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Once inserted, the operational balloon would have a total mass of no more than and would remain operational for a week.

The small gondola would have navigational and control electronics, along with a stereo imaging system, as well as a spectrometer and magnetometer.

Plans envisioned a follow-on to MABTEX as a much more sophisticated aerobot named MGA, for "Mars Geoscience Aerobot".

Design concepts for MGA envisioned a superpressure balloon system very much like that of MABTEX, but much larger.

A Venus Aerobot Technology Experiment (VEBTEX) has been considered as a technology validation experiment, but the focus appears to have been more on full operational missions.

One mission concept, the Venus Aerobot Multisonde (VAMS), envisions an aerobot operating at altitudes above that would drop surface probes, or "sondes", onto specific surface targets.

The balloon would then relay information from the sondes directly to Earth, and would also collect planetary magnetic field data and other information.

VAMS would require no fundamentally new technology, and may be appropriate for a NASA low-cost Discovery planetary science mission.

Significant work has been performed on a more ambitious concept, the Venus Geoscience Aerobot (VGA).

Designs for the VGA envision a relatively large reversible-fluid balloon, filled with helium and water, that could descend to the surface of Venus to sample surface sites, and then rise again to high altitudes and cool off.

Developing an aerobot that can withstand the high pressures and temperatures (up to 480 degrees Celsius, or almost 900 degrees Fahrenheit) on the surface of Venus, as well as passage through sulfuric acid clouds, will require new technologies.

As of 2002, VGA was not expected to be ready until late in the following decade.

Prototype balloon envelopes have been fabricated from polybenzoxazole, a polymer that exhibits high strength, resistance to heat, and low leakage for light gases.

A gold coating is applied to allow the polymer film to resist corrosion from acid clouds.

Work has also been done on a VGA gondola weighing about .

In this design, most instruments are contained in a spherical pressure vessel with an outer shell of titanium and an inner shell of stainless steel.

The vessel contains a solid-state camera and other instruments, as well as communications and flight control systems.

The vessel is designed to tolerate pressures of up to a hundred atmospheres and maintain internal temperatures below even on the surface of Venus.

The vessel is set at the bottom of a hexagonal "basket" of solar panels that in turn provide tether connections to the balloon system above, and is surrounded by a ring of pipes acting as a heat exchanger.

An S-band communications antenna is mounted on the rim of the basket, and a radar antenna for surface studies extends out of the vessel on a mast.

An aerobot would be able to penetrate this haze to study the moon's mysterious surface and search for complex organic molecules.

NASA has outlined a number of different aerobot mission concepts for Titan, under the general name of Titan Biologic Explorer.

One concept, known as the Titan Aerobot Multisite mission, involves a reversible-fluid balloon filled with argon that could descend from high altitude to the surface of the moon, perform measurements, and then rise again to high altitude to perform measurements and move to a different site.

Another concept, the Titan Aerobot Singlesite mission, would use a superpressure balloon that would select a single site, vent much of its gas, and then survey that site in detail.

An ingenious variation on this scheme, the Titan Aerover, combines aerobot and rover.

This vehicle features a triangular frame that connects three balloons, each about two meters (6.6 ft) in diameter.

After entry into Titan's atmosphere, the aerover would float until it found an interesting site, then vent helium to descend to the surface.

The three balloons would then serve as floats or wheels as necessary.

JPL has built a simple prototype that looks like three beachballs on a tubular frame.

No matter what form the Titan Biologic Explorer mission takes, the system would likely require an atomic-powered radioisotope thermoelectric generator module for power.

Solar power would not be possible at Saturn's distance and under Titan's smog, and batteries would not give adequate mission endurance.

The aerobot would also carry a miniaturized chemical lab to search for complicated organic chemicals.

As the atmospheres of these planets are largely composed of hydrogen, and since there is no lighter gas than hydrogen, such an aerobot would have to be a Montgolfiere.

As sunlight is weak at such distances, the aerobot would obtain most of its heating from infrared energy radiated by the planet below.

A Jupiter aerobot might operate at altitudes where the air pressure ranges from one to ten atmospheres, occasionally dropping lower for detailed studies.

It would make atmospheric measurements and return imagery and remote sensing of weather phenomena, such as Jupiter's Great Red Spot.

An aircraft concept, ARES was selected for a detailed design study as one of the four finalists for the 2007 Mars Scout Program opportunity, but was eventually not selected in favor of the Phoenix mission.

In the design study, both half-scale and full-scale aircraft were tested under Mars-atmospheric conditions.

A number of advantages of a viable rotorcraft design were noted, including the ability to pass over difficult Mars terrain yet still visit multiple sites in situ.

The short hop made by Lunar Surveyor 6 in 1967 was noted as example of hopping to visit another site.

Ingenuity, part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, is a robotic helicopter that demonstrated the first rotorcraft flight in the atmosphere of Mars.

The aircraft was deployed from the Perseverance rover, and flew five times during its 30-day test campaign early in the mission.

Each flight will took no more than 110 seconds, at altitudes ranging from off the ground, and covered a maximum distance of up to per flight.

It used autonomous control and communicated with Perseverance directly after each landing.

A , or , was a weapon launched by Japan during World War II.

A hydrogen balloon with a load varying from a antipersonnel bomb to one incendiary bomb and four incendiary devices attached, it was designed as a cheap weapon intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean and drop bombs on American cities, forests, and farmland.

Canada and Mexico reported fire balloon sightings as well.

The Japanese fire balloon was the first ever weapon possessing intercontinental range (the second being the Convair B-36 Peacemaker and the third being the R-7 ICBM).

The Japanese balloon attacks on North America were at that time the longest ranged attacks ever conducted in the history of warfare, a record which was not broken until the 1982 Operation Black Buck raids during the Falkland Islands War.

The balloons were intended to instill fear and terror in the U.S., though the bombs were relatively ineffective as weapons of destruction due to extreme weather conditions.

Despite the high hopes of their designers, the balloons were ineffective as weapons, causing only six deaths (from one incident) and a small amount of damage.

The deaths occurred when the victims decided to touch the balloon, thus causing it to explode.

The first was called the "Type B Balloon" and was designed by the Japanese Navy.

It was in diameter and consisted of rubberized silk.

The type B balloons were sent first and mainly used for meteorological purposes.

The Japanese used them to determine the possibility of the bomb-carrying balloons' reaching the United States.

Japanese bomb-carrying balloons were in diameter and, when fully inflated, held about of hydrogen.

Their launch sites were located on the east coast of the main Japanese island of Honshū.

Japan released the first of these bomb-bearing balloons on November 3, 1944.

They were found in Alaska, Alberta, Arizona, British Columbia, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Mexico, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, and Yukon Territory.

General Kusaba's men launched over 9,000 balloons throughout the course of the project.

The Japanese expected 10% (around 900) of them to reach America, which is also what is currently believed by researchers.

About 300 balloon bombs were found or observed in America.

It is likely that more balloon bombs landed in unpopulated areas of the United States.

The concept was the brainchild of the Imperial Japanese Army's Ninth Army's Number Nine Research Laboratory, under Major General Sueyoshi Kusaba, with work performed by Technical Major Teiji Takada and his colleagues.

The balloons were intended to make use of a strong current of winter air that the Japanese had discovered flowing at high altitude and speed over their country, which later became known as the jet stream.

The jet stream reported by Wasaburo Oishi blew at altitudes above and could carry a large balloon across the Pacific in three days, over a distance of more than .

Such balloons could carry incendiary and high-explosive bombs to the United States and drop them there to kill people, destroy buildings, and start forest fires.

The preparations were lengthy because the technological problems were acute.

A hydrogen balloon expands when warmed by the sunlight, and rises; then it contracts when cooled at night, and descends.

The engineers devised a control system driven by an altimeter to discard ballast.

When the balloon descended below , it electrically fired a charge to cut loose sandbags.

The sandbags were carried on a cast-aluminium four-spoked wheel and discarded two at a time to keep the wheel balanced.

Similarly, when the balloon rose above about , the altimeter activated a valve to vent hydrogen.

The hydrogen was also vented if the balloon's pressure reached a critical level.

The control system ran the balloon through three days of flight.

By that time, it was likely over the U.S., and its ballast was expended.

The final flash of gunpowder released the bombs, also carried on the wheel, and lit a long fuse that hung from the balloon's equator.

At first the balloons were made of conventional rubberized silk, but improved envelopes had less leakage.

An order went out for ten thousand balloons made of "washi", a paper derived from mulberry bushes that was impermeable and very tough.

It was only available in squares about the size of a road map, so it was glued together in three or four laminations using edible konnyaku (devil's tongue) paste – though hungry workers stealing the paste for food created some problems.

Many workers were nimble-fingered teenaged school girls.

The Japanese Imperial Army's Noborito Institute cultivated anthrax and Yersinia pestis; furthermore, it produced enough cowpox viruses to infect the entire United States.

The deployment of these biological weapon on fire balloons was planned in 1944.

The Emperor Hirohito did not permit deployment of biological weapons on the occasion of a report of President Staff Officer Umezu on October 25, 1944.

Consequently, biological warfare using Fu-Go balloons was not implemented.

Similar, though simpler, balloons were also used by Britain to attack Nazi Germany between 1942 and 1944.

Extensive use of Operational Analysis in planning these attacks made them far more successful.

The first battalion included headquarters and three squadrons totaling 1,500 men in Ibaraki Prefecture with nine launch stations at Ōtsu.

The second battalion of 700 men in three squadrons operated six launch stations at Ichinomiya, Chiba; and the third battalion of 600 men in two squadrons operated six launch stations at Nakoso in Fukushima Prefecture.

The Ōtsu site included hydrogen gas generating facilities, but the 2nd and 3rd battalion launch sites used hydrogen manufactured elsewhere.

The best time to launch was just after the passing of a high-pressure front, and wind conditions were most suitable for several hours prior to the onshore breezes at sunrise.

Suitable launch conditions were expected on only about fifty days through the winter period of maximum jet stream velocity, and the combined launch capacity of all three battalions was about 200 balloons per day.

Initial tests took place in September 1944 and proved satisfactory; however, before preparations were complete, United States Army Air Forces B-29 Superfortress planes began bombing the Japanese home islands.

The attacks were somewhat ineffectual at first but still fueled the desire for revenge sparked by the Doolittle Raid.

The first balloon was released on November 3, 1944.

A few balloons carried radiosonde equipment rather than bombs.

These balloons were tracked by direction finding stations in Ichinomiya, Chiba, in Iwanuma, Miyagi, in Misawa, Aomori, and on Sakhalin to estimate progress toward the United States.

The Japanese chose to launch the campaign in November, because the period of maximum jet stream velocity is November through March.

This limited the chance of the incendiary bombs causing forest fires, as that time of year produces the maximum North American Pacific coastal precipitation, and forests were generally snow-covered or too damp to catch fire easily.

On November 4, 1944, a United States Navy patrol craft discovered one of the first radiosonde balloons floating off San Pedro, Los Angeles.

National and state agencies were placed on heightened alert status when balloons were found in Wyoming and Montana before the end of November.

In all, seven fire balloons were turned in to the United States Army in Nevada, Colorado, Texas, Northern Mexico, Michigan, and even the outskirts of Detroit.

Army Air Forces or Navy fighters scrambled to intercept the balloons, but they had little success; the balloons flew very high and surprisingly fast, and fighters destroyed fewer than 20.

American authorities concluded the greatest danger from these balloons would be wildfires in the Pacific coastal forests.

The Fourth Air Force, Western Defense Command, and Ninth Service Command organized the Firefly Project of 2,700 troops, including 200 paratroopers of the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion with Stinson L-5 Sentinel and Douglas C-47 Skytrain aircraft.

These men were stationed at critical points for use in fire-fighting missions.

The 555th suffered one fatality and 22 injuries fighting fires.

Through Firefly, the military used the United States Forest Service as a proxy agency to combat FuGo.

Due to limited wartime fire suppression personnel, Firefly relied upon the 555th as well as conscientious objectors.

The operation also unified fire suppression communications among federal and state agencies.

The influx of military personnel, equipment, and tactics shaped how the United States Forest Service approached fire suppression in the post War period.

By early 1945, Americans were becoming aware that something strange was going on.

Balloons had been sighted and explosions heard, from California to Alaska.

Something that appeared to witnesses to be like a parachute descended over Thermopolis, Wyoming.

A fragmentation bomb exploded, and shrapnel was found around the crater.

On March 10, Pilot Officer J. Gordon Patten destroyed a balloon near Saltspring Island, British Columbia.

On March 10, 1945, one of the last paper balloons descended in the vicinity of the Manhattan Project's production facility at the Hanford Site.

This balloon caused a short circuit in the power lines supplying electricity for the nuclear reactor cooling pumps, but backup safety devices restored power almost immediately.

Two paper balloons were recovered in a single day in Modoc National Forest, east of Mount Shasta.

Balloons and balloon envelopes and apparatus were found in Montana, Arizona, Texas and inside Canada in Saskatchewan, in the Northwest Territories, and in the Yukon Territory.

Eventually, an Army fighter managed to push one of the balloons around in the air and force it to ground intact, where it was examined and filmed.

Furthermore, the Americans had some knowledge that the Japanese had been working on biological weapons, most specifically at the infamous Unit 731 site at Pingfan in northeast China, and a balloon carrying biowarfare agents could be a real threat.

Nobody believed the balloons could have come directly from Japan.

It was thought that the balloons must be coming from North American beaches, launched by landing parties from submarines.

Wilder conjectures speculated that they could have been launched from German prisoner of war camps in the U.S., or even from Japanese-American internment centers.

Some of the sandbags dropped by the fusen bakudan were taken to the Military Geology Unit of the United States Geological Survey for investigation.

Working with the Military Intelligence Service, the researchers of the Military Geological Unit began microscopic and chemical examination of the sand from the sandbags to determine types and distribution of diatoms and other microscopic sea creatures, and its mineral composition.

The geologists ultimately determined that the sand had been taken from the vicinity of Ichinomiya.

Aerial reconnaissance then located two of the hydrogen production plants nearby, which were soon destroyed by B-29 bombing raids in April 1945.

The bombs also had a potential psychological effect on the American people.

The U.S. strategy was to keep the Japanese from knowing of the balloon bombs' effectiveness.

In 1945 Newsweek ran an article titled "Balloon Mystery" in their January 1 issue, and a similar story appeared in a newspaper the next day.

The Office of Censorship then sent a message to newspapers and radio stations to ask them to make no mention of balloons and balloon-bomb incidents.

They did not want the enemy to get the idea that the balloons might be effective weapons or to have the American people start panicking.

Cooperating with the desires of the government, the press did not publish any balloon bomb incidents.

Perhaps as a result, the Japanese only learned of one bomb's reaching Wyoming, landing and failing to explode.

The press blackout in the U.S. was lifted after the first deaths to ensure that the public was warned, as public knowledge of the threat could have possibly prevented it.

Archie Mitchell was the pastor of the Bly Christian and Missionary Alliance Church.

He and his pregnant wife Elsie drove up to Gearhart Mountain with five of their Sunday school students (aged 11–14) to have a picnic.

They had to stop at this spot near Bly, Oregon, due to construction and a road closing.

Elsie and the children got out of the car at Bly, while Archie drove on to find a parking spot.

As Elsie and the children looked for a good picnic spot, they saw a strange balloon lying on the ground.

There were two explosions; the boys were killed immediately, and Elsie died as Archie used his hands to extinguish the fire on her clothing.

Joan Patzke survived the initial blast, but died later.

A bomb disposal expert guessed that the bomb had been kicked.

They were the only people whose deaths were attributed to the balloon bombs deployed on American soil.

Military personnel arrived on the scene within hours, and saw that the balloon still had snow underneath it, while the surrounding area did not.

They concluded that the balloon bomb had drifted to the ground several weeks earlier, and had lain there undisturbed until found by the group.

Elsie Mitchell is buried in the Ocean View Cemetery in Port Angeles, Washington.

A memorial, the Mitchell Monument, is located at the point of the explosion, northeast of Klamath Falls in the Mitchell Recreation Area.

It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.

Eight were found in the 1940s, three in the 1950s, and two in the 1960s.

In 1978, a ballast ring, fuses, and barometers were found near Agness, Oregon, and are now part of the collection of the Coos Historical & Maritime Museum.

The remains of a balloon bomb were found in Lumby, British Columbia, in October 2014 and detonated by a Royal Canadian Navy ordnance disposal team.

The remains of another balloon bomb were found near McBride, British Columbia in October 2019.

It was found by a hunter looking for mountain goats in the east central BC wilderness.

There was evidence of a small fire nearby suggesting that the bomb may have started the fire.

The Canadian War Museum, in Ottawa, Ontario, has a full, intact balloon on display.

The South Dakota Cultural Heritage Center, in Pierre, South Dakota has a balloon bomb that was recovered nearby on display.

Includes a personal account by a Japanese woman who worked in one of the fire balloon factories.

Hall Schindler, "Utah Was Spared Damage By Japan's Floating Weapons," The Salt Lake Tribune, 1995-05-05.

Ross Coen, Fu-go:The Curious History of Japan's Balloon Bomb Attack on America, University of Nebraska Press, 2014.

Jameson Karns, A Fire Management Perspective of FuGo, United States Forest Service, Fire Management Today, Vol.

The Clash of Civilizations is a thesis that people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.

The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures.

Even earlier, the phrase appears in a 1926 book regarding the Middle East by Basil Mathews: Young Islam on Trek: A Study in the Clash of Civilizations (p. 196).

This expression derives from "clash of cultures", already used during the colonial period and the Belle Époque.

Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period.

Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy, and the capitalist free market economy had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world.

Specifically, Francis Fukuyama argued that the world had reached the 'end of history' in a Hegelian sense.

Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict.

In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural lines.

As an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest category of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.

In addition, the clash of civilizations, for Huntington, represents a development of history.

In the past, world history was mainly about the struggles between monarchs, nations and ideologies, such as that seen within Western civilization.

Whether Latin America and the former member states of the Soviet Union are included, or are instead their own separate civilizations, will be an important future consideration for those regions, according to Huntington.

The traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian (Catholic-Protestant) countries and culture.

Many people in South America and Mexico regard themselves as full members of Western civilization.

Orthodox civilization, comprising Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Romania, great parts of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

Countries with a non-Orthodox majority are usually excluded e.g.

Muslim Azerbaijan and Muslim Albania and most of Central Asia, as well as majority Muslim regions in the Balkans, Caucasus and central Russian regions such as Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, Roman Catholic Slovenia and Croatia, Protestant and Catholic Baltic states).

However, Armenia is included, despite its dominant faith, the Armenian Apostolic Church, being a part of Oriental Orthodoxy rather than the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Kazakhstan is also included, despite its dominant faith being Sunni Islam.

The Eastern world is the mix of the Buddhist, Chinese, Hindu, and Japonic civilizations.

The Buddhist areas of Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are identified as separate from other civilizations, but Huntington believes that they do not constitute a major civilization in the sense of international affairs.

The Sinic civilization of China, the Koreas, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam.

This group also includes the Chinese diaspora, especially in relation to Southeast Asia.

Hindu civilization, located chiefly in India, Bhutan and Nepal, and culturally adhered to by the global Indian diaspora.

Japan, considered a hybrid of Chinese civilization and older Altaic patterns.

The Muslim world of the Greater Middle East (excluding Armenia, Cyprus, Ethiopia, Georgia, Israel, Malta and South Sudan), northern West Africa, Albania, Pakistan, Bangladesh, parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brunei, Comoros, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives and southern Philippines.

The civilization of Sub-Saharan Africa located in southern Africa, Middle Africa (excluding Chad), East Africa (excluding Ethiopia, the Comoros, Mauritius, and the Swahili coast of Kenya and Tanzania), Cape Verde, Ghana, the Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.

Considered as a possible eighth civilization by Huntington.

Instead of belonging to one of the "major" civilizations, Ethiopia and Haiti are labeled as "Lone" countries.

Israel could be considered a unique state with its own civilization, Huntington writes, but one which is extremely similar to the West.

Huntington also believes that the Anglophone Caribbean, former British colonies in the Caribbean, constitutes a distinct entity.

There are also others which are considered "cleft countries" because they contain very large groups of people identifying with separate civilizations.

Wars such as those following the break up of Yugoslavia, in Chechnya, and between India and Pakistan were cited as evidence of inter-civilizational conflict.

He also argues that the widespread Western belief in the universality of the West's values and political systems is naïve and that continued insistence on democratization and such "universal" norms will only further antagonize other civilizations.

Huntington sees the West as reluctant to accept this because it built the international system, wrote its laws, and gave it substance in the form of the United Nations.

Huntington identifies a major shift of economic, military, and political power from the West to the other civilizations of the world, most significantly to what he identifies as the two "challenger civilizations", Sinic and Islam.