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when the supreme court announced the principle of one person one vote what did it mean | One man, one vote - wikipedia
One man, one vote (or one person, one vote) is a slogan used by advocates of political equality through various electoral reforms such as universal suffrage, proportional representation, or the elimination of plurality voting, malapportionment, or gerrymandering.
The British trade unionist George Howell used the phrase "one man, one vote '' in political pamphlets in 1880. During the 20th - century period of decolonisation and the struggles for national sovereignty, from the late 1940s onwards this phrase became widely used in developing countries where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.
The slogan was notably used by the anti-apartheid movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in South Africa.
In the United States, the "one person, one vote '' principle was invoked in a series of cases in the 1960s. Applying the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution, the Supreme Court majority opinion in Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that state legislatures needed to redistrict in order to have congressional districts with roughly equal represented populations. In addition, the court ruled that, unlike the United States Congress, both houses of state legislatures needed to have representation based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.
This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for suffrage reform. Historically the emphasis within the House of Commons was on representing areas: counties, boroughs and, later on, universities. The entitlement to vote for the Members of Parliament representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local - government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. Plural voting was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant wards.
Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive Reform Acts by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring convicts, lunatics and members of the House of Lords), and also reduced and finally eliminated most of the plural voting for both Westminster and local - government elections.
But, there were two significant exceptions:
The City of London had never expanded its boundaries and, with many residential dwellings being replaced by businesses, and the destruction of The Blitz, after the Second World War the financial district had barely five thousand residents altogether. The system of plural voting was retained for electing the City of London Corporation, with some modifications.
When Northern Ireland was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But, the Parliament of Northern Ireland did not follow Westminster in changes to the franchise up to 1950. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed for both Parliament and local government. This meant that in local council elections only ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote while company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company 's status. University representation continued at Stormont to 1969, while it was abolished for Westminster in 1948. Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to Unionist electoral success in controlling councils in Nationalist - majority areas.
Based on a number of inequities, the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local elections (national elections followed the same eligibility rules as the rest of the UK). The slogan "one man, one vote '' became a rallying cry for this campaign. The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules, which were implemented for the Northern Ireland general election, 1969.
The United States Constitution requires a decennial census for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the 1920 Census was effectively skipped pending resolution by the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congressional seats have been reapportioned based on population changes between states. State legislatures initially established election of congressional representatives from districts, often based on traditional counties or parishes which preceded founding of the new government. The question arose as to whether the state legislatures were required to ensure that congressional districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.
Some states redrew their U.S. House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by a change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, this led to a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect -- since each district elected the same number of representatives -- a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting "power '' of a 2nd - district voter. Alabama 's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under - represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. They paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.
The Constitution includes the result of the Great Compromise resulting in representation for the US Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The Founding Fathers considered this principle of such importance that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see Article V of the United States Constitution. For this reason, "one person, one vote '' has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often led to state senators having widely varying amounts of power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal to senators representing much greater urban populations.
Activism in the Civil Rights Movement to regain the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama due to the lack of reapportionment, for decades.
In Colegrove v. Green, 328 U.S. 549 (1946) the United States Supreme Court held in a 4 - 3 plurality decision that Article I, Section 4 left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
However, in Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962) the United States Supreme Court overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment were not exempt from judicial review under Article IV, Section 4, as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.
The "one person, one vote '' doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further cemented in the cases that followed Baker v. Carr, including Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368 (1963) which concerned state county districts, Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964) which concerned state legislature districts, Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1964) which concerned U.S. Congressional districts and Avery v. Midland County, 390 U.S. 474 (1968) which concerned local government districts, a decision which was upheld in Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris, 489 U.S. 688 (1989). Evenwel v. Abbott (2016) said states may use total population in drawing districts.
Under the ' M.P.V. System ', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter 's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a ' M.P.V. System ' is like that of a run - off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor 's election of its Mayor does not violate the one - man, one - vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.
The term "One man, one vote, once '' has been applied to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Zambia, and Angola, where elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence, but then a strongman took hold and free voting ended.
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who is playing jack's mother on the young and the restless | Marla Adams - Wikipedia
Marla Adams (born August 28, 1938; Ocean City, New Jersey) is an American television actress, best known for her roles as Belle Clemens on The Secret Storm, from 1968 to 1974, and as Dina Abbott Mergeron on The Young and the Restless. As Belle Clemens, she was the show 's reigning villainess for the last years of its run, stopping at almost nothing to destroy the life of the show 's leading heroine, Amy Ames. Like Vicky and Dorian later on One Life to Live, the two rivals were at one time related through marriage. As Dina Abbott on The Young and the Restless from 1983 to 1986, in 1991 and again in 1996, she caused major disruptions in the lives of her three children and ex-husband John Abbott and his wife Jill. She reprised her role as Dina for three episodes on The Young and the Restless in 2008 when Katharine Chancellor was presumed dead. In May 2017, Adams returned to The Young and the Restless.
Right before joining The Young and the Restless, she stepped into the role of the scheming Myrna Clegg, on the defunct daytime drama Capitol after the departure of actress Carolyn Jones who had left for health reasons, prior to Marj Dusay, who remained until the end of the show 's run. As Helen Mullin on Generations, she was involved in a storyline involving racism, although it was her character 's husband, Charles, who was the racist even though he was revealed to have a black mistress. She was the third actress to play Beth Logan, Brooke (Katherine Kelly Lang), Donna (Carrie Mitchum, now Jennifer Gareis), and Katie 's (Nancy Sloan, now Heather Tom) mother on The Bold and the Beautiful (1991). In 1999, she appeared on Days of Our Lives as snooty Dr. Claire McIntyre.
Adams appeared on Broadway in the 1958 production of "The Visit '' at the Morosco Theatre with Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne.
2000 "Walker, Texas Ranger '' Betsy Harper)
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who has scored the most goals in english football | Football Records in England - wikipedia
This article concerns football records in England. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from the Football League or Premier League. Where a different record exists for the top flight (Football League First Division 1888 -- 1992, and Premier League 1992 --), this is also given.
Records in this section refer to the English Football Pyramid
Both players came on as a substitute and elbowed / pushed an opponent before the game had been restarted.
These tables list the clubs that have won elite honours an English record number of times. It lists all international competitions organised by UEFA and FIFA. It also lists elite competitions organised by the English governing bodies the English Football League, the Premier League, and The Football Association; those competitions where clubs would n't have qualified for a higher alternative competition, and those which were neither invitational nor regional.
This table follows the elite criteria above. It also includes any competitions that were not directly run by the governing bodies but were precursors to such competitions.
(*) This is also a joint overall European record.
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apple lcd cinema display (30-inch dvi) m9179ll/a | Apple Cinema Display - wikipedia
The Apple Cinema Display is a line of flat - panel computer monitors developed and sold by Apple Inc. between 1999 and 2011. It was initially sold alongside the older line of Studio Displays, but eventually replaced them. Apple offered 20 -, 22 -, 23 -, 24 -, 27 - and 30 - inch sizes, with the last model being a 27 - inch size with LED backlighting.
There have been three designs for the Cinema Display, one featuring polycarbonate plastic and two featuring anodized aluminum. The first displays were designed to match the colorful plastic of the Power Mac G3 and later the Power Mac G4, while the second revisions were designed to match the aluminum aesthetics of the Power Mac G5 and PowerBook G4. The last available design matched the unibody laptops released in October 2008.
The Apple Cinema Display name was retired in July 2011 with the introduction of the Apple Thunderbolt Display, and the Cinema Display models were no longer offered on the Apple Store website as of August 2014.
The first model -- the 22 - inch Apple Cinema Display -- was introduced in September 1999 alongside the Power Mac G4 and used DVI for video input. It was enclosed in a high - density plastic frame with an easel - style stand and had a display resolution of 1600 × 1024. This model was upgraded in July 2000 with the Apple Display Connector (ADC), which ran DVI, USB, and 28V power through a single connector. It was eventually replaced by a 20 - inch model on January 28, 2003, that sported a widescreen display with up to 1680 × 1050 resolution and a brightness of 230 cd / m2.
The 20 '' Cinema Display was updated again June 28, 2004 to match the aluminum design of the new Cinema HD Display. It retained the 1680x1050 resolution of the previous model but saw its brightness increased to 250 cd / m2, and was introduced at a $1,299 USD price point. Apple continued to sell this display with no further changes until February 2009.
The 23 - inch model, dubbed the "Cinema HD Display, '' was introduced on March 20, 2002, and supported full 1: 1 1080p playback on a 1920x1200 pixel display.
On June 28, 2004, Apple introduced a redesigned line of Cinema Displays, along with a new 30 - inch model that, like the 23 - inch model, carried the "Cinema HD Display '' name. The new models had an anodized aluminum enclosure that matched Apple 's high - end lines of professional products. An alternative stand or a wall mount could be used with a VESA mount adapter kit that was sold separately. Though the display enclosures had not been redesigned for a long period of time, several "silent '' improvements were made to the brightness levels and contrast ratios.
Due to the high resolution (2560 × 1600), the 30 - inch model requires a graphics card that supports dual - link DVI. Currently, no Macintosh is sold with a dual - link DVI port. However, all current Macs come with a Thunderbolt connector which can be used with a separately sold adapter to run the 30 - inch display.
All Power Mac G5, PowerBook G4 15 or 17 inch and Mac Pro Mid 2006 to Mid 2010 models from are capable of supporting it without the use of any adapters. Discrete MacBook Pros are also capable of driving the 30 - inch display, while all Macs released after October 2008 require an additional adapter. The 30 - inch Cinema Display was introduced together with the GeForce 6800, which supports two DVI - DL ports. ATI 's aftermarket AGP X800 Mac Edition also supports dual - link DVI, but has only one port. The Radeon 9600 Mac / PC was another aftermarket graphics card that supported dual - link DVI and was also compatible with older AGP - based Power Macs.
If a computer with a single - link DVI port (such as a Mac laptop with a mini-DVI connector) is connected to the 30 - inch display, it will only run at 1280 × 800, even if the computer is capable of supporting 1920 × 1200 over a single - link connection.
On October 14, 2008, the 23 - inch Cinema HD Display was replaced with a 24 - inch model made with aluminium and glass, reflecting the appearances of the latest iMac, MacBook Pro and unibody MacBook designs. The display features a built - in iSight camera, microphone and dual speaker system. A MagSafe cable runs from the back of the display for charging notebooks. It is the first Cinema Display to use LED backlighting and Mini DisplayPort for video input; however, the LED backlighting is edge - lit as opposed to the fully back - lit CCFL of the previous models, resulting in a lower brightness cd / m output. This display is only officially compatible with Macs that have the Mini DisplayPort connector. A third - party converter must be used in order to use this display with older Macs.
With the introduction of LCD panels, the matte, anti-glare screen panels were retired, except for the 30 '' Cinema Display. Apple had already moved away from matte screens in its line of iMac desktop computers on August 7, 2007. Apple no longer offers any equipment with a matte, anti-glare screen after the 15 '' non-Retina MacBook Pro was discontinued in October 2013. This has caused concern among users who want matte screens for their particular area of work, particularly graphic designers, photographers and users who extensively view their screens. Matte screens, like matte - surface photographs, diffuse reflected light and so can not provide for as deep blacks as glossy screens.
The Wall Street Journal referred to Apple 's removal of the matte screen as one of Apple 's worst design decisions.
On July 26, 2010, the 24 - inch and 30 - inch Cinema Displays were replaced by a 27 - inch model that supports up to 2560 × 1440 resolution. This model was sold for $999 USD.
On July 20, 2011, the LED Cinema Display was discontinued, and replaced by the Apple Thunderbolt Display.
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who has propounded the two factor theory of motivation | Two - factor theory - wikipedia
The two - factor theory (also known as Herzberg 's motivation - hygiene theory and dual - factor theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.
Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Abraham Maslow 's theory of motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes toward administration. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower - order needs at work; for example, those needs associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher - level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. This appears to parallel Maslow 's theory of a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two - factor model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives leads to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate set of job characteristics leads to dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in dissatisfaction.
The two - factor theory developed from data collected by Herzberg from interviews with 203 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area, chosen because of their professions ' growing importance in the business world. Regarding the collection process:
The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis - satisfiers (company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job satisfaction.
From analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does -- that is, to the nature of the work one performs -- apparently have the capacity to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self - realization, thus making him happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable assessments of such job - related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself -- the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and for achieving self - realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment -- policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. If management is equally concerned with both, then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
Two - factor theory distinguishes between:
According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are what causes dissatisfaction among employees in a workplace. In order to remove dissatisfaction in a work environment, these hygiene factors must be eliminated. There are several ways that this can be done but some of the most important ways to decrease dissatisfaction would be to pay reasonable wages, ensure employees job security, and to create a positive culture in the workplace. Herzberg considered the following hygiene factors from highest to lowest importance: company policy, supervision, employee 's relationship with their boss, work conditions, salary, and relationships with peers. Eliminating dissatisfaction is only one half of the task of the two factor theory. The other half would be to increase satisfaction in the workplace. This can be done by improving on motivating factors. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Herzberg also further classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related action because you have to then that is classed as "movement '', but if you perform a work related action because you want to then that is classed as "motivation ''. Herzberg thought it was important to eliminate job dissatisfaction before going onto creating conditions for job satisfaction because it would work against each other.
According to the Two - Factor Theory there are four possible combinations:
Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation - hygiene theory, although their work has been criticized on methodological grounds.
Herzberg 's theory concentrates on the importance of internal job factors as motivating forces for employees. He designed it to increase job enrichment for employees. Herzberg wanted to create the opportunity for employees to take part in planning, performing, and evaluating their work. He suggested to do this by:
In 1968 Herzberg stated that his two - factor theory study had already been replicated 16 times in a wide variety of populations including some in Communist countries, and corroborated with studies using different procedures that agreed with his original findings regarding intrinsic employee motivation making it one of the most widely replicated studies on job attitudes.
One such replication was done by George Hines and published in December 1973 in the Journal of Applied Psychology. Hines tested Herzberg 's two - factor motivation theory in New Zealand, using ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction obtained from 218 middle managers and 196 salaried employees. Contrary to dichotomous motivator - hygiene predictions, supervision and interpersonal relationships were ranked highly by those with high job satisfaction, and there was strong agreement between satisfied managers and salaried employees in the relative importance of job factors. Findings are interpreted in terms of social and employment conditions in New Zealand.
While the Motivator - Hygiene concept is still well regarded, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are generally no longer considered to exist on separate scales. The separation of satisfaction and dissatisfaction has been shown to be an artifact of the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) used by Herzberg to record events. Furthermore, it has been noted the theory does not allow for individual differences, such as particular personality traits, which would affect individuals ' unique responses to motivating or hygiene factors.
A number of behavioral scientists have pointed to inadequacies in the need for hierarchy and motivation - hygiene theories. The most basic is the criticism that both of these theories contain the relatively explicit assumption that happy and satisfied workers produce more, even though this might not be the case. For example, if playing a better game of golf is the means chosen to satisfy one 's need for recognition, then one will find ways to play and think about golf more often, perhaps resulting in a lower output on the job due to a lower amount of focus. Another problem is that these and other statistical theories are concerned with explaining "average '' behavior, despite considerable differences between individuals that may impact one 's motivational factors. For instance, in their pursuit of status a person might take a balanced view and strive to pursue several behavioral paths in an effort to achieve a combination of personal status objectives.
In other words, an individual 's expectation or estimated probability that a given behavior will bring a valued outcome determines their choice of means and the effort they will devote to these means. In effect, this diagram of expectancy depicts an employee asking themselves the question posed by one investigator, "How much payoff is there for me toward attaining a personal goal while expending so much effort toward the achievement of an assigned organizational objective? '' The expectancy theory by Victor Vroom also provides a framework for motivation based on expectations.
This approach to the study and understanding of motivation would appear to have certain conceptual advantages over other theories: First, unlike Maslow 's and Herzberg 's theories, it is capable of handling individual differences. Second, its focus is toward the present and the future, in contrast to drive theory, which emphasizes past learning. Third, it specifically correlates behavior to a goal and thus eliminates the problem of assumed relationships, such as between motivation and performance. Fourth, it relates motivation to ability: Performance = Motivation * Ability.
That said, a study by the Gallup Organization, as detailed in the book First, Break All the Rules: What the World 's Greatest Managers Do by Marcus Buckingham and Curt Coffman, appears to provide strong support for Herzberg 's division of satisfaction and dissatisfaction onto two separate scales. In this book, the authors discuss how the study identified twelve questions that provide a framework for determining high - performing individuals and organizations. These twelve questions align squarely with Herzberg 's motivation factors, while hygiene factors were determined to have little effect on motivating high performance.
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where was the film the birthday party filmed | The birthday party (film) - wikipedia
The Birthday Party is a 1968 British drama film directed by William Friedkin, and starring Robert Shaw, based on the 1957 play The Birthday Party by Harold Pinter. The screenplay for the film was written by Pinter as well. The film, and the play, are considered examples of "comedy of menace '', a genre associated with Pinter.
The film was a passion project for Friedkin, who had been a fan of the play, and he remained proud of the film after its release, though it was a box office disappointment.
A man in his late 30s named Stanley is staying at a seaside boarding house, when he is visited by two menacing and mysterious strangers, Goldberg and McCann. Stanley 's neighbour, Lulu, brings him a parcel, which contains a boy 's toy drum, presented to Stanley as his "birthday present. '' Goldberg and McCann offer to host Stanley 's birthday party after his landlady, Meg, tells them that it is Stanley 's birthday, although Stanley protests that it is really not his birthday. Through the course of the party, the actions of Goldberg and McCann eventually break down Stanley, and they take him away from the house, purportedly to get medical attention (from "Monty '') in their car. Meg 's husband Petey (who did not attend the party because he was out playing chess) calls after Stanley: "Stan, do n't let them tell you what to do ''. Meg, still somewhat hung over, is unaware that Stanley has been taken away, since Petey has not told her, and she tells him that she was "the belle of the ball. ''
The movie was a passion project of director William Friedkin who called it "the first film I really wanted to make, understood and felt passionate about ''. He had first seen the play in San Francisco in 1962, and managed to get the film version funded by Edgar Scherick at Palomar Pictures, in part because it could be made relatively cheaply. Pinter wrote the screenplay himself and was heavily involved in casting. "To this day I do n't think our cast could have been improved, '' wrote Friedkin later.
There was a ten - day rehearsal period and the shoot went smoothly. Friedkin says the only tense exchange he had with Pinter in a year of working together came when Joseph Losey saw the movie and requested through Pinter that Friedkin cut out a mirror shot as it was too close to Losey 's style; Friedkin refused as "I was n't about to destroy the film 's continuity to mollify Losey 's ego ''.
Max Rosenberg, best known for his horror movies for Amicus Productions, had been called in by Palomar as line producer.
In his film review, published in The Nation on 6 January 1969, critic Harold Clurman described the film as "a fantasia of fear and prosecution, '' adding that "Pinter 's ear is so keen, his method so economic and so shrewdly stylized, balancing humdrum realistic notations with suggestions of unfathomable violence, that his play succeeds in being both funny and horrific ''.
The reviewer of the Evening Standard observed, in a description of the film published on 12 February 1970, that the film, like the play, is "a study of domination that sows doubts, terrors, shuddering illuminations and terrifying apprehensions inside the four walls of a living - room in a seaside boarding - house where Stanley, (Robert Shaw), the lodger, has taken refuge from some guilt, crime, treachery, in fact Some Thing never named ''.
The film earned rentals of $50,000 in North America and $350,000 in other countries. After all costs were deducted, it recorded an overall loss of $725,000.
However, Friedkin later said it was "a film of which I 'm proud. The cast played it to perfection. With the exception of an occasional over-the - top directorial flourish I think I captured Pinter 's world. The time I spent with him and the many conversations we had were the most invaluable and instructive of my career. ''
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who fought on the western front during ww1 | Western Front (World War I) - wikipedia
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The Western Front was the main theatre of war during the First World War. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France, which changed little except during early 1917 and in 1918.
Between 1915 and 1917 there were several offensives along this front. The attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. Entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties during attacks and counter-attacks and no significant advances were made. Among the most costly of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun, in 1916, with a combined 700,000 casualties (estimated), the Battle of the Somme, also in 1916, with more than a million casualties (estimated), and the Battle of Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres), in 1917, with 487,000 casualties (estimated).
To break the deadlock of trench warfare on the Western Front, both sides tried new military technology, including poison gas, aircraft and tanks. The adoption of better tactics and the cumulative weakening of the armies in the west led to the return of mobility in 1918. The German Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that ended the war of the Central Powers against Russia and Romania on the Eastern Front. Using short, intense "hurricane '' bombardments and infiltration tactics, the German armies moved nearly 100 kilometres (60 miles) to the west, the deepest advance by either side since 1914, but the result was indecisive.
The inexorable advance of the Allied armies during the second half of 1918 caused a sudden collapse of the German armies and persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable. The German government surrendered in the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and the terms of peace were settled by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
At the outbreak of the First World War, the German Army, with seven field armies in the west and one in the east, executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, moving quickly through neutral Belgium to attack France, and then turning southwards to encircle the French Army and trap it on the German border. The Western Front was the place where the most powerful military forces in Europe, the German and French armies, met and where the war was decided. Belgian neutrality had been guaranteed by Britain under the Treaty of London, 1839; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914. Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5 -- 16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, falling to the Germans on 20 August. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20 -- 23 August.
The French deployed five armies on the frontier. The French Plan XVII was intended to bring about the capture of Alsace - Lorraine. On 7 August, the VII Corps attacked Alsace to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with the First and Second Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg - Morhange in Lorraine. In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French Third and Fourth Armies advanced toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau but were repulsed. The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after a brief engagement on 7 August but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced a French retreat.
The German Army swept through Belgium, executing civilians and razing villages. The application of "collective responsibility '' against a civilian population further galvanised the allies. Newspapers condemned the German invasion, violence against civilians and destruction of property, which became known as the "Rape of Belgium ''. After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the Ardennes, the Germans advanced into northern France in late August, where they met the French Army, under Joseph Joffre, and the divisions of the British Expeditionary Force under Field Marshal Sir John French. A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued, which included the Battle of Charleroi and the Battle of Mons. In the former battle the French Fifth Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day. A general Allied retreat followed, resulting in more clashes at the Battle of Le Cateau, the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin (also called the First Battle of Guise).
The German Army came within 70 km (43 mi) of Paris but at the First Battle of the Marne (6 -- 12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German retirement, the opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres, known as the Race for the Sea and quickly extended their trench systems from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The territory occupied by Germany held 64 percent of French pig - iron production, 24 percent of its steel manufacturing and 40 percent of the coal industry -- dealing a serious blow to French industry.
On the Entente side (those countries opposing the German alliance), the final lines were occupied with the armies of each nation defending a part of the front. From the coast in the north, the primary forces were from Belgium, the British Empire and then France. Following the Battle of the Yser in October, the Belgian army controlled a 35 km (22 mi) length of West Flanders along the coast, known as the Yser Front, along the Yser river and the Yperlee canal, from Nieuwpoort to Boesinghe. Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) occupied a position on the flank, having previous occupied a more central position.
From 19 October until 22 November, the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres, which ended in a mutually - costly stalemate. After the battle, Erich von Falkenhayn judged that it was no longer possible for Germany to win the war by purely military means and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution. The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg, Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg, commanding Ober Ost (Eastern Front high command), and Hindenburg 's deputy, Erich Ludendorff, continued to believe that victory was achievable through decisive battles. During the Lodz offensive in Poland (11 -- 25 November), Falkenhayn hoped that the Russians would be made amenable to peace overtures. In his discussions with Bethmann - Hollweg, Falkenhayn viewed Germany and Russia as having no insoluble conflict and that the real enemies of Germany were France and Britain. A peace with only a few annexations of territory also seemed possible with France and that with Russia and France out of the war by negotiated settlements, Germany could concentrate on Britain and fight a long war with the resources of Europe at its disposal. Hindenburg and Ludendorff continued to believe that Russia could be defeated by a series of battles which cumulatively would have a decisive effect, after which Germany could finish off France and Britain.
Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line, named the Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near Compiègne. Joffre 's plan for 1915 was to attack the salient on both flanks to cut it off. The Fourth Army had attacked in Champagne from 20 December 1914 -- 17 March 1915 but the French were not able to attack in Artois at the same time. The Tenth Army formed the northern attack force and was to attack eastwards into the Douai plain across a 16 - kilometre (9.9 mi) front between Loos and Arras. On 10 March, as part of the larger offensive in the Artois region, the British Army fought the Battle of Neuve Chapelle to capture Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions along a 2 mi (3.2 km) front. Preceded by a surprise bombardment lasting only 35 minutes, the initial assault made rapid progress and the village was captured within four hours. The advance then slowed because of supply and communication difficulties. The Germans brought up reserves and counter-attacked, forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about one - third of their supply of artillery ammunition, General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of ammunition, despite the early success.
All sides had signed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare. In 1914, there had been small - scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use various tear gases, which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties but which were also ineffective. The first use of more lethal chemical weapons was against the French near the Belgian town of Ypres.
Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, commander of the 4th Army planned an offensive at Ypres, site of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. The Second Battle of Ypres, April 1915, was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco - British planning. After a two - day bombardment, the Germans released a cloud of 168 long tons (171 t) of chlorine gas onto the battlefield. Though primarily a powerful irritant, it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure. Being heavier than air, the gas crept across no man 's land and drifted into the French trenches. The green - yellow cloud started killing some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic, creating an undefended 3.7 - mile (6 km) gap in the Allied line. The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening. Canadian troops on the right drew back their left flank and halted the German advance. The gas attack was repeated two days later and caused a 3.1 mi (5 km) withdrawal of the Franco - British line but the opportunity had been lost.
The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures. An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch 40 km (25 mi) to the south of Ypres, where the 16th (Irish) Division withstood several German gas attacks. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German. French, British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war, developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915, then the infamous mustard gas in 1917, which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully. Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued.
Specialised aeroplanes for aerial combat were introduced in 1915. Aircraft were already in use for scouting and on 1 April, the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy aircraft by using a machine - gun that shot forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades to deflect bullets. Several weeks later Garros force - landed behind German lines. His aeroplane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker, who soon produced a significant improvement, the interrupter gear, in which the machine gun is synchronised with the propeller so it fires in the intervals when the blades of the propeller are out of the line of fire. This advance was quickly ushered into service, in the Fokker E.I (Eindecker, or monoplane, Mark 1), the first single seat fighter aircraft to combine a reasonable maximum speed with an effective armament. Max Immelmann scored the first confirmed kill in an Eindecker on 1 August. Both sides developed improved weapons, engines, airframes and materials, until the end of the war. It also inaugurated the cult of the ace, the most famous being Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). Contrary to the myth, anti-aircraft fire claimed more kills than fighters.
The final Entente offensive of the spring was the Second Battle of Artois, an offensive to capture Vimy Ridge and advance into the Douai plain. The French Tenth Army attacked on 9 May after a six - day bombardment and advanced 5 kilometres (3 mi) to capture Vimy Ridge. German reinforcements counter-attacked and pushed the French back towards their starting points because French reserves had been held back and the success of the attack had come as a surprise. By 15 May the advance had been stopped, although the fighting continued until 18 June. In May the German Army captured a French document at La Ville - aux - Bois describing a new system of defence. Rather than relying on a heavily fortified front line, the defence was to be arranged in a series of echelons. The front line would be a thinly manned series of outposts, reinforced by a series of strongpoints and a sheltered reserve. If a slope was available, troops were deployed along the rear side for protection. The defence became fully integrated with command of artillery at the divisional level. Members of the German high command viewed this new scheme with some favour and it later became the basis of an elastic defence in depth doctrine against Entente attacks.
During the autumn of 1915, the "Fokker Scourge '' began to have an effect on the battlefront as Allied reconnaissance aircraft were nearly driven from the skies. These reconnaissance planes were used to direct gunnery and photograph enemy fortifications but now the Allies were nearly blinded by German fighters. However, the impact of German air superiority was diminished by their primarily defensive doctrine in which they tended to remain over their own lines, rather than fighting over Allied held territory.
In September 1915 the Entente allies launched another offensive, with the French Third Battle of Artois, Second Battle of Champagne and the British at Loos. The French had spent the summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography, began on 22 September. The main French assault was launched on 25 September and, at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. Rather than retreating, the Germans adopted a new defence - in - depth scheme that consisted of a series of defensive zones and positions with a depth of up to 8.0 km (5 mi).
On 25 September, the British began the Battle of Loos, part of the Third Battle of Artois, which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack. The attack was preceded by a four - day artillery bombardment of 250,000 shells and a release of 5,100 cylinders of chlorine gas. The attack involved two corps in the main assault and two corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres. The British suffered heavy losses, especially due to machine gun fire during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells. A renewal of the attack on 13 October fared little better. In December, French was replaced by General Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces.
Falkenhayn believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to "bleed France white ''. As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and national pride and thus trap the French. The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris.
Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 5 -- 6 kilometres (3 -- 4 mi) to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery - observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May, the French countered by deploying escadrilles de chasse with superior Nieuport fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for air superiority.
The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine - day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight - hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. Sporadic French resistance was encountered. The Germans took Fort Douaumont and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February.
The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive - minded Philippe Pétain to the offensive - minded Robert Nivelle, the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured Fort Vaux on 7 June and with the aid of diphosgene gas, came within 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) of the last ridge before Verdun before being contained on 23 June.
Over the summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the rolling barrage, the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) from Fort Douaumont, in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle. The Battle of Verdun -- also known as the ' Mincing Machine of Verdun ' or ' Meuse Mill ' -- became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice.
In the spring, Allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the River Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in Picardy began the Battle of the Somme with the Battle of Albert, supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in a single day in the history of the British Army, about 57,000.
The Verdun lesson learnt, the Allies ' tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September, German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat. After regrouping, the battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August, General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead, switched tactics to a series of small unit actions. The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push.
The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the tank on the battlefield. The Allies prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing 3,200 -- 4,100 metres (3,500 -- 4,500 yd) in places but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability. The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only 8 kilometres (5 mi) and failed to reach the original objectives. The British had suffered about 420,000 casualties and the French around 200,000. It is estimated that the Germans lost 465,000, although this figure is controversial.
The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics; despite the terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, once the British war economy produced sufficient equipment and weapons, the army made the platoon the basic tactical unit, similar to the French and German armies. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men) was the smallest unit of manoeuvre; less than a year later, the section of ten men would be so.
In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central powers would attack elsewhere.
During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a fortification behind the Noyon Salient that would be called the Hindenburg Line, using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915, including the use of Eingreif divisions. This was intended to shorten the German front, freeing 10 divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from Arras south to St Quentin and shortened the front by about 50 kilometres (30 mi). British long - range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916.
The Hindenburg Line was built between 2 and 50 kilometres (30 mi) behind the German front line. On 25 February German forces began retreating to the line and the withdrawal was completed on 5 April, leaving behind a devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. However, offensive advances by the British continued as the High Command claimed, with some justice, that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, despite the Allies suffering greater losses.
Meanwhile, on 6 April the United States declared war on Germany. In early 1915, following the sinking of the Lusitania, Germany had stopped its unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, however, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They had calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front. The submarine and surface ships had a long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a large reduction in shipping losses.
By 1917, the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two - thirds the total numbers in the French forces. In April 1917 the BEF began the Battle of Arras. The Canadian Corps and the 5th Division, attacked German lines at Vimy Ridge, capturing the heights and the First Army to the south achieved the deepest advance since trench warfare began. Later attacks were confronted by German reinforcements defending the area using the lessons learned on the Somme in 1916. British attacks were contained and, according to Gary Sheffield, a greater rate of daily loss was inflicted on the British than in "any other major battle ''.
During the winter of 1916 -- 1917, German air tactics had been improved, a fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power, particularly for the British, Portuguese, Belgians and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and weak tactics. As a result, the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 air crews and the Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans. This became known to the Royal Flying Corps as Bloody April.
The same month, the French Commander - in - Chief, General Robert Nivelle, ordered a new offensive against the German trenches, promising that it would end the war within 48 hours. The 16 April attack, dubbed the Nivelle Offensive (also known as the Second Battle of the Aisne, after the area where the offensive took place), would be 1.2 million men strong, preceded by a week - long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks. The offensive proceeded poorly as the French troops, with the help of two Russian brigades, had to negotiate rough, upward - sloping terrain in extremely bad weather. Planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line. Secrecy had been compromised and German aircraft gained air superiority, making reconnaissance difficult and in places, the creeping barrage moved too fast for the French troops. Within a week the French suffered 120,000 casualties. Despite the casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough, Nivelle ordered the attack to continue into May.
On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Lacking the means to punish an entire division, its officers did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers. Mutinies occurred in 54 French divisions and 20,000 men deserted. Other Allied forces attacked but suffered massive casualties. Appeals to patriotism and duty followed, as did mass arrests and trials. The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches but refused to participate in further offensive action. On 15 May Nivelle was removed from command, replaced by Pétain who immediately stopped the offensive. The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command, while the British assumed greater responsibility.
On 25 June the first US troops began to arrive in France, forming the American Expeditionary Force. However, the American units did not enter the trenches in divisional strength until October. The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort, and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts. In spite of this, however, their presence provided a much - needed boost to Allied morale, with the promise of further reinforcements that could tip the manpower balance towards the Allies.
In June, the British launched an offensive in Flanders, in part to take pressure off the French armies on the Aisne, after the French part of the Nivelle Offensive failed to achieve the strategic victory that had been planned and French troops began to mutiny. The offensive began on 7 June, with a British attack on Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, to retake the ground lost in the First and Second battles in 1914. Since 1915 specialist Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been digging tunnels under the ridge, and about 500 t (490 long tons) of explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the German defences. Following several weeks of bombardment, the explosives in 19 of these mines were detonated, killing up to 7,000 German troops. The infantry advance that followed relied on three creeping barrages which the British infantry followed to capture the plateau and the east side of the ridge in one day. German counter-attacks were defeated and the southern flank of the Gheluvelt plateau was protected from German observation.
On 11 July 1917, during Unternehmen Strandfest (Operation Beachparty) at Nieuport on the coast, the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired a powerful blistering agent Sulfur mustard (Yellow Cross) gas. The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets. Mustard gas was persistent and could contaminate an area for days, denying it to the British, an additional demoralising factor. The Allies increased production of gas for chemical warfare but took until late 1918 to copy the Germans and begin using mustard gas.
From 31 July to 10 November the Third Battle of Ypres included the First Battle of Passchendaele and culminated in the Second Battle of Passchendaele. The battle had the original aim of capturing the ridges east of Ypres then advancing to Roulers and Thourout to close the main rail line supplying the German garrisons on the Western front north of Ypres. If successful the northern armies were then to capture the German submarine bases on the Belgian coast. It was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto the ridges around Ypres, as the unusually wet weather slowed British progress. The Canadian Corps relieved the II ANZAC Corps and took the village of Passchendaele on 6 November, despite rain, mud and many casualties. The offensive was costly in manpower for both sides for relatively little gain of ground against determined German resistance but the ground captured was of great tactical importance. In the drier periods, the British advance was inexorable and during the unusually wet August and in the Autumn rains that began in early October, the Germans achieved only costly defensive successes, which led the German commanders in early October to begin preparations for a general retreat. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive. The battle has become a byword among some British revisionist historians for bloody and futile slaughter, whilst the Germans called Passchendaele "the greatest martyrdom of the war ''.
On 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack and the first attack using predicted artillery - fire (aiming artillery without firing the guns to obtain target data) at the Battle of Cambrai. The Allies attacked with 324 tanks (with one - third held in reserve) and twelve divisions, advancing behind a hurricane bombardment, against two German divisions. The machines carried fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and the 13 - foot - wide (4 m) German tank traps. Special "grapnel tanks '' towed hooks to pull away the German barbed wire. The attack was a great success for the British, who penetrated further in six hours than at the Third Ypres in four months, at a cost of only 4,000 British casualties. The advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counter-offensive began on 30 November, which drove back the British in the south and failed in the north. Despite the reversal, the attack was seen as a success by the Allies, proving that tanks could overcome trench defences. The Germans realised that the use of tanks by the Allies posed a new threat to any defensive strategy they might mount. The battle had also seen the first mass use of German stosstruppen on the Western front in the attack, who used infantry infiltration tactics to penetrate British defences, bypassing resistance and quickly advancing into the British rear.
Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring, before American manpower became overwhelming. On 3 March 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west. The Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk as they did in the Second World War but this considerably restricted their troop redeployment. The Germans achieved an advantage of 192 divisions in the west to the 178 Allied divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as sturmtruppen (40 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions were retained for German occupation duties in the east).
The Allies lacked unity of command and suffered from morale and manpower problems, the British and French armies were severely depleted and not in a position to attack in the first half of the year, while the majority of the newly arrived American troops were still training, with just six complete divisions in the line. Ludendorff decided on an offensive strategy beginning with a big attack against the British on the Somme, to separate them from the French and drive them back to the channel ports. The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with over 700 aircraft, tanks and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks.
Operation Michael, the first of the German Spring Offensives, very nearly succeeded in driving the Allied armies apart, advancing to within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914. As a result of the battle, the Allies agreed on unity of command. General Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France. The unified Allies were better able to respond to each of the German drives and the offensive turned into a battle of attrition. In May, the American divisions also began to play an increasing role, winning their first victory in the Battle of Cantigny. By summer, between 250,000 and 300,000 American soldiers were arriving every month. A total of 2.1 million American troops would be deployed on this front before the war came to an end. The rapidly increasing American presence served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German forces.
In July, Foch began the Second Battle of the Marne, a counter-offensive against the Marne salient which was eliminated by August. The Battle of Amiens began two days later, with Franco - British forces spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops, along with 600 tanks and 800 aircraft. Hindenburg named 8 August as the "Black Day of the German army ''. The Italian 2nd Corps, commanded by General Alberico Albricci, also participated in the operations around Reims. German manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war and its economy and society were under great internal strain. The Allies fielded 216 divisions against 197 German divisions. The Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August proved the final straw and following this string of military defeats, German troops began to surrender in large numbers. As the Allied forces advanced, Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed as Chancellor of Germany in October to negotiate an armistice. Ludendorff was forced out and fled to Sweden. The German retreat continued and the German Revolution put a new government in power. The Armistice of Compiègne was quickly signed, stopping hostilities on the Western Front on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day. The German Imperial Monarchy collapsed when General Groener, the successor to Ludendorff, backed the moderate Social Democratic Government under Friedrich Ebert, to forestall a revolution like those in Russia the previous year.
The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result, the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The result was the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government. The terms of the treaty constrained Germany as an economic and military power. The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France, thus limiting the coal required by German industry. The Saar, which formed the west bank of the Rhine, would be demilitarised and controlled by Britain and France, while the Kiel Canal opened to international traffic. The treaty also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe. It severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100,000 and disallowing a navy or air force. The navy was sailed to Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later scuttled, under the order of German admirals, as a reaction to the treaty.
The war in the trenches of the Western Front left tens of thousands of maimed soldiers and war widows. The unprecedented loss of life had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war, resulting later in an Allied reluctance to pursue an aggressive policy toward Adolf Hitler. Belgium suffered 30,000 civilian dead and France 40,000 (including 3,000 merchant sailors). The British lost 16,829 civilian dead, 1,260 civilians were killed in air and naval attacks, 908 civilians were killed at sea and there were 14,661 merchant marine deaths. Another 62,000 Belgian, 107,000 British and 300,000 French civilians died due to war - related causes.
Germany in 1919 was bankrupt, the people living in a state of semi-starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world. The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne, Koblenz and Mainz, with restoration dependent on payment of reparations. In Germany a Stab - in - the - back myth (Dolchstoßlegende) was propagated by Hindenburg, Ludendorff and other defeated generals, that the defeat was not the fault of the ' good core ' of the army but due to certain left - wing groups within Germany who signed a disastrous armistice; this would later be exploited by nationalists and the Nazi party propaganda to excuse the overthrow of the Weimar Republic in 1930 and the imposition of the Nazi dictatorship after March 1933.
France lost more casualties relative to its population than any other great power and the industrial north - east of the country was devastated by the war. The provinces overrun by Germany had produced 40 percent of French coal and 58 percent of its steel output. Once it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated, Ludendorff had ordered the destruction of the mines in France and Belgium. His goal was to cripple the industries of Germany 's main European rival. To prevent similar German attacks in the future, France later built a massive series of fortifications along the German border known as the Maginot Line.
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who were the opponents of the bolsheviks who gave them support | Bolsheviks - Wikipedia
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists or Bolsheviki (Russian: большевики, большевик (singular), IPA: (bəljʂɨˈvjik); derived from большинство bol'shinstvo, "majority '', literally meaning "one of the majority ''), were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.
In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917 -- 1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.
The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism.
In the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members "who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party 's organisations. '' Julius Martov suggested "by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party 's organisations. '' Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to "card carriers '' who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all. This active base would develop the cadre, a core of "professional revolutionaries '', consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers ' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.
A main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin 's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own ''. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin 's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas. It was the loyalty that he had to his own self - envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: "Friend and enemy -- those who followed him, and all the rest. '' Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin 's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre. Lenin 's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.
The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done? that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile. In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin 's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party 's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely. Lenin 's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker. Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin 's variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of What is to be Done?. Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as "Economists '', who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party 's cause.
Other than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov did n't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What is to be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin 's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization. Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs '' while Lenin supporters became known as "hards. ''
The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.
The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March -- May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin 's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov 's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.
The two factions were originally known as "hard '' (Lenin 's supporters) and "soft '' (Martov 's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to "Bolsheviks '' and "Mensheviks '', from the Russian "bolshinstvo '' (majority) and "menshinstvo '' (minority). On the other hand, Martov 's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.
From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term "Maximalist '' for "Bolshevik '' and "Minimalist '' for "Menshevik '', which proved confusing since there was also a "Maximalist '' faction within the Russian Socialist - Revolutionary Party in 1904 -- 06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists - Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.
The average party member was very young. In 1907, 22 % of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37 % were 20 -- 24 and 16 % were 25 -- 29. By 1905, 62 % of the members were industrial workers (3 % of the population in 1897). 22 % of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7 % of the total population), 38 % were uprooted peasants, compared with 19 % and 26 % for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3 % of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10 % were Jewish (34 % and 20 % for the Mensheviks). Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks). By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.
The two factions were in a state of flux in 1903 -- 04 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self - described "non-factional social democrat '' until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.
All but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.
The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks - only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.
The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers ' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.
As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.
However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.
Tensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach 's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on Zayra he had come to agree with the latter 's rejection of Bogdanov 's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists ("otzovists '' in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists '' and was generally allied with the recallists.
With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov 's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio - criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov 's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as "Proletarian Universities '' at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary in June 1909. However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.
With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party 's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from "conciliator '' Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.
One of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties ' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party 's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. In turn it prevented them from uniting on common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.
Lenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky 's Vienna - based Pravda a party - financed ' central organ '. Kamenev, Trotsky 's brother - in - law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.
The factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks - only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks) -- or RSDLP (b). Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the "Bolshevik Party ''. Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP (b) became (All -) Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 -- 52 the name was All - Union Communist Party (bolsheviks), and from 1952 -- 1991 Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
As the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause. To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations. This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs. Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.
Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fueled by Lenin 's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin 's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party 's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.
Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana (Tsarist secret police) agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.
One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals. Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party. This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution. His approach was "land seizure for the peasants and national self - determination for the minorities -- as nothing more than temporary concessions. ''
In 1918, at Lenin 's suggestion, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In 1925, this was changed to All - Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin 's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
"Bolo '' was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as "Bolshies ''. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "Commie '', "Red '', or "pinko '' in the United States during the same period. The term "Bolshie '' later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.
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who is the commissioner of education in akwa ibom state | List of ministries, agencies and commissions in Akwa Ibom State - Wikipedia
This is a list of the government ministries of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Each ministry is headed by the Commissioner, assisted by a Permanent Secretary.
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when does the new movie justice league come out | Justice League (film) - wikipedia
Justice League is an upcoming American superhero film based on the DC Comics superhero team of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is intended to be the fifth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Zack Snyder and written by Chris Terrio and Joss Whedon, from a story by Snyder and Terrio, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Gal Gadot, Jason Momoa, Ezra Miller, Ray Fisher, Ciarán Hinds, Amy Adams, Willem Dafoe, Jesse Eisenberg, Jeremy Irons, Diane Lane, Connie Nielsen, and J.K. Simmons. In Justice League, Batman and Wonder Woman assemble a team consisting of Flash, Aquaman, and Cyborg to face the catastrophic threat of Steppenwolf and his army of Parademons.
The film was announced in October 2014 with Snyder on board to direct and Terrio attached to write the script. Principal photography commenced in April 2016 and ended in October 2016. Snyder left the project in May 2017, following the death of his daughter, with Joss Whedon supervising post-production, as well as working on additional scenes and reshoots. Justice League is scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017, in 2D, 3D, and IMAX.
Months after the events of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and inspired by Superman 's apparent sacrifice for humanity, Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince assemble a team of metahumans consisting of Barry Allen, Arthur Curry, and Victor Stone to face the catastrophic threat of Steppenwolf and his army of Parademons, who are on the hunt for three Mother Boxes on Earth.
Joe Morton and Robin Wright reprise their roles as Dr. Silas Stone, a scientist at S.T.A.R. Labs and Victor Stone 's father, and as General Antiope, Hippolyta 's sister and Diana 's aunt / mentor, from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and Wonder Woman, respectively. Amber Heard, Billy Crudup, and Kiersey Clemons will portray Mera, Dr. Henry Allen, and Iris West, respectively. Julian Lewis Jones and Michael McElhatton have been cast in undisclosed roles.
In February 2007, it was announced that Warner Bros. hired husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film. The news came around the same time that Joss Whedon 's long - developed Wonder Woman film had been cancelled, as well as The Flash, written and directed by David S. Goyer. Reportedly titled Justice League: Mortal, Michele and Kiernan Mulroney submitted their script to Warner Bros. in June 2007, receiving positive feedback, which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production in the hopes of filming to begin before the 2007 - 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Warner Bros. was less willing to proceed with development with a sequel to Superman Returns, having been disappointed with the box office return. Brandon Routh was not approached to reprise the role of Superman in Justice League: Mortal, nor was Christian Bale from Batman Begins. Warner Bros. intended for Justice League: Mortal to be the start of a new film franchise, and to branch out into separate sequels and spin - offs. Shortly after filming finished with The Dark Knight, Bale stated in an interview that "It 'd be better if it does n't tread on the toes of what our Batman series is doing, '' though he personally felt it would make more sense for Warner Bros. to release the film after The Dark Knight Rises. Jason Reitman was the original choice to direct Justice League, but he turned it down, as he considers himself an independent filmmaker and prefers to stay out of big budget superhero films. George Miller signed to direct in September 2007, with Barrie Osbourne producing on a projected $220 million budget.
The following month roughly 40 actors and actresses were auditioning for the ensemble superhero roles, among them were Joseph Cross, Michael Angarano, Max Thieriot, Minka Kelly, Adrianne Palicki and Scott Porter. Miller intended to cast younger actors as he wanted them to "grow '' into their roles over the course of several films. D.J. Cotrona was cast as Superman, along with Armie Hammer as Batman. Jessica Biel reportedly declined the Wonder Woman role after being in negotiations. The character was also linked to actresses Teresa Palmer and Shannyn Sossamon, along with Mary Elizabeth Winstead, who confirmed that she had auditioned. Ultimately Megan Gale was cast as Wonder Woman, while Palmer was cast as Talia al Ghul, whom Miller had in mind to act with a Russian accent. The script for Justice League: Mortal would have featured John Stewart as Green Lantern, a role originally offered to Columbus Short. Hip hop recording artist and rapper Common was cast, with Adam Brody as Barry Allen / Flash, and Jay Baruchel as the lead villain, Maxwell Lord. Longtime Miller collaborator Hugh Keays - Byrne had been cast in an unnamed role, rumored to be Martian Manhunter. Aquaman had yet to be cast. Marit Allen was hired as the original costume designer before her untimely death in November 2007, and the responsibilities were assumed by Weta Workshop.
However, the writers strike began that same month and placed the film on hold. Warner Bros. had to let the options lapse for the cast, but development was fast tracked once more in February 2008 when the strike ended. Warner Bros. and Miller wanted to start filming immediately, but production was pushed back three months. Originally, the majority of Justice League: Mortal would be shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, with other locations scouted nearby at local colleges, and Sydney Heads doubling for Happy Harbor. The Australian Film Commission had a say with casting choices, giving way for George Miller to cast Gale, Palmer and Keays - Bryne, all Australian natives. The production crew was composed entirely of Australians, but the Australian government denied Warner Bros. a 40 percent tax rebate as they felt they had not hired enough Australian actors. Miller was frustrated, stating that "A once - in - a-lifetime opportunity for the Australian film industry is being frittered away because of very lazy thinking. They 're throwing away hundreds of millions of dollars of investment that the rest of the world is competing for and, much more significantly, highly skilled creative jobs. '' Production offices were then moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada. Filming was pushed back to July 2008, while Warner Bros was still confident they could release the film for a summer 2009 release.
With production delays continuing, and the success of The Dark Knight in July 2008, Warner Bros. decided to focus on the development of individual films featuring the main heroes, allowing director Christopher Nolan to separately complete his Batman trilogy with The Dark Knight Rises in 2012. Gregory Noveck, senior vice president of creative affairs for DC Entertainment stated "we 're going to make a Justice League movie, whether it 's now or 10 years from now. But we 're not going to do it and Warners is not going to do it until we know it 's right. '' Actor Adam Brody joked "They (Warner Brothers) just did n't want to cross their streams with a whole bunch of Batmans in the universe. '' Warner Bros. relaunched development for the solo Green Lantern film, released in 2011 as a critical and financial disappointment. Meanwhile, film adaptations for The Flash and Wonder Woman continued to languish in development while filming for a Superman reboot was commencing in 2011 with Man of Steel, produced by Nolan and written by Batman screenwriter David S. Goyer. Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to write the script for a new Justice League film. Warner Bros. president Jeff Robinov explained that Man of Steel would be "setting the tone for what the movies are going to be like going forward. In that, it 's definitely a first step. '' The film included references to the existence of other superheroes in the DC Universe, and setting the tone for a shared fictional universe of DC Comics characters on film. Goyer stated that should Green Lantern appear in a future installment, it would be a rebooted version of the character and not connected to the 2011 film.
With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a sequel, as well as a new Justice League, with the Beall draft being scrapped. The sequel was later revealed to be Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, a team up film featuring Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, and Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg in a minor role that will become more significant in leading up to the proposed Justice League film. The universe is separate from Nolan and Goyer 's work on The Dark Knight trilogy, although Nolan is still involved as an executive producer for Batman v Superman. In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script. Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. On October 15, 2014, Warner Bros. announced the film would be released in two parts, with Part One releasing on November 17, 2017, and Part Two on June 14, 2019. Snyder will direct both films. In early July 2015, EW revealed that the script for Justice League Part One had been completed by Terrio. Zack Snyder stated that the film will be inspired by the New Gods comic series by Jack Kirby. Although Justice League was initially announced as a two - part film with the second part releasing two years after the first, Snyder announced in June 2016 that they would be two distinct, separate films and not one film split into two parts, both being stand - alone stories.
In April 2014, Ray Fisher was cast as Victor Stone / Cyborg, and was set to cameo in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice followed by a larger role in Justice League. Henry Cavill, Ben Affleck, Gal Gadot, Diane Lane and Amy Adams are also expected to reprise their roles from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. In October 2014, Jason Momoa was cast as Arthur Curry / Aquaman and debuted as the character in Dawn of Justice. On October 20, 2014, Momoa told ComicBook.com that the Justice League film would be coming first and that is what they were preparing for, and he did not know if the solo Aquaman film would be prior to Justice League or post. He thought it might be the origin of where Aquaman came from. On January 13, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Amber Heard was in negotiations to appear in the film as Aquaman 's love interest Mera. In March 2016, producer Charles Roven said that Green Lantern would not appear in any film before Justice League Part Two, and stated that they "could put Green Lantern in some introduction in Justice League 2, or barring that, a movie after. '' Also in March, The Hollywood Reporter announced that J.K. Simmons was cast as Commissioner James Gordon, and Heard was confirmed to join the cast as Mera. Adams also confirmed that she would reprise her role as Lois Lane in both Justice League films. The following month, Simmons confirmed that he would play Gordon. By April 2016, Willem Dafoe was cast in an undisclosed role, later revealed to be Nuidis Vulko. Cavill confirmed that he would return for both Justice League films. In May 2016, Jeremy Irons confirmed he will appear as Alfred Pennyworth. That same month, Jesse Eisenberg stated that he would reprise his role as Lex Luthor, and in June 2016, he confirmed in an interview with Shortlist magazine of his return. In July 2016, Julian Lewis Jones was cast in an undisclosed role. Laurence Fishburne, who portrays Perry White in the DCEU, said he declined to reprise his role in this film due to scheduling conflicts. In April 2017, Michael McElhatton revealed that he has a role in the film.
In July 2015, it was revealed that filming would begin in spring 2016 after Wonder Woman ended principal photography. Principal photography commenced on April 11, 2016, with shooting taking place at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, as well as various locations around London, Scotland, Los Angeles and in Djúpavík in the Westfjords of Iceland. Snyder 's longtime cinematographer Larry Fong was replaced by Fabian Wagner due to scheduling conflicts. Affleck was also revealed to be serving as executive producer. In May 2016, it was revealed that Geoff Johns and Jon Berg will be producing the Justice League films and they will also be in charge of the DC Extended Universe after the largely negative critical reception of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Geoff Johns confirmed on June 3, 2016, that the title of the film is Justice League. That same month, Irons stated that the Justice League storyline will be more linear and simple, in comparison to the theatrical version of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Johns later stated that the film would be "hopeful and optimistic '' in comparison to the previous DCEU films. Filming wrapped in October 2016.
In May 2017, Snyder stepped down during post-production of the film to properly deal with the death of his daughter. Joss Whedon, who Snyder had previously brought on to rewrite some additional scenes, took over to handle post-production duties in Snyder 's place. In July 2017, it was announced the film was undergoing two months of reshoots in London and Los Angeles, with Warner Bros. putting about $25 million into them (more than the typical $6 -- 10 million additional filming costs). Warner Bros. later announced that Whedon would receive a screenwriting credit on the film.
In March 2016, Hans Zimmer, who composed the score for Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, stated that he is officially retired from the "superhero business ''. By June 2016 he was replaced by Junkie XL, who wrote and composed the soundtrack of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice with Zimmer. In June 2017, Danny Elfman was announced to have replaced Junkie XL. Elfman had previously composed Batman, Batman Returns, and the theme song for Batman: The Animated Series.
Justice League is scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017. The film will get an IMAX release.
A sequel was scheduled to be released in June 2019, but has since been delayed to accommodate the release for a standalone Batman film. In March 2017, producer Charles Roven announced that Zack Snyder would return as director.
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if you like a lot of chocolate on your biscuit lyrics | Jacob 's Club - wikipedia
Club is a range of chocolate covered biscuits sold in Ireland under the Jacob 's brand name and in the United Kingdom under McVitie 's.
W & R Jacob and Company started producing the ' ' Club Milk ' ' biscuit in Dublin just before the outbreak of World War I. It became a popular brand across Ireland. The confection consisted of two rectangular Marie biscuits forming a filled sandwich using a cocoa cream, then covered in thick milk chocolate. Each bar was wrapped in foil, and then further wrapped in a paper outer wrapping.
Jacob 's originally used images of playing cards from the Club suit to illustrate and to advertise the new biscuit. The "Club '' name was therefore a reference to this suit.
It is unclear exactly when Club Milk biscuits were first imported to England, perhaps beginning informally owing to the trade route between Ireland and the English port of Liverpool. Jacob 's had already established a factory in Liverpool in 1914, and subsequently began producing the Club Milk there.
In 1970 the Irish and British parts of the Jacob 's company split into two firms. The Club biscuit had by this time become popular throughout Great Britain, and was marketed in five varieties. The original Club Milk (made with milk chocolate) was joined by a Club Plain (made with plain chocolate). The term "Club '' was expanded for this new product, with a golf ball used to illustrate the wrapper, rather than the Club suit of cards. Two flavoured versions, Club Orange and Club Mint, were made by adding flavouring to the cocoa cream. The Club Fruit variant included raisins in the cocoa cream between the two biscuits. A further Club Honeycomb variety followed.
From the mid 1970s into the 1990s Jacob 's used the advertising slogan "If you like a lot of chocolate on your biscuit, join our Club ''. This was set to music, and used as a theme in television advertising campaigns during these same decades. In 2012 the jingle was voted by a sample of British adults to be "the seventh catchiest jingle of all time ''.
In the mid 1990s both the Irish and British Jacob 's companies were acquired by French - owned Groupe Danone who redesigned both the biscuit and the packaging. The two biscuits held together by cocoa cream were replaced with a single biscuit, topped with cocoa cream. The real chocolate exterior was replaced with a thinner layer of chocolate - based coating. The original milk and plain biscuits were discontinued, whilst the flavoured varieties were repackaged in cellophane flow pack.
In September 2004 the Jacob 's brand was sold by Danone to British - based United Biscuits, who restored some of the traditional elements of the Club biscuit, including the two - layer packaging, with an inner foil wrapper and an outer paper wrapper. At present they have not returned to the double - biscuit structure of the bar itself. The Irish part of the company was sold to Fruitfield Foods, to form Jacob Fruitfield Food Group, which has led to legal battles over the use of the Jacob 's brand name.
From 2013 United Biscuits rebranded the product as McVities Club, using the Jacob 's brand for savoury biscuits and McVities for sweet products.
Without resolution of the dispute between United Biscuits (UK) and Fruitfield (Ireland) over the use of the Jacob 's brand, the Irish company resumed production of the Club Milk bar. It returned to the original pattern of two biscuits joined by cocoa cream, and a thick covering of milk chocolate. Plain and wafer versions have also been produced. These products are available in the Republic of Ireland. The Irish company makes reference to the UK version of the biscuit in its promotion of the Irish Club Milk, by stating "forget any poor imitations '', before outlining the features of the biscuit as now produced in Ireland.
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who is the founder of the apostolic faith | Apostolic Faith Church - wikipedia
The Apostolic Faith Church, formerly the Apostolic Faith Mission, is a Pentecostal Christian denomination, with headquarters in Portland, Oregon, United States. The Apostolic Faith Mission of Portland was founded in 1906 by Florence L. Crawford, who was affiliated at that time with William J. Seymour and the Azusa Street Revival of Los Angeles, California. By 1908 Crawford had founded what would become the Apostolic Faith Church. Since July 2000, the President and Superintendent General of the Apostolic Faith Church has been Darrel D. Lee, who also pastors the headquarters church.
The Apostolic Faith Church has a presence in the United States, Canada, Africa, Asia, Europe, Central and South America, and Australia. In 1997, the AFC had 2,013 members in 115 local churches served by 188 clergy in the United States. There are ten churches in Canada, several hundred in Africa (six - hundred in Nigeria alone), twenty throughout the Philippines and Korea, nine in Europe (centrally Romania and Norway), and over sixty in West Indies. Church - affiliated groups also regularly assemble in other parts of the world and recently include India. In some locations, member churches carry instead the name Trinity Apostolic Faith Church in order to differentiate themselves from non-affiliated churches in the same area.
The founder of the Apostolic Faith Church was Florence L. Crawford. Crawford was a participant in the Azusa Street Revival. This revival began in 1906 at the Apostolic Faith Mission in Los Angeles. The Azusa Street Mission, as it was called, quickly became the center of the Apostolic Faith movement mainly through the publication of The Apostolic Faith newspaper. Seymour appointed Crawford as the state director of the Pacific Coast Apostolic Faith movement where she would help other missions and churches join the movement. Crawford 's break with Seymour was complete by 1911. She began an independent work in Portland, Oregon, with the same name as Seymour 's mission and most of the churches under her supervision followed her.
This considerably weakened Seymour 's undisputed leadership of the Apostolic Faith movement as most of the churches which had fed the movement chose alignment with Crawford. According to Crawford, the separation was necessitated by rumors that Seymour had abandoned the Wesleyan position that entire sanctification was a second work of grace after conversion. Crawford 's mission gained further influence when Clara Lum, editor of The Apostolic Faith, transferred the paper, under controversial circumstances, to the Portland mission in mid-1908. The Apostolic Faith would become the Higher Way at a later date and is still published.
Through the years, the Apostolic Faith Church 's leaders have maintained the doctrines outlined in Seymour 's editions of the Apostolic Faith papers printed in 1906 through 1908. As a Trinitarian and fundamental church, their doctrinal position centers on a born - again experience, supports the Wesleyan teaching of holiness (Christian perfection), and stresses the need of sanctified believers to receive the Pentecostal experience of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Their teachings are in direct conflict with Calvinistic beliefs regarding sin, predestination, and eternal security.
The doctrinal statement of the Apostolic Faith Church can be found on the headquarters ' website. The text of the page is reprinted below:
The denomination differentiates itself from other Pentecostals by teaching that Speaking in Tongues is only acceptable in known languages and there must be someone there who can interpret.
Membership is not by formally joining the church but when you are Saved you are considered a member.
While they are pacifist members can do things that are not non-violent they served in hospitals and other such services.
They are one of the early groups that had bus ministries, ministries to ships, nursing homes, street meetings and jail meetings.
Literature is printed in many languages and is free. All literature is prayed over and can be used for healing and answers to prayers.
Services are composed of the music and they have an orchestra and choir. At the end was an altar call, with the altar being a bench on either side of the front of the church.
Ministers are not formally trained but were chosen by elders who laid hands on the person after it was believed they were called.
Camp meetings in Portland are two weeks, but used to be longer.
Members are expected to pay ten per cent of their income which is put in a box instead of passing a plate or bag. Expenses for the local church are paid out of this and ten per cent is sent to Portland which also used that to run the headquarters. There were never any sales of cakes, dinners or other fund raisers.
Among the missionary trips was a trip by boat every year to Alaska.
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who are the sonnets thought to be dedicated to | Shakespeare 's sonnets - wikipedia
Shakespeare 's sonnets is the title of a collection of 154 sonnets by William Shakespeare, which covers themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality. The first 126 sonnets are addressed to a young man; the last 28 to a woman.
The sonnets were first published in a 1609 quarto with the full stylised title: SHAKE - SPEARES SONNETS. Never before Imprinted. (although sonnets 138 and 144 had previously been published in the 1599 miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim). The quarto ends with "A Lover 's Complaint '', a narrative poem of 47 seven - line stanzas written in rhyme royal. There has been critical debate regarding its authorship.
The sonnets to the young man express overwhelming, obsessional love. The main issue of debate has always been whether it remained platonic or became physical. The first 17 poems, traditionally called the procreation sonnets, are addressed to the young man urging him to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the next generation. Other sonnets express the speaker 's love for the young man; brood upon loneliness, death, and the transience of life; seem to criticise the young man for preferring a rival poet; express ambiguous feelings for the speaker 's mistress; and pun on the poet 's name. The final two sonnets are allegorical treatments of Greek epigrams referring to the "little love - god '' Cupid.
The publisher, Thomas Thorpe, entered the book in the Stationers ' Register on 20 May 1609:
Whether Thorpe used an authorised manuscript from Shakespeare or an unauthorised copy is unknown. George Eld printed the quarto, and the run was divided between the booksellers William Aspley and John Wright.
The Sonnets include a dedication to one "Mr. W.H. ''. The identity of this person remains a mystery and, since the 19th century, has provoked a great deal of speculation.
The dedication reads:
TO. THE. ONLIE. BEGETTER. OF. THESE. INSUING. SONNETS. Mr. W.H. ALL. HAPPINESSE. AND. THAT. ETERNITIE. PROMISED. BY. OUR. EVER - LIVING. POET. WISHETH. THE. WELL - WISHING. ADVENTURER.IN. SETTING. FORTH.
T.T.
Its oblique nature has led Colin Burrow to describe it as a "dank pit in which speculation wallows and founders ''. Don Foster concludes that the result of all the speculation has yielded only two "facts '', which themselves have been the object of much debate: First, that the form of address (Mr.) suggests that W.H. was an untitled gentleman, and second, that W.H., whoever he was, is identified as "the only begetter '' of Shakespeare 's Sonnets (whatever the word "begetter '' is taken to mean).
The initials "T.T. '' are taken to refer to the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, though Thorpe usually signed prefatory matter only if the author was out of the country or dead. Foster points out, however, that Thorpe 's entire corpus of such consists of only four dedications and three stationer 's prefaces. That Thorpe signed the dedication rather than the author is often read as evidence that he published the work without obtaining Shakespeare 's permission.
The capital letters and periods following each word were probably intended to resemble an ancient Roman lapidary inscription or monumental brass, thereby accentuating Shakespeare 's declaration in Sonnet 55 that the work will confer immortality to the subjects of the work:
126 of Shakespeare 's sonnets are addressed to a young man, often called the "Fair Youth. '' Some theories concerning the identity of Mr. W.H. take him to be that youth, while others assert him to be a separate person.
The following is a non-exhaustive list of contenders:
The sonnets are almost all constructed from three quatrains, which are four - line stanzas, and a final couplet composed in iambic pentameter. This is also the meter used extensively in Shakespeare 's plays.
The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. Sonnets using this scheme are known as Shakespearean sonnets. Often, the beginning of the third quatrain marks the volta ("turn ''), or the line in which the mood of the poem shifts, and the poet expresses a revelation or epiphany.
There are a few exceptions: Sonnets 99, 126, and 145. Number 99 has fifteen lines. Number 126 consists of six couplets, and two blank lines marked with italic brackets; 145 is in iambic tetrameters, not pentameters. In one other variation on the standard structure, found for example in sonnet 29, the rhyme scheme is changed by repeating the second (b) rhyme of quatrain one as the second (f) rhyme of quatrain three.
When analysed as characters, the subjects of the sonnets are usually referred to as the Fair Youth, the Rival Poet, and the Dark Lady. The speaker expresses admiration for the Fair Youth 's beauty, and -- if reading the sonnets in chronological order as published -- later has an affair with the Dark Lady. Current linguistic analysis and historical evidence suggests, however, that the sonnets to the Dark Lady were composed first (around 1591 - 95), the procreation sonnets next, and the later sonnets to the Fair Youth last (1597 - 1603). It is not known whether the poems and their characters are fiction or autobiographical; scholars who find the sonnets to be autobiographical, notably A.L. Rowse, have attempted to identify the characters with historical individuals.
The "Fair Youth '' is the unnamed young man to whom sonnets 1 -- 126 are addressed. Some commentators, noting the romantic and loving language used in this sequence of sonnets, have suggested a sexual relationship between them; others have read the relationship as platonic love.
The earliest poems in the sequence recommend the benefits of marriage and children. With the famous Sonnet 18 ("Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day '') the tone changes dramatically towards romantic intimacy. Sonnet 20 explicitly laments that the young man is not a woman. Most of the subsequent sonnets describe the ups and downs of the relationship, culminating with an affair between the poet and the Dark Lady. The relationship seems to end when the Fair Youth succumbs to the Lady 's charms (Sonnet 144).
There have been many attempts to identify the young man. Shakespeare 's language often seems to imply that the subject is of higher social status than himself. Shakespeare 's one - time patron, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton and his later patron, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, are frequently suggested. Both claims begin with the dedication of the sonnets to "Mr. W.H. '', "the only begetter of these ensuing sonnets ''; the initials could apply to either earl, though in one case their order would have been reversed.
In his short story "The Portrait of Mr. W.H., '' Oscar Wilde proposed that some lines of the sonnets represent a series of puns suggesting that the sonnets are written to a boy actor called William Hughes; however, in his story Wilde acknowledges that there is no evidence for such a person 's existence. Samuel Butler believed that the friend was a seaman. Joseph Pequigney argued in his book Such Is My Love that the Fair Youth was an unknown commoner.
The Dark Lady sequence (sonnets 127 -- 154) distinguishes itself from the Fair Youth sequence by being overtly sexual in its passion. Among these, Sonnet 151 has been characterised as "bawdy '' and is used to illustrate the difference between the spiritual love for the Fair Youth and the sexual love for the Dark Lady. The distinction is commonly made in the introduction to modern editions of the sonnets. The Dark Lady is so called because the poems make it clear that she has black hair and dun coloured skin. As with the Fair Youth, there have been many attempts to identify her with a real historical individual. Lucy Negro, Mary Fitton, Emilia Lanier, Elizabeth Wriothesley, and others have been suggested.
The Rival Poet 's identity remains a mystery; among the varied candidates are Christopher Marlowe, George Chapman, Robert Devereaux, Earl of Essex, or an amalgamation of several contemporaries. However, there is no hard evidence that the character had a real - life counterpart. The speaker sees the Rival as competition for fame, coin and patronage. The sonnets most commonly identified as the Rival Poet group exist within the Fair Youth sequence in sonnets 78 -- 86.
One interpretation is that Shakespeare 's sonnets are a pastiche or parody of the 300 - year - old tradition of Petrarchan love sonnets; Shakespeare consciously inverts conventional gender roles as delineated in Petrarchan sonnets to create a more complex depiction of human love. He plays with gender roles (20), comments on political events (124), makes fun of love (128), speaks openly about sexual desire (129), parodies beauty (130) and even references pornography (151). In a dozen of the sonnets to the youth, Shakespeare also refers to his "disgrace '': "My name be buried where my body is / And live no more to shame nor me nor you. '' (72)
Shakespeare 's Sonnets can be seen as a prototype, or even the beginning, of a new kind of "modern '' love poetry. During the eighteenth century, The Sonnets ' reputation in England was relatively low; as late as 1805, The Critical Review could still credit John Milton with the perfection of the English sonnet. As part of the renewed interest in Shakespeare 's original work that accompanied Romanticism, The Sonnets rose steadily in reputation during the nineteenth century.
The Sonnets have great cross-cultural importance and influence. They have been translated into every major written language, including German, French, Italian, Japanese, Turkish, Spanish, Portuguese, Afrikaans, Esperanto, Albanian, Arabic, Hebrew, Welsh and Yiddish.
Like all Shakespeare 's works, The Sonnets have been reprinted many times. Prominent editions include:
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which team did neymar play for before barcelona | Neymar - wikipedia
Neymar da Silva Santos Júnior (Portuguese pronunciation: (nejˈmaʁ dɐ ˈsiwvɐ ˈsɐ̃tus ˈʒũɲoʁ); born 5 February 1992), commonly known as Neymar or Neymar Jr., is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for French club Paris Saint - Germain and the Brazil national team.
Neymar came into prominence at an early age at Santos, where he made his professional debut aged 17. He helped the club win two successive Campeonato Paulista championships, a Copa do Brasil, and the 2011 Copa Libertadores, Santos ' first continental title since 1963. Neymar was twice named the South American Footballer of the Year, in 2011 and 2012, before relocating to Europe to join Barcelona. As part of Barça 's attacking trio with Lionel Messi and Luis Suárez, he won the continental treble of La Liga, the Copa del Rey, and the UEFA Champions League in the 2014 -- 15 season, followed the next year by the domestic double. He came third for the FIFA Ballon d'Or in 2015. In August 2017, Neymar moved from Barcelona to Paris Saint - Germain in a transaction worth € 222 million, making him the world 's most expensive player.
With 52 goals in 81 matches for Brazil since debuting at age 18, Neymar is the fourth - highest goalscorer for his national team. He was a key player in Brazil 's victories at the 2011 South American Youth Championship, which he finished as the leading goalscorer, and the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, where he won the Golden Ball as player of the tournament. His participation in the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2015 Copa América was cut short by injury and a suspension respectively, but the next year he captained Brazil to their first Olympic gold medal in men 's football at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
Known for his dribbling, finishing, and ability with both feet, Neymar has earned comparisons to former Brazil and Santos forward Pelé. Off the pitch, he ranks among the world 's most prominent sportsmen; SportsPro named him the most marketable athlete in the world in 2012 and 2013, and ESPN cited him as the world 's fourth-most famous athlete in 2016.
Neymar da Silva Santos Júnior was born in Mogi das Cruzes, São Paulo, to Neymar Santos, Sr. and Nadine da Silva. He inherited his name from his father, who is a former footballer and became his son 's advisor as Neymar 's talents began to grow. Neymar comments on his father 's role: "My father has been by my side since I was little. He takes care of things, my finances and my family. '' Growing up, Neymar combined his love of futsal with street football.
In 2003, Neymar moved with his family to São Vicente, where he began playing for youth side Portuguesa Santista. Then, later in 2003, they moved to Santos, where Neymar joined Santos FC. With the success of his youth career and added income, the family bought their first property, a house next to the Vila Belmiro. Their quality of family life improved, as at age 15, Neymar was earning 10,000 reais per month and at 16, 125,000 reais per month. At 17, he signed his first full professional contract, was upgraded to the Santos first team, and began signing his first sponsorship deals.
Neymar began playing football at an early age and he was soon spotted by Santos FC who offered him a contract in 2003, where he was inducted into their youth academy, which has, in the past, produced Brazilian internationals like Coutinho, Clodoaldo, Diego, Elano and Alex. He also joined the likes of Pepe, Pelé and Robinho in starting out his career at the club, nicknamed Peixe. While in the youth academy, Neymar met Paulo Henrique Ganso, becoming good friends in the process. Aged 14, Neymar travelled to Spain to join the Real Madrid youth team, at the time when Real had stars like Ronaldo, Zinedine Zidane, David Beckham, Roberto Carlos and Robinho.
Neymar made his professional debut on 7 March 2009, despite being only 17 years old; he was brought on for the last thirty minutes, in a 2 -- 1 win against Oeste. The following week he scored his first goal for Santos against Mogi Mirim. One month later, on 11 April, Neymar scored the decisive goal in a 2 -- 1 win against Palmeiras in the 2009 Campeonato Paulista semi-final first leg. In the final, however, Santos suffered a 4 -- 2 aggregate defeat to the Corinthians. In his first season, Neymar racked up 14 goals in 48 games.
Neymar continued his ascendancy in 2010, and, on 15 April 2010, he scored five goals for Santos in an 8 -- 1 rout of Guarani in the qualifying stages of the Brazilian Cup. Following the 2010 Campeonato Paulista in which Neymar scored 14 goals in 19 games, the club were crowned champions after a 5 -- 5 aggregate win over Santo André in the finals. Neymar was subsequently given the award for the best player in the competition. Neymar 's performances for Santos have drawn comparisons to other Brazilians, including Robinho and Brazilian legend Pelé.
In 2010, Santos rejected a £ 12 million bid for him from English Premier League team West Ham United, and later an offer from another English club, Chelsea, reported to be in the region of £ 20 million. Despite Santos unwillingness to sell and Neymar himself insisting "I 'm focused only on Santos '', his agent, Wagner Ribeiro, indicated that Neymar 's career was elsewhere, stating "He wants to become the best player in the world. The chances of him doing that while playing in Brazil are zero. '' Although one year later Neymar admitted, in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, that he had been happy with Chelsea 's interest in him as it was a "dream '' of his "to play in Europe '', while also stating that at the time it had been the right decision to stay in Brazil.
On 30 November 2010, Santos sold a 5 % share of future transfer fees that he would receive to an investment group, Terceira Estrela Investimentos S.A. (TEISA), for R $ 3,549,900 (€ 1.5 million). The previous year, his family had sold a 40 % stake in Neymar 's sporting rights to the DIS Esporte group who had been a long - term strategic partner of Santos ' football club.
Despite his first two seasons being highly successful, having ended the 2010 season with an impressive 42 goals in 60 games, problems had been identified, namely Neymar 's apparent taste for diving when tackled, rather than attempting to continue his run, and his attitude. The latter came to the forefront during a match with Atlético Goianiense, on 15 September 2010, when the Santos ' manager, Dorival Júnior, appointed another player to take the penalty awarded for a foul on Neymar. His decision was based on the fact that Neymar had missed a crucial penalty during the Copa do Brasil final of that year, even if Santos went on to win. Reacting to this, Neymar turned his back on his manager, had to be calmed down by a linesman and argued with his captain, Edu Dracena. The fallout from this event was that Dorival Júnior wished to have Neymar suspended for two weeks, but the board sided with the player and promptly sacked the manager. Despite Neymar 's apologies over the incident, some doubts still remain about his attitude. In December 2010, aged just 18, Neymar came third for the 2010 South American Footballer of the Year, behind Andrés D'Alessandro and Juan Sebastián Verón.
Neymar scored six goals during Santos run to the 2011 Copa Libertadores Finals, tying him for third top goalscorer, including the clinching goal of Santos ' 4 -- 3 aggregate win over Cerro Porteño in the semifinals. In the two - legged final, Santos faced Uruguayan side Peñarol and drew the first leg 0 -- 0 in Montevideo. At home in the second leg, Neymar opened the scoring in the 46th minute as Santos held on for a 2 -- 1 win and Neymar won Man of the Match honours. The win brought Santos their first Copa Libertadores triumph since 1963, when Brazilian legend Pelé was playing for the club.
In September 2011, Santos club president Luís Ribeiro threatened to report Real Madrid to FIFA following reports that they had attempted to sign Neymar to a pre-contract agreement, and denied that such an agreement was in place. On 9 November 2011, Neymar and Santos agreed to a contract extension that would see the player stay with the club until after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. The deal reportedly increased Neymar 's wages by 50 %, to the levels that top European clubs would be paying him. On 14 December 2011, Neymar scored the opening goal for Santos as they defeated Kashiwa Reysol 3 -- 1 in the semi-finals of the FIFA Club World Cup at the Toyota Stadium in Toyota, Japan, but failed to score against Barcelona in the final on 18 December 2011, where Santos were defeated 4 -- 0, finishing as runners - up in the competition. He won the 2011 FIFA Puskás Award for scoring a solo goal in the Brasileirão Série A against Flamengo, in a 5 -- 4 loss. On 31 December 2011, he won the 2011 South American Footballer of the Year award for the first time, by a record margin, following in the footsteps of Diego Maradona, Romário, Pelé and Zico.
On 5 February 2012, when he turned 20, Neymar scored his 100th goal as a professional football player, against Palmeiras in the Campeonato Paulista. On 25 February 2012 -- he scored two goals, one of which was from 25 - yards -- and created two assists to help his side to a 6 -- 1 win over Ponte Preta. On 7 March 2012, Neymar netted a hat - trick as Santos saw off Brazilian rivals Internacional 3 -- 1 in the Copa Libertadores Group stage match. On 29 March, he scored a brace against Guaratinguetá in a 5 -- 0 victory. In the fixture against São Paulo on 29 April 2012, Neymar scored a hat - trick with the match ending 3 -- 1. Thereafter, he went on to score twice in the first and second legs in the 2012 Campeonato Paulista Finals against Guarani, which ended 7 -- 2 on aggregate. Neymar finished the 2012 Campeonato Paulista with 20 goals and was voted the Best player and Best Forward, and Santos were crowned champions. He was joint top scorer in the Copa Libertadores with eight goals, after Santos were beaten over two legs by eventual champions Corinthians in the semi-finals.
On 25 August 2012, he scored a brace in the 2 -- 1 away win at Palmeiras. On 3 November 2012, in the Brasileiro Série A away fixture at Cruzeiro, Neymar scored a hat - trick and assisted Felipe Anderson 's goal, to help his side to a 4 -- 0 win. Neymar finished off the 2012 season in style, first setting - up Victor Andrade 's equaliser, then scoring twice, to give Santos a 3 -- 1 home win over Palmeiras on 1 December 2012. Neymar was voted the Best Player of the 2012 Recopa Sudamericana, Neymar scoring in the second leg to win the title 2 -- 0 on aggregate. He finished the 2012 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A with 14 goals and being voted the Best forward. Neymar finished the 2012 season, being award the Golden Ball, Arthur Friedenreich Award and Armando Nogueira Trophy. He was one of three finalists in the 2012 FIFA Puskás Award and finished runners - up behind Miroslav Stoch. He won the 2012 South American Footballer of the Year, retaining his award and winning it ahead of the likes of Ronaldinho. Reports emerged in 2011 that Santos reached an agreement with Barcelona to sign him at a later stage. Neymar, however, rejected this in an interview, saying that he had "no agreement with Barcelona or anyone else ''.
Neymar started the 2013 Campeonato Paulista scoring twice in the first match, which ended a 3 -- 1 win over São Bernardo on 19 January 2013. Four days later on 23 January 2013, Neymar scored again against Botafogo in a 3 -- 0 win. On 3 February 2013, in the Paulista fixture against São Paulo, where Santos won 3 -- 1, with Neymar scoring and making two assists. on 18 March 2013, Neymar told that he had a "dream of playing in Europe, for a big club like Barcelona, Real Madrid and Chelsea. '' But he went on to say, "There 's no point in speculating when I 'll leave Santos. I 'll leave when I want to. ''
Neymar scored all four goals, had another disallowed and hit the post as Santos beat União Barbarense 4 -- 0 in the Paulista on 13 April. On 25 April 2013, his agent and father revealed that Neymar intended to leave for Europe before the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Ahead of his last match for Santos, on 26 May against Flamengo, Neymar was in tears during the national anthem.
On 24 May 2013, Santos announced that they had received two offers for Neymar. The following day, Neymar announced he would sign with Barcelona on 27 May 2013 and join the team after playing in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. Neither Neymar nor the clubs released details on the transfer fee or personal terms, save to say he signed a five - year deal. On 3 June 2013, Neymar was unveiled by Barcelona after passing medical tests and signing a contract that would keep him at the club through June 2018.
Neymar was presented at the Camp Nou in front of 56,500 fans, a record turnout for a Brazilian player. Club vice-president Josep Maria Bartomeu initially said Neymar 's transfer fee was € 57.1 million and his release clause set at € 190 million. Barcelona 's doctor suggested he might need to gain weight to be able to cope physically in Spanish football.
In January 2014, the prosecutor 's office in Madrid began investigating the transfer fee that Barcelona paid for Neymar. The documents submitted to the authorities on request contained contradictory information. On 23 January 2014, Rosell resigned from his position as president. A day later, the details of the transfer were revealed by Barcelona; the transfer had in fact cost them € 86.2 million (£ 71.5 million), with Neymar 's parents confirmed to have received a € 40 million sum. In the aftermath, Barcelona and Bartomeu were charged with tax fraud.
On 30 July 2013, Barcelona drew 2 -- 2 against Lechia Gdańsk in a pre-season friendly; Neymar made his unofficial debut when he came on as a substitute. He scored his first goal for the club in a 7 -- 1 win against a Thailand XI on 7 August.
Neymar made his competitive debut for Barcelona during the opening game of the 2013 -- 14 La Liga season as a 63rd - minute substitute for Alexis Sánchez in a 7 -- 0 win against Levante. On 21 August, he scored his first competitive goal for the club in the first leg of the 2013 Supercopa de España against Atlético Madrid: seven minutes after coming on as a substitute for Pedro, he headed Dani Alves ' cross to equalise in a 1 -- 1 draw at the Vicente Calderón Stadium as Barcelona won on the away goals rule for his first trophy at the club. On 18 September, he made his UEFA Champions League debut, assisting a Gerard Piqué goal as Barça beat Ajax 4 -- 0 in their opening match of the 2013 -- 14 tournament.
Six days later, Neymar scored his first goal in La Liga in Barcelona 's 4 -- 1 defeat of Real Sociedad at Camp Nou. On 26 October, he made his first El Clásico appearance, scoring the opening goal and assisting the team 's winning goal scored by Alexis Sánchez as Barcelona beat Real Madrid 2 -- 1 at Camp Nou. On 11 December, Neymar recorded his first three Champions League goals as he scored a hat - trick in a 6 -- 1 win over Celtic in Barcelona 's final Group H match.
On 13 September 2014, after appearing as a substitute, Neymar scored his first two goals of the 2014 -- 15 season, helping Barcelona beat Athletic Bilbao 2 -- 0. On 27 September, he scored a hat - trick against Granada in a 6 -- 0 win and went on to score in his next three La Liga matches, including the opening goal in a 1 -- 3 loss to Real Madrid at Estadio Santiago Bernabéu.
On 24 January 2015, Neymar scored twice and assisted two more goals in a 6 -- 0 win at Elche. On 28 January, he scored his 20th goal of the season in a 3 -- 2 Copa del Rey quarter - final win over Atlético Madrid. On 4 March, Neymar scored twice in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 Copa del Rey semi-final win over Villarreal to qualify the club for its 37th Spanish Cup final. On 21 April, Neymar took his tally to 30 goals for the season by scoring twice in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 Champions League quarter - final win over Paris Saint - Germain to qualify the club for the semi-finals.
In May, the closing month of the season, Neymar scored the last goal in a 3 -- 0 win against Bayern Munich in the first leg of the Champions League semi-final. A week later, he scored both the team 's goals in a 3 -- 2 second leg defeat at the Allianz Arena to ensure Barça would qualify for the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final. He also opened the scoring with a header in a 2 -- 0 league win versus Real Sociedad, a result which gave Barça a four - point lead over Real Madrid with only two matches remaining. After securing the league title on 17 May with a 1 -- 0 win over Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón, Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 -- 1 at Camp Nou in the 2015 Copa del Rey Final on 30 May, with Neymar scoring the second goal for Barça. With Barcelona 's victory likely, he performed tricks with the ball in the final stages of the game, which was deemed unsporting by opponent Andoni Iraola. Barcelona manager Luis Enrique claimed that it had to be understood that such behaviour was acceptable in Brazil, while Neymar himself did not apologise.
On 6 June 2015, Neymar scored the third goal for Barça in the 3 -- 1 Champions League Final defeat of Italian champions Juventus at Berlin 's Olympiastadion, ensuring the club won its fifth European Cup. This made Barcelona the first club in history to win the treble of domestic league, domestic cup and European Cup twice. On a personal note, he became the eighth player in football 's history to win both the Copa Libertadores and the UEFA Champions League, and the first player to score in final victories in both competitions.
Neymar ended the season with 39 goals in all competitions and 10 in the Champions League, making him joint highest scorer with Cristiano Ronaldo and teammate Lionel Messi in the latter competition. He was the first player apart from those two to top the competition 's scoring list, since compatriot Kaká in 2006 -- 07. Barcelona 's attacking trio of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN '', ended with 122 goals, the most in a season for an attacking trio in Spanish football history.
Due to having the mumps, Neymar was expected to miss the 2015 UEFA Super Cup and the 2015 Supercopa de España. On 17 October, Neymar scored four goals in Barcelona 's 5 -- 2 home win over Rayo Vallecano in La Liga, taking his total to eight goals for the season. On 21 November, Neymar scored one and provided a back heel assist for Andrés Iniesta in Barcelona 's 4 -- 0 away win against Real Madrid. He scored twice in a 4 -- 0 home win over Real Sociedad on 28 November, taking his La Liga total to 14 goals in 12 games. On 30 November, Neymar was shortlisted for the 2015 FIFA Ballon d'Or alongside Messi and Ronaldo, and subsequently came third. On 22 May 2016, Neymar scored a late goal in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final at the Vicente Calderón, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season, following their treble victory from the previous season.
On 2 April 2017, Neymar scored his 100th goal for Barcelona in his 177th appearance for the club, netting in a 4 -- 1 win over Granada. On 27 May, Neymar scored in the 2017 Copa del Rey Final, his 105th goal for the club, as Barcelona defeated Alavés 3 -- 1 at the Vicente Calderón in Madrid.
On 3 August 2017, Barcelona announced that Neymar 's legal representatives made a payment of € 222 million to the club (most expensive transfer ever), equal to the release clause of his contract. The club informed UEFA so that they can determine any disciplinary responsibilities that may arise from this case. According to the BBC, in Spain, the release clause must be activated by the footballer himself. The situation was unusual that the fee was paid to the club directly after La Liga had refused to receive the payment.
Neymar joined French club Paris Saint - Germain on a contract that will run until 2022. He was offered the number 10 jersey by Javier Pastore as a "welcome gift ''.
On 27 August 2017, FC Barcelona filed a lawsuit against Neymar, demanding he return the contract renewal bonus he received as well as € 8.5 million in damages and an additional 10 % for the arrears. They claimed they are owed money that Neymar received as part of a renewal bonus when he signed a new contract in 2016. The club also requested Paris Saint - Germain to take on the responsibility for the payment of the fees if the player can not do so himself. Neymar 's lawyers announced that they will contest the case.
He made his debut for Les Rouge - et - Bleu on 13 August, netting a goal for himself and also setting up another in a 3 -- 0 away victory over Guingamp. Neymar added two more goals to his tally in the next Ligue 1 fixture against Toulouse. Forming a prolific attacking trio alongside 18 - year - old French prodigy Kylian Mbappé and Uruguayan striker Edinson Cavani, Neymar scored one each in PSG 's two opening games of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League group stage, with the team winning 5 -- 0 at Celtic and 3 -- 0 at home over Bayern Munich respectively.
Following Neymar 's performances for Brazil 's under - 17 team at the 2009 U-17 World Cup in which he scored a goal in the opening match against Japan, former Brazilian football players Pelé and Romário reportedly urged coach Dunga to take Neymar to the 2010 World Cup. Although the widespread opinion that Neymar deserved a place in Dunga 's squad went as far as a 14,000 signature petition, and despite the huge pressure on Dunga to pick Neymar, he was omitted from both the squad of 23, and the stand - by list. Although Dunga described Neymar as "extremely talented '', he claimed that he had not been tested sufficiently on the international level to earn a World Cup spot and he had failed to impress enough while on international duty.
On 26 July 2010, Neymar was selected for the first time in the Brazil senior team by new head coach Mano Menezes for a friendly match against the United States to be played in East Rutherford, New Jersey. On 10 August 2010 he made his debut with the national team in that game, aged 18 years old, starting the match and wearing the number 11 jersey. He scored on his debut after 28 minutes, a header coming from an André Santos cross in a 2 -- 0 win for Brazil. On 1 March 2011, Neymar said: "Being on the Brazilian team is a privilege, There are some marvelous players and I 'm very happy to be among them. '' On 27 March 2011, he scored twice in a 2 -- 0 win against Scotland at the Emirates Stadium. During the match against Scotland, a banana was thrown onto the pitch after he scored from the penalty spot, which led Neymar to complain about ' constant jeering and an atmosphere of racism ', implying that Scottish fans exhibited racism. While Scottish officials explained that Neymar had been booed solely for perceived injury - feigning, a German student who was in the stadium amongst Brazil supporters said that he threw the banana with no racist intentions. This led to the Scottish Football Association asking the Brazilian Football Confederation for an apology for the accusations made to the Scottish fans. Neymar refused to apologize or retract his words, claiming he "did not accuse any person or any group of supporters ''.
Neymar was the leading goal scorer of the 2011 South American Youth Championship with nine goals, including two in the final, in Brazil 's 6 -- 0 win against Uruguay. He also took part at the 2011 Copa América in Argentina, where he scored two goals in the first - round game against Ecuador. He was selected ' Man of the Match ' in Brazil 's first match against Venezuela, which ended a 1 -- 1 draw. Brazil were eliminated in the quarter - finals in a penalty shoot - out against Paraguay (2 -- 2 a.e.t.), with Neymar being substituted in the 80th minute.
On 11 May 2012, Neymar was selected for the squad of the Brazil Olympic football team to participate in the London 2012 Olympic Games. In Brazil 's first warm - up match on 20 July 2012, against the host nation Great Britain at Riverside Stadium, Neymar was involved in both goals of a 2 -- 0 win, first making an assist with a free - kick into the six - yard box for Sandro 's header, before converting a penalty.
On 26 July 2012, Neymar scored his first goal of the 2012 Summer Olympics in Brazil 's opening fixture against Egypt, which ended a 3 -- 2 victory for Brazil. In the following match against Belarus at Old Trafford in Manchester, Neymar scored a free - kick from 25 - yards into the top - right corner of the goal and set up goals for Alexandre Pato 's header with a cross from the right and Oscar with a back heel as Brazil secured their place in the quarter - finals with a 3 -- 1 win. Afterwards he said: "I scored and made two assists so for me it was perfect ''.
On 5 August 2012, in the quarter - final encounter against Honduras, Neymar scored a penalty, his third goal of the tournament and assisted in Leandro Damião 's second goal on the match, to help Brazil to a 3 -- 2 victory at St James ' Park and book a place in the semi-finals. On 11 August, Brazil lost 2 - 1 to Mexico in the final at Wembley Stadium in London.
Neymar scored his first full international hat - trick on 10 September 2012, in an 8 -- 0 win over China at the Estádio José do Rego Maciel in Recife. On 19 September, Neymar scored the winner against Argentina in a 2 -- 1 win in the first leg of the 2012 Superclásico de las Américas at the Estádio Serra Dourada in Goiânia, Brazil.
Neymar was selected as part of Luiz Felipe Scolari 's Brazil squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup on home soil. For the tournament he was assigned the iconic number 10 shirt, having previously worn 11.
Neymar scored the first goal of the tournament in a 3 -- 0 win over Japan at the Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha on 15 June. In their second match, Neymar scored after nine minutes and crossed for Jô 's late goal to give Brazil a 2 -- 0 win over Mexico. He scored in his third consecutive match, with a powerful free kick from the edge of the penalty area, as Brazil beat Italy 4 -- 2, and received his third consecutive man - of - the - match award.
On 30 June, Neymar was involved in Fred 's opening goal and then subsequently scored Brazil 's second in the 3 -- 0 final victory over Spain. Neymar 's performances saw him receive the Golden Ball for player of the tournament.
On 5 March 2014, Neymar scored a hat - trick in a friendly win against South Africa in Johannesburg. He made headlines for his conduct after the final whistle when a young South African boy ran onto the pitch. As security staff began to escort the boy from the field, Neymar intervened and introduced him to his Brazil teammates before they all lifted him in the air during their celebrations.
On 2 June, Neymar was named to participate with Team Brazil in the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Going into the tournament, as the team 's star player, Neymar was the man expected to win Brazil its sixth World Cup on home soil. One week prior to the team 's opening match, Neymar scored once and made two assists in a 4 -- 0 friendly win over Panama.
Neymar earned his 50th international cap in the opening match of the tournament, on 12 June against Croatia in São Paulo. In the 26th minute, with Croatia leading 1 -- 0, Neymar elbowed Croatian midfielder Luka Modrić, after which Neymar was issued a yellow card. Many critics agreed that Neymar 's punishment was too lenient and that he should have been issued a red card. He equalised before half - time with a shot from outside the box and gave Brazil the lead in the second half with a penalty kick, following a controversial decision by the referee, in an eventual 3 -- 1 win. In the third group match, he again scored twice as the Seleção defeated Cameroon 4 -- 1 to reach the knockout stage. In the round of 16 against Chile, the match finished 1 -- 1 after 120 minutes and was decided by a penalty shoot - out with Neymar scoring what proved to be the winning kick for Brazil.
In the quarter - final defeat of Colombia, while challenging for the ball, Neymar was kneed in the back by Juan Camilo Zúñiga and had to be removed from the pitch on a stretcher. A hospital scan revealed that Neymar had suffered a fractured vertebra in his spine and he missed the rest of the World Cup. Earlier in the match, Neymar assisted Thiago Silva 's opening goal with a cross from a corner kick. It was the second time in the tournament that a Neymar corner had led to a goal for Brazil, after his cross created David Luiz 's goal in the previous round against Chile.
On 11 July, Neymar was named on the 10 - man shortlist for FIFA 's Golden Ball award for the tournament 's best player. He won the Bronze Boot as the tournament 's third top goalscorer and was named in the World Cup All Star XI.
With captain Thiago Silva ruled out through injury, new coach Dunga decided to make Neymar captain and confirmed on 5 September that the forward would stay on as skipper on a permanent basis. On 14 October 2014, Neymar scored four goals in one game for the first time in his international career, scoring all of Brazil 's goals in 4 -- 0 friendly win against Japan at the National Stadium, Singapore. At the age of just 22 years, Neymar had scored 40 goals in 58 internationals, and had become the fifth highest goalscorer for his national team. On 26 March 2015, Neymar scored Brazil 's second goal in a 3 -- 1 friendly win over France in Paris.
On 14 June 2015, in Brazil 's opening Copa América fixture, Neymar scored the equaliser and assisted the stoppage - time winning goal by Douglas Costa as Brazil came from 0 -- 1 down to beat Peru 2 -- 1 in Temuco. After Brazil 's second match, a 0 -- 1 loss to Colombia in Santiago, Neymar was booked for handball, resulting in a suspension. After the final whistle, he was red carded for deliberately kicking the ball at Pablo Armero, and as a result was pushed over by Colombian striker Carlos Bacca, who was also dismissed. CONMEBOL issued Neymar with a four - match ban, ruling him out for the remainder of the tournament, in addition to a $10,000 fine.
The CBF had wanted Neymar to play at the Copa América Centenario and the Olympics in Rio during the summer of 2016, but after a request from Barcelona manager Luis Enrique, he was rested from the first tournament. In late June 2016, he was subsequently one of the three over-23 players to be included in Brazil 's squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics on home soil, and was named the team 's captain by the Olympic side 's manager Rogério Micale.
In Brazil 's quarter - final clash with Colombia on 13 August, Neymar scored Brazil 's first goal of the match, from a direct free kick, and also set up his nation 's second goal in an eventual 2 -- 0 win. In Brazil 's semi-final clash with Honduras on 18 August, Neymar scored twice, Brazil 's first and last goals of the match, in a 6 -- 0 win.
In the final against Germany at the Maracanã in Rio on 20 August, Neymar opened the scoring with a free - kick after 27 minutes. The game finished 1 -- 1 after Max Meyer equalised in the second - half. Brazil beat Germany 5 -- 4 on penalties, and Neymar scored the winning penalty to bring Brazil its first Olympic gold medal in men 's football. Both during and prior to the tournament, he had been subjected to criticism over his conduct on and off the pitch, with several former Brazil players suggesting that he was not fit to captain the national team. Neymar subsequently renounced the captaincy following their Olympic victory.
Neymar primarily plays as either a central striker, second striker, winger or occasionally as an attacking midfielder, and has been described as "a true phenomenon ''. He often plays as a left sided forward for both club and country in the team 's 4 -- 3 -- 3 formation, drifting infield, due to his energetic pace and playmaking skills; this position allows him to shoot with his stronger foot, or create chances for teammates. Neymar 's dribbling skills, tricks and playmaking ability are reminiscent of compatriot Ronaldinho. His main traits are his creativity, vision, passing, finishing, dribbling, feints and technique, being described as both "electric '' and "explosive ''. Although naturally right - footed, he is capable of scoring with both feet, as well as with his head, and is an accurate free - kick and penalty taker. He commented on his attributes saying: "I 'm always trying to perfect everything -- dribbling, shooting, headers and control. You can always improve ''. Neymar stated that he has been inspired by Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo, Andrés Iniesta, Xavi and Wayne Rooney.
Brazilian playmaker Ronaldinho had also tipped Neymar on becoming the best player in the world: "Neymar is young though, and I ca n't explain how special he will become. In the next two or three seasons he will become the best player. '' Another Brazilian star, retired World Cup winner Ronaldo also believes that Neymar can become the best in the world: "Logically, Messi is better right now but Neymar is a great talent who will show the world that he will be number one ''. Former Real Madrid sporting director Jorge Valdano has also praised Neymar, stating: "I like Neymar a lot. Many of his individual actions result in a goal and often it 's a move that only seems to be happening with him on the pitch. '' FC Barcelona star Xavi also stated that Neymar "is a great player, has a very good attitude, and will go on to be the best player in the world. '' However, Neymar also has been known and criticised for his excessive diving when tackled by another player. For which Pelé has told: "He is a player with a body that ca n't take a lot of hits. (...) A lot of times he will fall because he ca n't do anything else, but he was overdoing it. '' He continued: "Even when he is fouled, he ca n't make a spectacle out of it ''.
The media have often drawn comparisons between Neymar and Brazilian legend Pelé, as Neymar possesses similar attributes and also like Pelé came from the Santos Youth Academy and turned heads with his skill. Neymar has said that Pelé is his "role model '' but also saying: "I do n't like to make a comparison with Pelé ''. On 11 April 2012, during the celebrations for the 100 years of Santos, when asked by journalists about Lionel Messi, Pelé said he felt that Neymar was better: "Now everyone is talking about Messi; he is a star. But (to be the best ever) he must first become better than Neymar, '' Pelé said. "At the moment Messi is just more experienced. ''
Neymar 's increasing reputation led both the media and former great players to draw comparisons between Neymar and Barcelona forward Lionel Messi, which Neymar has commented on saying: "Messi is above everyone, there is no use comparing me with him. (...) He is the best player in the world and I always get inspired when I watch good football. '' Ronaldo stated: "Neymar is a great talent, the best we have in Brazil. He is very similar to Messi. '' Zico said: "I see Neymar like a (Cristiano) Ronaldo or a Messi, the type who appears and makes things happen. '' After his hat - trick against Internacional 3 -- 1 in Copa Libertadores and Messi 's five goals scored in the Champions League, Neymar said: "I am a Messi fan. I was told what he did today. I support him to score a lot of nice goals so I can keep copying and imitating him. ''
Neymar has a son, Davi Lucca, with former girlfriend Carolina Dantas. Neymar was quoted as saying: "I cried when I learned that I would be his father. At first, I felt fear. Then joy. It is a new responsibility and I am now enjoying it. '' He later described the birth of his baby boy as: "2.8 kilograms of pure happiness '' and also said: "Mother and baby are in good condition just after childbirth ''. He has a very close sibling relationship with his sister Rafaella Beckran, and cemented this platonic closeness by tattooing her face on his arm, while Beckran tattooed her brothers eyes on her arm.
Neymar is a Christian, and follows the Pentacostal branch of the religion. Neymar has spoken about his faith saying: "Life only makes sense when our highest ideal is to serve Christ! '' Additionally, he has sometimes worn a headband with the words "100 % Jesus. ''. Neymar reportedly also tithes (10 %) his income to his church and has named Kaká as his religious role model. Each year, Neymar organizes a charity match with fellow Brazilian footballer Nenê in Nenê 's hometown of Jundiaí, with the purpose of raising food for needy families.
Neymar has signed many sponsorship deals since his reputation rapidly grew from the age of 17. In March 2011, he signed an 11 - year contract with American sportswear company Nike. In the same month, Panasonic paid US $2.4 million to secure Neymar 's services for two years. Prior to signing for Barcelona, France Football had ranked Neymar 13th in its list of the world 's richest players in 2012, with total earnings of $18.8 million for the previous 12 months. He has signed other sponsorships from Volkswagen, Tenys Pé Baruel, Lupo, Ambev, Claro, Unilever and Santander. All of his sponsorships have earned him a total of an estimated € 20 million per year.
On 8 May 2013, Neymar was rated by SportsPro magazine as the most marketable athlete in the world, ahead of Lionel Messi (2nd) and Cristiano Ronaldo (8th). In November 2012 advertising agency Loducca, created Neymar 's own personal brand logo, featuring the N, J and R (Neymar Junior) with the N styled to match Neymar 's shirt number 11. Neymar starred in a 2014 advert for Beats with other global football stars including Thierry Henry and Luis Suárez, with the theme of ' The Game Before The Game ' and the players pre-game ritual of listening to music.
Neymar was featured on the front covers of the video games Pro Evolution Soccer 2012 and Pro Evolution Soccer 2013 on the North American version, after Konami Digital Entertainment announced that he had joined Pro Evolution Soccer. Neymar joined Cristiano Ronaldo as a featured cover athlete.
Neymar appeared on the cover of Time magazine in February 2013, the first Brazilian athlete to be so honoured. The issue included an article by Bobby Ghosh entitled "The Next Pelé '' and subtitled "How the career of Brazilian football star Neymar explains his country 's economy ''.
Controversy erupted because of a cover by Brazilian football magazine Placar that depicted Neymar on a cross. The title read "A Crucificação de Neymar '' (the Crucifixion of Neymar) and subtitled: "the Brazilian ace turns scapegoat in a sport where everyone plays dirty ''.
In April 2013, Brazilian cartoonist Mauricio de Sousa released a Monica 's Gang comic book featuring a younger version of Neymar (called Neymar Jr) as the main character.
In May 2013, SportsPro magazine named Neymar as the most marketable athlete on the planet for the second consecutive year. He topped the list ahead of Lionel Messi, Rory McIlroy, Usain Bolt and Cristiano Ronaldo, among other sportspeople. The list measures the monetary value, the age, the force in domestic markets, the charisma and their market potential in the next three years. In March 2015, Neymar had the fourth highest social media rank in the world among sportspeople, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi and David Beckham, with 52 million Facebook fans. In ESPN 's list of active sportspeople in 2016, Neymar was ranked the fourth most famous athlete in the world.
To mark the World Cup commencing in Brazil, in June 2014, Neymar appeared with supermodel Gisele Bündchen on the front cover of Vogue 's Brazilian edition. In November 2014, Neymar appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Cristiano Ronaldo, Gareth Bale, Xavi and Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it.
In June 2016, actor Vin Diesel confirmed that Neymar would be a part of the action film xXx: Return of Xander Cage, appearing as himself. He appeared in the film 's first trailer, released on 20 July 2016. In April 2017, Neymar was included in the Time 100, Time magazine 's list of the most influential people in the world.
Neymar has become an icon in promoting Brazilian modern pop music, particularly Música sertaneja. The video in which Neymar dances in the Santos locker room dancing in front of teammates carrying his recorder making the round of the players and making them react to the tune of Michel Teló 's hit "Ai se eu te pego! '' went viral. He made a point of performing his dance antics to the song after scoring goals in football games and appeared live with Teló in one of the latter 's concerts. He also supported sertanejo singer Gusttavo Lima performing live with Lima on renditions of the singer 's hits "Balada '' and "Fazer Beber ''. In 2012, he made cameo appearances in the music video for yet another sertanejo hit "Eu Quero Tchu, Eu Quero Tcha '' by João Lucas & Marcelo. In 2013, Neymar appeared on a rap music video, "País do Futebol '' by MC Guimê.
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who has the most power in indian government | Government of India - Wikipedia
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The Government of India (IAST: Bhārata Sarakāra), often abbreviated as GoI, is the union government created by the constitution of India as the legislative, executive and judicial authority of the union of 29 states and seven union territories of a constitutionally democratic republic. It is located in New Delhi, the capital of India.
Modelled after the Westminster system for governing the state, the union government is mainly composed of the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary, in which all powers are vested by the constitution in parliament, the prime minister and the supreme court. The President of India is the head of state and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces whilst the elected prime minister acts as the head of the executive, and is responsible for running the union government. The parliament is bicameral in nature, with the Lok Sabha being the lower house, and the Rajya Sabha the upper house. The judiciary systematically contains an apex supreme court, 24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the supreme court.
The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the civil procedure code, the penal code, and the criminal procedure code. Similar to the union government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative and judiciary. The legal system as applicable to the union and individual state governments is based on the English Common and Statutory Law. The full name of the country is the Republic of India. India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India in the Constitution, and both names appears on legal banknotes, in treaties and in legal cases. The terms "union government '', "central government '' and "Bhārata Sarakāra '' are often used officially and unofficially to refer to the Government of India. The term New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the central government, as the seat of government is in New Delhi.
The powers of the legislature in India are exercised by the Parliament, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. Of the two houses of parliament, the Rajya Sabha is considered to be the upper house or the Council of States and consists of members appointed by the president and elected by the state and territorial legislatures. The Lok Sabha is considered the lower house or the House of the people.
The parliament does not have complete control and sovereignty, as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court. However, it does exercise some control over the executive. The members of the cabinet, including the prime minister, are either chosen from parliament or elected thereto within six months of assuming office. The cabinet as a whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can be dissolved only when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and can never be dissolved. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a six - year term.
The executive of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers.
The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, as per Article 53 (1) of the constitution. The president has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53 (1). The president is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the prime minister, who leads the council of ministers as described in Article 74 of the Constitution of India.
The council of ministers remains in power during the ' pleasure ' of the president. However, in practice, the council of ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a president were to dismiss the council of ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the council of ministers can not be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The president is responsible for appointing many high officials in India. These high officials include the governors of the 29 states; the chief justice; other judges of the supreme court and high courts on the advice of other judges; the Attorney general; the Comptroller and Auditor General; the Chief Election Commissioner and other election commissioners; the chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission; the officers of the All India Services (IAS, IFoS and IPS) and central civil services in group ' A '; and the ambassadors and high commissioners to other countries on the recommendations of the cabinet.
The president, as the head of state, also receives the credentials of ambassadors from other countries, whilst the prime minister, as head of government, receives credentials of high commissioners from other members of the Commonwealth, in line with historical tradition.
The president is the de jure commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the president exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the prime minister.
The vice president is the second highest constitutional position in India after the president. The vice president represents the nation in the absence of the president and takes charge as acting president in the incident of resignation impeachment or removal of the president. The vice president also has the legislative function of acting as the chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The vice president is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both the houses of the parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot conducted by the election commission.
The Prime Minister of India, as addressed in the Constitution of India, is the chief of the government, chief adviser to the president, head of the council of ministers and the leader of the majority party in the parliament. The prime minister leads the executive of the Government of India.
The prime minister is the senior member of cabinet in the executive of government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within the Government; is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet and is responsible for bringing a proposal of legislation. The resignation or death of the prime minister dissolves the cabinet.
The prime minister is appointed by the president to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive.
The Cabinet of India includes the prime minister and his cabinet ministers. Each minister must be a member of one of the houses of the parliament. The cabinet is headed by the prime minister, and is advised by the cabinet secretary, who also acts as the head of the Indian Administrative Service and other civil services. Other ministers are either as union cabinet ministers, who are heads of the various ministries; or ministers of state, who are junior members who report directly to one of the cabinet ministers, often overseeing a specific aspect of government; or ministers of state (independent charges), who do not report to a cabinet minister. As per article 88 of the constitution, every minister shall have the right to speak in, and to take part in the proceedings of, either house, any joint sitting of the houses, and any committee of parliament of which he may be named a member, but shall not be entitled to a vote in the house where he is not a member.
A secretary to the Government of India, a civil servant, generally an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, is the administrative head of the ministry or department, and is the principal adviser to the minister on all matters of policy and administration within the ministry / department. Secretaries to the Government of India rank 23rd on Indian order of precedence. Secretaries at the higher level are assisted by one or many additional secretaries, who are further assisted by joint secretaries. At the middle they are assisted by directors / deputy secretaries and under secretaries. At the lower level, there are section officers, assistant section officers, upper division clerks, lower division clerks and other secretarial staff.
The Civil Services of India are the civil services and the permanent bureaucracy of India. The executive decisions are implemented by the Indian civil servants.
In the parliamentary democracy of India, the ultimate responsibility for running the administration rests with the elected representatives of the people which are the ministers. These ministers are accountable to the legislatures which are also elected by the people on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The ministers are indirectly responsible to the people themselves. But the handful of ministers are not expected to deal personally with the various problems of modern administration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for the civil servants to enforce it.
The cabinet secretary (IAST: Maṃtrimaṇḍala Saciva) is the top-most executive official and senior-most civil servant of the Government of India. The cabinet secretary is the ex-officio head of the Civil Services Board, the Cabinet Secretariat, the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and head of all civil services under the rules of business of the government.
The cabinet secretary is generally the senior-most officer of the Indian Administrative Service. The cabinet secretary ranks 11th on the Indian order of precedence. The cabinet secretary is under the direct charge of the prime minister.
India 's independent union judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo - Saxon countries. The Supreme Court of India consists of the chief justice and 30 associate justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. The jury trials were abolished in India in the early 1960s, after the famous case KM Nanavati v. State of Maharashtra, for reasons of being vulnerable to media and public pressure, as well as to being misled.
Unlike its United States counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and union level. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of India, high courts at the state level, and district courts and sessions courts at the district level.
The Supreme Court of India is situated in New Delhi, the capital region of India.
The supreme court is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court, with the power of constitutional review. Consisting of the Chief Justice of India and 30 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.
As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the high courts of various states of the Union and other courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and settles disputes between various governments in the country. As an advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it under the constitution by the president. It also may take cognisance of matters on its own (or ' suo moto '), without anyone drawing its attention to them. The law declared by the supreme court becomes binding on all courts within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142, it is the duty of the President to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.
In addition, Article 32 of the constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the supreme court in regard to enforcing fundamental rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The supreme court has been conferred with power to direct transfer of any civil or criminal case from one state high court to another state high court, or from a court subordinate to another state high court and the supreme court. Although the proceedings in the supreme court arise out of the judgment or orders made by the subordinate courts, of late the supreme court has started entertaining matters in which interest of the public at large is involved. This may be done by any individual or group of persons either by filing a writ petition at the filing counter of the court, or by addressing a letter to the Chief Justice of India, highlighting the question of public importance for redress. These are known as public interest litigations.
India has a quasi-federal form of government, called "union '' or "central '' government, with elected officials at the union, state and local levels. At the national level, the head of government, the prime minister, is appointed by the President of India from the party or coalition that has the majority of seats in the Lok Sabha. The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected for a term of five years by universal adult suffrage through a first - past - the - post voting system. Members of the Rajya Sabha, which represents the states, are elected by the members of State legislative assemblies by proportional representation, except for 12 members who are nominated by the president.
India is currently the largest democracy in the world, with around 834 million eligible voters, as of 2014.
State governments in India are the governments ruling States of India and the chief minister heads the state government. Power is divided between union government and state governments. State government 's legislature is bicameral in 7 states and unicameral in the rest. Lower house is elected with 5 years term, while in upper house 1 / 3 of the total members in the house gets elected every 2 years with 6 - year term.
Local government function at the basic level. It is the third level of government apart from union and state governments. It consists of panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. They are elected directly or indirectly by the people.
India has a three - tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union government to levy income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions, excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by the state government to levy property tax and charge users for public utilities like water supply, sewage etc. More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which 3 / 4 come from direct taxes. More than a quarter of the union government 's tax revenues is shared with the state governments.
The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions:
The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services.
Inter-state share in the union tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission to the president.
Total tax receipts of Centre and State amount to approximately 18 % of national GDP. This compares to a figure of 37 -- 45 % in the OECD.
The Finance minister of India usually presents the annual union budget in the parliament on the last working day of February. However, for the F.Y. 2017 - 18, this tradition had been changed. Now budget will be presented on the 1st day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha before it can come into effect on 1 April, the start of India 's fiscal year. The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year
India 's non-development revenue expenditure had increased nearly five-fold in 2003 -- 04 since 1990 -- 91 and more than tenfold since 1985 -- 1986. Interest payments are the single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40 % of the total non-development expenditure in the 2003 -- 04 budget. Defense expenditure increased fourfold during the same period and has been increasing because of India 's desire to project its military prowess beyond South Asia. In 2007, India 's defence spending stood at US $26.5 billion.
Several ministers are accused of corruption and nearly a quarter of the 543 elected members of parliament had been charged with crimes, including murder, in 2009. Many of the biggest scandals since 2010 have involved high level government officials, including cabinet ministers and chief ministers, such as the 2010 Commonwealth Games scam (₹ 70,000 crore (equivalent to ₹ 1.1 trillion or US $16 billion in 2017)), the Adarsh Housing Society scam, the Coal Mining Scam (₹ 1.86 lakh crore (equivalent to ₹ 3.0 trillion or US $43 billion in 2017)), the mining scandal in Karnataka and the cash for vote scandal.
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where should you pour a drink using a thimble measure | Alcoholic spirits measure - wikipedia
Alcoholic spirits measures are instruments designed to measure exact amounts or shots of alcoholic spirits.
The most common products used today to measure spirits are the thimble measure and the non-drip measure, often referred to as an optic. The terms Optic, Optic Pearl, OpticJade and OpticOpal are all trademarks of Gaskell & Chambers owned by the company IMI Cornelius (UK) Ltd, but the word "optic '' has become synonymous with inverted or non-drip spirit measures. Other manufacturers, such as Beaumont TM, also supply this type of measuring device.
The optic or non-drip measure is mounted beneath an inverted spirit bottle, so that a pre-defined volume of the bottle 's contents drains into the measure. Lifting a lever on the side of the measure first closes off the measure from the bottle, then dispenses the measured liquid into the glass or mixing vessel held underneath. This mechanism ensures that a correct spirit measure can be dispensed each time, as the inverted bottle allows the measure to be replenished in the optic after each shot has been dispensed. These types of measures are commonly used for highly demanded drinks in professional bar settings, and are often incorporated into visually - appealing machines that serve both functional and marketing purposes for the liquor being poured. Bottles are available to the trade with their labels affixed upside down so that they will be the right way up when mounted on the optic.
The thimble measure is a stainless steel vessel, like a shot glass, either with predefined measuring lines etched or stamped into the sides, or else pre-sized so that pouring up to the brim of the measure yields the correct volume. This second variation is commonly seen in a double - thimble or "hourglass '' form, with two metal cups of different volumes (often in a 3: 2 or 2: 1 ratio, like a U.S. standard 1.5 fl oz "jigger '' and 1 fl oz "pony '', or UK standard 25 / 50mL or 35 / 70mL combos) spot - welded to each other at their relative bottom surfaces, possibly with a handle between them, allowing one unit to easily measure two common volumes.
Thimble measures are popular for home use, as they allow a relatively untrained person to pour quickly and accurately from several bottles without risking cross-contamination between them, or requiring the purchase, use and cleaning of a pour spout for each bottle as would be seen in a professional bar.
Common in U.S. bars, these devices consist of a simple rubber or plastic stopper with a metal or plastic tube fitted into it, and often a second smaller tube extending down into the bottle, designed to replace the cap or cork on a bottle of liquor. The spout, in the U.S., is usually calibrated to allow a flow of 1 fluid ounce per second, so that a bartender can measure accurate and consistent shots of liquor or portions for cocktails based on timed pours, without needing to use a jigger or other measuring device.
Common in U.S. bars, these devices appear visually to be the same as a free - flow pour spout, but have an internal mechanism to block the tube after a pre-defined and calibrated volume of liquid has passed, oftentimes a set of 2 or 3 balls. Because of the geometry, the bottle with one of these spouts needs to be held at a specific angle, typically 45 degrees, otherwise the volume poured will be under or over the stated calibration.
Common in France, where it is called a bouchon doseur boule, this device consists of a transparent T - shaped glass tube arrangement, with a ball on one end of the horizontal section, a cap or cork on the other end, and a cork or plastic bottle stopper on the bottom of the T, allowing the measure to replace the cap of a liquor bottle. In use, the bottle is inverted until the ball fills with liquor, and then tilted in the other direction to let the liquor pour out the spout in a manner that keeps additional liquor entering the measure from the bottle.
The Weights and Measures Act of 1963 made it illegal in Britain for businesses to give short weights or short measures to consumers. Before this there was no legislation, only guidelines as to the correct weight of an alcoholic spirit measure, and if spirit measures or optics were used, they required a government stamp to certify that the measure was accurate. This Act specified that only gin, rum, vodka and whisky were spirits and had to be served in the prescribed measured quantities using an approved optic measure. All other drinks are not spirits (for the purposes of the act) and could be free poured. Today, these other drinks may not be free poured, but must be measured, though the bar is free to chose the size of the measure (which must be advertised). In practice, most bars will use the same size measure as for the four spirits.
The 1963 Act formalized the legal measures by which spirits and other alcoholic beverages should be dispensed, namely 1 / 4 gill (35.5 ml), 1 / 5 gill (28.4 ml) or 1 / 6 gill (23.7 ml), but this was replaced in 1985 by 25ml for single measures, with double measures of 50ml being permitted. From 2001 single measures of either 25ml or 35ml were permitted. Landlords have the option to decide which quantitity they sell, with the difference being caused by historically larger measures being used in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The landlord can chose one or the other but not both.
Thimble measures are also used in 175ml and 250ml volumes for measuring wine. Although government stamped for the correct volume, the thimble measure does rely on the user measuring the wine out manually into the thimble.
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which part of the fallopian (uterine) tubes is responsible for catching the ovulated egg | Fimbriae of uterine tube - wikipedia
In the female reproductive system, the fimbria (plural, fimbriae) is a fringe of tissue around the ostium of the Fallopian tube, in the direction of the ovary.
An ovary is not directly connected to its adjacent Fallopian tube. When ovulation is about to occur, the sex hormones activate the fimbriae, causing it to swell with blood and hit the ovary in a gentle, sweeping motion. An oocyte is released from the ovary into the peritoneal cavity and the cilia of the fimbriae sweep the ovum into the Fallopian tube.
Of all fimbriae, one fimbria is long enough to reach the ovary. It is called fimbria ovarica.
Uterus and right broad ligament, seen from behind.
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Dataset Card for "nq"
Dataset Summary
This is a modified version of the original Natural Questions (nq) dataset for retrieval tasks. The original is availabe here.
It contains google queries and an entire stripped wikipedia article for each query.
Dataset Structure
Data Instances
An example of 'train' looks as follows.
{
"question": "who competes in miss universe miss america or miss usa",
"context": "Miss USA - Wikipedia\nThe Miss USA is an American beauty pageant that has been held annually since 1952 to select the Amer ...",
}
Data Fields
The data fields are the same among all splits.
question: astringfeature.context: astringfeature.
Additional Information
Licensing Information
This dataset is distributed under the cc-by-sa-3.0 license.
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