (such as household chores, meal preparation, or managing money). Long-term care often involves the most intimate aspects of people’s lives—what and when they eat, personal hygiene, getting dressed, using the bathroom. Other less severe long-term care needs may involve household tasks such as preparing meals or using the telephone. A report prepared by the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging (February, 2000) described long-term care as follows: It [long-term care] differs from other types of health care in that the goal of long-term care is not to cure an illness, but to allow an individual to attain and maintain an optimal level of functioning…. Long-term care encompasses a wide array of medical, social, personal, and supportive and specialized housing services needed by individuals who have lost some capacity for self-care because of a chronic illness or disabling condition.1 Because long-term care needs and services are wide-ranging and complex, statistics may vary from study to study. Sources for the following information are cited at the conclusion of this Fact Sheet. For additional information, see the Family Caregiver Alliance Fact Sheet on Selected Caregiving Statistics. Who Needs Long-Term Care? - An estimated 10 million Americans needed long-term care in 2000.2 - Most but not all persons in need of long-term care are elderly. Approximately 63% are persons aged 65 and older (6.3 million); the remaining 37% are 64 years of age and younger (3.7 million).3 - The lifetime probability of becoming disabled in at least two activities of daily living or of being cognitively impaired is 68% for people age 65 and older.4 - By 2050, the number of individuals using paid long-term care services in any setting (e.g., at home, residential care such as assisted living, or skilled nursing facilities) will likely double from the 13 million using services in 2000, to 27 million people. This estimate is influenced by growth in the population of older people in need of care.5 - Of the older population with long-term care needs in the community, about 30% (1.5 million persons) have substantial long-term care needs (three or more ADL limitations). Of these, about 25% are 85 and older and 70% report they are in fair to poor health.6 40% of the older population with long-term care needs are poor or near poor (with incomes below 150% of the federal poverty level).7 - Between 1984 and 1994, the number of older persons receiving long-term care remained about the same at 5.5 million people, while the prevalence of long-term care use declined from 19.7% to 16.7% of the 65+ population. In comparison, 2.1%, or over 3.3 million, of the population aged 18–64 received long-term care in the community in 1994.8 - While there was a decline in the proportion (i.e., prevalence) of the older population receiving long-term care, the level of disability and cognitive impairment among those who received assistance with daily tasks rose sharply. The proportion receiving help with three to six ADLs increased from 35.4% to 42.9% between 1984 and 1994. The proportion of cognitive impairment among the 65+ population rose from 34% to 40%.9 - The prevalence of cognitive impairment among the older population increased over the past decade, while the prevalence of physical impairment remains unchanged.10 - In 2002, the percentage of older persons with moderate or severe memory impairment ranged from about 5% among persons aged 65–69 to about 32% among persons aged 85 or older.11 - Individuals 85 years and older, the oldest old, are one of the fastest growing segments of the population. In 2005, there are an estimated 5 million people 85+ in the United States.12 This figure is expected to increase to 19.4 million by 2050.13 This means that there could be an increase from 1.6 million to 6.2 million people age 85 or over with severe or moderate memory impairment in 2050.14 Where do People Receive Long-Term Care and from Whom? Family and Informal Caregivers Informal caregiver and family caregiver are terms used to refer to unpaid individuals such as family members, partners, friends and neighbors who provide care. These persons can be primary (i.e. the person who spends the most time helping) or secondary caregivers, full time or part time, and can live with the person being cared for or live separately. Formal caregivers are volunteers or paid care providers associated with a service system.15,16 Estimates vary on the number of family and informal caregivers in the U.S., depending on the definitions used for both caregiver and care recipient as well as types of care provided. - 52 million informal and family caregivers provide care to someone aged 20+ who is ill or disabled.17 - 44.4 million caregivers (or one out of every five households ) are involved in caregiving to persons aged 18 or over.18 - 34 million caregivers provide care for someone aged 50+.19 - 27.3 million family caregivers provide personal assistance to adults (aged 15+) with a disability or chronic illness.20 - 5.8 21 to 7 22 million people (family, friends and neighbors) provide care to a person (65+) who needs assistance with everyday activities.23 - 8.9 million informal caregivers provide care to someone aged 50+ with dementia.24 By the year 2007, the number of caregiving households in the U.S. for persons aged 50+ could reach 39 million.25 - Over three-quarters (78%) of adults living in the community and in need of long-term care depend on family and friends (i.e., informal caregivers) as their only source of help; 14% receive a combination of informal and formal care (i.e., paid help); only 8% used formal care or paid help only.26 - Even among the most severely disabled older persons living in the community, about two-thirds rely solely on family members and other informal help, often resulting in great strain for the family caregivers.27 - The use of informal care as the only type of assistance by older Americans aged 65 and over increased from 57% in 1994 to 66% in 1999. The growth in reliance upon informal care between 1994 and 1999 is accompanied by a decline in the use of a combination of informal and formal care from 36% in 1994 to 26% in 1999.28 - 30% of persons caring for elderly long-term care users were themselves aged 65 or over; another 15% were between the age of 45–54.29 - For the family caregiver forced to give up work to care for a family member or friend, the cost in lost wages and benefits is estimated to be $109 per day.30 Home and Community-Based Care - Most people—nearly 79%—who need Long-Term Care live at home or in community settings, not in institutions.31 - More than 13.2 million adults (over half younger than 65) living in the community received an average of 31.4 hours of personal assistance per week in 1995.32 - Only 16% of the total hours were paid care (about $32 billion), leaving 84% of hours to be provided (unpaid labor) by informal caregivers.33 - The trend towards community-based services as opposed to nursing home placement was formalized with the Olmstead Decision (July, 1999)—a court case in which the Supreme Court upheld the right of individuals to receive care in the community as opposed to an institution whenever possible. - The proportion of Americans aged 65 and over with disabilities who rely entirely on formal care for their personal assistance needs has increased to 9% in 1999 from 5% in 1984.34 - Between 2000 and 2002, the number of licensed assisted living and board and care facilities increased from 32,886 to 36,399 nationally, reflecting the trend towards community-based care as opposed to nursing homes.35 Most assisted living facilities, however, are unlicensed. - Most assisted living facilities (ALFs) discharge residents whose cognitive impairments become moderate or severe or who need help with transfers (e.g. moving from a wheelchair to a bed.) This limits the ability of these populations to find appropriate services outside of nursing homes or other institutions.36 Nursing Home Care - The risk of nursing home placement increases with age—31% of those who are severely impaired and between the ages of 65 and 70 receive care in a nursing home compared to 61% of those age 85 and older.37 - In 2002, there were 1,458,000 people in nursing homes nationally.38 Older individuals living in nursing homes require and receive greater levels of care and assistance. In 1999, over three-quarters of individuals in nursing homes received assistance with four to six ADLs.39 - Of the population aged 65 and over in 1999, 52% of the nursing home population was aged 85 or older compared to 35% aged 75–84, and 13% aged 65–74.40 - Between 1985 and 1999 the number of adults 65 and older living in nursing homes increased from 1.3 million to 1.5 million. In 1999, almost three-quarters (1.1 million) of these older residents were women.41 Long-Term Care Expenditures - Estimated public and private spending on long-term care services exceeded $180 billion in 2002. $37.2 billion, or 21%, was paid for out-of-pocket by individuals and families.42 - In 2002, $103.2 billion dollars were spent on nursing home care compared to $36.1 billion dollars for care in the community.43 - In 2000, the estimated economic value of informal (i.e., unpaid) caregiving is more than both community care and nursing home care combined—$257 billion.44 - Despite the trend toward community-based care as opposed to institutionalized care, only 18.2% of long-term care expenditures for the elderly are for community-based care.45 - In 2002, 16.4 billion Medicaid dollars were spent for home and community-based services within long-term care. This figure has increased at a 25% rate annually since 1990.46 - Expenditures for skilled nursing facility (SNF) care are much greater than care provided in other settings. Average expenses per older adult in a skilled nursing facility can be four times greater than average expenditures for that individual receiving paid care in the community.47 - In 2003, Medicaid paid $83.8 billion dollars for long-term care services, roughly one-third of all Medicaid spending. 27.8 billion of these dollars were spent on community-based long-term care services. Home and community-based (HCBS) waivers accounted for roughly two-thirds of community-based long-term care expenditures.48 In 2000, spending for older adults aged 65 or older accounted for 57% of Medicaid dollars, with the remaining 43% spent on those under age 65.49 - 31.9% of the annual estimated home care expenditures were paid for by Medicare in 2003, a little over 18% were paid for out-of-pocket or by private insurance, and approximately 13% were covered by Medicaid.50 - Only 7% of residents receive Medicaid coverage for assisted living.51 - Studies have shown that the delivery of home or community-based long-term care services is a cost-effective alternative to nursing homes. Care in the home or community—not nursing home care—is what most Americans would prefer.52,53 - In 2004, the average daily rate for a private room in a skilled nursing facility was $192 for a private room or $70,080 annually, and $169 or $61,685 annually for a semi-private room. The hourly rate for a home health aide was $18.12.54 - In 2000, annual cost estimates were $13,000 for adult day care and $25,300 for assisted living.55 - Over two-thirds of the current health care dollar goes to treating chronic illness; for older persons the proportion rises to almost 95%.56 - The aging of the population, especially those 85+—the most in need of long-term care—is expected to result in a tripling of long-term care expenditures, projected to climb from $115 billion in 1997 to $346 billion (adjusted for inflation) annually in 2040.57 - Research suggests that if savings rates are not increased and government programs to assist the elderly are not strengthened, many retirees will face serious problems attaining needed health and long-term care services in the future. By 2030, many retirees will not have enough income and assets to cover basic expenditures or any expenses related to a nursing home stay or services from a home health provider.58 - Shorter hospital stays and increased usage of outpatient procedures—changes that have increased the effectiveness of medical care—have shifted responsibility toward unpaid providers of care from paid providers, increasing burdens on family caregivers.59 1 Special Committee on Aging. Developments in Aging: 1997 and 1998, Volume 1, Report 106-229. Washington, DC: United States Senate, 2000. 2 Rogers, S., & H. Komisar. Who needs long-term care? Fact Sheet, Long-Term Care Financing Project. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003. 4 AARP. Beyond 50.2003: A Report to the Nation on Independent Living and Disability, 2003, <http://www.aarp.org/research/health/disabilities/aresearch-import-753.html> (11 Jan 2005). 5 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and U.S. Department of Labor. The future supply of long-term care workers in relation to the aging baby boom generation: Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, (2003). <http:aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/ltcwork.htm> (20 Jan 2005) 6 The Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. Long-term Care: Medicaid’s role and challenges [Publication #2172]. Washington, DC: Author, 1999. 8 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Characteristics of Long-term Care Users. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2001. 11 Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics. Older Americans 2004: Key indicators of well-being, Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004. 12 U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000, <http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/ 04statab/pop.pdf> (11 Jan 2005) 14 The number is extrapolated by applying projected population estimates in 2050 to prevalence estimates of moderate to severe memory impairments in 2002. 15 Fradkin, L.G., and A. Heath. Caregiving of older adults. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1992. 16 McConnell, S., J.A. Riggs. A public policy agenda: Supporting family caregiving, in M. A. Cantor (Ed.) Family Caregiving: Agenda for the Future. San Francisco: American Society on Aging, 1994. 17 Health and Human Services. Informal caregiving: Compassion in action. Washington, DC: Author, 1998. Based on data from the 1987/1988 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), 2002. 18 National Alliance for Caregiving and AARP. Caregiving in the U.S. Washington, DC: Author, 2004. 20 Arno, P. S., Well Being of Caregivers: The Economic Issues of Caregivers, in T. McRae (Chair), New Caregiver Research. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the American Association of Geriatric Psychiatry. Orlando, FL. Data from 1987/1988 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), 2002. 21 Spector, W. D. et al. The characteristics of long-term care users (AHRQ Publication No. 00-0049). Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Policy, 2000. 22 See note 17 above. 23 Both of these reports used data from 1994 National Long-Term Care Survey. The Health and Human Services report also incorporated data from the 1982 National Long-Term Care Survey and the Informal Caregiver Supplement to the 1989 National Long-Term Care Survey. 24 Alzheimer’s Association and National Alliance for Caregiving. Families care: Alzheimer’s caregiving in the United States 2004. Washington, DC: Author, 2004. 25 National Alliance for Caregiving and AARP. Family caregiving in the U.S.: Findings from a national survey. Washington, DC: Author, 1997. 26 Thompson, L. Long-term care: Support for family caregivers [Issue Brief]. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 2004. Long-Term Care Financing Project. 27 Ibid. Data based on analysis of data from the 1994 and 1995 National Health Interview Surveys on Disability by Health Policy Institute, Georgetown University. 28 See note 11 above. 29 See note 8 above. 30 Stucki, B. R., and J. Mulver. Can aging baby boomers avoid the nursing home? Long-term care Insurance for Aging in Place. Washington, DC: American Council of Life Insurers, 2000. 31 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Long-term Care users range in age and most do not live in nursing homes: Research alert. Rockville: Author, 2000. 32 LaPlante, M.P., C. Harrington, and T. Kang. 2002. Estimating paid and unpaid hours of personal assistance services in activities of daily living provided to adults living at home. Home Services Research 327(2), 397-415. 34 See note 11 above. 35 Mollica, R. State Assisted Living Policy: 2002. Portland: National Academy for State Health Policy, 2002. 36 Hawes, R. M., & C.D. Phillips. A National Study of Assisted Living for the Frail Elderly: Results of a national survey of facilities. Beachwood: Myers Research Institute, 1999. 37 Gabrel, C. S. Characteristics of Elderly Nursing Home Current Residents and Discharges: Data from the 1997 National Nursing Home Survey [Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics; No. 312]. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics, 2000. 38 National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2004. Hyattsville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004. 39 See note 11 above. 40 National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2000. Hyattsville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000. 41 See note 11 above. 42 Komisar, H. & L. Thompson. Who Pays for Long-Term Care? Fact Sheet, Long-Term Care Financing Project. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004. 44 See note 20 above. 45 Doty, P. Cost-effectiveness of Home and Community-based Long-term Care Services. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Office of Disability, Aging and Long-Term Care Policy, 2000. 46 O’Brian, E., and R. Elias. Medicaid and long-term care. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, (2004, May) <http://www.kff.org/ PageID=36296> (10 Jan 2004) 47 U.S. General Accounting Office. 2002. Aging Baby Boom Generation Will Increase Demand and Burden on Federal and State budgets [GAO-02-544T]. <http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02544t.pdf> (10 Jan 2004) 48 Burwell, B., K. Sredl, and S. Eiken. Medicaid long-term care expenditures in FY 2003[Addendum]. Cambridge: The Medstat Group, 2004. 49 See note 45 above. 50 National Association for Home Care. Basic Statistics about Home Care. Washington, DC: Author. Findings based on Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, MSIS, 2004. 51 See note 30 above. 52 Kassner, E. Medicaid and Long-Term Services and Supports for Older People: Fact Sheet. Washington, DC: AARP Public Policy Institute, 2005. 53 Miller, N.A., C. Harrington, E. Goldstein. 2002. Access to community-based long-term care: Medicaid’s role. Journal of Aging and Health Volume 14, No. 1: 138-59. 54 Metlife Market Survey of Nursing Home and Home Care Costs, 2004. 55 See note 30 above. 56 Hoffman, C., D. Rice and H.Y. Sung. 1996. Persons with Chronic Conditions: Their Prevalence and Costs. JAMA 276 (18), 1473-1479. 57 Niefield, M., E. O’Brien, and J. Feder. Long-term care: Medicaid’s role and challenges. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 1999. 58 VanDerhei, J., and C. Copeland. Can America Afford Tomorrow’s Retirees: Results from the EBRI-ERF retirement security projection model [Issue brief # 263]. Washington DC: Employee Benefit Research Institute, 2003. 59 O’Brian, E., and R. Elias. Medicaid and long-term care. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2004. <http://www.kff.org/medicaid/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/ security/getfile.cfm&PageID=36296> (10 Jan 2004) Family Caregiver Alliance 785 Market Street, Suite 750 San Francisco, CA 94103 (415) 434-3388 phone (800) 445-8106 toll free Web Site: www.caregiver.org Family Caregiver Alliance (FCA) seeks to improve the quality of life for caregivers through education, services, research and advocacy. Through its National Center on Caregiving, FCA offers information on current social, public policy and caregiving issues and provides assistance in the development of public and private programs for caregivers. For residents of the greater San Francisco Bay Area, FCA provides direct family support services for caregivers of those with Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, brain injury, Parkinson’s and other debilitating cognitive disorders that strike adults. Prepared by Family Caregiver Alliance in cooperation with California’s Caregiver Resource Centers and funded by the California Department of Mental Health. Original reviewed by Robert B. Friedland, Ph.D., Center on an Aging Society, Georgetown University. © 2001 Family Caregiver Alliance. Revised 2005. All rights reserved. FS-SLTC200506 E-mail to a Friend

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Use the Archives and Special Collections finding aids to research rare books and manuscript collections. A finding aid is a descriptive tool that includes the contents and arrangement of materials in a collection. Finding aids can help you determine whether or not a collection is relevant to your research needs. Finding aids are detailed inventories, registers, indexes, and guides to describe collections of primary source materials. They provide a comprehensive overview of a collection's scope and contents. They define the conditions under which a collection may be accessed or copied, explain its provenance, and contain histories of individuals and organizations connected with the collection. Please cite the collection number (e.g. SPEC. 003) and the box number (e.g. Boxes 1 and 2) to request specific materials. John Steinbeck Collections 376th Bombardment Group Archive

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The fourth volume covers the period of Governor Johnston's administration, the longest known in the annals of North Carolina. Governor Gabriel Johnston, the successor of Burrington, was a Scotchman by birth, and received his education in the University of St. Andrews. He also spent a few years in studying medicine, after which, still in early manhood, he was made professor of the oriental languages in St. Andrews. Later still, he removed to London, where he employed himself as a political writer with such effect that he was appointed Governor of North Carolina, Spence Compton, Baron of Wilmington, being his chief patron. His administration began on the 2d November, 1734, when he took the oaths of office at Brunswick, and continued till his death, which occurred on 17th July, 1752. Unlike his immediate predecessors, Governor Johnston was neither a profane man nor a drunkard, and he has come down to us with the enviable reputation of having done more to promote the prosperity of the colony than perhaps all the other colonial governors put together. One of our historians goes so far as to say that he deserved the gratitude of every citizen of North Carolina as a statesman, a scholar and a patriot. Another lauds him as a general benefactor of the province and its special patron of learning, declaring that he was so earnest in his efforts to advance the cause of education that he urged its importance upon every Legislature during his stay here. A still later writer says he was the ablest of all the colonial governors, not less distinguished for his energy and prudence than for his extensive classical and scientific attainments. Chalmers, who lived nearer to his time than any other historian, says “he was a man of sufficient knowledge and prudence, but whose experience degenerated a little into cunning.” It may well be doubted, however, in view of the facts now presented, whether his enviable reputation has a sure foundation. The fact that his brother was the founder of a distinguished and influential family, and that a noted fort and a prominent county in the State have borne his name, and the further fact that the province grew and thrived greatly during his administration, have doubtless had much to do with creating and perpetuating a favorable public opinion in regard to him. But the fact that a county was named after him proves nothing, unless it be that our ancestors were wise in their day and generation, for every royal Governor, save Burrington, was thus honored, just as in the days of the Proprietary Government, the Lords Proprietors were the recipients of such honors. At the breaking out of the Revolution there were four counties in North Carolina named after Royal Governors, viz: Johnston, Dobbs, Tryon and Martin. Wake county, too, may almost be put in the same list, for it was named after Esther Wake, a sister of Governor Tryon's wife. In the course of time, after the Revolutionary fever had reached its height, Dobbs and Tryon counties disappeared, Glasgow and Lenoir in the east and Lincoln and Rutherford in the west taking their places. Wake county came very near sharing the same fate, but when the proposition was made in the Legislature to change its name, it was replied that the county was named after a woman who was as charming in manner as lovely in person, and with one consent, our gallant ancestors declared the name should remain, and it is to be hoped it will ever remain as a memorial, not only of the beauty and attractions of Esther Wake, but of the gallantry of our forefathers. Neither does the fact that the province advanced rapidly and steadily during his administration prove anything, if it be remembered that the province had already entered upon and was well on the way in a career of prosperity before he landed upon our shores. And in the matter of his efforts to advance the cause of education, the truth seems to be that in all the years he was Governor of the province, Governor Johnston called the attention of the Legislature to the subject only one time—an effort that, made shortly after his arrival, seems to have exhausted his interest in the subject. Indeed, so far as now appears, if he had any influence whatever upon the province it was to retard its growth. His intentions doubtless were good, and his motives pure enough, but he was exceedingly arbitrary, not to say unscrupulous, in his methods. In one case, according to his own admission, he sought to procure the passage of a bill he favored by calling the Legislature together at a time and place that would prevent its opponents from being present, and, he significantly adds, “some of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent;” but it was all in vain. At another time, using similar means in behalf of another measure, he was more successful, but the “management,” as he called it, was so glaring that the Crown refused to accept the fruits of it, though much desired and much to its advantage. At still another time, when he wished to move the seat of government from Brunswick to Newton, the place he afterwards named Wilmington, in honor of his patron, the Earl of Wilmington, his course was equally arbitrary, to call it by no harsher name. There were eight members of the Upper House, four of whom voted against the bill for the removal, and four, including the presiding officer, voted for it. The presiding officer, Chief Justice Smith, claimed the right to give a casting vote, and having done so, that is to say, having voted twice in favor of the bill, declared it had passed, and sent it to the Governor. The Governor, thereupon, formally gave his assent to the bill, and announced that he would regard all bills passed in that way as being legally enacted. At still another time, when he wished to save Chief Justice Smith from impeachment and trial for malfeasance in office, he induced members of the Legislature to absent themselves, and then a quorum not being present he dissolved the Legislature for want of a quorum and sent the members home. In spite of all his “management,” however, he seems to have been but little if any more successful in controlling the Legislatures of his day than were his predecessors, and was in favor neither with the people in the province nor the government at home in England. One of his first acts as Governor was to initiate a bitter quarrel with the leading men of the Cape Fear on the subject of the Blank Patents, as they were called, in which he alleged that the grossest fraud had been perpetrated. Later, Governor Johnston was doubtless well enough versed in the learning of the books, and doubtless, too, he was not unacquainted with the learning so easily to be acquired in London under Walpole's administration, as to the “management” of legislative bodies. It not unfrequently happens, however, that a mere scholar is unfitted to grapple with the practical details of daily life. Especially is a mere theorist unfitted to solve the problems that constantly present themselves in frontier life. Had Johnston been a practical man, he would have seen the importance of answering the queries annually propounded to him by the Board of Trade as to the material condition of the province, its resources and development, and we would not have been left so much to conjecture in that regard. Had he been a man of practical business capacity, he would certainly have collected money enough to pay his own salary and the salary of the other officers of the Government. As it was, when he died his salary was thirteen years in arrears—years during which the province had grown greatly in wealth and population. His salary was £1,000 per annum, and he might have paid himself out of the Quit Renis under his Instructions if he had collected them. Had he been a practical man, he would have counted the cost, to say nothing of the chances of success, before entering upon a quarrel like that with the northern counties, the outcome of which he ought to have known would be confusion and anarchy, if not open insurrection, that he was helpless to suppress. But counting the cost and weighing chances of success, he seemed to think not worth considering. Sharp practice, intrigue, “management,” as he termed it, and the manifold devices of a cunning nature, were much more to his taste. But they availed not But what better could have been expected from a man who, going from the atmosphere of a Scotch University to that of a London political writer at a time when political writings were characterized by “equal animosity and argument,” was suddenly transplanted to the wilds of America and made Governor not because of his fitness for the place, but as a reward for his vigor or his zeal in the defence of his patron? In a word, our present knowledge of the condition of the province during his administration does by no means justify the impression that he exerted any influence for good on its destinies. Nor does it increase our respect for him as a man, after bringing about a deplorable state of affairs, to find him complaining to the authorities in England, that without help from there he could not much longer maintain even the semblance of a government, a complaint that he had occasion to make more than once during his administration. Nor does it improve one's regard for his memory to find him abusing, as “wild and barbarous,” the people he could not mould to his will. It is difficult to believe, too, that a man could have exercised a controlling influence in a province without leaving some record showing the fact. Governor Johnston left no such record. In none of the many papers he wrote during the eighteen years he was Governor is there anything by which we may form an estimate of the population of the province or its material growth. Happily, Burrington and Dobbs left us information by which its condition at the beginning and at the end of Johnston's administration may be known. Of his quarrel about the Blank Patents, that with the northern counties, that with McCulloh, and those about the currency, the King's Quit Rents, about the Chief Justice, about the removal from Brunswick to Wilmington, the records are full enough, but nowhere do we find a word from him to show the condition of the agricultural, commercial or manufacturing interest of the province, and but once any reference to the great tide of population that was so rapidly filling up the western section of the province. In this regard he was inferior to Burrington, and greatly inferior to both Dobbs and Tryon. It may be that, in the later years of his life, But, perhaps after all, Governor Johnston's great fault was not that of the individual, but the fault of the age in which he lived, an age that regarded a province simply as a mine, to be worked solely for the profit of its owner, the King. Accordingly, never during his whole administration did he seem to think the colonist subjects had any rights that he, as the King's representative, was bound to respect, and so, when he found upon his arrival in the country that of all of the proprietary statutes only six had been confirmed by the Lords Proprietors, as had been required by a practically dead provision of the law, he proceeded to declare all of the unconfirmed laws to be null and void wherever, in his opinion, trenching upon the King's prerogative. To promote the interest of the King and to magnify his prerogative, seemed to have been the mainspring to every action during his administration. Many masters doubtless have had more discreet servants, but none one more zealous than was Johnston. In 1735, was run the first or eastern part of the boundary line between North and South Carolina. It began at the mouth of Little River, on the seashore, thirty miles below the mouth of Cape Fear River, and was extended in a northwest direction 64½ miles, to a point two miles northwest of one of the branches of Little Pedee. In 1737, the line was extended in the same direction 22 miles, to a stake in a meadow, erroneously supposed to be at the point of intersection with the 35th parallel of north latitude. The Commissioners on the part of North Carolina were Robert Halton, Eleazer Allen, Mathew Rowan, Edward Moseley and Roger Moore. In 1738, the act was passed appointing sheriffs in the place of the marshal and his deputies in the province, directing the mode of choosing them and prescribing their duties, and providing that the precincts should be called counties. In September, 1739, “Dugald McNeal, Col. McAlister and several other Scotch gentlemen,” arrived with three hundred and fifty Scotch people, doubtless in the Cape Fear country, and, in 1740, at the ensuing Resolved that the Persons mentioned in the said Petition, shall be free from payment of any Publick or County tax for ten years next ensueing their Arrival. Resolved that towards their subsistance the sum of one thousand pounds be paid out of the Publick money, by his Excellency's warrant to be lodged with Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeal, Daniel McNeal, Coll. McAlister and Neal McNeal Esqrs to be by them distributed among the several families in the said Petition mentioned. Resolved that as an encouragement for Protestants to remove from Europe into this Province, to settle themselves in bodys or Townships, That all such as shall so remove into this Province, Provided they exceed forty persons in one body or Company, they shall be exempted from payment of any Publick or County tax for the space of Ten years, next ensueing their Arrival. Resolved that an address be presented to his Excellency the Governor to desire him to use his Interest, in such manner, as he shall think most proper to obtain an Instruction for giveing encouragement to Protestants from foreign parts, to settle in Townships within this Province, to be set apart for that purpose after the manner, & with such priviledges and advantages, as is practised in South Carolina. The Lower House concurred with the several resolves of the Upper House save that relating to the thousand pounds, which was held over till the next Assembly for consideration. This was on the 29th February, 1740. Further consideration was shown to the new comers on the next day by the appointment by the Governor and Council of Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeil, Dan. McNeil, Col. McAlister and Neil McNeil as magistrates for the county of Bladen, being the first Scotch names that appear in the record of magistrates for Bladen county. Among other charges brought against the Governor was an inordinate fondness for his brother Scotchmen, even Scotch rebels. His partiality In 1740, England having declared war against Spain, over four hundred men were raised in the Colony, and distributed into four companies for service in the expedition against St. Augustine. Two hundred more could have been easily raised if it had been possible to negotiate bills of exchange so as to get ready money. The troops embarked, some at Cape Fear and some at Edenton. Three of the companies were raised in the northern counties. The Legislature appropriated £1,200 sterling to aid in the expedition. Early in the following year these troops were transported from Florida to Jamaica, and there embarking on board the British fleet, under command of Admiral Vernon, sailed to the harbor of Carthagena, in South America, where they took part in the attack on Fort St. Lazarus. In 1744, Lord Granville's one-eighth part of Carolina, under the original grants from King Charles, was set off to him by grant from King George, entirely in North Carolina, all that territory lying between the Virginia line on the north and the parallel of 35° 34′ on the south, being thus set off to him. The line ran near or through the old town of Bath, the present towns of Snow Hill and Princeton, along the southern borders of the counties of Chatham, Randolph, Davidson and Rowan, a little below the southern border of Catawba county but not as low down as Lincolnton, and so on west to the Mississippi. In the winter of 1743-'44 the line was run from the coast to the town of Bath, and in the spring of 1746 from Bath to Peter Parker's house, on the west side of Cape Fear River, now the southeast corner of Chatham county. The reason given by the Commissioners for not continuing the line at that In 1747, several small sloops and barcalonjos crept along the coast from St. Augustine, full of armed men, mostly mulattoes and negroes, their small draught securing them from the attacks of the only ship of war then on our coast. They landed at Ocacock, Core Sound, Bear Inlet and Cape Fear, where they killed several people, burned some ships and small vessels, carried off some negroes and slaughtered a great number of cattle and hogs. These practices were continued all the summer of 1747, and led to the erection of several forts along the coast, one of which, Fort Johnston, still survives. In 1748, on the 29th September, Samuel Davis, Charles Robinson and Thomas Smith, in behalf of themselves and sundry other inhabitants of the Pedee, exhibited to the Governor and Council a petition setting forth in substance that the inhabitants on the river were some eight hundred to twelve hundred in number, and that the court house of Bladen was about 100 miles from the nearest inhabitant, and the roads at times very bad if not impracticable, and praying that a new county be erected to be called Anson county. The petition was granted and the new county erected, the boundary between it and Bladen being the Little Pedee river, to the head of the main branch of it, and thence a line equi-distant between Haw River and Great Pedee River. In 1749, on the 11th July, died Colonel Edward Moseley. As has been well said of him,1 : “Of all the men who watched and guarded the tottering footsteps of our infant State, there was not one who, in intellectual ability, in solid and polite learning, in scholarly cultivation and refinement, in courage and endurance, in high Christian morality, in generous consideration for the welfare of others, in all the true merit, in fine, which makes a man among men, could equal Edward Moseley.” And yet it is to no one of these qualities, nor to all of them, that the great debt of gratitude North Carolina will ever owe to him is due, but to his undying love of free government, and his indomitable maintenance of the rights of the people. Doubtless no man ever more fully realized than he, that eternal vigilance is the price of liberty, nor was there ever upon any watchtower a more faithful sentinel than he. And to him, above all others, should North Carolina erect her first statue, for to him, above all others, is she indebted for stimulating that love of liberty regulated by law, and that hatred of arbitrary government that has ever characterized her people. In him, arbitrary and oppressive government ever found a bold, prompt and effective opponent. Not a mere brawling demagogue, by any means, but a true patriot, who knew the rights of the people, who knew how to assert them and feared not to do it. Happily for our State, he came to the front in the formative period of her existence, and, so far as her records show, did more than any man ever within her borders to give shape and direction to the character of her people. It was under his lead that the Assembly, in 1716, in a formal resolve, told the Governor and his Council, “that the impressing of the inhabitants or their property under pretence of its being for the public service, without authority from the Assembly, was unwarrantable, and a great infringement of the liberty of the subject.” The man who, at that early day, could formulate that resolve, and the people whose Assembly could fling it in the face of the government, were worthy of each other. His first appearance upon the records that have come down to us is as a member of the Council in the year 1705, at the meeting at which the county of Bath was divided into three precincts. He was then a house-holder, and the Council met at his house. How long he had been a member of the Council does not appear, this being the first record of that body that has come down to us. From that time to the day of his death he was continuously in the public service, in some high office or employment. In 1708, he was elected to the Assembly of that year, chosen to decide between the claims of Cary and Glover to the Governorship, and was made Speaker of that body. From that time until 1734, when he became a member of the Council by royal appointment, and as such a He was also Surveyor General of the Colony, and for near twenty years one of the Commissioners in behalf of North Carolina in her famous controversy with Virginia about their boundary line. He was also one of the commissioners that ran the line between North and South Carolina, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and Associate Justice of the General Court of the Province. He was also for many years Public Treasurer. Meanwhile, he was also the foremost lawyer in the Province, and an active member of the vestry in his Parish and ever a friend of learning. The list of books he gave to found a Provincial Library in Edenton is still extant. He was also one of the Commissioners that ran the line between Lord Granville's possessions and the King's domain in the province. His last public service was as a member of the commission to revise the laws of the Province. Surely, it is no mean tribute to his character that while he was so beloved by the people, that he received through life every possible mark of their regard and confidence, he was so respected by the Government, also, that upon all important occasions, when honesty, ability, and courage, were required, and the interests of the Province were to be subserved, it too, called his services into requisition. The name of Moseley will never be without honor in North Carolina so long as time and gratitude shall live. In October, 1749, the line between Virginia and North Carolina was extended from Peter's Creek, where it stopped in 1728, to Steep Rock Creek, a distance of 90 miles. William Churton and Daniel Weldon were the commissioners on the part of North Carolina, and Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson on the part of Virginia. Governor Johnston says “they crossed a large branch of the Mississippi [New River] which runs between the ledges of the mountains, and nobody ever dreamt of before.” It so happens, however, that no record of this survey has been preserved, and we are to-day without evidence, save from tradition, to ascertain the location of our boundary for ninety miles. In 1750, by a statute of the British Parliament, the old method of computing time was abolished in all the King's dominions and the new style introduced, under which the years began on the 1st of January instead of the 25th of March. In 1752, the day after the 2d of September was counted the 14th of September, eleven days being omitted. In 1752, appeared the first printed revisal of the Laws of the Province ever published. The revisal was the work principally of Samuel Swann, Edward Moseley, his colleague on the commission, having died before the completion of the work. The printing was done at New Bern by James Davis, who, in 1749, had carried there the first printing press ever in the province. This revisal was known in common talk in the province as “The Yellow Jacket,” from the color of its covers. Governor Johnston began the Quit Rent quarrel in less than ninety days after his arrival, by seeking to limit the number of places for the collection of quit rents. The importance of the question at issue will be appreciated when it is remembered that the people of the province did not own their lands in fee simple, as is now the case, but were mere tenants of the Crown, holding the lands upon payment of an annual rent per acre. The people contended that unless they agreed upon a different place, the rents were collectable only upon the land upon which they accrued, and were payable in certain products, or “commoditys,” as they were called, at fixed prices. Governor Johnston held that, as the representative of the King, he had a right to fix not only the place of payment, but how it should be made, and the bill then pending was amended in the Upper House so as to reduce the number of places to four. The House of Burgesses refusing to agree to this view of the case, the bill fell through, and thereupon Governor Johnston issued a proclamation directing where the rents should be collected and the prices at which commodities should be received. Against this proclamation the House of Burgesses on the 26th February, 1735, made the following respectful protest: “We are very much concerned to see your Excellency's Proclamation commanding us to pay in Sterling Money or in bills at the difference that your Excellency and Council shall be pleased to assess which we “Wherefore we humbly pray your Excellency would be pleased to Issue out a proclamation directing the Officers who are appointed to Collect the quit rents to proceed in the said Collections according to the Laws and Customs of this Province and that no distress may be made upon his Majesties poor tenants contrary to the same untill a Law shall be passed directing some other method for collecting the said rents more agreeable to his Majesties Instructions and as much as may be for the ease of his Majesties Tenants which we were in hopes would have been done by the Bill We offered this Session and that your Excellency would be pleased to give a further time for the payment of arrears which does not become due by any default of the Tenants refusing to pay those rents but in the officers neglecting to collect the same.” The protest had no effect, however, and the Governor's officers proceeded to demand the rents as directed in the proclamation, and to distrain for them when not paid. Thereupon ensued what the Governor called “great confusion and disorder.” On the 7th October, 1736, the Legislature having again met, the House of Burgesses presented the following address to the Governor, viz.: “We the Members of the Lower House of Assembly humbly beg leave to lay before your Excellency the several grievances represented to us by the Committee appointed for that purpose which are in the words following (vizt) “On reading the Petition of Perquimons, Bertie and other Precincts and also several other informations complaining of the illegal Proceedings and methods of collecting & receiving the Quit rents, it appears to this Committee, that the Collectors or receivers, have compelled the Inhabitants of this Province, who hold their Land by Grants from the late Lords Proprietors, to carry their Quit rents to certain places appointed, tho' such rents were only demandable and payable on the Lands for which they were due, and had by custom time out of mind been received by the Collectors at the People's respective dwelling Houses; and that they The Governor paying no attention to this respectful address, and his officers continuing to distrain for the rents, the Assembly ordered the officers into custody. Thereupon, as the record states, “His Excellency being now come to the Upper House, and having sent a message to command the immediate attendance of the House of Burgesses, they not paying obedience thereto, His Excellency was pleased to send another message to them; but they still neglecting to give their attendance, His Excellency then by and with the advice and consent of His Majesty's Council, prorogued the General Assembly to the first day of March next, then to meet at Newbern.” But putting an end to the Legislature did not reconcile the people to the collection of the quit rents at unlawful places. Some months thereafter, in 1737, at the General Court at Edenton, a man was imprisoned for insulting the marshal in the execution of his office during the sitting of the Court, and the people of Bertie and Edgecombe precincts, hearing that he was imprisoned about his quit rents, rose in arms to the number of 500, and marched within five miles of the town, intending to rescue him by force, in the meantime cursing the King and uttering a great many rebellious speeches. By this time the man had made his peace with the Court, and the crowd learning the truth, dispersed without doing any mischief, threatening, however, “the most cruel usage to such persons as durst come to demand any quit rents of them for the future,” and the Governor goes on to say further, “how to quell them I cannot tell if they should attempt an insurrection against next collection. ∗ ∗ The people seem here to be persuaded that they may do what they please, and that they are below the notice of the King and his ministers, which makes them highly insolent. They never were of any service to the Lords Proprietors, and if something is not speedily done to convince them that his Majesty will not be so used, I am afraid they will be of as little profit to the Crown.” This state of things continued until 1739, when the Governor, having become convinced that the collection of the quit rents was impossible except in a way satisfactory to the people, a bill was permitted to pass the Legislature to which all parties agreed. From the Governor's representation regarding this bill, it would seem that it was also passed in part, at least, by “management,” that is to say, in consideration of an abatement of his demands in the matter of Blank Patents set forth in the bill. He seems, too, to have thought he had overreached the Assembly in the prices at which the commodities agreed upon were rated; at least, he represented to the Board of Trade that the rates were fixed so much below their real value that none of them would be offered in payment. A great concession was that the bill contained a provision, whereby the power of fixing the value of paper money was given to a committee consisting of the Governor and Council and the Attorney General and Receiver General on the one side, and an equal number of the House of Burgesses on the other. Another great concession was as to the number of places at which payment might be made, which he said “it could have been wished were fewer in number, but there was no possibility of avoiding it.” The next year, 1740, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that the vesting the power to regulate the price of money “in any person whatsoever, might be of dangerous consequence, and highly prejudicial to the trade of the nation.” In 1741, an attempt was made to pass a new Quit Rent Law, but although, as the Governor said, “the Assembly was called in the most southern part of the Province on purpose to keep at home the Northern Members who were most numerous and from whom the greatest opposition was expected and some of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent,” he was obliged to prorogue the Legislature without accomplishing anything. At the next session of the Legislature, 1744, the Committee on Propositions and Grievances reported, on 29th November, the following resolution, in which the House concurred, viz.: “Resolved by this Committee that no produce of this province being accepted in payment of quit rents of late years nor the current bills at less than 10 for 1 which is equal to sterling money as this from the On the 4th December the Governor prorogued the Legislature. In April of next year, 1745, the Legislature met again, but neither side was in better temper than when they parted. In his opening address, the Governor reviled the Assembly for having passed no bills at the last session, and informed them that he had “orders from His Majestie and Lord Carteret to insist on their passing a quit rent law.” The Assembly replied that they had “frequently in former Assemblys had under their consideration matters of consequence recommended by his Excellency but had been unhappily prevented from doing anything therein with effect by unexpected dissolutions and prorogations,” and no quit rent law was passed. In 1746, in June, the Assembly again declared the refusal to receive “commoditys” in payment of quit rents to be a very great grievance. After this session, the northern counties were not represented in the Legislature during Johnston's administration, and in April, 1749, the Governor succeeded in passing a quit rent law, but in the condition the province was from that time to the end of his administration, it could not have accomplished much. His quarrel with the Albemarle or northern counties and its consequences deserve a more extended notice, if for no other reason, to show into what gross and unpardonable errors historians can fall upon the most important points. When Governor Johnston came to North Carolina, the precincts of Albemarle county sent five members each to the Lower House of the Legislature, while the precincts of Bath, that is to say, the newer precincts, sent only two. Of course, this gave the older counties controlling influence in the Assembly. Doubtless this was not an equitable representation, and ought to have been changed if possible, but in a legal and fair way. The Governor, however, determined to bring about the change in his own peculiar way, that is to say, in a manner neither legal nor fair. So he called a session of the Legislature to meet on the In the meanwhile the northern counties sent agents to London to represent matters to the authorities there, and after a full investigation, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that it had been improperly and unfairly obtained, and the order of repeal was brought over by Governor Dobbs. The unequal representation being restored, continued until the Provincial Assemblies of the Revolution came into existence, as appears from the records preserved here from that day to this. To these bodies each county sent five delegates, equality of representation doubtless being considered as a necessary preliminary step to united harmonious action, especially in view of the fact that the bulk of population was then in the west. In spite of the records, both here and in London, the historian Williamson, after reciting the main facts in the case, When Governor Johnston undertook forcibly and fraudulently to deprive the northern counties of the greater part of their representation in the Legislature, he had been Governor of the province for twelve years, and he must have studied the people over whom he ruled those twelve years to but little purpose if he supposed they would submit to a deprivation of their rights, either by force or by fraud. He must have known, too, that if they did not choose to submit, he was utterly without power to compel them to do so; but in spite of everything, and seemingly regardless of consequences, he pursued a policy that resulted in an open defiance of the law, that he dared not even to attempt to punish. Such a state of things probably never existed in any other province for such a length of time—open, bold resistance and defiance of the constituted authorities for eight years, without an attempt even to enforce obedience. The population of North Carolina at the beginning of Johnston's administration was near 50,000 in all, and at the close it was somewhere about 90,000, that is to say, just about double the number usually given. Of course this great addition was made up from immigration as well as from natural increase. This immigration came in part from adjacent Virginia counties, covering the northern border generally, west of the Chowan. These immigrants simply followed the tributaries of the Chowan and the Roanoke rivers in their search for “bottom land;” other immigrants came from the adjacent South Carolina counties, On the 15th February, 1751, Governor Johnston wrote to the Board of Trade that inhabitants flocked in daily, mostly from Pennsylvania and other parts of America already overstocked with people, and some directly from Europe. Many thousand people, he said, had then come in, settling mainly in the west, so that they had nearly reached the mountains. On the 28th June, 1753, President Rowan wrote, that in the year 1746 he was in the territory composing the counties of Anson, Orange and Rowan, and there were then not above one hundred fighting men in all that country; whereas, at the time he wrote, there were at least three thousand, mostly Irish Protestants and Germans, and their numbers were daily increasing. At these figures this new population must have numbered near twenty thousand. In 1776, their settlements had extended beyond the present State limits. The route that these immigrants from Pennsylvania took to reach their future homes in North Carolina is plainly laid down on the maps of that day. On Jeffreys' map, a copy of which is in the Congressional Library at Washington City, there is plainly laid down a road called “the Great Road from the Yadkin River thro' Virginia to Philadelphia, distant 435 miles.” It ran from Philadelphia through Lancaster and York to Winchester, thence up the Shenandoah Valley, crossing the Fluvanna River at Looney's Ferry, thence to Staunton River and down the river through the Blue Ridge, thence southward, crossing Dan River below the mouth of Mayo River, thence still southward near the Moravian Settlement to the Yadkin River, just above the mouth of Linville Creek and about ten miles above the mouth of Reedy Creek. Remembering the route General Lee took when he went into Pennsylvania on the memorable Gettysburg campaign, it will be seen that very many of the North Carolina boys, both of German and Scotch-Irish The following is a brief statement of the condition of the currency of the province during Governor Johnston's administration: In 1735, by act of Assembly, bills for £40,000 to be exchanged for the bills issued in 1729. Not a legal tender at any rated exchange. In the same year, bills for £10,000 for the more immediate discharge of the public debts, not issued at any rated exchange, but for the payment of them a poll tax was laid. The rate of exchange in 1739 was 1000 per cent., and there was outstanding about £50,000. The above seem to have been redeemed by bills for £21,350 issued in 1747, of which £189.13.3 in April, 1749, and £513.12.0 were burned in April, 1750, leaving in circulation £20,646.14.0 proclamation money, equal to £15,485.1.0 sterling money. These bills maintained the value they were issued at as late as 29th September, 1850. No question seems to have arisen during Johnston's administration as to the right of the House of Burgesses to control the purse strings—about the only trouble that he seems to have avoided. But that the people for eight years refused to recognize, in any way, the authority of the government under which they lived, because they were not represented in its Legislature, is evidence enough that even at that day they were fully inspired with the principles that underlaid the great American revolution, and foreshadowed plainly enough what their course would be in that great struggle. 1 A Study in Colonial History. Hon. George Davis.

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A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography/Investigation Paper Spearman's Rank This is a concept to find the statistical significance of the correlation between the two variables. First, a null hypothesis needs to be made. Mann-Whitney U Test Mann-Whitney U test is a test for difference between 2 data sets. Using a critical values table, the level of confidence in the relationship can be established, and the null hypotheses can be accepted or rejected. There are both advantages and disadvantages which accompany this statistical test for analysis of statistical data. One advantage is that it can compare two data sets that are different sizes. This makes the test much more versatile, and can be applied to a range of different data sets. Secondly, the test is not based on observed values. This means that there are no assumptions made about the distribution of the data. This is particularly useful in geography because most of the data we collect will be either positively or negatively skewed. Finally, Mann-Whitney U uses non-parametric (non-grouped) data. This is an advantage because the trends in the data cannot be generalised, and thus producing a more statistically sound result. It does however carry some disadvantages with it, one being the fact that it cannot be applied to more than 2 data sets at one time. This is because it is non-parametric data. If the test was done using parametric (grouped) data, you would be able to compare multiple data sets at once. An example of this is the student’s “t” test. This is because parametric data provides a result in proportion to the data, and can therefore be contrasted with many data sets. Also, Mann-Whitney becomes increasingly less effective as the data sets get larger. This reduces its effectiveness because the calculation becomes too long-winded, and it takes a very long time to complete. It also reduces the precision of the result, as with a bigger sample size there is more margin for error. In conclusion, despite the obvious flaws with the test, it is a very effective way of looking at the differences between 2 pairs of data sets. Five Sections of Investigation Pragmatic = essentially safety and accessibility. For example, if a student is carrying out a river investigation they might use pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. It is reliable and practical. Random = Not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random sample methods either a calculator, grid or computer is needed to generate random statistics that have not been influenced by human decision. Systematic = This type of technique would be used if progressional change over distance or time was being studied. A transect would be measured and data recorded at regular intervals along said transect, so that change over time or distance could be observed. For example, if a student wished to study psammosere succession, a transect might be measured from the sea to the climax environment (woodland) and at every 25m or so measurements would be taken. Stratified = To be completed by Magneto and River's landmass. Statistics: Mode Most = Mode The most frequent Sample number. This is the sample figure which occurs the most times e.g.7,8,9,5,4,3,5,6,7,5,5,5,5,3,5, 5=mode Comes from the French word "la mode" for fashion Statistics: Median This is the middle sample when all the samples are placed in arithmetic Order. e.g. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 5=median Statistic: Range The area which the samples stretch from. Statistics: Standard Deviation To describe the data regarding an infiltration rate statistically I would use the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of central tendency and dispersion. These two are always used together. The mean is simply the sum of all values of x (infiltration rate) divided by n (total number of samples) The standard deviation is more complicated and requires the use of the formula; where x is the individual infiltration rate and X bar is the mean of x’s (as above) This is simply done by listing the value of x on a table, and subtracting x bar from each. In the next column, square the subsequent result. Then add up all the values of (x-xbar) ² (Σ (x-xbar) ². Divide this by n (100 IN THIS CASE), and then square root the answer. These methods are the most powerful and sensitive, because they include all the values of all the data. They do not exclude any data. However, the data must be (nearly) normally distributed to use them. Mode and range mealy state the most numerous value of x and the difference between the smallest and largest which is not very useful, as it ignores most of the data. Interquartile deviation and medium rely on the rank order of the data row do not engage with the size of the values for x, and ignore the extremes of the data set.

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- Join The Movement - Media & More - About Us Types of Builds Millard Fuller used to say that a home is the foundation on which human development occurs. It is also an important, positive step in working on a safer, healthier and more responsible future. Many people struggling to put food on the table, pay bills, purchase school supplies and clothing and maintain transportation to work are not thinking about repairing their homes, even though those homes might be dangerous, literally crumbling around them and their children. The Fuller Center is an organization devoted to partnership, renewed opportunity and providing a hand up instead of a hand out. The construction and rehabilitation of simple, decent houses are the two basic ways we do this. The work of The Fuller Center allows the elderly to live out their rest of their days comfortably in their own homes, gives families a fresh start, enables the handicapped to maintain a level of independence in accessible homes and, in some cases, transforms entire neighborhoods.

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The Threat of Metabolic Syndrome Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of risk factors that greatly raises your risk for heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. If you have three or more of these factors, you are said to have metabolic syndrome: A high level of triglycerides, or more than 150 mg/dL A low level of HDL ("good") cholesterol, or below 40 mg/dL for men or 50 mg/dL for women Abdominal obesity, or a waist circumference of greater than 40 for men, or greater than 35 for women High blood pressure, or 130/85 mmHg or greater High blood sugar that is classified as prediabetes, 100 mg to 125 mg/dL, or diabetes, 126 mg/dL or casual blood sugar greater than 200 mg/dL According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, if you have metabolic syndrome, you are two times more likely to have develop heart disease. Your risk of developing type 2 diabetes is five times greater if you have metabolic syndrome. Yet there's good news. Lifestyle changes can prevent or reverse some of these risk factors, if you are among the 35 percent of adults who already has metabolic syndrome. Although you can't change how genes contribute to your risk factors, you can do a lot to lower your risk. Eat a low-fat diet rich in fruits and vegetables, for instance, and most days get 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise that raises your heart rate. Get to and maintain a healthy weight.

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New Page Books | 2005-02-15 | ISBN: 1564147959 | 312 pages | PDF | 3,2 MBA handbook of Atlantean information for general readers and specialists alike! This is an invaluable, one-of-a-kind reference. Unlike most other books on the subject, The Atlantis Encyclopedia offers fewer theories and more facts. Although it does not set out to prove the sunken capital actually existed, The Atlantis Encyclopedia musters so much evidence on its behalf, even skeptics may conclude that there must be at least something factual behind such an enduring, indeed global legend. You’ll learn: * What was Atlantis? * Where was it located? * How long ago did it flourish? * How was it destroyed? * What became of its survivors? * Have any remains of Atlantis ever been found? * Will Atlantis ever be found? * Did Atlantis have any impact on America?

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Is Copy and Paste Programming Really a Problem? But it’s also a natural way to get stuff done – find something that already works, something that looks close to what you want to do, take a copy and use it as a starting point. Almost everybody has done in at some point. This is because there are times when copy and paste programming is not only convenient, but it might also be the right thing to do. First of all, let’s be clear what I mean by copy and paste. This is not copying code examples off of the Internet, a practice that comes with its own advantages and problems. By copy and paste I mean when programmers take a shortcut in reuse – when they need to solve a problem that is similar to another problem in the system, they’ll start by taking a copy of existing code and changing what they need to. Early in design and development, copy and paste programming has no real advantage. The code and design are still plastic, this is your chance to come up with the right set of abstractions, routines and libraries to do what the system needs to do. And there’s not a lot to copy from anyways. It’s late in development when you already have a lot of code in place, and especially when you are maintaining large, long-lived systems, that the copy and paste argument gets much more complicated. Why Copy and Paste? Programmers copy and paste because it saves time. First, you have a starting point, code that you know works. All you have to do is figure out what needs to be changed or added. You can focus on the problem you are trying to solve, on what is different, and you only need to understand what you are going to actually use. You are more free to iterate and make changes to fit the problem in front of you – you can cleanup code when you need to, delete code that you don’t need. All of this is important, because you may not know what you will need to keep, what you need to change, and what you don’t need at all until you are deeper into solving the problem. Copy and paste programming also reduces risk. If you have to go back and change and extend existing code to do what it does today as well as to solve your new problem, you run the risk of breaking something that is already working. It is usually safer and less expensive (in the short term at least) to take a copy and work from there. What if you are building a new B2B customer interface that will be used by a new set of customers? It probably makes sense to take an existing interface as a starting point, reuse the scaffolding and plumbing and wiring at least and as much of the the business code as makes sense, and then see what you need to change. In the end, there will be common code used by both interfaces (after all, that’s why you are taking a copy), but it could take a while before you know what this code is. Finding a common design, the right abstractions and variations to support different implementations and to handle exceptions can be difficult and time consuming. You may end up with code that is harder to understand and harder to maintain and change in the future – because the original design didn’t anticipate the different exceptions and extensions, and refactoring can only take you so far. You may need a new design and implementation. Changing the existing code, refactoring or rewriting some of it to be general-purpose, shared and extendable, will add cost and risk to the work in front of you. You can’t afford to create problems for existing customers and partners just because you want to bring some new customers online. You’ll need to be extra careful, and you’ll have to understand not only the details of what you are trying to do now (the new interface), but all of the details of the existing interface, its behavior and assumptions, so that you can preserve all of it. It’s naïve to think that all of this behavior will be captured in your automated tests – assuming that you have a good set of automated tests. You’ll need to go back and redo integration testing on the existing interface. Getting customers and partners who may have already spent weeks or months to test the software to retest it is difficult and expensive. They (justifiably) won’t see the need to go through this time and expense because what they have is already working fine. Copying and pasting now, and making a plan to come back later to refactor or even redesign if necessary towards a common solution, is the right approach here. When Copy and Paste makes sense In Making Software’s chapter on “Copy-Paste as a Principled Engineering Tool”, Michael Godfrey and Cory Kapser explore the costs of copy and paste programming, and the cases where copy and paste make sense: - Forking – purposely creating variants for hardware or platform variation, or for exploratory reasons. - Templating –some languages don’t support libraries and shared functions well so it may be necessary to copy and paste to share code. Somewhere back in the beginning of time, the first COBOL programmer wrote a complete COBOL program – everybody else after that copied and pasted from each other. - Customizing – creating temporary workarounds – as long as it is temporary. practice of “clone and own” to solve problems in big development organizations. One team takes code from another group and customizes it or adapts it to their own purposes – now they own their copy. This is a common approach with open source code that is used as a foundation and needs to be extended to solve a proprietary problem. When Copy and Paste becomes a Problem When to copy and paste, and how much of a problem it will become over time, depends on a few important factors. First, the quality of what you are copying – how understandable the code is, how stable it is, how many bugs it has in it. You don’t want to start off by inheriting somebody else’s problems. How many copies have been made. A common rule of thumb from Fowler and Beck`s Refactoring book is “three strikes and you refactor”. This rule comes from recognizing that by making a copy of something that is already working and changing the copy, you’ve created a small maintenance problem. It may not be clear what this maintenance problem is yet or how best to clean it up, because only two cases are not always enough to understand what is common and what is special. But the more copies that you make, the more of a maintenance problem that you create – the cost of making changes and fixes to multiple copies, and the risk of missing making a change or fix to all of the copies increases. By the time that you make a third copy, you should be able to see patterns – what’s common between the code, and what isn’t. And if you have to do something in three similar but different ways, there is a good chance that there will be a fourth implementation, and a fifth. By the third time, it’s worthwhile to go back and restructure the code and come up with a more general-purpose solution. How often you have to change the copied code and keep it in sync – particularly, how often you have to change or fix the same code in more than one place. How well you know the code, do you know that there are clones and where to find them? How long it takes to find the copies, and how sure you are that you found them all. Tools can help with this. Source code analysis tools like clone detectors can help you find copy and paste code – outright copies and code that is not the same but similar (fuzzier matching with fuzzier results). Copied code is often fiddled with over time by different programmers, which makes it harder for tools to find all of the copies. Some programmers recommend leaving comments as markers in the code when you make a copy, highlighting where the copy was taken from, so that a maintenance programmer in the future making a fix will know to look for and check the other code. Copy and Paste programming doesn’t come for free. But like a lot of other ideas and practices in software development, copy and paste programming isn’t right or wrong. It’s a tool that can be used properly, or abused. Brian Foote, one of the people who first recognized the Big Ball of Mud problem in software design, says that copy and paste programming is the one form of reuse that programmers actually follow, because it works. It’s important to recognize this. If we’re going to Copy and Paste, let's do a responsible job of it. (Note: Opinions expressed in this article and its replies are the opinions of their respective authors and not those of DZone, Inc.)

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Sledding has been a winter ritual for generations. Anywhere there's snow and a hillside, you can find people sledding. Your grandparents probably did it, as did your parents, and someday your kids will do it, too. Why? It's tons of fun, and it doesn't require any special skills or equipment other than a sled and a helmet. But sledding can also cause injuries, some of them pretty serious. To keep yourself safe, follow these tips. Why Is Sledding Safety Important? Though it may seem like harmless fun, sledding injuries send tens of thousands of people to hospital emergency rooms each year. More than half of all sledding injuries are head injuries, which can be very serious and even deadly. Sledders are actually more likely to be injured in collisions than skiers or snowboarders. Choose the Right Hill When hills get coated with snow, they may all look like great locations for sledding. But not all hills are safe. Choose yours carefully. Here are a few guidelines to follow: Select a hill that is not too steep and has a long flat area at the bottom for you to glide to a stop. Avoid hillsides that end near a street or parking lot. Avoid hillsides that end near ponds, trees, fences or other hazards. Make sure the hill is free of obstacles such as jumps, bumps, rocks, or trees before you begin sledding. Choose hills that are snowy rather than icy. If you fall off your sled, icy slopes make for hard landings. Try to sled during the daytime, when visibility is better. If you go sledding at night, make sure the hillside is well lit and all potential hazards are visible. Dress for Success Since sledding involves playing in the snow outdoors during wintertime, chances are it's going to be cold. Frostbite and even hypothermia are potential dangers. So is hitting your head. Be sure to wear the proper clothing to stay warm and safe. Wear sensible winter clothing — hats, gloves or mittens, snow pants, winter jacket, snow boots — that is waterproof and warm, and change into something dry if your clothes get wet. Avoid wearing scarves or any clothing that can get caught in a sled and pose a risk of strangulation. Wear a helmet designed for winter sports. If you don't have a ski or winter sports helmet, at least wear the helmet you use for biking or skateboarding. The best sleds can be steered by their riders and have brakes to slow them down. Avoid sleds that can't be steered, such as saucers or plastic toboggans, and never use a sled substitute like an inner tube, lunch tray, or cardboard box. Good sleds are relatively cheap to buy and are well worth the extra money. Follow These Simple Safety Rules You've got the right kind of sled and a helmet, you're dressed warmly, and you've picked out a perfect hill. You're ready to go. Follow these rules to keep yourself and other sledders safe: Designate a go-to adult. In the event someone gets injured, you'll want an adult on hand to administer first aid and, if necessary, take the injured sledder to the emergency room. Always sit face-forward on your sled. Never sled down a hill backwards or while standing, and don't go down the hill face-first, as this greatly increases the risk of a head injury. Young kids (5 and under) should sled with an adult, and kids under 12 should be actively watched at all times. Go down the hill one at a time and with only one person per sled (except for adults with young children). Piling more than one person on a sled just means there are more things on the hill that you can collide with. Never build an artificial jump or obstacle on a sledding hill. Keep your arms and legs within the sled at all times, and if you fall off the sled, move out of the way. If you find yourself on a sled that won't stop, roll off it and get away from it. Walk up the side of the hill and leave the middle open for other sledders. Never ride a sled that is being pulled by a moving vehicle. While it's unlikely that you'll be injured while sledding, the possibility definitely exists. Just take a little extra time to dress properly and make sure you're following these safety guidelines, and you'll have a better time knowing you have less to worry about. Sledding is supposed to be fun. Stay safe and warm, and you'll ensure that it is!

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(En español: Exhalar) Put one hand on your chest and take a deep breath . . . hold it! Now let the air out. Do you know why your chest seems to get smaller? It's called exhaling. This means you're pushing the air you breathed in out of your body. Your lungs are kind of like balloons, and when you breathe in (inhale), they get bigger. Then when you exhale and let that air back out, they get smaller. That's why your chest goes up and down when you breathe.

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Pub. date: 2008 | Online Pub. Date: May 28, 2008 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412963930 | Print ISBN: 9781412941655 | Online ISBN: 9781412963930| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia Immigration, United States Often described as a nation of immigrants, the United States had a foreign-born population of 12.4 percent in 2005. Before the 19th century, however, people rarely used the term immigrant. Instead, the foreign-born came as settlers, pioneers, slaves, or indentured servants. The Naturalization Act of 1790 first established a centralized process for becoming a citizen, originally open to any free white individual who could demonstrate residence in the country for 2 years. In the mid-19th century, the short-lived Know-No thing movement emerged as a reaction to a surge in immigration, particularly of Irish Catholics after the potato famine of 1845–1851. No national legislation, however, was enacted in response. Immigration was, for the most part, welcomed as a route to national development until the late 19th century. This changed with the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese from entering the country and excluded those already in ...

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About this Base Converter Base-2 to base-62 are accepted. "A" stands for 10, "Z" for 35, "a" (lower-case) for 36 and "z" (lower-case) for 61. Decimals are supported. This is a custom function because PHP's base_convert() doesn't accept decimals and only goes up to base-36. It's only as precise as PHP is, so don't blindly copy the smallest decimal thinking it will always be correct. Is there any standard for displaying numbers higher than base-36? I've used lowercase letters to go up to base-62, but I couldn't find if that's what is commonly done. (Then again, I guess nothing is commonly done, since anything beyond base-16 doesn't really have much use, to my knowledge.) Fun game: Enter your name and supply base-36 (or higher) as the starting base and see what number you get in another base. My first name in base-38 for instance returns EPKCO in base-42. What's this about? A base is the system with which numbers are displayed. If we talk about base-n, the system has n characters (including 0) available to display a number. Numbers are represented with digits which are smaller than n. Therefore, 3 in base-3 is 10: because that system doesn't have a "3", it starts over (1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, etc.). The base we usually use is base-10, because we have 10 (when including 0) digits until we start over again (8,9,10). In base-2 (binary), we only have 2 characters, i.e. 0 and 1, until we start over again. Following this example, the binary number 10 is 2 in our (base-10) system. Does it make sense that a finite fraction ("decimal") is infinite in another base? It totally does. If you want to convert 645 from base-8 to base-10, you do 6*82 + 4*81 + 5*80 = 421. After the comma you keep on decrementing the exponent, meaning that if you have 21.35 in base-7 you get to its base-10 equivalent by doing 2*71 + 1*70 + 3*7-1 + 5*7-2. 7-1 (= 1/7), however, is 0.142857... in base-10, while it's simply written as 0.1 in base-7.

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Russia drills through 4 km of ice to reach ‘mythical’ subglacial lake A Russian team has succeeded in drilling through four kilometres of ice to the surface of a mythical subglacial Antarctic lake which could hold as yet unknown life forms, reports said Monday. Lake Vostok is the largest subglacial lake in Antarctica and scientists want to study its eco-system which has been isolated for hundreds of thousands of years under the ice in the hope of finding previously unknown microbiological life forms. “Because the lower layer was formed 400,000 years ago, from the composition of the gas it is possible to judge the gas composition in the atmosphere 400,000 years ago and during the time that has passed since the formation of the lake,” Sergei Lesenkov, spokesman for the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute said. “From there, it is possible to identify and forecast certain climatic changes in the future. This is very important.” (Photo: AFP/Getty Images)

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The factors behind the calving process were not well understood US researchers have come up with a way to predict the rate at which ice shelves break apart into icebergs. These sometimes spectacular occurrences, called calving events, are a key step in the process by which climate change drives sea level rise. Computer models that simulate how ice sheets might behave in a warmer world do not describe the calving process in much detail, Science journal reports. Until now, the factors controlling this process have not been well understood. Ice sheets, such as those in Antarctica and Greenland, spread under their own weight and flow off land over the ocean water. Ice shelves are the thick, floating lips of ice sheets or glaciers that extend out past the coastline. Timelapse footage of an iceberg breaking away from a glacier in July 2008. The event took approximately 15 minutes (Video: Fahnestock/UNH) The Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica floats for as much as 800km (500 miles) over the ocean before the edges begin to break and create icebergs. But other ice shelves may only edge over the water for a few kilometres. A team led by Richard Alley at Pennsylvania State University, US, analysed factors such as thickness, calving rate and strain rate for 20 different ice shelves. "The problem of when things break is a really hard problem because there is so much variability," said Professor Alley. "Anyone who has dropped a coffee cup knows this. Sometimes the coffee cup breaks and sometimes it bounces." The team's results show that the calving rate of an ice shelf is primarily determined by the rate at which the ice shelf is spreading away from the continent. The researchers were also able to show that narrower shelves should calve more slowly than wider ones. Ice cracking off into the ocean from Antarctica and Greenland could play a significant role in future sea level rise. Floating ice that melts does not of itself contribute to the height of waters (because it has already displaced its volume), but the shelf from which it comes acts as a brake to the land-ice behind. Removal of the shelf will allow glaciers heading to the ocean to accelerate - a phenomenon documented when the Larsen B shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula shattered in spectacular style in 2002. This would speed sea level rise. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in its 2007 assessment forecast that seas could rise by 18 to 59 cm (7-23ins) this century. However, in giving those figures, it conceded that ice behaviour was poorly understood. This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so.

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The Philippines is blessed with a very high biodiversity, including the plants living in its remaining forest cover. Trees alone comprise about 3500 species. Just to research on a species a day would take about 10 years to finish all of just the trees. Then there are still the shrubs, herbs, ferns etc. Through this blog we hope to introduce you to some important plants in the forest before they completely disappear because of habitat destruction. Friday, January 13, 2012 Another Katmon in Flower Dillenia sibuyanensis in flower Flower is much smaller than a katmon's Quick Post: I was gifted by Wendy Regalado with a cutting of Dillenia sibuyanensis or katmon-sibuyan. In about 8 months it established itself then grew from 6 inches to about 2 feet. The other day I saw it in flower. It had a smaller flower compared to Dillenia philippinensis, but has an attractive yellow flower. It must be a delight to see a specimen heavily laden with the yellow blooms. For now I have to contented with the single flower, and at least I know my plant will be doing so someday.

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During regular check-ups, your doctor will examine your child to see if he or she has any developmental delays. These well-child check-ups are typically scheduled for: - 9 months - 18 months - 24 or 30 months To look for developmental delays, the doctor will focus on your child’s social skills, language skills, and behavior. Your child's' doctor may talk to and play with your child. You will be asked questions about your child’s development. This is a good time for you to talk openly to your child's doctor. You may have concerns about how your child is growing and behaving. Tell the doctor if you think your child is not developing normally, or has regressed. It is very important to share these concerns. Examples of tests that are used to screen for developmental delays include: - Ages and Stages Questionnaire - Parents Evaluation of Developmental Status Your doctor may also give a screening test to check specifically for autism. These screening tools focus on the criteria for diagnosing autism. The criteria are based on the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. These tests are required for screening use in some states. One test that is used is called the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT). It is for children as young as 18 months. This is when autism is typically diagnosed. Some samples of the types of questions in CHAT include: - Does your child take interest in other children? - Does your child ever bring objects over to you to show you something? - Does your child sometimes stare at nothing or wander with no purpose? The screening may show that your child has signs of autism. If so, the next step would be to work with a professional who specializes in the condition. This may be a child psychologist. The specialist will do further testing. It is important to remember that if your child is in the high-risk category, your doctor will screen him or her sooner for developmental delays and autism. Your child is considered high-risk if he or she: - Had a low birth weight - Was premature - Has a sibling with a developmental delay or autism

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Bringing a new baby home is one of the most exciting times for parents and grandparents. 9 months of planning and anticipation finally pays off when the new addition arrives safe and sound. However, there may be one person who isn't quite sure what all the fuss is about and what having a new child in the family is going to mean for them. The sibling. A new brother or sister may be thrilling to most of the family members, but a new baby who is getting all the attention can seem overwhelming to the first child, especially for very young siblings. Their very sense of security can feel threatened, leaving them feeling angry and acting out. So, before the little bundle of joy arrives, it's a good idea to prepare the older child for big changes ahead. You can do that as early as when mom starts showing. Introduce the idea that mommy is pregnant. Being pregnant means that mom & dad are going to have another child, and that means a little brother or sister is going to be part of the family. One good tip is to have a calendar on hand and circle the date when the baby is due. Have the older child start marking the days as they go by. If you have a very young child you can say the baby will arrive in the summer, when the weather gets hot.Or in the fall, when all the leaves start to fall. Give them something they can identify with if they are too young to understand dates. Once that's established, ask them if they have any questions about having a little brother or sister. Children may be so surprised that they don't have anything to ask right away. But as time goes on, they will have plenty of questions. Give answers that are age appropriate in a language that is easy to understand. Keep your answers simple but inclusive of how a new baby may affect their life. An example might be the baby will cry and may wake you up at night for a while. That's normal behavior for a new baby. We'll all be tired for a little while, but it will get better. You can also bring out pictures or videos of when they were babies. Children love to hear stories about when they were little. Explain how much you loved them then and now. This little exercise in closeness can also help them understand the importance of babies and what a baby can bring to the family. As the due date gets closer, try and keep everything as routine as possible. Avoid big transitions such as potty training, changing to a big girl or boy bed, getting rid of the pacifier or binky or anything that may separate the older sibling from the family. If the sibling must undergo some of these changes, start as early as possible so that they don't make a negative association between these changes and the baby. One unavoidable change that might occur is that mom will be away for a few days when the baby is born. Prepare your child for your absence during the birth of the new baby (how long you will be gone, where your child will stay). If your child is going to stay with someone else for a few days, do a couple of practice stay-overs so they will see that you will come back and bring them home. For toddlers, you might also consider role-playing with dolls. Let them use the doll to ask questions or talk about their fears or excitement about the baby. Once the baby is born allow the sibling to come to the hospital and see the baby and that mom is ok. A cute tip is to have a gift from the new baby for the sibling. Once baby is home, suppress any negative comparisons such as you cried a lot more, or he or she is a lot calmer than you were. Other things to keep in mind are: - Don't be alarmed if siblings don't express an interest in the new baby. Sibling relationships have a lifetime to develop. - Accept that some regression may occur; this is normal. Baby your big-boy/girl for a while, if that's what he/she seems to need. - Remind visitors to pay attention to your older kids and monitor gift-giving. It can be upsetting for sibling to see all of the presents that the newborn receives, especially when people don''t bring something for them. - Try not to blame the baby for your new limitations (Mommy can't play with you now because I have to feed the baby or Mommy needs to change the baby, so you need to read to yourself). Blaming new babies for decreased time spent with you can breed sibling resentment. Instead, involve siblings in child-care as helpers. - Create opportunities for older siblings to be participants and not competitors (e.g., getting a diaper ready, reading the baby a story, pushing the carriage). - Remind siblings of the things they can do because they are older (e.g., eating food, playing with toys, going to the playground). - Remember to give siblings private time with you and reinforce the idea that many of the things they are able to help out with (e.g., errand running, meal preparation, etc.), are because of their advanced abilities. While you are busy with a new baby, developmental changes are still going on with your older child. Kids that are two or under may have difficulty with a new addition because they still have strong needs as well. Stress in the family can make the sibling's adjustment more difficult. So remember to stay calm when you're with the children. One more thing to be aware of is how rough a sibling may be with a new baby. They really don't understand how delicate the baby is and have to learn what kind of playing or interaction is too rough. They may also hug a little to hard. You'll have to guide them in the correct gentle behaviors. Focus on your older child's positive behaviors towards the new baby such as I like how you gently kiss your little brother or sister. Having a new baby in the family is difficult, but don't despair. The first few months will be an adjustment for everyone. But before you know it, the new baby will feel like he or she has always been a part of the family. Source: Bronwyn Charlton, PhD, http://www.everydayhealth.com/kids-health/prepping-your-child-for-a-new-sibling.aspx

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(l-r) ACES’s Team Behaviorist Vince Rose, UCLA, PhD research student Marisa Tellez and Holy Cross manager Vernon Wilson. Holy Cross Croc Saved Submitted by Marine Biologist Cherie Chenot-Rose, ACES/American Crocodile Education Sanctuary North of the cut on Ambergris Island, a five foot American Crocodile decided to take up residence in a shallow canal on the property of the managers of Holy Cross Anglican School, Francis and Vernon Wilson. Worried that the bold reptile would make a beloved pet its prey, the Wilson’s decided it needed to be removed. With the word out that a nuisance crocodile needed to be relocated, a few locals stopped by and offered to ‘off’ the cute little bugger for a price. Not wishing to harm the juvenile croc, the Wilson’s were put in contact with ACES / American Crocodile Education Sanctuary in Punta Gorda by wildlife advocate, Colette Kase. Being ACES is a non‐profit organization with limited funding, the Wilson’s graciously put the ACES’s Team up for the night, and the Holy Cross Anglican School donated funds to cover the costs of the crocodile’s relocation. American Crocodiles are not only protected under the Belize Wildlife Protection Act (Chapter 220); but are also currently considered ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and on a global level are facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. ACES’s Team, Behaviorist Vince Rose, Biologist Cherie Chenot‐Rose and UCLA, PhD research student Marisa Tellez, arrived on the scene Tuesday, August 4th , at lunchtime and was fed a yummy, complimentary meal by the Holy Cross School. Setting up traps in the hot day’s sun, the team caught the croc by 5:00 pm in a snare type trap; and then, collected scientific data pertinent to the conservation of Crocodilians in Belize. The captured croc was a female and name Alice E. after Francis’s mother. In the species Crocodylus acutus, American Crocodiles, the female is the more aggressive. This particular croc had taken up residence in the Wilson’s canal because the contained water had a lower salinity than the surrounding canals.With fresher water to drink and ample food sources, from not only the birds and fish but from the nearby workers, the croc was protecting her little water hole with all she had. This was truly one of the feistiest little crocs I have ever encountered. And, even though this croc was successfully relocated to ACES in Punta Gorda where she will be used in educational lectures on how to safely co‐exist with crocs, another croc will most likely move into her now vacant water hole. It is important to understand that removing all the problematic crocs is not an answer to Ambergris’s ever growing problem of human‐croc conflicts. The answer to coexisting with these modern day dinosaurs is to recognize it is us, humans, who are the intruder and we need them more than they need us. The number one thing everyone can do to decrease the number of problem crocodiles is never discard food waste, especially chicken and fish scraps, into the waters. Everyone enjoys a free meal and will choose it over paying or expending extra energy. Feeding crocodiles directly or indirectly by this manner is the number one cause of croc attacks and is illegal in Belize. If you have small pets or children and you are living on a canal or lagoon front, a sea wall will assure protection from crocodiles coming into your yard. At times of mating and when dry seasons are extra dry, crocs will seek waterholes with a lower salinity than the sea. Even though American Crocs are a saltwater species and can excrete salt through a specialized gland on their tongue and through their feces, high continual concentrations of salt can be stressful on them, especially the young and nesting females. Normally, these crocs will drink fresh water from the thin layer of rainwater that being less dense lays on the surface of the saltier sea. This year, with as dry as it has been, this layer at times does not exist and the crocs will seek out pools, puddles and contained water areas for their lower salinity. ACES would like to thank Francis and Vernon for their hospitality and the Holy Cross Anglican School for funding the capture. We praise their decision in taking the extra mile to save this highly threatened apex predator. So many people do not seem to understand the importance of crocodiles in keeping Belize’s ecosystems in balance. Not only do they feed upon small mammals and rodents that carry disease, such as raccoons, but they keep fish populations in balance and healthy as well. By reducing the numbers of apex predators, such as crocs, in an area, populations of their prey explode. This in turn leads to spread of disease and famines as prey consume all of the available food sources. In turn, the prey will eventually die off in mass numbers and habitats that once flourished with life will become vast wastelands. With only an estimated 10 to 20 thousand American crocodiles left world‐wide, ACES is making every effort to help preserve these magnificent reptiles for Belize’s future generations and to hopefully save them from extinction. For more information about ACES please visit our website at www.americancrocodilesanctuary.org.

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In the Advanced Learning work session there was a slide that showed the growth of AP and IB in the District. It is true that many more students are taking AP classes than ever before. But it doesn't necessarily mean what you think it means. Take, for example, Roosevelt High School. At Roosevelt about half of the 10th grade students used to take AP European History. This is typically the first AP available to students, one of the few open to 10th grade students on the typical pathway. The class is challenging for 10th grade students and the fact that about half of the students took it is a testament to Roosevelt's academic strength. The other half of the students took a history class similar to the one that students all across district and the state take in the 10th grade. Some folks at Roosevelt didn't like that. They didn't like the fact that about half of the students were self-selecting to take on the challenge and rigor of AP European History. Even more, they didn't like the fact that about half of the students were NOT self-selecting the class, the challenge, or the rigor. So they came up with a solution. Now every 10th grader at Roosevelt has to take AP Human Geography. Every one of them, both those who would have taken the regular history class and those who would have taken AP European History. AP Human Geography, although it is also an AP class, is not comparable to AP European History in rigor. It is intended to be a one semester class instead of a two semester class. At Roosevelt, it is stretched across two semesters. Moreover, the class is not taught as a college level class (as AP classes typically are), but with material with a ceiling at a 10th grade reading level. So, yes, more students are taking an AP class, but you could not say that students were taking more rigorous classes. Half of them maybe, half of them definitely not. You might wonder why the school didn't simply substitute AP Human Geography for the old history class so that half of the students would still take the more rigorous AP European History and half would take the AP Human Geography. The answer is obvious. While that would have addressed the academic problem - lack of rigor for students in the old history class - it would not address the political problem of some students - primarily White and Asian middle class students - self-selecting more rigor while other students - disproportionately Black and Latino and FRE students - self-selecting less rigor. The politics trumped the academics. This pattern is now repeating itself in other schools. Where high performing students self-selected challenge that option is being taken away from them and they are placed, along with every other student, in a less challenging class with a label that implies more challenge than the class represents.

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Water contamination – special education edition: Fracking To view hydraulic fracturing infograghics click on toggles. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Hydraulic fracturing is the propagation of fractures in a rock layer by a pressurized fluid. Some hydraulic fractures form naturally certain veins or dikes are examples—and can create conduits along which gas and petroleum from source rocks may migrate to reservoir rocks. Induced hydraulic fracturing or hydrofracturing, commonly known as fracing, fraccing, or fracking, is a technique used to release petroleum, natural gas (including shale gas, tight gas, and coal seam gas), or other substances for extraction. This type of fracturing creates fractures from a wellbore drilled into reservoir rock formations. The first use of hydraulic fracturing was in 1947. However, it was only in 1998 that modern fracturing technology, referred to as horizontal slickwater fracturing, made possible the economical extraction of shale gas; this new technology was first used in the Barnett Shale in Texas. The energy from the injection of a highly pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid creates new channels in the rock, which can increase the extraction rates and ultimate recovery of hydrocarbons. Proponents of hydraulic fracturing point to the economic benefits from vast amounts of formerly inaccessible hydrocarbons the process can extract. Opponents point to potential environmental impacts, including contamination of ground water, risks to air quality, the migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, surface contamination from spills and flowback and the health effects of these. For these reasons hydraulic fracturing has come under scrutiny internationally, with some countries suspending or banning it. Fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. It was applied by oil producers in the US states of Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, and West Virginia by using liquid and later also solidified nitroglycerin. Later, the same method was applied to water and gas wells. The idea to use acid as a nonexplosive fluid for well stimulation was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely and therefore productivity was enhanced. The same phenomenon was discovered with water injection and squeeze cementing operations. The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation. This study became a basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, which was conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind. For the well treatment 1,000 US gallons (3,800 l; 830 imp gal) of gelled gasoline and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into the gas-producing limestone formation at 2,400 feet (730 m). The experiment was not very successful as deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948. A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company. On March 17, 1949, Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas. Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately a million oil and gas wells. In the Soviet Union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. In Western Europe in 1977–1985, hydraulic fracturing was conducted at Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands onshore and offshore gas fields, and the United Kingdoms sector of the North Sea. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa included Norway, the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria. Due to shale’s high porosity and low permeability, technology research, development and demonstration were necessary before hydraulic fracturing could be commercially applied to shale gas deposits. In the 1970s the United States government initiated the Eastern Gas Shales Project, a set of dozens of public-private hydraulic fracturing pilot demonstration projects. During the same period, the Gas Research Institute, a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. In 1977, the Department of Energy pioneered massive hydraulic fracturing in tight sandstone formations. In 1997, based on earlier techniques used by Union Pacific Resources, now part of Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Mitchell Energy, now part of Devon Energy, developed the hydraulic fracturing technique known as “slickwater fracturing” which involves adding chemicals to water to increase the fluid flow, that made the shale gas extraction economical. Method A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping the fracturing fluid into the wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure downhole to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as the pressure increase per unit of the depth due to its density and it is usually measured in pounds per square inch per foot or bars per meter. The rock cracks and the fracture fluid continues further into the rock, extending the crack still further, and so on. Operators typically try to maintain “fracture width”, or slow its decline, following treatment by introducing into the injected fluid a proppant – a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates, that prevent the fractures from closing when the injection is stopped and the pressure of the fluid is reduced. Consideration of proppant strengths and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of formation fluids to the well. Formation fluids include gas, oil, salt water, fresh water and fluids introduced to the formation during completion of the well during fracturing. During the process fracturing fluid leakoff, loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock occurs. If not controlled properly, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interactions, or altered fracture geometry and thereby decreased production efficiency. The location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal off holes in the side of the wellbore. Typically, hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations. Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron, a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), low-pressure flexible hoses, and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and 265 litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s) (100 barrels per minute). Proppants and fracking fluids and List of additives for hydraulic fracturing High-pressure fracture fluid is injected into the wellbore, with the pressure above the fracture gradient of the rock. The two main purposes of fracturing fluid is to extend fractures and to carry proppant into the formation, the purpose of which is to stay there without damaging the formation or production of the well. Two methods of transporting the proppant in the fluid are used – high-rate and high-viscosity. High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures. This fracture fluid contains water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum) which increase viscosity and efficiently deliver the proppant into the formation. The fluid injected into the rock is typically a slurry of water, proppants, and chemical additives. Additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air can be injected. Typically, of the fracturing fluid 90% is water and 9.5% is sand with the chemical additives accounting to about 0.5%. A proppant is a material that will keep an induced hydraulic fracture open, during or following a fracturing treatment, and can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluids make tradeoffs in such material properties as viscosity, where more viscous fluids can carry more concentrated proppant; the energy or pressure demands to maintain a certain flux pump rate (flow velocity) that will conduct the proppant appropriately; pH, various rheological factors, among others. Types of proppant include silica sand, resin-coated sand, and man-made ceramics. These vary depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. The most commonly used proppant is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, is believed to be more effective. Due to a higher porosity within the fracture, a greater amount of oil and natural gas is liberated. The fracturing fluid varies in composition depending on the type of fracturing used, the conditions of the specific well being fractured, and the water characteristics. A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals. Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, the typical used chemical additives are: •Acids—hydrochloric acid (usually 28%-5%), or acetic acid is used in the pre-fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near-wellbore rock. •Sodium chloride (salt)—delays breakdown of the gel polymer chains. •Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers—minimizes the friction between fluid and pipe, thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface. Polyacrylamide are good suspension agents ensuring the proppant does not fall out. • Ethylene glycol—prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe. •Borate salts—used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase. •Sodium and potassium carbonates—used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers. •Glutaraldehyde—used as disinfectant of the water (bacteria elimination). •Guar gum and other water-soluble gelling agents—increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver more efficiently the proppant into the formation. •Citric acid—used for corrosion prevention. •Isopropanol—increases the viscosity of the fracture fluid. The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005–2009 was methanol, while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethylene glycol. Typical fluid types. • Conventional linear gels. These gels are cellulose derivatives (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl hydroxyl ethyl cellulose), guar or its derivatives (hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar) based, with other chemicals providing the necessary chemistry for the desired results. •Borate-crosslinked fluids. These are guar-based fluids cross-linked with boron ions (from aqueous borax/boric acid solution). These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppants. After the fracturing job the pH is reduced to 3–4 so that the cross-links are broken and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out. •Organometallic-crosslinked fluids zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts are known to crosslink the guar based gels. The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible. So once the proppant is pumped down along with the cross-linked gel, the fracturing part is done. The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers. •Aluminium phosphate-ester oil gels. Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross-linked gel. These are one of the first known gelling systems. For slickwater it is common to include sweeps or a reduction in the proppant concentration temporarily to ensure the well is not overwhelmed with proppant causing a screen-off. As the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes then added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback. The oxidizer reacts with the gel to break it down, reducing the fluid’s viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation. An enzyme acts as a catalyst for the breaking down of the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous. At the end of the job the well is commonly flushed with water (sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical) under pressure. Injected fluid is to some degree recovered and is managed by several methods, such as underground injection control, treatment and discharge, recycling, or temporary storage in pits or containers while new technology is being continually being developed and improved to better handle waste water and improve re-usability. Click Here For Lake Peigneur Part One: Video – Lake Peigneur could be worse than Assumption sinkhole Click Here For Lake Peigneur Part Two: Largest man-made vortex – Lake Peigneur update – special report. Click Here For Grand Bayou sinkhole begins Part One: Bayou Corne – Grand Bayou sinkhole begins – can it end? Click Here For Grand Bayou sinkhole begins Part Two: 06/28/13–05/16/13–facts about Grand Bayou sink hole. WHOLE WORLD Water seeks to prove that economic, social, and environmental progress are not mutually exclusive. Developed to end the global water and sanitation crisis, WHOLE WORLD Water works to engage the hospitality and tourism industry to filter, bottle, and sell its own water, and contribute 10% of the proceeds to the WHOLE WORLD Water Fund. 100% of the proceeds will go directly to clean and safe water initiatives worldwide. Water news archives – 750 articles-March 2012~May 2013: updated daily – click here Support Save the Water™ click here. Supporting the water research and education programs of Save the Water™ is vital to our future generation’s health, your funding is needed today.

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Author: Nick Kanas Softcover: 382 pages With the construction of the International Space Station, and new plans for manned missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond, there is renewed interest in the heavens. An ever-increasing number of people are fascinated with the science of space and are becoming amateur astronomers. The beauty and awe generated by the celestial void capture our imagination and delight our aesthetic sense. Antiquarian map societies are prospering, and celestial maps are now viewed as a specialty of map collecting. This book traces the history of celestial cartography and relates this history to the changing ideas of man’s place in the universe and to advances in map-making. Reproductions of maps from antiquarian celestial atlases and prints, many previously unpublished in book form, enrich the text, and a legend accompanies each illustration to explain its astronomical and cartographic features. Also included in the book are discussions of non-European celestial maps and chapters on early American influences and celestial map-collecting. The book describes the development and relationships between different sky maps and atlases as well as demonstrating contemporary cosmological ideas, constellation representations, and cartographic advances.

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EDITOR’S NOTE: We’re proud to announce the launch of our newest state chapter – the Kentucky Tenth Amendment Center! by Michael Maharrey, Kentucky Tenth Amendment Center Welcome to the Kentucky chapter of the 10th Amendment Center. The principle is simple. It is not radical or extremist, nor should it be controversial. The founders of the United States clearly intended a federal government with defined and limited power. The bulk of governance was meant to happen at the state and local level. The 10th Amendment in the Bill of Rights reaffirms this principle in the simplest of language. “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.†Simple. Straight forward. No need for complicated exegesis or convoluted interpretation. James Madison expanded the idea, writing in Federalist No. 45. “The powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exercised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negotiation and foreign commerce; with which the last the power of taxation will for the most part be connected. The powers reserved to the several States will extend to all objects which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties and properties of the people, and the internal order, improvement and prosperity of the State.†The foundation of our country was not laid on empty political theory. It was born from a deep understanding of the danger of concentrated power. As George Washington said, “Government is not reason; it is not eloquent; it is force. Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master.†Or as Gerald Ford put it some 200 years later, “A government big enough to give you everything you want is a government big enough to take from you everything you have.†Most people intuitively understand that the danger of power increases at higher levels of government. Most citizens understand that state and local leaders are more accountable to those they represent at state and local levels. What does Nancy Pelosi care about the coal miner in eastern Kentucky? Kentuckians understand the potential tyranny of unbridled federal power. Our founders certainly understood and created a brilliant system to keep government power in check. It takes only a quick scan of the news headlines to see that the current system of government in the United States bears little resemblance to what the framers of the Constitution intended. In the 1990s, the American people cleaned house in Washington D.C. Republicans swept into power promising to limit government, slash spending, cut earmarks and reform government. Instead, “We the People†got more of the same. More big spending. More federal programs. More favors for special interests. More expanding bureaucracy. In 2008, Pres. Obama took office promising “hope and change.†Instead, he and the Democrats in power doubled down. Clearly, to solution doesn’t lie in sending different breeds of politician to Washington. Yes, we want to elect candidates to federal office who respect the Constitutional limits of their power. But we the people of Kentucky must insist, through our state government, that we will not accept any more unconstitutional governance from the feds. We must use our power to nullify unconstitutional law and render impotent federal power grabs. We must wean ourselves from the federal trough and stop allowing Washington to control Frankfort via a carrot and stick approach. The process won’t be easy. The federal government has grown far beyond its intended role and years will likely pass before we can reestablish a proper balance. But we must start now. We must stand together as Kentuckians and fight for what’s best for the Commonwealth of Kentucky. We must demand our liberties and stand up for the Constitution that unites us as a nation. It is up to us. We the People. Government serves us, not the other way around.

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A fossilised little finger discovered in a cave in the mountains of southern Siberia belonged to a young girl from an unknown group of archaic humans, scientists say. The missing human relatives are thought to have inhabited much of Asia as recently as 30,000 years ago, and so shared the land with early modern humans and Neanderthals. The finding paints a complex picture of human history in which our early ancestors left Africa 70,000 years ago to rub shoulders with other distant relatives in addition to the stocky, barrel-chested Neanderthals. The new ancestors have been named “Denisovans” after the Denisova cave in the Altai mountains of southern Siberia where the finger bone was unearthed in 2008. A “Denis” is thus a member of an archaic human subspecies.

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All links within content go to MayoClinic.com Vegetarian diet: A starter's guide to a plant-based diet Special to CNN.com Adopting a healthy vegetarian diet isn't as simple as scraping meat off your plate and eating what's left. You need to take extra steps to ensure you're meeting your daily nutritional needs. Vegetarian diet planning A healthy vegetarian diet consists primarily of plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seed. Because the emphasis is on nonmeat food sources, a vegetarian diet generally contains less fat and cholesterol, and typically includes more fiber. Vegetarians fall into groups defined by the types of animal-derived foods they eat: - Vegans eliminate all foods from animals, including meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs and cheese. They eat only plant-based foods. - Lacto-vegetarians consume milk and milk products along with plant-based foods. They omit eggs as well as meat, fish and poultry. - Lacto-ovo vegetarians omit red meat, fish and poultry but eat eggs, milk and milk products, such as cheese and yogurt, in addition to plant-based foods. To keep your vegetarian diet on track, you may find using a vegetarian food pyramid helpful. This pyramid outlines various food groups and food choices that, if eaten in the right quantities, form the foundation of a healthy vegetarian diet. Meatless products, such as tofu dogs, soy burgers, nut loaves or texturized vegetable protein, add variety to your vegetarian diet. These products, found in many grocery stores and health food markets, simulate the taste and texture of meat and usually have less fat and fewer calories. Many of the meatless products, such as tofu or tempeh, are made from soybeans. If you follow a vegan diet, you may need to find alternatives for eggs and dairy products. Try these suggestions when meal planning or cooking: Ensuring adequate nutrition - Milk. Drink fortified soymilk, rice milk or almond milk in place of cow's milk. - Butter. When sauteing, use olive oil, water, vegetable broth, wine or nonfat cooking spray instead of butter. In baked goods, use canola oil. - Cheese. Use soy cheese or nutritional yeast flakes, which are available in health food stores. - Eggs. In baked goods, try commercial egg replacers — a dry product made mostly of potato starch. Or you can use the following to replace one egg: 1/4 cup whipped tofu or 1 tablespoon milled flaxseed mixed with 3 tablespoons of water. For an egg-free omelet try using tofu instead of eggs. The more restrictive a diet is, the more difficult it is to get all the nutrients your body needs. A vegan diet, for example, eliminates food sources of vitamin B-12, as well as milk products, which are a good source of calcium. Other nutrients, such as iron and zinc, are available in a meatless diet, but you need to make an extra effort to ensure they're in yours. Here are nutrients that may be deficient in a vegetarian diet and how you can get these nutrients from nonmeat sources: - Protein. Your body needs protein to maintain healthy skin, bones, muscles and organs. Vegetarians who eat eggs or dairy products have convenient sources of protein. Other sources of protein include soy products, meat substitutes, legumes, lentils, nuts, seeds and whole grains. - Calcium. This mineral helps build and maintain strong teeth and bones. Low-fat dairy foods and dark green vegetables, such as spinach, turnip and collard greens, kale, and broccoli are good sources of calcium. Tofu enriched with calcium and fortified soymilk and fruit juices are other options. - Vitamin B-12. Your body needs vitamin B-12 to produce red blood cells and prevent anemia. This vitamin is found almost exclusively in animal products, including milk, eggs and cheese. Vegans can get vitamin B-12 from some enriched cereals, fortified soy products or by taking a supplement that contains this vitamin. - Iron. Like vitamin B-12, iron is a crucial component of red blood cells. Dried beans and peas, lentils, enriched cereals, whole-grain products, dark, leafy green vegetables, and dried fruit are good sources of iron. To help your body absorb non-animal sources of iron, eat foods rich in vitamin C — such as strawberries, citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage and broccoli — at the same time you consume iron-containing foods. - Zinc. This mineral is an essential component of many enzymes and plays a role in cell division and in the formation of proteins. Good sources of zinc include whole grains, soy products, nuts and wheat germ. The key to a healthy vegetarian diet — or any diet for that matter — is to enjoy a wide variety of foods. Since no single food provides all of the nutrients that your body needs, eating a wide variety helps ensure that you get the necessary nutrients and other substances that promote good health. Start with what you know If you're thinking of switching to a vegetarian diet but aren't sure how to begin, start with what you already know. Make a list of meals you prepare on a regular basis. Some of these may already be meat-free, such as spaghetti or vegetable stir-fry. Next, pick out dishes that could easily become meat-free with a couple of substitutions. For example, you can make vegetarian chili by leaving out the ground beef and adding an extra can of black beans or soy crumbles. Or make fajitas using extra-firm tofu rather than chicken. You may be surprised to find that some dishes require only simple substitutions. Once you have compiled a list of vegetarian meals, add new meal ideas. Buy or borrow vegetarian cookbooks. Scan the Internet for vegetarian menus or for tips about making meatless substitutions. Check out ethnic restaurants to sample new vegetarian cuisine. The more variety you bring to your vegetarian diet, the better the chance you'll meet all your nutritional needs. No matter what your age or situation, a well-planned vegetarian diet can meet your nutritional needs. Even children and teenagers can do well on a plant-based diet, as can older people, and pregnant or breast-feeding women. If you're unsure whether a vegetarian diet is right for you, talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian. Flaxseed: Is ground or whole better? Dietary fiber: An essential part of a healthy diet Whole grains: High in nutrition and fiber, yet low in fat Healthy diet decisions: Do you know what to eat?

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December 1972 | Volume 24, Issue 1 For some men the only solution to the dilemma of blacks and whites together was for the blacks to go back where they came from When, on August 14, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln spoke to a visiting “committee of colored men” at the White House, it was already becoming clear that one result of the War Between the States would be the freeing of millions of slaves. Slavery was toppling under the blows of war, and in just another month the President would issue the preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation. The “colored men” whom Lincoln addressed were free already; some of them had been free all their lives. The President, however, gave them no heartening affirmations of their equality. Instead, he proposed to them the resettling of American blacks, either in Africa or in Central or South America. “You are cut off,” he reminded his visitors, “from many of the advantages which the other race enjoy. The aspiration of men is to enjoy equality with the best when free, but on this broad continent, not a single man of your race is made the equal of a single man of ours.” He felt it was “better for us both … to be separated,” that is, that the Negroes of America go elsewhere—all of them. He ruminated aloud about their going to Liberia, in Africa. Perhaps, he suggested, that was too far away: “… some of you would rather remain within reach of the country of your nativity. I do not know how much attachment you may have toward our race. It does not strike me that you have the greatest reason to love them. But still you are attached to them at all events.” So he had in mind the possibility of a colony in Central America, and he asked for “a hundred tolerably intelligent men, with their wives and children,” to be the pioneer colonists there, although he admitted he would be satisfied with a quarter that number. Thus did the Great Emancipator propose voluntary exile for the nation’s blacks. He was by no means the first, nor the last, to nourish such a solution to an agonizing American racial problem. Serious discussion of that prospect began as early as the 1770’s with Samuel Hopkins, a Rhode Island Congregational minister; Hopkins proposed training black missionaries to begin a Negro return to Africa. Thomas Jefferson, in the Virginia Assembly, put forward a program that would emancipate the slaves as they became adults. Having been trained in various useful arts, they would be sent to a distant colony. Jefferson believed slavery was evil, both morally and politically. Yet deeper than his abhorrence of the institution was his fear that American freed Negroes would become so -numerous that race war would be inevitable. The fear of a genocidal blood bath has been a persistent argument in favor of an absolute separation of the black and white races—a proposal that has surfaced repeatedly in the nation’s history. The presumed inevitability and incurable nature of race prejudice have likewise been advanced to justify total separation. Such fears and attitudes have been most evident in periods of heightened racial tension, and it is at those times that Negro emigration has appeared to many to be a reasonable, perhaps the only, solution. The quarter century after Reconstruction, for example, a particularly desperate era for American blacks, saw the creation of such enterprises as the Liberian Exodus Joint Stock Steamship Company, the United Transatlantic Society, and the International Migration Society. Just after the First World War, when honorable service brought blacks no bettered status and little relief from violently enforced prejudices, a black messiah, Marcus Aurelius Garvey, arose with ambitious plans for building an African empire with black Americans. There was an African Nationalist Pioneer Movement in the 1930’s, when the Depression compounded the problems confronting the Negro community. And in spite of improvement in the situation of Negroes since then, the still agonizingly slow advance of equality spawned a small frontier village of black “Hebrews” in Liberia in the 1960’s. The resettlement idea thus appears to have had remarkable vitality. But it has never been particularly effective. Lincoln’s plans for moving Negroes south of the border is illustrative. It came a cropper, specifically, on the greed of white promoters of proposed colonies and the opposition of Central American governments. But those stumbling blocks might have been hurdled had it not been for the more basic problem common to all such projects. Any resettlement program had to expose, had to carry with it like a disfiguring scar, painful conflicts and contradictions in the racial practices and pretensions of the American community. Nowhere are these better shown than in the rise and fall of the largest and longest-lived of the resettlement organizations, the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816. The sole purpose of the society was stated in its formal title, The American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color in the United States. Free Negroes, as Henry Clay remarked to the society’s first organizational meeting, “neither enjoyed the immunities of freemen, nor were they subject to the incapacities of slaves.” Prejudice, Clay said, worked to keep them a lower caste, and it was “desirable … both as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off.” In 1750 there had been only a few thousand free Negroes in the American colonies. But the numbers would soon rise, because the philosophy that legitimized the American Revolution also encouraged emancipation. Slaveholder Joseph Hill of Virginia, for one, writing his will in 1783, gave his bondsmen their freedom upon his death, explaining that “after full and deliberate consideration, and agreeable to our Bill of Rights,” he was “fully persuaded that freedom is the natural life of all mankind.” Virginia law had closely restricted manumission until 1782. After the restrictions were removed, the number of free Negroes in the state rose from fewer than three thousand to nearly thirteen thousand by 1790. That year the number of free Negroes in the United States had grown to just under sixty thousand. Many northern states had abolished slavery or were about to, a process completely accomplished throughout the North by 1818. This further swelled the totals so that in 1820 the census would count more than 233,000 free Negroes. Free they were, but in no sense equal. They did not live well. Their rights in law were restricted and growing more so; with rare exceptions they could not testify against whites in court, and without exception they could not serve on juries. The punishments for blacks were often more severe than for whites who committed the same crimes. In Virginia, for example, after 1831, free Negroes guilty of many minor offenses received the same punishments—including whippings—as those meted out to slaves for identical misdemeanors. A few states conferred the legal right to vote, but some withdrew it later as the number of free blacks multiplied. And where law did not deny Negroes the vote, custom often did. Circumscriptions were beginning to be placed on the right of free Negroes to move from state to state, as no state particularly relished being a repository for newly emancipated slaves. Education was either not available or was segregated. The jobs open to free Negroes were limited. The result of all this was distilled in the words of the valedictorian of a Negro school in New York in 1819: Why should I strive hard and acquire all the constituents of a man, if the prevailing genius of the land admit me not as such, or but in an inferior degree! Pardon me if I feel insignificant and weak. … What are my prospects? To what shall I turn my hand? Shall I be a mechanic? No one will employ me; white boys won’t work with me. Shall I be a merchant? No one will have me in his office; white clerks won’t associate with me. Drudgery and servitude, then, are my prospective portion. Can you be surprised at my discouragement? There was plenty of reason for the complaint. Nonetheless, free Negroes, instead of earning sympathy for their disadvantages, were often described in the terms traditionally used to excoriate the poor of any race: they lived “that way” on purpose; they collected in horrid slums, bred disease and incredible numbers of children, committed all sorts of loathsome crimes, did no work unless it was absolutely necessary, were noted for drunkenness, and were, as Henry Clay put it, “a useless and pernicious, if not dangerous portion” of America’s population. In the ante-bellum South it was often said that free Negroes taught slaves to steal and helped them dispose of stolen goods, that they acted as a powerful lure to freedom for slaves, that they inspired and assisted slave rebellion. And there was no point in wasting education on them, for that would only give them an appetite for privileges unreachable. “The more you improve the condition of these people,” said a Washington lawyer (who was also chief clerk of the United States Supreme Court), “the more you cultivate their minds, the more miserable you make them.” They were in a trap, with every exit blocked; every exit, that is, but one. The Reverend Robert Finley, pastor of the Presbyterian church in Baskingridge, New Jersey, a community with 1,500 free Negroes, remarked in 1816 upon the depressed condition of those of his parishioners who were black. “Every thing connected with their condition, including their colour, is against them,” he declared, “nor is there much prospect that their state can ever be greatly ameliorated, while they continue among us.” But he went on to propose a remedy. “Could not,” he suggested, “the rich and benevolent devise means to form a Colony on some part of the Coast of Africa … which might gradually induce many free blacks to go and settle, devising for them the means of getting there, and of protection and support till they were established.” The “rich and benevolent” were much in evidence in that era between 1815 and the 1840’s, supporting a flood of societies that promoted the Bible, peace, temperance, Christian missions, Sunday schools, and the welfare of various underprivileged segments of the community. As it happened, Finley could even point to an existing project similar to the very one he had in mind. The British had freed a number of slaves during the Revolution and transported them to Great Britain. Many had gravitated to the slums, and British philanthropists had undertaken to relocate them in Africa by starting a colony at Sierra Leone. The financing and government had not been well managed, and shortly the Crown had felt constrained to assume responsibility from the philanthropists, but Sierra Leone was now a going concern. An American colony in Africa would also have to be financed at least in part by the government, Finley knew. But it would benefit the nation in many ways. It would remove a trodden-down minority from the people who were doing the treading; it would give America a commercial outpost in Africa; and by supplying a catchall for emancipated slaves it would encourage manumission in the South—which Finley hoped would ultimately rid the nation of slavery. There was also an additional philanthropic attraction in the colony’s potential for redeeming Africa, since it would act as a spiritual, educational, and mercantile lighthouse on the Dark Continent. Encouraged by the reception given the idea among his friends in New Jersey, Finley went to Washington at the end of 1816, and during the Christmas season the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color in the United States was formally established. Among the fifty or so leading lights who participated in its founding were Speaker of the House Henry Clay, representatives John Randolph of Virginia and Daniel Webster of New Hampshire, Secretary of the Treasury William Harris Crawford, Attorney General Richard Rush, the author of “The Star-Spangled Banner,” Francis Scott Key, General Andrew Jackson, and the nephew of George Washington, Supreme Court Justice Bushrod Washington, who became the society’s first president. It was an auspicious beginning. Bushrod Washington memorialized Congress in January, 1817, asking legislative support for creating an African colony. But Congress did not respond favorably, and in hopes of becoming more convincing through the presentation of some solidly researched data on possibilities, the society sent out a two-man expedition to West Africa in the next year. The Reverend Samuel J. Mills and Professor Ebenezer Burgess visited Sierra Leone, Sherbro Island (a hundred miles southeast of the British colony), and a number of villages along the coast of Africa’s “shoulder,” close to the Gulf of Guinea. The best that Mills and Burgess took away from their many parleys with black native leaders was a few hedged promises that land for colonists might be made available. Most of the local Negroes were hostile to the idea. But the visitors’ impressions of what they saw and heard were strongly influenced by their hopes. When they headed home in May, 1818, they were highly optimistic, particularly about Sherbro Island as a location. Mills had been ill for much of their trip, and he died on the homeward voyage; but Professor Burgess communicated their joint enthusiasm to the society. With the support of the colonizationists, a bill was now pushed through Congress to stiffen regulation of the African slave trade by making the federal government, rather than the states, responsible for suppressing it. The law gave President Monroe power to care for and relocate any slaves captured from the holds of slave ships by the government in its policing of the seas. It authorized him, moreover, to commit a naval squadron to the task and, most significantly from the society’s point of view, to create a station on the coast of Africa for the landing of “contraband” blacks rescued from their kidnappers. The colonizationists hoped that this might be the nucleus of their hoped-for colony. Monroe thought well of Negro resettlement, and he leaned toward such a liberal interpretation. But an adverse opinion from Secretary of State John Quincy Adams blocked the society’s attempt to get the President to buy land for a colony under the new statute. Adams felt that neither the law nor the Constitution could be construed as permitting the nation to set up a colony anywhere. At length, Monroe and the colonizationists worked out a compromise: the society would buy the land, and the federal government would post two agents to Africa, along with a number of Negro volunteer colonists as workmen, to set up the African station. In January, 1820, eighty-six black “workmen,” two thirds of whom were women and children, sailed for Sherbro Island aboard the merchant ship Elizabeth , with a sloop of war as convoy. The expedition was led by two federal agents, both nominated by the society, the Reverend Samuel Bacon and John P. Bankson. Also on board was the society’s own agent, Samuel Crozer. On Sherbro they found a rude camp waiting for them, built by a former American slave, John Kizell; he had been Mills’s and Burgess’ interpreter on the island two years earlier. Crozer went off to negotiate with the island leaders for a larger tract of land. They, as it turned out, wanted the colony as little as they had when Mills and Burgess had talked to them earlier. The thwarted colonists moved into KizelPs camp, and shortly “African fever” began to strike them down. Crozer came back to find several of them dead. He himself fell ill and died. So did John Bankson. So did a Navy officer. And so, finally, did the last surviving agent, the Reverend Mr. Bacon. Crozer had turned over authority to one of the black colonists, the Reverend Daniel Coker of Baltimore, and Coker contended with a disunited and unhealthy colony for a while before giving it up and taking some of the survivors to a refuge on the mainland. Nevertheless, despite this discouraging beginning, two more federal agents and two more colonization-society representatives were sent out, along with thirty-three more settlers, in 1821. Two of the four leaders died, but the team managed to work out arrangements for the use of forty square miles of land on the coast south of Sierra Leone. But the deal committed the society to an annual rent of three hundred dollars, and the society, when the issue was presented to it, refused to accept the agreement, considering the sum an unjustified tribute to the heathen king who controlled the land. With all their difficulties, the colonizationists still had Monroe’s support, and now they arranged for a physician, Eli Ayres, and a Navy lieutenant, Robert F. Stockton, to be posted by the government to Africa to continue the search for a suitable site. Ayres and Stockton headed for Cape Mesurado, a promontory thirty-six miles long and three miles wide, on the Grain Coast. Earlier agents had not been able to buy the cape from the local chief, King Peter, and the first attempt by Ayres and Stockton was also fruitless. After days of waiting for King Peter to palaver again, they marched inland to his village and at pistol point forced him to sell. The price for Cape Mesurado was less than three hundred dollars in clothes, guns, powder, rum, tobacco, and trinkets. This “purchase” from an unwilling seller the American Colonization Society named Liberia—“free land”—and the first settlement there, Monrovia. For more than forty years the society got along with varying degrees of the sort of limited federal support that had helped found Liberia. This backing was augmented by contributions from individuals and occasionally from state legislatures. Agents of the society toured the country, spreading information about colonization, raising money, starting state and local auxiliaries. This effort was aided after 1825 by the publication of a monthly paper, the African Repository and Colonial Journal . Liberia grew. By the time of the Civil War, some eleven thousand free Negroes—at least half of them newly emancipated slaves—had been resettled there. The managers of the society never gave up hope that the federal government would eventually commit itself to resettlement on a massive scale. But they soon found themselves in an insoluble dilemma over that question. They were determined to act as a national, unifying force, but there was no way for the society to bid for federal aid and yet to avoid being caught up in the growing sectional debate or to become itself a cause for debate. For one of the burning issues of the day was the very question of whether the federal government had any power to deal with slaves (or ex-slaves) in any fashion. Such controversy made it inevitable that until the Civil War, help for colonization from the national government would be small. And meanwhile the hope of federal assistance on a grand scale acted as a damper on private contributions, and these were further reduced by the competition of many other enterprises in philanthropy. Moreover, the sheer size of the task to be performed was also defeating. Realistically, this was the sort of project that could not hope to succeed if left to private philanthropy. By 1830 the number of free Negroes in the United States was over 319,000; it had increased by nearly 86,000 in the preceding ten years. And in that ten-year span the American Colonization Society had raised $113,000 and resettled 1,430 free blacks. But in spite of many obstacles and limited progress, the colonizationists remained confident that eventually the country would see things their way. Many respectable, influential men, of both North and South, belonged to the society or were in sympathy with the idea. Liberia had survived serious trials—the ever-present malaria, small wars with the native population, the unreliability of supply shipments, the difficulties of administration at long distance, and rebellions by the colonists. Settlers now held appointive posts in the government, and a newspaper, the Liberia Herald , was being published. Still, the optimism of the society could not overcome a second paradox in its very nature. Just as they could not easily be healers of sectional strife while asking federal help for a program distrusted by many Southerners, so they could not avoid the fact that their program had both proslavery and antislavery implications, which conflicted with each other. Some indeed wanted emancipation and believed that if slave-holders were offered the prospect of getting rid of their bondsmen, they would be willing to sign the deeds of manumission. But others, especially in the South, wanted resettlement to be used simply to secure the peace and safety of the slave states by isolating the slaves from the contaminating influence of the free blacks. Even members of the society who were antislavery in principle had developed serious misgivings about emancipation unless it was accompanied by resettlement. As Francis Scott Key put it in 1838: I have emancipated seven of my slaves. They have done pretty well, and six of them, now alive, are supporting themselves comfortably and creditably. Yet I cannot but see that this is all they are doing now; and, when age and infirmity come upon them, they will probably suffer. … I am still a slaveholder, and could not, without the greatest inhumanity, be otherwise. … The laws of Maryland contain provisions… under which slaves, in certain circumstances, are entitled to petition the courts for their freedom. As a lawyer, I always undertook these cases with peculiar zeal, and have been thus instrumental in liberating several large families and many individuals. I cannot remember more than two instances, out of this large number, in which it did not appear that the freedom I so earnestly sought for them was their ruin. It has been so with a very large proportion of all others I have known emancipated. Nor was this exclusively the view of a Southerner. John A. Dix of New York declared to a meeting of his state’s colonization society in 1830, “The mass of crime committed by Africans is greater, in proportion to numbers, in the non-slaveholding than in the slaveholding States; and as a rule the degree of comfort enjoyed by them is inferior. This is not an argument in favor of slavery; but it is an unanswerable argument in favor of rendering emancipation and colonization co-extensive with each other.” Officially, the society took no line except advocating removal of free Negroes. But in the interests of “sound policy,” as a modern defender of the society points out, the organization let its members make what they wished of that aim, depending on where they worked. With some fairness, colonization was criticized in the North as being the tool of slaveholders and in the South as a tool of the abolitionists—as was bound to happen when it was depicted by its own members both as a way to eliminate and to guarantee slavery. But the problems of trying to satisfy a northern and a southern membership were common to all organizations of the ante-bellum period, especially those seeking compromise. A much more serious handicap for the society was that it uncritically accepted the theory that blacks were inferior to whites. In this, of course, the members had the company of most of their contemporaries, for it was a belief deeply rooted in American life even though it ran against the grain of the official American credo. Both Jefferson and Lincoln had at least tentatively subscribed to it, and their support of resettlement proposals was motivated in part by it. The society did not conceal its prejudice. Negroes, said Ralph Gurley, secretary of the society and editor of the African Repository , were “a people which are injurious and dangerous to our social interests, as they are ignorant, vicious, and unhappy.” That was why it was necessary to send them to Africa. The disparity of principles did not go unnoticed. “They can love and benefit [Negroes] four thousand miles off, but not at home,” wrote William Lloyd Garrison to a friend in 1831. “They profess to be, and really believe that they are, actuated by the most philanthropic motives; and yet are cherishing the most unmanly and unchristian prejudices.” Garrison had himself been a supporter of colonization—had even spoken for it publicly in 1829. But he was struck by the racial bias that lay at the root of the colonization idea. It was entirely at odds with Christianity, he thought; and it was most certainly at odds with the American political philosophy that “all men are created equal.” He prepared a long essay, Thoughts on African Colonization , which he published in 1832. Taking as his keynote the phrase “out of thine own mouth will I condemn thee,” he built his attack around quotations from the colonizationists. For instance, the president of Union College, the Reverend Eliphalet Nott, was one who spoke of free blacks in terms Garrison found offensive: “ We have endeavored [he quoted Nott], but endeavored in vain, to restore them either to self respect, or to the respect of others .” It is painful to contradict so worthy an individual; but nothing is more certain than that this statement is altogether erroneous. We have derided, we have shunned, we have neglected them, in every possible manner. … Again: “ It is not our fault that we have failed . …” We are wholly and exclusively in fault. What have we done to raise them up from the earth? What have we not done to keep them down? Once more: “ It has resulted from a cause over which neither they, nor we, can ever have control .” In other words, they have been made with skins “ not colored like our own, ” and therefore we cannot recognize them as fellow-countrymen, or treat them like rational beings! One sixth of our whole population must, FOR EVER , in this land, remain a wretched, ignorant, and degraded race,—and yet nobody be culpable— none but the Creator who has made us incapable of doing unto others as we would have them do unto us! Horrible—horrible! If this be not an impeachment of Infinite Goodness,—I do not say intentionally but really ,—I cannot define it. That was the crux of the matter, the essential contradiction that defeated large-scale resettlement. Prejudice, Garrison pointed out, ought not to be countenanced in a country founded on an assurance of the inherent nobility of every man. To be true to itself the nation should be putting on armor and battling against racial bias. Furthermore, by grounding their appeal in a view of blacks that was derogatory—however gentle and sympathetic it might sometimes be—the colonizationists bore a heavy responsibility for keeping free Negroes in a depressed condition. As for the society’s effect on slavery, it actually retarded the freeing of slaves, Garrison believed, since it concentrated on the slow process of voluntary emancipation and voluntary colonization—which showed no honest promise of success anyway. As Negro abolitionist James Porten had put it in 1817, “Let not a purpose be assisted which will stay the cause of the entire abolition of slavery.” The direct assault of Garrison’s Thoughts proved disastrous to the society; for while Garrison was perhaps in a tiny minority, his views carried weight with the very humanitarians who might otherwise have unswervingly supported a high-minded organization like the society. But in addition, the society’s most important opposition came from free Negroes themselves. The colonizationists operated on the assumption that of course Negroes would want to go “home” to Africa. But most did not. Black resistance to the colonization idea was evident as soon as the society was founded. A Philadelphia meeting in January, 1817, resolved: “Our ancestors were, though not from choice, the first cultivators of the wilds of America, and we, their descendants, claim a right to share in the blessings of her luxuriant soil which their blood and sweat manured. We read with deep abhorrence the unmerited stigma, attempted to be cast on the reputation of the free people of color. … We declare that we will never be separated from the slave population of this country. …” Outright deportation of unwilling Negroes would not have been at all in keeping with the society’s spirit of philanthropy; it would have represented too great a departure from its concept of Christian charity. Nonetheless, with the shadow of slavery behind it, the “offer” of deportation to the blacks had something of a threat about it. In any event, many of the manumitted slaves who were sent to Liberia were freed only on condition that they exile themselves there. Rarely did large numbers of free Negroes volunteer to go, and then only in times of extreme distress, as during the uproar that followed Nat Turner’s rebellion, when their situation was especially uncomfortable. The repression of free Negroes by law was aimed in part at “encouraging” their emigration. The contradictions between resettlement under pressure and human dignity, as well as the inextricable entanglement of the venture in the sectional quarrel, began to tell. Many disillusioned and discouraged colonizationists defected to the ranks of abolition. State auxiliaries went off in separate directions—those of Maryland, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, and Pennsylvania created their own settlements of Negroes in Liberia. Such losses multiplied the already serious financial difficulties of the national organization, which had been burdened all along with the cost of having to help support Liberia in addition to its normal organizational costs. In 1847 Liberia was finally cut loose from the parental purse strings and given independence. The society continued to send out settlers—nearly six thousand in the final thirteen years before the war. Relocation of Negroes still appealed to many Americans, but after decades of denunciation by both sides in the sectional quarrel, the American Colonization Society was in such bad odor it could not even get the federal government to recognize Liberia as a nation until 1862. And by then President Lincoln was considering various resettlement programs of his own and giving Liberia short shrift. The society outlasted the war and the nineteenth century. In 1909 it had five surviving members, who bequeathed its records to the Library of Congress, and one of its recent historians relates that a “skeletal organization” received “a small legacy” as recently as 1959. Help was given to Negroes immigrating to Liberia until 1899. But long before that year, the nation had turned—however haltingly—to a solution more in keeping with America’s best impulses. “… [i]t is the purpose of God, I am fully persuaded,” Garrison had declared, in a prophecy still not completely realized, “to humble the pride of the American people by rendering the expulsion of our colored countrymen utterly impracticable, and the necessity for their admission to equal rights imperative. … I see them here, not in Africa, not bowed to the earth, or derided and persecuted as at present, not with a downcast air or an irresolute step, but standing erect as men destined heavenward, unembarrassed, untrammelled, with none to molest or make them afraid.”

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Environmental Monitoring in Antarctica Environmental monitoring is essential in Antarctica to allow assessment of the impacts of human activities. Examples of the this monitoring work carried out by BAS are given below. Sewage outfall monitoring, Rothera Station Until 2003, untreated sewage was discharged into the sea from Rothera Station. Monitoring of the receiving water before and after installation of a biological treatment plant showed a dramatic reduction in the sewage plume as indicated by faecal coliforms. Concentrations of heavy metals in lichens and marine bivalves around Rothera Research Station. Concentrations of lead, zinc, cadmium and other heavy metals in lichens and marine bivalves are measured. The results are used to assess whether any observed pollution is due to station activities, and to determine the area of contamination. Skua Population breeding success The impact of Rothera Research Station on the local South Polar Skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) population has been monitored for over 12 years. The monitoring programme has recently been expanded to include measurements such as chick weight, survival and egg dimensions.

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Battle Drill #1: Conduct Platoon Attack (7-3-D101) TASK. Conduct Platoon Attack (7-3-D101). CONDITIONS. An enemy squad has occupied defensive positions or is moving to the platoon front. The enemy has indirect fire and CAS capabilities. The platoon is attacking separately or as part of a larger unit. Plans, preparation, and movement to the objective have been accomplished. The platoon is directed to attack the enemy. 1. The platoon main body is not surprised or fixed by the enemy. 2. The platoon accomplishes its assigned task within the commander's intent. The platoon kills, captures, or forces the withdrawal of the enemy. 3. The platoon maintains a sufficient fighting force to defeat the enemy's counterattack and continue operations. 1. Action on Enemy Contact. a. The platoon initiates contact. The platoon leader directs when and how his base of fire element will establish a base of fire. The element must be in position and briefed before it initiates contact. The base of fire squad leader (normally the weapons squad leader), upon the signal from the platoon leader, initiates contact with a high casualty-producing weapon. The squad marks the engagement area with ir illumination (MTETT dependent), while the squad leader uses his hand-held laser pointer and AN/PAQ-4 to designate enemy positions, crew-served weapons, and vehicles. Soldiers focus on the squad leader's laser as well as the team leader's tracers and AN/PAQ-4 to engage targets. If the platoon has not been detected, steps 1 and 2 consist of positioning the support element and identifying the enemy's positions. b. If the enemy initiates contact, the platoon takes the following actions: (1) The squad in contact reacts to contact (Battle Drill No. 2, React to Contact Platoon/Squad, 7-3/4-D103). It attempts to achieve suppressive fires with one fire team and maneuvers the other team to attack the enemy in the flank. The team providing suppressive fires marks its flanks by throwing ir chemlight bundles or ir flares and continues to use its AN/PVS-7B and AN/PAQ-4 to place well-aimed, accurate fires on the enemy. The squad employs M203 and hand-held ir smoke to screen the assaulting teams movement. The squad leader notifies the platoon leader of his actions. (2) The platoon leader, his RTO, the platoon FO, the squad leader of the next squad, and one machine gun team move forward to link up with the squad leader of the squad in contact. (3) The squad leader of the trail squad moves to the front of his lead fire team. (4) The platoon sergeant moves forward with the second machine gun team and the weapons squad leader and links up with the platoon leader. If directed, he assumes control of the base of fire element and positions the machine guns to add suppressive fire against the enemy. The platoon sergeant uses his hand-held laser to designate the left and right limits of fires while the weapons squad leader uses the pointer to designate targets. (5) The platoon leader assesses the situation. He follows the success of the squad's flank attack by leading the trail squads along the covered and concealed route taken by the assaulting fire team of the squad in contact. The base of fire element uses the AN/PVS-7B to monitor the movement of the assaulting element. c. If the squad in contact cannot achieve suppressive fire, the squad leader reports to the platoon leader. (1) The squad in contact establishes a base of fire. (a) The squad leader deploys his squad to provide effective, sustained fires on the enemy position. The squad leader continues to designate targets using the hand-held laser pointer and AN/PAQ-4 while soldiers SEE through their AN/PVS-7B and place accurate fires on the enemy with the AN/PAQ-4. (b) The squad leader reports his final position to the platoon leader. (2) The remaining squad (not in contact) takes up covered and concealed positions in place and uses the AN/PVS-7B to observe the flanks and rear of the platoon. (3) The platoon leader moves forward with his RTO, the platoon FO, the squad leader of the nearest squad, and one machine gun team. 2. Locate the Enemy. a. The squad leader of the squad in contact reports the enemy size, location, and any other information to the platoon leader. The platoon leader completes the squad leader's assessment of the situation. b. The squad continues to engage the enemy positions and mark the engagement area with ground ir flares, tracers, and AN/PAQ-4. c. The platoon sergeant moves forward with the weapons squad leader and the second machine gun team and links up with the platoon leader. 3. Suppress the Enemy. a. The platoon leader determines if the squad in contact can gain suppressive fire against the enemy, based on the volume and accuracy of the enemy's return fire. He SEEs through the AN/PVS-7B and makes the assessment by looking at the enemy's muzzle flashes and the strike of their rounds and tracers. b. If YES, he directs the squad (with one or both machine guns) to continue suppressing the enemy: (1) The squad in contact destroys or suppresses enemy weapons that are firing most effectively against it, normally crew-served weapons. The squad leader identifies the enemy crew-served by its muzzle flashes and rate of fire. He uses his hand-held laser pointer to designate priority targets for his squad. (2) In addition, the squad in contact continues to place ir screening smoke (if enemy has NODs) to prevent the enemy from seeing the maneuver element. c. If NO, the platoon leader deploys another squad and the machine gun team to suppress the enemy position. The second squad lead elements SEE the base of fire squad flank element's ir chemlights or flares through the AN/PVS-7B and links up either to the left or right flank of the base of fire squad as directed by the platoon leader. (The platoon leader may direct the platoon sergeant to position this squad and one or both of the machine gun teams in a better support-by-fire position.) d. The platoon leader again determines if the platoon can gain suppressive fire over the enemy. e. If YES, he continues to suppress the enemy with two squads and two machine guns. (1) The platoon sergeant assumes control of the base-of-fire element (squad in contact, the machine gun teams, and any other squad designated by the platoon leader). He uses his hand-held laser pointer to designate sectors of fire for the squads. (2) The machine gun team occupies a covered and concealed position and suppresses the enemy position. The gunners SEE through the AN/PVS-4 and identify the targets designated by the weapons squad leader's laser. f. The platoon FO calls for and adjusts fires, based on the platoon leader's directions. (The platoon leader does not wait for indirect fires before continuing with his actions.) g. If still NO, the platoon leader deploys the last squad to provide flank and rear security and guide the rest of the platoon forward as necessary, and reports the situation to the company commander. Normally, the platoon will become the base of fire element for the company and may deploy the last squad for suppressive fires. The platoon continues to suppress/fix the enemy with direct and indirect fire, and responds to orders from the company commander. a. If the squad(s) in contact together with the machine gun can suppress the enemy, the platoon leader determines if the remaining squad(s) not in contact can maneuver. He makes the following assessment using his AN/PVS-7: (1) Location of enemy positions and obstacles. (2) Size of enemy force. (The number of enemy automatic weapons, presence of any vehicles, and employment of indirect fire are indicators of enemy strength.) (3) Vulnerable flank. (4) Covered and concealed flanking route to the enemy position. b. If yes, the squad leader maneuvers the squad(s) into the assault: (1) Once the platoon leader has ensured the base of fire squad is in position and providing suppressive fires, he leads the assaulting squad(s) to the assault position. (2) Once in position, the platoon leader gives the prearranged signal for the base of fire squad to lift or shift direct fires to the opposite flank of the enemy position. The signal is normally FM or an ir signaling device. The assault squad leader identifies the targets (enemy positions) that have been designated by the support by fire squad leader through his AN/PVS-7B. Simultaneously, at the platoon leader's command for the support by fire squad to lift or shift, the assault squad leader uses his hand-held laser pointer to point out the targets. Team leaders use AN/PAQ-4 to control fires. The assault squads MUST pick up and maintain effective fire throughout the assault. Handover of responsibility for direct fires from the base of fire squad to the assault squad is critical to prevent fratricide. (3) The platoon FO shifts indirect fires (including smoke) to suppress the enemy position. (4) The assaulting squad(s) fight through enemy positions using fire and maneuver. (5) The platoon leader controls the movement of his squads. He uses his hand-held laser pointer to assign specific objectives for each squad and designates the main effort or base maneuver element. (The base of fire squad must be able to identify the near flank of the assaulting squads.) Flanks are marked with ir chemlight bundles, ir flares, or phoenix beacons. NOTE: The use of the hand-held laser pointer requires moderation because it can cause confusion as well as identify friendly positions for an enemy with night-vision capabilities. The laser should not be on for a period greater than three seconds when used. (a) The squad leader determines the way in which he will move the elements of his squad based on the volume and accuracy of enemy fire against his squad and the amount of cover provided by terrain. In all cases, each soldier uses individual movement techniques as appropriate. (b) The squad leader designates one fire team to support the movement of the other fire team. (c) The squad leader designates a distance or direction for the team to move. He accompanies one of the fire teams. (d) Soldiers SEE with the AN/PVS-7B and maintain contact with team members and leaders. (e) Buddy teams time their firing and reloading to sustain their rate of fire. (f) The moving fire team proceeds to the next covered position, using the wedge formation. (g) The squad leader directs the next team to move using an ir signal. (h) When the squad leader or team leader determines that moving by teams is no longer feasible, fire teams continue forward in buddy teams. Soldiers continue to use AN/PVS-7B and AN/PAQ-4 to place accurate fires on the enemy as well as identify/point out targets previously identified by their team leaders. (1) Soldiers maintain contact with their buddies. (2) Soldiers fire from covered positions, SEE with the AN/PVS-7B and select the next covered position before moving. They either rush forward (no more than 5 seconds) or use the high crawl or low crawl techniques, based on terrain and enemy fires. (i) Fire team leaders maintain contact with the squad leaders and pass signals to team members. c. If NO, or the assaulting squads cannot continue to move, the platoon leader deploys the squad(s) to suppress the enemy and reports to the company commander. 5. Consolidate and Reorganize. a. For consolidating once squads have seized the enemy position, the platoon leader establishes local security. (The platoon must plan to defeat any enemy counterattack. At the conclusion of the assault, the platoon is most vulnerable.) (1) The platoon leader signals for the base of fire squad to move into designated positions. (2) The platoon leader assigns sectors of fire for each squad using his laser pointer. (3) The platoon leader positions key weapons to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach. (4) The platoon sergeant begins coordination for ammunition resupply. (5) Soldiers occupy hasty defensive positions. (6) The platoon leader and his FO develop a quick fire plan. (7) The squad leader places OPs to detect enemy counterattacks. When an armor or mounted threat is likely, use the AN/TAS-5A in OPs. b. To reorganize, the platoon performs the following tasks (only after it completes consolidation on the objective): (1) Re-establish chain of command. (2) Redistribute and resupply ammunition. (3) Man crew-served weapons first. (4) Redistribute critical equipment (radios, NBC, NVD, Laser Pointer). (5) Treat casualties and evacuate wounded. (6) Fill vacancies in key positions. (7) Search, silence, segregate, safeguard, and speed EPWs to collection points. (8) Collect and report enemy information and material. c. Squad leaders provide ammunition, casualty, and equipment (ACE) reports to the platoon leader. d. The platoon leader consolidates ACE reports and passes them to the company commander (or Executive Officer). e. The platoon continues the mission after receiving guidance from the company commander. The company follows the success of the platoon's flanking attack.

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Ever return from a hike wanting to know more about the yellow-bellied Marmot, Golden Eagle, or American Dipper you saw along the trail? Typically that required consulting a reference book, or heading to the local library. But a new website called the Encyclopedia of Life wants to change that. Their goal is to create online reference pages for the 1.8 million species known to inhabit the Earth. Last week organizers unveiled the first 30,000 pages, including 25 exemplar pages packed with photos, videos, and detailed scientific information compiled and checked by experts. These feature-rich pages can teach you about the life history of the Peregrine falcon,eol.org/taxa/16990688 or plot the distribution of the Yellow-fever mosquito. Created with backing and expertise from Harvard University, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Field Museum of Chicago, the Encyclopedia of Life aims to create reference pages for the remaining 1,790,000 species by 2017. But if you’re in a hurry to find out how long yellow-bellied marmots hibernate each winter, you can check out the Animal Diversity Web , an online database of species managed by the University of Michigan’s Museum of Zoology. The answer: From September to May. —Jason Stevenson

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Can Kaposi sarcoma be prevented? Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is caused by the Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV). There are no vaccines at this time to protect people against KSHV. For now, preventing KS depends on reducing the chance of becoming infected with KSHV and reducing the chance that people who are infected with KSHV will develop KS. Most cases of KS in the United States occur in people with AIDS. Taking measures to avoid becoming infected with HIV could prevent most cases of KS in this country. - Since HIV can be spread through sex, avoiding unprotected sex with people infected with HIV could help prevent these infections. Many people with HIV don’t know that they are infected, so many public health workers recommend using a condom during any sexual contact. (A condom may not be needed if both people are HIV-negative and are in a mutually monogamous relationship). Abstinence is the most effective protection. - HIV can also be spread through the use of contaminated (dirty) needles to inject recreational drugs. For people who inject drugs, the safest way to avoid HIV is to quit. However, some people are unable to quit on their own or get help in quitting, and they may not be able to stop using drugs right away. For these people, clean needles and injection supplies can help protect them. In some areas, there are programs to make sure that drug users can get clean needles and syringes. - HIV-infected mothers can pass the virus to their babies during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Treating the mothers and infants with anti-HIV drugs and avoiding breastfeeding can greatly reduce the risk of these infections. - In the past, blood product transfusions and organ transplants were responsible for some HIV infections. As a result of improved testing for HIV, there is now a very low risk of HIV infection from blood products or organ transplants in the United States. For people who are infected with HIV and KSHV, taking the right medicines can reduce the chance of developing KS. - Testing for HIV can identify people infected with this virus. People with HIV should get treatment to help strengthen their immune system, which usually includes highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). HAART reduces the risk that people with HIV will develop KS (and AIDS). Treating infections that commonly occur in people with weakened immunity also reduces the likelihood of developing problems with KS. - HIV-infected people who take drugs to treat herpesvirus infections (such as ganciclovir or foscarnet) are less likely to develop KS because these drugs also work against KSHV (which is a type of herpesvirus). Still, these drugs can have serious side effects, so they are only taken to treat certain infections, not to prevent KS. Last Medical Review: 02/20/2013 Last Revised: 02/20/2013

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If you download this publication you may also be interested in these: Facing an uncertain future How forest and people can adapt to climate changeCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia The most prominent international responses to climate change focus on mitigation (reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases) rather than adaptation (reducing the vulnerability of society and ecosystems). However, with climate change now inevitable, adaptation is gaining importance in the policy arena, and is an integral part of ongoing negotiations towards an international framework. This report presents the case for adaptation for tropical forests (reducing the impacts of climate change on forests and their ecosystem services) and tropical forests for adaptation (using forests to help local people and society in general to adapt to inevitable changes). Policies in the forest, climate change and other sectors need to address these issues and be integrated with each other—such a cross-sectoral approach is essential if the benefits derived in one area are not to be lost or counteracted in another. Moreover, the institutions involved in policy development and implementation need themselves to be flexible and able to learn in the context of dynamic human and environmental systems. And all this needs to be done at all levels from the local community to the national government and international institutions. The report includes an appendix covering climate scenarios, concepts, and international policies and funds.

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Tips to Facilitate Workshops Effectively Facilitators play a very important role in the creation of a respectful, positive learning environment during a workshop. Here you will find some tips to facilitate workshops effectively. - Make sure everybody has a chance to participate. For example, through small group activities or direct questions to different participants. Help the group to avoid long discussions between two people who may isolate the rest of the/other participants. Promote the importance of sharing the space and listening to different voices and opinions. - Be prepared to make adjustments to the agenda – sometimes you have to cross out activities, but the most important thing is to achieve the general goals of the workshop. - Make every possible thing to have all the logistics ready beforehand to then be able to focus on the workshop’s agenda. - Pay attention to the group’s energy and motivation – Plan activities where everyone is able to participate and to stay active and engaged. - Provide space for the participants to be able to share their own experiences and knowledge. Remember that each one of us has a lot to learn and a lot to teach. - Relax and have fun! Be a part of the process – You are learning, too, so you don’t have to know it all nor do everything perfect. - Be prepared for difficult questions. Get familiarized with the topic, know the content of the workshop but remember you don’t have to know all the answers! You can ask other participants what they know about the topic, or you can find out the answers later and share them with the participants after the workshop. - Focus on giving general information – Avoid answering questions about specific cases. Usually, this can change the direction of the conversation and might be considered as providing legal advice without a license to do so. - Your work as facilitator is to help the group learn together, not necessarily to present all the information and be the “expert” in the topic. - Try to be as clear as possible – especially when you are giving the exercises’ instructions. Work as a team with the other facilitators during the whole workshop.

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This Dawn FC (framing camera) image shows some of the undulating terrain in Vesta’s southern hemisphere. This undulating terrain consists of linear, curving hills and depressions, which are most distinct in the right of the image. Many narrow, linear grooves run in various directions across this undulating terrain. There are some small, less than 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) diameter, craters in the bottom of the image. These contain bright material and have bright material surrounding them. There are fewer craters in this image than in images from Vesta’s northern hemisphere; this is because Vesta’s northern hemisphere is generally more cratered than the southern hemisphere. This image is located in Vesta’s Urbinia quadrangle and the center of the image is 63.0 degrees south latitude, 332.2 degrees east longitude. NASA’s Dawn spacecraft obtained this image with its framing camera on Oct. 25, 2011. This image was taken through the camera’s clear filter. The distance to the surface of Vesta is 700 kilometers (435 miles) and the image has a resolution of about 70 meters (230 feet) per pixel. This image was acquired during the HAMO (high-altitude mapping orbit) phase of the mission. The Dawn mission to Vesta and Ceres is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington D.C. UCLA is responsible for overall Dawn mission science. The Dawn framing cameras have been developed and built under the leadership of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, with significant contributions by DLR German Aerospace Center, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, and in coordination with the Institute of Computer and Communication Network Engineering, Braunschweig. The Framing Camera project is funded by the Max Planck Society, DLR, and NASA/JPL. More information about Dawn is online at http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA

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Colouring books and education cards for kids Friday, 23 September 2011 PhD student and community nursing coordinator, Judith Blake, has designed a colouring book for kids that explains all about sun safety. It is a beautifully designed with loads of kid-friendly pictures ready for colouring. We deeply appreciate the time and effort that Judith donated on behalf of the ECU Melanoma Research. The book is great for schools; only $5 / book We also have information cards for sale that detail the difference between a mole and a freckle – also great for school kids and a valuable fundraiser for the ECU melanoma research group. These were designed by the ECU fundraising and marketing team. Please contact Mel Ziman at email@example.com for more details.

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The capital required to construct a tidal barrage has been the significant stumbling block too. It is not an attractive proposition to an investor due to long payback periods. This problem could be solved by government funding or large organisations getting involved with tidal power. In terms of long term costs, once the construction of the barrage is complete, there are very low maintenance and operating costs and the turbines only need replacing once around every 30 years. The life of the plant is indefinite and for its entire life it will receive free fuel from the tide. Few tidal barrages have been constructed. The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in Europe) is in the Rance estuary in northern France. La Rance was completed in 1966 and has operated reliably ever since. So too has the barrage at The Bay of Fundy in Canada - though this had an adverse effect on Marine life. There have been plans for a "Severn Barrage" from Brean Down in Somerset to Lavernock Point in Wales. Every now and again the idea gets proposed, but nothing has been built yet. It could have over 200 large turbines, and provide over 8,000 Megawatts of power (over 12 nuclear power station's worth). It would take 7 years to build, and could provide 7% of the energy needs for England and Wales. There would be a number of benefits, including protecting a large stretch of coastline against damage from high storm tides, and providing a ready-made road bridge. However, the drastic changes to the currents in the estuary could have huge effects on the ecosystem so it is unlikely ever to be built due to the major environmental impact that it would cause. A major drawback of tidal power stations is that they can only generate when the tide is flowing in or out - in other words, only for 10 hours each day. However, tides are totally predictable, so we can plan to have other power stations generating at those times when the tidal station is out of action.

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