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when the supreme court announced the principle of one person one vote what did it mean | One man, one vote - wikipedia
One man, one vote (or one person, one vote) is a slogan used by advocates of political equality through various electoral reforms such as universal suffrage, proportional representation, or the elimination of plurality voting, malapportionment, or gerrymandering.
The British trade unionist George Howell used the phrase "one man, one vote '' in political pamphlets in 1880. During the 20th - century period of decolonisation and the struggles for national sovereignty, from the late 1940s onwards this phrase became widely used in developing countries where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.
The slogan was notably used by the anti-apartheid movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in South Africa.
In the United States, the "one person, one vote '' principle was invoked in a series of cases in the 1960s. Applying the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution, the Supreme Court majority opinion in Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that state legislatures needed to redistrict in order to have congressional districts with roughly equal represented populations. In addition, the court ruled that, unlike the United States Congress, both houses of state legislatures needed to have representation based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.
This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for suffrage reform. Historically the emphasis within the House of Commons was on representing areas: counties, boroughs and, later on, universities. The entitlement to vote for the Members of Parliament representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local - government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. Plural voting was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant wards.
Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive Reform Acts by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring convicts, lunatics and members of the House of Lords), and also reduced and finally eliminated most of the plural voting for both Westminster and local - government elections.
But, there were two significant exceptions:
The City of London had never expanded its boundaries and, with many residential dwellings being replaced by businesses, and the destruction of The Blitz, after the Second World War the financial district had barely five thousand residents altogether. The system of plural voting was retained for electing the City of London Corporation, with some modifications.
When Northern Ireland was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But, the Parliament of Northern Ireland did not follow Westminster in changes to the franchise up to 1950. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed for both Parliament and local government. This meant that in local council elections only ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote while company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company 's status. University representation continued at Stormont to 1969, while it was abolished for Westminster in 1948. Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to Unionist electoral success in controlling councils in Nationalist - majority areas.
Based on a number of inequities, the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local elections (national elections followed the same eligibility rules as the rest of the UK). The slogan "one man, one vote '' became a rallying cry for this campaign. The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules, which were implemented for the Northern Ireland general election, 1969.
The United States Constitution requires a decennial census for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the 1920 Census was effectively skipped pending resolution by the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congressional seats have been reapportioned based on population changes between states. State legislatures initially established election of congressional representatives from districts, often based on traditional counties or parishes which preceded founding of the new government. The question arose as to whether the state legislatures were required to ensure that congressional districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.
Some states redrew their U.S. House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by a change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, this led to a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect -- since each district elected the same number of representatives -- a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting "power '' of a 2nd - district voter. Alabama 's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under - represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. They paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.
The Constitution includes the result of the Great Compromise resulting in representation for the US Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The Founding Fathers considered this principle of such importance that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see Article V of the United States Constitution. For this reason, "one person, one vote '' has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often led to state senators having widely varying amounts of power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal to senators representing much greater urban populations.
Activism in the Civil Rights Movement to regain the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama due to the lack of reapportionment, for decades.
In Colegrove v. Green, 328 U.S. 549 (1946) the United States Supreme Court held in a 4 - 3 plurality decision that Article I, Section 4 left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
However, in Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962) the United States Supreme Court overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment were not exempt from judicial review under Article IV, Section 4, as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.
The "one person, one vote '' doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further cemented in the cases that followed Baker v. Carr, including Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368 (1963) which concerned state county districts, Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964) which concerned state legislature districts, Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1964) which concerned U.S. Congressional districts and Avery v. Midland County, 390 U.S. 474 (1968) which concerned local government districts, a decision which was upheld in Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris, 489 U.S. 688 (1989). Evenwel v. Abbott (2016) said states may use total population in drawing districts.
Under the ' M.P.V. System ', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter 's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a ' M.P.V. System ' is like that of a run - off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor 's election of its Mayor does not violate the one - man, one - vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.
The term "One man, one vote, once '' has been applied to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Zambia, and Angola, where elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence, but then a strongman took hold and free voting ended.
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who is playing jack's mother on the young and the restless | Marla Adams - Wikipedia
Marla Adams (born August 28, 1938; Ocean City, New Jersey) is an American television actress, best known for her roles as Belle Clemens on The Secret Storm, from 1968 to 1974, and as Dina Abbott Mergeron on The Young and the Restless. As Belle Clemens, she was the show 's reigning villainess for the last years of its run, stopping at almost nothing to destroy the life of the show 's leading heroine, Amy Ames. Like Vicky and Dorian later on One Life to Live, the two rivals were at one time related through marriage. As Dina Abbott on The Young and the Restless from 1983 to 1986, in 1991 and again in 1996, she caused major disruptions in the lives of her three children and ex-husband John Abbott and his wife Jill. She reprised her role as Dina for three episodes on The Young and the Restless in 2008 when Katharine Chancellor was presumed dead. In May 2017, Adams returned to The Young and the Restless.
Right before joining The Young and the Restless, she stepped into the role of the scheming Myrna Clegg, on the defunct daytime drama Capitol after the departure of actress Carolyn Jones who had left for health reasons, prior to Marj Dusay, who remained until the end of the show 's run. As Helen Mullin on Generations, she was involved in a storyline involving racism, although it was her character 's husband, Charles, who was the racist even though he was revealed to have a black mistress. She was the third actress to play Beth Logan, Brooke (Katherine Kelly Lang), Donna (Carrie Mitchum, now Jennifer Gareis), and Katie 's (Nancy Sloan, now Heather Tom) mother on The Bold and the Beautiful (1991). In 1999, she appeared on Days of Our Lives as snooty Dr. Claire McIntyre.
Adams appeared on Broadway in the 1958 production of "The Visit '' at the Morosco Theatre with Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne.
2000 "Walker, Texas Ranger '' Betsy Harper)
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who has scored the most goals in english football | Football Records in England - wikipedia
This article concerns football records in England. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from the Football League or Premier League. Where a different record exists for the top flight (Football League First Division 1888 -- 1992, and Premier League 1992 --), this is also given.
Records in this section refer to the English Football Pyramid
Both players came on as a substitute and elbowed / pushed an opponent before the game had been restarted.
These tables list the clubs that have won elite honours an English record number of times. It lists all international competitions organised by UEFA and FIFA. It also lists elite competitions organised by the English governing bodies the English Football League, the Premier League, and The Football Association; those competitions where clubs would n't have qualified for a higher alternative competition, and those which were neither invitational nor regional.
This table follows the elite criteria above. It also includes any competitions that were not directly run by the governing bodies but were precursors to such competitions.
(*) This is also a joint overall European record.
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apple lcd cinema display (30-inch dvi) m9179ll/a | Apple Cinema Display - wikipedia
The Apple Cinema Display is a line of flat - panel computer monitors developed and sold by Apple Inc. between 1999 and 2011. It was initially sold alongside the older line of Studio Displays, but eventually replaced them. Apple offered 20 -, 22 -, 23 -, 24 -, 27 - and 30 - inch sizes, with the last model being a 27 - inch size with LED backlighting.
There have been three designs for the Cinema Display, one featuring polycarbonate plastic and two featuring anodized aluminum. The first displays were designed to match the colorful plastic of the Power Mac G3 and later the Power Mac G4, while the second revisions were designed to match the aluminum aesthetics of the Power Mac G5 and PowerBook G4. The last available design matched the unibody laptops released in October 2008.
The Apple Cinema Display name was retired in July 2011 with the introduction of the Apple Thunderbolt Display, and the Cinema Display models were no longer offered on the Apple Store website as of August 2014.
The first model -- the 22 - inch Apple Cinema Display -- was introduced in September 1999 alongside the Power Mac G4 and used DVI for video input. It was enclosed in a high - density plastic frame with an easel - style stand and had a display resolution of 1600 × 1024. This model was upgraded in July 2000 with the Apple Display Connector (ADC), which ran DVI, USB, and 28V power through a single connector. It was eventually replaced by a 20 - inch model on January 28, 2003, that sported a widescreen display with up to 1680 × 1050 resolution and a brightness of 230 cd / m2.
The 20 '' Cinema Display was updated again June 28, 2004 to match the aluminum design of the new Cinema HD Display. It retained the 1680x1050 resolution of the previous model but saw its brightness increased to 250 cd / m2, and was introduced at a $1,299 USD price point. Apple continued to sell this display with no further changes until February 2009.
The 23 - inch model, dubbed the "Cinema HD Display, '' was introduced on March 20, 2002, and supported full 1: 1 1080p playback on a 1920x1200 pixel display.
On June 28, 2004, Apple introduced a redesigned line of Cinema Displays, along with a new 30 - inch model that, like the 23 - inch model, carried the "Cinema HD Display '' name. The new models had an anodized aluminum enclosure that matched Apple 's high - end lines of professional products. An alternative stand or a wall mount could be used with a VESA mount adapter kit that was sold separately. Though the display enclosures had not been redesigned for a long period of time, several "silent '' improvements were made to the brightness levels and contrast ratios.
Due to the high resolution (2560 × 1600), the 30 - inch model requires a graphics card that supports dual - link DVI. Currently, no Macintosh is sold with a dual - link DVI port. However, all current Macs come with a Thunderbolt connector which can be used with a separately sold adapter to run the 30 - inch display.
All Power Mac G5, PowerBook G4 15 or 17 inch and Mac Pro Mid 2006 to Mid 2010 models from are capable of supporting it without the use of any adapters. Discrete MacBook Pros are also capable of driving the 30 - inch display, while all Macs released after October 2008 require an additional adapter. The 30 - inch Cinema Display was introduced together with the GeForce 6800, which supports two DVI - DL ports. ATI 's aftermarket AGP X800 Mac Edition also supports dual - link DVI, but has only one port. The Radeon 9600 Mac / PC was another aftermarket graphics card that supported dual - link DVI and was also compatible with older AGP - based Power Macs.
If a computer with a single - link DVI port (such as a Mac laptop with a mini-DVI connector) is connected to the 30 - inch display, it will only run at 1280 × 800, even if the computer is capable of supporting 1920 × 1200 over a single - link connection.
On October 14, 2008, the 23 - inch Cinema HD Display was replaced with a 24 - inch model made with aluminium and glass, reflecting the appearances of the latest iMac, MacBook Pro and unibody MacBook designs. The display features a built - in iSight camera, microphone and dual speaker system. A MagSafe cable runs from the back of the display for charging notebooks. It is the first Cinema Display to use LED backlighting and Mini DisplayPort for video input; however, the LED backlighting is edge - lit as opposed to the fully back - lit CCFL of the previous models, resulting in a lower brightness cd / m output. This display is only officially compatible with Macs that have the Mini DisplayPort connector. A third - party converter must be used in order to use this display with older Macs.
With the introduction of LCD panels, the matte, anti-glare screen panels were retired, except for the 30 '' Cinema Display. Apple had already moved away from matte screens in its line of iMac desktop computers on August 7, 2007. Apple no longer offers any equipment with a matte, anti-glare screen after the 15 '' non-Retina MacBook Pro was discontinued in October 2013. This has caused concern among users who want matte screens for their particular area of work, particularly graphic designers, photographers and users who extensively view their screens. Matte screens, like matte - surface photographs, diffuse reflected light and so can not provide for as deep blacks as glossy screens.
The Wall Street Journal referred to Apple 's removal of the matte screen as one of Apple 's worst design decisions.
On July 26, 2010, the 24 - inch and 30 - inch Cinema Displays were replaced by a 27 - inch model that supports up to 2560 × 1440 resolution. This model was sold for $999 USD.
On July 20, 2011, the LED Cinema Display was discontinued, and replaced by the Apple Thunderbolt Display.
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who has propounded the two factor theory of motivation | Two - factor theory - wikipedia
The two - factor theory (also known as Herzberg 's motivation - hygiene theory and dual - factor theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.
Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Abraham Maslow 's theory of motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes toward administration. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower - order needs at work; for example, those needs associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher - level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. This appears to parallel Maslow 's theory of a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two - factor model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives leads to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate set of job characteristics leads to dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in dissatisfaction.
The two - factor theory developed from data collected by Herzberg from interviews with 203 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area, chosen because of their professions ' growing importance in the business world. Regarding the collection process:
The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis - satisfiers (company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job satisfaction.
From analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does -- that is, to the nature of the work one performs -- apparently have the capacity to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self - realization, thus making him happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable assessments of such job - related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself -- the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and for achieving self - realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment -- policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. If management is equally concerned with both, then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
Two - factor theory distinguishes between:
According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are what causes dissatisfaction among employees in a workplace. In order to remove dissatisfaction in a work environment, these hygiene factors must be eliminated. There are several ways that this can be done but some of the most important ways to decrease dissatisfaction would be to pay reasonable wages, ensure employees job security, and to create a positive culture in the workplace. Herzberg considered the following hygiene factors from highest to lowest importance: company policy, supervision, employee 's relationship with their boss, work conditions, salary, and relationships with peers. Eliminating dissatisfaction is only one half of the task of the two factor theory. The other half would be to increase satisfaction in the workplace. This can be done by improving on motivating factors. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Herzberg also further classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related action because you have to then that is classed as "movement '', but if you perform a work related action because you want to then that is classed as "motivation ''. Herzberg thought it was important to eliminate job dissatisfaction before going onto creating conditions for job satisfaction because it would work against each other.
According to the Two - Factor Theory there are four possible combinations:
Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation - hygiene theory, although their work has been criticized on methodological grounds.
Herzberg 's theory concentrates on the importance of internal job factors as motivating forces for employees. He designed it to increase job enrichment for employees. Herzberg wanted to create the opportunity for employees to take part in planning, performing, and evaluating their work. He suggested to do this by:
In 1968 Herzberg stated that his two - factor theory study had already been replicated 16 times in a wide variety of populations including some in Communist countries, and corroborated with studies using different procedures that agreed with his original findings regarding intrinsic employee motivation making it one of the most widely replicated studies on job attitudes.
One such replication was done by George Hines and published in December 1973 in the Journal of Applied Psychology. Hines tested Herzberg 's two - factor motivation theory in New Zealand, using ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction obtained from 218 middle managers and 196 salaried employees. Contrary to dichotomous motivator - hygiene predictions, supervision and interpersonal relationships were ranked highly by those with high job satisfaction, and there was strong agreement between satisfied managers and salaried employees in the relative importance of job factors. Findings are interpreted in terms of social and employment conditions in New Zealand.
While the Motivator - Hygiene concept is still well regarded, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are generally no longer considered to exist on separate scales. The separation of satisfaction and dissatisfaction has been shown to be an artifact of the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) used by Herzberg to record events. Furthermore, it has been noted the theory does not allow for individual differences, such as particular personality traits, which would affect individuals ' unique responses to motivating or hygiene factors.
A number of behavioral scientists have pointed to inadequacies in the need for hierarchy and motivation - hygiene theories. The most basic is the criticism that both of these theories contain the relatively explicit assumption that happy and satisfied workers produce more, even though this might not be the case. For example, if playing a better game of golf is the means chosen to satisfy one 's need for recognition, then one will find ways to play and think about golf more often, perhaps resulting in a lower output on the job due to a lower amount of focus. Another problem is that these and other statistical theories are concerned with explaining "average '' behavior, despite considerable differences between individuals that may impact one 's motivational factors. For instance, in their pursuit of status a person might take a balanced view and strive to pursue several behavioral paths in an effort to achieve a combination of personal status objectives.
In other words, an individual 's expectation or estimated probability that a given behavior will bring a valued outcome determines their choice of means and the effort they will devote to these means. In effect, this diagram of expectancy depicts an employee asking themselves the question posed by one investigator, "How much payoff is there for me toward attaining a personal goal while expending so much effort toward the achievement of an assigned organizational objective? '' The expectancy theory by Victor Vroom also provides a framework for motivation based on expectations.
This approach to the study and understanding of motivation would appear to have certain conceptual advantages over other theories: First, unlike Maslow 's and Herzberg 's theories, it is capable of handling individual differences. Second, its focus is toward the present and the future, in contrast to drive theory, which emphasizes past learning. Third, it specifically correlates behavior to a goal and thus eliminates the problem of assumed relationships, such as between motivation and performance. Fourth, it relates motivation to ability: Performance = Motivation * Ability.
That said, a study by the Gallup Organization, as detailed in the book First, Break All the Rules: What the World 's Greatest Managers Do by Marcus Buckingham and Curt Coffman, appears to provide strong support for Herzberg 's division of satisfaction and dissatisfaction onto two separate scales. In this book, the authors discuss how the study identified twelve questions that provide a framework for determining high - performing individuals and organizations. These twelve questions align squarely with Herzberg 's motivation factors, while hygiene factors were determined to have little effect on motivating high performance.
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where was the film the birthday party filmed | The birthday party (film) - wikipedia
The Birthday Party is a 1968 British drama film directed by William Friedkin, and starring Robert Shaw, based on the 1957 play The Birthday Party by Harold Pinter. The screenplay for the film was written by Pinter as well. The film, and the play, are considered examples of "comedy of menace '', a genre associated with Pinter.
The film was a passion project for Friedkin, who had been a fan of the play, and he remained proud of the film after its release, though it was a box office disappointment.
A man in his late 30s named Stanley is staying at a seaside boarding house, when he is visited by two menacing and mysterious strangers, Goldberg and McCann. Stanley 's neighbour, Lulu, brings him a parcel, which contains a boy 's toy drum, presented to Stanley as his "birthday present. '' Goldberg and McCann offer to host Stanley 's birthday party after his landlady, Meg, tells them that it is Stanley 's birthday, although Stanley protests that it is really not his birthday. Through the course of the party, the actions of Goldberg and McCann eventually break down Stanley, and they take him away from the house, purportedly to get medical attention (from "Monty '') in their car. Meg 's husband Petey (who did not attend the party because he was out playing chess) calls after Stanley: "Stan, do n't let them tell you what to do ''. Meg, still somewhat hung over, is unaware that Stanley has been taken away, since Petey has not told her, and she tells him that she was "the belle of the ball. ''
The movie was a passion project of director William Friedkin who called it "the first film I really wanted to make, understood and felt passionate about ''. He had first seen the play in San Francisco in 1962, and managed to get the film version funded by Edgar Scherick at Palomar Pictures, in part because it could be made relatively cheaply. Pinter wrote the screenplay himself and was heavily involved in casting. "To this day I do n't think our cast could have been improved, '' wrote Friedkin later.
There was a ten - day rehearsal period and the shoot went smoothly. Friedkin says the only tense exchange he had with Pinter in a year of working together came when Joseph Losey saw the movie and requested through Pinter that Friedkin cut out a mirror shot as it was too close to Losey 's style; Friedkin refused as "I was n't about to destroy the film 's continuity to mollify Losey 's ego ''.
Max Rosenberg, best known for his horror movies for Amicus Productions, had been called in by Palomar as line producer.
In his film review, published in The Nation on 6 January 1969, critic Harold Clurman described the film as "a fantasia of fear and prosecution, '' adding that "Pinter 's ear is so keen, his method so economic and so shrewdly stylized, balancing humdrum realistic notations with suggestions of unfathomable violence, that his play succeeds in being both funny and horrific ''.
The reviewer of the Evening Standard observed, in a description of the film published on 12 February 1970, that the film, like the play, is "a study of domination that sows doubts, terrors, shuddering illuminations and terrifying apprehensions inside the four walls of a living - room in a seaside boarding - house where Stanley, (Robert Shaw), the lodger, has taken refuge from some guilt, crime, treachery, in fact Some Thing never named ''.
The film earned rentals of $50,000 in North America and $350,000 in other countries. After all costs were deducted, it recorded an overall loss of $725,000.
However, Friedkin later said it was "a film of which I 'm proud. The cast played it to perfection. With the exception of an occasional over-the - top directorial flourish I think I captured Pinter 's world. The time I spent with him and the many conversations we had were the most invaluable and instructive of my career. ''
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who fought on the western front during ww1 | Western Front (World War I) - wikipedia
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The Western Front was the main theatre of war during the First World War. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France, which changed little except during early 1917 and in 1918.
Between 1915 and 1917 there were several offensives along this front. The attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. Entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties during attacks and counter-attacks and no significant advances were made. Among the most costly of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun, in 1916, with a combined 700,000 casualties (estimated), the Battle of the Somme, also in 1916, with more than a million casualties (estimated), and the Battle of Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres), in 1917, with 487,000 casualties (estimated).
To break the deadlock of trench warfare on the Western Front, both sides tried new military technology, including poison gas, aircraft and tanks. The adoption of better tactics and the cumulative weakening of the armies in the west led to the return of mobility in 1918. The German Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that ended the war of the Central Powers against Russia and Romania on the Eastern Front. Using short, intense "hurricane '' bombardments and infiltration tactics, the German armies moved nearly 100 kilometres (60 miles) to the west, the deepest advance by either side since 1914, but the result was indecisive.
The inexorable advance of the Allied armies during the second half of 1918 caused a sudden collapse of the German armies and persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable. The German government surrendered in the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and the terms of peace were settled by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
At the outbreak of the First World War, the German Army, with seven field armies in the west and one in the east, executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, moving quickly through neutral Belgium to attack France, and then turning southwards to encircle the French Army and trap it on the German border. The Western Front was the place where the most powerful military forces in Europe, the German and French armies, met and where the war was decided. Belgian neutrality had been guaranteed by Britain under the Treaty of London, 1839; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914. Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5 -- 16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, falling to the Germans on 20 August. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20 -- 23 August.
The French deployed five armies on the frontier. The French Plan XVII was intended to bring about the capture of Alsace - Lorraine. On 7 August, the VII Corps attacked Alsace to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with the First and Second Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg - Morhange in Lorraine. In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French Third and Fourth Armies advanced toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau but were repulsed. The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after a brief engagement on 7 August but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced a French retreat.
The German Army swept through Belgium, executing civilians and razing villages. The application of "collective responsibility '' against a civilian population further galvanised the allies. Newspapers condemned the German invasion, violence against civilians and destruction of property, which became known as the "Rape of Belgium ''. After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the Ardennes, the Germans advanced into northern France in late August, where they met the French Army, under Joseph Joffre, and the divisions of the British Expeditionary Force under Field Marshal Sir John French. A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued, which included the Battle of Charleroi and the Battle of Mons. In the former battle the French Fifth Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day. A general Allied retreat followed, resulting in more clashes at the Battle of Le Cateau, the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin (also called the First Battle of Guise).
The German Army came within 70 km (43 mi) of Paris but at the First Battle of the Marne (6 -- 12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German retirement, the opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres, known as the Race for the Sea and quickly extended their trench systems from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The territory occupied by Germany held 64 percent of French pig - iron production, 24 percent of its steel manufacturing and 40 percent of the coal industry -- dealing a serious blow to French industry.
On the Entente side (those countries opposing the German alliance), the final lines were occupied with the armies of each nation defending a part of the front. From the coast in the north, the primary forces were from Belgium, the British Empire and then France. Following the Battle of the Yser in October, the Belgian army controlled a 35 km (22 mi) length of West Flanders along the coast, known as the Yser Front, along the Yser river and the Yperlee canal, from Nieuwpoort to Boesinghe. Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) occupied a position on the flank, having previous occupied a more central position.
From 19 October until 22 November, the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres, which ended in a mutually - costly stalemate. After the battle, Erich von Falkenhayn judged that it was no longer possible for Germany to win the war by purely military means and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution. The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg, Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg, commanding Ober Ost (Eastern Front high command), and Hindenburg 's deputy, Erich Ludendorff, continued to believe that victory was achievable through decisive battles. During the Lodz offensive in Poland (11 -- 25 November), Falkenhayn hoped that the Russians would be made amenable to peace overtures. In his discussions with Bethmann - Hollweg, Falkenhayn viewed Germany and Russia as having no insoluble conflict and that the real enemies of Germany were France and Britain. A peace with only a few annexations of territory also seemed possible with France and that with Russia and France out of the war by negotiated settlements, Germany could concentrate on Britain and fight a long war with the resources of Europe at its disposal. Hindenburg and Ludendorff continued to believe that Russia could be defeated by a series of battles which cumulatively would have a decisive effect, after which Germany could finish off France and Britain.
Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line, named the Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near Compiègne. Joffre 's plan for 1915 was to attack the salient on both flanks to cut it off. The Fourth Army had attacked in Champagne from 20 December 1914 -- 17 March 1915 but the French were not able to attack in Artois at the same time. The Tenth Army formed the northern attack force and was to attack eastwards into the Douai plain across a 16 - kilometre (9.9 mi) front between Loos and Arras. On 10 March, as part of the larger offensive in the Artois region, the British Army fought the Battle of Neuve Chapelle to capture Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions along a 2 mi (3.2 km) front. Preceded by a surprise bombardment lasting only 35 minutes, the initial assault made rapid progress and the village was captured within four hours. The advance then slowed because of supply and communication difficulties. The Germans brought up reserves and counter-attacked, forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about one - third of their supply of artillery ammunition, General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of ammunition, despite the early success.
All sides had signed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare. In 1914, there had been small - scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use various tear gases, which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties but which were also ineffective. The first use of more lethal chemical weapons was against the French near the Belgian town of Ypres.
Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, commander of the 4th Army planned an offensive at Ypres, site of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. The Second Battle of Ypres, April 1915, was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco - British planning. After a two - day bombardment, the Germans released a cloud of 168 long tons (171 t) of chlorine gas onto the battlefield. Though primarily a powerful irritant, it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure. Being heavier than air, the gas crept across no man 's land and drifted into the French trenches. The green - yellow cloud started killing some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic, creating an undefended 3.7 - mile (6 km) gap in the Allied line. The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening. Canadian troops on the right drew back their left flank and halted the German advance. The gas attack was repeated two days later and caused a 3.1 mi (5 km) withdrawal of the Franco - British line but the opportunity had been lost.
The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures. An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch 40 km (25 mi) to the south of Ypres, where the 16th (Irish) Division withstood several German gas attacks. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German. French, British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war, developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915, then the infamous mustard gas in 1917, which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully. Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued.
Specialised aeroplanes for aerial combat were introduced in 1915. Aircraft were already in use for scouting and on 1 April, the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy aircraft by using a machine - gun that shot forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades to deflect bullets. Several weeks later Garros force - landed behind German lines. His aeroplane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker, who soon produced a significant improvement, the interrupter gear, in which the machine gun is synchronised with the propeller so it fires in the intervals when the blades of the propeller are out of the line of fire. This advance was quickly ushered into service, in the Fokker E.I (Eindecker, or monoplane, Mark 1), the first single seat fighter aircraft to combine a reasonable maximum speed with an effective armament. Max Immelmann scored the first confirmed kill in an Eindecker on 1 August. Both sides developed improved weapons, engines, airframes and materials, until the end of the war. It also inaugurated the cult of the ace, the most famous being Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). Contrary to the myth, anti-aircraft fire claimed more kills than fighters.
The final Entente offensive of the spring was the Second Battle of Artois, an offensive to capture Vimy Ridge and advance into the Douai plain. The French Tenth Army attacked on 9 May after a six - day bombardment and advanced 5 kilometres (3 mi) to capture Vimy Ridge. German reinforcements counter-attacked and pushed the French back towards their starting points because French reserves had been held back and the success of the attack had come as a surprise. By 15 May the advance had been stopped, although the fighting continued until 18 June. In May the German Army captured a French document at La Ville - aux - Bois describing a new system of defence. Rather than relying on a heavily fortified front line, the defence was to be arranged in a series of echelons. The front line would be a thinly manned series of outposts, reinforced by a series of strongpoints and a sheltered reserve. If a slope was available, troops were deployed along the rear side for protection. The defence became fully integrated with command of artillery at the divisional level. Members of the German high command viewed this new scheme with some favour and it later became the basis of an elastic defence in depth doctrine against Entente attacks.
During the autumn of 1915, the "Fokker Scourge '' began to have an effect on the battlefront as Allied reconnaissance aircraft were nearly driven from the skies. These reconnaissance planes were used to direct gunnery and photograph enemy fortifications but now the Allies were nearly blinded by German fighters. However, the impact of German air superiority was diminished by their primarily defensive doctrine in which they tended to remain over their own lines, rather than fighting over Allied held territory.
In September 1915 the Entente allies launched another offensive, with the French Third Battle of Artois, Second Battle of Champagne and the British at Loos. The French had spent the summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography, began on 22 September. The main French assault was launched on 25 September and, at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. Rather than retreating, the Germans adopted a new defence - in - depth scheme that consisted of a series of defensive zones and positions with a depth of up to 8.0 km (5 mi).
On 25 September, the British began the Battle of Loos, part of the Third Battle of Artois, which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack. The attack was preceded by a four - day artillery bombardment of 250,000 shells and a release of 5,100 cylinders of chlorine gas. The attack involved two corps in the main assault and two corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres. The British suffered heavy losses, especially due to machine gun fire during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells. A renewal of the attack on 13 October fared little better. In December, French was replaced by General Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces.
Falkenhayn believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to "bleed France white ''. As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and national pride and thus trap the French. The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris.
Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 5 -- 6 kilometres (3 -- 4 mi) to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery - observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May, the French countered by deploying escadrilles de chasse with superior Nieuport fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for air superiority.
The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine - day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight - hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. Sporadic French resistance was encountered. The Germans took Fort Douaumont and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February.
The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive - minded Philippe Pétain to the offensive - minded Robert Nivelle, the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured Fort Vaux on 7 June and with the aid of diphosgene gas, came within 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) of the last ridge before Verdun before being contained on 23 June.
Over the summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the rolling barrage, the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) from Fort Douaumont, in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle. The Battle of Verdun -- also known as the ' Mincing Machine of Verdun ' or ' Meuse Mill ' -- became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice.
In the spring, Allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the River Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in Picardy began the Battle of the Somme with the Battle of Albert, supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in a single day in the history of the British Army, about 57,000.
The Verdun lesson learnt, the Allies ' tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September, German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat. After regrouping, the battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August, General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead, switched tactics to a series of small unit actions. The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push.
The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the tank on the battlefield. The Allies prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing 3,200 -- 4,100 metres (3,500 -- 4,500 yd) in places but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability. The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only 8 kilometres (5 mi) and failed to reach the original objectives. The British had suffered about 420,000 casualties and the French around 200,000. It is estimated that the Germans lost 465,000, although this figure is controversial.
The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics; despite the terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, once the British war economy produced sufficient equipment and weapons, the army made the platoon the basic tactical unit, similar to the French and German armies. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men) was the smallest unit of manoeuvre; less than a year later, the section of ten men would be so.
In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central powers would attack elsewhere.
During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a fortification behind the Noyon Salient that would be called the Hindenburg Line, using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915, including the use of Eingreif divisions. This was intended to shorten the German front, freeing 10 divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from Arras south to St Quentin and shortened the front by about 50 kilometres (30 mi). British long - range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916.
The Hindenburg Line was built between 2 and 50 kilometres (30 mi) behind the German front line. On 25 February German forces began retreating to the line and the withdrawal was completed on 5 April, leaving behind a devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. However, offensive advances by the British continued as the High Command claimed, with some justice, that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, despite the Allies suffering greater losses.
Meanwhile, on 6 April the United States declared war on Germany. In early 1915, following the sinking of the Lusitania, Germany had stopped its unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, however, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They had calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front. The submarine and surface ships had a long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a large reduction in shipping losses.
By 1917, the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two - thirds the total numbers in the French forces. In April 1917 the BEF began the Battle of Arras. The Canadian Corps and the 5th Division, attacked German lines at Vimy Ridge, capturing the heights and the First Army to the south achieved the deepest advance since trench warfare began. Later attacks were confronted by German reinforcements defending the area using the lessons learned on the Somme in 1916. British attacks were contained and, according to Gary Sheffield, a greater rate of daily loss was inflicted on the British than in "any other major battle ''.
During the winter of 1916 -- 1917, German air tactics had been improved, a fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power, particularly for the British, Portuguese, Belgians and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and weak tactics. As a result, the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 air crews and the Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans. This became known to the Royal Flying Corps as Bloody April.
The same month, the French Commander - in - Chief, General Robert Nivelle, ordered a new offensive against the German trenches, promising that it would end the war within 48 hours. The 16 April attack, dubbed the Nivelle Offensive (also known as the Second Battle of the Aisne, after the area where the offensive took place), would be 1.2 million men strong, preceded by a week - long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks. The offensive proceeded poorly as the French troops, with the help of two Russian brigades, had to negotiate rough, upward - sloping terrain in extremely bad weather. Planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line. Secrecy had been compromised and German aircraft gained air superiority, making reconnaissance difficult and in places, the creeping barrage moved too fast for the French troops. Within a week the French suffered 120,000 casualties. Despite the casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough, Nivelle ordered the attack to continue into May.
On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Lacking the means to punish an entire division, its officers did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers. Mutinies occurred in 54 French divisions and 20,000 men deserted. Other Allied forces attacked but suffered massive casualties. Appeals to patriotism and duty followed, as did mass arrests and trials. The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches but refused to participate in further offensive action. On 15 May Nivelle was removed from command, replaced by Pétain who immediately stopped the offensive. The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command, while the British assumed greater responsibility.
On 25 June the first US troops began to arrive in France, forming the American Expeditionary Force. However, the American units did not enter the trenches in divisional strength until October. The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort, and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts. In spite of this, however, their presence provided a much - needed boost to Allied morale, with the promise of further reinforcements that could tip the manpower balance towards the Allies.
In June, the British launched an offensive in Flanders, in part to take pressure off the French armies on the Aisne, after the French part of the Nivelle Offensive failed to achieve the strategic victory that had been planned and French troops began to mutiny. The offensive began on 7 June, with a British attack on Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, to retake the ground lost in the First and Second battles in 1914. Since 1915 specialist Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been digging tunnels under the ridge, and about 500 t (490 long tons) of explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the German defences. Following several weeks of bombardment, the explosives in 19 of these mines were detonated, killing up to 7,000 German troops. The infantry advance that followed relied on three creeping barrages which the British infantry followed to capture the plateau and the east side of the ridge in one day. German counter-attacks were defeated and the southern flank of the Gheluvelt plateau was protected from German observation.
On 11 July 1917, during Unternehmen Strandfest (Operation Beachparty) at Nieuport on the coast, the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired a powerful blistering agent Sulfur mustard (Yellow Cross) gas. The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets. Mustard gas was persistent and could contaminate an area for days, denying it to the British, an additional demoralising factor. The Allies increased production of gas for chemical warfare but took until late 1918 to copy the Germans and begin using mustard gas.
From 31 July to 10 November the Third Battle of Ypres included the First Battle of Passchendaele and culminated in the Second Battle of Passchendaele. The battle had the original aim of capturing the ridges east of Ypres then advancing to Roulers and Thourout to close the main rail line supplying the German garrisons on the Western front north of Ypres. If successful the northern armies were then to capture the German submarine bases on the Belgian coast. It was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto the ridges around Ypres, as the unusually wet weather slowed British progress. The Canadian Corps relieved the II ANZAC Corps and took the village of Passchendaele on 6 November, despite rain, mud and many casualties. The offensive was costly in manpower for both sides for relatively little gain of ground against determined German resistance but the ground captured was of great tactical importance. In the drier periods, the British advance was inexorable and during the unusually wet August and in the Autumn rains that began in early October, the Germans achieved only costly defensive successes, which led the German commanders in early October to begin preparations for a general retreat. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive. The battle has become a byword among some British revisionist historians for bloody and futile slaughter, whilst the Germans called Passchendaele "the greatest martyrdom of the war ''.
On 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack and the first attack using predicted artillery - fire (aiming artillery without firing the guns to obtain target data) at the Battle of Cambrai. The Allies attacked with 324 tanks (with one - third held in reserve) and twelve divisions, advancing behind a hurricane bombardment, against two German divisions. The machines carried fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and the 13 - foot - wide (4 m) German tank traps. Special "grapnel tanks '' towed hooks to pull away the German barbed wire. The attack was a great success for the British, who penetrated further in six hours than at the Third Ypres in four months, at a cost of only 4,000 British casualties. The advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counter-offensive began on 30 November, which drove back the British in the south and failed in the north. Despite the reversal, the attack was seen as a success by the Allies, proving that tanks could overcome trench defences. The Germans realised that the use of tanks by the Allies posed a new threat to any defensive strategy they might mount. The battle had also seen the first mass use of German stosstruppen on the Western front in the attack, who used infantry infiltration tactics to penetrate British defences, bypassing resistance and quickly advancing into the British rear.
Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring, before American manpower became overwhelming. On 3 March 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west. The Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk as they did in the Second World War but this considerably restricted their troop redeployment. The Germans achieved an advantage of 192 divisions in the west to the 178 Allied divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as sturmtruppen (40 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions were retained for German occupation duties in the east).
The Allies lacked unity of command and suffered from morale and manpower problems, the British and French armies were severely depleted and not in a position to attack in the first half of the year, while the majority of the newly arrived American troops were still training, with just six complete divisions in the line. Ludendorff decided on an offensive strategy beginning with a big attack against the British on the Somme, to separate them from the French and drive them back to the channel ports. The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with over 700 aircraft, tanks and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks.
Operation Michael, the first of the German Spring Offensives, very nearly succeeded in driving the Allied armies apart, advancing to within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914. As a result of the battle, the Allies agreed on unity of command. General Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France. The unified Allies were better able to respond to each of the German drives and the offensive turned into a battle of attrition. In May, the American divisions also began to play an increasing role, winning their first victory in the Battle of Cantigny. By summer, between 250,000 and 300,000 American soldiers were arriving every month. A total of 2.1 million American troops would be deployed on this front before the war came to an end. The rapidly increasing American presence served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German forces.
In July, Foch began the Second Battle of the Marne, a counter-offensive against the Marne salient which was eliminated by August. The Battle of Amiens began two days later, with Franco - British forces spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops, along with 600 tanks and 800 aircraft. Hindenburg named 8 August as the "Black Day of the German army ''. The Italian 2nd Corps, commanded by General Alberico Albricci, also participated in the operations around Reims. German manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war and its economy and society were under great internal strain. The Allies fielded 216 divisions against 197 German divisions. The Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August proved the final straw and following this string of military defeats, German troops began to surrender in large numbers. As the Allied forces advanced, Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed as Chancellor of Germany in October to negotiate an armistice. Ludendorff was forced out and fled to Sweden. The German retreat continued and the German Revolution put a new government in power. The Armistice of Compiègne was quickly signed, stopping hostilities on the Western Front on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day. The German Imperial Monarchy collapsed when General Groener, the successor to Ludendorff, backed the moderate Social Democratic Government under Friedrich Ebert, to forestall a revolution like those in Russia the previous year.
The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result, the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The result was the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government. The terms of the treaty constrained Germany as an economic and military power. The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France, thus limiting the coal required by German industry. The Saar, which formed the west bank of the Rhine, would be demilitarised and controlled by Britain and France, while the Kiel Canal opened to international traffic. The treaty also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe. It severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100,000 and disallowing a navy or air force. The navy was sailed to Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later scuttled, under the order of German admirals, as a reaction to the treaty.
The war in the trenches of the Western Front left tens of thousands of maimed soldiers and war widows. The unprecedented loss of life had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war, resulting later in an Allied reluctance to pursue an aggressive policy toward Adolf Hitler. Belgium suffered 30,000 civilian dead and France 40,000 (including 3,000 merchant sailors). The British lost 16,829 civilian dead, 1,260 civilians were killed in air and naval attacks, 908 civilians were killed at sea and there were 14,661 merchant marine deaths. Another 62,000 Belgian, 107,000 British and 300,000 French civilians died due to war - related causes.
Germany in 1919 was bankrupt, the people living in a state of semi-starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world. The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne, Koblenz and Mainz, with restoration dependent on payment of reparations. In Germany a Stab - in - the - back myth (Dolchstoßlegende) was propagated by Hindenburg, Ludendorff and other defeated generals, that the defeat was not the fault of the ' good core ' of the army but due to certain left - wing groups within Germany who signed a disastrous armistice; this would later be exploited by nationalists and the Nazi party propaganda to excuse the overthrow of the Weimar Republic in 1930 and the imposition of the Nazi dictatorship after March 1933.
France lost more casualties relative to its population than any other great power and the industrial north - east of the country was devastated by the war. The provinces overrun by Germany had produced 40 percent of French coal and 58 percent of its steel output. Once it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated, Ludendorff had ordered the destruction of the mines in France and Belgium. His goal was to cripple the industries of Germany 's main European rival. To prevent similar German attacks in the future, France later built a massive series of fortifications along the German border known as the Maginot Line.
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who were the opponents of the bolsheviks who gave them support | Bolsheviks - Wikipedia
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists or Bolsheviki (Russian: большевики, большевик (singular), IPA: (bəljʂɨˈvjik); derived from большинство bol'shinstvo, "majority '', literally meaning "one of the majority ''), were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.
In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917 -- 1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.
The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism.
In the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members "who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party 's organisations. '' Julius Martov suggested "by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party 's organisations. '' Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to "card carriers '' who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all. This active base would develop the cadre, a core of "professional revolutionaries '', consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers ' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.
A main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin 's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own ''. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin 's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas. It was the loyalty that he had to his own self - envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: "Friend and enemy -- those who followed him, and all the rest. '' Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin 's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre. Lenin 's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.
The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done? that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile. In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin 's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party 's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely. Lenin 's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker. Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin 's variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of What is to be Done?. Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as "Economists '', who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party 's cause.
Other than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov did n't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What is to be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin 's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization. Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs '' while Lenin supporters became known as "hards. ''
The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.
The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March -- May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin 's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov 's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.
The two factions were originally known as "hard '' (Lenin 's supporters) and "soft '' (Martov 's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to "Bolsheviks '' and "Mensheviks '', from the Russian "bolshinstvo '' (majority) and "menshinstvo '' (minority). On the other hand, Martov 's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.
From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term "Maximalist '' for "Bolshevik '' and "Minimalist '' for "Menshevik '', which proved confusing since there was also a "Maximalist '' faction within the Russian Socialist - Revolutionary Party in 1904 -- 06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists - Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.
The average party member was very young. In 1907, 22 % of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37 % were 20 -- 24 and 16 % were 25 -- 29. By 1905, 62 % of the members were industrial workers (3 % of the population in 1897). 22 % of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7 % of the total population), 38 % were uprooted peasants, compared with 19 % and 26 % for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3 % of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10 % were Jewish (34 % and 20 % for the Mensheviks). Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks). By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.
The two factions were in a state of flux in 1903 -- 04 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self - described "non-factional social democrat '' until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.
All but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.
The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks - only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.
The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers ' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.
As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.
However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.
Tensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach 's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on Zayra he had come to agree with the latter 's rejection of Bogdanov 's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists ("otzovists '' in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists '' and was generally allied with the recallists.
With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov 's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio - criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov 's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as "Proletarian Universities '' at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary in June 1909. However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.
With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party 's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from "conciliator '' Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.
One of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties ' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party 's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. In turn it prevented them from uniting on common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.
Lenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky 's Vienna - based Pravda a party - financed ' central organ '. Kamenev, Trotsky 's brother - in - law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.
The factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks - only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks) -- or RSDLP (b). Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the "Bolshevik Party ''. Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP (b) became (All -) Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 -- 52 the name was All - Union Communist Party (bolsheviks), and from 1952 -- 1991 Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
As the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause. To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations. This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs. Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.
Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fueled by Lenin 's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin 's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party 's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.
Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana (Tsarist secret police) agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.
One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals. Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party. This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution. His approach was "land seizure for the peasants and national self - determination for the minorities -- as nothing more than temporary concessions. ''
In 1918, at Lenin 's suggestion, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In 1925, this was changed to All - Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin 's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
"Bolo '' was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as "Bolshies ''. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "Commie '', "Red '', or "pinko '' in the United States during the same period. The term "Bolshie '' later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.
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who is the commissioner of education in akwa ibom state | List of ministries, agencies and commissions in Akwa Ibom State - Wikipedia
This is a list of the government ministries of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Each ministry is headed by the Commissioner, assisted by a Permanent Secretary.
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when does the new movie justice league come out | Justice League (film) - wikipedia
Justice League is an upcoming American superhero film based on the DC Comics superhero team of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is intended to be the fifth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Zack Snyder and written by Chris Terrio and Joss Whedon, from a story by Snyder and Terrio, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Gal Gadot, Jason Momoa, Ezra Miller, Ray Fisher, Ciarán Hinds, Amy Adams, Willem Dafoe, Jesse Eisenberg, Jeremy Irons, Diane Lane, Connie Nielsen, and J.K. Simmons. In Justice League, Batman and Wonder Woman assemble a team consisting of Flash, Aquaman, and Cyborg to face the catastrophic threat of Steppenwolf and his army of Parademons.
The film was announced in October 2014 with Snyder on board to direct and Terrio attached to write the script. Principal photography commenced in April 2016 and ended in October 2016. Snyder left the project in May 2017, following the death of his daughter, with Joss Whedon supervising post-production, as well as working on additional scenes and reshoots. Justice League is scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017, in 2D, 3D, and IMAX.
Months after the events of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and inspired by Superman 's apparent sacrifice for humanity, Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince assemble a team of metahumans consisting of Barry Allen, Arthur Curry, and Victor Stone to face the catastrophic threat of Steppenwolf and his army of Parademons, who are on the hunt for three Mother Boxes on Earth.
Joe Morton and Robin Wright reprise their roles as Dr. Silas Stone, a scientist at S.T.A.R. Labs and Victor Stone 's father, and as General Antiope, Hippolyta 's sister and Diana 's aunt / mentor, from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and Wonder Woman, respectively. Amber Heard, Billy Crudup, and Kiersey Clemons will portray Mera, Dr. Henry Allen, and Iris West, respectively. Julian Lewis Jones and Michael McElhatton have been cast in undisclosed roles.
In February 2007, it was announced that Warner Bros. hired husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film. The news came around the same time that Joss Whedon 's long - developed Wonder Woman film had been cancelled, as well as The Flash, written and directed by David S. Goyer. Reportedly titled Justice League: Mortal, Michele and Kiernan Mulroney submitted their script to Warner Bros. in June 2007, receiving positive feedback, which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production in the hopes of filming to begin before the 2007 - 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Warner Bros. was less willing to proceed with development with a sequel to Superman Returns, having been disappointed with the box office return. Brandon Routh was not approached to reprise the role of Superman in Justice League: Mortal, nor was Christian Bale from Batman Begins. Warner Bros. intended for Justice League: Mortal to be the start of a new film franchise, and to branch out into separate sequels and spin - offs. Shortly after filming finished with The Dark Knight, Bale stated in an interview that "It 'd be better if it does n't tread on the toes of what our Batman series is doing, '' though he personally felt it would make more sense for Warner Bros. to release the film after The Dark Knight Rises. Jason Reitman was the original choice to direct Justice League, but he turned it down, as he considers himself an independent filmmaker and prefers to stay out of big budget superhero films. George Miller signed to direct in September 2007, with Barrie Osbourne producing on a projected $220 million budget.
The following month roughly 40 actors and actresses were auditioning for the ensemble superhero roles, among them were Joseph Cross, Michael Angarano, Max Thieriot, Minka Kelly, Adrianne Palicki and Scott Porter. Miller intended to cast younger actors as he wanted them to "grow '' into their roles over the course of several films. D.J. Cotrona was cast as Superman, along with Armie Hammer as Batman. Jessica Biel reportedly declined the Wonder Woman role after being in negotiations. The character was also linked to actresses Teresa Palmer and Shannyn Sossamon, along with Mary Elizabeth Winstead, who confirmed that she had auditioned. Ultimately Megan Gale was cast as Wonder Woman, while Palmer was cast as Talia al Ghul, whom Miller had in mind to act with a Russian accent. The script for Justice League: Mortal would have featured John Stewart as Green Lantern, a role originally offered to Columbus Short. Hip hop recording artist and rapper Common was cast, with Adam Brody as Barry Allen / Flash, and Jay Baruchel as the lead villain, Maxwell Lord. Longtime Miller collaborator Hugh Keays - Byrne had been cast in an unnamed role, rumored to be Martian Manhunter. Aquaman had yet to be cast. Marit Allen was hired as the original costume designer before her untimely death in November 2007, and the responsibilities were assumed by Weta Workshop.
However, the writers strike began that same month and placed the film on hold. Warner Bros. had to let the options lapse for the cast, but development was fast tracked once more in February 2008 when the strike ended. Warner Bros. and Miller wanted to start filming immediately, but production was pushed back three months. Originally, the majority of Justice League: Mortal would be shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, with other locations scouted nearby at local colleges, and Sydney Heads doubling for Happy Harbor. The Australian Film Commission had a say with casting choices, giving way for George Miller to cast Gale, Palmer and Keays - Bryne, all Australian natives. The production crew was composed entirely of Australians, but the Australian government denied Warner Bros. a 40 percent tax rebate as they felt they had not hired enough Australian actors. Miller was frustrated, stating that "A once - in - a-lifetime opportunity for the Australian film industry is being frittered away because of very lazy thinking. They 're throwing away hundreds of millions of dollars of investment that the rest of the world is competing for and, much more significantly, highly skilled creative jobs. '' Production offices were then moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada. Filming was pushed back to July 2008, while Warner Bros was still confident they could release the film for a summer 2009 release.
With production delays continuing, and the success of The Dark Knight in July 2008, Warner Bros. decided to focus on the development of individual films featuring the main heroes, allowing director Christopher Nolan to separately complete his Batman trilogy with The Dark Knight Rises in 2012. Gregory Noveck, senior vice president of creative affairs for DC Entertainment stated "we 're going to make a Justice League movie, whether it 's now or 10 years from now. But we 're not going to do it and Warners is not going to do it until we know it 's right. '' Actor Adam Brody joked "They (Warner Brothers) just did n't want to cross their streams with a whole bunch of Batmans in the universe. '' Warner Bros. relaunched development for the solo Green Lantern film, released in 2011 as a critical and financial disappointment. Meanwhile, film adaptations for The Flash and Wonder Woman continued to languish in development while filming for a Superman reboot was commencing in 2011 with Man of Steel, produced by Nolan and written by Batman screenwriter David S. Goyer. Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to write the script for a new Justice League film. Warner Bros. president Jeff Robinov explained that Man of Steel would be "setting the tone for what the movies are going to be like going forward. In that, it 's definitely a first step. '' The film included references to the existence of other superheroes in the DC Universe, and setting the tone for a shared fictional universe of DC Comics characters on film. Goyer stated that should Green Lantern appear in a future installment, it would be a rebooted version of the character and not connected to the 2011 film.
With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a sequel, as well as a new Justice League, with the Beall draft being scrapped. The sequel was later revealed to be Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, a team up film featuring Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, and Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg in a minor role that will become more significant in leading up to the proposed Justice League film. The universe is separate from Nolan and Goyer 's work on The Dark Knight trilogy, although Nolan is still involved as an executive producer for Batman v Superman. In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script. Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. On October 15, 2014, Warner Bros. announced the film would be released in two parts, with Part One releasing on November 17, 2017, and Part Two on June 14, 2019. Snyder will direct both films. In early July 2015, EW revealed that the script for Justice League Part One had been completed by Terrio. Zack Snyder stated that the film will be inspired by the New Gods comic series by Jack Kirby. Although Justice League was initially announced as a two - part film with the second part releasing two years after the first, Snyder announced in June 2016 that they would be two distinct, separate films and not one film split into two parts, both being stand - alone stories.
In April 2014, Ray Fisher was cast as Victor Stone / Cyborg, and was set to cameo in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice followed by a larger role in Justice League. Henry Cavill, Ben Affleck, Gal Gadot, Diane Lane and Amy Adams are also expected to reprise their roles from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. In October 2014, Jason Momoa was cast as Arthur Curry / Aquaman and debuted as the character in Dawn of Justice. On October 20, 2014, Momoa told ComicBook.com that the Justice League film would be coming first and that is what they were preparing for, and he did not know if the solo Aquaman film would be prior to Justice League or post. He thought it might be the origin of where Aquaman came from. On January 13, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Amber Heard was in negotiations to appear in the film as Aquaman 's love interest Mera. In March 2016, producer Charles Roven said that Green Lantern would not appear in any film before Justice League Part Two, and stated that they "could put Green Lantern in some introduction in Justice League 2, or barring that, a movie after. '' Also in March, The Hollywood Reporter announced that J.K. Simmons was cast as Commissioner James Gordon, and Heard was confirmed to join the cast as Mera. Adams also confirmed that she would reprise her role as Lois Lane in both Justice League films. The following month, Simmons confirmed that he would play Gordon. By April 2016, Willem Dafoe was cast in an undisclosed role, later revealed to be Nuidis Vulko. Cavill confirmed that he would return for both Justice League films. In May 2016, Jeremy Irons confirmed he will appear as Alfred Pennyworth. That same month, Jesse Eisenberg stated that he would reprise his role as Lex Luthor, and in June 2016, he confirmed in an interview with Shortlist magazine of his return. In July 2016, Julian Lewis Jones was cast in an undisclosed role. Laurence Fishburne, who portrays Perry White in the DCEU, said he declined to reprise his role in this film due to scheduling conflicts. In April 2017, Michael McElhatton revealed that he has a role in the film.
In July 2015, it was revealed that filming would begin in spring 2016 after Wonder Woman ended principal photography. Principal photography commenced on April 11, 2016, with shooting taking place at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, as well as various locations around London, Scotland, Los Angeles and in Djúpavík in the Westfjords of Iceland. Snyder 's longtime cinematographer Larry Fong was replaced by Fabian Wagner due to scheduling conflicts. Affleck was also revealed to be serving as executive producer. In May 2016, it was revealed that Geoff Johns and Jon Berg will be producing the Justice League films and they will also be in charge of the DC Extended Universe after the largely negative critical reception of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Geoff Johns confirmed on June 3, 2016, that the title of the film is Justice League. That same month, Irons stated that the Justice League storyline will be more linear and simple, in comparison to the theatrical version of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Johns later stated that the film would be "hopeful and optimistic '' in comparison to the previous DCEU films. Filming wrapped in October 2016.
In May 2017, Snyder stepped down during post-production of the film to properly deal with the death of his daughter. Joss Whedon, who Snyder had previously brought on to rewrite some additional scenes, took over to handle post-production duties in Snyder 's place. In July 2017, it was announced the film was undergoing two months of reshoots in London and Los Angeles, with Warner Bros. putting about $25 million into them (more than the typical $6 -- 10 million additional filming costs). Warner Bros. later announced that Whedon would receive a screenwriting credit on the film.
In March 2016, Hans Zimmer, who composed the score for Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, stated that he is officially retired from the "superhero business ''. By June 2016 he was replaced by Junkie XL, who wrote and composed the soundtrack of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice with Zimmer. In June 2017, Danny Elfman was announced to have replaced Junkie XL. Elfman had previously composed Batman, Batman Returns, and the theme song for Batman: The Animated Series.
Justice League is scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017. The film will get an IMAX release.
A sequel was scheduled to be released in June 2019, but has since been delayed to accommodate the release for a standalone Batman film. In March 2017, producer Charles Roven announced that Zack Snyder would return as director.
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if you like a lot of chocolate on your biscuit lyrics | Jacob 's Club - wikipedia
Club is a range of chocolate covered biscuits sold in Ireland under the Jacob 's brand name and in the United Kingdom under McVitie 's.
W & R Jacob and Company started producing the ' ' Club Milk ' ' biscuit in Dublin just before the outbreak of World War I. It became a popular brand across Ireland. The confection consisted of two rectangular Marie biscuits forming a filled sandwich using a cocoa cream, then covered in thick milk chocolate. Each bar was wrapped in foil, and then further wrapped in a paper outer wrapping.
Jacob 's originally used images of playing cards from the Club suit to illustrate and to advertise the new biscuit. The "Club '' name was therefore a reference to this suit.
It is unclear exactly when Club Milk biscuits were first imported to England, perhaps beginning informally owing to the trade route between Ireland and the English port of Liverpool. Jacob 's had already established a factory in Liverpool in 1914, and subsequently began producing the Club Milk there.
In 1970 the Irish and British parts of the Jacob 's company split into two firms. The Club biscuit had by this time become popular throughout Great Britain, and was marketed in five varieties. The original Club Milk (made with milk chocolate) was joined by a Club Plain (made with plain chocolate). The term "Club '' was expanded for this new product, with a golf ball used to illustrate the wrapper, rather than the Club suit of cards. Two flavoured versions, Club Orange and Club Mint, were made by adding flavouring to the cocoa cream. The Club Fruit variant included raisins in the cocoa cream between the two biscuits. A further Club Honeycomb variety followed.
From the mid 1970s into the 1990s Jacob 's used the advertising slogan "If you like a lot of chocolate on your biscuit, join our Club ''. This was set to music, and used as a theme in television advertising campaigns during these same decades. In 2012 the jingle was voted by a sample of British adults to be "the seventh catchiest jingle of all time ''.
In the mid 1990s both the Irish and British Jacob 's companies were acquired by French - owned Groupe Danone who redesigned both the biscuit and the packaging. The two biscuits held together by cocoa cream were replaced with a single biscuit, topped with cocoa cream. The real chocolate exterior was replaced with a thinner layer of chocolate - based coating. The original milk and plain biscuits were discontinued, whilst the flavoured varieties were repackaged in cellophane flow pack.
In September 2004 the Jacob 's brand was sold by Danone to British - based United Biscuits, who restored some of the traditional elements of the Club biscuit, including the two - layer packaging, with an inner foil wrapper and an outer paper wrapper. At present they have not returned to the double - biscuit structure of the bar itself. The Irish part of the company was sold to Fruitfield Foods, to form Jacob Fruitfield Food Group, which has led to legal battles over the use of the Jacob 's brand name.
From 2013 United Biscuits rebranded the product as McVities Club, using the Jacob 's brand for savoury biscuits and McVities for sweet products.
Without resolution of the dispute between United Biscuits (UK) and Fruitfield (Ireland) over the use of the Jacob 's brand, the Irish company resumed production of the Club Milk bar. It returned to the original pattern of two biscuits joined by cocoa cream, and a thick covering of milk chocolate. Plain and wafer versions have also been produced. These products are available in the Republic of Ireland. The Irish company makes reference to the UK version of the biscuit in its promotion of the Irish Club Milk, by stating "forget any poor imitations '', before outlining the features of the biscuit as now produced in Ireland.
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who is the founder of the apostolic faith | Apostolic Faith Church - wikipedia
The Apostolic Faith Church, formerly the Apostolic Faith Mission, is a Pentecostal Christian denomination, with headquarters in Portland, Oregon, United States. The Apostolic Faith Mission of Portland was founded in 1906 by Florence L. Crawford, who was affiliated at that time with William J. Seymour and the Azusa Street Revival of Los Angeles, California. By 1908 Crawford had founded what would become the Apostolic Faith Church. Since July 2000, the President and Superintendent General of the Apostolic Faith Church has been Darrel D. Lee, who also pastors the headquarters church.
The Apostolic Faith Church has a presence in the United States, Canada, Africa, Asia, Europe, Central and South America, and Australia. In 1997, the AFC had 2,013 members in 115 local churches served by 188 clergy in the United States. There are ten churches in Canada, several hundred in Africa (six - hundred in Nigeria alone), twenty throughout the Philippines and Korea, nine in Europe (centrally Romania and Norway), and over sixty in West Indies. Church - affiliated groups also regularly assemble in other parts of the world and recently include India. In some locations, member churches carry instead the name Trinity Apostolic Faith Church in order to differentiate themselves from non-affiliated churches in the same area.
The founder of the Apostolic Faith Church was Florence L. Crawford. Crawford was a participant in the Azusa Street Revival. This revival began in 1906 at the Apostolic Faith Mission in Los Angeles. The Azusa Street Mission, as it was called, quickly became the center of the Apostolic Faith movement mainly through the publication of The Apostolic Faith newspaper. Seymour appointed Crawford as the state director of the Pacific Coast Apostolic Faith movement where she would help other missions and churches join the movement. Crawford 's break with Seymour was complete by 1911. She began an independent work in Portland, Oregon, with the same name as Seymour 's mission and most of the churches under her supervision followed her.
This considerably weakened Seymour 's undisputed leadership of the Apostolic Faith movement as most of the churches which had fed the movement chose alignment with Crawford. According to Crawford, the separation was necessitated by rumors that Seymour had abandoned the Wesleyan position that entire sanctification was a second work of grace after conversion. Crawford 's mission gained further influence when Clara Lum, editor of The Apostolic Faith, transferred the paper, under controversial circumstances, to the Portland mission in mid-1908. The Apostolic Faith would become the Higher Way at a later date and is still published.
Through the years, the Apostolic Faith Church 's leaders have maintained the doctrines outlined in Seymour 's editions of the Apostolic Faith papers printed in 1906 through 1908. As a Trinitarian and fundamental church, their doctrinal position centers on a born - again experience, supports the Wesleyan teaching of holiness (Christian perfection), and stresses the need of sanctified believers to receive the Pentecostal experience of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Their teachings are in direct conflict with Calvinistic beliefs regarding sin, predestination, and eternal security.
The doctrinal statement of the Apostolic Faith Church can be found on the headquarters ' website. The text of the page is reprinted below:
The denomination differentiates itself from other Pentecostals by teaching that Speaking in Tongues is only acceptable in known languages and there must be someone there who can interpret.
Membership is not by formally joining the church but when you are Saved you are considered a member.
While they are pacifist members can do things that are not non-violent they served in hospitals and other such services.
They are one of the early groups that had bus ministries, ministries to ships, nursing homes, street meetings and jail meetings.
Literature is printed in many languages and is free. All literature is prayed over and can be used for healing and answers to prayers.
Services are composed of the music and they have an orchestra and choir. At the end was an altar call, with the altar being a bench on either side of the front of the church.
Ministers are not formally trained but were chosen by elders who laid hands on the person after it was believed they were called.
Camp meetings in Portland are two weeks, but used to be longer.
Members are expected to pay ten per cent of their income which is put in a box instead of passing a plate or bag. Expenses for the local church are paid out of this and ten per cent is sent to Portland which also used that to run the headquarters. There were never any sales of cakes, dinners or other fund raisers.
Among the missionary trips was a trip by boat every year to Alaska.
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who are the sonnets thought to be dedicated to | Shakespeare 's sonnets - wikipedia
Shakespeare 's sonnets is the title of a collection of 154 sonnets by William Shakespeare, which covers themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality. The first 126 sonnets are addressed to a young man; the last 28 to a woman.
The sonnets were first published in a 1609 quarto with the full stylised title: SHAKE - SPEARES SONNETS. Never before Imprinted. (although sonnets 138 and 144 had previously been published in the 1599 miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim). The quarto ends with "A Lover 's Complaint '', a narrative poem of 47 seven - line stanzas written in rhyme royal. There has been critical debate regarding its authorship.
The sonnets to the young man express overwhelming, obsessional love. The main issue of debate has always been whether it remained platonic or became physical. The first 17 poems, traditionally called the procreation sonnets, are addressed to the young man urging him to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the next generation. Other sonnets express the speaker 's love for the young man; brood upon loneliness, death, and the transience of life; seem to criticise the young man for preferring a rival poet; express ambiguous feelings for the speaker 's mistress; and pun on the poet 's name. The final two sonnets are allegorical treatments of Greek epigrams referring to the "little love - god '' Cupid.
The publisher, Thomas Thorpe, entered the book in the Stationers ' Register on 20 May 1609:
Whether Thorpe used an authorised manuscript from Shakespeare or an unauthorised copy is unknown. George Eld printed the quarto, and the run was divided between the booksellers William Aspley and John Wright.
The Sonnets include a dedication to one "Mr. W.H. ''. The identity of this person remains a mystery and, since the 19th century, has provoked a great deal of speculation.
The dedication reads:
TO. THE. ONLIE. BEGETTER. OF. THESE. INSUING. SONNETS. Mr. W.H. ALL. HAPPINESSE. AND. THAT. ETERNITIE. PROMISED. BY. OUR. EVER - LIVING. POET. WISHETH. THE. WELL - WISHING. ADVENTURER.IN. SETTING. FORTH.
T.T.
Its oblique nature has led Colin Burrow to describe it as a "dank pit in which speculation wallows and founders ''. Don Foster concludes that the result of all the speculation has yielded only two "facts '', which themselves have been the object of much debate: First, that the form of address (Mr.) suggests that W.H. was an untitled gentleman, and second, that W.H., whoever he was, is identified as "the only begetter '' of Shakespeare 's Sonnets (whatever the word "begetter '' is taken to mean).
The initials "T.T. '' are taken to refer to the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, though Thorpe usually signed prefatory matter only if the author was out of the country or dead. Foster points out, however, that Thorpe 's entire corpus of such consists of only four dedications and three stationer 's prefaces. That Thorpe signed the dedication rather than the author is often read as evidence that he published the work without obtaining Shakespeare 's permission.
The capital letters and periods following each word were probably intended to resemble an ancient Roman lapidary inscription or monumental brass, thereby accentuating Shakespeare 's declaration in Sonnet 55 that the work will confer immortality to the subjects of the work:
126 of Shakespeare 's sonnets are addressed to a young man, often called the "Fair Youth. '' Some theories concerning the identity of Mr. W.H. take him to be that youth, while others assert him to be a separate person.
The following is a non-exhaustive list of contenders:
The sonnets are almost all constructed from three quatrains, which are four - line stanzas, and a final couplet composed in iambic pentameter. This is also the meter used extensively in Shakespeare 's plays.
The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. Sonnets using this scheme are known as Shakespearean sonnets. Often, the beginning of the third quatrain marks the volta ("turn ''), or the line in which the mood of the poem shifts, and the poet expresses a revelation or epiphany.
There are a few exceptions: Sonnets 99, 126, and 145. Number 99 has fifteen lines. Number 126 consists of six couplets, and two blank lines marked with italic brackets; 145 is in iambic tetrameters, not pentameters. In one other variation on the standard structure, found for example in sonnet 29, the rhyme scheme is changed by repeating the second (b) rhyme of quatrain one as the second (f) rhyme of quatrain three.
When analysed as characters, the subjects of the sonnets are usually referred to as the Fair Youth, the Rival Poet, and the Dark Lady. The speaker expresses admiration for the Fair Youth 's beauty, and -- if reading the sonnets in chronological order as published -- later has an affair with the Dark Lady. Current linguistic analysis and historical evidence suggests, however, that the sonnets to the Dark Lady were composed first (around 1591 - 95), the procreation sonnets next, and the later sonnets to the Fair Youth last (1597 - 1603). It is not known whether the poems and their characters are fiction or autobiographical; scholars who find the sonnets to be autobiographical, notably A.L. Rowse, have attempted to identify the characters with historical individuals.
The "Fair Youth '' is the unnamed young man to whom sonnets 1 -- 126 are addressed. Some commentators, noting the romantic and loving language used in this sequence of sonnets, have suggested a sexual relationship between them; others have read the relationship as platonic love.
The earliest poems in the sequence recommend the benefits of marriage and children. With the famous Sonnet 18 ("Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day '') the tone changes dramatically towards romantic intimacy. Sonnet 20 explicitly laments that the young man is not a woman. Most of the subsequent sonnets describe the ups and downs of the relationship, culminating with an affair between the poet and the Dark Lady. The relationship seems to end when the Fair Youth succumbs to the Lady 's charms (Sonnet 144).
There have been many attempts to identify the young man. Shakespeare 's language often seems to imply that the subject is of higher social status than himself. Shakespeare 's one - time patron, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton and his later patron, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, are frequently suggested. Both claims begin with the dedication of the sonnets to "Mr. W.H. '', "the only begetter of these ensuing sonnets ''; the initials could apply to either earl, though in one case their order would have been reversed.
In his short story "The Portrait of Mr. W.H., '' Oscar Wilde proposed that some lines of the sonnets represent a series of puns suggesting that the sonnets are written to a boy actor called William Hughes; however, in his story Wilde acknowledges that there is no evidence for such a person 's existence. Samuel Butler believed that the friend was a seaman. Joseph Pequigney argued in his book Such Is My Love that the Fair Youth was an unknown commoner.
The Dark Lady sequence (sonnets 127 -- 154) distinguishes itself from the Fair Youth sequence by being overtly sexual in its passion. Among these, Sonnet 151 has been characterised as "bawdy '' and is used to illustrate the difference between the spiritual love for the Fair Youth and the sexual love for the Dark Lady. The distinction is commonly made in the introduction to modern editions of the sonnets. The Dark Lady is so called because the poems make it clear that she has black hair and dun coloured skin. As with the Fair Youth, there have been many attempts to identify her with a real historical individual. Lucy Negro, Mary Fitton, Emilia Lanier, Elizabeth Wriothesley, and others have been suggested.
The Rival Poet 's identity remains a mystery; among the varied candidates are Christopher Marlowe, George Chapman, Robert Devereaux, Earl of Essex, or an amalgamation of several contemporaries. However, there is no hard evidence that the character had a real - life counterpart. The speaker sees the Rival as competition for fame, coin and patronage. The sonnets most commonly identified as the Rival Poet group exist within the Fair Youth sequence in sonnets 78 -- 86.
One interpretation is that Shakespeare 's sonnets are a pastiche or parody of the 300 - year - old tradition of Petrarchan love sonnets; Shakespeare consciously inverts conventional gender roles as delineated in Petrarchan sonnets to create a more complex depiction of human love. He plays with gender roles (20), comments on political events (124), makes fun of love (128), speaks openly about sexual desire (129), parodies beauty (130) and even references pornography (151). In a dozen of the sonnets to the youth, Shakespeare also refers to his "disgrace '': "My name be buried where my body is / And live no more to shame nor me nor you. '' (72)
Shakespeare 's Sonnets can be seen as a prototype, or even the beginning, of a new kind of "modern '' love poetry. During the eighteenth century, The Sonnets ' reputation in England was relatively low; as late as 1805, The Critical Review could still credit John Milton with the perfection of the English sonnet. As part of the renewed interest in Shakespeare 's original work that accompanied Romanticism, The Sonnets rose steadily in reputation during the nineteenth century.
The Sonnets have great cross-cultural importance and influence. They have been translated into every major written language, including German, French, Italian, Japanese, Turkish, Spanish, Portuguese, Afrikaans, Esperanto, Albanian, Arabic, Hebrew, Welsh and Yiddish.
Like all Shakespeare 's works, The Sonnets have been reprinted many times. Prominent editions include:
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which team did neymar play for before barcelona | Neymar - wikipedia
Neymar da Silva Santos Júnior (Portuguese pronunciation: (nejˈmaʁ dɐ ˈsiwvɐ ˈsɐ̃tus ˈʒũɲoʁ); born 5 February 1992), commonly known as Neymar or Neymar Jr., is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for French club Paris Saint - Germain and the Brazil national team.
Neymar came into prominence at an early age at Santos, where he made his professional debut aged 17. He helped the club win two successive Campeonato Paulista championships, a Copa do Brasil, and the 2011 Copa Libertadores, Santos ' first continental title since 1963. Neymar was twice named the South American Footballer of the Year, in 2011 and 2012, before relocating to Europe to join Barcelona. As part of Barça 's attacking trio with Lionel Messi and Luis Suárez, he won the continental treble of La Liga, the Copa del Rey, and the UEFA Champions League in the 2014 -- 15 season, followed the next year by the domestic double. He came third for the FIFA Ballon d'Or in 2015. In August 2017, Neymar moved from Barcelona to Paris Saint - Germain in a transaction worth € 222 million, making him the world 's most expensive player.
With 52 goals in 81 matches for Brazil since debuting at age 18, Neymar is the fourth - highest goalscorer for his national team. He was a key player in Brazil 's victories at the 2011 South American Youth Championship, which he finished as the leading goalscorer, and the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, where he won the Golden Ball as player of the tournament. His participation in the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2015 Copa América was cut short by injury and a suspension respectively, but the next year he captained Brazil to their first Olympic gold medal in men 's football at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
Known for his dribbling, finishing, and ability with both feet, Neymar has earned comparisons to former Brazil and Santos forward Pelé. Off the pitch, he ranks among the world 's most prominent sportsmen; SportsPro named him the most marketable athlete in the world in 2012 and 2013, and ESPN cited him as the world 's fourth-most famous athlete in 2016.
Neymar da Silva Santos Júnior was born in Mogi das Cruzes, São Paulo, to Neymar Santos, Sr. and Nadine da Silva. He inherited his name from his father, who is a former footballer and became his son 's advisor as Neymar 's talents began to grow. Neymar comments on his father 's role: "My father has been by my side since I was little. He takes care of things, my finances and my family. '' Growing up, Neymar combined his love of futsal with street football.
In 2003, Neymar moved with his family to São Vicente, where he began playing for youth side Portuguesa Santista. Then, later in 2003, they moved to Santos, where Neymar joined Santos FC. With the success of his youth career and added income, the family bought their first property, a house next to the Vila Belmiro. Their quality of family life improved, as at age 15, Neymar was earning 10,000 reais per month and at 16, 125,000 reais per month. At 17, he signed his first full professional contract, was upgraded to the Santos first team, and began signing his first sponsorship deals.
Neymar began playing football at an early age and he was soon spotted by Santos FC who offered him a contract in 2003, where he was inducted into their youth academy, which has, in the past, produced Brazilian internationals like Coutinho, Clodoaldo, Diego, Elano and Alex. He also joined the likes of Pepe, Pelé and Robinho in starting out his career at the club, nicknamed Peixe. While in the youth academy, Neymar met Paulo Henrique Ganso, becoming good friends in the process. Aged 14, Neymar travelled to Spain to join the Real Madrid youth team, at the time when Real had stars like Ronaldo, Zinedine Zidane, David Beckham, Roberto Carlos and Robinho.
Neymar made his professional debut on 7 March 2009, despite being only 17 years old; he was brought on for the last thirty minutes, in a 2 -- 1 win against Oeste. The following week he scored his first goal for Santos against Mogi Mirim. One month later, on 11 April, Neymar scored the decisive goal in a 2 -- 1 win against Palmeiras in the 2009 Campeonato Paulista semi-final first leg. In the final, however, Santos suffered a 4 -- 2 aggregate defeat to the Corinthians. In his first season, Neymar racked up 14 goals in 48 games.
Neymar continued his ascendancy in 2010, and, on 15 April 2010, he scored five goals for Santos in an 8 -- 1 rout of Guarani in the qualifying stages of the Brazilian Cup. Following the 2010 Campeonato Paulista in which Neymar scored 14 goals in 19 games, the club were crowned champions after a 5 -- 5 aggregate win over Santo André in the finals. Neymar was subsequently given the award for the best player in the competition. Neymar 's performances for Santos have drawn comparisons to other Brazilians, including Robinho and Brazilian legend Pelé.
In 2010, Santos rejected a £ 12 million bid for him from English Premier League team West Ham United, and later an offer from another English club, Chelsea, reported to be in the region of £ 20 million. Despite Santos unwillingness to sell and Neymar himself insisting "I 'm focused only on Santos '', his agent, Wagner Ribeiro, indicated that Neymar 's career was elsewhere, stating "He wants to become the best player in the world. The chances of him doing that while playing in Brazil are zero. '' Although one year later Neymar admitted, in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, that he had been happy with Chelsea 's interest in him as it was a "dream '' of his "to play in Europe '', while also stating that at the time it had been the right decision to stay in Brazil.
On 30 November 2010, Santos sold a 5 % share of future transfer fees that he would receive to an investment group, Terceira Estrela Investimentos S.A. (TEISA), for R $ 3,549,900 (€ 1.5 million). The previous year, his family had sold a 40 % stake in Neymar 's sporting rights to the DIS Esporte group who had been a long - term strategic partner of Santos ' football club.
Despite his first two seasons being highly successful, having ended the 2010 season with an impressive 42 goals in 60 games, problems had been identified, namely Neymar 's apparent taste for diving when tackled, rather than attempting to continue his run, and his attitude. The latter came to the forefront during a match with Atlético Goianiense, on 15 September 2010, when the Santos ' manager, Dorival Júnior, appointed another player to take the penalty awarded for a foul on Neymar. His decision was based on the fact that Neymar had missed a crucial penalty during the Copa do Brasil final of that year, even if Santos went on to win. Reacting to this, Neymar turned his back on his manager, had to be calmed down by a linesman and argued with his captain, Edu Dracena. The fallout from this event was that Dorival Júnior wished to have Neymar suspended for two weeks, but the board sided with the player and promptly sacked the manager. Despite Neymar 's apologies over the incident, some doubts still remain about his attitude. In December 2010, aged just 18, Neymar came third for the 2010 South American Footballer of the Year, behind Andrés D'Alessandro and Juan Sebastián Verón.
Neymar scored six goals during Santos run to the 2011 Copa Libertadores Finals, tying him for third top goalscorer, including the clinching goal of Santos ' 4 -- 3 aggregate win over Cerro Porteño in the semifinals. In the two - legged final, Santos faced Uruguayan side Peñarol and drew the first leg 0 -- 0 in Montevideo. At home in the second leg, Neymar opened the scoring in the 46th minute as Santos held on for a 2 -- 1 win and Neymar won Man of the Match honours. The win brought Santos their first Copa Libertadores triumph since 1963, when Brazilian legend Pelé was playing for the club.
In September 2011, Santos club president Luís Ribeiro threatened to report Real Madrid to FIFA following reports that they had attempted to sign Neymar to a pre-contract agreement, and denied that such an agreement was in place. On 9 November 2011, Neymar and Santos agreed to a contract extension that would see the player stay with the club until after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. The deal reportedly increased Neymar 's wages by 50 %, to the levels that top European clubs would be paying him. On 14 December 2011, Neymar scored the opening goal for Santos as they defeated Kashiwa Reysol 3 -- 1 in the semi-finals of the FIFA Club World Cup at the Toyota Stadium in Toyota, Japan, but failed to score against Barcelona in the final on 18 December 2011, where Santos were defeated 4 -- 0, finishing as runners - up in the competition. He won the 2011 FIFA Puskás Award for scoring a solo goal in the Brasileirão Série A against Flamengo, in a 5 -- 4 loss. On 31 December 2011, he won the 2011 South American Footballer of the Year award for the first time, by a record margin, following in the footsteps of Diego Maradona, Romário, Pelé and Zico.
On 5 February 2012, when he turned 20, Neymar scored his 100th goal as a professional football player, against Palmeiras in the Campeonato Paulista. On 25 February 2012 -- he scored two goals, one of which was from 25 - yards -- and created two assists to help his side to a 6 -- 1 win over Ponte Preta. On 7 March 2012, Neymar netted a hat - trick as Santos saw off Brazilian rivals Internacional 3 -- 1 in the Copa Libertadores Group stage match. On 29 March, he scored a brace against Guaratinguetá in a 5 -- 0 victory. In the fixture against São Paulo on 29 April 2012, Neymar scored a hat - trick with the match ending 3 -- 1. Thereafter, he went on to score twice in the first and second legs in the 2012 Campeonato Paulista Finals against Guarani, which ended 7 -- 2 on aggregate. Neymar finished the 2012 Campeonato Paulista with 20 goals and was voted the Best player and Best Forward, and Santos were crowned champions. He was joint top scorer in the Copa Libertadores with eight goals, after Santos were beaten over two legs by eventual champions Corinthians in the semi-finals.
On 25 August 2012, he scored a brace in the 2 -- 1 away win at Palmeiras. On 3 November 2012, in the Brasileiro Série A away fixture at Cruzeiro, Neymar scored a hat - trick and assisted Felipe Anderson 's goal, to help his side to a 4 -- 0 win. Neymar finished off the 2012 season in style, first setting - up Victor Andrade 's equaliser, then scoring twice, to give Santos a 3 -- 1 home win over Palmeiras on 1 December 2012. Neymar was voted the Best Player of the 2012 Recopa Sudamericana, Neymar scoring in the second leg to win the title 2 -- 0 on aggregate. He finished the 2012 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A with 14 goals and being voted the Best forward. Neymar finished the 2012 season, being award the Golden Ball, Arthur Friedenreich Award and Armando Nogueira Trophy. He was one of three finalists in the 2012 FIFA Puskás Award and finished runners - up behind Miroslav Stoch. He won the 2012 South American Footballer of the Year, retaining his award and winning it ahead of the likes of Ronaldinho. Reports emerged in 2011 that Santos reached an agreement with Barcelona to sign him at a later stage. Neymar, however, rejected this in an interview, saying that he had "no agreement with Barcelona or anyone else ''.
Neymar started the 2013 Campeonato Paulista scoring twice in the first match, which ended a 3 -- 1 win over São Bernardo on 19 January 2013. Four days later on 23 January 2013, Neymar scored again against Botafogo in a 3 -- 0 win. On 3 February 2013, in the Paulista fixture against São Paulo, where Santos won 3 -- 1, with Neymar scoring and making two assists. on 18 March 2013, Neymar told that he had a "dream of playing in Europe, for a big club like Barcelona, Real Madrid and Chelsea. '' But he went on to say, "There 's no point in speculating when I 'll leave Santos. I 'll leave when I want to. ''
Neymar scored all four goals, had another disallowed and hit the post as Santos beat União Barbarense 4 -- 0 in the Paulista on 13 April. On 25 April 2013, his agent and father revealed that Neymar intended to leave for Europe before the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Ahead of his last match for Santos, on 26 May against Flamengo, Neymar was in tears during the national anthem.
On 24 May 2013, Santos announced that they had received two offers for Neymar. The following day, Neymar announced he would sign with Barcelona on 27 May 2013 and join the team after playing in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. Neither Neymar nor the clubs released details on the transfer fee or personal terms, save to say he signed a five - year deal. On 3 June 2013, Neymar was unveiled by Barcelona after passing medical tests and signing a contract that would keep him at the club through June 2018.
Neymar was presented at the Camp Nou in front of 56,500 fans, a record turnout for a Brazilian player. Club vice-president Josep Maria Bartomeu initially said Neymar 's transfer fee was € 57.1 million and his release clause set at € 190 million. Barcelona 's doctor suggested he might need to gain weight to be able to cope physically in Spanish football.
In January 2014, the prosecutor 's office in Madrid began investigating the transfer fee that Barcelona paid for Neymar. The documents submitted to the authorities on request contained contradictory information. On 23 January 2014, Rosell resigned from his position as president. A day later, the details of the transfer were revealed by Barcelona; the transfer had in fact cost them € 86.2 million (£ 71.5 million), with Neymar 's parents confirmed to have received a € 40 million sum. In the aftermath, Barcelona and Bartomeu were charged with tax fraud.
On 30 July 2013, Barcelona drew 2 -- 2 against Lechia Gdańsk in a pre-season friendly; Neymar made his unofficial debut when he came on as a substitute. He scored his first goal for the club in a 7 -- 1 win against a Thailand XI on 7 August.
Neymar made his competitive debut for Barcelona during the opening game of the 2013 -- 14 La Liga season as a 63rd - minute substitute for Alexis Sánchez in a 7 -- 0 win against Levante. On 21 August, he scored his first competitive goal for the club in the first leg of the 2013 Supercopa de España against Atlético Madrid: seven minutes after coming on as a substitute for Pedro, he headed Dani Alves ' cross to equalise in a 1 -- 1 draw at the Vicente Calderón Stadium as Barcelona won on the away goals rule for his first trophy at the club. On 18 September, he made his UEFA Champions League debut, assisting a Gerard Piqué goal as Barça beat Ajax 4 -- 0 in their opening match of the 2013 -- 14 tournament.
Six days later, Neymar scored his first goal in La Liga in Barcelona 's 4 -- 1 defeat of Real Sociedad at Camp Nou. On 26 October, he made his first El Clásico appearance, scoring the opening goal and assisting the team 's winning goal scored by Alexis Sánchez as Barcelona beat Real Madrid 2 -- 1 at Camp Nou. On 11 December, Neymar recorded his first three Champions League goals as he scored a hat - trick in a 6 -- 1 win over Celtic in Barcelona 's final Group H match.
On 13 September 2014, after appearing as a substitute, Neymar scored his first two goals of the 2014 -- 15 season, helping Barcelona beat Athletic Bilbao 2 -- 0. On 27 September, he scored a hat - trick against Granada in a 6 -- 0 win and went on to score in his next three La Liga matches, including the opening goal in a 1 -- 3 loss to Real Madrid at Estadio Santiago Bernabéu.
On 24 January 2015, Neymar scored twice and assisted two more goals in a 6 -- 0 win at Elche. On 28 January, he scored his 20th goal of the season in a 3 -- 2 Copa del Rey quarter - final win over Atlético Madrid. On 4 March, Neymar scored twice in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 Copa del Rey semi-final win over Villarreal to qualify the club for its 37th Spanish Cup final. On 21 April, Neymar took his tally to 30 goals for the season by scoring twice in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 Champions League quarter - final win over Paris Saint - Germain to qualify the club for the semi-finals.
In May, the closing month of the season, Neymar scored the last goal in a 3 -- 0 win against Bayern Munich in the first leg of the Champions League semi-final. A week later, he scored both the team 's goals in a 3 -- 2 second leg defeat at the Allianz Arena to ensure Barça would qualify for the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final. He also opened the scoring with a header in a 2 -- 0 league win versus Real Sociedad, a result which gave Barça a four - point lead over Real Madrid with only two matches remaining. After securing the league title on 17 May with a 1 -- 0 win over Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón, Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 -- 1 at Camp Nou in the 2015 Copa del Rey Final on 30 May, with Neymar scoring the second goal for Barça. With Barcelona 's victory likely, he performed tricks with the ball in the final stages of the game, which was deemed unsporting by opponent Andoni Iraola. Barcelona manager Luis Enrique claimed that it had to be understood that such behaviour was acceptable in Brazil, while Neymar himself did not apologise.
On 6 June 2015, Neymar scored the third goal for Barça in the 3 -- 1 Champions League Final defeat of Italian champions Juventus at Berlin 's Olympiastadion, ensuring the club won its fifth European Cup. This made Barcelona the first club in history to win the treble of domestic league, domestic cup and European Cup twice. On a personal note, he became the eighth player in football 's history to win both the Copa Libertadores and the UEFA Champions League, and the first player to score in final victories in both competitions.
Neymar ended the season with 39 goals in all competitions and 10 in the Champions League, making him joint highest scorer with Cristiano Ronaldo and teammate Lionel Messi in the latter competition. He was the first player apart from those two to top the competition 's scoring list, since compatriot Kaká in 2006 -- 07. Barcelona 's attacking trio of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN '', ended with 122 goals, the most in a season for an attacking trio in Spanish football history.
Due to having the mumps, Neymar was expected to miss the 2015 UEFA Super Cup and the 2015 Supercopa de España. On 17 October, Neymar scored four goals in Barcelona 's 5 -- 2 home win over Rayo Vallecano in La Liga, taking his total to eight goals for the season. On 21 November, Neymar scored one and provided a back heel assist for Andrés Iniesta in Barcelona 's 4 -- 0 away win against Real Madrid. He scored twice in a 4 -- 0 home win over Real Sociedad on 28 November, taking his La Liga total to 14 goals in 12 games. On 30 November, Neymar was shortlisted for the 2015 FIFA Ballon d'Or alongside Messi and Ronaldo, and subsequently came third. On 22 May 2016, Neymar scored a late goal in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final at the Vicente Calderón, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season, following their treble victory from the previous season.
On 2 April 2017, Neymar scored his 100th goal for Barcelona in his 177th appearance for the club, netting in a 4 -- 1 win over Granada. On 27 May, Neymar scored in the 2017 Copa del Rey Final, his 105th goal for the club, as Barcelona defeated Alavés 3 -- 1 at the Vicente Calderón in Madrid.
On 3 August 2017, Barcelona announced that Neymar 's legal representatives made a payment of € 222 million to the club (most expensive transfer ever), equal to the release clause of his contract. The club informed UEFA so that they can determine any disciplinary responsibilities that may arise from this case. According to the BBC, in Spain, the release clause must be activated by the footballer himself. The situation was unusual that the fee was paid to the club directly after La Liga had refused to receive the payment.
Neymar joined French club Paris Saint - Germain on a contract that will run until 2022. He was offered the number 10 jersey by Javier Pastore as a "welcome gift ''.
On 27 August 2017, FC Barcelona filed a lawsuit against Neymar, demanding he return the contract renewal bonus he received as well as € 8.5 million in damages and an additional 10 % for the arrears. They claimed they are owed money that Neymar received as part of a renewal bonus when he signed a new contract in 2016. The club also requested Paris Saint - Germain to take on the responsibility for the payment of the fees if the player can not do so himself. Neymar 's lawyers announced that they will contest the case.
He made his debut for Les Rouge - et - Bleu on 13 August, netting a goal for himself and also setting up another in a 3 -- 0 away victory over Guingamp. Neymar added two more goals to his tally in the next Ligue 1 fixture against Toulouse. Forming a prolific attacking trio alongside 18 - year - old French prodigy Kylian Mbappé and Uruguayan striker Edinson Cavani, Neymar scored one each in PSG 's two opening games of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League group stage, with the team winning 5 -- 0 at Celtic and 3 -- 0 at home over Bayern Munich respectively.
Following Neymar 's performances for Brazil 's under - 17 team at the 2009 U-17 World Cup in which he scored a goal in the opening match against Japan, former Brazilian football players Pelé and Romário reportedly urged coach Dunga to take Neymar to the 2010 World Cup. Although the widespread opinion that Neymar deserved a place in Dunga 's squad went as far as a 14,000 signature petition, and despite the huge pressure on Dunga to pick Neymar, he was omitted from both the squad of 23, and the stand - by list. Although Dunga described Neymar as "extremely talented '', he claimed that he had not been tested sufficiently on the international level to earn a World Cup spot and he had failed to impress enough while on international duty.
On 26 July 2010, Neymar was selected for the first time in the Brazil senior team by new head coach Mano Menezes for a friendly match against the United States to be played in East Rutherford, New Jersey. On 10 August 2010 he made his debut with the national team in that game, aged 18 years old, starting the match and wearing the number 11 jersey. He scored on his debut after 28 minutes, a header coming from an André Santos cross in a 2 -- 0 win for Brazil. On 1 March 2011, Neymar said: "Being on the Brazilian team is a privilege, There are some marvelous players and I 'm very happy to be among them. '' On 27 March 2011, he scored twice in a 2 -- 0 win against Scotland at the Emirates Stadium. During the match against Scotland, a banana was thrown onto the pitch after he scored from the penalty spot, which led Neymar to complain about ' constant jeering and an atmosphere of racism ', implying that Scottish fans exhibited racism. While Scottish officials explained that Neymar had been booed solely for perceived injury - feigning, a German student who was in the stadium amongst Brazil supporters said that he threw the banana with no racist intentions. This led to the Scottish Football Association asking the Brazilian Football Confederation for an apology for the accusations made to the Scottish fans. Neymar refused to apologize or retract his words, claiming he "did not accuse any person or any group of supporters ''.
Neymar was the leading goal scorer of the 2011 South American Youth Championship with nine goals, including two in the final, in Brazil 's 6 -- 0 win against Uruguay. He also took part at the 2011 Copa América in Argentina, where he scored two goals in the first - round game against Ecuador. He was selected ' Man of the Match ' in Brazil 's first match against Venezuela, which ended a 1 -- 1 draw. Brazil were eliminated in the quarter - finals in a penalty shoot - out against Paraguay (2 -- 2 a.e.t.), with Neymar being substituted in the 80th minute.
On 11 May 2012, Neymar was selected for the squad of the Brazil Olympic football team to participate in the London 2012 Olympic Games. In Brazil 's first warm - up match on 20 July 2012, against the host nation Great Britain at Riverside Stadium, Neymar was involved in both goals of a 2 -- 0 win, first making an assist with a free - kick into the six - yard box for Sandro 's header, before converting a penalty.
On 26 July 2012, Neymar scored his first goal of the 2012 Summer Olympics in Brazil 's opening fixture against Egypt, which ended a 3 -- 2 victory for Brazil. In the following match against Belarus at Old Trafford in Manchester, Neymar scored a free - kick from 25 - yards into the top - right corner of the goal and set up goals for Alexandre Pato 's header with a cross from the right and Oscar with a back heel as Brazil secured their place in the quarter - finals with a 3 -- 1 win. Afterwards he said: "I scored and made two assists so for me it was perfect ''.
On 5 August 2012, in the quarter - final encounter against Honduras, Neymar scored a penalty, his third goal of the tournament and assisted in Leandro Damião 's second goal on the match, to help Brazil to a 3 -- 2 victory at St James ' Park and book a place in the semi-finals. On 11 August, Brazil lost 2 - 1 to Mexico in the final at Wembley Stadium in London.
Neymar scored his first full international hat - trick on 10 September 2012, in an 8 -- 0 win over China at the Estádio José do Rego Maciel in Recife. On 19 September, Neymar scored the winner against Argentina in a 2 -- 1 win in the first leg of the 2012 Superclásico de las Américas at the Estádio Serra Dourada in Goiânia, Brazil.
Neymar was selected as part of Luiz Felipe Scolari 's Brazil squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup on home soil. For the tournament he was assigned the iconic number 10 shirt, having previously worn 11.
Neymar scored the first goal of the tournament in a 3 -- 0 win over Japan at the Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha on 15 June. In their second match, Neymar scored after nine minutes and crossed for Jô 's late goal to give Brazil a 2 -- 0 win over Mexico. He scored in his third consecutive match, with a powerful free kick from the edge of the penalty area, as Brazil beat Italy 4 -- 2, and received his third consecutive man - of - the - match award.
On 30 June, Neymar was involved in Fred 's opening goal and then subsequently scored Brazil 's second in the 3 -- 0 final victory over Spain. Neymar 's performances saw him receive the Golden Ball for player of the tournament.
On 5 March 2014, Neymar scored a hat - trick in a friendly win against South Africa in Johannesburg. He made headlines for his conduct after the final whistle when a young South African boy ran onto the pitch. As security staff began to escort the boy from the field, Neymar intervened and introduced him to his Brazil teammates before they all lifted him in the air during their celebrations.
On 2 June, Neymar was named to participate with Team Brazil in the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Going into the tournament, as the team 's star player, Neymar was the man expected to win Brazil its sixth World Cup on home soil. One week prior to the team 's opening match, Neymar scored once and made two assists in a 4 -- 0 friendly win over Panama.
Neymar earned his 50th international cap in the opening match of the tournament, on 12 June against Croatia in São Paulo. In the 26th minute, with Croatia leading 1 -- 0, Neymar elbowed Croatian midfielder Luka Modrić, after which Neymar was issued a yellow card. Many critics agreed that Neymar 's punishment was too lenient and that he should have been issued a red card. He equalised before half - time with a shot from outside the box and gave Brazil the lead in the second half with a penalty kick, following a controversial decision by the referee, in an eventual 3 -- 1 win. In the third group match, he again scored twice as the Seleção defeated Cameroon 4 -- 1 to reach the knockout stage. In the round of 16 against Chile, the match finished 1 -- 1 after 120 minutes and was decided by a penalty shoot - out with Neymar scoring what proved to be the winning kick for Brazil.
In the quarter - final defeat of Colombia, while challenging for the ball, Neymar was kneed in the back by Juan Camilo Zúñiga and had to be removed from the pitch on a stretcher. A hospital scan revealed that Neymar had suffered a fractured vertebra in his spine and he missed the rest of the World Cup. Earlier in the match, Neymar assisted Thiago Silva 's opening goal with a cross from a corner kick. It was the second time in the tournament that a Neymar corner had led to a goal for Brazil, after his cross created David Luiz 's goal in the previous round against Chile.
On 11 July, Neymar was named on the 10 - man shortlist for FIFA 's Golden Ball award for the tournament 's best player. He won the Bronze Boot as the tournament 's third top goalscorer and was named in the World Cup All Star XI.
With captain Thiago Silva ruled out through injury, new coach Dunga decided to make Neymar captain and confirmed on 5 September that the forward would stay on as skipper on a permanent basis. On 14 October 2014, Neymar scored four goals in one game for the first time in his international career, scoring all of Brazil 's goals in 4 -- 0 friendly win against Japan at the National Stadium, Singapore. At the age of just 22 years, Neymar had scored 40 goals in 58 internationals, and had become the fifth highest goalscorer for his national team. On 26 March 2015, Neymar scored Brazil 's second goal in a 3 -- 1 friendly win over France in Paris.
On 14 June 2015, in Brazil 's opening Copa América fixture, Neymar scored the equaliser and assisted the stoppage - time winning goal by Douglas Costa as Brazil came from 0 -- 1 down to beat Peru 2 -- 1 in Temuco. After Brazil 's second match, a 0 -- 1 loss to Colombia in Santiago, Neymar was booked for handball, resulting in a suspension. After the final whistle, he was red carded for deliberately kicking the ball at Pablo Armero, and as a result was pushed over by Colombian striker Carlos Bacca, who was also dismissed. CONMEBOL issued Neymar with a four - match ban, ruling him out for the remainder of the tournament, in addition to a $10,000 fine.
The CBF had wanted Neymar to play at the Copa América Centenario and the Olympics in Rio during the summer of 2016, but after a request from Barcelona manager Luis Enrique, he was rested from the first tournament. In late June 2016, he was subsequently one of the three over-23 players to be included in Brazil 's squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics on home soil, and was named the team 's captain by the Olympic side 's manager Rogério Micale.
In Brazil 's quarter - final clash with Colombia on 13 August, Neymar scored Brazil 's first goal of the match, from a direct free kick, and also set up his nation 's second goal in an eventual 2 -- 0 win. In Brazil 's semi-final clash with Honduras on 18 August, Neymar scored twice, Brazil 's first and last goals of the match, in a 6 -- 0 win.
In the final against Germany at the Maracanã in Rio on 20 August, Neymar opened the scoring with a free - kick after 27 minutes. The game finished 1 -- 1 after Max Meyer equalised in the second - half. Brazil beat Germany 5 -- 4 on penalties, and Neymar scored the winning penalty to bring Brazil its first Olympic gold medal in men 's football. Both during and prior to the tournament, he had been subjected to criticism over his conduct on and off the pitch, with several former Brazil players suggesting that he was not fit to captain the national team. Neymar subsequently renounced the captaincy following their Olympic victory.
Neymar primarily plays as either a central striker, second striker, winger or occasionally as an attacking midfielder, and has been described as "a true phenomenon ''. He often plays as a left sided forward for both club and country in the team 's 4 -- 3 -- 3 formation, drifting infield, due to his energetic pace and playmaking skills; this position allows him to shoot with his stronger foot, or create chances for teammates. Neymar 's dribbling skills, tricks and playmaking ability are reminiscent of compatriot Ronaldinho. His main traits are his creativity, vision, passing, finishing, dribbling, feints and technique, being described as both "electric '' and "explosive ''. Although naturally right - footed, he is capable of scoring with both feet, as well as with his head, and is an accurate free - kick and penalty taker. He commented on his attributes saying: "I 'm always trying to perfect everything -- dribbling, shooting, headers and control. You can always improve ''. Neymar stated that he has been inspired by Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo, Andrés Iniesta, Xavi and Wayne Rooney.
Brazilian playmaker Ronaldinho had also tipped Neymar on becoming the best player in the world: "Neymar is young though, and I ca n't explain how special he will become. In the next two or three seasons he will become the best player. '' Another Brazilian star, retired World Cup winner Ronaldo also believes that Neymar can become the best in the world: "Logically, Messi is better right now but Neymar is a great talent who will show the world that he will be number one ''. Former Real Madrid sporting director Jorge Valdano has also praised Neymar, stating: "I like Neymar a lot. Many of his individual actions result in a goal and often it 's a move that only seems to be happening with him on the pitch. '' FC Barcelona star Xavi also stated that Neymar "is a great player, has a very good attitude, and will go on to be the best player in the world. '' However, Neymar also has been known and criticised for his excessive diving when tackled by another player. For which Pelé has told: "He is a player with a body that ca n't take a lot of hits. (...) A lot of times he will fall because he ca n't do anything else, but he was overdoing it. '' He continued: "Even when he is fouled, he ca n't make a spectacle out of it ''.
The media have often drawn comparisons between Neymar and Brazilian legend Pelé, as Neymar possesses similar attributes and also like Pelé came from the Santos Youth Academy and turned heads with his skill. Neymar has said that Pelé is his "role model '' but also saying: "I do n't like to make a comparison with Pelé ''. On 11 April 2012, during the celebrations for the 100 years of Santos, when asked by journalists about Lionel Messi, Pelé said he felt that Neymar was better: "Now everyone is talking about Messi; he is a star. But (to be the best ever) he must first become better than Neymar, '' Pelé said. "At the moment Messi is just more experienced. ''
Neymar 's increasing reputation led both the media and former great players to draw comparisons between Neymar and Barcelona forward Lionel Messi, which Neymar has commented on saying: "Messi is above everyone, there is no use comparing me with him. (...) He is the best player in the world and I always get inspired when I watch good football. '' Ronaldo stated: "Neymar is a great talent, the best we have in Brazil. He is very similar to Messi. '' Zico said: "I see Neymar like a (Cristiano) Ronaldo or a Messi, the type who appears and makes things happen. '' After his hat - trick against Internacional 3 -- 1 in Copa Libertadores and Messi 's five goals scored in the Champions League, Neymar said: "I am a Messi fan. I was told what he did today. I support him to score a lot of nice goals so I can keep copying and imitating him. ''
Neymar has a son, Davi Lucca, with former girlfriend Carolina Dantas. Neymar was quoted as saying: "I cried when I learned that I would be his father. At first, I felt fear. Then joy. It is a new responsibility and I am now enjoying it. '' He later described the birth of his baby boy as: "2.8 kilograms of pure happiness '' and also said: "Mother and baby are in good condition just after childbirth ''. He has a very close sibling relationship with his sister Rafaella Beckran, and cemented this platonic closeness by tattooing her face on his arm, while Beckran tattooed her brothers eyes on her arm.
Neymar is a Christian, and follows the Pentacostal branch of the religion. Neymar has spoken about his faith saying: "Life only makes sense when our highest ideal is to serve Christ! '' Additionally, he has sometimes worn a headband with the words "100 % Jesus. ''. Neymar reportedly also tithes (10 %) his income to his church and has named Kaká as his religious role model. Each year, Neymar organizes a charity match with fellow Brazilian footballer Nenê in Nenê 's hometown of Jundiaí, with the purpose of raising food for needy families.
Neymar has signed many sponsorship deals since his reputation rapidly grew from the age of 17. In March 2011, he signed an 11 - year contract with American sportswear company Nike. In the same month, Panasonic paid US $2.4 million to secure Neymar 's services for two years. Prior to signing for Barcelona, France Football had ranked Neymar 13th in its list of the world 's richest players in 2012, with total earnings of $18.8 million for the previous 12 months. He has signed other sponsorships from Volkswagen, Tenys Pé Baruel, Lupo, Ambev, Claro, Unilever and Santander. All of his sponsorships have earned him a total of an estimated € 20 million per year.
On 8 May 2013, Neymar was rated by SportsPro magazine as the most marketable athlete in the world, ahead of Lionel Messi (2nd) and Cristiano Ronaldo (8th). In November 2012 advertising agency Loducca, created Neymar 's own personal brand logo, featuring the N, J and R (Neymar Junior) with the N styled to match Neymar 's shirt number 11. Neymar starred in a 2014 advert for Beats with other global football stars including Thierry Henry and Luis Suárez, with the theme of ' The Game Before The Game ' and the players pre-game ritual of listening to music.
Neymar was featured on the front covers of the video games Pro Evolution Soccer 2012 and Pro Evolution Soccer 2013 on the North American version, after Konami Digital Entertainment announced that he had joined Pro Evolution Soccer. Neymar joined Cristiano Ronaldo as a featured cover athlete.
Neymar appeared on the cover of Time magazine in February 2013, the first Brazilian athlete to be so honoured. The issue included an article by Bobby Ghosh entitled "The Next Pelé '' and subtitled "How the career of Brazilian football star Neymar explains his country 's economy ''.
Controversy erupted because of a cover by Brazilian football magazine Placar that depicted Neymar on a cross. The title read "A Crucificação de Neymar '' (the Crucifixion of Neymar) and subtitled: "the Brazilian ace turns scapegoat in a sport where everyone plays dirty ''.
In April 2013, Brazilian cartoonist Mauricio de Sousa released a Monica 's Gang comic book featuring a younger version of Neymar (called Neymar Jr) as the main character.
In May 2013, SportsPro magazine named Neymar as the most marketable athlete on the planet for the second consecutive year. He topped the list ahead of Lionel Messi, Rory McIlroy, Usain Bolt and Cristiano Ronaldo, among other sportspeople. The list measures the monetary value, the age, the force in domestic markets, the charisma and their market potential in the next three years. In March 2015, Neymar had the fourth highest social media rank in the world among sportspeople, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi and David Beckham, with 52 million Facebook fans. In ESPN 's list of active sportspeople in 2016, Neymar was ranked the fourth most famous athlete in the world.
To mark the World Cup commencing in Brazil, in June 2014, Neymar appeared with supermodel Gisele Bündchen on the front cover of Vogue 's Brazilian edition. In November 2014, Neymar appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Cristiano Ronaldo, Gareth Bale, Xavi and Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it.
In June 2016, actor Vin Diesel confirmed that Neymar would be a part of the action film xXx: Return of Xander Cage, appearing as himself. He appeared in the film 's first trailer, released on 20 July 2016. In April 2017, Neymar was included in the Time 100, Time magazine 's list of the most influential people in the world.
Neymar has become an icon in promoting Brazilian modern pop music, particularly Música sertaneja. The video in which Neymar dances in the Santos locker room dancing in front of teammates carrying his recorder making the round of the players and making them react to the tune of Michel Teló 's hit "Ai se eu te pego! '' went viral. He made a point of performing his dance antics to the song after scoring goals in football games and appeared live with Teló in one of the latter 's concerts. He also supported sertanejo singer Gusttavo Lima performing live with Lima on renditions of the singer 's hits "Balada '' and "Fazer Beber ''. In 2012, he made cameo appearances in the music video for yet another sertanejo hit "Eu Quero Tchu, Eu Quero Tcha '' by João Lucas & Marcelo. In 2013, Neymar appeared on a rap music video, "País do Futebol '' by MC Guimê.
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who has the most power in indian government | Government of India - Wikipedia
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The Government of India (IAST: Bhārata Sarakāra), often abbreviated as GoI, is the union government created by the constitution of India as the legislative, executive and judicial authority of the union of 29 states and seven union territories of a constitutionally democratic republic. It is located in New Delhi, the capital of India.
Modelled after the Westminster system for governing the state, the union government is mainly composed of the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary, in which all powers are vested by the constitution in parliament, the prime minister and the supreme court. The President of India is the head of state and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces whilst the elected prime minister acts as the head of the executive, and is responsible for running the union government. The parliament is bicameral in nature, with the Lok Sabha being the lower house, and the Rajya Sabha the upper house. The judiciary systematically contains an apex supreme court, 24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the supreme court.
The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the civil procedure code, the penal code, and the criminal procedure code. Similar to the union government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative and judiciary. The legal system as applicable to the union and individual state governments is based on the English Common and Statutory Law. The full name of the country is the Republic of India. India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India in the Constitution, and both names appears on legal banknotes, in treaties and in legal cases. The terms "union government '', "central government '' and "Bhārata Sarakāra '' are often used officially and unofficially to refer to the Government of India. The term New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the central government, as the seat of government is in New Delhi.
The powers of the legislature in India are exercised by the Parliament, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. Of the two houses of parliament, the Rajya Sabha is considered to be the upper house or the Council of States and consists of members appointed by the president and elected by the state and territorial legislatures. The Lok Sabha is considered the lower house or the House of the people.
The parliament does not have complete control and sovereignty, as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court. However, it does exercise some control over the executive. The members of the cabinet, including the prime minister, are either chosen from parliament or elected thereto within six months of assuming office. The cabinet as a whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can be dissolved only when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and can never be dissolved. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a six - year term.
The executive of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers.
The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, as per Article 53 (1) of the constitution. The president has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53 (1). The president is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the prime minister, who leads the council of ministers as described in Article 74 of the Constitution of India.
The council of ministers remains in power during the ' pleasure ' of the president. However, in practice, the council of ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a president were to dismiss the council of ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the council of ministers can not be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The president is responsible for appointing many high officials in India. These high officials include the governors of the 29 states; the chief justice; other judges of the supreme court and high courts on the advice of other judges; the Attorney general; the Comptroller and Auditor General; the Chief Election Commissioner and other election commissioners; the chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission; the officers of the All India Services (IAS, IFoS and IPS) and central civil services in group ' A '; and the ambassadors and high commissioners to other countries on the recommendations of the cabinet.
The president, as the head of state, also receives the credentials of ambassadors from other countries, whilst the prime minister, as head of government, receives credentials of high commissioners from other members of the Commonwealth, in line with historical tradition.
The president is the de jure commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the president exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the prime minister.
The vice president is the second highest constitutional position in India after the president. The vice president represents the nation in the absence of the president and takes charge as acting president in the incident of resignation impeachment or removal of the president. The vice president also has the legislative function of acting as the chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The vice president is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both the houses of the parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot conducted by the election commission.
The Prime Minister of India, as addressed in the Constitution of India, is the chief of the government, chief adviser to the president, head of the council of ministers and the leader of the majority party in the parliament. The prime minister leads the executive of the Government of India.
The prime minister is the senior member of cabinet in the executive of government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within the Government; is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet and is responsible for bringing a proposal of legislation. The resignation or death of the prime minister dissolves the cabinet.
The prime minister is appointed by the president to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive.
The Cabinet of India includes the prime minister and his cabinet ministers. Each minister must be a member of one of the houses of the parliament. The cabinet is headed by the prime minister, and is advised by the cabinet secretary, who also acts as the head of the Indian Administrative Service and other civil services. Other ministers are either as union cabinet ministers, who are heads of the various ministries; or ministers of state, who are junior members who report directly to one of the cabinet ministers, often overseeing a specific aspect of government; or ministers of state (independent charges), who do not report to a cabinet minister. As per article 88 of the constitution, every minister shall have the right to speak in, and to take part in the proceedings of, either house, any joint sitting of the houses, and any committee of parliament of which he may be named a member, but shall not be entitled to a vote in the house where he is not a member.
A secretary to the Government of India, a civil servant, generally an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, is the administrative head of the ministry or department, and is the principal adviser to the minister on all matters of policy and administration within the ministry / department. Secretaries to the Government of India rank 23rd on Indian order of precedence. Secretaries at the higher level are assisted by one or many additional secretaries, who are further assisted by joint secretaries. At the middle they are assisted by directors / deputy secretaries and under secretaries. At the lower level, there are section officers, assistant section officers, upper division clerks, lower division clerks and other secretarial staff.
The Civil Services of India are the civil services and the permanent bureaucracy of India. The executive decisions are implemented by the Indian civil servants.
In the parliamentary democracy of India, the ultimate responsibility for running the administration rests with the elected representatives of the people which are the ministers. These ministers are accountable to the legislatures which are also elected by the people on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The ministers are indirectly responsible to the people themselves. But the handful of ministers are not expected to deal personally with the various problems of modern administration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for the civil servants to enforce it.
The cabinet secretary (IAST: Maṃtrimaṇḍala Saciva) is the top-most executive official and senior-most civil servant of the Government of India. The cabinet secretary is the ex-officio head of the Civil Services Board, the Cabinet Secretariat, the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and head of all civil services under the rules of business of the government.
The cabinet secretary is generally the senior-most officer of the Indian Administrative Service. The cabinet secretary ranks 11th on the Indian order of precedence. The cabinet secretary is under the direct charge of the prime minister.
India 's independent union judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo - Saxon countries. The Supreme Court of India consists of the chief justice and 30 associate justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. The jury trials were abolished in India in the early 1960s, after the famous case KM Nanavati v. State of Maharashtra, for reasons of being vulnerable to media and public pressure, as well as to being misled.
Unlike its United States counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and union level. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of India, high courts at the state level, and district courts and sessions courts at the district level.
The Supreme Court of India is situated in New Delhi, the capital region of India.
The supreme court is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court, with the power of constitutional review. Consisting of the Chief Justice of India and 30 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.
As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the high courts of various states of the Union and other courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and settles disputes between various governments in the country. As an advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it under the constitution by the president. It also may take cognisance of matters on its own (or ' suo moto '), without anyone drawing its attention to them. The law declared by the supreme court becomes binding on all courts within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142, it is the duty of the President to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.
In addition, Article 32 of the constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the supreme court in regard to enforcing fundamental rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The supreme court has been conferred with power to direct transfer of any civil or criminal case from one state high court to another state high court, or from a court subordinate to another state high court and the supreme court. Although the proceedings in the supreme court arise out of the judgment or orders made by the subordinate courts, of late the supreme court has started entertaining matters in which interest of the public at large is involved. This may be done by any individual or group of persons either by filing a writ petition at the filing counter of the court, or by addressing a letter to the Chief Justice of India, highlighting the question of public importance for redress. These are known as public interest litigations.
India has a quasi-federal form of government, called "union '' or "central '' government, with elected officials at the union, state and local levels. At the national level, the head of government, the prime minister, is appointed by the President of India from the party or coalition that has the majority of seats in the Lok Sabha. The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected for a term of five years by universal adult suffrage through a first - past - the - post voting system. Members of the Rajya Sabha, which represents the states, are elected by the members of State legislative assemblies by proportional representation, except for 12 members who are nominated by the president.
India is currently the largest democracy in the world, with around 834 million eligible voters, as of 2014.
State governments in India are the governments ruling States of India and the chief minister heads the state government. Power is divided between union government and state governments. State government 's legislature is bicameral in 7 states and unicameral in the rest. Lower house is elected with 5 years term, while in upper house 1 / 3 of the total members in the house gets elected every 2 years with 6 - year term.
Local government function at the basic level. It is the third level of government apart from union and state governments. It consists of panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. They are elected directly or indirectly by the people.
India has a three - tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union government to levy income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions, excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by the state government to levy property tax and charge users for public utilities like water supply, sewage etc. More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which 3 / 4 come from direct taxes. More than a quarter of the union government 's tax revenues is shared with the state governments.
The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions:
The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services.
Inter-state share in the union tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission to the president.
Total tax receipts of Centre and State amount to approximately 18 % of national GDP. This compares to a figure of 37 -- 45 % in the OECD.
The Finance minister of India usually presents the annual union budget in the parliament on the last working day of February. However, for the F.Y. 2017 - 18, this tradition had been changed. Now budget will be presented on the 1st day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha before it can come into effect on 1 April, the start of India 's fiscal year. The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year
India 's non-development revenue expenditure had increased nearly five-fold in 2003 -- 04 since 1990 -- 91 and more than tenfold since 1985 -- 1986. Interest payments are the single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40 % of the total non-development expenditure in the 2003 -- 04 budget. Defense expenditure increased fourfold during the same period and has been increasing because of India 's desire to project its military prowess beyond South Asia. In 2007, India 's defence spending stood at US $26.5 billion.
Several ministers are accused of corruption and nearly a quarter of the 543 elected members of parliament had been charged with crimes, including murder, in 2009. Many of the biggest scandals since 2010 have involved high level government officials, including cabinet ministers and chief ministers, such as the 2010 Commonwealth Games scam (₹ 70,000 crore (equivalent to ₹ 1.1 trillion or US $16 billion in 2017)), the Adarsh Housing Society scam, the Coal Mining Scam (₹ 1.86 lakh crore (equivalent to ₹ 3.0 trillion or US $43 billion in 2017)), the mining scandal in Karnataka and the cash for vote scandal.
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where should you pour a drink using a thimble measure | Alcoholic spirits measure - wikipedia
Alcoholic spirits measures are instruments designed to measure exact amounts or shots of alcoholic spirits.
The most common products used today to measure spirits are the thimble measure and the non-drip measure, often referred to as an optic. The terms Optic, Optic Pearl, OpticJade and OpticOpal are all trademarks of Gaskell & Chambers owned by the company IMI Cornelius (UK) Ltd, but the word "optic '' has become synonymous with inverted or non-drip spirit measures. Other manufacturers, such as Beaumont TM, also supply this type of measuring device.
The optic or non-drip measure is mounted beneath an inverted spirit bottle, so that a pre-defined volume of the bottle 's contents drains into the measure. Lifting a lever on the side of the measure first closes off the measure from the bottle, then dispenses the measured liquid into the glass or mixing vessel held underneath. This mechanism ensures that a correct spirit measure can be dispensed each time, as the inverted bottle allows the measure to be replenished in the optic after each shot has been dispensed. These types of measures are commonly used for highly demanded drinks in professional bar settings, and are often incorporated into visually - appealing machines that serve both functional and marketing purposes for the liquor being poured. Bottles are available to the trade with their labels affixed upside down so that they will be the right way up when mounted on the optic.
The thimble measure is a stainless steel vessel, like a shot glass, either with predefined measuring lines etched or stamped into the sides, or else pre-sized so that pouring up to the brim of the measure yields the correct volume. This second variation is commonly seen in a double - thimble or "hourglass '' form, with two metal cups of different volumes (often in a 3: 2 or 2: 1 ratio, like a U.S. standard 1.5 fl oz "jigger '' and 1 fl oz "pony '', or UK standard 25 / 50mL or 35 / 70mL combos) spot - welded to each other at their relative bottom surfaces, possibly with a handle between them, allowing one unit to easily measure two common volumes.
Thimble measures are popular for home use, as they allow a relatively untrained person to pour quickly and accurately from several bottles without risking cross-contamination between them, or requiring the purchase, use and cleaning of a pour spout for each bottle as would be seen in a professional bar.
Common in U.S. bars, these devices consist of a simple rubber or plastic stopper with a metal or plastic tube fitted into it, and often a second smaller tube extending down into the bottle, designed to replace the cap or cork on a bottle of liquor. The spout, in the U.S., is usually calibrated to allow a flow of 1 fluid ounce per second, so that a bartender can measure accurate and consistent shots of liquor or portions for cocktails based on timed pours, without needing to use a jigger or other measuring device.
Common in U.S. bars, these devices appear visually to be the same as a free - flow pour spout, but have an internal mechanism to block the tube after a pre-defined and calibrated volume of liquid has passed, oftentimes a set of 2 or 3 balls. Because of the geometry, the bottle with one of these spouts needs to be held at a specific angle, typically 45 degrees, otherwise the volume poured will be under or over the stated calibration.
Common in France, where it is called a bouchon doseur boule, this device consists of a transparent T - shaped glass tube arrangement, with a ball on one end of the horizontal section, a cap or cork on the other end, and a cork or plastic bottle stopper on the bottom of the T, allowing the measure to replace the cap of a liquor bottle. In use, the bottle is inverted until the ball fills with liquor, and then tilted in the other direction to let the liquor pour out the spout in a manner that keeps additional liquor entering the measure from the bottle.
The Weights and Measures Act of 1963 made it illegal in Britain for businesses to give short weights or short measures to consumers. Before this there was no legislation, only guidelines as to the correct weight of an alcoholic spirit measure, and if spirit measures or optics were used, they required a government stamp to certify that the measure was accurate. This Act specified that only gin, rum, vodka and whisky were spirits and had to be served in the prescribed measured quantities using an approved optic measure. All other drinks are not spirits (for the purposes of the act) and could be free poured. Today, these other drinks may not be free poured, but must be measured, though the bar is free to chose the size of the measure (which must be advertised). In practice, most bars will use the same size measure as for the four spirits.
The 1963 Act formalized the legal measures by which spirits and other alcoholic beverages should be dispensed, namely 1 / 4 gill (35.5 ml), 1 / 5 gill (28.4 ml) or 1 / 6 gill (23.7 ml), but this was replaced in 1985 by 25ml for single measures, with double measures of 50ml being permitted. From 2001 single measures of either 25ml or 35ml were permitted. Landlords have the option to decide which quantitity they sell, with the difference being caused by historically larger measures being used in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The landlord can chose one or the other but not both.
Thimble measures are also used in 175ml and 250ml volumes for measuring wine. Although government stamped for the correct volume, the thimble measure does rely on the user measuring the wine out manually into the thimble.
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which part of the fallopian (uterine) tubes is responsible for catching the ovulated egg | Fimbriae of uterine tube - wikipedia
In the female reproductive system, the fimbria (plural, fimbriae) is a fringe of tissue around the ostium of the Fallopian tube, in the direction of the ovary.
An ovary is not directly connected to its adjacent Fallopian tube. When ovulation is about to occur, the sex hormones activate the fimbriae, causing it to swell with blood and hit the ovary in a gentle, sweeping motion. An oocyte is released from the ovary into the peritoneal cavity and the cilia of the fimbriae sweep the ovum into the Fallopian tube.
Of all fimbriae, one fimbria is long enough to reach the ovary. It is called fimbria ovarica.
Uterus and right broad ligament, seen from behind.
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how many goals has there been in the premier league | Premier League - wikipedia
The Premier League is the top level of the English football league system. Contested by 20 clubs, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League (EFL).
The Premier League is a corporation in which the member clubs act as shareholders. Seasons run from August to May with each team playing 38 matches (playing each other home and away). Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons. It is often known outside England as the English Premier League (EPL).
The competition was formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League, founded in 1888, and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal. The deal was worth £ 1 billion a year domestically as of 2013 -- 14, with BSkyB and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively. The league generates € 2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights. In 2014 -- 15, teams were apportioned revenues of £ 1.6 billion, rising sharply to £ 2.4 billion in 2016 -- 17.
The Premier League is the most - watched sports league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. In the 2014 -- 15 season, the average Premier League match attendance exceeded 36,000, second highest of any professional football league behind the Bundesliga 's 43,500. Most stadium occupancies are near capacity. The Premier League ranks third in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons, as of 2016.
Forty - nine clubs have competed since the inception of the Premier League in 1992. Six of them have won the title: Manchester United (13), Chelsea (5), Arsenal (3), Manchester City (3), Blackburn Rovers (1) and Leicester City (1).
Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s, the late ' 80s marked a low point for English football. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters endured poor facilities, hooliganism was rife, and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. The Football League First Division, the top level of English football since 1888, was behind leagues such as Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga in attendances and revenues, and several top English players had moved abroad.
By the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse: at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, England reached the semi-finals; UEFA, European football 's governing body, lifted the five - year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990, resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1991, and the Taylor Report on stadium safety standards, which proposed expensive upgrades to create all - seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster, was published in January of that year.
The 1980s also saw the major English clubs, led by the likes of Martin Edwards of Manchester United, Irving Scholar of Tottenham Hotspur and David Dein of Arsenal, beginning to be transformed into business ventures that applied commercial principles to the running of the clubs, which led to the increasing power of the elite clubs. By threatening to break away, the top clubs from Division One managed to increase their voting power, and took 50 % share of all television and sponsorship income in 1986. Revenue from television also became more important: the Football League received £ 6.3 million for a two - year agreement in 1986, but by 1988, in a deal agreed with ITV, the price rose to £ 44 million over four years with the leading clubs taking 75 % of the cash. The 1988 negotiations were conducted under the threat of ten clubs leaving to form a "super league '', but were eventually persuaded to stay with the top clubs taking the lion share of the deal. As stadiums improved and match attendance and revenues rose, the country 's top teams again considered leaving the Football League in order to capitalise on the influx of money into the sport.
In 1990, the managing director of London Weekend Television (LWT), Greg Dyke, met with the representatives of the "big five '' football clubs in England (Manchester United, Liverpool, Tottenham, Everton and Arsenal) over a dinner. The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League. Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money. The five clubs decided it was a good idea and decided to press ahead with it; however, the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea. The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League 's position.
At the close of the 1991 season, a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on 17 July 1991 by the game 's top - flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements. The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe. Although Dyke played a significant role in the creation of the Premier League, Dyke and ITV would lose out in the bidding for broadcast rights as BSkyB won with a bid of £ 304 million over five years with the BBC awarded the highlights package broadcast on Match of the Day.
In 1992, the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association 's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate. This meant a break - up of the 104 - year - old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three. There was no change in competition format; the same number of teams competed in the top flight, and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted.
The league held its first season in 1992 -- 93. It was composed of 22 clubs for that season. The first Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2 -- 1 win against Manchester United. The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal, Aston Villa, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Coventry City, Crystal Palace, Everton, Ipswich Town, Leeds United, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Middlesbrough, Norwich City, Nottingham Forest, Oldham Athletic, Queens Park Rangers, Sheffield United, Sheffield Wednesday, Southampton, Tottenham Hotspur, and Wimbledon. Luton Town, Notts County, and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991 -- 92 season, and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season.
One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s was the dominance of the so - called "Top Four '' clubs: Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool and Manchester United. During this decade, they dominated the top four spots, which came with UEFA Champions League qualification, taking all top - four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003 -- 04 to 2008 -- 09 inclusive, while every season during the 2000s saw the "Big Four '' always qualifying for European competition. Arsenal went as far as winning the league without losing a single game in 2003 -- 04, the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League.
During the 2000s, only four sides outside the "Top Four '' managed to qualify for the Champions League: Leeds United (1999 -- 2000), Newcastle United (2001 -- 02 and 2002 -- 03), Everton (2004 -- 05) and Tottenham Hotspur (2009 -- 10) -- each occupying the final Champions League spot, with the exception of Newcastle in the 2002 -- 03 season, who finished third.
In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that "Top Four '' dominance threatened the division, "This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world. '' Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence: "There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you 're at the top, in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting. ''
Between 2005 and 2012, there was a Premier League representative in seven of the eight Champions League finals, with only "Top Four '' clubs reaching that stage. Liverpool (2005), Manchester United (2008) and Chelsea (2012) won the competition during this period, with Arsenal (2006), Liverpool (2007), Chelsea (2008) and Manchester United (2009 and 2011) all losing Champions League finals. Leeds United were the only non - "Top Four '' side to reach the semi-finals of the Champions League, in the 2000 -- 01 season.
Additionally, between the 1999 -- 2000 and 2009 -- 10 seasons, four Premier League sides reached UEFA Cup or Europa League finals, with only Liverpool managing to win the competition in 2001. Arsenal (2000), Middlesbrough (2006) and Fulham (2010) all lost their finals.
The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the "Top Four '' with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four places on a regular basis. In the 2009 -- 10 season, Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton five years prior. Criticism of the gap between an elite group of "super clubs '' and the majority of the Premier League has continued, nevertheless, due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs. Since the continued presence of Manchester City and Tottenham Hotspur at the top end of the table, no side has won consecutive Premier League titles.
By the end of the 2009 -- 10 season, each of the "Top Four '' clubs had revenues in excess of € 200 million, while Manchester City and Tottenham Hotspur had revenues of roughly € 150 million according to the Deloitte Football Money League. Manchester United had the largest revenue stream in the Premier League at € 349.8 million, while Aston Villa were the closest club to the new "Big Six '' with revenues of € 109.4 million.
Manchester City won the title in the 2011 -- 12 season, becoming the first club outside the "Big Four '' to win since Blackburn Rovers in the 1994 -- 95 season. That season also saw two of the "Big Four '' (Chelsea and Liverpool) finish outside the top four places for the first time since that season. The return of Manchester City as a force in English football combined with Tottenham Hotspur finishing third and then second in the 2015 -- 16 and 2016 -- 17 seasons respectively meant that many viewed the "Big Four '' as proliferating into the "Big Six ''.
With only four UEFA Champions League qualifying places available in the league, greater competition for qualification now exists, albeit from a narrow base of six clubs. In the following five seasons after the 2011 -- 12 campaign, Manchester United and Liverpool both found themselves outside of the top four three times while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015 -- 16 season. Arsenal finished 5th in 2016 -- 17, ending their record of 20 consecutive top - four finishes.
In the 2015 -- 16 season, the top four was breached by a non-Big Six side for the first time since Everton in 2005. Leicester City were the surprise winners of the league, qualifying for the Champions League as a result. However, they were unable to follow up their title - winning season with another strong season -- finishing twelfth.
Off the pitch, the "Big Six '' wield financial power and influence, with these clubs arguing that they should be entitled to a greater share of revenue due to the greater stature of their clubs globally and the attractive football they aim to play. Objectors argue that the egalitarian revenue structure in the Premier League helps to maintain a competitive league which is vital for its future success.
The 2016 -- 17 Deloitte Football Money League report showed the financial disparity between the "Big Six '' and the rest of the division. All of the "Big Six '' had revenues greater than € 350 million, with Manchester United having the largest revenue in the league at € 676.3 million. Leicester City was the closest club to the "Big Six '' in terms of revenue, recording a figure of € 271.1 million for that season -- helped by participation in the Champions League. The eighth largest revenue generator West Ham, who did n't play in European competition, had revenues of € 213.3 million, nearly half of the fifth largest club, Liverpool (€ 424.2 million).
Due to insistence by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), the international governing body of football, that domestic leagues reduce the number of games clubs played, the number of clubs was reduced to 20, down from 22, in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted. The top flight had only been expanded to 22 teams at the start of the 1991 -- 92 season -- the year prior to the formation of the Premier League.
On 8 June 2006, FIFA requested that all major European leagues, including Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga, be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007 -- 08 season. The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction. Ultimately, the 2007 -- 08 season kicked off again with 20 teams, as did the other major European leagues with 20 teams.
The league changed its name from the FA Premier League to simply the Premier League in 2007.
The Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs. Each club is a shareholder, with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts. The clubs elect a chairman, chief executive, and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league. The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards, who was appointed in April 1999, and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore, appointed in November 1999. The former chairman and chief executive, John Quinton and Peter Leaver, were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance. The Football Association is not directly involved in the day - to - day operations of the Premier League, but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league.
The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA 's European Club Association, the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients. For the 2012 -- 13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association: Arsenal, Aston Villa, Chelsea, Everton, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur. The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA 's Club Competitions Committee, which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League.
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season (from August to May) each club plays the others twice (a double round - robin system), once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents ', for a total of 38 games. Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position. If there is a tie for the championship, for relegation, or for qualification to other competitions, a play - off match at a neutral venue decides rank. The three lowest placed teams are relegated into the EFL Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship, together with the winner of play - offs involving the third to sixth placed Championship clubs, are promoted in their place.
As of the 2009 -- 10 season qualification for the UEFA Champions League changed, the top four teams in the Premier League qualify for the UEFA Champions League, with the top three teams directly entering the group stage. Previously only the top two teams qualified automatically. The fourth - placed team enters the Champions League at the play - off round for non-champions and must win a two - legged knockout tie in order to enter the group stage.
The team placed fifth in the Premier League automatically qualifies for the UEFA Europa League, and the sixth and seventh - placed teams can also qualify, depending on the winners of the two domestic cup competitions i.e. the FA Cup and the EFL Cup. Two Europa League places are reserved for the winners of each tournament; if the winner of either the FA Cup or EFL Cup qualifies for the Champions League, then that place will go to the next - best placed finisher in the Premier League.
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth - placed team in the league. At that time, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. This occurred in 2012, when Chelsea -- who had won the Champions League that summer, but finished sixth in the league -- qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur, who went into the Europa League.
Starting with the 2015 -- 16 season, the Europa League champion automatically qualifies for the following season 's Champions League, and the maximum number of Champions League places for any single association has increased to five. An association with four Champions League places, such as The FA, will only earn a fifth place if a club from that association that does not qualify for the Champions League through its league wins either the Champions League or Europa League.
In 2007, the Premier League became the highest ranking European League based on the performances of English teams in European competitions over a five - year period. This broke the eight - year dominance of the Spanish league, La Liga.
Between the 1992 -- 93 and the 2016 -- 17 seasons, Premier League clubs won the UEFA Champions League four times (and had five runners - up), behind Spain 's La Liga with ten wins, and Italy 's Serie A with five wins; ahead of, among others, Germany 's Bundesliga with three wins. The FIFA Club World Cup (originally called the FIFA Club World Championship) has been won once by a Premier League club (Manchester United in 2008), with two runners - up (Liverpool in 2005, Chelsea in 2012), behind Spain 's La Liga with five wins, Brazil 's Brasileirão with four wins, and Italy 's Serie A with two wins (see table here).
A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Premier League and the EFL Championship. The three lowest placed teams in the Premier League are relegated to the Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship promoted to the Premier League, with an additional team promoted after a series of play - offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. The Premier League had 22 teams when it began in 1992, but this was reduced to the present 20 - team format in 1995.
A total of 49 clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992, up to and including the 2017 -- 18 season.
The following 20 clubs will compete in the Premier League during the 2017 -- 18 season.
: Founding member of the Premier League: Never been relegated from Premier League: One of the original 12 Football League teams: Club based in Wales
In 2011, a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion. The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City 's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011. In 2012 -- 13, Swansea qualified for the Europa League by winning the League Cup. The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two for the first time in 2013 -- 14, as Cardiff City gained promotion, but they were relegated after their maiden season.
Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long - running discussions in UEFA. Swansea took one of England 's three available places in the Europa League in 2013 -- 14 by winning the League Cup in 2012 -- 13. The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012, allowing them to participate.
Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed, but without result. The idea came closest to reality in 1998, when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin, Ireland, but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland. Additionally, the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland 's two biggest teams, Celtic and Rangers, should or will take part in the Premier League, but nothing has come of these discussions.
From 1993 to 2016, the Premier League had title sponsorship rights sold to two companies, which were Carling Brewery and Barclays Bank PLC; Barclays was the most recent title sponsor, having sponsored the Premier League from 2001 through 2016 (until 2004, the title sponsorship was held through its Barclaycard brand before shifting to its main banking brand in 2004).
Barclays ' deal with the Premier League expired at the end of the 2015 -- 16 season. The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League, arguing that they wanted to build a "clean '' brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues.
As well as sponsorship for the league itself, the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers. The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000 -- 01 season when they took over from Mitre.
The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world, with total club revenues of € 2.48 billion in 2009 -- 10. In 2013 -- 14, due to improved television revenues and cost controls, the Premier League had net profits in excess of £ 78 million, exceeding all other football leagues. In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen 's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom 's broadcasting industry.
The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world. Deloitte 's "Football Money League '' listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009 -- 10 season, and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013 -- 14 season, largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue. From 2013, the league generates € 2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights.
Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012, to radical new cost controls. The two proposals consist of a break - even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season. With the new television deals on the horizon, momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents.
Central payments for the 2016 -- 17 season amounted to £ 2,398,515,773 across the 20 clubs, with each team receiving a flat participation fee of £ 35,301,989 and additional payments for TV broadcasts (£ 1,016,690 for general UK rights to match highlights, £ 1,136,083 for each live UK broadcast of their games and £ 39,090,596 for all overseas rights), commercial rights (a flat fee of £ 4,759,404) and a notional measure of "merit '' which was based upon final league position. The merit component was a nominal sum of £ 1,941,609 multiplied by each finishing place, counted from the foot of the table (e.g., Burnley finished 16th in May 2017, five places counting upwards, and received 5 × £ 1,941,609 = £ 9,708,045 merit payment).
Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League. The League 's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However, a combination of Sky 's strategy, the quality of Premier League football and the public 's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League 's TV rights soar.
The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis. This is in contrast to some other European Leagues, including La Liga, in which each club sells its rights individually, leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs. The money is divided into three parts: half is divided equally between the clubs; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television, with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this. The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs.
The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £ 304 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997 -- 98 season, rose to £ 670 million over four seasons. The third contract was a £ 1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001 -- 02 to 2003 -- 04. The league brought in £ 320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three - year period from 2004 -- 05 to 2006 -- 07. It sold the rights itself on a territory - by - territory basis. Sky 's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available. This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company. Sky and Setanta paid a total of £ 1.7 billion, a two - thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth. Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers. The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons (on Match of the Day) for £ 171.6 million, a 63 per cent increase on the £ 105 million it paid for the previous three - year period. Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £ 84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games (that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday. Overseas television rights fetched £ 625 million, nearly double the previous contract. The total raised from these deals is more than £ 2.7 billion, giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £ 40 million - a-year from 2007 to 2010.
The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel, and a number of court cases have arisen as a result. An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market, but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position. In July 1999 the Premier League 's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court, who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest.
The BBC 's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights, as well as other evenings when fixtures justify, will run until 2016. Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £ 1.782 billion. On 22 June 2009, due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £ 30 million payment to the Premier League, ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing a total of 46 matches that were available for the 2009 -- 10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010 -- 11 to 2012 -- 13. On 13 June 2012, the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013 -- 14 through 2015 -- 16 seasons at £ 246 million - a-year. The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £ 760 million - a-year. The total domestic rights have raised £ 3.018 billion, an increase of 70.2 % over the 2010 -- 11 to 2012 -- 13 rights. The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2 % in 2015, when Sky and BT paid a total of £ 5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018 -- 19 season.
UK highlights
Between the 1998 -- 99 season and the 2012 -- 13 season, RTÉ broadcast highlights on Premier Soccer Saturday and occasionally Premier Soccer Sunday. During then between the 2004 -- 05 season and the 2006 -- 07 season, RTÉ broadcast 15 live matches on a Saturday afternoon with each match being called Premiership Live.
In August 2016, it was announced that the BBC would be creating a new magazine - style show for the Premier League entitled The Premier League Show.
The Premier League is the most - watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people,. The Premier League 's production arm, Premier League Productions, is operated by IMG Productions and produces all content for its international television partners.
The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In Australia, Optus telecommunications holds exclusive rights to the Premier League, providing live broadcasts and online access (Fox Sports formerly held rights). In India, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports. In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six - year agreement that began in the 2013 -- 14 season. As of the 2013 -- 14 season, Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN, with both rival networks holding rights to 190 matches per season.
The Premier League is broadcast in the United States through NBC Sports. Premier League viewership has increased rapidly, with NBC and NBCSN averaging a record 479,000 viewers in the 2014 -- 15 season, up 118 % from 2012 -- 13 when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN / ESPN2 (220,000 viewers), and NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage. NBC Sports reached a six - year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league through the 2021 -- 22 season in a deal valued at $1 billion (£ 640 million).
There has been an increasing gulf between the Premier League and the Football League. Since its split with the Football League, many established clubs in the Premier League have managed to distance themselves from their counterparts in lower leagues. Owing in large part to the disparity in revenue from television rights between the leagues, many newly promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first season in the Premier League. In every season except 2001 -- 02 and 2011 -- 12, at least one Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League. In 1997 -- 98 all three promoted clubs were relegated at the end of the season.
The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue to clubs that are relegated from the league in the form of "parachute payments ''. Starting with the 2013 -- 14 season, these payments are in excess of £ 60 million over four seasons. Though designed to help teams adjust to the loss of television revenues (the average Premier League team receives £ 55 million while the average Football League Championship club receives £ 2 million), critics maintain that the payments actually widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not, leading to the common occurrence of teams "bouncing back '' soon after their relegation. For some clubs who have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League, financial problems, including in some cases administration or even liquidation have followed. Further relegations down the footballing ladder have ensued for several clubs unable to cope with the gap.
As of the 2017 -- 18 season, Premier League football has been played in 58 stadiums since the formation of the division. The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished; as a result all stadiums in the Premier League are all - seater. Since the formation of the Premier League, football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities, with some clubs moving to new - build stadiums. Nine stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished. The stadiums for the 2017 -- 18 season show a large disparity in capacity: Wembley Stadium, the temporary home of Tottenham Hotspur, has a capacity of 90,000 with Dean Court, the home of Bournemouth, having a capacity of 11,360. The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2017 -- 18 season is 806,033 with an average capacity of 40,302.
Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs. For the 2016 -- 17 season, average attendances across the league clubs were 35,838 for Premier League matches with a total aggregate attendance figure of 13,618,596. This represents an increase of 14,712 from the average attendance of 21,126 recorded in the league 's first season (1992 -- 93). However, during the 1992 -- 93 season the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report 's 1994 -- 95 deadline for all - seater stadiums. The Premier League 's record average attendance of 36,144 was set during the 2007 -- 08 season. This record was then beaten in the 2013 -- 14 season recording an average attendance of 36,695 with a total attendance of just under 14 million, the highest average in England 's top flight since 1950.
Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day - to - day running of the team, including the training, team selection, and player acquisition. Their influence varies from club - to - club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans. Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available, and follows the completion of the UEFA ' B ' and ' A ' Licences. The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis (i.e. more than 12 weeks -- the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control). Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment. Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker; examples include Paul Hart at Portsmouth and David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur.
The league 's longest - serving manager was Alex Ferguson, who was in charge of Manchester United from November 1986 until his retirement at the end of the 2012 -- 13 season, meaning that he was manager for all of the first 21 seasons of the Premier League. Arsène Wenger is the league 's longest - serving current manager, having been in charge of Arsenal in the Premier League since 1996. As of the 22nd game - week of the 2017 / 2018 season, 7 managers have been sacked, the most recent being Mark Hughes of Stoke City.
There have been several studies into the reasoning behind, and effects of, managerial sackings. Most famously, Professor Sue Bridgewater of the University of Liverpool and Dr. Bas ter Weel of the University of Amsterdam, performed two separate studies which helped to explain the statistics behind managerial sackings. Bridgewater 's study found that clubs generally sack their managers upon dropping below an average of 1 point - per - game.
At the inception of the Premier League in 1992 -- 93, just eleven players named in the starting line - ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland. By 2000 -- 01, the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36 per cent of the total. In the 2004 -- 05 season the figure had increased to 45 per cent. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line - up, and on 14 February 2005 Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16 - man squad for a match. By 2009, under 40 % of the players in the Premier League were English.
In response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players, in 1999, the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union. A non-EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive ' A ' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years, and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years. If a player does not meet those criteria, the club wishing to sign him may appeal.
Players may only be transferred during transfer windows that are set by the Football Association. The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January. Player registrations can not be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA, usually on an emergency basis. As of the 2010 -- 11 season, the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25 - man squad of players aged over 21, with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances. This was to enable the ' home grown ' rule to be enacted, whereby the League would also from 2010 require at least 8 of the named 25 man squad to be made up of ' home - grown players '.
There is no team or individual salary cap in the Premier League. As a result of the increasingly lucrative television deals, player wages rose sharply following the formation of the Premier League when the average player wage was £ 75,000 per year. The average salary stands at £ 1.1 million as of the 2008 -- 09 season. As of 2015, average salaries in the Premier League are higher than for any other football league in the world.
The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition. Prior to the start of the first Premier League season Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £ 3 million. The record rose steadily in the Premier League 's first few seasons, until Alan Shearer made a record breaking £ 15 million move to Newcastle United in 1996. All three of the most expensive transfers in the sport 's history had a Premier League club on the selling or buying end, with Juventus selling Paul Pogba to Manchester United in August 2016 for a fee of £ 89 million, Tottenham Hotspur selling Gareth Bale to Real Madrid for £ 85 million in 2013, Manchester United 's sale of Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid for £ 80 million in 2009, and Liverpool selling Luis Suárez to Barcelona for £ 75 million in 2014.
Italics denotes players still playing professional football, Bold denotes players still playing in the Premier League.
The Golden Boot is awarded to the top Premier League scorer at the end of each season. Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260. Twenty - five players have reached the 100 - goal mark. Since the first Premier League season in 1992 -- 93, 14 different players from 10 different clubs have won or shared the top scorers title. Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005 -- 06 season. Andrew Cole and Alan Shearer hold the record for most goals in a season (34) -- for Newcastle and Blackburn respectively. Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons, having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league.
The Premier League maintains two trophies -- the genuine trophy (held by the reigning champions) and a spare replica. Two trophies are held in the event that two different clubs could win the League on the final day of the season. In the rare event that more than two clubs are vying for the title on the final day of the season -- then a replica won by a previous club is used.
The current Premier League trophy was created by Royal Jewellers Asprey of London. It consists of a trophy with a golden crown and a malachite plinth base. The plinth weighs 33 pounds (15 kg) and the trophy weighs 22 pounds (10.0 kg). The trophy and plinth are 76 cm (30 in) tall, 43 cm (17 in) wide and 25 cm (9.8 in) deep.
Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone. The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title - winning clubs are listed. Malachite 's green colour is also representative of the green field of play. The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football. Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy -- the third is symbolised by the captain of the title - winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season. The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year.
In 2004, a special gold version of the trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat.
In addition to the winner 's trophy and the individual winner 's medals awarded to players, the Premier League also awards the monthly Manager of the Month, Player of the Month and Goal of the Month awards, as well as annual awards for Manager of the Season, Player of the Season, Golden Boot and the Golden Glove awards.. From the 2017 / 18 season, players also receive a milestone award for 100 appearances and every century there after and also players who score 50 goals and multiples thereof. Each player to reach these milestones will receive a presentation box from the Premier League containing a special medallion and a plaque commemorating their achievement.
In 2012, the Premier League celebrated its second decade by holding the 20 Seasons Awards:
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which law allowed popular sovereignty in several u.s territories | Popular sovereignty in the United States - wikipedia
Popular sovereignty is a doctrine rooted in the belief that each citizen has sovereignty over themselves. Citizens may unite and offer to delegate a portion of their sovereign powers and duties to those who wish to serve as officers of the state, contingent on the officers agreeing to serve according to the will of the people. In the United States, the term has been used to express this concept in constitutional law. It was also used during the 19th century in reference to a proposed solution to the debate over the expansion of slavery. The proposal would have given the power to determine the legality of slavery to the inhabitants of the territory seeking statehood, rather than to Congress.
The concept of popular sovereignty (from which the consent of the governed derives its importance) did not originate in North America; its intellectual roots can be traced back to 17th - and 18th - century European political philosophy. The American contribution was the translation of these ideas into a formal structure of government. Before the American Revolution, there were few examples of a people creating their own government. Most had experienced government as an inheritance -- as monarchies or other expressions of power.
The American Revolution resulted in a government based on popular sovereignty, the first large - scale establishment of this concept (although it had been discussed and experimented in European contexts). The early Americans supported the contention that governments were legitimate only if they were based on popular sovereignty.
The concept unified and divided post-Revolutionary American thinking about government and the basis of the Union. Questions were raised over its precise meaning, permissible actions and the will of a collective sovereign. In 18th - century European political thought, "the people '' excluded most of the population; suffrage was denied to women, slaves, indentured servants, those lacking sufficient property, indigenous people and the young. The early American republic similarly disenfranchised women and those lacking sufficient property, also denying citizenship to slaves and other non-whites. According to historian Ronald Formisano, "Assertions of the peoples ' sovereignty over time contained an unintended dynamic of raising popular expectations for a greater degree of popular participation and that the peoples ' will be satisfied. ''
In 1846, as the dispute over slavery in the United States developed in the wake of the Mexican - American War, popular sovereignty became the foundation of a proposed resolution to slavery in the country. At the war 's end, the United States acquired lands formerly held by Mexico. The effort to incorporate these lands into the United States uncovered long - simmering disputes about the extension of slavery -- whether it would be permitted, protected, abolished or perpetuated in the newly - acquired areas. Attempts to resolve the issue in Congress led to gridlock. Several Congressional leaders, in an effort to resolve the deadlock over slavery as a condition for admission or administration of the territories, searched for a middle ground.
To some moderates, slavery in the territories was not a matter for Congress to resolve; they argued that the people in each territory, like those in each American state, were the sovereigns thereof and should determine the status of slavery. Popular sovereignty became part of the rhetoric for leaving to residents of the new American territories the decision to accept or reject slavery; this would resolve the expansion of slavery in the United States. This formed a middle ground between proponents of a limitation on slavery 's spread to the territories and those opposing limitations, tying into the widespread American assumption that the people were sovereign.
According to historian Michael Morrison, the "idea of local self - determination, or, as it would become known, popular sovereignty '' first began to occupy the attention of Congress in 1846 and 1847. In modern historiography, Illinois senator Stephen A. Douglas is most closely associated with popular sovereignty as a solution to the extension of slavery in the territories. Douglas 's biographer, historian Robert W. Johannsen, wrote that Douglas was
chairman of the Committee on Territories in both the House and Senate, and he discharged the responsibilities of his position with single - minded devotion.... During the debates over the organization of the Mexican Cession, Douglas evolved his doctrine of popular sovereignty, and from that time on it was irrevocably linked to his interest in the territories and in the West. His commitment to popular sovereignty was the deeper because he recognized in it a formula that would (he hoped) bridge the differences between the North and South on the slavery question, thus preserving the Union.
The term "popular sovereignty '' was not coined by Douglas; in connection with slavery in the territories, it was first used by presidential candidate and Michigan senator Lewis Cass in his 1847 Nicholson Letter. Today it is more closely associated with Douglas, and its connection to the failed attempt to accommodate slavery gave the term its present pejorative connotation. Douglas "ultimately became the victim of the very politics he sought to remove from territorial policy '' by advancing the idea of popular sovereignty: "His efforts were not judged in terms of their impact on the needs and desires of the territories... Rather, they were appraised in terms of their relation to the power struggle between North and South and to the issue of slavery. Despite Douglas 's intentions, the territories continued to be but pawns in a larger political controversy. ''
The colonists ' struggle for equality with the King of Britain was enshrined in the American Declaration of Independence and was common knowledge in the United States after the American Revolution. Inaugural Chief Justice John Jay, in Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), illustrate what would come to be known as popular sovereignty:
It will be sufficient to observe briefly that the sovereignties in Europe, and particularly in England, exist on feudal principles. That system considers the Prince as the sovereign, and the people as his subjects; it regards his person as the object of allegiance, and excludes the idea of his being on an equal footing with a subject, either in a court of justice or elsewhere... No such ideas obtain here; at the Revolution, the sovereignty devolved on the people, and they are truly the sovereigns of the country, but they are sovereigns without subjects, and have none to govern but themselves (.)
From the differences existing between feudal sovereignties and governments founded on compacts, it necessarily follows that their respective prerogatives must differ. Sovereignty is the right to govern; a nation or State sovereign is the person or persons in whom that resides. In Europe, the sovereignty is generally ascribed to the Prince; here, it rests with the people; there, the sovereign actually administers the government; here, never in a single instance; our Governors are the agents of the people, and, at most, stand in the same relation to their sovereign in which regents in Europe stand to their sovereigns.
Although each person is sovereign, that sovereignty is twofold. In private matters, such as one 's body, life and holdings, they are akin to the monarchs of Europe; one exception is eminent domain). They are co-sovereign with the states and the Union in public property and interests, and are governed by elected representatives. This concept of public and private may be confusing to those unfamiliar with the principles. Public and private are mutually exclusive; that which is public is not private and vice versa. That which is public is of interest to all the people, but this was never intended to express (or imply) that the private sector was subject to the state. Even in the public sector, the people as a whole remain sovereign. In 1886, 93 years after the Supreme Court 's ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia, Justice Thomas Stanley Matthews expressed this in Yick Wo v. Hopkins:
When we consider the nature and the theory of our institutions of government, the principles upon which they are supposed to rest, and review the history of their development, we are constrained to conclude that they do not mean to leave room for the play and action of purely personal and arbitrary power. Sovereignty itself is, of course, not subject to law, for it is the author and source of law; but, in our system, while sovereign powers are delegated to the agencies of government, sovereignty itself remains with the people, by whom and for whom all government exists and acts. And the law is the definition and limitation of power. It is, indeed, quite true that there must always be lodged somewhere, and in some person or body, the authority of final decision, and in many cases of mere administration, the responsibility is purely political, no appeal lying except to the ultimate tribunal of the public judgment, exercised either in the pressure of opinion or by means of the suffrage. But the fundamental rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, considered as individual possessions, are secured by those maxims of constitutional law which are the monuments showing the victorious progress of the race in securing to men the blessings of civilization under the reign of just and equal laws, so that, in the famous language of the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, the government of the commonwealth "may be a government of laws, and not of men. '' For the very idea that one man may be compelled to hold his life, or the means of living, or any material right essential to the enjoyment of life at the mere will of another seems to be intolerable in any country where freedom prevails, as being the essence of slavery itself.
Legal historian Christian G. Fritz wrote in American Sovereigns: The People and America 's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War that before and after the revolution, Americans believed "that the people in a republic, like a king in a monarchy, exercised plenary authority as the sovereign. This interpretation persisted from the revolutionary period up to the Civil War. '' Despite this widespread belief, the term "popular sovereignty '' was infrequently used by the early Americans. In expressing the fundamental concept of rule by the people, they described an ideal of how the people would exercise sovereignty in the US and state officers and employees would be public servants. The phrase "popular sovereignty '' did not become popular until the 1840s.
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what is a group of two things called | Definition - wikipedia
A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories, intensional definitions (which try to give the essence of a term) and extensional definitions (which proceed by listing the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions.
In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, instead of describing a pre-existing term. Definitions and axioms are the basis on which all of mathematics is constructed.
In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words. The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the definiendum, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the definiens. In the definition "An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa '', the word "elephant '' is the definiendum, and everything after the word "is '' is the definiens.
Note that the definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, but is instead something that conveys the same meaning as that word.
There are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. These include, among many others, lexical definitions, or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language; demonstrative definitions, which define something by pointing to an example of it ("This, '' (said while pointing to a large grey animal), "is an Asian elephant. ''); and precising definitions, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense ("' Large ', among female Asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5,500 pounds. '').
An intensional definition, also called a connotative definition, specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for a thing being a member of a specific set. Any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition.
An extensional definition, also called a denotative definition, of a concept or term specifies its extension. It is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set.
Thus, the "seven deadly sins '' can be defined intensionally as those singled out by Pope Gregory I as particularly destructive of the life of grace and charity within a person, thus creating the threat of eternal damnation. An extensional definition would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony. In contrast, while an intensional definition of "Prime Minister '' might be "the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system '', an extensional definition is not possible since it is not known who future prime ministers will be.
A genus -- differentia definition is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category (the genus) and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic (i.e. the differentia).
More formally, a genus - differentia definition consists of:
For example, consider the following genus - differentia definitions:
Those definitions can be expressed as a genus ("a plane figure '') and two differentiae ("that has three straight bounding sides '' and "that has four straight bounding sides '', respectively).
It is possible to have two different genus - differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories. For instance, both of these genus - differentia definitions of "square '' are equally acceptable:
Thus, a "square '' is a member of both the genus "rectangle '' and the genus "rhombus ''.
One important form of the extensional definition is ostensive definition. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. So one can explain who Alice (an individual) is by pointing her out to another; or what a rabbit (a class) is by pointing at several and expecting another to understand. The process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein.
An enumerative definition of a concept or term is an extensional definition that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets and only practical for relatively small sets.
Divisio and partitio are classical terms for definitions. A partitio is simply an intensional definition. A divisio is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the "divided '' set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of divisio lists all sets whose only member is a member of the "divided '' set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list members, and not subsets.
In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object 's essential attributes form its "essential nature '', and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes.
The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between nominal and real essence, originating with Aristotle. In a passage from the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made - up name can be known (he gives the example "goat stag ''), without knowing what he calls the "essential nature '' of the thing that the name would denote, if there were such a thing. This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the quid nominis or "whatness of the name '', and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the quid rei or "whatness of the thing ''. (Early modern philosophers like Locke used the corresponding English terms "nominal essence '' and "real essence ''). The name "hobbit '', for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a quid nominis. But one could not know the real nature of hobbits, even if there were such things, and so the real nature or quid rei of hobbits can not be known. By contrast, the name "man '' denotes real things (men) that have a certain quid rei. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that thing must have in order that the name apply to it.
This leads to a corresponding distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means, i.e. which says what the "nominal essence '' is, and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or quid rei of the thing.
This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy in particular is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described it as "a hopelessly muddle - headed notion ''.
More recently Kripke 's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are necessary to it, they are those things it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators.
A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings. Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) and homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling). The state of being a homonym is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow / harass a person) and the pair left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between "true '' homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as skate (glide on ice) and skate (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal).
Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated.
In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to give meaning to a new term. The meaning of a mathematical statement changes if definitions change. The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different than the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion for students who do not pay close attention to the definitions given.
Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz classifies a definition as "stipulative '' if it is intended to guide a specific discussion. A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction. In contrast, a "descriptive '' definition can be shown to be "right '' or "wrong '' with reference to general usage.
Swartz defines a precising definition as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria. A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition.
C.L. Stevenson has identified persuasive definition as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the "true '' or "commonly accepted '' meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief). Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are "legal '' or "coercive '' -- their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes.
A recursive definition, sometimes also called an inductive definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps:
For instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano):
So "0 '' will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called "1 ''. In turn, "1 '' will have exactly one successor, which could be called "2 '', and so on. Notice that the second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self - reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful.
In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows:
Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor.
In medical dictionaries, definitions should to the greatest extent possible be:
Certain rules have traditionally been given for definitions (in particular, genus - differentia definitions).
Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every definiens must itself be defined, "where at last should we stop? '' A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity.
Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (the so - called ten generalissima) can not be defined, since a higher genus can not be assigned under which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts can not be defined. Locke supposes in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple '' in one circumstance might not do so in another. He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one '', claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding.
Locke and Mill also argued that individuals can not be defined. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice ''. Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that "picks out '' exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book Naming and Necessity.
There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the definiens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case. The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term.
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what breed of dog in turner and hooch | Dogue de Bordeaux - wikipedia
The Dogue de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Mastiff, French Mastiff or Bordeauxdog is a large French Mastiff breed -- and one of the most ancient French dog breeds. A typical brachycephalic molossoid type breed, the Bordeaux is a very powerful dog, with a very muscular body. This brawny breed has been put to work in many different capacities, from pulling carts and hauling heavy objects, to guarding flocks and, historically, the castles of the European elite.
The Dogue de Bordeaux was known in France as early as the fourteenth century, particularly in southern France in the region around Bordeaux. Hence, the city lent its name to this large dog. A uniform breed type of the Bordeaux Dog did not exist before about 1920.
The French placed emphasis on keeping the old breeding line pure. Black masks were considered an indication of the crossing in of the English Mastiff. As an important indication of purity of the breed, attention was paid to the self colored (pink) nose, lighter eye color (dark amber), and red mask. They were originally bred with huge heads; a pioneer for the breed in Germany, Werner Preugschat once wrote:
What am I supposed to do with a dog that has a monstrous skull and is at most able to carry it from the food dish to its bed?
The Dogue de Bordeaux was at one time known to come in two varieties, Dogues and Doguins, the Dogue being considerably larger than the Doguin. The smaller Doguin has withered away to nothing more than a mention in breed history books, as it is no longer in existence.
The history of the breed is believed to predate the Bullmastiff and the Bulldog. It is said that the Dogue can be found in the background of the Bullmastiff, and others claim that the Dogue and Mastiff breeds were both being accomplished at the same time. Another theory is the Dogue de Bordeaux originates from the Tibetan Mastiff and it is also said that the Dogue is related to the Greco Roman molossoids used for war.
As there was a breed similar to the Dogue de Bordeaux in Rome at the time of Julius Caesar 's reign, possibly a cousin of the Neapolitan Mastiff. Others suggest that the Dogue de Bordeaux is a descendent of a breed which existed in ancient France, the Dogues de Bordeaux of Aquitaine. Whichever theory is true, it is obvious that the Dogue de Bordeaux shares the same common links as all modern molossers.
The Dogue de Bordeaux was once classified into three varieties, the Parisian, the Toulouse and the Bordeaux, types which were bred depending on the region of France and the jobs it was required to do. The ancestral Dogue de Bordeaux had various coat colors, such as brindle and a majority of white markings that carried fully up the legs. It had scissor bites in some regions, undershot in others; a big head or a small head, a large body or a small body; very inconsistent in type. Another controversial aspect was the mask, red (brown), none or black. The Dogue de Bordeaux of Bordeaux of the time also sported cropped ears. Regardless, it had a general type similar to today 's Dogue de Bordeaux.
In 1863, the first canine exhibition was held at the "Jardin d'Acclimatation '' in Paris, France. The winner of the Dogue de Bordeaux was a female named Magentas. The Dogue de Bordeaux was then given the name of the capital of its region of origin, today 's Dogue de Bordeaux.
During the 1960s, a group of breeders of the Dogue de Bordeaux in France, headed by Raymond Triquet, worked on the rebuilding of the foundation of the breed. In 1970, a new standard was written for the breed, with the most recent update in 1995. This standard is the basis of the standard written for the AKC in 2005.
Although the Dogue de Bordeaux first arrived in the USA in the 1890s for the show ring, the first documented Dogues de Bordeaux of modern times appeared in 1959, Fidelle de Fenelon; and in 1968, Rugby de la Maison des Arbres. Between 1969 and 1980, imported Dogues de Bordeaux in the USA were scarce, limited to a few breeders who worked closely with the French Dogue de Bordeaux Club, the SADB. The breed was first "officially '' introduced to American purebred enthusiasts in an article written in 1982 and by the American anthropologist, Dr. Carl Semencic for "Dog World '' magazine. That article, entitled "Introducing the Dogue de Bordeaux '', was followed by chapters dedicated to the Dogue in Semencic 's books on dogs, published by T.F.H. Publications of Neptune, New Jersey. When Semencic 's first article on the breed was published, there were no Bordeaux Dogues in the United States. There were 600 examples left in the world, mostly in France, the Netherlands and East Berlin, and the breed 's numbers were on the decline. Much later, in 1989, the typical American family saw the Dogue de Bordeaux for the first time on the big screen in Touchstone 's movie Turner & Hooch about a policeman and his canine partner, although many people did not know that the massive slobbering animal was a Dogue de Bordeaux.
Since then, the Dogue de Bordeaux has taken hold in the United States and can be found in greatly increasing numbers across the country. The Dogue de Bordeaux has been supported by multiple breed clubs throughout the years, and has finally found its way to full AKC recognition through the assistance of the Dogue de Bordeaux Society of America. Since 1997, the DDBSA has helped bring the breed to the point in which full AKC recognition could be achieved.
The Dogue de Bordeaux has begun to flourish is recent years, with its introduction into more movies and even television, as well as its full recognition status by the American Kennel Club, also known as the AKC (full AKC recognition began July 2008). Its numbers are climbing, but careful attention must be paid to health in the breed if its increase in popularity is to show a positive forward motion.
The breed was first exhibited in France in 1863 after which time it gained in popularity not only in their home country but in other parts of the world. The first record of Dogue de Bordeaux in the UK can be seen in the Kennel Club Gazette in 1897. The breed was officially recognised by the Kennel Club (UK) in 1997 but it was not until 2001 that the Kennel Club (UK) accepted an interim breed standard.
The Dogue de Bordeaux is a well balanced, muscular and massive dog with a powerful build. The Dogue 's size should come mostly from width and muscles, rather than height. The breed is set somewhat low to the ground and is not tall like the English Mastiff. The body of the Dogue de Bordeaux is thick - set, with a top - line that has a slight dip (topline is never completely straight) and a gentle rounded croup. The front legs should be straight and heavy - boned, well up on pasterns, down to tight cat - like feet. The straight tail, beginning thickly at the base and then tapering to a point at the end, should not reach lower than the hocks, and is set and carried low. The breed is to be presented in a completely natural condition with intact ears, tail, and natural dewclaws. It should be evaluated equally for correctness in conformation, temperament, movement, and overall structural soundness.
The breed standards by European FCI and the American Kennel Club specify a minimum weight of 99 pounds (45 kg) for a female and 110 pounds (50 kg) for a male. There is no formally stated maximum weight, but dogs must be balanced with regard to their overall type and the conformation standards of the breed.
The standard states that the desirable height, at maturity, should range between 24 to 27 inches (61 to 69 cm) for male dogs and from 23 to 26 inches (58 to 66 cm) for females. Deviation from these margins is considered a fault.
The massive head is a crucial breed characteristic. The Dogue de Bordeaux is claimed to have the largest head in the canine world, in proportion to the rest of the body. For males, the circumference of the head, measured at the widest point of the skull, is roughly equal to the dog 's height at the withers (shoulders). For females, the circumference may be slightly less. When viewed from the front or from above, the head of the Dogue forms a trapezoid shape with the longer top - line of the skull, and the shorter line of the underjaw, forming the parallel sides of the trapezoid. The jaw is undershot and powerful. The Dogue should always have a black or red mask that can be distinguished from the rest of the coat around and under the nose, including the lips and eye rims. The nose colour in red - masked dogs should be brown, in black - masked dogs, it must be black. The muzzle should be at most a third of the total length of the head and no shorter than a quarter of the length of the head, the ideal being between the two extremes. The upper lip hangs thickly down over the lower jaw. The upper lips of the Dogue de Bordeaux hangs over the lower lips. The skin on the neck is loose, forming a noticeable dewlap, but should not resemble that of a Neapolitan Mastiff. Small pendant ears top the head, but should not be long and hound like.
The standard specifies the coat to be ' short, fine, and soft to the touch '. Color varies from shades of fawn (light, coppery red) to mahogany (dark, brownish red) with a black, brown, or red mask, although the red mask is true to the breed. White markings are permitted on the tips of the toes and on the chest, but white on any other part of the body is considered a fault, and a disqualifying one if the pigmentation goes beyond the neck.
While larger breeds of canines tend to have shorter life expectancy, the life expectancy of the Dogue is still shorter than even breeds of comparable or larger size. According to data collected by the Dogue De Bordeaux Society of America, the average lifespan of the breed is 5 to 6 years. A veterinary database in the UK showed similar figures. In the American survey, the oldest dog in the record was 12 years old. The Society is actively recording dogs that are 7 years old or older to celebrate the longer - lived dogs.
Because of its brachycephalic head, the Dogue can be affected by breathing problems. Some may be heat - and exercise - intolerant as a result. The FCI standard considers excessive shortness of breath and raspy breathing in the Dogue a severe fault. The brachycephalic head shape can also encourage ectropion -- an outward rolling of the lower eyelid -- which can lead to conjunctivitis (eye inflammation) and bacterial infections. Under the UK Kennel Club 's Breed Watch system, the Dogue is classed as a Category 3 breed (formerly High Profile Breed), meaning it is a breed "where some dogs have visible conditions or exaggerations that can cause pain or discomfort. ''
Aortic stenosis is a disease of the heart valve in which the opening of the aortic valve is narrowed. Symptoms include exercise intolerance, exertional syncope (fainting from physical exertion) and sudden death. One study suggests a high predisposition in the breed. No severe cases were found in adult dogs, and most moderate to severely affected dogs died before one year of age, leading the authors to speculate that the disease is more severe in the Dogue than in other breeds.
Another heart problem in the breed is dilated cardiomyopathy, a condition in which the heart becomes weakened and enlarged and can not pump blood efficiently. Some affected dogs may die suddenly without showing any signs of problems. Others may die from congestive heart failure after several weeks or months. Affected dogs are often euthanized at an early stage to avoid suffering.
An estimated 5 % of dogs may be affected by footpad hyperkeratosis, a thickening of the footpad and sometimes nose. X-rays submitted voluntarily to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals shows that more than 50 % of Dogues in the database are affected by hip dysplasia.
Data from the Norwegian Kennel Club indicates a mean litter size of 8.1 puppies (ranging from 2 - 17) for the breed. The breed has a high stillborn and early neonatal mortality rate, with a stillborn rate of 14.2 % and early neonatal mortality (death within 1 week from birth) of 10.4 %. The average across all breeds in the study was 4.3 % stillbirth and 3.7 % early neonatal mortality. Excluding stillborn and early deaths, the mean litter size is 6.1. UK Kennel Club data shows that 27.8 % (5 of 18) of Dogue litters were delivered by caesarean section.
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who indian president when its first nuclear test were conducted | Pokhran - II - Wikipedia
The Pokhran - II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code - named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.
Pokhran - II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India a full - fledged nuclear state. The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states, including Japan and the United States.
Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti -- 98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti - I through to Shakti - V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran - I.
Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India 's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy -- a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.
After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India 's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India 's nuclear program. The world 's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India 's challenge. The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance. At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India 's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.
As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management. Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.
The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy. In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.
Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan 's clandestine atomic bomb program. Contrary to India 's nuclear program, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program was akin to United States 's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program. The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.
In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance. Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.
In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.
Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan 's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.
Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995. In a speech delivered by then - Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue '' as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region. The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan -- the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area. ''
The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate. BJP 's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML (N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997. During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding -- such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan 's control. '' Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons '' and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. '' By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty. ''
Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr. Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.
It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields. '' Pakistan 's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee 's position to order the tests.
Unlike Pakistan 's weapon -- testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran. Contrary to high - altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert do n't provide much cover from probing satellites. The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries. The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army 's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer 's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy. ''
Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government did n't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning. The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data. A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug - out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation. Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three. They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high - voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN - 32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ' Prayer Hall '.
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ' White House ', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named ' Taj Mahal ', and the first sub-kiloton device in ' Kumbhkaran '. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the ' Kumbhkaran ' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8: 30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the ' White House ' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the ' Taj Mahal ' shaft was sealed at 7: 30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L - shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak - proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3: 45 pm the three devices were detonated.
Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti. All devices were weapon - grade plutonium and they were:
An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.
At 3: 43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors. On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST 6: 51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.
Following the Pokhran - II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister 's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large - scale approval by society in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country 's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country 's armed forces. The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country 's national security.
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44 bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions. The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions. In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade '' in detecting the preparations for the test.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.
From 1998 -- 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT. In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India 's nuclear program. India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India 's national security interest.
Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India 's actions and its High Commissioner. Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.
Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government - to - government credit lines. However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.
On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India, '' and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia. ''. The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned '' the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons ''. China further rejected India 's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable ''. In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People 's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India 's nuclear tests were a "serious matter, '' particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat ''. On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:
(sic)... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India 's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India 's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.
The most vehement and strong reaction to India 's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India. The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields '', he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent. ''
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk (sic) and was acting in a totally unrestrained way. '' Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security '', he said. Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home. Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai - I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai - II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India 's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai - I).
Pakistan 's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States. American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs do n't make a right '', criticising Pakistan 's tests as reactionary to India 's Pokhran - II. The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan 's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana - I).
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan 's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.
Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0 % of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0 % of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.
The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.
It was officially signed by then - Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.
Coordinates: 27 ° 04 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 43 ′ 20 '' E / 27.07884 ° N 71.722113 ° E / 27.07884; 71.722113
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who won the 2017 qatar motogp grand prix | 2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix - wikipedia
The 2017 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 2017 MotoGP season. It was held at the Losail International Circuit in Doha on 26 March 2017. For all the three classes, the starting grid was formed by each rider 's best time from any of the three free practice sessions held, after rain cancelled the planned qualifying sessions.
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what is used to reference or link the external css file | Cascading style Sheets - Wikipedia
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. Although most often used to set the visual style of web pages and user interfaces written in HTML and XHTML, the language can be applied to any XML document, including plain XML, SVG and XUL, and is applicable to rendering in speech, or on other media. Along with HTML and JavaScript, CSS is a cornerstone technology used by most websites to create visually engaging webpages, user interfaces for web applications, and user interfaces for many mobile applications.
CSS is designed primarily to enable the separation of presentation and content, including aspects such as the layout, colors, and fonts. This separation can improve content accessibility, provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics, enable multiple HTML pages to share formatting by specifying the relevant CSS in a separate. css file, and reduce complexity and repetition in the structural content.
Separation of formatting and content makes it possible to present the same markup page in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on - screen, in print, by voice (via speech - based browser or screen reader), and on Braille - based tactile devices. It can also display the web page differently depending on the screen size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified.
Changes to the graphic design of a document (or hundreds of documents) can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use, rather than by changing markup in the documents.
The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element. In this so - called cascade, priorities (or weights) are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable.
The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Internet media type (MIME type) text / css is registered for use with CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998). The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents.
CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties.
A style sheet consists of a list of rules. Each rule or rule - set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block.
In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags and attributes in the markup itself.
Selectors may apply to:
Classes and IDs are case - sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements. An ID may only be applied to a single element.
Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is: hover, which identifies content only when the user "points to '' the visible element, usually by holding the mouse cursor over it. It is appended to a selector as in a: hover or # elementid: hover. A pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as: link or: visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as:: first - line or:: first - letter.
Selectors may be combined in many ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, or any combination thereof. The order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass (color: red;) applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, whereas. myClass div (color: red;) applies to all div elements that are in elements of class myClass.
The following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it.
A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces. Each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon (:), and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon (;) must be inserted to separate each declaration.
Properties are specified in the CSS standard. Each property has a set of possible values. Some properties can affect any type of element, and others apply only to particular groups of elements.
Values may be keywords, such as "center '' or "inherit '', or numerical values, such as 200px (200 pixels), 50vw (50 percent of the viewport width) or 80 % (80 percent of the window width). Color values can be specified with keywords (e.g. "red ''), hexadecimal values (e.g. # FF0000, also abbreviated as # F00), RGB values on a 0 to 255 scale (e.g. rgb (255, 0, 0)), RGBA values that specify both color and alpha transparency (e.g. rgba (255, 0, 0, 0. 8)), or HSL or HSLA values (e.g. hsl (000, 100 %, 50 %), hsla (000, 100 %, 50 %, 80 %)).
Before CSS, nearly all presentational attributes of HTML documents were contained within the HTML markup. All font colors, background styles, element alignments, borders and sizes had to be explicitly described, often repeatedly, within the HTML. CSS lets authors move much of that information to another file, the style sheet, resulting in considerably simpler HTML.
For example, headings (h1 elements), sub-headings (h2), sub-sub - headings (h3), etc., are defined structurally using HTML. In print and on the screen, choice of font, size, color and emphasis for these elements is presentational.
Before CSS, document authors who wanted to assign such typographic characteristics to, say, all h2 headings had to repeat HTML presentational markup for each occurrence of that heading type. This made documents more complex, larger, and more error - prone and difficult to maintain. CSS allows the separation of presentation from structure. CSS can define color, font, text alignment, size, borders, spacing, layout and many other typographic characteristics, and can do so independently for on - screen and printed views. CSS also defines non-visual styles, such as reading speed and emphasis for aural text readers. The W3C has now deprecated the use of all presentational HTML markup.
For example, under pre-CSS HTML, a heading element defined with red text would be written as:
Using CSS, the same element can be coded using style properties instead of HTML presentational attributes:
The advantages of this may not be immediately clear (since the second form is actually more verbose), but the power of CSS becomes more apparent when the style properties are placed in an internal style element or, even better, an external CSS file. For example, suppose the document contains the style element:
All h1 elements in the document will then automatically become red without any requiring any explicit code. If the author later wanted to make h1 elements blue instead, this could be done by changing the style element to:
rather than by laboriously going through the document and changing the color for each individual h1 element.
The styles can also be placed in an external CSS file, as described below, and loaded using syntax similar to:
This further decouples the styling from the HTML document, and makes it possible to restyle multiple documents by simply editing a shared external CSS file.
CSS information can be provided from various sources. These sources can be the web browser, the user and the author. The information from the author can be further classified into inline, media type, importance, selector specificity, rule order, inheritance and property definition. CSS style information can be in a separate document or it can be embedded into an HTML document. Multiple style sheets can be imported. Different styles can be applied depending on the output device being used; for example, the screen version can be quite different from the printed version, so that authors can tailor the presentation appropriately for each medium.
The style sheet with the highest priority controls the content display. Declarations not set in the highest priority source are passed on to a source of lower priority, such as the user agent style. This process is called cascading.
One of the goals of CSS is to allow users greater control over presentation. Someone who finds red italic headings difficult to read may apply a different style sheet. Depending on the browser and the web site, a user may choose from various style sheets provided by the designers, or may remove all added styles and view the site using the browser 's default styling, or may override just the red italic heading style without altering other attributes.
Specificity refers to the relative weights of various rules. It determines which styles apply to an element when more than one rule could apply. Based on specification, a simple selector (e.g. H1) has a specificity of 1, class selectors have a specificity of 1, 0, and ID selectors a specificity of 1, 0, 0. Because the specificity values do not carry over as in the decimal system, commas are used to separate the "digits '' (a CSS rule having 11 elements and 11 classes would have a specificity of 11, 11, not 121).
Thus the following rules selectors result in the indicated specificity:
Consider this HTML fragment:
In the above example, the declaration in the style attribute overrides the one in the < style > element because it has a higher specificity, and thus, the paragraph appears green.
Inheritance is a key feature in CSS; it relies on the ancestor - descendant relationship to operate. Inheritance is the mechanism by which properties are applied not only to a specified element, but also to its descendants. Inheritance relies on the document tree, which is the hierarchy of XHTML elements in a page based on nesting. Descendant elements may inherit CSS property values from any ancestor element enclosing them. In general, descendant elements inherit text - related properties, but box - related properties are not inherited. Properties that can be inherited are color, font, letter - spacing, line - height, list - style, text - align, text - indent, text - transform, visibility, white - space and word - spacing. Properties that can not be inherited are background, border, display, float and clear, height, and width, margin, min - and max - height and - width, outline, overflow, padding, position, text - decoration, vertical - align and z - index.
Inheritance can be used to avoid declaring certain properties over and over again in a style sheet, allowing for shorter CSS.
Inheritance in CSS is not the same as inheritance in class - based programming languages, where it is possible to define class B as "like class A, but with modifications ''. With CSS, it is possible to style an element with "class A, but with modifications ''. However, it is not possible to define a CSS class B like that, which could then be used to style multiple elements without having to repeat the modifications.
Given the following style sheet:
Suppose there is an h1 element with an emphasizing element (em) inside:
If no color is assigned to the em element, the emphasized word "illustrate '' inherits the color of the parent element, h1. The style sheet h1 has the color pink, hence, the em element is likewise pink.
Whitespace between properties and selectors is ignored. This code snippet:
is functionally equivalent to this one:
One common way to format CSS for readability is to indent each property and give it its own line. In addition to formatting CSS for readability, you can use shorthand properties to write out the code faster which also gets processed more quickly when being rendered, like so:
CSS 2.1 defines three positioning schemes:
There are four possible values of the position property. If an item is positioned in any way other than static, then the further properties top, bottom, left, and right are used to specify offsets and positions.
The float property may have one of three values. Absolutely positioned or fixed items can not be floated. Other elements normally flow around floated items, unless they are prevented from doing so by their clear property.
CSS was first proposed by Håkon Wium Lie on October 10, 1994. At the time, Lie was working with Tim Berners - Lee at CERN. Several other style sheet languages for the web were proposed around the same time, and discussions on public mailing lists and inside World Wide Web Consortium resulted in the first W3C CSS Recommendation (CSS1) being released in 1996. In particular, Bert Bos ' proposal was influential; he became co-author of CSS1 and is regarded as co-creator of CSS.
Style sheets have existed in one form or another since the beginnings of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) in the 1980s, and CSS was developed to provide style sheets for the web. One requirement for a web style sheet language was for style sheets to come from different sources on the web. Therefore, existing style sheet languages like DSSSL and FOSI were not suitable. CSS, on the other hand, let a document 's style be influenced by multiple style sheets by way of "cascading '' styles.
As HTML grew, it came to encompass a wider variety of stylistic capabilities to meet the demands of web developers. This evolution gave the designer more control over site appearance, at the cost of more complex HTML. Variations in web browser implementations, such as ViolaWWW and WorldWideWeb, made consistent site appearance difficult, and users had less control over how web content was displayed. The browser / editor developed by Tim Berners - Lee had style sheets that were hard - coded into the program. The style sheets could therefore not be linked to documents on the web. Robert Cailliau, also of CERN, wanted to separate the structure from the presentation so that different style sheets could describe different presentation for printing, screen - based presentations, and editors.
Improving web presentation capabilities was a topic of interest to many in the web community and nine different style sheet languages were proposed on the www - style mailing list. Of these nine proposals, two were especially influential on what became CSS: Cascading HTML Style Sheets and Stream - based Style Sheet Proposal (SSP). Two browsers served as testbeds for the initial proposals; Lie worked with Yves Lafon to implement CSS in Dave Raggett 's Arena browser. Bert Bos implemented his own SSP proposal in the Argo browser. Thereafter, Lie and Bos worked together to develop the CSS standard (the ' H ' was removed from the name because these style sheets could also be applied to other markup languages besides HTML).
Lie 's proposal was presented at the "Mosaic and the Web '' conference (later called WWW2) in Chicago, Illinois in 1994, and again with Bert Bos in 1995. Around this time the W3C was already being established, and took an interest in the development of CSS. It organized a workshop toward that end chaired by Steven Pemberton. This resulted in W3C adding work on CSS to the deliverables of the HTML editorial review board (ERB). Lie and Bos were the primary technical staff on this aspect of the project, with additional members, including Thomas Reardon of Microsoft, participating as well. In August 1996 Netscape Communication Corporation presented an alternative style sheet language called JavaScript Style Sheets (JSSS). The spec was never finished and is deprecated. By the end of 1996, CSS was ready to become official, and the CSS level 1 Recommendation was published in December.
Development of HTML, CSS, and the DOM had all been taking place in one group, the HTML Editorial Review Board (ERB). Early in 1997, the ERB was split into three working groups: HTML Working group, chaired by Dan Connolly of W3C; DOM Working group, chaired by Lauren Wood of SoftQuad; and CSS Working group, chaired by Chris Lilley of W3C.
The CSS Working Group began tackling issues that had not been addressed with CSS level 1, resulting in the creation of CSS level 2 on November 4, 1997. It was published as a W3C Recommendation on May 12, 1998. CSS level 3, which was started in 1998, is still under development as of 2014.
In 2005 the CSS Working Groups decided to enforce the requirements for standards more strictly. This meant that already published standards like CSS 2.1, CSS 3 Selectors and CSS 3 Text were pulled back from Candidate Recommendation to Working Draft level.
The CSS 1 specification was completed in 1996. Microsoft 's Internet Explorer 3 was released in that year, featuring some limited support for CSS. IE 4 and Netscape 4. x added more support, but it was typically incomplete and had many bugs that prevented CSS from being usefully adopted. It was more than three years before any web browser achieved near - full implementation of the specification. Internet Explorer 5.0 for the Macintosh, shipped in March 2000, was the first browser to have full (better than 99 percent) CSS 1 support, surpassing Opera, which had been the leader since its introduction of CSS support 15 months earlier. Other browsers followed soon afterwards, and many of them additionally implemented parts of CSS 2.
However, even when later ' version 5 ' web browsers began to offer a fairly full implementation of CSS, they were still incorrect in certain areas and were fraught with inconsistencies, bugs and other quirks. Microsoft Internet Explorer 5. x for Windows, as opposed to the very different IE for Macintosh, had a seriously incorrect implementation of the ' CSS box model ', as compared with the CSS standards. This is a set of rules that specify certain aspects of the sizing and layout of components of a web page. Such inconsistencies and variation in feature support made it difficult for designers to achieve a consistent appearance across browsers and platforms without the use of workarounds termed CSS hacks and filters. The IE / Windows box model bugs were so serious that, when Internet Explorer 6 was released, Microsoft introduced a backwards - compatible mode of CSS interpretation (' quirks mode ') plus an alternative, corrected ' standards mode '. Other non-Microsoft browsers also provided this very same ' mode ' - switch behavior capability. Unfortunately, ever since the release of IE 6 in 2001, it has become necessary for the authors of webpages ' html files to make sure that the html contains a special distinctive ' standards - compliant CSS intended ' marker to show that the authors intend CSS to be interpreted correctly, in compliance with standards, as opposed to being intended for the now long - obsolete IE5 / Windows browser. Without this marker, web browsers that have the ' quirks mode ' - switching capability will size objects in web pages as IE5 / Windows would rather than following CSS standards.
Problems with browsers ' patchy adoption of CSS, along with errata in the original specification, led the W3C to revise the CSS 2 standard into CSS 2.1, which moved nearer to a working snapshot of current CSS support in HTML browsers. Some CSS 2 properties that no browser successfully implemented were dropped, and in a few cases, defined behaviors were changed to bring the standard into line with the predominant existing implementations. CSS 2.1 became a Candidate Recommendation on February 25, 2004, but CSS 2.1 was pulled back to Working Draft status on June 13, 2005, and only returned to Candidate Recommendation status on July 19, 2007.
In addition to these problems, the. css extension was used by a software product used to convert PowerPoint files into Compact Slide Show files, so some web servers served all. css as mime type application / x-pointplus rather than text / css.
CSS has various levels and profiles. Each level of CSS builds upon the last, typically adding new features and typically denoted as CSS 1, CSS 2, CSS 3, and CSS 4. Profiles are typically a subset of one or more levels of CSS built for a particular device or user interface. Currently there are profiles for mobile devices, printers, and television sets. Profiles should not be confused with media types, which were added in CSS 2.
The first CSS specification to become an official W3C Recommendation is CSS level 1, published on December 17, 1996. Håkon Wium Lie and Bert Bos are credited as the original developers. Among its capabilities are support for
The W3C no longer maintains the CSS 1 Recommendation.
CSS level 2 specification was developed by the W3C and published as a recommendation in May 1998. A superset of CSS 1, CSS 2 includes a number of new capabilities like absolute, relative, and fixed positioning of elements and z - index, the concept of media types, support for aural style sheets (which were later replaced by the CSS 3 speech modules) and bidirectional text, and new font properties such as shadows.
The W3C no longer maintains the CSS 2 recommendation.
CSS level 2 revision 1, often referred to as "CSS 2.1 '', fixes errors in CSS 2, removes poorly supported or not fully interoperable features and adds already implemented browser extensions to the specification. To comply with the W3C Process for standardizing technical specifications, CSS 2.1 went back and forth between Working Draft status and Candidate Recommendation status for many years. CSS 2.1 first became a Candidate Recommendation on February 25, 2004, but it was reverted to a Working Draft on June 13, 2005 for further review. It returned to Candidate Recommendation on 19 July 2007 and then updated twice in 2009. However, because changes and clarifications were made, it again went back to Last Call Working Draft on 7 December 2010.
CSS 2.1 went to Proposed Recommendation on 12 April 2011. After being reviewed by the W3C Advisory Committee, it was finally published as a W3C Recommendation on 7 June 2011.
CSS 2.1 was planned as the first and final revision of level 2 -- but low priority work on CSS 2.2 began in 2015.
Unlike CSS 2, which is a large single specification defining various features, CSS 3 is divided into several separate documents called "modules ''. Each module adds new capabilities or extends features defined in CSS 2, preserving backward compatibility. Work on CSS level 3 started around the time of publication of the original CSS 2 recommendation. The earliest CSS 3 drafts were published in June 1999.
Due to the modularization, different modules have different stability and statuses. As of June 2012, there are over fifty CSS modules published from the CSS Working Group., and four of these have been published as formal recommendations:
Some modules have Candidate Recommendation (CR) status and are considered moderately stable. At CR stage, implementations are advised to drop vendor prefixes.
There is no single, integrated CSS4 specification, because it is split into separate "level 4 '' modules.
Because CSS3 split the CSS language 's definition into modules, the modules have been allowed to level independently. Most modules are level 3 -- they build on things from CSS 2.1. A few level - 4 modules exist (such as Image Values, Backgrounds & Borders, or Selectors), which build on the functionality of a preceding level - 3 module. Other modules defining entirely new functionality, such as Flexbox, have been designated as "level 1 ''.
The CSS Working Group sometimes publishes "Snapshots '', a collection of whole modules and parts of other drafts that are considered stable, interoperably implemented and hence ready to use. So far, four such best current practices document have been published as Notes, in 2007, 2010, 2015. and 2017.
Each web browser uses a layout engine to render web pages, and support for CSS functionality is not consistent between them. Because browsers do not parse CSS perfectly, multiple coding techniques have been developed to target specific browsers with workarounds (commonly known as CSS hacks or CSS filters). Adoption of new functionality in CSS can be hindered by lack of support in major browsers. For example, Internet Explorer was slow to add support for many CSS 3 features, which slowed adoption of those features and damaged the browser 's reputation among developers. In order to ensure a consistent experience for their users, web developers often test their sites across multiple operating systems, browsers, and browser versions, increasing development time and complexity. Tools such as BrowserStack have been built to reduce the complexity of maintaining these environments.
In addition to these testing tools, many sites maintain lists of browser support for specific CSS properties, including CanIUse and the Mozilla Developer Network. Additionally, the CSS 3 defines feature queries, which provide an @ supports directive that will allow developers to target browsers with support for certain functionality directly within their CSS. CSS that is not supported by older browsers can also sometimes be patched in using Javascript polyfills, which are pieces of Javascript code designed to make browsers behave consistently. These workarounds -- and the need to support fallback functionality -- can add complexity to development projects, and consequently, companies frequently define a list of browser versions that they will and will not support.
As websites adopt newer code standards that are incompatible with older browsers, these browsers can be cut off from accessing many of the resources on the web (sometimes intentionally). Many of the most popular sites on the internet are not just visually degraded on older browsers due to poor CSS support, but do not work at all, in large part due to the evolution of Javascript and other web technologies.
Some noted limitations of the current capabilities of CSS include:
Additionally, several more issues were present in prior versions of the CSS standard, but have been alleviated:
CSS frameworks are pre-prepared libraries that are meant to allow for easier, more standards - compliant styling of web pages using the Cascading Style Sheets language. CSS frameworks include Foundation, Blueprint, Bootstrap, Cascade Framework and Materialize. Like programming and scripting language libraries, CSS frameworks are usually incorporated as external. css sheets referenced in the HTML < head >. They provide a number of ready - made options for designing and laying out the web page. Although many of these frameworks have been published, some authors use them mostly for rapid prototyping, or for learning from, and prefer to ' handcraft ' CSS that is appropriate to each published site without the design, maintenance and download overhead of having many unused features in the site 's styling.
As the size of CSS resources used in a project increases, a development team often needs to decide on a common design methodology to keep them organized. The goals are ease of development, ease of collaboration during development and performance of the deployed stylesheets in the browser. Popular methodologies include OOCSS - object oriented CSS, ACSS - atomic CSS, oCSS - organic Cascade Style Sheet, SMACSS - scalable and modular architecture for CSS and BEM - block, element, modifier.
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what network has little house on the prairie | Little House on the Prairie (TV series) - wikipedia
Little House on the Prairie (known as Little House: A New Beginning in its final season) is an American western drama television series, starring Michael Landon, Melissa Gilbert, Karen Grassle, and Melissa Sue Anderson, about a family living on a farm in Walnut Grove, Minnesota, in the 1870s and 1880s. The show is an adaptation of Laura Ingalls Wilder 's best - selling series of Little House books. Television producer and NBC executive Ed Friendly became aware of the story in the early 1970s. He asked Michael Landon to direct the pilot movie. Landon agreed on the condition that he could also play Charles Ingalls.
The regular series was preceded by the two - hour pilot movie, which first aired on March 30, 1974. The series premiered on the NBC network on September 11, 1974, and last aired on May 10, 1982. During the 1982 -- 83 television season, with the departure of Landon and Grassle, the series was broadcast with the new title Little House: A New Beginning.
In 1997, TV Guide ranked the two - part episode "I 'll Be Waving As You Drive Away '' at 97 on its 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list.
A film adaptation of the pilot movie is currently underway at Paramount Pictures, with Sean Durkin as the director, Scott Rudin as the producer, and Abi Morgan as the screenwriter.
Based on the autobiographical "Little House '' stories, episodes of Little House on the Prairie usually concern members of the Ingalls family, who live on a small farm near the village of Walnut Grove, Minnesota. Many episodes concern the maturation of the family 's second daughter, Laura. However, episodes also focus on other family and community members, providing a depiction of life in a small agrarian community in late nineteenth - century America. The show 's central characters are Charles Ingalls (farmer and mill worker), his wife Caroline, and their three daughters, Mary, Laura, and Carrie, though the family expands with the birth of daughter Grace and adoption of son Albert in season five, as well as the adoption of birth siblings Cassandra and James at the end of season seven (a son, Charles "Freddy '' Jr., was also born, but died as an infant).
Other essential characters include the Oleson family: Nels, proprietor of the town 's general store, Oleson 's Mercantile; his malicious, gossiping wife, Harriet, who runs the Mercantile with him; and their three children, Nellie, Willie, and Nancy; Isaiah Edwards, Grace Snider Edwards and their three children; the Garvey family, Jonathan, Alice, and Andy; Rev. Robert Alden; Lars Hanson, the town 's founder and proprietor of the town 's mill; and Dr. Hiram Baker, the town 's physician. Teacher - turned - lawyer Adam Kendall is introduced at the end of season four and later weds Mary Ingalls, and Almanzo Wilder is introduced in season six and later weds Laura Ingalls.
Melissa Gilbert has the most appearances of the series, a total of 190 of the 204 episodes. Michael Landon appeared in all but four episodes of seasons one through eight, but departed from being a regular part of the cast when the show was retooled as Little House: A New Beginning (season nine).
Many actors, who were either well - known or went on to become famous, guest - starred on the show.
Of the 204 episodes, Michael Landon directed the largest number at 87; producer William F. Claxton handled the majority of the remaining shows at 68, while co-star Victor French helmed 18. Maury Dexter (who was often an assistant director) and Leo Penn directed the remaining episodes at 21 and 3 episodes respectively.
Interior shots were filmed at Paramount studios in Los Angeles, while exteriors were largely filmed at the nearby Big Sky Ranch in Simi Valley, where the town of Walnut Grove had been constructed. Many other filming locations were also used during the course of the series including Old Tucson Studios and various locations in Sonora, California. Many of the exterior shots of Walnut Grove and the other Minnesota towns shown in the series have noticeable mountain terrain in the background of the scenes. In actuality the southern Minnesota landscape, where the show is supposed to take place, there are no tall mountains.
The series theme song was titled The Little House and was written and conducted by David Rose. The ending theme music, also written by Rose, originally appeared as a piece of incidental music in a later - season episode of Michael Landon 's previous long - running series, Bonanza.
Little House explored many different themes including frequently portrayed ones of adoption, alcoholism, faith, poverty, blindness, and prejudice of all types including racism. Some plots also include subjects such as drug addiction (i.e. morphine), leukemia, child abuse, and even rape. Although predominantly a drama, the program has many lighthearted and comedic moments as well.
Some of the episodes written by Michael Landon were recycled storylines from ones that he had written for Bonanza. Season two 's "A Matter of Faith '' was based on the Bonanza episode "A Matter of Circumstance ''; season five 's "Someone Please Love Me '' was based on the Bonanza episode "A Dream To Dream ''; season seven 's "The Silent Cry '' was based on the Bonanza episode "The Sound of Sadness ''; season eight 's "He Was Only Twelve '' was based on the Bonanza episode "He Was Only Seven ''; and season nine 's "Little Lou '' was based on the Bonanza episode "It 's A Small World ''.
When Michael Landon decided to leave the show (though he stayed on as executive producer and occasional writer and director), season nine was renamed, the focus was put on the characters of Laura and Almanzo, and more characters were added to the cast. A new family, the Carters (Stan Ivar as John, Pamela Roylance as Sarah, Lindsay Kennedy as older son Jeb, and David Friedman as younger son Jason), move into the Ingalls house. Meanwhile, Almanzo and Laura take in their niece, Jenny Wilder, when Almanzo 's brother dies and raise her alongside their daughter, Rose. The Wilders appear prominently in some episodes, while in others they appear only in early scenes used to introduce the story or its characters. The explanation given for the original characters ' absence was that they moved to Burr Oak, Iowa, to pursue a promising life. The show lost viewers, and this version of the series was canceled after one season. However, the show lived on for another 1.5 years in movie format.
The series finale Hello and Goodbye, in which Laura and Almanzo finish renovating the late Mrs. Flannery 's home into a boardinghouse and start to take in residents, was meant as a backdoor pilot for an entirely new spinoff alongside what was supposed to have been another few seasons of the original show.
In that episode, Mr. Edwards moved in after his mute son Matthew left with his father and he realized that not only was his cabin falling down, it was situated a considerable distance from all his friends.
Willie and Rachel, wanting their own space and to be out from under Harriet 's thumb in the rooming house upstairs of the mercantile, elected to move in with Laura and Almanzo as well, while Willie cooked and ran the restaurant with Nellie, Percival and Rachel.
Writer Sherwood Montague rounded out the ensemble and the show was supposed to have covered his and Willie 's attempts to bring sophistication to Walnut Grove, but low viewership led to cancellation of both the main show as well as the intended spinoff.
The three movie specials listed below were produced to tie up loose ends to storylines on both the main series, as well as those that were opened up in Hello and Goodbye.
Three made - for - television post-series movies followed during the 1983 - 84 television season: Little House: Look Back to Yesterday (1983), Little House: The Last Farewell (1984), and Little House: Bless All the Dear Children (1984).
In The Last Farewell, Charles and Caroline decide to visit Walnut Grove. They learn that a railroad tycoon actually holds the deed to the township, and he wants to take it over for his own financial gain. Despite their best efforts, the townspeople are unable to drive the businessman away. At a town meeting, John Carter offers a supply of explosives that he has. Each man takes turn blowing up his own building in an emotional farewell to the town.
When asked why the set was blown up, the show 's producer, Kent McCray, said that when the series started, he made an agreement with the property owners that at the end of the series he would put the acreage back to its original state. When the production crew were estimating the cost of dismantling all the buildings, Michael Landon thought for a while and said, "What if we blow up the town? That would get the buildings all in pieces and you can bring in your equipment to pick up the debris and cart it away. '' He then said that he would write it where they blow up all the buildings, except for the little house and the church. Both McCray and Landon wept as the town blew up.
Bless All the Dear Children was filmed prior to The Last Farewell, but ended up being the last of the three movies to air. Given its Christmas - related content, NBC opted to air it during the following Christmas season.
Two other Little House movies were made in conjunction with the Landon series: the 1974 pilot for the program and The Little House Years (1979), a Thanksgiving special / clip show that aired in the middle of season six.
For the first two seasons, the show was aired on Wednesday nights at 8pm ET / 7pm CT, to moderate ratings. In 1976, the series became a Monday night staple on NBC; after the move, it remained in the top 30 for the rest of its run.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, La Casa de la Pradera (Little House on the Prairie) was one of Spanish Television 's most popular series. In 1976 Karen Grassle (Caroline Quiner Ingalls) won Spanish television 's prestigious TP de Oro award for best foreign actress, and the series itself won for best foreign series; Melissa Sue Anderson (Mary Ingalls) won the TP de Oro in 1980 thanks in part to the enhanced profile she received as a result of her visit to Spain and her appearance on Spanish Television 's 625 Lineas program in early 1979. The continued popularity of the show led to the appearance of Katherine MacGregor (Harriet Oleson) on 625 Lineas and Ding Dong in 1980.
The show remains popular in syndicated reruns and has been on the air in the U.S. continuously since its original run. In addition to airing on local stations, it has been airing multiple times each day on INSP and Hallmark Channel. In the past, it has aired on TV Land and TBS. As of September 19, 2016, the show is currently airing on COZI TV four times daily, with the exception of Seasons eight and nine.
In the U.S., television syndication rights are currently owned by CBS Television Distribution. Originally, NBC licensed these rights to Worldvision Enterprises, since networks could not own syndication arms at the time. As a result of corporate changes, Paramount Domestic Television and CBS Paramount Domestic Television would inherit the rights via Spelling Entertainment, finally passing to CTD in 2007. In Canada, reruns of the series began airing weeknights on CTS, a Christian - based network, as of September 1, 2008.
Because of its historical context and its connection to the book series, it is deemed acceptable for use by the FCC to meet federal E / I programming guidelines. The show is typically stripped (run five days a week) in syndication, which is enough to completely cover a TV station 's E / I requirements and more.
NBC owns ancillary rights and thus is the worldwide licensor for DVD rights as well. Sister company NBCUniversal International Television and MGM Worldwide Television Distribution distributes the series internationally.
The entire series has been released on standard - definition DVD, high - definition Blu - ray, and on both standard and high - definition Digital Copy. In addition, some individual episodes have been released on DVD and VHS. Starting with Season 7, the Blu - ray 's are only available exclusively through Amazon.com.
There are multiple DVD sets which are noticeably different from one another. The original DVD sets sold in the U.S. and Canada were released under license from NBCUniversal by Imavision Distribution, a company based in Quebec. A majority of the episodes in the original North American DVD versions had scenes cut from the episodes -- these were derived from the syndicated television versions by Worldvision Enterprises, the series ' former distributor. Other episodes were time - compressed and are NTSC - converted video prints from UK PAL masters, while others were derived from 16MM syndication prints, also from Worldvision. Only a handful of episodes in the original sets were in their original uncut versions. The episodes in these original sets are also known to have relatively poor video quality, such as tracking lines, as well as audio problems, though the quality issues are not as pronounced in the first few seasons as they are in the later seasons. The first three seasons of the old sets notably are also missing closed - captioning.
These original North American DVD sets included interviews with former cast members Alison Arngrim, Dabbs Greer and Dean Butler. For the original movies & complete series sets, Imavision provided numerous additional special features including additional interviews with many of the cast members such as Melissa Gilbert and Melissa Sue Anderson and specials highlighting Michael Landon, the casting of the show, and more. Imavision also released a French - language version of the series. Both versions are in NTSC color and coded for all regions. Later copies of these original sets were distributed by Lionsgate Home Entertainment following their acquisition of Imavision, but these should not be confused with the Lionsgate re-releases described below. The DVD sets sold in the United Kingdom were released by Universal Playback (a Universal Studios Home Entertainment label); this version is in PAL color and coded for region 2. Unlike the original North American DVD sets, the UK version contains mostly uncut episodes.
In 2014, Lionsgate Home Entertainment began re-releasing the series in North America on DVD, and also for the first time, in high definition on Blu - ray, as well as Digital Copy through providers such as Vudu and Amazon Video. These new releases, which are stated to come direct from the original broadcast masters, contain mostly uncut episodes and are remastered to have superior picture and sound. The Blu - rays, with their high bitrate, high definition 1080p picture (as opposed to standard definition picture on the DVDs) currently provide the best viewing experience of the show that is commercially available. The first six seasons on Blu - ray notably also contain lossless audio as opposed to the compressed audio on the DVDs. Starting with Season 7, Lionsgate chose to only release the remaining Blu - ray 's exclusively through Amazon.com. In the process, they made several other changes to the Blu - ray 's including compressing the audio (though with a relatively high bitrate), simplifying the on - screen disc menus, and eliminating the slipcovers and included Digital Copy codes that had been present for the previous seasons.
The newer Lionsgate remastered sets all contain English, French, and Spanish audio as well as English subtitles. They do not include the special features present on the earlier non-remastered releases, but rather seasons 1 through 6 each contain a roughly 15 minute segment of a special called "The Little House Phenomenon ''. Season 1 also contains the original Pilot movie. Season 7 contains no special features. Seasons 8 & 9 contain the three post-series movie specials as extras, with "Look Back to Yesterday '' and "The Last Farewell '' appearing on Season 8, and "Bless All The Dear Children '' appearing on Season 9. Some fans of the show have been perplexed as to why Lionsgate did this, both because all of the movies take place after the Season 9 timeline, and also because they included "The Last Farewell '' on Season 8 when that is considered by fans to be the end to the show given its significant and memorable ending. Lionsgate 's decision as to which movies to include on which season appears to have been based on broadcast order rather than production order, since "Bless All The Dear Children '' was the last episode broadcast even though "The Last Farewell '' was the last one produced. None of the available releases of the series contain "Little House Years '', which was a three - hour Thanksgiving special aired during Season 6 that largely consisted of flashback clips.
While the re-releases are substantially better than what was previously available, there are a handful of episodes that still were released in edited form or contain other problems. The most significant of these, affecting all formats of the remastered releases, include over 3 minutes missing from the Season 7 episode, "Divorce, Walnut Grove Style, '' almost 4 minutes missing from Season 9 's "Home Again, '' and extremely low volume of the townspeoples ' singing on the English audio of the last scene of the final movie, "The Last Farewell. ''
In October 2012, Sony Pictures announced that a film based on the series 's pilot is under development, with Scott Rudin as the producer. However, the film was later on turnaround to Paramount Pictures in 2016, where the film resumed development. It has Sean Durkin as the director and Abi Morgan as the screenwriter, although Rudin is still the film 's producer. No actors have been selected or joined the cast yet.
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who won the mens doubles at australian open 2018 | 2018 Australian Open -- Men 's Doubles - wikipedia
Henri Kontinen and John Peers were the defending champions, but lost in the second round to Radu Albot and Chung Hyeon.
Oliver Marach and Mate Pavić won the title, defeating Juan Sebastián Cabal and Robert Farah in the final, 6 -- 4, 6 -- 4.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
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when does the edge of seventeen come out | The Edge of Seventeen - wikipedia
The Edge of Seventeen is a 2016 American coming - of - age comedy - drama film written and directed by Kelly Fremon Craig. The film stars Hailee Steinfeld, Woody Harrelson, Kyra Sedgwick, and Haley Lu Richardson. Principal photography began on October 21, 2015, in Vancouver and ended on December 3, 2015.
The film premiered at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival on September 16, 2016, and was theatrically released on November 18, 2016, by STXfilms. It received positive reviews, with Steinfeld 's performance being critically lauded, and grossed over $18 million.
In October 2015, Nadine Franklin (Hailee Steinfeld), a high school junior in the suburbs of Portland, confides to her school teacher Mr. Bruner (Woody Harrelson) that she plans to commit suicide. Her threats and his responses illustrate their unique, bantering relationship.
Nadine narrates her life so far: By age seven, differences between Nadine and her more popular older brother Darian (Blake Jenner) are already obvious. Nadine has a tempestuous relationship with her overly dramatic and image conscious mother Mona (Kyra Sedgwick) who seems to favor her brother, while Nadine 's father, Tom (Eric Keenleyside) is the only immediate member she feels close to. At age 13, Nadine is buoyed by her relationships with her best friend Krista (Haley Lu Richardson) and her father. Nadine 's father suffers a fatal heart attack while driving. As a result of her father 's death, Nadine 's life turns upside down. Up to the time Nadine is 17, Krista was the only "good part '' of her life.
One night at home, Nadine and Krista get drunk, while Darian throws a pool party. Nadine falls asleep and wakes up to find Krista in bed with Darian who is naked. Krista tries to fix things, but Nadine is tormented about her best friend being with her brother. Krista and Darian think to break it off, but he ends up asking her to be his girlfriend. Nadine feels desperately alone and resorts to her classmate Erwin Kim (Hayden Szeto), who has a crush on her. She discovers that, although he is awkward, he has a great sense of humor and is kind. Nadine, however, is attracted to older student Nick Mossman (Alexander Calvert), whom she has only met once.
Later, Darian invites Krista to a house party, who insists Nadine join them. When they arrive, Krista is introduced to other students, who invite Krista and Darian to play beer pong, leaving Nadine to her own devices. After several failed attempts at talking to others at the party, Nadine goes outside and sits on a porch bench with another partygoer, who remarks how inferior Nadine seems compared to her popular, athletic brother. This conversation drives Nadine to leave the party without Krista or Darian. Nadine calls Erwin and asks him if he 'd like to go with her to the amusement park. There he tries to kiss her but it turns into a comedy of awkwardness. At the end of the night Nadine tells him he 's a great guy.
Krista confronts Nadine for ignoring her the night before, so Nadine makes her choose between herself and Darian. Krista does not want to choose, and Nadine angrily tells Krista their friendship is over.
The narration switches to the present: At school, Mr. Bruner has become Nadine 's go - to person for support. He lets her vent her anger at him, but afterwards, as a way to guilt her, reveals that she is his favorite student. Erwin and Nadine spend the evening in his heated swimming pool. Although Erwin is wealthy, his parents conduct business overseas for much of the year; he has become lonely. Nadine learns that he is an animation filmmaker and accepts his invitation to their school 's short - film festival.
One morning as Mona drives Nadine to school they have an argument that results in Mona taking her to work with her. At the workplace, Nadine has an argument with her mother about her father. Nadine steals Mona 's keys and drives away. In the heat of the moment, she writes a sexually explicit text to Nick but decides against sending it. Nonetheless, she accidentally hits "send '' and is mortified.
Mr. Bruner tries to keep Nadine calm about the text she sent. She receives a text from Nick, asking her to hang out that evening, exciting Nadine. Mona calls Darian, confessing that Nadine is missing and that she has depended on her son as the father figure since Tom died. Darian leaves to find Nadine. During their date, Nick repeatedly attempts to have sex with Nadine in his car, having interpreted the text as a proposition, while she had been wanting a romantic date. Embarrassed and heartbroken, Nadine runs away and calls Mr. Bruner, who drives her to his house, where they wait with his wife and baby boy until Darian arrives. Darian confesses to Nadine that although his life seems perfect, he has been secretly suffering from the pressures of having to take care of the family ever since their father died. Darian confesses that he feels trapped and did not apply to colleges far away, and the only person who helps him smile is Krista. But that is a problem, too, since Nadine is upset that Krista is with him. Nadine confesses to her brother that she has been dealing with self - hatred, intensified by her envy of him. They hug and their feud ends.
Nadine readies herself for the school 's film festival. Nadine walks downstairs on her way out and is welcomed by Darian and Krista. The two girls agree to catch up later. Mona fears that Nadine has run away. Realizing that her mother is worried, Nadine texts her saying that she is safe. Mona decides to trust her word. Erwin 's animated film is a story about a green alien boy who falls in love with a girl at high school, but is rejected by her. Realizing the metaphor, Nadine apologizes to Erwin for taking so long to accept his love. Erwin is congratulated by his colleagues. When he introduces Nadine to them, she greets them with a smile, finally opening up to others.
Writer / director Kelly Fremon Craig sent a copy of the screenplay to producer James L. Brooks, hoping that Brooks would produce the film. Craig recalled, "I had written a spec version of this film, and had been just an insane fan of Jim 's for years and years. He was the crazy longshot I took in the beginning! And one I never thought would actually work. But I sent him the script and he ended up taking on the project. '' The Edge of Seventeen is Craig 's directorial debut. She also produced the film.
On August 4, 2015, Hailee Steinfeld was cast in the film to play the lead role, while Richard Sakai was also attached as a producer of the film. On September 24, 2015, Woody Harrelson and Kyra Sedgwick joined the film 's cast, with Harrelson playing the role of a high school teacher and Sedgwick as the main character 's mother. On October 6, 2015, Blake Jenner was cast in the film as Nadine 's older brother, a popular and handsome soccer player who begins dating Nadine 's best friend Krista. Hayden Szeto was cast in the film as Erwin Kim, Nadine 's earnest classmate, who fumbles several attempts to win her affection through much of the story. Haley Lu Richardson joined the film to play the role of best friend Krista.
Principal photography on the film began on October 21, 2015, in Hollywood North, then in Anaheim, California. Filming also took place in the Metro Vancouver area, then at Guildford Park Secondary School and near Guildford Town Centre in Surrey, British Columbia. Port Moody was also shown, with the film festival taking place in City Hall. Filming wrapped on December 3, 2015.
The Edge of Seventeen, distributed by STX Entertainment, was originally scheduled to be released on September 30, 2016, before being moved to November 18. Stage 6 Films and Sony Pictures Releasing International handle some distribution rights to the film outside the United States.
The Edge of Seventeen grossed $14.4 million in the United States and Canada and $4.4 million in other territories for a total of $18.8 million, against a production budget of $9 million.
In North America, the film was released alongside the openings of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Bleed for This, as well as the wide expansions of Moonlight and Billy Lynn 's Long Halftime Walk, and was initially expected to gross around $8 million from 1,900 theaters. However, after grossing $1.8 million on its first day, weekend projections were lowered to $4 -- 5 million; it ended up opening with $4.8 million, finishing number seven at the box office.
The film received critical acclaim. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 95 % based on 178 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Edge of Seventeen 's sharp script - and Hailee Steinfeld 's outstanding lead performance - make this more than just another coming - of - age dramedy. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN reviewer Alex Welch gave the film an 8 / 10, saying, "Kelly Fremon Craig 's The Edge of Seventeen is a pitch - perfect portrait of youth, and the struggles of learning to accept yourself for who you are. It 'll have you laughing and crying, sometimes in the same scene, and never feels anything other than sincere and authentic. ''
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where is the nfl super bowl going to be this year | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was the championship game of the 2017 season of the National Football League (NFL), the 52nd Super Bowl overall, and the 48th of the league 's modern era. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl. Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP. Several records were set during the game, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined: 1,151.
The game was played on Sunday, February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It was the second Super Bowl in Minneapolis, which hosted Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. It was the sixth Super Bowl in a cold - weather city, and marked a return to the northernmost city to ever host the event.
The Eagles had previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles would lose a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards and three touchdowns, with no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. Additionally, top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. The defense would come together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4, and finishing the year with a top - 5 defense in most statistical categories. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards and 32 touchdowns to just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change which helped make up for the loss of Edelman would be the new acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns, and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola would be the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV.
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 which included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. Taking advantage of the 2018 Winter Olympics that begins five days after the Super Bowl (which will mark the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network will air both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year), NBC disclosed plans to offer advertising packages that cover both Super Bowl LII and the Olympics. NBC estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company would downsize the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
The Super Bowl was shown live by ESPN Brasil, with Paulo Antunes and Everaldo Marques as the announcers for the evening. It was also shown live on Cinemark, Cinépolis, Kinoplex and UCI movie theaters across the country.
The U.S. telecasts of Super Bowl LII were available through local U.S. broadcast stations that are carried on Canadian cable and satellite providers, as well as on border blasters near the International Boundary. The last appeals attempting to force simultaneous substitution, as had been allowed through Super Bowl 50 but had been repealed in 2016, over the telecasts were exhausted in December 2017.
Bell Canada holds broadcast rights for local stations in Canada and aired the game across its networks on CTV, CTV Two, RDS (for French), TSN Radio and TSN2; TSN 's regional networks did not carry the game due to a schedule conflict with the 2018 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the national women 's curling championship. Bell reprised the previous year 's usage of a sweepstakes and entertainment features to retain Canadian audiences.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
As per recent years, the Super Bowl was shown live on the BBC for no additional cost over the license fee. It was also available on Sky Sports with a subscription, through a Now TV Sports Pass, or as part of the NFL Gamepass Playoffs package. In a change to tradition, the BBC chose to use NBC 's feed instead of the NFL Films and NFL Network produced World Feed.
ProSieben broadcast the Super Bowl for the first time, after it had previously been on sister channel Sat. 1 since Super Bowl XLVI. It was shown for no additional cost in standard - definition and on ProSieben HD in high - definition on HD+ as well as multiple cable and IPTV providers. It was also available on internet streaming service DAZN for no cost in addition to the regular subscription fee.
beIn Sports2 and W9 broadcast the event.
American Forces Network carried the Super Bowl live to members of the United States Armed Forces in Eurasia.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''.
Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance.
No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2017 and 2016 seasons.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked to the Eagles who opened with a long time consuming drive of 7: 05 and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who went 6 - for - 9 for 61 yards and completed passes to five different receivers, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi littered in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later finding Torrey Smith for 15 yards on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady going 6 - for - 8 for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard pass to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, tying the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point missed as it was wide right, however, leaving the score at 9 -- 3. On the next Patriots drive, they took the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line, mainly on the strength of a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed, bringing the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6.
The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run, after which Gostkowski missed the extra point, with the score at 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later on third - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Then he ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 - 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he thew a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail. When time expired, the Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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who has won the tour de france and the vuelta | Triple crown of cycling - wikipedia
The Triple Crown of Cycling is a term used in cycling to denote the achievement of winning three major titles in the same season, usually but not always the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France and the UCI World Road Race Championship.
It is considered by many fans of the sport to be the greatest ' single ' achievement in cycling. Although mostly it means winning the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France and the Road World Cycling Championship in one calendar year, occasionally a broader definition is also seen where the victory in the Giro d'Italia can be exchanged for the Vuelta a España; this alternative has gained traction as the Vuelta, historically the least prestigious Grant Tour, has gained in reputation and importance. A hat - trick which did not include the Tour de France and the World title would not generally be considered as the Triple Crown.
So far, the triple crown of cycling (in both the narrower and the broader definition) has been achieved by only two cyclists, Eddy Merckx and Stephen Roche. Requiring a cyclist who is excellent as both a general classification rider, and a classics racer, it is considered the hardest achievement professional road bicycle racing in the same year.
Despite the prestige of the achievement, the Triple Crown of cycling is not an official title, and there is no physical award given for its accomplishment.
The Triple Crown has only been achieved twice (both times by winning Giro / Tour / Worlds):
Some cyclists have been close to winning the triple crown of cycling, winning two of the three requirements. Among those who came close are Italian Fausto Coppi, Frenchman Bernard Hinault, and later Spaniard Miguel Indurain, who finished second in the World Championships in 1993.
Coppi was the first rider in the history of the sport to win the Giro d'Italia and the Tour de France in the same year which he did twice in 1949 and 1952. At the World road race championships in 1949 Coppi came third behind Rik Van Steenbergen of Belgium and Ferdi Kübler of Switzerland. Merckx was the first rider to win the triple crown but he had already come close to winning it in 1972 when he won both the Tour and the Giro, coming fourth in the World road race. After his disappointment, Merckx broke the world hour record several weeks later.
Indurain won the Giro - Tour double in both 1992 and 1993 and in both years he was very active in the World Road Race. In 1992 he finished sixth but in 1993 Indurain was very close to winning the Triple crown when he finished second behind Lance Armstrong.
Hinault was aiming for winning the triple crown during the 1980 season. That year he won the 1980 Giro d'Italia before going on to the 1980 Tour de France. However, during the Tour, Hinault suffered from knee injury and despite winning three stages, he left the race while leading the general classification. Several weeks later he became world champion in Salanches. In the table below are the results in other grand tours of cyclists who won the world championship and a grand tour in one year. DNF (did not finish) indicates that the cyclist started the race, but did not finish; DNE (did not enter) indicates that the cyclist did not enter the race.
No rider has ever won all three grand tours in a single year. Winning all three grand tours (Tour de France, Giro d'Italia and Vuelta a España) in a career is sometimes called a grand tour triple crown, although more usually it would be described as a ' grand slam '. Only six riders have achieved this feat, and only one, Eddy Merckx has achieved both a classic Triple Crown and a career clean sweep of Grand Tour titles (He also achieved a career clean sweep of Monument classics, the 5 most prestigious one day classic races).
Only Bernard Hinault and Alberto Contador have achieve multiple career grand tour triple crowns, both having won each race at least twice.
In bold the win that achieved a grand tour triple crown.
The definition of Triple Crown of Cycling can also mean winning all three Grand Tours in the same year. As of 2017, this has not been achieved. Only 39 times has a cyclist finished all three grand tours in one year, and of these 39 only Raphaël Géminiani (in 1955) and Gastone Nencini (in 1957) managed to finish in the top ten in each tour. In 2016, Alejandro Valverde was close to accomplishing the same feat - he finished 3rd in the Giro d'Italia, 6th in the Tour de France, and was in the top three after the first half of the Vuelta of Spain, but lost 11 minutes in the 14th stage before recovering to finish in 12th place in overall standings, less than 2 minutes behind 10th place.
In 2010, Alberto Contador 's new team manager Bjarne Riis claimed that Contador could win all three grand tours in the same year, but his main rival Andy Schleck said it would be impossible.
Eddy Merckx won four consecutive grand tours in 1972 -- 1973: Giro 1972, Tour 1972, Vuelta 1973, and Giro 1973. Bernard Hinault won three consecutive grand tours in 1982 -- 1983: Giro 1982, Tour 1982, and Vuelta 1983.
As of 2016, 39 riders completed all three grand tours in the same year:
After Marianne Vos had won world titles in road race (2006), cyclo - cross (2006) and track points race (2008), she was said to have won the triple crown of cycling.
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what is the purpose of a vent in a plumbing system | Drain - waste - vent system - wikipedia
In modern plumbing, a drain - waste - vent (or DWV) is part of a system that removes sewage and greywater from a building, and regulates air pressure in the waste - system pipes to aid free flow. Waste is produced at fixtures such as toilets, sinks, and showers, and exits the fixtures through a trap, a dipped section of pipe that always contains water.
DWV systems maintain neutral air pressure in the drains, allowing free flow of water and sewage down drains and through waste pipes by gravity. It is critical that a sufficient downward slope be maintained throughout, to keep liquids and entrained solids flowing freely towards the main drain from the building. In relatively rare situations, a downward slope out of a building to the sewer can not be created, and a special collection pit and grinding lift "sewage ejector '' pump are needed. By contrast, potable water supply systems operate under pressure to distribute water up through buildings, and do not require a continuous downward slope in their piping.
Every fixture is required to have an internal or external trap; double trapping is prohibited by plumbing codes due to its susceptibility to clogging. Every plumbing fixture must also have an attached vent. The top of stacks must be vented too, via a stack vent, which is sometimes called a stink pipe.
All plumbing waste fixtures use traps to prevent sewer gases from leaking into the house. Through traps, all fixtures are connected to waste lines, which in turn take the waste to a "soil stack '', or "soil vent pipe ''. At the building drain system 's lowest point, the drain - waste vent is attached, and rises (usually inside a wall) to and out of the roof. Waste exits from the building through the building 's main drain and flows through a sewage line, which leads to a septic system or a public sewer. Cesspits are generally prohibited in developed areas.
The venting system, or plumbing vents, consists of a number of pipes leading from waste pipes to the outdoors, usually through the roof. Vents provide a means to release sewer gases outside instead of inside the house. Vents also admit oxygen to the waste system to allow aerobic sewage digestion, and to discourage noxious anaerobic decomposition. Vents provide a way to equalize the pressure on both sides of a trap, thereby allowing the trap to hold the water which is needed to maintain effectiveness of the trap, and avoiding "trap suckout '' which otherwise might occur.
A sewer pipe is normally at neutral air pressure compared to the surrounding atmosphere. When a column of waste water flows through a pipe, it compresses air ahead of it in the pipe, creating a positive pressure that must be released so it does not push back on the waste stream and downstream trap water seals. As the column of water passes, air must freely flow in behind the waste stream, or negative pressure results. The extent of these pressure fluctuations is determined by the fluid volume of the waste discharge.
Excessive negative air pressure, behind a "slug '' of water that is draining, can siphon water from traps at plumbing fixtures. Generally, a toilet outlet has the shortest trap seal, making it most vulnerable to being emptied by induced siphonage. An empty trap can allow noxious sewer gases to enter a building.
On the other hand, if the air pressure within the drain becomes suddenly higher than ambient, this positive transient could cause waste water to be pushed into the fixture, breaking the trap seal, with serious hygiene and health consequences if too forceful. Tall buildings of three or more stories are particularly susceptible to this problem. Vent stacks are installed in parallel to waste stacks to allow proper venting in tall buildings.
Most residential building drainage systems in North America are vented directly through the building roofs. The DWV pipe is typically ABS or PVC DWV - rated plastic pipe equipped with a flashing at the roof penetration to prevent rainwater from entering the buildings. Older homes may use copper, iron, lead or clay pipes, in rough order of increasing antiquity.
Under many older building codes, a vent stack (a pipe leading to the main roof vent) is required to be within a 5 - foot (1.5 m) radius of the draining fixture it serves (sink, toilet, shower stall, etc.). To allow only one vent stack, and thus one roof penetration as permitted by local building code, sub-vents may be tied together inside the building and exit via a common vent stack. One additional requirement for a vent stack connection occurs when there are very long horizontal drain runs with very little slope to the run. Adding a vent connection within the run will aid flow, and when used with a cleanout allows for better serviceability of the long run.
A blocked vent is a relatively common problem caused by anything from leaves, to dead animals, to ice dams in very cold weather, or a horizontal section of the venting system, sloped the wrong way and filled with water from rain or condensation. Symptoms range from bubbles in the toilet bowl when it is flushed, to slow drainage, and all the way to siphoned (empty) traps which allow sewer gases to enter the building.
When a fixture trap is venting properly, a "sucking '' sound can often be heard as the fixture vigorously empties out during normal operation. This phenomenon is harmless, and is different from "trap suckout '' induced by pressure variations caused by wastewater movement elsewhere in the system, which is not supposed to allow interactions from one fixture to another. Toilets are a special case, since they are usually designed to self - siphon to ensure complete evacuation of their contents; they are then automatically refilled by a special valve mechanism.
Mechanical vents (also called cheater vents) come in two types: Air admittance valves and check vents, the latter being a vent with a check valve.
Air admittance valves (AAVs, or commonly referred to in the UK as Durgo valves and in the US as Studor vents and Sure - Vent ®) are negative - pressure - activated, one - way mechanical valves, used in a plumbing or drainage venting system to eliminate the need for conventional pipe venting and roof penetrations. A discharge of wastewater causes the AAV to open, releasing the vacuum and allowing air to enter the plumbing vent pipe for proper pressure equalization.
Since AAVs will only operate under negative pressure situations, they are not suitable for all venting applications, such as venting a sump, where positive pressures are created when the sump fills. Also, where positive drainage pressures are found in larger buildings or multi-story buildings, an air admittance valve could be used in conjunction with a positive pressure reduction device such as the PAPA positive air pressure attenuator, to provide a complete venting solution for more - complicated drainage venting systems.
Using AAVs can significantly reduce the amount of venting materials needed in a plumbing system, increase plumbing labor efficiency, allow greater flexibility in the layout of plumbing fixtures, and reduce long - term roof maintenance problems associated with conventional vent stack roofing penetrations.
While some state and local building departments prohibit AAVs, the International Residential and International Plumbing Codes allow it to be used in place of a vent through the roof. AAV 's are certified to reliably open and close a minimum of 500,000 times, (approximately 30 years of use) with no release of sewer gas; some manufacturers claim their units are tested for up to 1.5 million cycles, or at least 80 years of use. AAVs have been effectively used in Europe for more than two decades. US manufacturers offer warranties that range from 1 year to "lifetime ''.
An island fixture vent, sometimes colloquially called a "Chicago Loop '' is an alternate way of venting the trap installed on an under counter island sink or other similar applications where a conventional vertical vent stack or air admittance valve is not feasible or allowed.
As with all drains, ventilation must be provided to allow the flowing waste water to displace the sewer gas in the drain, and then to allow air (or some other fluid) to fill the vacuum which would otherwise form as the water flows down the pipe.
An island fixture vent provides an elegant solution for this necessity: when the drain is opened, water displaces the sewer gas up to the sanitary tee, the water flows downward while sewer gas is displaced upward and toward the vent. The vent can also provide air to fill any vacuum created.
The key to a functional island fixture vent is that the top elbow must be at least as high as the "flood level '' (the peak possible drain water level in the sink). This ensures that the vent never becomes waterlogged.
The cost of installation is high because of the number of elbows and small pieces of pipe required. The largest cost outlay with modern plastic drain pipes is labor. Use of street elbows is helpful.
Alternately if moving sink to an island sink, install the P - trap below the floor of the island and vent off the top of the drain. Attach toward the trap and reverse 180 degrees so any water in the vent flows down the drain. Slope drain down, slope vent up, and attach to existing vent from previous existing fixture that is now abandoned. Patch previously existing drain to become vent. In Canada, the national plumbing code requires that the minimum trap arm be at least 2 times the pipe diameter, (e.g., 1.25 inch pipe needs a 2.5 - inch trap arm, 1.5 pipe needs a 3 - inch trap arm, etc.) and that the vent pipe be one size larger than the drain that it serves, also a cleanout is required on both the vent and the drain. The reason for this is in the event of a plugged sink, the waste water will back up and go down the vent, possibly plugging the vent (as it is under the countertop), and a clean - out would permit the cleaning of the pipes.
Drainage and venting systems require not only pipe, but also many specialized fittings which add considerably to their cost of construction. Special access fittings such as "clean - outs '' enhance the long - term maintainability of the systems, and are required by most plumbing codes.
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how many game of thrones episodes in total | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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curiosity killed the cat leave your name and number | Curiosity Killed the Cat - wikipedia
Curiosity Killed the Cat was a British pop band that achieved success in the UK in the late 1980s, with hit singles such as "Down To Earth '', "Misfit '' and "Ordinary Day '', from their No. 1 debut album, Keep Your Distance. This was followed by Getahead with the accompanying hit "Name and Number '', that was recreated by De La Soul as "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey) ''. In the early 1990s, the band 's bassist left, and billed as ' Curiosity ' they collaborated with Simon Cowell recording "Hang On in There Baby '' on the album Back to Front.
The band played soulful, jazzy and funky pop music, and was initially signed to Mercury Records. They first came to notice of the UK music press when they worked with Andy Warhol for the video of their 1986 single "Misfit ''. This featured the band in New York City and at one point featured frontman Ben Volpeliere - Pierrot dancing down a side street whilst Andy Warhol referenced Bob Dylan 's 1965 long - form promotional film for "Subterranean Homesick Blues '' by dropping pieces of white card in time to the music.
The single was initially unsuccessful but the release of their next single, "Down To Earth '', gave the band a Top 3 hit in early 1987. The band 's first album, Keep Your Distance, entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 1 in April 1987, and stayed in the Top Ten for 13 weeks. Further singles included "Ordinary Day '' (UK No. 11), "Free '' (UK No. 56) and a re-release of "Misfit '' (UK No. 7). "Misfit '' was also their only US chart single, peaking at No. 42.
The band 's second album, Getahead, was released in 1989, led by the single "Name and Number '' (UK No. 14), and its "Hey How You Doin ' '' refrain found itself in the Top Ten two years later as part of the De La Soul song "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey) ''. The album, however, was not a success in comparison to their first album and peaked at No. 29.
After the lacklustre performance of Getahead and its second single "First Place '', the band shortened their name to ' Curiosity ' but were dropped by Mercury Records. Bass player Nick Thorp then left the band. However, in 1992, the band (now a three - piece and signed to RCA Records) returned to the UK Top 3 with a cover of Johnny Bristol 's "Hang On in There Baby ''. Despite this, the band 's follow up singles (covers of "I Need Your Lovin ' '' and "Gimme the Sunshine '') were unsuccessful, which resulted in the album Back to Front only being released in Japan and selected overseas markets. The band then split up.
In 2001, the band reformed for an appearance on a National Lottery midweek show on BBC 1, and since then Volpeliere has toured under the name Curiosity Killed the Cat, on a number of 1980s revival packages.
In November 2015, a compilation album, called 80 's Recovered featured many groups. Curiosity Killed the Cat did a cover of The Doobie Brothers track "Long Train Runnin ' '', with a regular version, and a remix.
Lead singer Ben Volpelierre - Pierrot was best known for wearing a beret in most pictures of the band. He later revealed it was in fact a peaked fisherman 's hat, turned round with the peak to the rear so that it resembled a beret. Ben VP (as he was billed on a number of solo singles in the mid 1990s) was frequently referred to as Bendy Ben (or Boozy Ben) in Smash Hits magazine. He also appeared as a model on the front of Mike Read 's Pop Quiz board game.
In 1995, Migi Drummond and Nick Thorp set up Naked Records which was acquired a year later by software maker Eidos Plc.
Toby Anderson co-wrote all tracks and played keyboards on the album Keep Your Distance. Session guitarist / keyboard player Mike McEvoy (Michael J McEvoy) co-wrote the songs on their Getahead album and Toto drummer Jeff Porcaro played on three tracks ("Cascade '', "Ca n't Grow Trees on Money '' and "Who Are You '').
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what are the three main genres of literature | Literary genre - wikipedia
A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups.
The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, and creative nonfiction. They can all be in the form of prose or poetry. Additionally, a genre such as satire, allegory or pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre (see below), but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed.
Genre should not be confused with age categories, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young adult, or children 's. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book.
Just as in painting, there are different types: the landscape, the still life, the portrait; there are different types of literary works. These types tend to share specific characteristics. Genres describe those works which share specific conventions.
Genres are often divided into subgenres. Literature, is divided into the classic three forms of Ancient Greece, poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry may then be subdivided into the genres of lyric, epic, and dramatic. The lyric includes all the shorter forms of poetry, e.g., song, ode, ballad, elegy, sonnet. Dramatic poetry might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and mixtures like tragicomedy.
The standard division of drama into tragedy and comedy derives from Greek drama. This parsing into subgenres can continue: comedy has its own subgenres, including, for example, comedy of manners, sentimental comedy, burlesque comedy, and satirical comedy.
Often, the criteria used to divide up works into genres are not consistent, and may change constantly, and be subject of argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even a very loose term like fiction ("literature created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may be based on a true story or situation '') is not universally applied to all fictitious literature, but instead is typically restricted to the use for novel, short story, and novella, but not fables, and is also usually a prose text. Types of fiction genres are science fiction, fantasy, historical fiction, realistic fiction and mysteries.
Semi-fiction spans stories that include a substantial amount of non-fiction. It may be the retelling of a true story with only the names changed. The other way around, semi-fiction may also involve fictional events with a semi-fictional character, such as Jerry Seinfeld.
Genres may easily be confused with literary techniques, but, though only loosely defined, they are not the same; examples are parody, frame story, constrained writing, stream of consciousness.
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who has the most albums sold in hip hop | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, this is because more music markets instituted certification systems after 1980s and 1990s. So artists such as Rihanna, Chris Brown, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars, Nicki Minaj and Ed Sheeran are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified units percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified units are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified units. In other words, the available certified units for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified units of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified units for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
Issued certifications for songs which have been recorded by multiple artists including featured artists are added to each artist 's total amount of certified units, as all the artists would have played a significant part in a song. For example, "This Is What You Came For '' and "Where Them Girls At '' include Rihanna and Flo Rida, Nicki Minaj as featured artists respectively, so the certifications issued for these songs are added to the total amount of certified units for all involved artists. However, the certifications issued for songs that have been recorded by four or more artists are not included as the artists involved would have played minor roles, examples of such songs are Kanye West 's "Monster '' and / or "All Day ''.
The Beatles
Michael Jackson
Elvis Presley
Elton John
Madonna
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Eminem
Mariah Carey
Queen
Celine Dion
Whitney Houston
AC / DC
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Justin Bieber
Eagles
Ed Sheeran
Bruno Mars
Kanye West
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Lil Wayne
Jay - Z
B'z
Coldplay
Drake
Maroon 5
Chris Brown
Nicki Minaj
Flo Rida
Shania Twain
Pink
Journey
Tim McGraw
The Black Eyed Peas
Christina Aguilera
Usher
R. Kelly
Robbie Williams
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to live and die in la review rotten tomatoes | To Live and Die in L.A. (film) - wikipedia
To Live and Die in L.A. is a 1985 American action thriller film directed by William Friedkin and based on the novel by former U.S. Secret Service agent Gerald Petievich, who co-wrote the screenplay with Friedkin. The film features William Petersen, Willem Dafoe and John Pankow among others. Wang Chung composed and performed the original music soundtrack. The film tells the story of the lengths to which two Secret Service agents go to arrest a counterfeiter.
Richard Chance and Jimmy Hart are United States Secret Service agents assigned as counterfeiting investigators in its Los Angeles field office. Chance has a reputation for reckless behavior, while Hart is three days away from retirement. Alone, Hart stakes out a warehouse in the desert thought to be a print house of counterfeiter Rick Masters. After Masters and Jack, his bodyguard, kill Hart, Chance explains to his new partner, John Vukovich, that he will take Masters down no matter what.
The two agents attempt to get information on Masters by putting one of his criminal associates, attorney Max Waxman, under surveillance. Vukovich falls asleep on watch, and consequently they fail to catch Masters in the act of murdering Waxman. While Vukovich wants to go by the book, Chance becomes increasingly reckless and unethical in his efforts to catch Masters. While Chance relies on his sexual - extortion relationship with parolee / informant Ruth for information, Vukovich meets privately with Masters ' attorney, Bob Grimes. Grimes, acknowledging a potential conflict of interest that could ruin his legal practice, agrees to set up a meeting between his client and the two agents, who engage Masters by posing as bankers from Palm Springs interested in Masters ' counterfeiting services. Masters is reluctant to work with them, but ultimately agrees to print them $1,000,000 worth of fake bills.
In turn, Masters demands $30,000 in front money, which is three times the authorized agency limit for buy money. To get the cash, Chance persuades Vukovich to aid him in robbing Thomas Ling, a man whom Ruth previously told Chance is bringing $50,000 cash to purchase stolen diamonds. Chance and Vukovich intercept Ling at the train station and seize the cash in an industrial area. Ling 's cover people follow them, though, open fire and accidentally shoot Ling. Chance and Vukovich try to evade them through the streets, freeways and even one of the flood control channels, before a final escape by going the wrong way on the freeway. The next day, the end of their daily briefing includes an FBI bulletin that Ling was its undercover agent, kidnapped, robbed and murdered while on a sting operation. Only a generic description of the assailants and their vehicle is given. While Chance and Vukovich did not kill Ling, Vukovich is nonetheless consumed by guilt, while Chance is apathetic and focused solely on getting Masters. Unable to persuade Chance to come clean about their role in Ling 's death, Vukovich meets with Grimes, who advises him to turn himself in and testify against Chance in exchange for a lighter sentence. Vukovich refuses to implicate his partner.
Chance and Vukovich meet with Masters for the exchange. After inspecting the counterfeit million, the agents attempt to arrest Masters and Jack, but Jack pulls a shotgun. Jack and Chance fatally shoot each other, and Masters escapes. Vukovich gives chase, going to a warehouse a previous informant had told them about. By the time he arrives, Masters has set fire to everything inside, destroying all evidence. Vukovich confronts Masters and during a brief struggle, Masters asks Vukovich why he did not take Grimes ' advice to turn his partner in, revealing that Grimes was working on Masters ' behalf all along. While Vukovich is stunned at the revelation, Masters grabs a board and knocks him unconscious. Masters then covers Vukovich with shredded paper and is about to set him on fire when Vukovich wakes up and shoots Masters. Masters drops his lighter and accidentally sets himself ablaze, while Vukovich empties his gun on the burning man, killing him.
Vukovich visits Ruth as she packs up to leave L.A. He mentions Chance 's death, deducing she had known all along that Ling was FBI. He knows Chance had left her with the remaining cash that his agency now wants back, but Ruth says she needed it to pay debts she owed. Vukovich declares that Ruth is working for him now, turning into the same "whatever it takes '' agent that his partner was.
Director William Friedkin was given Gerald Petievich 's novel in manuscript form and found it very authentic. The filmmaker was also fascinated by the "absolutely surrealistic nature '' of the job of a Secret Service agent outside Washington, D.C. When the film deal was announced, Petievich was investigated by a rival for a pending office promotion, and felt that "a lot of resentment against me for making the movie '' and "some animosity against me in the Secret Service '' existed, exacerbated by the agent in the Los Angeles field office who suddenly resigned a few weeks after initiating the investigation. SLM Productions, a tribunal of financiers, worked with Friedkin on a ten - picture, $100 million deal with 20th Century Fox but when the studio was purchased by Rupert Murdoch, one of the financiers pulled the deal and took it to MGM.
Friedkin had a $6 million budget to work with while the cast and crew worked for relatively low salaries. As a result, he realized that the film would have no movie stars in it. William Petersen was acting in Canada when asked to fly to New York City and meet with the director. Half a page into his reading, Friedkin told him he had the part. The actor was drawn to the character of Chance as someone who had a badge and a gun and how it not only made him above the law, but also "above life and death in his head ''. The actor found the experience of being this character and making the film "amazing '' and "intoxicating ''. He called fellow Chicago actor John Pankow and brought him to Friedkin 's apartment the day after being cast as Chance, recommending him for the role of Vukovich. The director agreed on the spot.
Former Secret Service agent and author Gerald Petievich, who wrote the book the movie is based on, appears in a cameo as a fellow Secret Service agent.
The basic plot, characters, and much of the dialogue of the film is drawn from Petievich 's novel, but Friedkin added the opening terrorist sequence, the car chase, and clearer, earlier focus on the showdown between Chance and Masters. Petievich said that Friedkin wrote a number of scenes but when there was a new scene or a story needed to be changed, he wrote it. The director admits that Petievich created the characters and situations and that he used a lot of dialogue but that he wrote the screenplay, not Petievich.
The director wanted to make an independent film and collaborate with people who could work fast, like cinematographer Robby Müller and his handpicked crew who were non-union members. Friedkin shot everything on location and worked quickly, often using the first take to give a sense of immediacy. He did not like to rehearse but would create situations where the actors thought they were rehearsing a scene when actually they were shooting a take. Friedkin did this just in case he got something he could use. To this end, he let scenes play out and allowed the actors to stay in character and improvise. For example, during the scene where Chance visits Ruthie at the bar where she works, Friedkin allowed Petersen and actress Darlanne Fleugel to devise their own blocking and told Müller, "Just shoot them. Try and keep them in the frame. If they 're not in the frame, they 're not in the movie. That 's their problem ''.
The shot of Petersen running along the top of the dividers between the terminal 's moving sidewalk at the Los Angeles International Airport got the filmmakers into trouble with the airport police. The airport had prohibited this action, mainly for Petersen 's safety, as they felt that their insurance would not have covered him had he hurt himself. The actor told Friedkin that they should do the stunt anyway so the director proposed that they treat it like a rehearsal but have the cameras rolling and shoot the scene, angering airport officials.
The counterfeiting montage looks authentic because Friedkin consulted actual counterfeiters who had done time. The "consultant '' actually did the scenes that do not show actor Willem Dafoe on camera to give this sequence more authenticity even though the actor learned how to print money. Over one million dollars of counterfeit money was produced but with three deliberate errors so that it could not be used outside the film. The filmmakers burned most of the fake money but some leaked out, was used, and linked back to the production. The son of one of the crew members tried to use some of the prop money to buy candy at a local store and was caught. Three FBI agents from Washington, D.C. interviewed 12 - 15 crew members including Friedkin who screened the workprint for them. He offered to show the film to the Secretary of the Treasury and take out anything that was a danger to national security. That was the last he heard from the government.
The wrong - way car chase on a Los Angeles freeway sequence was one of the last things shot in the film and it took six weeks to shoot. At this point, Friedkin was working with a very stripped down crew. He came up with the idea of staging the chase against the flow of traffic on February 25, 1963 when he was driving home from a wedding in Chicago. He fell asleep at the wheel and woke up in the wrong lane with oncoming traffic heading straight for him. He swerved back to his side of the road and for the next 20 years wondered how he was going to use it in a film. He told stunt coordinator Buddy Joe Hooker that if they could come up with a chase better than the one in The French Connection then it would be in the film. If not, he would not use it. Petersen did a lot of his own driving during this sequence and actor John Pankow 's stressed out reactions were real. Three weekends were spent on sections of the Terminal Island Freeway near Wilmington, California that were closed for four hours at a time to allow the crew to stage the chaotic chase. With delays, the film ran a reported $1 million over budget.
Adding to the chaotic feeling of the chase, Friedkin staged it so that the freeway traffic flow was reversed. That is that the normal traffic in the scene has the drivers driving on their left in the left hand lanes (as in Britain) while the cars driving against the flow were driving on their right (as would be usual in North America).
As early as the day he cast Petersen, Friedkin thought about killing off Chance towards the end of the film, but according to editor Bud Smith, Vukovich was supposed to be the one who was killed. The climactic scene in which Chance is killed was not very well received by MGM executives, who found it to be too negative. To satisfy the studio heads, he shot a second ending, in which Chance survives the shotgun blast and, presumably as an internal punishment, he and Vukovich are transferred to a remote Secret Service station in Alaska, and watch their boss, Thomas Bateman, being interviewed on television. Friedkin previewed the alternate ending and kept the original.
To Live and Die in L.A. premiered in the United States on November 1, 1985 in 1,135 theaters where it grossed $3.6 million on its opening weekend. It went on to make $17.3 million in North America, well above its $6 million budget.
Roger Ebert, film critic for the Chicago Sun - Times, gave the film four out of four stars and wrote, "(T) he movie is also first - rate. The direction is the key. Friedkin has made some good movies... and some bad ones. This is his comeback, showing the depth and skill of the early pictures ''. He went on to praise Petersen, "a Chicago stage actor who comes across as tough, wiry and smart. He has some of the qualities of a Steve McQueen ''. Critic Janet Maslin was dismissive of the film, and wrote, "Today, in the dazzling, superficial style that Mr. Friedkin has so thoroughly mastered, it 's the car chases and shootouts and eye - catching settings that are truly the heart of the matter ''. David Ansen, critic for Newsweek, wrote, "Shot with gritty flamboyance by Robby Muller, cast with a fine eye for fresh, tough - guy faces, To Live and Die in L.A. may be fake savage, but it 's fun ''.
The staff at Variety magazine gave the film a mixed review and wrote that it was over the top: "To Live and Die in L.A. looks like a rich man 's Miami Vice. William Friedkin 's evident attempt to fashion a West Coast equivalent of his 1971 The French Connection is engrossing and diverting enough on a moment - to - moment basis but is overtooled... Friedkin keeps dialog to a minimum, but what conversation there is proves wildly overloaded with streetwise obscenities, so much so that it becomes something of a joke ''. Another mixed review came from Janet Maslin in The New York Times, who wrote "On its own terms, it 's a considerable success, though it 's a film that sacrifices everything in the interests of style. '' In his scathing review for the Washington Post, Paul Attanasio wrote, "To Live and Die in L.A. will live briefly and die quickly in L.A., where God hath no wrath like a studio executive with bad grosses. Then again, perhaps it 's unfair to hold this overheated and recklessly violent movie to the high standard established by Starsky and Hutch ''. Jay Scott, in his review for the Globe and Mail, wrote, "Pity poor Los Angeles: first the San Andreas fault and now this. The thing about it is, To Live and Die in L.A., for all its amorality and downright immorality, is a cracker - jack thriller, tense and exciting and unpredictable, and more grimy fun than any moralist will want it to be ''. Time criticized its "brutal, bloated car - chase sequence pilfered from Friedkin 's nifty The French Connection '', and called it "a fetid movie hybrid: Miami Vile ''.
Almost two decades later, a review in The Digital Fix called the film "A sun - bleached study in corruption and soul - destroying brutality, this film by the notoriously erratic but sometimes brilliant William Friedkin is nasty, cynical and incredibly good. '' The film was voted as the 19th best film set in Los Angeles in the last 25 years by a group of Los Angeles Times writers and editors with two criteria: "The movie had to communicate some inherent truth about the L.A. experience, and only one film per director was allowed on the list ''.
Wins
Although criticized at the time for the lack of accomplished celebrities in its cast, many of the actors have gone on to become established stars, most notably Willem Dafoe (Platoon, The Last Temptation of Christ, Mississippi Burning, Spider - Man, The English Patient, Wild at Heart), William Petersen (Manhunter, CSI), John Pankow (Mad About You), Jane Leeves (Frasier), and John Turturro (Barton Fink, Quiz Show, O Brother, Where Art Thou?, The Big Lebowski, Transformers film series, Exodus: Gods and Kings).
According to Friedkin, the main reason he chose Wang Chung to compose the soundtrack was because the band "stands out from the rest of contemporary music... What they finally recorded has not only enhanced the film, it has given it a deeper, more powerful dimension ''. He wanted them to compose the score for his film after listening to the band 's previous album, Points on the Curve. He was so taken with the album that he took one of the songs straight off the album, "Wait '', and used it as part of the soundtrack. "Wait '' plays at the end credits of the film. Every song on the soundtrack, excluding the title song and "Wait '', was written and recorded within a two - week period. Only after Wang Chung saw a rough cut of the film did they produce the title song.
An original motion picture soundtrack was released on September 30, 1985, by Geffen Records. The album contained eight tracks. The album 's title song, "To Live and Die in L.A. '', (with a music video also directed by Friedkin), made it on the Billboard Hot 100 where it peaked at # 41 in the United States.
A DVD was released by MGM Home Entertainment on December 2, 2003. The DVD contains a new restored wide - screen transfer, an audio commentary featuring director Friedkin where he relates stories about the making of the movie, a half - hour documentary featuring the main characters, a deleted scene showing a distraught Vukovich bothering his soon - to - be ex-wife at her apartment, and the alternate ending Friedkin refused to use, in which the two Secret Service partners survive but are transferred to Alaska while their supervisor Bateman is promoted and takes credit for stopping Masters. On February 2, 2010, the film was released on Blu - ray not containing all of the previous special features that were included on the DVD release.
On November 22, 2016 Shout Factory released a Collector 's Edition Blu Ray restoring the original DVD 's special features and added new ones as well. The complete list of bonus features are: NEW 4K Scan Of The Negative Supervised And Approved By William Friedkin, NEW "Taking A Chance '' -- An Interview With William Petersen, NEW "Wrong Way '': The Stunts Of To Live And Die In L.A. -- An Interview With Stunt Coordinator Buddy Joe Hooker, NEW "So In Phase '': Scoring To Live And Die In L.A. -- An Interview With The Band Wang Chung (Jack Hues And Nick Feldman), NEW "Renaissance Woman In L.A. '' -- An Interview With Actress Debra Feuer, NEW "Doctor For A Day '' -- An Interview With Actor Dwier Brown, Audio Commentary With Director William Friedkin, Deleted Scene And Alternate Ending, Counterfeit World: The Making Of To Live And Die In L.A., Still Gallery, Theatrical Trailer, and Radio Spot.
William Friedkin is developing a TV series based on the movie for WGN America.
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what is the purpose of the screening stage of the product development process | New product development - wikipedia
In business and engineering, new product development (NPD) covers the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A central aspect of NPD is product design, along with various business considerations. New product development is described broadly as the transformation of a market opportunity into a product available for sale. The product can be tangible (something physical which one can touch) or intangible (like a service, experience, or belief), though sometimes services and other processes are distinguished from "products. '' NPD requires an understanding of customer needs and wants, the competitive environment, and the nature of the market. Cost, time and quality are the main variables that drive customer needs. Aiming at these three variables, companies develop continuous practices and strategies to better satisfy customer requirements and to increase their own market share by a regular development of new products. There are many uncertainties and challenges which companies must face throughout the process. The use of best practices and the elimination of barriers to communication are the main concerns for the management of the NPD.
The product development process typically consists of several activities that firms employ in the complex process of delivering new products to the market. A process management approach is used to provide a structure. Product development often overlaps much with the engineering design process, particularly if the new product being developed involves application of math and / or science. Every new product will pass through a series of stages / phases, including ideation among other aspects of design, as well as manufacturing and market introduction. In highly complex engineered products (e.g. aircraft, automotive, machinery), the NPD process can be likewise complex regarding management of personnel, milestones and deliverables. Such projects typically use an integrated product team approach. The process for managing large - scale complex engineering products is much slower (often 10 - plus years) than that deployed for many types of consumer goods.
The product development process is articulated and broken down in many different ways, many of which often include the following phases / stages:
The front - end marketing phases have been very well researched, with valuable models proposed. Peter Koen et al. provides a five - step front - end activity called front - end innovation: opportunity identification, opportunity analysis, idea genesis, idea selection, and idea and technology development. He also includes an engine in the middle of the five front - end stages and the possible outside barriers that can influence the process outcome. The engine represents the management driving the activities described. The front end of the innovation is the greatest area of weakness in the NPD process. This is mainly because the FFE is often chaotic, unpredictable and unstructured. Engineering design is the process whereby a technical solution is developed iteratively to solve a given problem The design stage is very important because at this stage most of the product life cycle costs are engaged. Previous research shows that 70 -- 80 % of the final product quality and 70 % of the product entire life - cycle cost are determined in the product design phase, therefore the design - manufacturing interface represent the greatest opportunity for cost reduction. Design projects last from a few weeks to three years with an average of one year. Design and Commercialization phases usually start a very early collaboration. When the concept design is finished it will be sent to manufacturing plant for prototyping, developing a Concurrent Engineering approach by implementing practices such as QFD, DFM / DFA and more. The output of the design (engineering) is a set of product and process specifications -- mostly in the form of drawings, and the output of manufacturing is the product ready for sale. Basically, the design team will develop drawings with technical specifications representing the future product, and will send it to the manufacturing plant to be executed. Solving product / process fit problems is of high priority in information communication design because 90 % of the development effort must be scrapped if any changes are made after the release to manufacturing.
Conceptual models have been designed in order to facilitate a smooth process. The concept adopted by IDEO, a successful design and consulting firm, is one of the most researched processes in regard to new product development and is a five - step procedure. These steps are listed in chronological order:
One of the first developed models that today companies still use in the NPD process is the Booz, Allen and Hamilton (BAH) Model, published in 1982. This is the best known model because it underlies the NPD systems that have been put forward later. This model represents the foundation of all the other models that have been developed afterwards. Significant work has been conducted in order to propose better models, but in fact these models can be easily linked to BAH model. The seven steps of BAH model are: new product strategy, idea generation, screening and evaluation, business analysis, development, testing, and commercialization. A pioneer of NPD research in the consumers goods sector is Robert G. Cooper. Over the last two decades he conducted significant work in the area of NPD. The Stage-Gate model developed in the 1980s was proposed as a new tool for managing new products development processes. This was mainly applied to the consumers goods industry. The 2010 APQC benchmarking study reveals that 88 % of U.S. businesses employ a stage-gate system to manage new products, from idea to launch. In return, the companies that adopt this system are reported to receive benefits such as improved teamwork, shorter cycle time, improved success rates, earlier detection of failure, a better launch, and even shorter cycle times -- reduced by about 30 %. These findings highlight the importance of the stage-gate model in the area of new product development. Over the last few years, the Lean Startup movement has grown in popularity, challenging many of the assumptions inherent in the stage-gate model.
There have been a number of approaches proposed for analyzing and responding to the marketing challenges of new product development. Two of these are the eight stages process of Peter Koen of the Stevens Institute of Technology, and a process known as the fuzzy front end.
The Fuzzy Front End (FFE) is the messy "getting started '' period of new product engineering development processes. It is in the front end where the organization formulates a concept of the product to be developed and decides whether or not to invest resources in the further development of an idea. It is the phase between first consideration of an opportunity and when it is judged ready to enter the structured development process (Kim and Wilemon, 2007; Koen et al., 2001). It includes all activities from the search for new opportunities through the formation of a germ of an idea to the development of a precise concept. The Fuzzy Front End phase ends when an organization approves and begins formal development of the concept.
Although the Fuzzy Front End may not be an expensive part of product development, it can consume 50 % of development time (see Chapter 3 of the Smith and Reinertsen reference below), and it is where major commitments are typically made involving time, money, and the product 's nature, thus setting the course for the entire project and final end product. Consequently, this phase should be considered as an essential part of development rather than something that happens "before development, '' and its cycle time should be included in the total development cycle time.
Koen et al. distinguish five different front - end elements (not necessarily in a particular order):
The Fuzzy Front End is also described in literature as "Front End of Innovation '', "Phase 0 '', "Stage 0 '' or "Pre-Project - Activities ''.
A universally acceptable definition for Fuzzy Front End or a dominant framework has not been developed so far. In a glossary of PDMA, it is mentioned that the Fuzzy Front End generally consists of three tasks: strategic planning, idea generation, and, especially, pre-technical evaluation. These activities are often chaotic, unpredictable, and unstructured. In comparison, the subsequent new product development process is typically structured, predictable, and formal. The term Fuzzy Front End was first popularized by Smith and Reinertsen (1991). R.G. Cooper (1988) describes the early stages of NPPD as a four - step process in which ideas are generated (I), subjected to a preliminary technical and market assessment (II) and merged to coherent product concepts (III) which are finally judged for their fit with existing product strategies and portfolios (IV).
Other authors have divided predevelopment product development activities differently:
These activities yield essential information to make a Go / No - Go to Development decision.
One of the earliest studies using the case study method defined the front - end to include the interrelated activities of:
Economical analysis, benchmarking of competitive products and modeling and prototyping are also important activities during the front - end activities. The outcomes of FFE are the:
A conceptual model of Front - End Process was proposed which includes early phases of the innovation process. This model is structured in three phases and three gates:
The gates are:
The final gate leads to a dedicated new product development project. Many professionals and academics consider that the general features of Fuzzy Front End (fuzziness, ambiguity, and uncertainty) make it difficult to see the FFE as a structured process, but rather as a set of interdependent activities (e.g. Kim and Wilemon, 2002). However, Husig et al., 2005 (10) argue that front - end not need to be fuzzy, but can be handled in a structured manner. In fact Carbone showed that when using the front end success factors in an integrated process, product success is increased. Peter Koen argues that in the FFE for incremental, platform and radical projects, three separate strategies and processes are typically involved. The traditional Stage Gate (TM) process was designed for incremental product development, namely for a single product. The FFE for developing a new platform must start out with a strategic vision of where the company wants to develop products and this will lead to a family of products. Projects for breakthrough products start out with a similar strategic vision, but are associated with technologies which require new discoveries.
Incremental, platform and breakthrough products include:
Companies must take a holistic approach to managing this process and must continue to innovate and develop new products if they want to grow and prosper.
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in which stage does the author show how the story ends | The Last Five Years - wikipedia
The Last Five Years is a musical written by Jason Robert Brown. It premiered at Chicago 's Northlight Theatre in 2001 and was then produced Off - Broadway in March 2002. Since then it has had numerous productions both in the United States and internationally.
The story explores a five - year relationship between Jamie Wellerstein, a rising novelist, and Cathy Hiatt, a struggling actress. The show uses a form of storytelling in which Cathy 's story is told in reverse chronological order (beginning the show at the end of the marriage), and Jamie 's is told in chronological order (starting just after the couple have first met). The characters do not directly interact except for a wedding song in the middle as their timelines intersect.
The Last Five Years was inspired by Brown 's failed marriage to Theresa O'Neill. O'Neill threatened legal action on the grounds the story of the musical represented her relationship with Brown too closely, and Brown changed the song "I Could Be in Love With Someone Like You '' to "Shiksa Goddess '' in order to reduce the similarity between the character Cathy and O'Neill.
The Last Five Years cast album was released by Sh - K - Boom Records in April 2002. A film adaptation starring Anna Kendrick and Jeremy Jordan was released in February 2015.
Cathy is sitting alone lamenting the end of her marriage ("Still Hurting ''). We shift to meet Jamie. It is five years earlier and he has just met Cathy. Jamie is overjoyed to be dating outside his Jewish heritage ("Shiksa Goddess '').
Cathy and Jamie are in Ohio. It is her birthday and he has come to visit her as she works in a show there ("See I 'm Smiling ''). She is anxious to fix any problems in their marriage but she becomes angry when Jamie tells her he has to go back early to New York. During breaks in the music, we see a younger Jamie, talking to a literary agent about his book.
Jamie is moving in with Cathy. He comments on how lucky he is that everything is going right for him; his book is being published and his life with Cathy seems too good to be true ("Moving Too Fast ''). Elsewhere an older Cathy is making a call to her agent: it seems her career is n't going the way she planned it.
Cathy is attending Jamie 's book party. She sings about how he ignores her for his writing but she will always be in love with him ("I 'm a Part of That '').
Jamie and Cathy celebrate their second Christmas. He tells her a new story he has written about an old tailor named Schmuel and he gives her a Christmas present: a watch, promising to support her as she follows her dreams of acting. ("The Schmuel Song '').
Cathy is in Ohio and writing to Jamie. She describes to Jamie her disappointing life in Ohio among her eccentric colleagues ("A Summer in Ohio '').
Jamie is sitting with Cathy in Central Park. Jamie proposes to her and, for the first time in the musical, they sing together ("The Next Ten Minutes ''). They get married, exchanging vows to stay together forever.
Jamie is facing temptation from other women, especially now his career as a writer has escalated ("A Miracle Would Happen ''). Cathy, meanwhile, is auditioning for a role ("When You Come Home to Me ''). She is getting down about the rejection she faces as an actress and complains to Jamie ("Climbing Uphill '').
Jamie speaks to Cathy on the phone, trying to convince her that there is nothing going on with him and his editor, Elise. He wants to celebrate a book review but Cathy refuses to go out.
Jamie is fighting with Cathy, trying to get her to listen to him. He accuses her of being unsupportive of his career just because hers is failing. Though his words are harsh, he promises her that he believes in her ("If I Did n't Believe in You '').
A younger Cathy is in the car with Jamie, who is going to meet her parents. She tells him about her past relationships and hopes not to end up in a small town life like her friend from high school ("I Can Do Better Than That ''). She asks Jamie to move in with her.
Near the end of the relationship Jamie wakes up beside another woman ("Nobody Needs to Know ''). He tries to defend his actions and blames Cathy for destroying his privacy and their relationship. Jamie promises not to lie to this woman and tells her that "I could be in love with someone like you, '' just as he does to Cathy in "Shiksa Goddess. ''
Cathy is ecstatic after her first date with Jamie. She sings goodbye ("Goodbye Until Tomorrow ''). She proclaims that she has been waiting for Jamie her whole life. Simultaneously but five years forward, Jamie sits in their shared apartment writing laments over the relationship ("I Could Never Rescue You ''). As Cathy waves Jamie "goodbye until tomorrow '', Jamie wishes Cathy simply "goodbye ''.
The musical style draws on a number of musical genres, including pop, jazz, and classical, klezmer, Latin, Rock, and Folk. The orchestration consists of piano, guitar, fretless bass, two cellos, one doubling on celesta and tubular bell, and violin, doubling cymbal.
The show debuted at Northlight Theatre in Skokie, Illinois in 2001, running from May -- July 1. The production starred Lauren Kennedy as Cathy and Norbert Leo Butz as Jamie. Kennedy had a previous commitment (a role in South Pacific in London) and was replaced by Sherie Rene Scott. Scott, therefore, performed the vocals on the cast recording.
The show opened Off - Broadway at the Minetta Theatre on March 2, 2002 and closed May 5, 2002. Directed by Daisy Prince, Butz and Scott again starred. The production won the 2002 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music and Lyrics, as well as receiving Drama Desk nominations for Outstanding Musical, Outstanding Actor, Outstanding Actress, Outstanding Orchestrations, and Outstanding Set Design. It also received the Lucille Lortel Award nomination for Outstanding Musical and Outstanding Actor, and the Outer Critics Circle Award nomination for Outstanding Off - Broadway Musical.
The show was revived in 2013 Off - Broadway at the Second Stage Theatre for a limited engagement with Adam Kantor and Betsy Wolfe in the roles of Jamie and Cathy, respectively. Brown himself directed. In March 2015, Kantor and Wolfe reprised their roles in a two - night - only concert production of the show at the American Conservatory Theatre in San Francisco.
The show premiered in Paris, France in 2013 presented by American Musical Theatre Live featuring Jonathan Wagner as Jamie and Miranda Crispin as Cathy.
The show was given its Northern Irish premiere at The Lyric Theatre, Belfast in 2015, running for a limited engagement. It starred Fra Fee as Jamie and Amy Lennox as Cathy. The production was directed by Stephen Whitson.
The show premiered in Stockholm, Sweden at Teaterstudio Lederman in April 2018. It starred Emil Nyström as Jamie and Cilla Silvia as Cathy. The production was directed by Robin Karlsson, with music direction by Johan Mörk.
On September 12, 2016, Jason Robert Brown, along with SubCulture, had a one night only benefit for the Brady Center to prevent gun violence. The Town Hall at 123 W 43rd St hosted this event. Cynthia Erivo played Cathy and Joshua Henry played Jamie. Jason Robert Brown conducted the orchestra.
On October 29, 2016, Samantha Barks and Jonathan Bailey took on the roles of Cathy and Jamie on the West End in London for the first time.
An adaptation starring Anna Kendrick and Jeremy Jordan was directed by PS, I Love You director Richard LaGravenese. The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival.
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who plays dr altman on grey's anatomy | Kim Raver - wikipedia
Kimberly Jayne "Kim '' Raver (born March 15, 1969) is an American actress. She is best known for television roles as Kim Zambrano on Third Watch, Audrey Raines on 24 and Teddy Altman on ABC 's medical drama Grey 's Anatomy.
Raver was born and raised in New York City by her mother, Tina Raver, and her stepfather, Chris Meltesen. She has a sister, Cybele Raver, as well as three half sisters, Nadja Raver, Grace Raver, Aimée Raver, and two half brothers, Jacob Raver, and William Raver. She attended Northfield Mount Hermon School, a boarding school in Northfield, Massachusetts. Raver attended Boston University, where she received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in drama. Raver continues to study theater in New York with teacher and mentor Wynn Handman. She is fluent in French and German, a language that she learned as a child from her German - born mother.
Raver got her start as a child star in 1975 appearing on Sesame Street at age 6. She remained on the show for three years. She initially acted in commercials for Visa and Jeep when her adult career began. Her first prominent role was her Broadway debut in 1995 in the Philip Barry play "Holiday '' in which she co-starred with Laura Linney and Tony Goldwyn. She also appeared in the feature film City Hall with Al Pacino. She also co-starred with John Spencer (of NBC 's The West Wing) and David Schwimmer in "The Glimmer Brothers '', a production of the Williamstown Theatre Festival, written by Warren Leight. After her time on Third Watch, she was cast as Audrey Raines in the popular television series 24, and was a series regular for two seasons.
During the Fall 2006 television season, Raver starred in the ABC television series The Nine. Although the show received outstanding critical reviews, it did not take off in the Nielsen ratings, and was therefore cancelled. She reprised her role in 24 's season 6 as Audrey Raines. The character was in a catatonic state at the end of the season.
The 1997 TV movie Soul Mates, starring Raver, is shown by market researchers at Television Preview. Raver joined Season 6 of Grey 's Anatomy in a recurring role as Dr. Teddy Altman, a cardiothoracic surgeon brought in by Dr. Owen Hunt, who served with her in Iraq. She made her on - screen debut on November 12. It was announced on January 4, 2010 that Raver had become a series regular on the show. On May 18, 2012, Grey 's Anatomy creator, Shonda Rhimes, announced that Raver had decided to leave Grey 's Anatomy after three seasons, "I know this season 's finale had some surprises for viewers and the exit of Kim Raver was one of the big ones. But Kim 's series option was up and she was ready to give Teddy Altman a much - needed vacation. It 's been a pleasure working with someone as talented and funny and kind as Kim; everyone is going to miss her terribly. I like to imagine that Teddy is still out there in the Grey 's Anatomy universe, running Army Medical Command and building a new life. '' When the news of her departure was released, Raver wrote on her Twitter, "I 've had one of the best times of my creative career working on Grey 's with Shonda, Betsy and the best cast on Television, '' she wrote, adding: "I feel fortunate and grateful to have worked with such an amazing team at GA (Grey 's Anatomy). (I) am going to miss everyone!! And to the GA (Grey 's Anatomy) fans, you guys rock! I am sure S9 (season nine) will be great!
In 2014, Raver returned to the role of Audrey Boudreau (née Raines) for the twelve - episode 24: Live Another Day. In 2015, she had a guest - appearance on the eleventh season premiere of Bones. In 2017, Raver will recur on the fifth season of Ray Donovan and will also return as Dr. Teddy Altman on Grey 's Anatomy for its 14th season.
Raver married Manuel Boyer, a French actor and writer, in 2000. She has two sons, Luke West Boyer (b. 2002) and Leo Kipling Boyer (b. October 9, 2007). Leo Kipling was born in New York City where Raver was shooting in Lipstick Jungle. Raver returned to work on the show only a few weeks after giving birth.
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who is the most wicket taker in t20 | List of Twenty20 International records - wikipedia
This article contains records for men 's Twenty20 Internationals.
Team notation
Batting notation
Bowling notation
Currently playing
The result percentage excludes no results and counts ties (irrespective of a tiebreaker) as half a win. Last updated: 21 February 2018
Qualification: Only completed innings in matches that did not have overs reduced are included. Updated: 12 March 2017
Updated: 3 January 2018
Updated: 12 March 2017
Scorecard
Updated: 12 March 2017
Updated: 27 August 2016 ^ (a) Rain interrupted play in South Africa 's innings with South Africa having scored 127 / 3 after 13 overs. The par score at this point was 128. Rain prevented the match from resuming and England won by 1 run.
Updated: 3 April 2016
Even though tie - breakers were used to determine a winner in these matches, for statistical purposes, these matches are considered as ties. Updated: 17 June 2018
No results are treated the same as losses and ties in the above table. A no result occurs when a match is abandoned partway through, usually due to rain. Updated: 2 June 2017
No results are treated the same as losses and ties in the above table. A no result occurs when a match is abandoned partway through, usually due to rain. * indicates that the sequence is ongoing Updated: 12 April 2017
Updated: 16 February 2018
Updated: 6 September 2016
Updated: 22 December 2017
Updated: 7 September 2016
Updated: 1 April 2018
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Updated: 21 February 2018
Qualification: 250 balls. Updated: 21 February 2018
Source: Cricinfo. Last updated: 12 June 2018.
Last updated: 12 March 2017
Updated: 21 February 2018
Updated: 21 February 2018
Updated: 9 July 2017
Updated: 29 October 2017
Updated: 29 August 2016
Updated: 22 December 2017
Updated: 3 January 2018
Number in parentheses represents the number of balls the batsman faced during the innings. Updated: 6 September 2016
Updated: 29 October 2017 ^ (a) The over started with Buttler facing and Wright off strike. Buttler faced the first ball and was dismissed on the second ball of the over. Bairstow came in and faced the next two deliveries and Wright faced the last four deliveries.
Updated: 01 November 2017
Updated: 24 December 2017
Updated: 3 April 2016
Qualification: 500 balls bowled. Updated: 21 February 2018
Qualification: 500 balls bowled. Updated: 21 February 2018.
Qualification: 500 balls bowled. Updated: 21 February 2018.
Updated: 10 March 2017
Scorecard
Bowling figures given above are in the form of "Overs - Maidens - Runs - Wickets ''. Updated: 21 February 2018
Source: ESPNcricinfo. Last Updated: 27 October 2017
The list excludes catches made as wicket - keeper Updated: 21 February 2018
Innings refers to when the player was the designated keeper. All figures exclude catches not made as a wicketkeeper. Updated: 21 February 2018
Innings refers to when the player was the designated keeper. All figures exclude catches not made as a wicketkeeper. Updated: 21 February 2018
Updated: 21 February 2018
Updated: 17 June 2018
Updated: 15 June 2018
Updated: 17 June 2018
Updated: 10 March 2017
Last updated: 17 March 2018
An asterisk (*) signifies an unbroken partnership (i.e. neither of the batsmen were dismissed before either the end of the allotted overs or they reached the required score). Updated: 18 February 2018
An asterisk (*) signifies an unbroken partnership (i.e. neither of the batsmen were dismissed before either the end of the allotted overs or they reached the required score). Updated: 3 April 2016
An asterisk (*) signifies an unbroken partnership (i.e. neither of the batsmen were dismissed before either the end of the allotted overs or they reached the required score). Updated: 24 September 2016
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he was the composer of the nationalistic song bayan ko | Bayan Ko - wikipedia
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"Bayan Ko '' (Spanish: Nuestra Patria, English: My Country) is one of the most recognizable patriotic songs of the Philippines. It was originally penned in Spanish by the Revolutionary general José Alejandrino, and translated into Tagalog some three decades later by the poet José Corazón de Jesús.
The song, which is a kundiman, is often considered the unofficial second national anthem of the Philippines, and is sometimes sung by Overseas Filipinos groups after the Lupang Hinirang or by itself. It is sometimes assumed to be a folk music because of its popularity, and due to the nature of its lyrics it has been used as a protest song by different political groups at various points in Philippine history.
The Spanish lyrics of Bayan Ko were originally written for the Severino Reyes zarzuela, Walang Sugat ("no wound ''). Attributed to the propagandista, General José Alejandrino, the song expressed opposition to the ongoing American Occupation. The current and more popular Tagalog version is attributed to José Corazón de Jesús, and the music to Constancio de Guzmán.
Bayan Ko regained cult popularity during the Marcos dictatorship, with the Left singing their own version in protests. After President Marcos imposed Martial Law in 1972, the song was deemed seditious. Public performances of the song were banned, with violators facing potential arrest and detention. People were emboldened to sing it at the 1983 funeral of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. and the ensuing 1986 People Power Revolution, where Freddie Aguilar led crowds in singing.
Since the 1986 Revolution that toppled the Marcos government and ushered in the Fifth Republic, the song has been associated with the Aquino family and their allies. In July 1987, a cover by pop singer JoAnne Lorenzana was launched as part of a nationalistic campaign by PLDT, and was aired on radio and television for the first anniversary of the Revolution.
On 1 August 2009, Bayan Ko was sung as the recessional of the noon Mass at EDSA Shrine, ending the quarant'ore for Corazón Aquino. The service, originally intended to pray for the former leader 's recovery, was instead done to mourn her sudden death early that morning. Crowds sang it again during the transfer of her remains from La Salle Green Hills to Manila Cathedral on 3 August for the lying in state. At the Requiem Mass on 5 August, Lea Salonga sang it as the recessional while Aquino 's casket was borne out to the Cathedral steps. A military band repeated it as the flatbed hearse carrying the casket and honor guard began the hours - long funeral procession. Mourners sang Bayan Ko for the last time with several hymns as Aquino 's casket was entombed beside her husband at the couple 's mausoleum in Parañaque City.
A month later, Libera sang Bayan Ko as an encore to their first Philippine tour in Cebu and Manila. Moved by the performance, the audience sporadically applauded throughout the group 's performance. As part of their Summer Philippine tour the following year, Libera gave an encore performance on the hit noontime variety programme, Showtime on 14 April 2010.
The University of the Philippines Madrigal Singers sang Bayan Ko during the inauguration of President Benigno Aquino III and Vice-President Jejomar Binay on 30 June 2010 at the Quirino Grandstand.
Ang bayan kong Pilipinas, lupain ng ginto 't bulaklak. Pag - ibig ang sa kaniyáng palad nag - alay ng ganda 't dilág. At sa kaniyáng yumi at ganda, dayuhan ay nahalina. Bayan ko, binihag ka, nasadlak sa dusa. Ibon mang may layang lumipad, kulungin mo at umiiyak! Bayan pa kayáng sakdál dilág, ang ' di magnasang maka - alpas? Pilipinas kong minumutyá, pugad ng luhá ko 't dalita, aking adhika: makita kang sakdál laya!
My country, the Philippines, land of gold and flowers, It was Love that, as per her fate, Offered up beauty and splendor. And with her refinement and beauty, The foreigner was enticed; My country, you were made captive, Mired in suffering. Even the bird that is free to fly, cage it and it cries! What more for the country most splendid, would she not yearn to break free? Philippines, which I treasure, Nest of my tears and suffering; My aspiration: to see you absolutely free!
Philippines, my country, my homeland, Gold and flowers in her heart abound, Blessings on her fate did love bestow, Sweet beauty 's grace and splendor 's glow. How her charms so kind and tender Drove the stranger to desire her; Land of mine, in fetters kept, You suffered as we wept. Birds that freely claim the skies to fly When imprisoned mourn, protest and cry! How more deeply will a land most fair, Yearn to break the chains of sad despair? Philippines, my life 's sole burning fire, Cradle of my tears, my misery; All that I desire: To see you rise, forever free!
Nuestra Patria Filipina, cuya tierra es de oro y púrpura. Tantos tesoros guarda en su lar que tientan al hurtador. Y es por eso que el anglosajón, con vil traición la subyuga; Patria mía en prisión, sacúdete del traidor. Aún el ave libre en su volar, llora cuando en la jaula está, cuanto más nuestra Patria de amor al verse sin paz ni dignidad. Filipinas de mi corazón, tus hijos jamás permitirán que así te robe tu bienestar y libertad.
Our Philippine Homeland, whose land is of gold and purple. So many treasures hidden under, that tempted the thief. And that is why the Anglo - Saxon, with vile treachery is subjugating it; My Homeland in prison, free yourself from the traitor. Even the free bird in its flight, Cries when it is in the cage, How much more our beloved Homeland, To be without peace nor dignity. Philippines of my heart, Your children will never allow That you be robbed just like that, Of your well - being and your liberty.
The modern Filipino lyrics based on the original Tagalog omit all diacritics and contract kaniyang to kanyang.
The lines Pag - ibig ang sa kaniyang palad / / nag - alay ng ganda 't dilag has minor variations which subtly change the meaning, revolving around the concept of palad, literally "palm of the hand '', but here closer to "fortune '' or "fate '' (cf. mapalad "fortunate '', masamang palad "ill fortune '', kapalaran "destiny '', gulong ng palad "wheel of fortune '').
Pag - ibig nasa kanyang palad, / / Nag - alay ng ganda 't dilag as sung by Freddie Aguilar, may be rendered as "With love, as per her fate, she (the country) offered up her beauty and splendor ''.
Pag - ibig ko sa kanyang palad / / nag - alay ng ganda 't dilag as sung by Asin and others, may be rendered as "My love, as per her fate, offered up beauty and splendor to her ''.
Asin also replaces makita kang sakdal laya "to see you absolutely free '' with makita kang malaya "to see you free ''.
While largely unchanged from the De Guzmán arrangement, the song has renditions by different composers and singers, notably by Lucio D. San Pedro (National Artist for music), Asin, and Freddie Aguilar. Aguilar 's cover is one of the most famous renditions of the song; an often overlooked detail is that the instrumental section of this version is Pilipinas Kong Mahal, another Filipino patriotic song. Asin 's rendition included another de Jesús work, Kay Sarap Mabuhay Sa Sariling Bayan, as a preluding stanza to the main lyrics. Sung mostly by Leftist groups, the stanza is included as the bridge replacing Pilipinas Kong Mahal with the prelude of Ang Bayan kong Hirang.
On 7 November 1988, an a capella version by Josephine Roberto, featuring the cast of That 's Entertainment, was used for Towering Power: A Musical Dedication, which was for the launching of GMA Network 's 777 - foot tower.
Allison Opaon sang a Japanese version in Yokohama on 18 November 2006, during a concert - rally against political killings in the Philippines.
This song has also been arranged by Robert Prizeman and sung by the vocal group Libera when touring the Philippines.
Domino de Pio Teodosio (with guitar) sang a special arrangement of Bayan Ko by Reginald Vince M. Espíritu (oboe) and Anjo Inacay (cello) at the John F. Kennedy School of Government on 7 March 2011. The performance, which was for visiting world leaders during the school 's International Week, was organised by the Philippine Caucus of the Kennedy School.
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where is the new england patriots located at | New England Patriots - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
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Conference championships (10)
Division championships (20)
The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Gillette Stadium in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, which is located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston, Massachusetts and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium.
An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971. The Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots ' rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL.
The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl ten times in franchise history, the most of any team, eight of them since the arrival of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in 2000. The Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 15 AFC East titles in 17 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The franchise has since set numerous notable records, including most wins in a ten - year period (126, in 2003 -- 2012), an undefeated 16 - game regular season in 2007, the longest winning streak consisting of regular season and playoff games in NFL history (a 21 - game streak from October 2003 to October 2004), and the most consecutive division titles won by a team in NFL history (won nine straight division titles from 2009 to 2017). The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached (eight) and won (five) by a head coach -- quarterback tandem. Currently, the team is tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five, after the Steelers, who have six.
On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. The most popular choice -- and the one that Sullivan selected -- was the "Boston Patriots, '' with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo.
The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, and they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season, in which they lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. They did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years.
When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots. The name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22, 1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England.
During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card team -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. During the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1 -- 15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri (where it would have been renamed as the St. Louis Stallions), but instead sold the team in 1994 to its current owner Robert Kraft.
Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team, first with the hiring of former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells in 1993. Orthwein and his marketing team also commissioned the NFL to develop a new visual identity and logo, and changed their primary colors from the traditional red, white and blue to blue and silver for the team uniforms. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells 's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice in 1997 & 1998 before being dismissed as head coach after the 1999 season.
The Patriots ' current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium, was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years (2001, 2003, and 2004). The Patriots finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team 's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19 -- 0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18 -- 1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18 -- 1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. The Patriots ' returned to the Super Bowl in 2012 but lost again to the Giants, 21 -- 17. In 2015, they won Super Bowl XLIX, defeating the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28 -- 24. The Patriots became the first team to reach nine Super Bowls in the 2016 -- 17 playoffs and faced the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI, which ended up paving the way for their fifth Super Bowl victory, tying them with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for the second-most in NFL history, 1 behind the Pittsburgh Steelers with 6; the game was also the first Super Bowl to go into overtime.
The Patriots became the first team to reach ten Super Bowls in the 2017 -- 18 playoffs but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
In terms of number of games played, the Patriots have competed most against teams either currently or formerly from the AFC East division. This includes the current teams, the New York Jets, the Miami Dolphins, and the Buffalo Bills, as well as former divisional opponents the Indianapolis Colts. Among those, however, a few run deeper than others.
The closest geographically has been the rivalry with the New York Jets. The Patriots and Jets have been in the same division (what is now the AFC East) since both teams ' foundings in 1960, and have played each other at least twice a year since then. The rivalry between the Jets and Patriots has escalated since 1996, when Patriots head coach Bill Parcells left the Patriots under controversy to become the head coach of the Jets; he was replaced by former Jets coach Pete Carroll. Four years later Carroll was fired, and Parcells 's assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned the day he was named the Jets ' head coach to become the head coach of the Patriots. Six years after that, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, became the head coach of the Jets.
Bill Belichick achieved his 200th career head coaching win (regular season and playoffs) on November 22, 2012, defeating the Jets 49 -- 19; it was his 163rd such win as Patriots coach. The Patriots defeated the Jets in Week seven of the 2015 season by a score of 30 -- 23, to give them a 6 -- 0 record to date.
The Patriots rivalry with the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts ran through the two clubs ' tenure together in the AFC East (1970 -- 2001). The two clubs clashed in several close games, such as on December 19, 1971, as a late Patriots touchdown decided a 21 -- 17 New England win; on September 18, 1978, the Colts rallied to defeat the Patriots 34 -- 27 on Monday Night Football on a virtual one - man scoring rampage by running back Joe Washington; on September 4, 1983, the Colts defeated the Patriots in overtime 29 -- 23 in their final season in Baltimore. The Patriots defeated the Colts in back - to - back overtime games, 23 -- 17 on December 8, 1991, and 37 -- 34 on November 15, 1992.
Even though the two clubs were placed in separate divisions in the NFL 's 2002 divisional realignment, their rivalry did not diminish. At that time, both teams were among the best in the AFC, and both were led by likely Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Peyton Manning (for the Colts) and Tom Brady (for the Patriots) The teams met three times in four years (2003, 2004, 2006) in the playoffs, with the winner going on to win that season 's Super Bowl each time. The Manning portion of the rivalry began in Manning 's rookie season, 1998; in 1999 Manning suffered a bitter 31 -- 28 loss in September as the Patriots behind Drew Bledsoe erased a 28 -- 7 Colts lead, then defeated the Patriots 20 -- 15 in Indianapolis on December 12. The Brady -- Manning portion of the rivalry began on September 30, 2001, as Brady made his first NFL start in a 44 -- 13 Patriots win at Foxboro; on October 21 the Patriots defeated the Colts at the RCA Dome 38 -- 17.
After the Colts left the AFC East in 2002, they first met on November 30, 2003, in a 38 -- 34 Patriots win decided on a last - second goal line stand by the Patriots. The Colts broke a six - game Patriot winning streak in the rivalry in November 2005, then won twice in 2006; in the AFC Championship Game the Colts erased a 21 -- 6 halftime lead; the game lead tied or changed seven times in the second half before a late touchdown led to a 38 -- 34 Colts win. The November 4, 2007, meeting involved both teams being unbeaten to that point; the 8 -- 0 Patriots and the 7 -- 0 Colts. The Patriots rallied to win 24 -- 20. The Colts won again in 2008 and then erased a large Patriots lead in 2009 's 4th and 2 game. Manning 's final meeting with the Patriots as a Colt came in November 2010; a late interception sealed a 31 -- 28 Patriots win. In 2012, the Patriots faced the Colts, quarterbacked now by Andrew Luck, on November 18; the Patriots defeated the Colts 59 -- 24. The Patriots also beat the Colts on January 12, 2014, 43 -- 22. The Patriots played the Colts in the playoffs again on January 18, 2015, in the AFC title game, winning 45 -- 7.
The Patriots and the Bills were both charter members of the AFL, and even competed with each other in an AFL playoff game. They have remained divisional rivals since the NFL - AFL merger. Prior to the rise of Tom Brady, the two teams shared a mellow, yet occasionally competitive rivalry, featuring highlights from players such as O.J. Simpson, Steve Grogan, Joe Ferguson, Jim Kelly, and Drew Bledsoe. However, Brady has dominated the Bills ever since taking over as the Patriots ' franchise quarterback, holding a 26 - 3 regular season record over them. Though Patriots fans usually feel apathetic towards the Bills, Bills fans have come to despise the Patriots more than any other rival. The rivalry has remained somewhat intense in recent years with multiple players having played for both teams, the Bills usually giving their all when playing the Patriots, and the presence of Rex Ryan, who coached both the Bills and Jets and was known for his trash - talk.
The Patriots first played the Miami Dolphins in 1966 in the AFL, when Miami was one of two expansion teams to debut that year in that league. The Dolphins dominated the Patriots in the 1970s and 1990s, but the two teams remained competitive with each other for years before the rise of Tom Brady. Brady, however, struggled occasionally against the Dolphins in the 2000s before reasserting dominance in the 2010s. The Patriots and Dolphins are the only two teams in the Super Bowl era to post undefeated regular season records, with Miami going 14 - 0 in 1972 and the Patriots going 16 - 0 in 2007. Notable moments between the clubs include the Snowplow Game, three playoff matchups, and the Dolphins revealing their Wildcat offense against the Patriots.
The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots ' quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Ravens lost to the Patriots 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens defeated the Patriots in the 2009 AFC Wild Card playoff game, 33 -- 14. This was the first time the Ravens had ever defeated the Patriots. The Ravens faced the Patriots in week six of the 2010 season. The Patriots ended up winning 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy from a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.
The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season in the 2012 AFC championship game, which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter, but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens ' last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last - second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With 11 seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI for a rematch with the New York Giants.
The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 lead in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.
The two teams met again on January 20, 2013, in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens defense gave up no points in the 2nd half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.
The two teams met once again at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs on January 10, 2015. The Patriots trailed by as much as 14 twice, before beating the Ravens 35 -- 31 to advance to the AFC Championship.
During the 2007 season, the New England Patriots were disciplined by the league for videotaping New York Jets ' defensive coaches ' signals from an unauthorized location during a September 9, 2007 game. Videotaping opposing coaches is not illegal in the NFL de jure, but there are designated areas allowed by the league to do such taping. After an investigation, the NFL fined Patriots head coach Bill Belichick $500,000 for his role in the incident, fined the Patriots $250,000, and docked the team their original first - round selection in the 2008 NFL Draft which would have been the 31st pick of the draft.
During the 2015 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, allegations arose that the Patriots were utilizing under - inflated footballs. It was even suggested that the Patriots ' staff themselves deliberately deflated the footballs to give their team an unfair advantage during the playoffs. A lengthy investigation and heated debate commenced shortly afterwards, with a full report being published in May 2015. The Wells Report found that balls provided by the Patriots, who were the home team, indeed had less pressure on average than the balls provided by the Colts. Also notable was the findings of some suggestions of communication between Tom Brady and two Patriots locker room attendants, indicating Brady was likely "generally aware '' of the situation and that the Patriots staff intentionally deflated the footballs. A later study by the American Enterprise Institute called the evidence and methodology of the Wells report "deeply flawed '' and "unreliable ''.
In the aftermath of the incident, the NFL suspended Brady without pay for the first four games of the 2015 season, fined the Patriots $1 million, and forced them to forfeit their 2016 first round draft pick and 2017 fourth round draft pick. Brady appealed his suspension, which was eventually vacated by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, only for the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to reinstate it a year later for the 2016 NFL season. Brady eventually agreed to serve the suspension in 2016, but led the Patriots to win Super Bowl LI in spite of it.
Under head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have employed specific on - field and off - field strategies. On the field, the Patriots have typically utilized an "Erhardt -- Perkins '' offense and a "Fairbanks -- Bullough '' 3 -- 4 defense, referred to commonly as a two - gap 3 -- 4 defensive system. Their philosophy in making personnel decisions and in game planning has focused on the "team '' concept, stressing preparation, strong work ethic, versatility, and lack of individual ego. This approach, which has led to five Super Bowl victories under Belichick, was analyzed in the 2004 book Patriot Reign.
When owner Robert Kraft purchased the team in 1994, he did so for $175 million. Since then, the Patriots have sold out every home game in both Foxboro Stadium and Gillette Stadium. By 2009, the value of the franchise had increased by over $1 billion, to a Forbes magazine estimated value of $1.361 billion, third highest in the NFL only behind the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins. As of July 2015, the Patriots are the seventh most valuable sports franchise in the world according to Forbes magazine.
Since 2002, the Patriots ' home stadium has been Gillette Stadium, a $350 million facility privately financed by Kraft. It houses all administrative offices for the team and its owning entity, The Kraft Group, as well as the Kraft - owned Major League Soccer team, the New England Revolution. The field, which was originally natural grass, was replaced with a FieldTurf surface during the 2006 season. The area around the stadium was developed, beginning in 2007, into a $375 million "lifestyle and entertainment center '' called Patriot Place; among its largest structures is a multi-floor restaurant and bar called CBS Scene.
Prior to 2002, the Patriots played in Foxboro Stadium dating back to 1971, the team 's second year in the NFL after the AFL -- NFL merger. During the team 's days in the American Football League, the Boston Patriots were hosted by a number of fields in or around Boston -- they played at Braves Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium.
The Patriots original helmet logo was a simple tricorne hat, used only for the 1960 season. From 1961 to 1992, the Patriots used a logo of a Revolutionary War minuteman hiking a football. The Patriots script logo during this time consisted of a western - style font. The minuteman logo became known as the "Pat Patriot '' logo, which later became the name of the team 's mascot.
In 1979, the Patriots worked with NFL Properties to design a new, streamlined logo, to replace the complex Pat Patriot logo. The new logo featured the blue and white profile of a minuteman in a tricorne hat set against a flag showing three red stripes separated by two white stripes. Team owner Billy Sullivan decided to put the new logo up to a vote against Pat Patriot with the fans at the September 23rd home game against the San Diego Chargers, using a sound level meter to judge the crowd 's reaction. The new logo was decidedly rejected by the crowd in favor of Pat, and the concept was shelved.
In 1993, a new logo was unveiled involving the gray face of a minuteman wearing a red, white and blue hat that begins as a tricorne and transitions into a flowing banner - like design. The logo bears some superficial resemblance to the aborted 1979 logo. It became popularly known as the "Flying Elvis '' due to many observing its resemblance to the profile of a young Elvis Presley. In 2000, the blue color was darkened.
On July 3, 2013, the Patriots unveiled a new wordmark logo.
The Patriots originally wore red jerseys with white block numbering at home, and white jerseys with red block numbering on the road. Both uniforms used white pants and white helmets, first with the hat logo over the player 's number, then with the "Pat Patriot '' logo starting in 1961. A blue stripe was added to the two red helmet stripes in 1964. The numbers on both the home and away jerseys gained a blue outline in 1973. In 1979, the Patriots began the first of many sporadic runs of wearing red pants with the white jerseys. The red pants were dropped in 1981, but returned in 1984. After being dropped again in 1988, they were used again from 1990 to 1992.
The Patriots underwent a complete identity overhaul before the 1993 season, starting with the introduction of the aforementioned "Flying Elvis '' logo. The new uniforms consisted of a royal blue home jersey and a white away jersey. The helmet was silver with the Flying Elvis logo and no additional striping. Both uniforms used silver pants, originally with stripes designed to look like those flowing from the Flying Elvis, but these were changed to simple red and blue stripes after one season. When they debuted, both the home and away jerseys used red block numbers with a blue and white outline, but after one season the home uniforms switched to the now - familiar white with a red outline.
In 1995, the Patriots switched the block numbers to a more modern rounded number font with a dropshadow. The Patriots were one of the first adopters of custom numbers, a trend that would grow drastically over the next 20 years.
However, in 2000, the Patriots also became one of the only teams to drop the rounded numbers and switched back to block numbers. Also that year, the shade of blue was darkened from royal to nautical blue. The Patriots, unsatisfied with the white - on - silver road look, also took the opportunity to introduce blue pants to be worn with the white jersey, offering a better contrast. To better match the blue pants, the number on the white jersey was switched from red to blue.
In 1994, the Patriots wore the "Pat Patriot '' helmets and plain white striped pants from two seasons prior as alternates as part of the NFL 's 75th anniversary celebration. In 2002, NFL teams were allowed to add a permanent third jersey to be worn in a maximum of two games. The Patriots reintroduced a red jersey as their alternate, complimented with the old - style "Pat Patriot '' helmet. In 2003, the Patriots changed their alternate to a silver jersey with blue pants. For this uniform, the "Flying Elvis '' helmet was utilized. The uniform was identical to the white jersey with any areas of white replaced by silver. These uniforms were dropped after 2007. No alternate uniform was used in 2008. In 2009, the red alternate was reintroduced, again accompanied by the "Pat Patriot '' helmet. An alternate white road jersey was also worn with the older helmet for one game, using red numbers, in tribute to the 50th anniversary of the AFL. The red alternate gained a blue outline around the numbers in 2010 and this was worn through 2012. The Patriots retired their alternate red uniforms in 2013, thanks to a new NFL rule outlawing throwback alternate helmets.
In 2016, the Patriots took part in the NFL Color Rush program, wearing monochrome navy uniforms on September 22 against the Houston Texans.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated May 18, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 88 Active, 1 Inactive, 2 Unsigned
The New England Patriots feature 22 former players and two contributors in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six - year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of The Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an Internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. In order to be eligible, players and coaches must be retired for at least four years. Beginning in 2011, and meeting every five years, a senior selection committee has the option of voting a player who has been retired for at least 25 seasons into the hall of fame.
Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009, the Patriots ' 50th season, as a contributor.
Additionally, four of these Patriots players have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Patriots have officially retired seven uniform numbers.
In November 1971, fans voted on a 10 - year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team 's 10 years in the then - defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009:
In March 2009, as part of the Patriots ' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all - decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:
On March 16, 2010, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected an all - decade team for the 2000s:
In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team:
In 2009, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected a 50th anniversary team:
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as the Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots.
The Patriots ' mascot is Pat Patriot, a revolutionary minuteman wearing a Patriots home jersey.
The Patriots also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia. During each game, about ten men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown, field goal, point - after - touchdown or safety, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a volley of blanks from flintlock muskets. Per an interview with the Loren & Wally Show on WROR 105.7 FM in and around the time of Super Bowl XLIX, said shots use double the load of black powder than a regular historical reenactor does, specifically 200 grains, in order to be heard throughout the stadium. ESPN writer Josh Pahigian named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007.
The Patriots ' flagship radio station is WBZ - FM 98.5 FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the New England Patriots Radio Network, whose 37 affiliate stations span seven states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti were the longtime announcing team until their retirement following the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season. Santos was replaced by Bob Socci. Former Patriots QB Scott Zolak joined the radio team in the 2011 season as a sideline analyst, and in 2013, he replaced Cappelletti as color commentator.
Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS 's O&O WBZ - TV, who also airs the bulk of Patriots regular season games by virtue of CBS having the rights to most AFC games; CBS also has a presence at the nearby Patriot Place with the "CBS Scene '' bar / restaurant. During the regular season whenever the Patriots host an NFC team, the games are aired on Fox affiliate WFXT - TV, and NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by the "NBC Boston '' network of stations led by WBTS - LD. Preseason games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB - TV from 1995 until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui was play - by - play announcer for the 1995 -- 2012 seasons, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Lynch was replaced by WBZ reporter Steve Burton in 2009.
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who decides the date of general election in india | Elections in India - Wikipedia
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India has an asymmetric federal government, with elected officials at the federal, state and local levels. At the national level, the head of government, Prime Minister, is elected by members of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the parliament of India. The elections are conducted by the Election Commission of India. All members of the Lok Sabha, except two who can be nominated by the President of India, are directly elected through general elections which take place every five years, in normal circumstances, by universal adult suffrage and a first - past - the - post system. Members of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian parliament, are elected by elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states and the Electoral college for the Union Territories of India.
The 2014 general election involved an electorate of 863,500,000 people (larger than both EU and US elections combined). Declared expenditure has trebled since 1989 to almost $300 million, using more than one million electronic voting machines. The size of the huge electorate mandates that elections be conducted in a number of phases (there were nine phases in the 2014 general election). It involves a number of step - by - step processes from announcement of election dates to the announcement of results paving the way for the formation of the new government.
The President of India is elected for a five - year term by an electoral college of India consisting of members of federal legislature and state legislatures (i.e. all the elected member of parliament and all elected members of all legislative assemblies of the country).
The House of the People (Lok Sabha) represents citizens of India (as envisaged by the Constitution of India, currently the members of Lok Sabha are 545, out of which 543 are elected for five - year term and two members represent the Anglo - Indian community). The 543 members are elected under the plurality (' first past the post ') electoral system. The Council of States (Rajya Sabha) has 250 members, 238 members elected for a six - year term, with one - third retiring every two years. The members are indirectly elected, this being achieved by the votes of legislators in the state and union (federal) territories. The elected members are chosen under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. The twelve nominated members are usually an eclectic mix of eminent artists (including actors), scientists, jurists, sportspersons, businessmen and journalists and common people.
Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of the adult suffrage. The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, which is made up by election of up to 530 members to represent the States, up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo - Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if, in his / her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. In 1952, on Lok Sabha elections there were 1874 candidates, which rose to 13952 candidates in 1996. However, in Lok Sabha elections in 2009, only 8070 candidates contested. Historical share of seats and votes of major political parties are ranked by the number of seats won.
: 12 seats in Assam and 1 in Meghalaya did not vote.
Indian National Congress dominated the Indian political scene under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru from the independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. The party continued its dominance under the leadership of K Kamaraj and Lal Bahadur Shastri. The Congress party was split into two in the 1970s and Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) to election victory. But the winning run was broken for the first time in 1977, with the defeat of the party led by Indira Gandhi, by an unlikely coalition of all the major other parties, which protested against the imposition of a controversial emergency from 1975 -- 1977. But, Indira Gandhi regained power soon after and her son rajiv Gandhi led the party after her assassination. A coalition led by VP Singh swept to power in 1989 in the wake of major allegations of corruption against then Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi. But the coalition lost steam in 1990 necessitating new elections with the congress party again emerging victorious under the leadership of PV Narasimha Rao.
In 1996, the election results led to a coalition system wherein no single party achieved a majority in the Parliament to form a government, but rather has to depend on a process of coalition building with other parties to form a block and claim a majority to be invited to form the government. This has been a consequence of strong regional parties which ride on the back of regional aspirations. There were multiple governments within a span of few years led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, IK Gujral and HD Deve Gowda.
In 1999, National Democratic Alliance led by the Bharatiya Janata Party came to power and became the first coalition government to complete the full term. For the next decade, congress led coalition United Progressive Alliance formed the government under Manmohan Singh. In the recent elections held in 2014, the National Democratic Alliance led by the Bharatiya Janata Party came to power with Bharatiya Janata Party achieving a simple majority on its own by securing 282 seats. Narendra Modi, the BJP 's Prime Ministerial candidate, is now serving his first term as the Prime Minister of India.
While parties like the Telugu Desam Party, the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam have traditionally been strong regional contenders, the 1990s saw the emergence of other regional players such as Indian National Lok Dal, Shiromani Akali Dal, Shiv Sena, Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Samaj Party and Janata Dal. These parties are traditionally based on regional aspirations like Telangana Rashtra Samithi and Shiv Sena or strongly influenced by caste considerations like Bahujan Samaj Party which claims to represent the Dalits.
The Election Commission of India is an autonomous, constitutionally established federal authority responsible for administering all the electoral processes in the Republic of India. Under the supervision of the commission, free and fair elections have been held in India at regular intervals as per the principles enshrined in the Constitution. The Election Commission has the power of superintendence, direction and control of all elections to the Parliament of India and the state legislatures and of elections to the office of the President of India and the Vice-President of India.
Elections are conducted according to the constitutional provisions, supplemented by laws made by Parliament. The major laws are Representation of the People Act, 1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes. The Supreme Court of India has held that where the enacted laws are silent or make insufficient provision to deal with a given situation in the conduct of elections, the Election Commission has the residuary powers under the Constitution to act in an appropriate manner. Originally the commission had only a single Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989, but they had a very short tenure until 1 January 1990. The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1993 made the Election Commission a multi-member body. Later, on 1 October 1993, two additional Election Commissioners were appointed. The concept of a multi-member Commission has been in operation since then, with decision - making power by majority vote.
Electoral process: Electoral Process in India starts with the declaration of dates by the election commission. Publishing of electoral rolls is a key process that happens before the elections and is vital for the conduct of elections in India. The Indian Constitution sets the eligibility of an individual for voting as any person who is a citizen of India and above 18 years of age. It is the responsibility of the eligible voters to enroll their names. The model code of conduct comes in force from the day the dates are announced.
The candidates are required to file the nomination papers following which the candidate list is published after scrutiny. No party is allowed to use the government resources for campaigning. No party is allowed to bribe the candidates before elections. The government can not start a project during the election period. The campaigning ends at 6: 00 pm of the second last day before the polling day.
The polling is held normally from 7: 00 am to 6: 00 pm, whereas it might be changed under special circumstances. The Collector of each district is in charge of polling. Government employees are employed as poll officers at the polling stations. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are being increasingly used instead of ballot boxes to prevent election fraud via booth capturing, which is heavily prevalent in certain parts of India. An indelible ink is applied usually on the left index finger of the voter as an indicator that the voter has cast his vote. This practice has been followed since the 1962 general elections to prevent a bad vote. Re-polling happens if the initial polling is unsuccessful due to reasons such as adverse weather, violence etc. The polled votes are counted to announce the winner. India follows first past the post methodology to declare the winner.
One of the earliest achievements of CSIR (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research), was to counter the challenge of fraudulent voting that research work on formulating indelible ink was initiated. Founding father of Indeliable Ink Dr. M.L. Goel and his team of Scientists in 1950 's started Chemical Division, NPL (National Physical Laboratory) now called the Analytical Chemistry Section.
As the ink is photo - sensitive, it needs to be protected from exposure to direct sun rays. Therefore, amber - coloured plastic containers are used for storing the ink, which in earlier times was stored in brown - coloured glass bottles. On application, the ink remains on the fingernail for at least two days, to even up to a month depending upon the person 's body temperature and the environment. The ink contains silver nitrate, which on exposure to UV light gets darker.
The precise protocol for making this ink including chemical composition and the quantity of each constituent is not known to many people, though the basic chemical formula of this ink has not been altered since 1952.
The cost per voter in the 2014 general elections was Rs 17, a twenty-fold increase over the first election, held in 1952. The total expenditure for the 2014 general election was 37.5 crore.
Electronic voting machines (EVM) are being used in Indian general and state elections to implement electronic voting in part from 1999 elections and in total since 2004 elections. The EVMs reduce the time in both casting a vote and declaring the results compared to the old paper ballot system. After rulings of Delhi High Court and Supreme Court and demands from various political parties, Election Commission decided to introduce EVMs with voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system.
On 14 August 2013, the government of India amended the elections rules to permit the use of the voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system. The first election to implement the new system was a by - election held in the Noksen assembly constituency of Nagaland. Voter - verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system is introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies as a pilot project in Indian general election, 2014. VVPAT is implemented in Lucknow, Gandhinagar, Bangalore South, Chennai Central, Jadavpur, Raipur, Patna Sahib and Mizoram constituencies. Generated slip tells voter to which party or candidate vote has been given and also includes name of voter, constituency and polling booth.
"None of the above '' is a voting option in India that would allow voters who support none of the candidates available to them to register an official vote of "none of the above '', which is currently allowed under India election regulation. (33) The Election Commission of India told the Supreme Court in 2009 that it wished to offer the voter a none of the above button on voting machines. The government, however, has generally opposed this option. On 27 September 2013, Supreme Court of India pronounced a judgement that citizen 's of India have right to negative vote by exercising none of the above (NOTA) option in EVMs and ballot papers. The judgment was passed on a PIL filed by the People 's Union for Civil Liberties, an NGO in 2009.
The Election Commission has implemented this option of "none of the above '' voting option in EVM machines w.e.f. five states polls starting from November 2013. However it does not mean that if ' NOTA ' gets highest votes the election will be conducted again, rather even in that case, the candidate with the highest votes will be treated as elected candidate.
An absentee ballot is a vote cast by someone who is unable or unwilling to attend the official polling station or to which the voter is normally allocated. Numerous methods have been devised to facilitate this. Increasing the ease of access to absentee ballots is seen by many as one way to improve voter turnout, though some countries require that a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate in an absentee ballot. Currently, India does not have an absentee ballot system for all citizens except in few exceptions. Section 19 of The Representation of the People Act (RPA) - 1950 allows a person to register to vote if he or she is above 18 years of age and is an ' ordinary resident ' of the residing constituency i.e. living at the current address for 6 months or longer. Section 20 of the above Act disqualifies a non-resident Indian (NRI) from getting his / her name registered in the electoral rolls. Consequently, it also prevents a NRI from casting his / her vote in elections to the Parliament and to the State Legislatures. In August 2010, Representation of the People (Amendment) Bill - 2010 which allows voting rights to NRI 's was passed in both Lok Sabha with subsequent gazette notifications on 24 November 2010. With this NRI 's will now be able to vote in Indian elections but have to be physically present at the time of voting. Several civic society organisations have urged the government to amend the RPA act to allow NRI 's and people on the move to cast their vote through absentee ballot system. People for Lok Satta has been actively pushing combination of internet and postal ballot as a viable means for NRI voting.
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demi lovato – tell me you love me | Tell Me You Love Me (album) - wikipedia
Tell Me You Love Me is the sixth studio album by American singer Demi Lovato. It was released on September 29, 2017, by Island, Hollywood, and Safehouse Records. Primarily a pop record, the album also incorporates elements of R&B. Lovato described the album as having a more "soulful '' side than her previous work, and named Christina Aguilera, Aretha Franklin, and Kehlani as its major influences. Contributions to the album 's production came from several producers, including Mitch Allan, David Massey, Oak Felder, Stint, and John Hill.
Lyrically, Tell Me You Love Me explores themes of recovering from heartbreak, letting go of past demons, and being single. "Sorry Not Sorry '' was released as the lead single from the album in July 2017 and would go on to become Lovato 's most successful single in the United States, peaking at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and being certified 4 × platinum by RIAA. The title track was released as the second and final single from the album in November, peaking at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was later certified platinum by the RIAA.
Tell Me You Love Me received generally positive reviews from music critics, who complimented the production and the emotion in Lovato 's vocal performance, with some naming the album the best work of her career. The album reached the top ten in numerous countries worldwide, peaking at number three on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States. Lovato later embarked on the Tell Me You Love Me World Tour in 2018 in support of the album. By June 2018, the album reached over one billion streams on streaming service Spotify. By August 2018, the album has been certified platinum in the US.
Following the release of Lovato 's fifth studio album Confident in October 2015, she told Latina that her next album would have a "more soulful vibe ''. In October 2016, the singer announced via Twitter that she would be taking a break from music and the spotlight in 2017, stating "I 'm not meant for this business or the media ''. However, she revealed to Mike Adam in August 2017 that after doing charity work earlier that year, she felt rejuvenated and started creating music again, which eventually led to an album. The singer mentioned that a title and release date had been chosen, but she was not allowed to disclose them at the time.
Lovato also told MTV News that month she was influenced by many artists for Tell Me You Love Me, including Aretha Franklin, Christina Aguilera, and Kehlani. She stated that the album was heavily inspired by Aguilera 's album Stripped, calling it "a breakout album that really transformed her into the icon that she is today ''. Lovato stated that she worked with producers Pharrell Williams and Mike Will Made It, but their work would not be featured on the album.
On August 23, 2017, Lovato posted an 18 - second video to her official Twitter account. In the video, she is seen singing the title track, "Tell Me You Love Me '', in a recording studio. As the camera pans out, the footage appears to be reflected on Lovato 's eye while zooming further back and unveiling the standard edition album cover; a black and white close - up photo of her face with the album title underneath. The album cover is then dimmed, to reveal the release date of September 29, 2017. Along with the video and release date, Lovato also announced that the album would be available for pre-order at midnight on August 24, 2017. On September 13, 2017, Lovato unveiled the tracklist with help from her fans on Twitter.
On September 29, 2017, Lovato celebrated the album by hosting a live stream event with Vevo, where she discussed the album and delivered acoustic performances of "Sorry Not Sorry '' and "Tell Me You Love Me ''. Lovato also partnered with audio electronics company JBL to host a pop - up exhibition in New York City, showcasing the album 's editorial photography and custom murals inspired by the album, created by contemporary painter Lora Zombie.
On October 26, 2017, Lovato announced she was going on tour. The tour started in San Diego on February 26, 2018 and concluded on July 22, 2018, in Paso Robles. DJ Khaled and Kehlani were announced as opening acts on the first North American leg of the tour. Jax Jones and Joy were announced as opening acts on the European leg. Iggy Azalea and Lauv were set to perform as opening acts on the second North American leg of the tour, in which one of the shows was cancelled, leaving Azalea as the only opening act on the leg. Becky G and Jorge Blanco were announced as opening acts on the Latin America leg of the tour, which was later canceled due to health issues.
For Tell Me You Love Me, Lovato adopted R&B as a key to achieve her desired "mature '' sound. According to her, she wanted to make sure that this "album showcased her voice. '' On the other hand, she also considered "Tell Me You Love Me '' as a "soulful '' work, as she explained to Time magazine, its sonority serves as a real representation of who she was artistically and personally at that moment. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic perceived, although there are ghosts of traditional soul threaded through the record, "the production is firmly modern, filled with electronic flair and allusions to hip - hop rhythms. '' Having an electronic production, the album opens with the first track and lead single "Sorry Not Sorry '', which contains several synthesized effects such as handclaps, finger snaps, a distorted bass voice and club synths. These effects are intercepted with a heavy bassline, hip hop beats, minimal piano notes and backing chants. Elias Leight of Rolling Stone magazine noted that Lovato expands to fill the track 's empty space by "belting her non-apology with the vindictive force of someone who knows their actions are justified. '' According to the singer, "Sorry Not Sorry '' is a song for the "haters '' with the message "You know what? I 'm good now, and sorry I 'm not sorry that you may not be loving where your life is at the moment. ''
The title track is a gospel - influenced song described as a "booming ballad '' by Fuse 's Jeff Benjamin. It is instrumentally complete with horns, percussive drums, handclaps and wah - wah guitar lines. Lovato explained to Billboard that "Tell Me You Love Me '' is about "the vulnerability of coming out of a very serious relationship and having a tough time with it, '' and further commented that lines as "You ai n't nobody ' til you got somebody, '' "calls out a big misconception. '' Exhibiting influences from 1980s and 1990s musical styles, the third track "Sexy Dirty Love '' has an uptempo danceable rhythm that blends funk and disco as well as "old - school '' R&B and electro genres. Due to its sonority, Mike Wass from Idolator associated the track with Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveSounds album. Lyrically, it narrates a thoroughly modern romantic encounter initiated via web with Lovato singing about fantasy through the phone in the first verse. Composed in a compound time signature, "You Do n't Do It for Me Anymore '' features a slow tempo subdued beat and strings chords. During the song, Lovato uses her higher vocal register in a crescendo. Billboard 's Rob Arcand praised her vocal range writing it reach "near - Adele limits in melisma and virtuosity. '' The lyrics reflects about a past situation in a negative relationship with an abusive partner with the singer expressing that its presence is not as necessary as before. Although it 's written in a perspective of an ended relationship, Lovato explained that the song is a look back at her personal struggles and addictions, saying: "I sang (it) with a lot of emotion because it reminded me of my relationship with my old self that I do n't relate to anymore. ''
The electronic song "Daddy Issues '' sees Lovato singing about a torrid affair with an older man explaining that she has some issues and certain behaviors caused by her relationship with her father. In an interview with BBC News, the singer confessed that the lyrics were ones she came up with, based off her own experiences. Mike Nied from Idolator observed that in the track Lovato "is hooked on some good loving, and she is content to keep things casual. '' Its synthpop production contains heavy stuttering synth drops and keyboard effects. In "Ruin the Friendship '', Lovato invites a special friend to take their relationship to a romantic level, appreciating his appearance and confessing her sexual intentions with him. During the verses, she sings accompanied by a bass guitar and a tenor saxophone. With a melodic horn section during the chorus, the song features and contains a smooth, slow - burn atmosphere reminiscent of jazz music. Its sound also demonstrates influences from traditional rhythm and blues. "Only Forever '' is a melancholic song about wanting the person you want to explore a new relationship with to make that first move or take that next step. With a message of "giving someone chances that will last a lifetime, '' Lovato considered "Only Forever '' as a sequel to "Ruin the Friendship ''. The song also has a connection with her personal experiences. Throughout the track, Lovato 's vocals appears to be echoing over a minimal bassline. "Lonely '' is a duet with rapper Lil Wayne that finds Lovato as a protagonist expressing angriness and disappointment about the behaviour of an abusive partner with Wayne 's verses reiterating her feelings. Its production, handled by DJ Mustard, features sparse, ambient synths in contrasts with a trap - inflected minimalist beat.
A downtempo ballad with influences from rock n ' roll music, "Cry Baby '' makes use of a pounding piano, snare and bass drums, and electric guitar riff slides. Lyrically, "Cry Baby '' shows Lovato singing about experiencing a dramatic romantic situation that alternates her solid personality making her a fragile person. As she sings in the chorus, although her heart is the "hardest to break '', a romantic interest made her cry and heartbroken. According to Lovato, "Games '' is about "playing games when I (she) got out of a relationship and started dating again. '' As Alexia Camp of Slant Magazine commented, it finds her "giving as good as she gets when her object of affection sends mixed (text) messages. '' The track was also noted for containing an instrumentation reminiscent of trap music. "Concentrate '' and "Hitchhiker '' are midtempo numbers, where the usage of guitar is a predominant characteristic in their production. The former is a stripped - down song with the lyrics focusing on sexual themes as Lovato lust for her lover has her extremely distracted. Idolator 's Mike Wass noted that she "straddles the line between explicit and almost spiritual, but she manages to make the effort all about making love instead of rolling around in the sack with a fling. '' Tell Me You Love Me 's twelfth track, "Hitchhiker '', is an optimistic love song about taking an emotional leap with a stranger.
"Sorry Not Sorry '' was released as the lead single from the record on July 11, 2017. It was written by Demi Lovato, Oak Felder, Sean Douglas, Trevor Brown and William Zaire Simmons. It was produced by Oak Felder, Trevor Brown and William Zaire Simmons. The song peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100, and became her highest charting single there.
The album 's title track "Tell Me You Love Me '' was released as the first promotional single from the album along with the pre-order on August 24, 2017. The song was released as the second and final single from the album on November 14, 2017. After being released as a single, the song debuted and later peaked at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100.
"You Do n't Do It for Me Anymore '' was released as the second promotional single from the album on September 8, 2017. The track sold 12,757 copies in its first week of release.
The third promotional single, "Sexy Dirty Love '' was released on September 22, 2017. The track sold 8,486 copies in its first week of release.
Tell Me You Love Me received generally positive reviews from music critics. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72 based on six reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. For Pitchfork, Jamieson Cox stated that Lovato "has finally settled into a consistently compelling space: flinty, flirty R&B that 's just as thrilling hushed as it is at full blast '', and noticed the improvement over her previous works, "It gives you enough space to see Demi as something other than a no - holds - barred belter. You want to get to know the Lovato behind Tell Me You Love Me, something you ca n't definitively say about any of her other releases ''. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the album "runs the gamut from churchy soul to seductive slow - burners to showstopping ballads designed to showcase every single one of Lovato 's diva moves '', giving the album 3.5 out of 5 stars. The Herald Sun rated the album 3.5 out of 4 stars, deeming it "impressive '' and felt "Daddy Issues '' was the best track. Writing for Idolator, Mike Nied gave the record 4 stars out of 5 and stated that "Demi finally hits her stride '' with the album. He added "Instead of sprinkling one or two hits among a lot of filler, the hitmaker has finally recruited the right team and found her voice over sparkling mid-tempos and frenetic bangers. The album has the distinction of being her most cohesive and is one of the strongest to drop in 2017 '' and compared the album to Christina Aguilera 's Stripped.
In a positive review, Aidin Vaziri of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that Lovato "feels jilted, and conjuring the battle cries of pop predecessors like Christina Aguilera and Kelly Clarkson, she unleashes on exes and backstabbing friends with the kind of vocal firepower best appreciated from a safe distance ''. Los Angeles Times writer Mikael Wood praised the album 's tracks as "catchy and funny and sexy and daring '', and wrote that Tell Me You Love Me "presents a singer burning with purpose ''. For Entertainment Weekly 's editor Tim Snatc, Tell Me You Love Me "suffers for some of its excessive vocal fireworks. '' Giving the album a B rating, he felt that the best parts of the album are "on the first half and showcase Lovato 's swagger, especially the standout gospel - tinged title track. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Maura Johnston stated the album "gets bogged down '' in chilled - out trap pop. She later commented slow - tempo tracks like "Concentrate '' balanced the downtempo and the energetic tracks.
On December 4, 2017, Time ranked the best albums of 2017, and gave an honorable mention to the album, noting "Lovato 's full - throated pop on Tell Me You Love Me '' and acclaiming Lovato for "stepping outside of comfort zones and creating new pathways for music to follow ''.
In the United Kingdom, Tell Me You Love Me debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart, becoming her highest charting album in the nation. The record entered at number eight in Australia, becoming her second top 10 album on the ARIA Albums Chart after Confident reached number three. The album opened at number three on the US Billboard 200 with 74,000 album - equivalent units, which consisted of 48,000 pure sales, and became her sixth consecutive top five entry on the chart after all five of her previous studio efforts charted within that range. In Canada, it arrived at number 4 and became her fifth consecutive album to reach the country 's top five. As of August 2018, the record has been certified platinum in the US, becoming Lovato 's first album to achieve this milestone.
Notes
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Tell Me You Love Me.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who played will smith's son in the pursuit of happiness | The Pursuit of Happyness - wikipedia
Columbia Pictures
The Pursuit of Happyness is a 2006 American biographical drama film based on entrepreneur Chris Gardner 's nearly one - year struggle being homeless. Directed by Gabriele Muccino, the film features Will Smith as Gardner, a homeless salesman. Smith 's son Jaden Smith co-stars, making his film debut as Gardner 's son, Christopher Jr.
The screenplay by Steven Conrad is based on the best - selling memoir of the same name written by Gardner with Quincy Troupe. The film was released on December 15, 2006, by Columbia Pictures. For his performance, Smith was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for Best Actor.
The unusual spelling of the film 's title comes from a mural that Gardner sees on the wall outside the daycare facility his son attends. He complains to the owner of the daycare that "happiness '' is incorrectly spelled as "happyness '' and needs to be changed.
In 1981, San Francisco salesman Chris Gardner invests his entire life savings in portable bone density scanners, which he demonstrates to doctors and pitches as a handy quantum leap over standard X-rays. The scanners play a vital role in his life. While he is able to sell most of them, the time lag between the sales and his growing financial demands enrage his already bitter and alienated wife Linda, who works as a hotel maid. The financial instability increasingly erodes their marriage, in spite of them caring for Christopher Jr., their soon - to - be five - year - old son.
While Chris is trying to sell one of the scanners, he meets Jay Twistle, a manager for Dean Witter Reynolds, and impresses him by solving a Rubik 's Cube during a taxi ride. After Jay leaves, Gardner lacks money to pay the fare and chooses to run instead, causing the driver to angrily chase him into a BART station. Gardner boards a train but loses one of his scanners in the process. His new relationship with Jay earns him the chance to become an intern stockbroker. The day before the interview, Gardner grudgingly agrees to paint his apartment so as to postpone being evicted due to his difficulty in paying the rent. While painting, Gardner is greeted by two policemen at his doorstep, who take him to the station, stating he has to pay for the numerous parking tickets he has accumulated. As part of the sanction, Gardner is ordered to spend the night in jail instead, complicating his schedule for the interview the next morning. He manages to arrive at Dean Witter 's office on time, albeit still in his shabby clothes. Despite his appearance, he impresses the interviewers and lands an unpaid internship. He would be among 20 interns competing for a paid position as a stockbroker.
Gardner 's unpaid internship does not please Linda, who eventually leaves for New York City because she might get a job at her sister 's boyfriend 's new restaurant. After Gardner bluntly says she is incapable of being a single mom, she agrees that Christopher Jr. will remain with his dad. Gardner is further set back when his bank account is garnished by the IRS for unpaid income taxes, and he and Christopher are evicted. He ends up with less than $22, resulting in them being homeless, and they are forced at one point to stay in a restroom at a BART station. Other days, he and Christopher spend nights at a homeless shelter, in BART, or, if he manages to procure sufficient cash, at a hotel. Later, Gardner finds the bone scanner that he lost in the BART station earlier and, after repairing it, sells it to a physician, thus completing all his sales of his scanners.
Disadvantaged by his limited work hours, and knowing that maximizing his client contacts and profits is the only way to earn the broker position, Gardner develops a number of ways to make phone sales calls more efficiently, including reaching out to potential high - value customers, defying protocol. One sympathetic prospect who is a top - level pension fund manager even takes Chris and Christopher to a San Francisco 49ers game. Regardless of his challenges, he never reveals his lowly circumstances to his colleagues, even going so far as to lend one of his bosses $5 for cab fare, a sum that he can not afford. Concluding his internship, Gardner is called into a meeting with his managers. One of them notes he is wearing a shirt. Gardner explains it is his last day and thought to dress for the occasion. The manager smiles and says he should wear another one tomorrow, letting him know that he has won the coveted full - time position and giving him back his $5 as he promised. Fighting back tears, Gardner shakes hands with them, then rushes to his son 's daycare to embrace Christopher. They walk down the street, joking with each other (and are passed by the real Chris Gardner, in a business suit). The epilogue reveals that Gardner went on to form his own multimillion - dollar brokerage firm.
Chris Gardner realized his story had Hollywood potential after an overwhelming national response to an interview he did with 20 / 20 in January 2002. He published his autobiography on May 23, 2006, and later became an associate producer for the film. The movie took some liberties with Gardner 's true life story. Certain details and events that actually took place over the span of several years were compressed into a relatively short time and although eight - year - old Jaden portrayed Chris as a five - year - old, Gardner 's son was just a toddler at the time. Towards the end Chris Gardner has a brief uncredited cameo appearance before the credits.
Chris Gardner initially thought Smith, an actor best known for his performances in blockbuster films, was miscast to play him. However, he claimed his daughter Jacintha said, "If (Smith) can play Muhammad Ali, he can play you! '', referring to Smith 's role in the biopic Ali (2001).
Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album with the score composed by Andrea Guerra on January 9, 2007.
Also in the film are brief portions of "Higher Ground '' and "Jesus Children of America '', both sung by Stevie Wonder, and "Lord, Do n't Move the Mountain '' by Mahalia Jackson and Doris Akers, sung by the Glide Ensemble.
The film debuted first at the North American box office, earning $27 million during its opening weekend and beating out heavily promoted films such as Eragon and Charlotte 's Web. It was Smith 's sixth consecutive # 1 opening and one of Smith 's consecutive $100 million blockbusters. The film grossed $162,586,036 domestically in the US and Canada. In the hope Gardner 's story would inspire the down - trodden citizens of Chattanooga, Tennessee to achieve financial independence and to take greater responsibility for the welfare of their families, the mayor of Chattanooga organized a viewing of the film for the city 's homeless. Gardner himself felt that it was imperative to share his story for the sake of its widespread social issues. "When I talk about alcoholism in the household, domestic violence, child abuse, illiteracy, and all of those issues -- those are universal issues; those are not just confined to ZIP codes, '' he said.
The film was released on DVD on March 27, 2007, and as of November 2007, US Region 1 DVD sales accounted for an additional $89,923,088 in revenue, slightly less than half of what was earned in its first week of release. About 5,570,577 units have been sold, bringing in $90,582,602 in revenue.
The film was received generally positively by critics, with Will Smith receiving widespread acclaim for his performance. Film review site Rotten Tomatoes calculated a 67 % overall approval based on 173 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Will Smith 's heartfelt performance elevates The Pursuit of Happyness above mere melodrama. ''
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle observed, "The great surprise of the picture is that it 's not corny... The beauty of the film is its honesty. In its outlines, it 's nothing like the usual success story depicted on - screen, in which, after a reasonable interval of disappointment, success arrives wrapped in a ribbon and a bow. Instead, this success story follows the pattern most common in life -- it chronicles a series of soul - sickening failures and defeats, missed opportunities, sure things that did n't quite happen, all of which are accompanied by a concomitant accretion of barely perceptible victories that gradually amount to something. In other words, it all feels real. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film "a fairy tale in realist drag... the kind of entertainment that goes down smoothly until it gets stuck in your craw... It 's the same old bootstraps story, an American dream artfully told, skillfully sold. To that calculated end, the film making is seamless, unadorned, transparent, the better to serve Mr. Smith 's warm expressiveness... How you respond to this man 's moving story may depend on whether you find Mr. Smith 's and his son 's performances so overwhelmingly winning that you buy the idea that poverty is a function of bad luck and bad choices, and success the result of heroic toil and dreams. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three out of a possible four stars and commented, "Smith is on the march toward Oscar... (His) role needs gravity, smarts, charm, humor and a soul that 's not synthetic. Smith brings it. He 's the real deal. ''
In Variety, Brian Lowry said the film "is more inspirational than creatively inspired -- imbued with the kind of uplifting, afterschool - special qualities that can trigger a major toothache... Smith 's heartfelt performance is easy to admire. But the movie 's painfully earnest tone should skew its appeal to the portion of the audience that, admittedly, has catapulted many cloying TV movies into hits... In the final accounting, (it) winds up being a little like the determined salesman Mr. Gardner himself: easy to root for, certainly, but not that much fun to spend time with. ''
Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times stated, "Dramatically it lacks the layering of a Kramer vs. Kramer, which it superficially resembles... Though the subject matter is serious, the film itself is rather slight, and it relies on the actor to give it any energy. Even in a more modest register, Smith is a very appealing leading man, and he makes Gardner 's plight compelling... The Pursuit of Happyness is an unexceptional film with exceptional performances... There are worse ways to spend the holidays, and, at the least, it will likely make you appreciate your own circumstances. ''
In the St. Petersburg Times, Steve Persall graded the film B - and added, "(It) is the obligatory feel - good drama of the holiday season and takes that responsibility a bit too seriously... the film lays so many obstacles and solutions before its resilient hero that the volume of sentimentality and coincidence makes it feel suspect... Neither Conrad 's script nor Muccino 's redundant direction shows (what) lifted the real - life Chris above better educated and more experienced candidates, but it comes through in the earnest performances of the two Smiths. Father Will seldom comes across this mature on screen; at the finale, he achieves a measure of Oscar - worthy emotion. Little Jaden is a chip off the old block, uncommonly at ease before the cameras. Their real - life bond is an inestimable asset to the on - screen characters ' relationship, although Conrad never really tests it with any conflict. ''
National Review Online has named the film # 7 in its list of ' The Best Conservative Movies '. Linda Chavez of the Center for Equal Opportunity wrote, "this film provides the perfect antidote to Wall Street and other Hollywood diatribes depicting the world of finance as filled with nothing but greed. ''
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where was when i see this bar filmed | When I See This Bar - wikipedia
"When I See This Bar '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Kenny Chesney. It was released in June 2013 as the second single from his album Life on a Rock. The song was written by Chesney and Keith Gattis.
The song is a mid-tempo in which the narrator reflects on what he sees in a bar.
When asked by Country Music Television if the song referred to any particular bar, Chesney said that "There is, and I think we all have that place. You had your group of friends, you fell in love at that place, you fell out of love at that place, you met a lot of really interesting people and, over time, you do n't realize that it 's becoming a really important spot in your life. And then life has a way of taking each one of you and moving you along, and you do n't really notice at the time, but all of a sudden, you 're just not there anymore. And that 's the root of this song. I think when we see that bar or we see that place, we do n't see four walls. We see the laughter, we see the faces, we hear the music. ''
Glenn Gamboa of Newsday said that the song was "John Mellencamp - influenced '' and an example of Chesney 's "country - rock wheelhouse ''. Gary Graff of The Oakland Press said that the song 's "warm nostalgia '' showed some of "the album 's heart ''. Giving it 4.5 stars out of 5, Billy Dukes of Taste of Country also compared it favorably to Mellencamp, saying, "the lyrics feel as genuine and honest as the rocker 's best - known hits. '' He also called it "Smartly - written, but not pretentious. Wild, but not careless. Familiar, but not tired ''. Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song 5 stars for the album version, saying that it has "evocative lyrics that set the mood '' and that it "stands out for its detail and depth alone. '' He gave the song 's radio edit a 4.5 star rating, saying that the verse missing from the radio edit "adds as much as the others do ''.
The music video was directed by Shaun Silva and premiered on the USA Today website on July 18, 2013.
Following the release of Life on a Rock, "When I See This Bar '' charted at number 57 on Country Airplay from unsolicited airplay that predated its release as a single. It was one of four tracks to do so that week. The song re-entered at number 39 on the chart dated for the week ending June 22, 2013. It also debuted at number 97 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart for the week of August 10, 2013.
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for the following principal state of stresses draw the mohr’s circles | Mohr 's circle - wikipedia
Mohr 's circle, named after Christian Otto Mohr, is a two - dimensional graphical representation of the transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor.
After performing a stress analysis on a material body assumed as a continuum, the components of the Cauchy stress tensor at a particular material point are known with respect to a coordinate system. The Mohr circle is then used to determine graphically the stress components acting on a rotated coordinate system, i.e., acting on a differently oriented plane passing through that point.
The abscissa, σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))), and ordinate, τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))), of each point on the circle, are the magnitudes of the normal stress and shear stress components, respectively, acting on the rotated coordinate system. In other words, the circle is the locus of points that represent the state of stress on individual planes at all their orientations, where the axes represent the principal axes of the stress element.
Karl Culmann was the first to conceive a graphical representation for stresses while considering longitudinal and vertical stresses in horizontal beams during bending. Mohr 's contribution extended the use of this representation for both two - and three - dimensional stresses and developed a failure criterion based on the stress circle.
Alternative graphical methods for the representation of the stress state at a point include the Lamé 's stress ellipsoid and Cauchy 's stress quadric.
The Mohr circle can be applied to any symmetric 2x2 tensor matrix, including the strain and moment of inertia tensors.
Internal forces are produced between the particles of a deformable object, assumed as a continuum, as a reaction to applied external forces, i.e., either surface forces or body forces. This reaction follows from Euler 's laws of motion for a continuum, which are equivalent to Newton 's laws of motion for a particle. A measure of the intensity of these internal forces is called stress. Because the object is assumed as a continuum, these internal forces are distributed continuously within the volume of the object.
In engineering, e.g., structural, mechanical, or geotechnical, the stress distribution within an object, for instance stresses in a rock mass around a tunnel, airplane wings, or building columns, is determined through a stress analysis. Calculating the stress distribution implies the determination of stresses at every point (material particle) in the object. According to Cauchy, the stress at any point in an object (Figure 2), assumed as a continuum, is completely defined by the nine stress components σ i j (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (ij)) of a second order tensor of type (2, 0) known as the Cauchy stress tensor, σ (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ sigma))):
After the stress distribution within the object has been determined with respect to a coordinate system (x, y) (\ displaystyle (x, y)), it may be necessary to calculate the components of the stress tensor at a particular material point P (\ displaystyle P) with respect to a rotated coordinate system (x ′, y ′) (\ displaystyle (x ', y ')), i.e., the stresses acting on a plane with a different orientation passing through that point of interest -- forming an angle with the coordinate system (x, y) (\ displaystyle (x, y)) (Figure 3). For example, it is of interest to find the maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress, as well as the orientation of the planes where they act upon. To achieve this, it is necessary to perform a tensor transformation under a rotation of the coordinate system. From the definition of tensor, the Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law. A graphical representation of this transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor is the Mohr circle for stress.
In two dimensions, the stress tensor at a given material point P (\ displaystyle P) with respect to any two perpendicular directions is completely defined by only three stress components. For the particular coordinate system (x, y) (\ displaystyle (x, y)) these stress components are: the normal stresses σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)) and σ y (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y)), and the shear stress τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)). From the balance of angular momentum, the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor can be demonstrated. This symmetry implies that τ x y = τ y x (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy) = \ tau _ (yx)). Thus, the Cauchy stress tensor can be written as:
The objective is to use the Mohr circle to find the stress components σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) on a rotated coordinate system (x ′, y ′) (\ displaystyle (x ', y ')), i.e., on a differently oriented plane passing through P (\ displaystyle P) and perpendicular to the x (\ displaystyle x) - y (\ displaystyle y) plane (Figure 4). The rotated coordinate system (x ′, y ′) (\ displaystyle (x ', y ')) makes an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) with the original coordinate system (x, y) (\ displaystyle (x, y)).
To derive the equation of the Mohr circle for the two - dimensional cases of plane stress and plane strain, first consider a two - dimensional infinitesimal material element around a material point P (\ displaystyle P) (Figure 4), with a unit area in the direction parallel to the y (\ displaystyle y) - z (\ displaystyle z) plane, i.e., perpendicular to the page or screen.
From equilibrium of forces on the infinitesimal element, the magnitudes of the normal stress σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and the shear stress τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) are given by:
However, knowing that
we obtain
Now, from equilibrium of forces in the direction of τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) (y ′ (\ displaystyle y ') - axis) (Figure 4), and knowing that the area of the plane where τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) acts is d A (\ displaystyle dA), we have:
However, knowing that
we obtain
Both equations can also be obtained by applying the tensor transformation law on the known Cauchy stress tensor, which is equivalent to performing the static equilibrium of forces in the direction of σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))).
Expanding the right hand side, and knowing that σ x ′ = σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x ') = \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ x ′ y ′ = τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (x'y ') = \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))), we have:
However, knowing that
we obtain
τ n = − (σ x − σ y) sin θ cos θ + τ x y (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ) (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)) = - (\ sigma _ (x) - \ sigma _ (y)) \ sin \ theta \ cos \ theta + \ tau _ (xy) \ left (\ cos ^ (2) \ theta - \ sin ^ (2) \ theta \ right))
However, knowing that
we obtain
It is not necessary at this moment to calculate the stress component σ y ′ (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y ')) acting on the plane perpendicular to the plane of action of σ x ′ (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x ')) as it is not required for deriving the equation for the Mohr circle.
These two equations are the parametric equations of the Mohr circle. In these equations, 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) is the parameter, and σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) are the coordinates. This means that by choosing a coordinate system with abscissa σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and ordinate τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))), giving values to the parameter θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) will place the points obtained lying on a circle.
Eliminating the parameter 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) from these parametric equations will yield the non-parametric equation of the Mohr circle. This can be achieved by rearranging the equations for σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))), first transposing the first term in the first equation and squaring both sides of each of the equations then adding them. Thus we have
where
This is the equation of a circle (the Mohr circle) of the form
with radius r = R (\ displaystyle r = R) centered at a point with coordinates (a, b) = (σ a v g, 0) (\ displaystyle (a, b) = (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (avg)), 0)) in the (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) coordinate system.
There are two separate sets of sign conventions that need to be considered when using the Mohr Circle: One sign convention for stress components in the "physical space '', and another for stress components in the "Mohr - Circle - space ''. In addition, within each of the two set of sign conventions, the engineering mechanics (structural engineering and mechanical engineering) literature follows a different sign convention from the geomechanics literature. There is no standard sign convention, and the choice of a particular sign convention is influenced by convenience for calculation and interpretation for the particular problem in hand. A more detailed explanation of these sign conventions is presented below.
The previous derivation for the equation of the Mohr Circle using Figure 4 follows the engineering mechanics sign convention. The engineering mechanics sign convention will be used for this article.
From the convention of the Cauchy stress tensor (Figure 3 and Figure 4), the first subscript in the stress components denotes the face on which the stress component acts, and the second subscript indicates the direction of the stress component. Thus τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) is the shear stress acting on the face with normal vector in the positive direction of the x (\ displaystyle x) - axis, and in the positive direction of the y (\ displaystyle y) - axis.
In the physical - space sign convention, positive normal stresses are outward to the plane of action (tension), and negative normal stresses are inward to the plane of action (compression) (Figure 5).
In the physical - space sign convention, positive shear stresses act on positive faces of the material element in the positive direction of an axis. Also, positive shear stresses act on negative faces of the material element in the negative direction of an axis. A positive face has its normal vector in the positive direction of an axis, and a negative face has its normal vector in the negative direction of an axis. For example, the shear stresses τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) and τ y x (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (yx)) are positive because they act on positive faces, and they act as well in the positive direction of the y (\ displaystyle y) - axis and the x (\ displaystyle x) - axis, respectively (Figure 3). Similarly, the respective opposite shear stresses τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) and τ y x (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (yx)) acting in the negative faces have a positive sign because they act in the negative direction of the x (\ displaystyle x) - axis and y (\ displaystyle y) - axis, respectively.
In the Mohr - circle - space sign convention, normal stresses have the same sign as normal stresses in the physical - space sign convention: positive normal stresses act outward to the plane of action, and negative normal stresses act inward to the plane of action.
Shear stresses, however, have a different convention in the Mohr - circle space compared to the convention in the physical space. In the Mohr - circle - space sign convention, positive shear stresses rotate the material element in the counterclockwise direction, and negative shear stresses rotate the material in the clockwise direction. This way, the shear stress component τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) is positive in the Mohr - circle space, and the shear stress component τ y x (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (yx)) is negative in the Mohr - circle space.
Two options exist for drawing the Mohr - circle space, which produce a mathematically correct Mohr circle:
Plotting positive shear stresses upward makes the angle 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) on the Mohr circle have a positive rotation clockwise, which is opposite to the physical space convention. That is why some authors prefer plotting positive shear stresses downward, which makes the angle 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) on the Mohr circle have a positive rotation counterclockwise, similar to the physical space convention for shear stresses.
To overcome the "issue '' of having the shear stress axis downward in the Mohr - circle space, there is an alternative sign convention where positive shear stresses are assumed to rotate the material element in the clockwise direction and negative shear stresses are assumed to rotate the material element in the counterclockwise direction (Figure 5, option 3). This way, positive shear stresses are plotted upward in the Mohr - circle space and the angle 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) has a positive rotation counterclockwise in the Mohr - circle space. This alternative sign convention produces a circle that is identical to the sign convention # 2 in Figure 5 because a positive shear stress τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) is also a counterclockwise shear stress, and both are plotted downward. Also, a negative shear stress τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) is a clockwise shear stress, and both are plotted upward.
This article follows the engineering mechanics sign convention for the physical space and the alternative sign convention for the Mohr - circle space (sign convention # 3 in Figure 5)
Assuming we know the stress components σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)), σ y (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y)), and τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) at a point P (\ displaystyle P) in the object under study, as shown in Figure 4, the following are the steps to construct the Mohr circle for the state of stresses at P (\ displaystyle P):
The magnitude of the principal stresses are the abscissas of the points C (\ displaystyle C) and E (\ displaystyle E) (Figure 6) where the circle intersects the σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) - axis. The magnitude of the major principal stress σ 1 (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (1)) is always the greatest absolute value of the abscissa of any of these two points. Likewise, the magnitude of the minor principal stress σ 2 (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (2)) is always the lowest absolute value of the abscissa of these two points. As expected, the ordinates of these two points are zero, corresponding to the magnitude of the shear stress components on the principal planes. Alternatively, the values of the principal stresses can be found by
where the magnitude of the average normal stress σ avg (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ text (avg))) is the abscissa of the centre O (\ displaystyle O), given by
and the length of the radius R (\ displaystyle R) of the circle (based on the equation of a circle passing through two points), is given by
The maximum and minimum shear stresses correspond to the ordinates of the highest and lowest points on the circle, respectively. These points are located at the intersection of the circle with the vertical line passing through the center of the circle, O (\ displaystyle O). Thus, the magnitude of the maximum and minimum shear stresses are equal to the value of the circle 's radius R (\ displaystyle R)
As mentioned before, after the two - dimensional stress analysis has been performed we know the stress components σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)), σ y (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y)), and τ x y (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy)) at a material point P (\ displaystyle P). These stress components act in two perpendicular planes A (\ displaystyle A) and B (\ displaystyle B) passing through P (\ displaystyle P) as shown in Figure 5 and 6. The Mohr circle is used to find the stress components σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))), i.e., coordinates of any point D (\ displaystyle D) on the circle, acting on any other plane D (\ displaystyle D) passing through P (\ displaystyle P) making an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) with the plane B (\ displaystyle B). For this, two approaches can be used: the double angle, and the Pole or origin of planes.
As shown in Figure 6, to determine the stress components (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) acting on a plane D (\ displaystyle D) at an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) counterclockwise to the plane B (\ displaystyle B) on which σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)) acts, we travel an angle 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) in the same counterclockwise direction around the circle from the known stress point B (σ x, − τ x y) (\ displaystyle B (\ sigma _ (x), - \ tau _ (xy))) to point D (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle D (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))), i.e., an angle 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) between lines O B _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (OB))) and O D _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (OD))) in the Mohr circle.
The double angle approach relies on the fact that the angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) between the normal vectors to any two physical planes passing through P (\ displaystyle P) (Figure 4) is half the angle between two lines joining their corresponding stress points (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) on the Mohr circle and the centre of the circle.
This double angle relation comes from the fact that the parametric equations for the Mohr circle are a function of 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta). It can also be seen that the planes A (\ displaystyle A) and B (\ displaystyle B) in the material element around P (\ displaystyle P) of Figure 5 are separated by an angle θ = 90 ∘ (\ displaystyle \ theta = 90 ^ (\ circ)), which in the Mohr circle is represented by a 180 ∘ (\ displaystyle 180 ^ (\ circ)) angle (double the angle).
The second approach involves the determination of a point on the Mohr circle called the pole or the origin of planes. Any straight line drawn from the pole will intersect the Mohr circle at a point that represents the state of stress on a plane inclined at the same orientation (parallel) in space as that line. Therefore, knowing the stress components σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) and τ (\ displaystyle \ tau) on any particular plane, one can draw a line parallel to that plane through the particular coordinates σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) and τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) on the Mohr circle and find the pole as the intersection of such line with the Mohr circle. As an example, let 's assume we have a state of stress with stress components σ x, (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x), \!), σ y, (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y), \!), and τ x y, (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (xy), \!), as shown on Figure 7. First, we can draw a line from point B (\ displaystyle B) parallel to the plane of action of σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)), or, if we choose otherwise, a line from point A (\ displaystyle A) parallel to the plane of action of σ y (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y)). The intersection of any of these two lines with the Mohr circle is the pole. Once the pole has been determined, to find the state of stress on a plane making an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) with the vertical, or in other words a plane having its normal vector forming an angle θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) with the horizontal plane, then we can draw a line from the pole parallel to that plane (See Figure 7). The normal and shear stresses on that plane are then the coordinates of the point of intersection between the line and the Mohr circle.
The orientation of the planes where the maximum and minimum principal stresses act, also known as principal planes, can be determined by measuring in the Mohr circle the angles ∠ BOC and ∠ BOE, respectively, and taking half of each of those angles. Thus, the angle ∠ BOC between O B _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (OB))) and O C _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (OC))) is double the angle θ p (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (p)) which the major principal plane makes with plane B (\ displaystyle B).
Angles θ p 1 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (p1)) and θ p 2 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (p2)) can also be found from the following equation
This equation defines two values for θ p (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (\ mathrm (p))) which are 90 ∘ (\ displaystyle 90 ^ (\ circ)) apart (Figure). This equation can be derived directly from the geometry of the circle, or by making the parametric equation of the circle for τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) equal to zero (the shear stress in the principal planes is always zero).
Assume a material element under a state of stress as shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9, with the plane of one of its sides oriented 10 ° with respect to the horizontal plane. Using the Mohr circle, find:
Check the answers using the stress transformation formulas or the stress transformation law.
Solution: Following the engineering mechanics sign convention for the physical space (Figure 5), the stress components for the material element in this example are:
Following the steps for drawing the Mohr circle for this particular state of stress, we first draw a Cartesian coordinate system (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) with the τ n (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n))) - axis upward.
We then plot two points A (50, 40) and B (- 10, - 40), representing the state of stress at plane A and B as show in both Figure 8 and Figure 9. These points follow the engineering mechanics sign convention for the Mohr - circle space (Figure 5), which assumes positive normals stresses outward from the material element, and positive shear stresses on each plane rotating the material element clockwise. This way, the shear stress acting on plane B is negative and the shear stress acting on plane A is positive. The diameter of the circle is the line joining point A and B. The centre of the circle is the intersection of this line with the σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) - axis. Knowing both the location of the centre and length of the diameter, we are able to plot the Mohr circle for this particular state of stress.
The abscissas of both points E and C (Figure 8 and Figure 9) intersecting the σ n (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n))) - axis are the magnitudes of the minimum and maximum normal stresses, respectively; the ordinates of both points E and C are the magnitudes of the shear stresses acting on both the minor and major principal planes, respectively, which is zero for principal planes.
Even though the idea for using the Mohr circle is to graphically find different stress components by actually measuring the coordinates for different points on the circle, it is more convenient to confirm the results analytically. Thus, the radius and the abscissa of the centre of the circle are
and the principal stresses are
The coordinates for both points H and G (Figure 8 and Figure 9) are the magnitudes of the minimum and maximum shear stresses, respectively; the abscissas for both points H and G are the magnitudes for the normal stresses acting on the same planes where the minimum and maximum shear stresses act, respectively. The magnitudes of the minimum and maximum shear stresses can be found analytically by
and the normal stresses acting on the same planes where the minimum and maximum shear stresses act are equal to σ a v g (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ mathrm (avg)))
We can choose to either use the double angle approach (Figure 8) or the Pole approach (Figure 9) to find the orientation of the principal normal stresses and principal shear stresses.
Using the double angle approach we measure the angles ∠ BOC and ∠ BOE in the Mohr Circle (Figure 8) to find double the angle the major principal stress and the minor principal stress make with plane B in the physical space. To obtain a more accurate value for these angles, instead of manually measuring the angles, we can use the analytical expression
One solution is: 2 θ p = − 53.13 ∘ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta _ (p) = - 53.13 ^ (\ circ)). From inspection of Figure 8, this value corresponds to the angle ∠ BOE. Thus, the minor principal angle is
Then, the major principal angle is
Remember that in this particular example θ p 1 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (p1)) and θ p 2 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (p2)) are angles with respect to the plane of action of σ x ′ (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x ')) (oriented in the x ′ (\ displaystyle x ') - axis) and not angles with respect to the plane of action of σ x (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x)) (oriented in the x (\ displaystyle x) - axis).
Using the Pole approach, we first localize the Pole or origin of planes. For this, we draw through point A on the Mohr circle a line inclined 10 ° with the horizontal, or, in other words, a line parallel to plane A where σ y ′ (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (y ')) acts. The Pole is where this line intersects the Mohr circle (Figure 9). To confirm the location of the Pole, we could draw a line through point B on the Mohr circle parallel to the plane B where σ x ′ (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (x ')) acts. This line would also intersect the Mohr circle at the Pole (Figure 9).
From the Pole, we draw lines to different points on the Mohr circle. The coordinates of the points where these lines intersect the Mohr circle indicate the stress components acting on a plane in the physical space having the same inclination as the line. For instance, the line from the Pole to point C in the circle has the same inclination as the plane in the physical space where σ 1 (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (1)) acts. This plane makes an angle of 63.435 ° with plane B, both in the Mohr - circle space and in the physical space. In the same way, lines are traced from the Pole to points E, D, F, G and H to find the stress components on planes with the same orientation.
To construct the Mohr circle for a general three - dimensional case of stresses at a point, the values of the principal stresses (σ 1, σ 2, σ 3) (\ displaystyle \ left (\ sigma _ (1), \ sigma _ (2), \ sigma _ (3) \ right)) and their principal directions (n 1, n 2, n 3) (\ displaystyle \ left (n_ (1), n_ (2), n_ (3) \ right)) must be first evaluated.
Considering the principal axes as the coordinate system, instead of the general x 1 (\ displaystyle x_ (1)), x 2 (\ displaystyle x_ (2)), x 3 (\ displaystyle x_ (3)) coordinate system, and assuming that σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (1) > \ sigma _ (2) > \ sigma _ (3)), then the normal and shear components of the stress vector T (n) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (T) ^ ((\ mathbf (n)))), for a given plane with unit vector n (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (n)), satisfy the following equations
Knowing that n i n i = n 1 2 + n 2 2 + n 3 2 = 1 (\ displaystyle n_ (i) n_ (i) = n_ (1) ^ (2) + n_ (2) ^ (2) + n_ (3) ^ (2) = 1), we can solve for n 1 2 (\ displaystyle n_ (1) ^ (2)), n 2 2 (\ displaystyle n_ (2) ^ (2)), n 3 2 (\ displaystyle n_ (3) ^ (2)), using the Gauss elimination method which yields
Since σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (1) > \ sigma _ (2) > \ sigma _ (3)), and (n i) 2 (\ displaystyle (n_ (i)) ^ (2)) is non-negative, the numerators from these equations satisfy
These expressions can be rewritten as
which are the equations of the three Mohr 's circles for stress C 1 (\ displaystyle C_ (1)), C 2 (\ displaystyle C_ (2)), and C 3 (\ displaystyle C_ (3)), with radii R 1 = 1 2 (σ 2 − σ 3) (\ displaystyle R_ (1) = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (2) - \ sigma _ (3))), R 2 = 1 2 (σ 1 − σ 3) (\ displaystyle R_ (2) = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (1) - \ sigma _ (3))), and R 3 = 1 2 (σ 1 − σ 2) (\ displaystyle R_ (3) = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (1) - \ sigma _ (2))), and their centres with coordinates (1 2 (σ 2 + σ 3), 0) (\ displaystyle \ left ((\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (2) + \ sigma _ (3)), 0 \ right)), (1 2 (σ 1 + σ 3), 0) (\ displaystyle \ left ((\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (1) + \ sigma _ (3)), 0 \ right)), (1 2 (σ 1 + σ 2), 0) (\ displaystyle \ left ((\ tfrac (1) (2)) (\ sigma _ (1) + \ sigma _ (2)), 0 \ right)), respectively.
These equations for the Mohr circles show that all admissible stress points (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) lie on these circles or within the shaded area enclosed by them (see Figure 10). Stress points (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) satisfying the equation for circle C 1 (\ displaystyle C_ (1)) lie on, or outside circle C 1 (\ displaystyle C_ (1)). Stress points (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) satisfying the equation for circle C 2 (\ displaystyle C_ (2)) lie on, or inside circle C 2 (\ displaystyle C_ (2)). And finally, stress points (σ n, τ n) (\ displaystyle (\ sigma _ (\ mathrm (n)), \ tau _ (\ mathrm (n)))) satisfying the equation for circle C 3 (\ displaystyle C_ (3)) lie on, or outside circle C 3 (\ displaystyle C_ (3)).
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who has won the 2018 formula 1 australian grand prixs | Australian Grand Prix - wikipedia
The Australian Grand Prix is a motor race held annually in Australia currently under contract to host Formula One until 2023. The Grand Prix is the oldest surviving motor racing competition held in Australia having been contested 83 times since it was first run at Phillip Island in 1928. It is currently sponsored with naming rights by the Swiss watchmaker Rolex.
Prior to its inclusion in the World Championship, it was held at a multitude of venues in every state of Australia. It was a centrepiece of the Tasman Series in most years between 1964 and 1972 and was a round of the Australian Drivers ' Championship on many occasions between 1957 and 1983.
Unusual, even for a race of such longevity, as of 2018 the location of the Grand Prix has moved frequently with 23 different venues having been used over its life, a number eclipsing the 16 venues used for the French Grand Prix since its own 1906 start.
The race became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1985 and was held at the Adelaide Street Circuit in Adelaide, South Australia, from that year to 1995. From 1996 it has been held at the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit at Albert Park in Melbourne. The winner of the race is presented with a circular plate, recently named the Jack Brabham trophy in a design based on the steering wheel of one of Brabham 's racing cars and a perpetual trophy, the Lex Davison trophy. These trophies each date back to the 1960s.
Since moving to Melbourne, the Australian Grand Prix has been the first race of the F1 World Championship excluding 2006 and 2010. Previously in Adelaide, it was the final round of the Championship, hosting numerous racing memorable for deciding Championship results, most notably the 1986 and 1994 races which saw the 1986 and 1994 World Drivers ' Championships decided.
Australian driver Lex Davison and German driver Michael Schumacher are the most successful drivers in the 86 - year history of the event taking four wins each, while McLaren and Ferrari have been the most successful constructors with twelve victories each. Frenchman Alain Prost is the only driver to win the Australian Grand Prix in both Australian domestic and World Championship formats, having won the race in 1982 driving a Formula Pacific Ralt RT4 and in Formula One in 1986 and 1988.
While an event called the Australian Grand Prix is believed to have been staged in 1927 near Sydney, it is generally accepted that the Australian Grand Prix began as the 100 Miles Road Race held at the Phillip Island road circuit in 1928. The inaugural race was won by Arthur Waite in what was effectively an entry supported by the Austin Motor Company, a modified Austin 7. For eight years, races, first called the Australian Grand Prix in 1929, continued on the rectangular dirt road circuit. This was the era of the Australian "special '', mechanical concoctions of disparate chassis and engine that were every bit as capable as the Grand Prix machines imported from Europe. For all the ingenuity of the early Australian mechanic - racers, Bugattis dominated the results, taking four consecutive wins from 1929 -- 1932. The last Phillip Island race was in 1935 and the title lapsed for three years. An AGP style event was held on Boxing Day, 1936 at the South Australian town of Victor Harbor for a centennial South Australian Grand Prix before the Australian Grand Prix title was revived in 1938 for the grand opening of what would become one of the world 's most famous race tracks, Mount Panorama just outside the semi-rural town of Bathurst. Only just completed, with a tar seal for the circuit still a year away, the race was won by Englishman Peter Whitehead racing a new voiturette ERA B - Type that was just too fast for the locally developed machinery. One more race was held, at the Lobethal Circuit near the South Australian town of Lobethal in 1939, before the country was plunged into World War II.
In the immediate post-war era, racing was sparse with competitors using pre-war cars with supplies cobbled together around the rationing of fuel and tyres. Mount Panorama held the first post-war Grand Prix in 1947, beginning a rotational system between the Australian States, as fostered by the Australian Automobile Association. A mixture of stripped - down production sports cars and Australian "specials '' were to take victories as the race travelled amongst temporary converted airfield circuits and street circuits like Point Cook, Leyburn, Nuriootpa and Narrogin before, on the races return to Mount Panorama in 1952, the way to the future was pointed by Doug Whiteford racing a newly imported Talbot - Lago Formula One car to victory. Grand Prix machinery had already been filtering through in the shape of older Maserati and OSCAs and smaller Coopers but had yet to prove to be superior to the locally developed cars. The end of the Australian "specials '' was coming, but the magnificent Maybach - based series of specials driven exuberantly by Stan Jones would give many hope for the next few years.
Lex Davison, who for several years would experiment with sports car engines in smaller Formula 2 chassis, took his first of four victories in a Jaguar engined Formula 2 HWM in 1954, while the previous year Whiteford won his third and final Grand Prix as for the first time racing cars thundered around the streets surrounding the Albert Park Lake in inner Melbourne. That circuit, which for four brief years gave Australia the strongest taste of the grandeur surrounding European Grand Prix racing, was 40 years later very much modified, used to host the 1996 Australian Grand Prix as the modern Formula One world championship venue. Jack Brabham took his first of three AGP wins in 1955 at the short Port Wakefield Circuit in South Australia. The race is significant in that Brabham was driving a Bristol powered Cooper T40, the first ever rear - engine car to win the Grand Prix.
The Grand Prix returned to Albert Park in 1956, Melbourne 's Olympic Games year to play host to a group of visiting European teams, led by Stirling Moss and the factory Maserati racing team who brought a fleet of 250F Grand Prix cars and 300S sports racing cars. Moss won the Grand Prix from Maserati teammate Jean Behra. That 1956 race would inspire the next great era of the Grand Prix.
The growing influence of engineer - drivers Jack Brabham and a couple of years behind him New Zealander Bruce McLaren would transform the race. Brabham, who first won the Grand Prix in 1955 in an obsolete Cooper T40 Bristol he had brought home from his first foray into English racing, would test new developments for Cooper during the European winter, beginning a flood of Cooper - Climax Grand Prix machinery into Australia and New Zealand before Brabham started building his own cars, as well as the appearance of Lotus chassis as well, finally killing off the Australian "specials ''. With European Formula One restricted by the 1.5 - litre regulations and big powerful 2.5 - litre Australian cars were tremendously attractive to the European teams and when BRM Grand Prix team toured Australia during the summer of 1962, the seed grew that became the Tasman Series.
The top European Formula One teams and drivers raced the European winters in Australia and New Zealand from 1963 to 1969 playing host to a golden age for racing in the region for which the Australian Grand Prix (and the New Zealand Grand Prix) became jewels of the summer. The popularity of the Tasman formulae was directly responsible for 1966 's "return to power '' in Formula One, and having spent years developing with Repco the Brabham cars and eventually the Oldsmobile - based Repco V8s in the Tasman series gave Jack Brabham the opportunity to unexpectedly dominate Formula One in his Brabhams with a ready - proven lightweight car that left Ferrari and the British "garagistes '' struggling with their heavy, technically fragile or underpowered cars until the appearance of the Lotus - Cosworth in 1967.
The Formula One stars of the era all visited the Tasman Series, including World Champions Jim Clark, John Surtees, Phil Hill, Jackie Stewart, Graham Hill and Jochen Rindt, while other F1 regulars Timmy Mayer, Pedro Rodriguez, Piers Courage, leading teams from Cooper, Lotus, Lola, BRM, even the four wheel drive Ferguson P99 and finally, Ferrari, racing against the local stars, Jack Brabham, Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme, Chris Amon, Frank Gardner, Frank Matich, Leo Geoghegan and Kevin Bartlett. Brabham won the Grand Prix three times, McLaren twice, Clark twice, the second was his last major victory before his untimely death, winning a highly entertaining battle with Chris Amon at the 1968 Australian Grand Prix at Sandown Raceway. Graham Hill won the 1966 race, with Amon winning the final Tasman formulae race in 1969 leading home Ferrari teammate Derek Bell for a dominant 1 -- 2 at Lakeside Raceway.
By the end of the decade, European teams were increasingly reluctant to commit to the Tasman Series in the face of longer home seasons, but also having to develop 2.5 - litre versions of their 3.0 litre F1 engines. Local Tasman cars were declining as well and after originally opting a 2.0 litre version of Tasman to be the future of the Australia Grand Prix, the overwhelming support for the already well established Formula 5000 saw natural selection force CAMS ' hand.
For the first half of the 1970s, the Tasman Series continued purely as a local series for Formula 5000 racers, but by 1976, the Australian and New Zealand legs fractured apart and the Australian Grand Prix separated from the remnants and became a stand - alone race once more. During this era, the former Tasman stars, Matich, Geoghegan and Bartlett would continue on as a new generation of drivers emerged, some like Garrie Cooper (Elfin) and Graham McRae developing their own cars while others like Max Stewart, John McCormack and Alfredo Costanzo using European - built cars, mostly Lolas. Matich won two Grands Prix is his own cars before Stewart and McRae each took a pair of wins. Towards the end of the 1970s, the race again became a home to returning European - based antipodeans like Alan Jones and Larry Perkins with Warwick Brown winning the 1977 race, while in 1976, touring car racer John Goss completed a remarkable double becoming the only driver to win the Grand Prix and the Bathurst 1000 touring car race.
Declining economy and the dominance of the local scene by Group C touring cars towards the latter part of the 1970s saw Formula 5000 gradually fall out of favour. By 1980, the decision to replace was once again imminent; however, the form of Alan Jones in Formula One saw entrepreneur Bob Jane seize an opportunity to bring Formula One back as the Grand Prix Formula. The 1980 extravaganza held at Jane 's Calder Park Raceway saw a combined field of Formula One and Formula 5000 padded out with the Australised version of Formula Atlantic cars, Formula Pacific. The newly crowned world champion, Jones swept the field aside in his Williams - Ford, but with only two F1 cars entering (the other being the Alfa Romeo 179 driven by Bruno Giacomelli).
The continuing disintegration of F5000 saw Jane concentrate the next four Grands Prix on the Formula Pacific (later rebadged as Formula Mondial) category and importing Formula One drivers to race the locals in fields almost entirely made up of Ralt RT4s. Brazilian Roberto Moreno dominated this era, winning three of the four races, ceding only the 1982 race to future four - time World Champion Alain Prost.
Jane 's attempt to bring the World Championship to Calder Park ultimately failed, as did a bid by Melbourne 's other circuit Sandown (though Sandown was able to attract a round of the World Sportscar Championship to its upgraded track in 1984). As it turned out, F1 would be tempted away from Melbourne by a far more attractive option.
The Australian Grand Prix became a round of the FIA Formula One World Championship in 1985 with the last race of the season held on the street circuit in Adelaide. The Adelaide Street Circuit, which held its last Formula One race in 1995, was known as a challenging, demanding and tricky circuit that often produced races of attrition, and the whole event was very popular with drivers, teams and fans. Whenever the teams came to Adelaide they enjoyed the party atmosphere.
The first ever Australian Grand Prix to be included as part of the Formula One World Championship was also the 50th AGP. The new 3.78 km Adelaide Street Circuit saw Brazilian Ayrton Senna on pole with a time of 1: 19.843 in his Lotus -- Renault. The race itself was a battle between Senna and Finland 's Keke Rosberg driving a Williams -- Honda for the last time. Run in oppressively hot conditions, the last race of the 1985 season ran to its 2 - hour time limit, though all scheduled 82 laps were run. Rosberg ultimately prevailed finishing 43 seconds in front of the Ligier -- Renaults of Frenchmen Jacques Laffite and Philippe Streiff who actually collided at the hairpin at the end of Brabham Straight with only one lap to go when Streiff tried a passing move that resulted in his car suffering broken suspension, though not bad enough to cause retirement. Three time World Champion Austrian Niki Lauda drove his last Formula One race at this event. After starting 16th in his McLaren, he made his way to the lead by lap 57, but a lack of brakes cause him to crash into a wall in a sad end to his Formula One career. Australia had its own driver in the race with 1980 World Champion Alan Jones driving a Lola -- Hart. Jones, who started 19th, stalled at the start but fought his way to sixth by lap 20 before retiring later in the lap with electrical failure. The 1986 event was a three - way race for the Drivers ' Championship. Briton Nigel Mansell and Brazilian Nelson Piquet in Williams -- Hondas and Frenchman Alain Prost, in a comparatively underpowered McLaren -- TAG / Porsche, were competing for the drivers ' title. Mansell needed only third to guarantee the title, whilst Prost and Piquet needed to win and for Mansell to finish fourth or lower to take the title. Finn Keke Rosberg led for 62 laps before a puncture that caused damage to his McLaren; this was the 1982 champion 's last Formula One race. Whilst comfortably in the top three with 20 laps to go, Mansell 's Williams suffered a spectacular mechanical failure, with a rear tyre puncture at 180 mph (290 km / h) on the Brabham Straight, creating a huge shower of sparks as the floor of the vehicle dragged along the bitumen surface. Mansell fought to control the violently veering car and steered it to a safe stop. Prost took the lead, as Mansell 's teammate Piquet had pitted as a pre-cautionary measure, and the Frenchman won the race and the championship. Prost had to fight back after a mid-race puncture, and stopped soon after the finish so as not to waste fuel, something he had done at every race he finished since his disqualification from the 1985 San Marino Grand Prix for being underweight after his McLaren ran out of fuel on his slow down lap after crossing the line first. 1987 saw Gerhard Berger win in his Ferrari while Ayrton Senna finished second but was then disqualified for technical irregularities in his last race for Lotus; Berger 's teammate Michele Alboreto was then moved up to second place to make the final result a Ferrari 1 -- 2.
1988, the last ever Grand Prix of the turbo era, saw Alain Prost win his seventh race of the season from McLaren teammate and newly crowned World Champion Ayrton Senna with outgoing champion Nelson Piquet third for Lotus, giving Honda turbo 's all three podium positions. The race was also the 15th win and 15th pole in 16 races in a season of total dominance for McLaren - Honda, a domination not seen before or since in Formula One. 1989 was hit by a deluge of rain and the drivers, notably Prost, who did not want to start the race because of the very wet conditions, particularly on the Brabham straight. This event came after controversial events 2 weeks before at the Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka, where Prost crashed into his hated teammate Senna, and Senna got going again and finished 1st on the road but after a lot of political ramifications, he was disqualified for cutting the chicane before the pit straight at Suzuka; the repercussions of which dawned on the race. McLaren decided to appeal Senna 's disqualification; so Senna still had a chance of winning the championship. The race was delayed for sometime and there were discussions about whether the race should be started. Senna qualified on pole position, and had every intention of starting the race. The circuit was still being hammered by rain and was covered by water, but the drivers, including Prost relented and they started. But an unconvinced Prost came in after one lap and withdrew; and Senna - who was in an awful mental state, immediately began driving as fast as he could. By the end of the first lap, due to Pierluigi Martini 's slow Minardi holding up the two faster Williams cars of Belgian Thierry Boutsen and Italian Riccardo Patrese, Senna was an astonishing nine seconds ahead of Martini; the Williams cars soon passed Martini but by the end of the third lap, Senna was 23 seconds ahead of second - placed Boutsen. But even with such a huge lead which extended even further, Senna continued to push very hard - taking very daring chances even for himself; the psychological dominance F1 had exuded over the Brazilian meant that he was known to take chances that most other drivers would not. But going down the Brabham straight on lap 13, Senna came up behind Briton Martin Brundle 's Brabham - Judd, and Brundle decided to move over to let Senna pass. But Senna was blinded by thick spray; and the Brazilian did not let up and then he hit the back of Brundle 's car and it tore off his front left wheel and suspension, so the Brazilian had to retire; effectively handing Prost his third Drivers ' Championship; McLaren 's appeal had not been decided yet; and it was not only overturned but Senna received a $100,000 fine and a six - month ban, both of which were rescinded. Boutsen won the race in the unimproved conditions, the race was called after it reached the two - hour time limit.
1990 was the 500th World Championship Grand Prix ever held; and it came after yet more controversial events at Suzuka. Senna had crashed into Prost at the very first corner on the first lap of the race; and he won the Drivers ' Championship for the second time. The Australian Grand Prix that year was an incredibly exciting race: Senna led for 61 laps, but crashed near the entrance to the permanent race course because of gearbox problems. The race then turned into a dead - heat sprint between Nelson Piquet in his Benetton - Ford and Nigel Mansell in his Ferrari. Mansell charged through the field and repeatedly broke the lap record in pursuit of his former Williams teammate. This almost ended in disaster when the Ferrari almost hit the Benetton at the end of the Brabham Straight in a last - ditch overtaking move on the last lap. Piquet won from the Ferraris of Mansell and Prost. There was pre-race controversy when Prost refused to take part in both the annual end of season drivers ' photo and the special photo shoot with the World Champions in attendance (including legendary five - time champion Juan Manuel Fangio, three - time champions Sir Jack Brabham, Jackie Stewart, Niki Lauda, and Nelson Piquet; and other world champions James Hunt, Alan Jones, Denny Hulme and Senna), as Prost was still disgusted and angry did not wish to appear in the photos with Senna following their controversial first corner crash in the previous race in Japan which gave the 1990 World Championship to Senna. The 1991 race was notable for being held in extremely wet and tricky conditions and the race was eventually stopped after 14 of the scheduled 82 laps and Ayrton Senna was declared the winner. Prost had been fired from Ferrari for making unsavory comments about the car after Suzuka; he did not compete in this race. The Drivers ' Championship had already been decided in Senna 's favour; but the Constructors ' Championship was still yet to be decided between McLaren and Williams. Senna 's victory plus his teammate Gerhard Berger 's third gave McLaren its fourth consecutive Constructors ' Championship; Williams (which was behind McLaren in points) drivers Mansell finished second (but crashed near the race 's end at the chicane after the pits) and Riccardo Patrese finished fifth. This race has the record of being the shortest ever Formula One race as it only lasted 52 kilometres (33 miles) / 24 minutes. Triple World Champion Nelson Piquet, who finished fifth, retired from Grand Prix racing following the race. 1992 saw Senna drive very hard to try to stay with new world champion Mansell 's dominant Williams; this ended in Senna running into the back of Mansell at the last corner. Mansell retired from Formula One and went to compete in CART in the United States; Senna 's teammate Gerhard Berger won the race. 1993 saw Senna win what was to be his 41st and final victory and final race for McLaren ahead of Alain Prost, who was competing in his final Formula One race in a Williams before he too retired. Senna embraced his once extremely bitter rival Prost on the podium. It was announced around this time that the Australian Grand Prix would be moving to Melbourne for 1996.
The 1994 was to see yet another memorable weekend. Following his win at the Japanese Grand Prix, Damon Hill was now one point behind championship leader Michael Schumacher. Nigel Mansell, returning to Formula One in place of the late Senna, was on pole but a poor start resulted in the two championship rivals Hill and Schumacher battling for the lead. But on lap 36, Schumacher went off the track, a result of oversteer, and this allowed Hill to catch up with Schumacher and take the inside line for the next corner. Schumacher turned in on Hill 's Williams (whether on purpose or accidentally remains unknown) which sent the Benetton up on two wheels and into the tyre barrier, Schumacher retiring on the spot. Hill came out of the incident with a broken wishbone on his front - left suspension, he pitted and retired from the race, handing the title to Schumacher. The sister Williams of the 41 - year - old Nigel Mansell went on to win the race, becoming the oldest Grand Prix winner since Jack Brabham in 1970. In 1995, Mika Häkkinen suffered a tyre failure at the early part of the first qualifying session at the high speed Brewery Bend between Jones and Brabham Straights, which resulted in him crashing heavily into the outside wall. He was critically injured in the crash and was saved only due to an emergency cricothyroidotomy that was performed by the side of the track by Sid Watkins. This incident forged a strong bond between Häkkinen and team principal Ron Dennis, and also sent forth a new movement for extra safety in the sport. Luckily, Häkkinen recovered fully and was fit to race again in 1996, thus missing only one race. Häkkinen climbed back into a Formula One car at Paul Ricard three months after the accident. The final F1 race at Adelaide was won by Damon Hill in a Williams, almost all of his main rivals including Schumacher retired, and Hill finished two laps ahead of second - placed Olivier Panis.
In 1993 prominent Melbourne businessman Ron Walker began working with the Kennett government to make Melbourne the host of the event. After the government of Jeff Kennett spent an undisclosed amount, it was announced in late 1993 (days after the South Australian election) that the race would be shifted to a rebuilt Albert Park street circuit in Melbourne. The race moved to Melbourne in 1996. The decision to hold the race there was controversial. A series of protests were organised by the "Save Albert Park '' group, which claimed that the race turned a public park into a private playground for one week per year. Additionally, they claimed that the race cost a great deal of money that would be better spent, if it were to be spent on motor racing, on a permanent circuit elsewhere. Finally, they said that the claimed economic benefits of the race were false or exaggerated. The race organisers and the government claimed that the economic benefits to the state, although unquantifiable, outweighed the costs, and highlighted that the park 's public amenities have been greatly improved from the World War II vintage facilities previously located at Albert Park; the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre (scene of many Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games events) being the centre piece and best known of the revitalised facilities. Opponents of holding the race in the park point out that the Aquatic Centre adds nothing to the Grand Prix, is effectively closed for weeks surrounding the event and could have been built independent of the car race.
Bernie Ecclestone, the president of Formula One Management, the group that runs modern - day Formula One in conjunction with the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), once famously said that it took 10 minutes to do the deal with Melbourne that would see the Victorian capital host the Australian Grand Prix from 1996. It is thought that Melbourne 's unsuccessful quest to stage the 1996 Olympic Games, and the subsequently successful bid by northern rival city Sydney to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, was a driving force behind Melbourne 's motivation to wrest the Australian Grand Prix away from Adelaide. The Australian Grand Prix at Adelaide from 1985 -- 1995 was always the last event in the Formula One calendar - but from 1996 onwards, it was usually the first event or early in the season.
Albert Park, within easy reach of the Melbourne central business district, became home to the Australian Grand Prix in Melbourne. A 16 - turn circuit, which measures 5.3 kilometres in its current guise, was built utilising a combination of public roads and a car park within the park. The circuit is renowned as being a smooth and high - speed test for Formula One teams and drivers. Its characteristics are similar to the only other street circuit set in a public park used in the Formula One World Championship, the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in Montreal which hosts the Canadian Grand Prix. The promotional theme for the first race in Melbourne was "Melbourne -- What a Great Place for the Race ''. Some 401,000 people turned out for the first race in 1996, which remains a record for the event. The logistics of creating a temporary circuit and hosting an event of the magnitude of a Formula One Grand Prix from scratch were n't lost on the international visitors, with Melbourne winning the F1 Constructors ' Association Award for the best organised Grand Prix of the year in its first two years of 1996 and 1997.
It took just three corners for the Australian Grand Prix at Albert Park to gain worldwide attention. On the first lap of the first race in 1996, Jordan 's Martin Brundle was launched into the air in an enormous accident. Footage of the crash, and Brundle 's subsequent rush back to the pits to take the spare car for the restart, ensured the first race in Melbourne gained widespread coverage. The race was won by Williams 's Damon Hill.
The 1997 race saw McLaren, through David Coulthard, break a drought of 50 races without a victory. The next year was a McLaren benefit, with Mika Häkkinen and Coulthard lapping the entire field en route to a dominant 1 -- 2 finish. The result was clouded by controversy when Coulthard pulled over with two laps remaining to allow Häkkinen to win, honouring a pre-race agreement between the pair that whoever made it to the first corner in the lead on lap one would be allowed to win. Ferrari won its first Grand Prix in Melbourne in 1999, but it was not with team number one Michael Schumacher. Northern Irishman Eddie Irvine took his maiden victory after the all - conquering McLarens of Häkkinen and Coulthard retired before half - distance. Schumacher broke his Melbourne drought the following year when he headed a dominant Ferrari 1 -- 2 with new teammate Rubens Barrichello. The 2001 event, won by Michael Schumacher, was marked by tragedy when 52 - year - old volunteer marshal Graham Beveridge was killed after a high - speed accident involving Ralf Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve on lap five. Villeneuve 's B.A.R rode up across the back of Schumacher 's Williams and crashed into the fence, behind which Beveridge was standing; Beveridge was hit by a tyre that flew off of Villeneuve 's car.
The start of the 2002 race saw pole - sitter Barrichello and Williams 's Ralf Schumacher come together at Turn One in a spectacular accident that saw 11 of the 22 cars eliminated before the end of the opening lap. Michael Schumacher dominated thereafter to post a third straight Melbourne win, but his achievements were overshadowed by the fifth place of Australian Mark Webber on his Formula One debut. Webber, in an underpowered and underfunded Minardi, had to recover from a botched late pit stop and resist the challenges of Toyota 's Mika Salo in the closing stages, and took to the podium after the race with Australian team owner Paul Stoddart in one of Melbourne 's more memorable Grand Prix moments. The next year, 2003, saw Coulthard again win for McLaren in a race held in variable conditions. Normal service was resumed in 2004 with the Ferraris of Schumacher and Barrichello running rampant -- within two laps of Friday practice, Schumacher had obliterated the Albert Park lap record, and sailed to a crushing win. In 2005, the race was won by Renault 's Giancarlo Fisichella after a storm during Saturday qualifying produced a topsy - turvy grid. Barrichello and Fisichella 's teammate Fernando Alonso came through the field from 11th and 13th on the grid respectively to join pole - sitter Fisichella on the podium. In 2006, Alonso took his first Australian win in an accident - marred race that featured four safety car periods. In 2007 Kimi Räikkönen in his first race for Ferrari, while Lewis Hamilton became first driver in 11 years to finish on the podium in debut, as he was third behind his teammate Alonso. Hamilton won the 2008 race which had three safety car periods. In 2009 Jenson Button took the victory, driving for Brawn GP, which was having first race after Ross Brawn had bought the team following Honda 's withdrawal from Formula One. The team was formed from the remnants of Honda Racing F1 who had withdrawn from the sport following the 2008 season. The race ended with Button, who had led from the start, leading the field over the line after the safety car had been deployed with three laps remaining following a crash between Sebastian Vettel and Robert Kubica, who had been fighting for second place. Toyota 's Jarno Trulli was given a 25 - second penalty for passing Lewis Hamilton for third place under yellow flags during that safety car period, which promoted Hamilton into that position. However, Hamilton was later disqualified and docked his points for "deliberately misleading stewards '', with Trulli reinstated in third. The results earned by Brawn, Williams, and Toyota were awarded, despite an appeal being held two weeks later against a ruling on the legality of the teams ' diffuser design. The outcome of the appeal was in favour of the teams and that their diffusers were legal under the new rules and there were no changes to the results of the race. 2010 again saw Jenson Button win at Melbourne. Starting from fourth, he gambled on an early change to slick tires under drying conditions that let him move up to second place after losing several positions at the start. Sebastian Vettel retired with mechanical issues after qualifying on pole and leading until his retirement, handing Button the victory.
The move of the Australian Grand Prix to Melbourne saw a change in the time of year that the F1 teams and personnel made their annual voyage Down Under. Adelaide, for each of its 11 years, was the final race of the F1 season, usually in October or November, while Melbourne has been the first race of the season in every year since 1996 with the exception of 2006 -- when it was the third race of the year to allow for the Commonwealth Games to take place in the city -- and 2010. As such, the Albert Park circuit has seen the Formula One debuts of many drivers. 1997 World Champion Jacques Villeneuve made his race debut in Melbourne 's first year of 1996, and became one of three men to secure pole position in his maiden Grand Prix. Other prominent names to debut in Melbourne are two - time World Champion Fernando Alonso and one - time champions Kimi Räikkönen (both in 2001) and Lewis Hamilton (2007); former Australian F1 driver, Mark Webber, also made his debut there in 2002.
As part of celebrations for the tenth running of the event at Albert Park in 2005, Webber drove his Williams F1 car over the Sydney Harbour Bridge in a promotional event, and the Melbourne city streets hosted a parade of F1 machinery and Supercars, Australia 's highest - profile domestic motor sport category. For over thirty years, Supercars as they have become known, have competed in the Supercars Challenge non-championship event at the Australian Grand Prix. In 2018, the event was contested for championship points for the first time, and was known as the Melbourne 400.
Following the move of the Australian Grand Prix to Melbourne, spectator attendance peaked at a controversially estimated 401,000 in 1996, but have never reached that of the last Adelaide race in 1995.
In 2009, the global financial crisis, higher unemployment and a snap public transport strike were cited by Victorian Premier John Brumby as a reason for a slight drop in crowds. Attendance numbers improved in 2010 to an estimate of 305,000 -- the largest since the 2005 race.
Official attendance numbers, which are inexact and have been frequently challenged as gross overestimates, have been as follows:
Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season. A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
As of the 2018 edition, four times World Drivers ' Champion Alain Prost from France remains the only driver to win the AGP in both World Championship and domestic formats winning the Australian Drivers ' Championship 1982 race before winning in Adelaide in 1986 and 1988.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season. A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
Coordinates: 37 ° 50 ′ 49 '' S 144 ° 58 ′ 26 '' E / 37.847 ° S 144.974 ° E / - 37.847; 144.974
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what changes when an ion forms from an atom or when an atom forms from an ion | Ionization - wikipedia
Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with subatomic particles, collisions with other atoms, molecules and ions, or through the interaction with light. Heterolytic bond cleavage and heterolytic substitution reactions can result in the formation of ion pairs. Ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the internal conversion process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the inner - shell electrons causing it to be ejected.
Everyday examples of gas ionization are such as within a fluorescent lamp or other electrical discharge lamps. It is also used in radiation detectors such as the Geiger - Müller counter or the ionization chamber. The ionization process is widely used in a variety of equipment in fundamental science (e.g., mass spectrometry) and in industry (e.g., radiation therapy).
Negatively charged ions are produced when a free electron collides with an atom and is subsequently trapped inside the electric potential barrier, releasing any excess energy. The process is known as electron capture ionization.
Positively charged ions are produced by transferring a sufficient amount of energy to a bound electron in a collision with charged particles (e.g. ions, electrons or positrons) or with photons. The threshold amount of the required energy is known as ionization potential. The study of such collisions is of fundamental importance with regard to the few - body problem (see article on few - body systems), which is one of the major unsolved problems in physics. Kinematically complete experiments, i.e. experiments in which the complete momentum vector of all collision fragments (the scattered projectile, the recoiling target - ion, and the ejected electron) are determined, have contributed to major advances in the theoretical understanding of the few - body problem in recent years.
Adiabatic ionization is a form of ionization in which an electron is removed from or added to an atom or molecule in its lowest energy state to form an ion in its lowest energy state.
The Townsend discharge is a good example of the creation of positive ions and free electrons due to ion impact. It is a cascade reaction involving electrons in a region with a sufficiently high electric field in a gaseous medium that can be ionized, such as air. Following an original ionization event, due to such as ionizing radiation, the positive ion drifts towards the cathode, while the free electron drifts towards the anode of the device. If the electric field is strong enough, the free electron gains sufficient energy to liberate a further electron when it next collides with another molecule. The two free electrons then travel towards the anode and gain sufficient energy from the electric field to cause impact ionization when the next collisions occur; and so on. This is effectively a chain reaction of electron generation, and is dependent on the free electrons gaining sufficient energy between collisions to sustain the avalanche.
Ionization efficiency is the ratio of the number of ions formed to the number of electrons or photons used.
The trend in the ionization energy of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number, as summarized by ordering atoms in Mendeleev 's table. This is a valuable tool for establishing and understanding the ordering of electrons in atomic orbitals without going into the details of wave functions or the ionization process. An example is presented in figure 1. The periodic abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the emergence of a new shell in alkali metals. In addition, the local maximums in the ionization energy plot, moving from left to right in a row, are indicative of s, p, d, and f sub-shells.
Classical physics and the Bohr model of the atom can qualitatively explain photoionization and collision - mediated ionization. In these cases, during the ionization process, the energy of the electron exceeds the energy difference of the potential barrier it is trying to pass. The semi-classical description, however, can not describe tunnel ionization since the process involves the passage of electron through a classically forbidden potential barrier.
The interaction of atoms and molecules with sufficiently strong laser pulses leads to the ionization to singly or multiply charged ions. The ionization rate, i.e. the ionization probability in unit time, can only be calculated using quantum mechanics. In general, the analytic solutions are not available, and the approximations required for manageable numerical calculations do not provide accurate enough results. However, when the laser intensity is sufficiently high, the detailed structure of the atom or molecule can be ignored and analytic solution for the ionization rate is possible.
Tunnel ionization is ionization due to quantum tunneling. In classical ionization, an electron must have enough energy to make it over the potential barrier, but quantum tunneling allows the electron simply to go through the potential barrier instead of going all the way over it because of the wave nature of the electron. The probability of an electron 's tunneling through the barrier drops off exponentially with the width of the potential barrier. Therefore, an electron with a higher energy can make it further up the potential barrier, leaving a much thinner barrier to tunnel through and, thus, a greater chance to do so. In practice, tunnel ionization is observable when the atom or molecule is interacting with near - infrared strong laser pulses. This process can be understood as a process by which a bounded electron, through the absorption of more than one photon from the laser field, is ionized. This picture is generally known as multiphoton ionization (MPI).
Keldysh modeled the MPI process as a transition of the electron from the ground state of the atom to the Volkov states. In this model the perturbation of the ground state by the laser field is neglected and the details of atomic structure in determining the ionization probability are not taken into account. The major difficulty with Keldysh 's model was its neglect of the effects of Coulomb interaction on the final state of the electron. As it is observed from figure, the Coulomb field is not very small in magnitude compared to the potential of the laser at larger distances from the nucleus. This is in contrast to the approximation made by neglecting the potential of the laser at regions near the nucleus. Perelomov et al. included the Coulomb interaction at larger internuclear distances. Their model (which we call PPT model) was derived for short range potential and includes the effect of the long range Coulomb interaction through the first order correction in the quasi-classical action. Larochelle et al. have compared the theoretically predicted ion versus intensity curves of rare gas atoms interacting with a Ti: Sapphire laser with experimental measurement. They have shown that the total ionization rate predicted by the PPT model fit very well the experimental ion yields for all rare gases in the intermediate regime of Keldysh parameter.
The rate of MPI on atom with an ionization potential E i (\ displaystyle E_ (i)) in a linearly polarized laser with frequency ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) is given by
where γ = ω F 2 E i (\ displaystyle \ gamma = (\ frac (\ omega F) (\ sqrt (2E_ (i))))) is the Keldysh 's adiabaticity parameter, n ∗ = 2 E i / Z 2 (\ displaystyle n ^ (*) = (\ sqrt (2E_ (i))) / Z ^ (2)), F (\ displaystyle F) is the peak electric field of laser and l ∗ = n ∗ − 1 (\ displaystyle l ^ (*) = n ^ (*) - 1). The coefficients f l m (\ displaystyle f_ (lm)), g (γ) (\ displaystyle g (\ gamma)) and C n ∗ l ∗ (\ displaystyle C_ (n ^ (*) l ^ (*))) are given by
The coefficient A m (ω, γ) (\ displaystyle A_ (m) (\ omega, \ gamma)) is given by
where
The quasi-static tunnelling (QST) is the ionization whose rate can be satisfactorily predicted by the ADK model, i.e. the limit of the PPT model when γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) approaches zero. The rate of QST is given by
As compared to W P P T (\ displaystyle W_ (PPT)) the absence of summation over n, which represent different above threshold ionization (ATI) peaks, is remarkable.
The calculations of PPT are done in the E-gauge, meaning that the laser field is taken as electromagnetic waves. The ionization rate can also be calculated in A-gauge, which emphasis the particle nature of light (absorbing multiple photons during ionization). This approach was adopted by Krainov model based on the earlier works of Faisal and Reiss. The resulting rate is given by
where, N = (n i + n o s c) (\ displaystyle N = (n_ (i) + n_ (\ mathrm (osc)))) is the minimum number of photons necessary to ionize the atom, n i = E i / ω (\ displaystyle n_ (i) = E_ (i) / \ omega), n o s c = U p / ω (\ displaystyle n_ (\ mathrm (osc)) = U_ (p) / \ omega) (U p (\ displaystyle U_ (p)) is the ponderomotive energy), J n (u, v) (\ displaystyle J_ (n) (u, v)) is the double Bessel function, p = 2 ω (n − n o s c − n i) (\ displaystyle p = (\ sqrt (2 \ omega (n - n_ (\ mathrm (osc)) - n_ (i))))), n f = 2 n o s c / ω p cos (θ) (\ displaystyle n_ (f) = 2 (\ sqrt (n_ (\ mathrm (osc)) / \ omega)) p \ cos (\ theta)) where θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is the angle between the momentum of the electron, p, and the electric field of the laser, F, and, the symbol FT denotes the three - dimensional Fourier transformation. Finally, I K A R = (2 Z 2 n 2 F r) n (\ displaystyle I_ (KAR) = \ left ((\ frac (2Z ^ (2)) (n ^ (2) Fr)) \ right) ^ (n)) incorporates the Coulomb correction in the SFA model.
In calculating the rate of MPI of atoms only transitions to the continuum states are considered. Such an approximation is acceptable as long as there is no multiphoton resonance between the ground state and some excited states. However, in real situation of interaction with pulsed lasers, during the evolution of laser intensity, due to different Stark shift of the ground and excited states there is a possibility that some excited state go into multiphoton resonance with the ground state. Within the dressed atom picture, the ground state dressed by m (\ displaystyle m) photons and the resonant state undergo an avoided crossing at the resonance intensity I r (\ displaystyle I_ (r)). The minimum distance, V m (\ displaystyle V_ (m)), at the avoided crossing is proportional to the generalized Rabi frequency, Γ (t) = Γ m I (t) m / 2 (\ displaystyle \ Gamma (t) = \ Gamma _ (m) I (t) ^ (m / 2)) coupling the two states. According to Story et al., the probability of remaining in the ground state, P g (\ displaystyle P_ (g)), is given by
where W (\ displaystyle W) is the time - dependent energy difference between the two dressed states. In interaction with a short pulse, if the dynamic resonance is reached in the rising or the falling part of the pulse, the population practically remains in the ground state and the effect of multiphoton resonances may be neglected. However, if the states go onto resonance at the peak of the pulse, where d W / d t = 0 (\ displaystyle dW / dt = 0), then the excited state is populated. After being populated, since the ionization potential of the excited state is small, it is expected that the electron will be instantly ionized.
In 1992, de Boer and Muller showed that Xe atoms subjected to short laser pulses could survive in the highly excited states 4f, 5f, and 6f. These states were believed to have been excited by the dynamic Stark shift of the levels into multiphoton resonance with the field during the rising part of the laser pulse. Subsequent evolution of the laser pulse did not ionize completely these states leaving behind some highly excited atoms. We shall refer to this phenomenon as "population trapping ''.
We mention the theoretical calculation that incomplete ionization occurs whenever there is parallel resonant excitation into a common level with ionization loss. We consider a state such as 6f of Xe which consists of 7 quasi-degnerate levels in the range of the laser bandwidth. These levels along with the continuum constitute a lambda system. The mechanism of the lambda type trapping is schematically presented in figure. At the rising part of the pulse (a) the excited state (with two degenerate levels 1 and 2) are not in multiphoton resonance with the ground state. The electron is ionized through multiphoton coupling with the continuum. As the intensity of the pulse is increased the excited state and the continuum are shifted in energy due to the Stark shift. At the peak of the pulse (b) the excited states go into multiphoton resonance with the ground state. As the intensity starts to decrease (c), the two state are coupled through continuum and the population is trapped in a coherent superposition of the two states. Under subsequent action of the same pulse, due to interference in the transition amplitudes of the lambda system, the field can not ionize the population completely and a fraction of the population will be trapped in a coherent superposition of the quasi degenerate levels. According to this explanation the states with higher angular momentum - with more sublevels - would have a higher probability of trapping the population. In general the strength of the trapping will be determined by the strength of the two photon coupling between the quasi-degenerate levels via the continuum.In 1996, using the very stable laser and by minimizing the masking effects of the focal region expansion with increasing intensity, Talebpour et al. observed structures on the curves of singly charged ions of Xe, Kr and Ar. These structures were attributed to electron trapping in the strong laser field. A more unambiguous demonstration of population trapping has been reported by T. Morishita and C.D. Lin.
The phenomenon of non-sequential ionization (NSI) of atoms exposed to intense laser fields has been a subject of many theoretical and experimental studies since 1983. The pioneering work began with the observation of a "knee '' structure on the Xe ion signal versus intensity curve by L'Huillier et al. From the experimental point of view, the NS double ionization refers to processes which somehow enhance the rate of production of doubly charged ions by a huge factor at intensities below the saturation intensity of the singly charged ion. Many, on the other hand, prefer to define the NSI as a process by which two electrons are ionized nearly simultaneously. This definition implies that apart from the sequential channel A + L − > A + + L − > A + + (\ displaystyle A + L - > A ^ (+) + L - > A ^ (+ +)) there is another channel A + L − > A + + (\ displaystyle A + L - > A ^ (+ +)) which is the main contribution to the production of doubly charged ions at lower intensities. The first observation of triple NSI in argon interacting with a 1 μm laser was reported by Augst et al. Later, systematically studying the NSI of all rare gas atoms, the quadruple NSI of Xe was observed. The most important conclusion of this study was the observation of the following relation between the rate of NSI to any charge state and the rate of tunnel ionization (predicted by the ADK formula) to the previous charge states;
where W A D K (A i +) (\ displaystyle W_ (ADK) (A ^ (i+))) is the rate of quasi-static tunneling to i'th charge state and α n (λ) (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (n) (\ lambda)) are some constants depending on the wavelength of the laser (but not on the pulse duration).
Two models have been proposed to explain the non-sequential ionization; the shake - off model and electron re-scattering model. The shake - off (SO) model, first proposed by Fittinghoff et al., is adopted from the field of ionization of atoms by X rays and electron projectiles where the SO process is one of the major mechanisms responsible for the multiple ionization of atoms. The SO model describes the NS process as a mechanism where one electron is ionized by the laser field and the departure of this electron is so rapid that the remaining electrons do not have enough time to adjust themselves to the new energy states. Therefore, there is a certain probability that, after the ionization of the first electron, a second electron is excited to states with higher energy (shake - up) or even ionized (shake - off). We should mention that, until now, there has been no quantitative calculation based on the SO model, and the model is still qualitative.
The electron rescattering model was independently developed by Kuchiev, Schafer et al, Corkum, Becker and Faisal and Faisal and Becker. The principal features of the model can be understood easily from Corkum 's version. Corkum 's model describes the NS ionization as a process whereby an electron is tunnel ionized. The electron then interacts with the laser field where it is accelerated away from the nuclear core. If the electron has been ionized at an appropriate phase of the field, it will pass by the position of the remaining ion half a cycle later, where it can free an additional electron by electron impact. Only half of the time the electron is released with the appropriate phase and the other half it never return to the nuclear core. The maximum kinetic energy that the returning electron can have is 3.17 times the ponderomotive potential (U p (\ displaystyle U_ (p))) of the laser. Corkum 's model places a cut - off limit on the minimum intensity (U p (\ displaystyle U_ (p)) is proportional to intensity) where ionization due to re-scattering can occur.
The re-scattering model in Kuchiev 's version (Kuchiev 's model) is quantum mechanical. The basic idea of the model is illustrated by Feynman diagrams in figure a. First both electrons are in the ground state of an atom. The lines marked a and b describe the corresponding atomic states. Then the electron a is ionized. The beginning of the ionization process is shown by the intersection with a sloped dashed line. where the MPI occurs. The propagation of the ionized electron in the laser field, during which it absorbs other photons (ATI), is shown by the full thick line. The collision of this electron with the parent atomic ion is shown by a vertical dotted line representing the Coulomb interaction between the electrons. The state marked with c describes the ion excitation to a discrete or continuum state. Figure b describes the exchange process. Kuchiev 's model, contrary to Corkum 's model, does not predict any threshold intensity for the occurrence of NS ionization.
Kuciev did not include the Coulomb effects on the dynamics of the ionized electron. This resulted in the underestimation of the double ionization rate by a huge factor. Obviously, in the approach of Becker and Faisal (which is equivalent to Kuchiev 's model in spirit), this drawback does not exist. In fact, their model is more exact and does not suffer from the large number of approximations made by Kuchiev. Their calculation results perfectly fit with the experimental results of Walker et al. Becker and Faisal have been able to fit the experimental results on the multiple NSI of rare gas atoms using their model. As a result the electron re-scattering can be taken as the main mechanism for the occurrence of the NSI process.
The ionization of inner valance electrons are responsible for the fragmentation of polyatomic molecules in strong laser fields. According to a qualitative model the dissociation of the molecules occurs through a three - step mechanism:
The short pulse induced molecular fragmentation may be used as an ion source for high performance mass spectroscopy. The selectivity provided by a short pulse based source is superior to that expected when using the conventional electron ionization based sources, in particular when the identification of optical isomers is required.
Studying the strong field ionization of the atom in so called Kramers - Henneberger (K-H) frame leads to the conclusion that the ionization efficiency strongly depends on the temporal details of the ionizing pulse but not necessarily on the field strength and the total energy of the ionizing pulse pumped into the atom. The Kramers - Henneberger frame is the non-intertial frame moving with the free electron under the influence of the harmonic laser pulse. The free electron solution of the Newton equations for the electron in one dimension in the harmonic laser field
will be also harmonic
The frame comoving with this electron will be obtained by the coordinate transformation
while the added Coulomb potential will be
The full cycle time - average of that potential which is
will be the even function of x (\ displaystyle x) and therefore having the maximum at x = 0 (\ displaystyle x = 0) while for that initial condition the solution will be x (t) = 0 (\ displaystyle x (t) = 0) in the K-H and it will be therefore identical to the free electron solution in the laboratory frame. The electron velocity on the other hand is phase shifted both to the field strength and to the electron position:
Therefore considering the wavelet pulses and defining the ionization as the full escape from the line segment of the length 2r (or from the spherical region in three dimensions) the full ionization happens in the classical model after the time r / (a ω) (\ displaystyle r / (a \ omega)) or no ionization at all depending if the harmonic field wavelet is cut at the zero minimum or the maximum velocity.
A substance may dissociate without necessarily producing ions. As an example, the molecules of table sugar dissociate in water (sugar is dissolved) but exist as intact neutral entities. Another subtle event is the dissociation of sodium chloride (table salt) into sodium and chlorine ions. Although it may seem as a case of ionization, in reality the ions already exist within the crystal lattice. When salt is dissociated, its constituent ions are simply surrounded by water molecules and their effects are visible (e.g. the solution becomes electrolytic). However, no transfer or displacement of electrons occurs. Actually, the chemical synthesis of salt involves ionization. This is a chemical reaction.
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who sang what do you want to make those eyes at me for | What Do You Want to Make Those Eyes at Me for? - Wikipedia
"What Do You Want to Make Those Eyes at Me For? '' is a song written by Joseph McCarthy, Howard Johnson and James V. Monaco in 1916. It was released in 1917 by Ada Jones and Billy Murray on Victor Records (catalogue number 18224).
It became a UK hit in 1959 when a doo - wop version, produced by Michael Barclay, became a number one hit for Emile Ford and the Checkmates over the Christmas and New Year of 1959 / 60, having overtaken Adam Faith 's ' What Do You Want? '. Its stay in the UK Singles Chart began on 31 October 1959 and lasted 17 weeks. The last chart - topper of the 1950s, it retained the number one position for the first three weeks of 1960 until it was replaced by Michael Holliday 's ' Starry Eyed ' on 29 January 1960.
The 1945 film Nob Hill, starring George Raft, Joan Bennett and Peggy Ann Garner, featured Vivian Blaine singing this song. The 1950 film Wabash Avanue, starring Betty Grable, Victor Mature and Phil Harris, had used the chorus as a transition between scenes, following "I 've Been Floating Down the Old Green River ''
In 1960, Danish rock singer Otto Brandenburg recorded a cover of the song that gave him his breakthrough on the Danish music scene. The song was also successfully covered by Shakin ' Stevens in 1987. This version first entered the charts on 28 November 1987. It spent eight weeks there and peaked at No. 5.
In 1963, Italian singer Don Backy recorded another cover of the song, using Italian lyrics, under the title "Ho rimasto ''. The title is intentionally grammatically wrong (it should have been "Sono rimasto '') to catch public attention.
Les Gray 's 1977 recording is on Warner Bros. Records K 17007.
Swedish singer Christer Sjögren released recorded the song on his 2008 album Mitt sköna sextiotal.
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who wrote the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria | Constitution of Nigeria - wikipedia
The Constitution of Nigeria is the supreme law of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Nigeria has had a series of constitutions. The current constitution was enacted on 29 May 1999, inaugurating the Nigerian Fourth Republic.
Nigeria 's first constitutions were enacted by order in council during the colonial era, when the country was administered as a Crown Colony. The constitutions enacted during this period were those of 1913 (which came into effect on 1 January 1914), 1922, 1946, 1951 and 1954.
In 1946 a new constitution was approved by Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor - General and his appointed Executive Council, the so - called Richards Constitution (after Governor - General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the lieutenant governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signaled recognition of the country 's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification.
The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so - called Macpherson Constitution, after the incumbent Governor - General, John Stuart Macpherson, went into effect the following year.
The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185 - seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the Lyttleton Constitution, named for Oliver Lyttelton, 1st Viscount Chandos and enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence.
Nigeria 's first constitution as a sovereign state was enacted by a British order in council so as to come into force immediately upon independence, on 1 October 1960. Under this constitution Nigeria retained Queen Elizabeth II as titular head of state.
Independent Nigeria 's second constitution established the country as a federal republic. It came into force on 1 October 1963 (Nigeria 's third anniversary as an independent nation). The 1963 constitution, which was based on the Westminster system, continued in operation until a military coup in 1966 overthrew Nigeria 's democratic institutions.
The 1979 constitution, which brought in the Second Republic, abandoned the Westminster system in favour of an American - style presidential system, with a direct election, directly - elected. To avoid the pitfalls of the First Republic, the constitution mandated that political parties and ((Federal Executive Council (Nigeria cabinet) positions reflect the "federal character '' of the nation: political parties were required to be registered in at least two - thirds of the States of Nigeria or states, and each state had to have at least one member of the cabinet from it.
The 1993 constitution was intended to see the return of democratic rule to Nigeria with the establishment of a Third Republic, but was never fully implemented, and the military resumed power until 1999
The 1999 constitution restored democratic rule to Nigeria, and remains in force today. In January 2011, two amendments of the 1999 constitution were signed by President Goodluck Jonathan, the first modifications since the document came into use in 1999.
http://nigerianfinder.com/historical-development-of-the-nigerian-constitution/
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who did bale play for before real madrid | Gareth Bale - wikipedia
Gareth Frank Bale (born 16 July 1989) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a winger for Spanish club Real Madrid and the Wales national team. Renowned for his ball striking from distance, swerving free kicks, and his ability to get past defenders with pace, Bale has received plaudits from his peers, who have described him as a footballer with "tremendous speed, great crossing ability, a great left foot and exceptional physical qualities ''.
He began his professional career at Southampton, playing at left - back and earning acclaim as a free kick specialist. Bale moved to Tottenham Hotspur in 2007, for an eventual £ 7 million fee. During his time at Tottenham, managerial and tactical shifts saw him transform into a more attacking player. From the 2009 -- 10 season, under the guidance of Harry Redknapp, Bale became an integral part of the team, rising to international attention during the 2010 -- 11 UEFA Champions League. In 2011 and 2013 he was named PFA Players ' Player of the Year, and was named in the UEFA Team of the Year. In 2013, he was also named PFA Young Player of the Year, the FWA Footballer of the Year and the Premier League Player of the Season. He was nominated to the PFA Team of the Year three times in a row between 2011 and 2013.
On 1 September 2013, Bale was transferred to Real Madrid for an undisclosed fee. Press at the time reported the transfer value at figures between € 91 million and € 100 million. In January 2016, documents pertaining to the transfer were leaked which confirmed a then - world record transfer fee of € 100.8 million, eclipsing the previous record fee of £ 80 million (€ 94 million) for Cristiano Ronaldo in 2009. Bale played an integral role in his first season at Real Madrid, helping the club to win the 2013 -- 14 Copa del Rey and UEFA Champions League, scoring in both finals. The following season, he won the UEFA Super Cup and scored in a third major final to help the club win the FIFA Club World Cup. Two years later, he was a key player in another Champions League run, winning the 2015 -- 16 title and being elected to the UEFA Squad of the Season. He was also a finalist in the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award. In 2016, ESPN ranked Bale twelfth on its list of the world 's most famous athletes.
Bale made his senior international debut for Wales in May 2006, becoming the youngest player at that point to represent the nation. He has since earned over 60 caps and scored 26 international goals, making him Wales ' second - highest scorer of all time behind Ian Rush. He was the top goalscorer for Wales in their successful qualifying campaign for UEFA Euro 2016, scoring seven goals; he subsequently represented his nation in the final tournament as they reached the semi-finals. He has been named Welsh Footballer of the Year a record six times.
Bale was born in Cardiff, Wales, to parents Frank, a school caretaker, and Debbie, an operations manager; he attended Eglwys Newydd Primary School at Whitchurch. He is the nephew of former Cardiff City footballer Chris Pike. It was while at this school he first came to the attention of Southampton at age nine, when he was playing in a six - a-side tournament with his first club, Cardiff Civil Service Football Club. Growing up, his football hero was fellow Welshman and Manchester United player Ryan Giggs.
Bale attended Whitchurch High School in Cardiff. He was a keen athlete and played football alongside future Wales rugby captain Sam Warburton, rugby, hockey and excelled at athletics. As a 14 - year - old he says that he ran the 100 - metre sprint in 11.4 seconds. Because of his superior footballing skill, the school 's PE teacher, Gwyn Morris, had to write special rules which restricted Bale to playing one - touch football and not using his left foot. Whilst at Whitchurch, Bale trained at Southampton 's satellite academy in Bath, although there was initially some doubt if Southampton would give him a scholarship due to his height.
Despite being only 16 at the time, he helped the school 's under - 18 side win the Cardiff & Vale Senior Cup. He left school in the summer of 2005 with a Grade A in PE amongst his other GCSE results. In his final year at school, he was awarded the PE department 's prize for services to sport. In the presentation, Morris commented:
"Gareth has a fierce determination to succeed and has the character and qualities to achieve his personal goals. He is one of the most unselfish individuals that I have had the pleasure to help educate. ''
On 17 April 2006, at the age of 16 years and 275 days, Bale became the second youngest player ever to play for Southampton (after Theo Walcott, who was 132 days younger) when he made his debut in the Saints ' 2 -- 0 victory against Millwall. On 6 August, Bale scored his first league goal, a free kick, to level the score at 1 -- 1 against Derby County. The final score at Pride Park was 2 -- 2.
He scored again, at St. Mary 's, against Coventry City in the team 's second game of the 2006 -- 07 season with another free kick. Bale further developed his reputation as a free kick specialist when he struck the post from one against West Bromwich Albion. By 16 December 2006, Bale 's goal count had risen to five, thanks to a late equaliser against Sunderland and free - kicks away to Hull and at home to Norwich City.
In December 2006, he won the Carwyn James Award for the BBC Wales Young Sports Personality of the Year, and was named the Football League Young Player of the Year on 4 March 2007. This capped what was described in the local press as an "incredible '' first full season as a professional footballer in which he was one of the Saints ' "most creative players even (though operating) from the left - back position whilst his defending improved immeasurably as the season progressed. ''
His final game for Southampton was in the first leg of the Championship play - off semi-final against Derby County on 12 May 2007. Bale suffered an injury during the second half, preventing him from appearing in the second leg. In total, he made 45 appearances for Southampton, scoring 5 goals.
On 25 May 2007, Bale signed a four - year deal with Tottenham Hotspur with Spurs paying an initial £ 5 million for Bale, potentially rising to £ 10 million based on appearances and success. However, in 2008, Southampton agreed an early settlement payment of £ 2 million reducing the final fee to £ 7 million in exchange for immediate cash needed in light of their financial difficulties.
Bale played his first game for Spurs in a friendly against St. Patrick 's Athletic on 12 July 2007, but was substituted on the 80th minute with a minor dead - leg. He made his competitive debut for Tottenham Hotspur on 26 August away against Manchester United. On 1 September 2007, in just his second Spurs appearance, he scored his first goal for Tottenham in the 3 -- 3 draw with Fulham. Bale went on to score against Arsenal in the North London derby from a free kick. He then scored in the League Cup home tie against Middlesbrough, to make it three goals in four starts for the then 18 - year - old.
On 2 December 2007, Bale was substituted after sustaining an injury resulting from a tackle from Fabrice Muamba in the league fixture against Birmingham City. A scan revealed that Bale had suffered ligament damage to his right ankle, consigning him to an extended period on the sidelines. Bale had exploratory surgery on 11 December 2007. By February 2008, it became clear that Bale was to miss the rest of the season through injury. Sporting Director, Damien Comolli said, "Even if the examination reveals that Gareth 's foot is stable, the decision has been taken to bring him back slowly to ensure he does not get a repeat of the injury or suffer any further damage. Gareth is obviously disappointed to be sidelined for this length of time but he is still young and we have to do what is best for him in the long run. ''
Bale signed a new 4 - year deal with the club in August 2008. After some mediocre performances, Bale was dropped in favour of Benoît Assou - Ekotto and the latter remained first - choice for most of the season.
In June 2009, Bale underwent surgery for a knee injury, ruling him out for over two months. He missed pre-season matches and it was projected that he would miss the first few weeks of the 2009 -- 10 season. On 26 September, he made his comeback as an 85th - minute substitute in Tottenham 's 5 -- 0 win over Burnley. This was Bale 's first ever involvement in a Premier League win, after playing a record 24 league matches for Spurs without being on the winning side. However, he struggled to break into the first team, in part thanks to Benoît Assou - Ekotto 's good form. When Assou - Ekotto was sidelined with an injury, manager Harry Redknapp decided to give Bale a chance and he impressed in Spurs ' FA Cup third - round 4 -- 0 win over Peterborough. He finally tasted victory for the first time as a starter in a league game in the 2 -- 0 win over London rivals Fulham on 26 January 2010.
Bale 's good form continued and he was named Player of the Round after helping Spurs to a 3 -- 1 win in the sixth round replay of the FA Cup against Fulham. In April 2010, Bale scored the winning goal in a 2 -- 1 North London derby win against Arsenal, tapping past Manuel Almunia, after a pass from Jermain Defoe. Three days later, Bale scored Tottenham 's winning goal with his weaker right foot in a 2 -- 1 victory over league leaders and eventual champions Chelsea and was named Man of the Match. He was named Barclays Player of the Month for April 2010. He signed a new four - year contract at White Hart Lane on 7 May 2010, as a reward for helping the club reach the Champions League qualification place.
On 21 August, Bale scored twice in a 2 -- 1 win at Stoke City, the second of which was a head - high volley into the top right hand corner of the goal. This was later awarded Goal of the Month for August 2010 by the BBC. On 25 August, Bale set up all four goals to help Spurs overcome Young Boys 4 -- 0 (6 -- 3 agg.) in a Champions League play - off at White Hart Lane. Although Assou - Ekotto had already returned from injury, Bale continued his good form and cemented his place in the starting eleven, moving forward to left wing to accommodate Assou - Ekotto at left - back. On 29 September 2010, Bale scored his first Champions League goal for Tottenham in a 4 -- 1 home win against Dutch champions FC Twente in their second game of the group stages. In recognition, he was named Welsh Player of the Year by the FAW.
On 20 October 2010, Bale scored his first senior hat trick against European champions Inter Milan at the San Siro in the Champions League. Tottenham lost the match 4 -- 3, having been 4 -- 0 down inside the first 35 minutes and playing with ten men for over 80 minutes of the match after goalkeeper Heurelho Gomes had been sent off in the eighth minute for a professional foul on Inter 's Jonathan Biabiany. In the return match at White Hart Lane on 2 November, Bale provided a man of the match performance, setting up goals for Peter Crouch and Roman Pavlyuchenko to earn Spurs a memorable 3 -- 1 win.
In December, Bale was awarded the BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year trophy. On 4 November 2010, Bale stated that he intended to remain at Tottenham for the remainder of his recently signed four - year contract, despite reported interest from other clubs, and on 19 March 2011, he extended his stay at the club until 2015. On 17 April 2011, Bale was honoured with the PFA Player of the Year award, as voted for by his peers.
Bale scored his first goal of the season on 24 September 2011, in an away game against Wigan Athletic. The game ended in a 2 -- 1 victory for Tottenham. He added his second and third goals of the season on 30 October with two goals against Queens Park Rangers in a 3 -- 1 home win. He continued his good form with the first goal in a 3 -- 1 victory over Fulham the following week, whilst also setting up Aaron Lennon who made it 2 -- 0 on the stroke of half time. The first goal against Fulham was later ruled by the "dubious goals committee '' to be an own goal by Chris Baird.
On 3 December 2011, Bale scored the first goal in Tottenham 's 3 -- 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers. He marked the goal with a tribute to Gary Speed by holding up his left boot, with "R.I.P Gary Speed '' stitched on it, in front of the Bolton fans. On 27 December, Bale scored twice to give Tottenham a 2 -- 0 win against Norwich City. On 5 January 2012, Bale was one of the players voted into the 2011 UEFA Team of the Year. He scored his third brace of the season as he scored twice against Wigan, on 31 January to take his tally to ten goals for the season. In January 2012, he was the Premier League Player of the Month for the second time in his career, after three goals and two assists in the Premier League for the month.
On 27 June 2012, Bale signed a new four - year contract, committing his future to the club until 2016.
For the 2012 -- 13 season, Bale changed his squad number from 3 to number 11 as he was "not a left - back anymore '' and had asked the club for a "higher number ''. Bale scored his first goal of the season against Reading in a 3 -- 1 away victory. On 29 September, Bale scored the second goal in Tottenham 's 3 -- 2 away victory over Manchester United, their first win at Old Trafford since 1989.
He scored his first Premier League hat - trick in a 4 -- 0 away win on Boxing Day against Aston Villa. Bale then scored in the FA Cup third round fixture against Coventry City as well as assisting Clint Dempsey on both his goals in a 3 -- 0 win. On 30 January, Bale scored a superb solo effort in the 1 -- 1 draw with Norwich City. Bale then scored against West Bromwich Albion in a 1 -- 0 away win. Bale then took his goal tally of the season to 15 goals with a brace against Newcastle United in a match which Spurs won 2 -- 1, this took Spurs into third place, and strengthened their Champions League ambitions.
In Bale 's next game he scored directly from two free kicks, one from 35 yards out just before half time and another from 25 yards out in the dying seconds of injury time, to give Tottenham a 2 -- 1 victory over Olympique Lyonnais in the first leg of their Europa League round of 32 tie. This took Bale to a tally of ten goals in his previous ten appearances. In Tottenham 's Premier League match against West Ham on 25 February, Bale scored the first and third in a 3 -- 2 win for Tottenham. His second, a long range dipping strike from over 30 yards, in the dying stages of the game, capped a world class performance. This was his eighth goal in six games.
On 3 March 2013, Bale scored against Arsenal in a North London derby that Tottenham won 2 -- 1. On 7 March, Tottenham faced Inter Milan in the Europa League, with Bale scoring the opening goal and Tottenham winning 3 -- 0. Bale 's run of good form in the early months of 2013 saw him win Premier League Player of the Month for February as well as the BBC 's Goal of the Month in both January and February for his strikes against Norwich City and West Ham United respectively. On 4 April, Bale injured his right ankle in the first leg of the Europa League quarter final against Basel. On his return from injury, Bale scored a goal and assisted Clint Dempsey as Tottenham beat Manchester City at White Hart Lane.
On 28 April 2013, Bale won both the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year after his excellent showing in the 2012 -- 13 season. A week later, on 2 May 2013, he added the FWA (Football Writer 's Association) Player of the Year Award, making Bale one of only two players who have won all three in the same season, the other being Cristiano Ronaldo, who won them in 2007. Bale scored the winning goal against his former club Southampton on 4 May. The goal gave Spurs a 1 -- 0 win as well as being Bale 's 20th in the Premier League in his 200th appearance for Spurs. On 19 May, Bale scored a 90th - minute goal from 25 yards out. This goal gave Spurs a 1 -- 0 win over Sunderland, but was not enough to give them Champions League football for the following season.
On 1 September 2013, Spanish club Real Madrid announced that they had reached an agreement for the transfer of Bale, signing a six - year deal for an undisclosed fee. The Spanish press (and Real Madrid TV) reported that Bale had cost £ 77 million (€ 91 million), while the British press reported a world record transfer fee of £ 85.3 million (€ 100 million), which would be above Cristiano Ronaldo 's transfer record fee of £ 80 million (€ 94 million). However, in January 2016, documents pertaining to the transfer were leaked by Football Leaks which confirmed a world record transfer fee of € 100.8 million (£ 85.1 million). Bale 's record was surpassed in August 2016 by Paul Pogba 's record fee of € 105 million (£ 89.2 million). Bale was assigned the number 11 shirt at Madrid.
The first half of Bale 's season was plagued by injuries; of Real 's first sixteen games after his signing, Bale missed five and was substituted on or off in six others, playing only five full games. Bale scored on his Real Madrid debut, a goal coming in the 38th minute against Villarreal, before being substituted later in the game for Ángel Di María. Bale 's second appearance for Madrid came in a 6 -- 1 victory over Galatasaray in the Champions League. Although Bale only played the final twenty - six minutes, his free - kick led to Cristiano Ronaldo 's second goal of the game. On 28 September 2013, Bale made his home debut as a second - half substitute in a 1 -- 0 loss to local rivals Atlético Madrid.
Due to a recurring thigh injury he suffered during pre-season, Bale missed the first two games of October, against Copenhagen and Levante. Madrid manager Carlo Ancelotti gradually eased him back into action, as he played 14 minutes against Málaga on 19 October. He won a stoppage time penalty which Ronaldo scored to give Madrid a 2 -- 0 victory. Following a brief appearance against Juventus in the Champions League, Bale made his El Clásico debut on 26 October, but was substituted in the 61st minute. Barcelona won the game 2 -- 1, and Bale 's performance drew some media criticism. Four days later, he scored two goals and assisted two in a 7 -- 3 victory against Sevilla. Following his impressive performance the Spanish press nicknamed Bale "The Cannon ''.
In November, he assisted a further two goals in Madrid 's 3 -- 2 victory over Rayo Vallecano, before scoring in a 2 -- 2 draw with Juventus in the Champions League. On 9 November, Bale assisted Sami Khedira 's goal in a 5 -- 1 win over Real Sociedad. On 23 November, Bale scored his fourth league goal in eight games as Madrid defeated Almería 5 -- 0. He then scored a dipping free - kick against Galatasaray in the Champions League, a match which Madrid won 4 -- 1 despite being a man down. On 30 November, Bale rounded off the month with his first hat - trick for Real Madrid, as well as assisting Karim Benzema, in a 4 -- 0 victory over Real Valladolid. It was a "perfect hat - trick '': one goal with a header and one with each foot.
On 26 February 2014, he scored twice in Real Madrid 's 6 -- 1 win against Schalke in the Champions League round - of - 16 first leg. He then scored one of the team 's three goals in a 3 -- 0 quarter - final defeat of Borussia Dortmund on 2 April, taking him to five Champions League goals for the season. In La Liga, he scored four goals in three matches between gameweeks 31 and 33, as Real Madrid defeated Rayo Vallecano (5 -- 0), Real Sociedad (4 -- 0) and Almería (4 -- 0).
On 16 April, Bale scored the winning goal for Real Madrid with five minutes remaining in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final against rivals Barcelona. Considered one of the best goals of his career, Bale outsprinted Barcelona defender Marc Bartra from the halfway line (with Bale running off the field at one point) before converting past goalkeeper Jose Manuel Pinto. In the post match interview Bale stated, "I had to get round the player and go off the pitch to do it '', while his Real Madrid teammate Xabi Alonso commented, "It was incredible, I have never seen anything like it ''. The goal was Bale 's 20th of the season and his first in a Clásico fixture.
On 24 May, Bale scored in the 110th minute of the extra time period to put Real Madrid 2 -- 1 up against city rivals Atlético Madrid in the 2014 UEFA Champions League Final, as Los Blancos won their tenth European Cup. The goal made Bale the first Welshman to score a goal in a European Cup / Champions League final (Ian Rush scored in a penaty shoot - out for Liverpool in the 1984 European Cup final). Bale finished his debut season with 22 goals and 16 assists in all competitions. Real Madrid 's attacking trio of Bale, Benzema and Cristiano, dubbed the BBC, finished the season with 97 goals.
Although the 2014 -- 15 season saw a drop in performance from Bale, he started the season in good form, playing the full 90 minutes and assisting Cristiano Ronaldo 's first goal in a 2 -- 0 win at the Cardiff City Stadium against Sevilla to win the 2014 UEFA Super Cup. This was his third trophy as a Real Madrid player. After the match, his performance was described as "amazing '' by Ronaldo. Six days later, Bale scored his first goal of the season in a 4 -- 2 away loss to Real Sociedad. Bale scored twice in Real 's 8 -- 2 win over Deportivo La Coruna on 20 September 2014.
In December 2014, Bale scored in a third major final, the second goal in a 2 -- 0 win over San Lorenzo, to help the club win the FIFA Club World Cup. In a match against Espanyol on 10 January 2015, Bale was booed by a section of Madrid fans who adjudged him as being selfish in shooting for goal and not passing to Ronaldo. Bale was later defended by Carlo Ancelotti over the issue. On 18 April, Bale sustained a calf injury against Málaga.
Bale scored twice in Real 's win over Real Betis in September 2015. His two goals took the total number of goals of Madrid 's attacking trio of Bale, Benzema and Cristiano Ronaldo to 200 goals since they first played together in 2013.
On 20 December 2015, he scored four goals in a 10 -- 2 victory over Rayo Vallecano. On 9 January 2016, Bale scored his second hat - trick of the season in Madrid 's 5 -- 0 defeat of Deportivo de La Coruña in Zinédine Zidane 's first match as head coach of Los Blancos. After being sidelined since 19 January, due to a calf injury he sustained in a 5 -- 1 league victory at home against Sporting Gijón, during which he had also scored the opening goal of the match, Bale returned to the pitch on 5 March; he made a substitute appearance in Real Madrid 's 7 -- 1 home win over Celta de Vigo, scoring Real Madrid 's final goal of the match.
On 20 March 2016, Bale scored his 43rd La Liga goal in a 4 -- 0 defeat of Sevilla to surpass Gary Lineker as the highest scoring British player in the competition 's history. On 23 April, Bale scored twice as Real Madrid came from 0 -- 2 down to win 3 -- 2 at Rayo Vallecano. Bale was a regular starter when the team won the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League. He assisted the team 's only goal and went on to score in the penalty shoot out win over Atlético Madrid in the final.
On 30 October 2016, Bale signed a new contract with Madrid until 2022. On 22 November 2016, Bale damaged his ankle tendons during the 2 -- 1 victory at Sporting CP that would rule him out for up to four months. On 23 April, Bale made his 100th appearance in La Liga in a 3 -- 2 home defeat to Barcelona, but was forced off after sustaining an injury.
Despite suffering several injuries during the season he managed to feature 19 times for Madrid as they won their 33rd La Liga title. After missing more than a month, he returned to action for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which Madrid won.
Bale was selected by Wales at the end of the 2005 -- 06 season for a friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 27 May 2006. In the match in Graz, Austria, he replaced David Vaughan after 55 minutes and assisted Robert Earnshaw 's winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory. At 16 years and 315 days, Bale became the youngest player to play for Wales, breaking a record held by Lewin Nyatanga for the last three months; this record was itself superseded by Harry Wilson in November 2012.
Brian Flynn commented that Bale was potentially a future star of the game, comparing his technical ability to that of Ryan Giggs. On 7 October 2006, Bale became the youngest player ever to score a goal for the full Welsh national team in the Euro 2008 qualification match against Slovakia with a free kick.
Bale was eligible to play for England through his grandmother, but he stated in 2007 that:
"It is an honour to play for Wales... Nobody ever got in touch with me personally from England, only through my agent. ''
After a long injury lay - off, he returned and started in the World Cup qualifier against Finland on 10 October 2009. On 14 October, he played a part in Wales ' final World Cup qualifier by setting up David Vaughan to score the opening goal against Liechtenstein and won the free kick that led to the second, Aaron Ramsey 's first at senior level.
In December 2010, Bale was awarded the BBC Cymru Sports Personality of the Year trophy. On 12 October 2012, Bale scored two goals in a 2 -- 1 victory over Scotland in a 2014 World Cup qualifier.
On 9 September 2014, Bale scored two goals, one with a header and another one with a free - kick, as Wales came from behind to beat Andorra 2 -- 1 in their first match of the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying campaign. In doing so, he became Wales ' joint 10th all - time top - scorer with 14 goals, alongside John Hartson. Bale scored two goals on 28 March 2015, in a 3 -- 0 win away in Israel. On 12 June, his 50th cap, he scored the only goal to defeat Belgium in a home qualifier, taking Wales above the Belgians to the top of Group B. He headed Jazz Richards ' cross on 3 September for the only goal in an away win over Cyprus, putting Wales three points away from qualification. With qualification to UEFA Euro 2016 achieved (the country 's first major finals since the 1958 FIFA World Cup), on 13 October 2015, Bale scored his seventh goal of the qualifying campaign in Wales ' final qualifier against Andorra at Cardiff City Stadium.
On 11 June, Bale scored the first goal in Wales ' clash with Slovakia in their opening game of UEFA Euro 2016, helping his country secure a 2 -- 1 win and, in the process, lead them to their first win in a tournament in 58 years. His goal saw him become the first Welsh player to score at a major international tournament since Terry Medwin 's goal against Hungary at the 1958 FIFA World Cup. He then followed this up by scoring another opening free - kick goal against England in the second group game, though Wales went on to lose the game 2 -- 1; this made Bale the first player to score two free kicks at a European Championship since Germany 's Thomas Häßler in 1992. Bale scored his third goal of the tournament in a 3 -- 0 win over Russia, making him their all - time top goalscorer in major tournaments, ahead of Ivor Allchurch who scored twice in the 1958 World Cup; he also helped to create the second goal of the match, which was scored by Neil Taylor. In the last 16 against Northern Ireland at the Parc des Princes, Bale sent in the cross from which Gareth McAuley scored an own goal to give the Welsh victory. Wales were eliminated following a 2 -- 0 defeat to eventual champions Portugal in the semi-final of the tournament on 6 July.
On 5 September 2016, Bale scored twice in a 4 -- 0 win over Moldova in a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification game. This brought him to 24 international goals, surpassing both Ivor Allchurch and Trevor Ford, and behind only Ian Rush 's 28.
Bale, who met the age criteria to play in the 2012 London Olympics, said he would "love to play in the Olympics '' for the Great Britain Olympic football team, in defiance of the Welsh FA. On 28 October 2011 Bale became the first player to be photographed modelling the British 2012 London Olympics football supporters ' shirt. In response, Football Association of Wales chief executive Jonathan Ford said: "Our position remains unchanged. We are not for Team GB. Gareth can make his own choices and make his own decisions. But we are not going to stop anyone playing. '' On behalf of Bale a spokesman said "while he is 100 % Welsh, he is also British ''.
At the end of June 2012, Bale pulled out of the tournament with a back injury. On 29 June, he advised the Team GB football manager, Stuart Pearce, that he would not be available for selection as he had aggravated an old back and hip injury during a training run. In view of the short recovery time between the end of the Olympics and the start of the Premier League season, Bale had decided to withdraw rather than exacerbate the problem. Bale recovered from his injury in good time to be included on Spurs ' pre-season tour of the United States, scoring against LA Galaxy on 24 July and against New York Red Bulls a week later. Between these matches, Bale also played against Liverpool when he was injured in a tackle by Charlie Adam.
Bale 's appearances in Spurs ' pre-season tour coincided with Team GB 's Olympic matches, where they drew with Senegal before victories over United Arab Emirates and Uruguay took them through to the knockout stages, where they lost to South Korea following a penalty shoot - out. Bale 's withdrawal from the Team GB squad attracted calls for sanctions against him including a ban from the rest of Spurs ' pre-season tour but, in the absence of an official complaint by Team GB, these were not carried out. Spurs ' manager, Andre Villas - Boas, defended the player insisting that Bale "had recovered quicker than expected ''. The club 's stance was supported by British Olympic Association chairman Lord Moynihan.
Tottenham released a statement in relation to Bale 's non-selection for Team GB, they stated that "Gareth sustained an injury as he built up his fitness ahead of joining up with Stuart Pearce 's side. MRI scan reports were sent to the FA medical team on 29 June (2012). He was subsequently not selected on the basis of this injury and the inability to predict recovery time. This decision was not taken lightly and made only after consultation with Team GB 's medical team, who were in agreement after seeing the medical reports ''.
One of the fastest footballers in the world, Bale started out as an offensive left - back or wing - back at the beginning of his career. It was at Tottenham Hotspur that his manager Harry Redknapp decided to utilise Bale 's pace and played him as a left - winger, where he developed into a world class player. He is known for his physical fitness, pace, skill, heading ability, stamina and agility, with a capacity to regularly get past defenders due to his acceleration. Possessing good technique and ball control, Bale is also a free - kick specialist, as evidenced with his two bending free kicks against Olympique Lyonnais. As he moved further forward onto the wing, he began to score goals on a regular basis with powerful strikes from outside the penalty box. A quick, strong, hard - working, and dynamic player who is hard to contain in one vs. one situations, opposing managers have employed two players to stop him when he receives the ball.
As Bale has developed into one of the most dangerous left - wingers in the world, his style of play has won admiration from managers, current and past players such as Luís Figo, José Mourinho, Igor Štimac, and Dani Alves. Bale has been described as a footballer with "tremendous speed, great crossing ability, a great left foot and exceptional physical qualities ''. Former Liverpool player and BBC football pundit Mark Lawrenson said "What makes Gareth Bale so special? Simple. He is one of the quickest players I 've ever seen, but he has another gear and the ability to find that extra pace within the next stride. He has the ability to perform and use his technique at great pace. ''
During the 2011 -- 12 season, Harry Redknapp experimented with using Bale in a free role, as an attacking midfielder, or as a second striker. The following season, André Villas - Boas, deployed Bale in this role on a more permanent basis.
Since joining Real Madrid, Bale has usually been deployed as a winger, but mostly on the right flank, due to the presence of Cristiano Ronaldo on the left; he has also been used in a more attacking role on occasion as a striker or centre forward.
On 2 November 2010, after a Champions League group stage match against Internazionale, teammate Rafael van der Vaart said, "Everyone is scared of him (Bale). Maicon is one of the best defenders in the world, and he 's killed him. ''
In a report of the same match, Spanish newspaper El Mundo said:
Bale combines the height and build of an 800 - metre runner like Steve Ovett with the acceleration and directness of a rugby winger like Bryan Habana. And, when he gets to the byline, he delivers curling crosses like a Brazilian. Big words? Yes, but that 's what Bale is like -- easily the greatest sensation in the opening month and a half of the Champions League. Ask Maicon what he thinks after the two exhibitions Bale turned in against Inter. Yesterday he left Maicon for dead and then a wily old fox like Lúcio was left in his wake like someone trying to follow the vapour trail of an aeroplane. Three goals and two assists -- against the European champions. His performances have been stunning.
Following Bale 's two goals against Norwich City on 27 December 2011, manager Harry Redknapp said:
If we sell him, we 've had it have n't we? It would only be a Barcelona, a Man City or a Real Madrid who would be able to pay for him. He 's an amazing player. He 's got everything, there 's not a weakness in his make - up. He can head the ball, he 's as strong as an ox, he can run, dribble and shoot. Most important of all, he 's a smashing lad.
Speaking at an interview in 2012, Manchester City fullback Micah Richards revealed that Bale was one of his toughest opponents he had ever faced, saying that:
"He made me feel an inch tall. Took me to pieces. He just does n't stop running. It 's ridiculous. ''
Redknapp made even more positive comments regarding Bale in October 2012, stating that he is in the same class as both Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. He said:
"He 's an amazing, amazing talent and he 's after the Ronaldos and Messis of this world and he 's getting better and better. He 's almost unplayable when he 's on his game. He is a genuine world - class player. There 's nobody he could n't play for. He 'd improve any team. ''
Bale has been accused of diving by sections of the British media. However, this has been denied by Bale, Redknapp and Wales coach Chris Coleman. On 29 December 2012, Bale picked up his third yellow card for simulation for the 2012 -- 13 season. It was his fifth for simulation since the start of the 2011 -- 12 season, and no other Premier League player had more than two cautions for simulation in that time. Between August 2008 and his departure from the Premier League, he was booked eight times for simulation. The next most - booked players were shown three yellow cards each.
Includes Football League Championship play - offs, Supercopa de España, UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup. The Spurs goal tally excludes the goal scored against Fulham on 6 November 2011, later ruled as an own goal
Bale lives in Madrid with his partner Emma Rhys - Jones, his high school sweetheart. Their first child, Alba Violet, was born at the University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff on 21 October 2012, and their second daughter, Nava Valentina, was born in Cardiff on 22 March 2016. On 17 July 2016, a day after his 27th birthday, Bale announced that he and Rhys - Jones got engaged.
On 26 March 2013, Bale filed an application with the Intellectual Property Office to register a logo based on his heart shaped goal celebration along with his squad number (eleven) to be used on a range of merchandise such as clothing and footwear.
Bale is featured in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series, and he has appeared on the British, Irish and Middle Eastern covers of FIFA 14, alongside global cover star Lionel Messi. His ' heart ' goal celebration is featured in FIFA 14.
Bale has endorsed several companies in his career and has current deals with Adidas, EA Sports, Lucozade and BT Sport. He receives a yearly salary of £ 15 million with Real Madrid, while his endorsements earn him an estimated £ 10 million per year. In March 2014, Bale was the first player to wear the Adidas F50 crazylight football boots.
In November 2014, Bale appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Cristiano Ronaldo, Neymar, Xavi and African star Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it.
Bale is a huge golf fan and has a replica of the 17th hole at TPC Sawgrass in his back garden. His love of golf was blamed by the Spanish media as the reason why he has spent so much time out injured for Real Madrid.
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where are you not allowed to carry a gun | Concealed carry in the United states - wikipedia
Concealed carry or carrying a concealed weapon (CCW), is the practice of carrying a weapon (such as a handgun) in public in a concealed manner, either on one 's person or in close proximity. Not all weapons that fall under CCW laws are lethal. For example, in Florida, carrying pepper spray in more than a specified volume (2 oz.) of chemical requires a CCW permit, whereas anyone may legally carry a smaller, "self - defense chemical spray '' device hidden on their person without a CCW permit. As of 2017 there have been 16.3 million concealed weapon permits issued in the United States.
There is no federal statutory law concerning the issuance of concealed - carry permits. All fifty states have passed laws allowing qualified individuals to carry certain concealed firearms in public, either without a permit or after obtaining a permit from a designated government authority at the state and / or local level.
A comprehensive 2004 literature review by the National Academy of Sciences concluded that there was no evidence that concealed carry either increases or reduces violent crime; some individual studies suggest that CCW reduces violent crime; others suggest that it increases violent crime.
Concealed weapons bans were passed in Kentucky and Louisiana in 1813. (In those days open carry of weapons for self - defense was considered acceptable; concealed carry was denounced as the practice of criminals.) By 1859, Indiana, Tennessee, Virginia, Alabama, and Ohio had followed suit. By the end of the nineteenth century, similar laws were passed in places such as Texas, Florida, and Oklahoma, which protected some gun rights in their state constitutions. Before the mid 1900s, most U.S. states had passed concealed carry laws rather than banning weapons completely. Until the late 1990s, many Southern states were either "No - Issue '' or "Restrictive May - Issue ''. Since then, these states have largely enacted "Shall - Issue '' licensing laws, with numerous states legalizing "Unrestricted concealed carry ''.
Regulations differ widely by state, with most states currently maintaining a "Shall - Issue '' policy. As recently as the mid - ' 90s most states were no - issue or may - issue, but over the past 30 years states have consistently migrated to less restrictive alternatives.
There is currently a circuit split between several federal circuit courts regarding the standards for issuance of permits and the right to carry weapons outside the home. The 9th and 3rd circuits have ruled in favor of may - issue permitting policies, while the 7th and D.C. circuits have ruled that states are required to implement shall - issue policies, because the right to carry weapons extends outside the home.
The Federal Gun Free School Zones Act limits where an unlicensed person may carry; carry of a weapon, openly or concealed, within 1,000 feet (300 m) of a school zone is prohibited, with exceptions granted in the Federal law to holders of valid State - issued weapons permits (State laws may reassert the illegality of school zone carry by license holders), and under LEOSA to current and honorably retired law enforcement officers (regardless of permit, usually trumping State law).
When in contact with an officer, some states require you to inform that officer that you are carrying a handgun. For detailed information on individual states ' permitting policies, see Gun laws in the United States by state.
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Resident permits only
Mix of resident / non-resident permits recognized
Resident permits only
State regulations relating to the issuance of concealed carry permits generally fall into four categories described as Unrestricted, Shall Issue, May Issue, and No Issue.
An unrestricted jurisdiction is one in which a permit is not required to carry a concealed handgun. This is sometimes called constitutional carry. Within the unrestricted category, there exists states that are fully unrestricted, where no permit is required for lawful open or concealed carry, and partially unrestricted, where certain forms of concealed carry may be legal without a permit, while other forms of carry may require a permit.
Among U.S. states, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Idaho (residents only), Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, North Dakota (residents only; concealed carry only), Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming (residents only) are fully unrestricted, and allow those who are not prohibited from owning a firearm to carry a concealed firearm in any place not deemed off - limits by law without a permit. Idaho, North Dakota and Wyoming only extend permitless carry to residents of the state; non-residents must still have a permit issued by their home state to legally carry concealed in these states. Permitless concealed carry in Mississippi only covers certain manners of carrying; see table above. These states also allow the open carry of a handgun without a permit with the exception of North Dakota and certain localities in Missouri.
Vermont does not have any provision for issue of concealed - carry licenses, as none has ever been necessary. As such, Vermont residents wishing to carry handguns in other states must acquire a license from a state which is valid in their destination. A popular choice is Florida 's concealed handgun permit, which is valid for nonresident holders in 28 other states. All other constitutional carry states previously had concealed - carry license requirements prior to adoption of unrestricted carry laws, and continue to issue licenses on a shall - issue basis for the purposes of inter-state reciprocity (allowing residents of the state to travel to other states with a concealed weapon, abiding by that state 's law).
The states of Montana, New Mexico, and Oklahoma are partially unrestricted states. Specifically, Montana currently allows concealed carry without a permit in places outside of any incorporated municipality. New Mexico laws allow an individual to conceal carry an unloaded handgun without a permit. New Mexico further allows one to carry a loaded handgun either openly or concealed while traveling in a vehicle, including motorcycles, recreational vehicles (RVs), bicycles or while riding a horse. Oklahoma allows residents of permitless carry states to carry openly or concealed without a permit, provided such individuals have a valid ID from their home state. All of the aforementioned states grant permits on a shall - issue basis for modes of concealed carry that require a permit.
On July 24, 2014, Washington D.C. became a constitutional carry jurisdiction for a brief moment when its ban on carrying a handgun was ruled unconstitutional and the ruling was not stayed. The ruling said that any resident who had a legally registered handgun could carry it without a permit and non-residents without felony convictions could carry as well. The ruling was then stayed on July 29, 2014.
A shall - issue jurisdiction is one that requires a license to carry a concealed handgun, but where the granting of such licenses is subject only to meeting determinate criteria laid out in the law; the granting authority has no discretion in the awarding of the licenses, and there is no requirement of the applicant to demonstrate "good cause ''. The laws in a Shall - Issue jurisdiction typically state that a granting authority shall issue a license if the criteria are met, as opposed to laws in which the authority may issue a license at their discretion.
Typical license requirements include residency, minimum age, submitting fingerprints, passing a computerized instant background check (or a more comprehensive manual background check), attending a certified handgun / firearm safety class, passing a practical qualification demonstrating handgun proficiency, and paying a required fee. These requirements vary widely by jurisdiction, with some having few or none of these and others having most or all.
The following are shall - issue states: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island (for permits issued by local authorities), South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The territory of Guam is also Shall - Issue with the passage of Bill 296.
Certain states and jurisdictions, while "may - issue '' by law, direct their issuing authorities to issue licenses to all or nearly all qualified applicants, and as such they are considered "shall - issue '' in practice. Connecticut, and certain cities and counties in California, Massachusetts, and New York are examples.
Connecticut law specifies that CCW licenses be granted on a may - issue basis, but the state 's courts have established that issuing authorities must grant CCW licenses on a shall - issue basis for applicants who meet all statutory qualifications, as unlike other may - issue states Connecticut law does not contain a requirement for the applicant to show "necessary and proper reason '' for obtaining a license.
States with pure shall - issue licensing laws require the issuing authority to issue permits to any applicant who has submitted a properly - completed application, passed a background check, completed any required training, and met any other criteria specified by law. The issuing authority has no discretion to deny permits based on factors beyond the qualification criteria specified by law.
Shall - issue with limited discretion is a subset of shall - issue licensing that borders between pure shall - issue and may - issue policy, where an issuing authority has a limited degree of discretion to deny applicants a concealed carry permit based either on the applicant 's suitability or reason for requesting a permit, even after the applicant has completed any required training and passed a background check. In states with such licensing practices, the issuing authority would be required to demonstrate with substantiating evidence, that the applicant is either not suitable or lacks appropriate need for the permit. Most denials in such states are typically reversed upon appeal provided the applicant has passed a background check and fulfilled any training requirements for the permit. States with shall - issue laws that allow a limited degree of discretion include Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Although may - issue by statute, Connecticut also falls into this subset, in practice.
Some shall - issue jurisdictions allow for automatic renewal of concealed carry permits, as long as the permit - holder files the renewal application before the permit expires (or in some states, a short grace period following expiration of the original permit). Other jurisdictions require a permit - holder to complete refresher training in firearms safety and undergo a criminal background check before applying for renewal. Some jurisdictions periodically run permit holders ' IDs through the NICS background check system. Other jurisdictions require a judge to suspend a permit if the holder is arrested for certain offenses (return / revocation of the permit depending on later disposition of the case).
A may - issue jurisdiction is one that requires a permit to carry a concealed handgun, and where the granting of such permits is partially at the discretion of local authorities (frequently the sheriff 's department or police), with a few states consolidating this discretionary power under state - level law enforcement. Moreover, issuing authorities in most may - issue jurisdictions are not required to provide a substantive reason for the denial of a concealed carry permit. Some may - issue jurisdictions may provide administrative and legal avenues for an applicant to appeal a permit denial, while others do not.
The law typically states that a granting authority "may issue '' a permit if various criteria are met, or that the permit applicant must have "good cause '' (or similar) to carry a concealed weapon. In most such situations, self - defense in and of itself often does not satisfy the "good cause '' requirement, and issuing authorities in some may - issue jurisdictions have been known to arbitrarily deny applications for CCW permits without providing the applicant with any substantive reason for the denial. Some may - issue jurisdictions require a permit - holder to provide justification for continued need for a concealed carry permit upon renewal, and may deny the renewal of an expiring permit without sufficient showing of "good cause. '' Some of these jurisdictions may revoke a permit after it has been issued when the issuing authority in its discretion has determined that the "good cause '' used in approving the permit application no longer exists. Other may - issue jurisdictions allow for automatic renewal of the permit, as long as the permit - holder completes any required firearms safety training and files the renewal application before the permit expires. Some may - issue jurisdictions give issuing authorities discretion in granting concealed carry permits based on an applicant 's suitability (e.g., moral character) by requiring the applicant to submit evidence (resume / curriculum vitae, letters of reference, credit history, etc.) showing the applicant is of suitable character to be issued a permit.
When distinguishing between shall - issue and may - issue, that distinction may not necessarily be explicitly apparent in the exact letter of the law. Rather, a more accurate determinant as to whether a state is shall - issue versus may - issue is whether or not the applicant is required to show "good cause '' when applying for a permit. Court precedent also plays an important role in determining whether a state is may - issue or shall - issue without regard to the verbiage in state law. For example, New York is a may - issue state, even though its concealed carry licensing laws includes the words "shall issue, '' because New York law requires applicants to show "good cause '' when applying for a concealed carry permit. Since "good cause '' is highly subjective, issuing authorities in New York have wide discretion in determining what constitutes "good cause, '' and the ability for an ordinary citizen to obtain a concealed carry permit varies widely throughout the state. In contrast, the pistol permit law in neighboring Connecticut contains the words "may issue, '' despite Connecticut effectively being a shall - issue state. This is because Connecticut 's pistol permit law does not require the applicant to show "good cause '' to the issuing authority when applying for a pistol permit. Because Connecticut 's permitting law lacks a subjective "good cause '' standard, that state 's courts have repeatedly and consistently ruled that issuing authorities must issue pistol permits to applicants who meet the state 's statutory qualifications for a pistol permit.
May - issue can be compared to shall - issue where in a may - issue jurisdiction, the burden of proof for justifying the need for a permit rests with the applicant, whereas in a shall - issue jurisdiction the burden of proof to justify denying a permit rests with the issuing authority.
The following are may - issue states by law: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Rhode Island.
A state that is de jure a may - issue jurisdiction may range anywhere from shall - issue to no - issue in practice, i.e., permissive may - issue to restrictive may - issue, based on each licensing authority 's willingness to issue permits to applicants:
In some may - issue jurisdictions, permits are only issued to individuals with celebrity status, have political connections, or have a high degree of wealth, resulting in accusations of systematic corruption in how CCW permit applications are adjudicated in some such jurisdictions. Additionally, issuing authorities charge arbitrarily defined fees that go well beyond the basic processing fee for a CCW permit, thereby making the CCW permit unaffordable to most applicants. For example, applying for a New York City concealed carry permit typically costs around $5,000 when the filing fee and other administrative fees are combined.
In recent cases challenging restrictive discretionary issue laws, federal district and appeals courts have generally applied intermediate scrutiny to these and other Second Amendment related cases, where the courts recognize that restrictive concealed carry laws "infringe on an individual 's right to keep and bear arms, '' but also recognizes that such infringement is permitted to further "an important government interest in public safety. '' Any and all other Rights that are described as "individual '' and "fundamental '' by the SCOTUS require a "strict scrutiny '' standard as shown in prior decisions involving fully applicable incorporation cases. In Maryland, Woollard v. Sheridan, the United States District Court for the District of Maryland decided in favor of a Maryland resident who was denied a permit renewal due to lack of "good cause '' in accordance with Maryland law. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reversed, holding the "good cause '' requirement met the standard of intermediate scrutiny applicable to restrictions on the right to carry arms outside the home, and reinstated the "good cause '' requirement on March 21, 2013. The plaintiffs in the case filed a petition for certiorari in the United States Supreme Court; the court denied certiorari without comment on October 15. New York 's similar "good cause '' requirement was also under challenge in Kachalsky v. Cacase. However, certiorari before SCOTUS was denied on April 15, 2013. Drake v. Filko, involving several plaintiffs (including one kidnap victim) denied permits under New Jersey 's permitting system; the suit challenged New Jersey 's "justifiable need '' requirement for obtaining a carry permit. The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit affirmed the lower court 's judgment holding the requirement constitutional, holding (much like the 4th Circuit in Woollard and the 2nd Circuit in Kachalsky) that the New Jersey statute survived intermediate scrutiny. The common theme from Courts of Appeals rulings upholding may - issue laws is that state or local policies in limiting who is granted permits to carry firearms in public "furthers an important government interest in public safety, '' by which state legislatures enact laws making licensed concealed carry available but establish criteria to limit the number of concealed carry permit - holders to as few as practicable to pass constitutional muster. The courts have opined that these laws survive intermediate scrutiny on that basis. However, all other "fundamental '' and "individual '' Rights are subjected to a "strict scrutiny '' standard, see, Duncan, 391 U.S. at 149, and n. 15, supra., "A right that is fundamental from an American perspective applies equally to the Federal Government and the States. ''
While members of the Armed Services may receive extensive small arms training, United States Military installations have some of the most restrictive rules for the possession, transport, and carrying of personally - owned firearms in the country.
Overall authority for carrying a personally - owned firearm on a military installation rests with the installation commander, although the authority to permit individuals to carry firearms on an installation is usually delegated to the Provost Marshal. Military installations do not recognize state - issued concealed carry permits, and state firearms laws generally do not apply to military bases, regardless of the state in which the installation is located. Federal law (18 USC, Section 930) generally forbids the possession, transport, and carrying of firearms on military installations without approval from the installation commander. Federal law gives installation commanders wide discretion in establishing firearms policies for their respective installations. In practice, local discretion is often constrained by policies and directives from the headquarters of each military branch and major commands.
Installation policies can vary from no - issue for most bases to shall - issue in rare circumstances. Installations that do allow the carrying of firearms typically restrict carrying to designated areas and for specific purposes (i.e., hunting or officially sanctioned shooting competitions in approved locations on the installation). Installation commanders may require the applicant complete extensive firearms safety training, undergo a mental health evaluation, and obtain a letter of recommendation from his or her unit commander (or employer) before such authorization is granted. Personnel that reside on a military installation are typically required to store their personally - owned firearms in the installation armory, although the installation commander or provost marshal may permit a servicemember to store his or her personal firearms in their on - base dwelling if he or she has a gun safe or similarly designed cabinet where the firearms can be secured.
Prior to 2011, military commanders could impose firearms restrictions to servicemembers residing off - base, such as mandatory registration of firearms with the base Provost Marshal, restricting or banning the carrying of firearms by servicemembers either on or off the installation regardless of whether the member had a state permit to carry, and requiring servicemembers to have a gun safe or similar container to secure firearms when not in use. A provision was included in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 that limited commanders ' authority to impose restrictions on the possession and use of personally - owned firearms by servicemembers who reside off - base.
A no - issue jurisdiction is one that -- with very limited exceptions -- does not allow any private citizen to carry a concealed handgun in public. The term refers to the fact that no concealed carry permits will be issued (or recognized). Since July 2013, with the legalization of concealed carry in Illinois, there are no patently no - issue states.
While technically may - issue under state law, Hawaii, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island (for statewide permits issued by the Attorney General 's Office) and certain cities and counties within California, Massachusetts, and New York are no - issue jurisdictions in practice, with governmental policy directing officials with discretionary power to rarely or never issue licenses. Additionally, some of the United States ' insular territories (Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, etc.) are no - issue jurisdictions either by law or in practice. Most no - issue jurisdictions have exceptions to their laws that permit open or concealed carry by active and retired law enforcement officials, armed security personnel while on duty and in uniform, and for members of the Armed Forces. Wisconsin and Illinois were the last remaining no - issue states, until licensed concealed carry was legalized in 2011 and 2013, respectively. Prior to legalization, Wisconsin outlawed concealed carry, but open carry was legal statewide. Illinois had banned concealed carry, and generally prohibited open carry in most locations as well.
Prohibitions of the concealed carry of firearms and other weapons by local governments predate the establishment of the United States. In 1686, New Jersey law stated "no person or persons... shall presume privately to wear any pocket pistol... or other unusual or unlawful weapons within this Province. '' After the federal government was established, states and localities continued to restrict people from carrying hidden weapons. Tennessee law prohibited this as early as 1821. By 1837, Georgia passed into effect "An Act to guard and protect the citizens of this State, against the unwarrantable and too prevalent use of deadly weapons. '' Two years later, Alabama followed suit with "An Act to Suppress the Evil Practice of Carrying Weapons Secretly. '' Delaware prohibited the practice in 1852. Ohio did the same in 1859, a policy that remained in effect until 1974. Cities also regulated weapons within their boundaries. In 1881, Tombstone, Arizona enacted Ordinance No. 9 "To Provide against Carrying of Deadly Weapons, '' a regulation that sparked the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral later that year.
Most may - issue jurisdictions, and some shall - issue jurisdictions allow issuing authorities to impose limitations on CCW permits, such as the type and caliber of handguns that may be carried (Massachusetts, New Mexico), restrictions on places where the permit is valid (New York, Rhode Island, Illinois), restricting concealed carry to purposes or activities specified on the approved permit application (California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York), limitations on magazine size (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York), or limitations on the number of firearms that may be carried concealed by a permit - holder at any given time (some states). Permits issued by all but two states (New York and Hawaii) are valid statewide. New York State pistol licenses, which are generally issued by counties, are valid statewide with one exception. A permit not issued by New York City is invalid in that city, unless validated by its police commissioner. Permits issued by Hawaii are valid only in the county of issuance.
Some states require concealed carry applicants to certify their proficiency with a firearm through some type of training or instruction. Certain training courses developed by the National Rifle Association that combine classroom and live - fire instruction typically meet most state training requirements. Some states recognize prior military or police service as meeting training requirements.
Classroom instruction would typically include firearm mechanics and terminology, cleaning and maintenance of a firearm, concealed carry legislation and limitations, liability issues, carry methods and safety, home defense, methods for managing and defusing confrontational situations, and practice of gun handling techniques without firing the weapon. Most required CCW training courses devote a considerable amount of time to liability issues.
Depending on the state, a practical component during which the attendee shoots the weapon for the purpose of demonstrating safety and proficiency, may be required. During range instruction, applicants would typically learn and demonstrate safe handling and operation of a firearm and accurate shooting from common self - defense distances. Some states require a certain proficiency to receive a passing grade, whereas other states (e.g., Florida) technically require only a single - shot be fired to demonstrate handgun handling proficiency.
CCW training courses are typically completed in a single day and are good for a set period, the exact duration varying by state. Some states require re-training, sometimes in a shorter, simpler format, for each renewal.
A few states, e.g., South Carolina, recognize the safety and use - of - force training given to military personnel as acceptable in lieu of formal civilian training certification. Such states will ask for a military ID (South Carolina) for active persons or DD214 for honorably discharged persons. These few states will commonly request a copy of the applicant 's BTR (Basic Training Record) proving an up - to - date pistol qualification. Active and retired law enforcement officers are generally exempt from qualification requirements, due to a federal statute permitting retired law enforcement officers to carry concealed weapons in the United States.
Virginia recognizes eight specific training options to prove competency in handgun handling, ranging from DD214 for honorably discharged military veterans, to certification from law enforcement training, to firearms training conducted by a state or NRA certified firearms instructor including electronic, video, or on - line courses. While any one of the eight listed options will be considered adequate proof, individual circuit courts may recognize other training options. A small number of states, such as Alabama and Georgia, have no training requirements to obtain a permit -- only a requirement that the applicant successfully pass the required background check before issuance.
Permit reciprocity
CCW Reciprocity
Many jurisdictions recognize (honor) a permit or license issued by other jurisdictions. Recognition may be granted to all jurisdictions or some subset which meets a set of permit - issuing criteria, such as training comparable to the honoring jurisdiction or certain background checks. Several states have entered into formal agreements to mutually recognize permits. This arrangement is commonly called reciprocity or mutual recognition. A few states do not recognize permits issued by any other jurisdiction, but offer non-resident permits for out - of - state individuals (who possess a valid concealed carry permit from their home state) who wish to carry while visiting such states. There are also states that neither recognize out - of - state concealed carry permits nor issue permits to non-residents, resulting in a complete ban on concealed carry by non-residents in such states.
Recognition and reciprocity of concealed carry privileges varies. Some states (e.g. Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio) unilaterally recognize all permits. Others such as Michigan, limit such universal recognition to residents of the permit - issuing state. While 37 states have reciprocity agreements with at least one other state and several states honor all out - of - state concealed carry permits, some states have special requirements like training courses or safety exams, and therefore do not honor permits from states that do not have such requirements for issue. Some states make exceptions for persons under the minimum age (usually 21) if they are active or honorably - discharged members of the military or a police force (the second of these two is allowed under Federal law). States that do not have this exemption generally do not recognize any license from states that do. An example of this is the State of Washington 's refusal to honor any Texas LTC as Texas has the military exception to age. Idaho and Missouri also have standard and enhanced permits that have different requirements to obtain and also have unique reciprocity with different states.
Ohio permits have the highest recognition in 40 states. One can obtain multiple state permits in an effort to increase the number of states where that user can carry a legally concealed weapon. It is common practice to use a CCW Reciprocity Map to gain clarity on which states will honor the person 's combination of resident and non-resident permits given the variety of standards and legal policies from state to state. There are also various mobile applications that guide users in researching state concealed carry permit reciprocity.
Although carry may be legal under State law in accordance with reciprocity agreements, the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act subjects an out - of - state permit holder to federal felony prosecution if they carry a firearm within 1000 feet of any K -- 12 school 's property line; however, the enforcement of this statute is rare given several states ' nullification statutes prohibiting state law enforcement officers from enforcing federal firearms laws.
While generally a concealed carry permit allows the permit holder to carry a concealed weapon in public, a state may restrict carry of a firearm including a permitted concealed weapon while in or on certain properties, facilities or types of businesses that are otherwise open to the public. These areas vary by state (except for the first item below; Federal offices are subject to superseding Federal law) and can include:
Some states allow private businesses to post a specific sign prohibiting concealed carry within their premises. The exact language and format of such a sign varies by state. By posting the signs, businesses create areas where it is illegal to carry a concealed handgun; similar to regulations concerning schools, hospitals, and public gatherings.
Violation of such a sign, in some of these states, is grounds for revocation of the offender 's concealed carry permit and criminal prosecution. Other states, such as Virginia, enforce only trespassing laws when a person violates a "Gun Free Zone '' sign. In some jurisdictions trespass by a person carrying a firearm may have more severe penalties than "simple '' trespass, while in other jurisdictions, penalties are lower than for trespass.
Such states include: Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
There is considerable dispute over the effectiveness of such "gun - free zones ''. Opponents of such measures, such as OpenCarry.org, state that, much like other malum prohibitum laws banning gun - related practices, only law - abiding individuals will heed the signage and disarm. Individuals or groups intent on committing far more serious crimes, such as armed robbery or murder, will not be deterred by signage prohibiting weapons. Further, the reasoning follows that those wishing to commit mass murder might intentionally choose gun - free venues like shopping malls, schools and churches (where weapons carry is generally prohibited by statute or signage) because the population inside is disarmed and thus less able to stop them.
In some states, business owners have been documented posting signs that appear to prohibit guns, but legally do not because the signs do not meet local or state laws defining required appearance, placement, or wording of signage. Such signage can be posted out of ignorance to the law, or intent to pacify gun control advocates while not actually prohibiting the practice. The force of law behind a non-compliant sign varies based on state statutes and case law. Some states interpret their statutes ' high level of specification of signage as evidence that the signage must meet the specification exactly, and any quantifiable deviation from the statute makes the sign non-binding. Other states have decided in case law that if efforts were made in good faith to conform to the statutes, the sign carries the force of law even if it fails to meet current specification. Still others have such lax descriptions of what is a valid sign that virtually any sign that can be interpreted as "no guns allowed '' is binding on the license holder.
Note that virtually all jurisdictions allow some form of oral communication by the lawful owner or controller of the property that a person is not welcome and should leave. This notice can be given to anyone for any reason (except for statuses that are protected by the Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other CRAs, such as race), including due to the carrying of firearms by that person, and refusal to heed such a request to leave may constitute trespassing.
Printing refers to a circumstance where the shape or outline of a firearm is visible through a garment while the gun is still fully covered, and is generally not desired when carrying a concealed weapon. Brandishing can refer to different actions depending on jurisdiction. These actions can include printing through a garment, pulling back clothing to expose a gun, or unholstering a gun and exhibiting it in the hand. The intent to intimidate or threaten someone may or may not be required legally for it to be considered brandishing.
Brandishing is a crime in most jurisdictions, but the definition of brandishing varies widely.
Under California law, the following conditions have to be present to prove brandishing:
(1) A person, in the presence of another person, drew or exhibited a (deadly weapon, other than a firearm) (firearm, whether loaded or unloaded); (and) (2) That person did so in a rude, angry, or threatening manner (or) (2) That person, in any manner, unlawfully used the (deadly weapon) (firearm) in a fight or quarrel) (.) (; and (3) The person was not acting in lawful self - defense.)
In Virginia law:
It shall be unlawful for any person to point, hold or brandish any firearm or any air or gas operated weapon or any object similar in appearance, whether capable of being fired or not, in such manner as to reasonably induce fear in the mind of another or hold a firearm or any air or gas operated weapon in a public place in such a manner as to reasonably induce fear in the mind of another of being shot or injured. However, this section shall not apply to any person engaged in excusable or justifiable self - defense.
The Gun Control Act passed by Congress in 1968 lists felons, illegal aliens, and other codified persons as prohibited from purchasing or possessing firearms. During the application process for concealed carry states carry out thorough background checks to prevent these individuals from obtaining permits. Additionally the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act created an FBI maintained system in 1994 for instantly checking the backgrounds of potential firearms buyers in an effort to prevent these individuals from obtaining weapons.
The Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) of 1986 allows a gun owner to travel through states in which their firearm possession is illegal as long as it is legal in the states of origination and destination, the owner is in transit and does not remain in the state in which firearm possession is illegal, and the firearm is transported unloaded and in a locked container. The FOPA addresses the issue of transport of private firearms from origin to destination for purposes lawful in state of origin and destination; FOPA does not authorize concealed carry as a weapon of defense during transit. New York State Police do not recognize this law. If caught you will be arrested and then required to use FOPA as an affirmative defense to the charges of illegal possession.
In 2004, the United States Congress enacted the Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act, 18 U.S. Code 926B and 926C. This federal law allows two classes of persons -- the "qualified law enforcement officer '' and the "qualified retired law enforcement officer '' -- to carry a concealed firearm in any jurisdiction in the United States, regardless of any state or local law to the contrary, with certain exceptions.
The Federal Gun Free School Zone Act limits where a person may legally carry a firearm. It does this by making it generally unlawful for an armed citizen to be within 1000 feet (extending out from the property lines) of a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a K -- 12 school. Although a State - issued carry permit may exempt a person from this restriction in the State that physically issued their permit, it does not exempt them in other States which recognize their permit under reciprocity agreements made with the issuing State. The law 's failure to provide adequate protection to LEOSA - qualified officers, licensed concealed carry permit holders, and other armed citizens, is an issue that the United States Congress so far has not addressed.
Some federal statutes restrict the carrying of firearms on the premises of certain Federal properties such as military installations or land controlled by the USACE.
On May 22, 2009, President Barack Obama signed H.R. 627, the "Credit Card Accountability Responsibility and Disclosure Act of 2009, '' into law. The bill contained a rider introduced by Senator Tom Coburn (R - OK) that prohibits the Secretary of the Interior from enacting or enforcing any regulations that restrict possession of firearms in National Parks or Wildlife Refuges, as long as the person complies with laws of the state in which the unit is found. This provision was supported by the National Rifle Association and opposed by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, the National Parks Conservation Association, and the Coalition of National Park Service Retirees, among other organizations. As of February 2010 concealed handguns are for the first time legal in all but 3 of the nation 's 391 national parks and wildlife refuges so long as all applicable federal, state, and local regulations are adhered to. Hawaii is a notable exception. Concealed and open carry are both illegal in Hawaii for all except retired military or law enforcement personnel. Previously firearms were allowed into parks if cased and unloaded.
Attempts were made in the 110th Congress, United States House of Representatives (H.R. 226) and the United States Senate (S. 388), to enact legislation to compel complete reciprocity for concealed carry licenses. Opponents of national reciprocity have pointed out that this legislation would effectively require states with more restrictive standards of permit issuance (e.g., training courses, safety exams, "good cause '' requirements, et al.) to honor permits from states with more liberal issuance policies. Supporters have pointed out that the same situation already occurs with marriage certificates, adoption decrees and other state documents under the "full faith and credit '' clause of the U.S. Constitution. Some states have already adopted a "full faith and credit '' policy treating out - of - state carry permits the same as out - of - state driver 's license or marriage certificates without federal legislation mandating such a policy. In the 115th Congress, another universal reciprocity bill, the Concealed Carry Reciprocity Act of 2017, was introduced by Richard Hudson. The bill passed the House and is awaiting a vote by the Senate.
Prior to the 1897 supreme court case Robertson v. Baldwin, the federal courts had been silent on the issue of concealed carry. In the dicta from a maritime law case the Supreme Court commented that state laws restricting concealed weapons do not infringe upon the right to bear arms protected by the Federal Second Amendment.
In the majority decision in the 2008 Supreme Court case of District of Columbia v. Heller, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote;
Like most rights, the Second Amendment right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose: For example, concealed weapons prohibitions have been upheld under the Amendment or state analogues... The majority of the 19th - century courts to consider the question held that prohibitions on carrying concealed weapons were lawful under the Second Amendment or state analogues.
Heller was a landmark case because for the first time in United States history a Supreme Court decision defined the right to bear arms as constitutionally guaranteed to private citizens rather than a right restricted to "well regulated militia (s) ''. The Justices asserted that sensible restrictions on the right to bear arms are constitutional, however, an outright ban on a specific type of firearm, in this case handguns, was in fact unconstitutional. The Heller decision is limited because it only applies to federal enclaves such as the District of Columbia. In 2010 the SCOTUS expanded Heller in McDonald v. Chicago incorporating the 2nd Amendment through the 14th Amendment as applying to local and state laws. Various Circuit Courts have upheld their local and state laws using intermediate scrutiny. The correct standard is strict scrutiny review for all "fundamental '' and "individual '' rights. On June 28, 2010, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the handgun ban enacted by the city of Chicago, Illinois, in McDonald v. Chicago, effectively extending the Heller decision to states and local governments nationwide. Banning handguns in any jurisdiction has the effect of rendering invalid any licensed individual 's right to carry concealed in that area except for federally exempted retired and current law enforcement officers and other government employees acting in the discharge of their official duties.
Even when self - defense is justified, there can be serious civil or criminal liabilities related to self - defense when a concealed carry permit holder brandishes or fires his / her weapon. For example, if innocent bystanders are hurt or killed, there could be both civil and criminal liabilities even if the use of deadly force was completely justified. Some states technically allow an assailant who is shot by a gun owner to bring civil action. In some states, liability is present when a resident brandishes the weapon, threatens use, or exacerbates a volatile situation, or when the resident is carrying while intoxicated. It is important to note that simply pointing a firearm at any person constitutes felony assault with a deadly weapon unless circumstances validate a demonstration of force. A majority of states who allow concealed carry, however, forbid suits being brought in such cases, either by barring lawsuits for damages resulting from a criminal act on the part of the plaintiff, or by granting the gun owner immunity from such a civil suit if it is found that he or she was justified in shooting.
Simultaneously, increased passage of "Castle Doctrine '' laws allow persons who own firearms and / or carry them concealed to use them without first attempting to retreat. The "Castle Doctrine '' typically applies to situations within the confines of one 's own home. Nevertheless, many states have adopted escalation of force laws along with provisions for concealed carry. These include the necessity to first verbally warn a trespasser or lay hands on a trespasser before a shooting is justified (unless the trespasser is armed or assumed to be so). This escalation of force does not apply if the shooter reasonably believes a violent felony has been or is about to be committed on the property by the trespasser. Additionally some states have a duty to retreat provision which requires a permit holder, especially in public places, to vacate him or herself from a potentially dangerous situation before resorting to deadly force. The duty to retreat does not restrictively apply in a person 's home or business though escalation of force may be required. In 1895 the Supreme Court ruled in Beard v. United States (1895) that if an individual does not provoke an assault and is residing in a place they have a right to be then they may use considerable force against someone they reasonably believe may do them serious harm without being charged with murder or manslaughter should that person be killed. Further, in Texas and California homicide is justifiable solely in defense of property. In other states, lethal force is only authorized when serious harm is presumed to be imminent.
Even given these relaxed restrictions on use of force, using a handgun must still be a last resort in some jurisdictions; meaning the user must reasonably believe that nothing short of deadly force will protect the life or property at stake in a situation. Additionally, civil liabilities for errors that cause harm to others still exist, although civil immunity is provided in the Castle Doctrine laws of some states (e.g., Texas).
Criminal possession of a weapon is the unlawful possession of a weapon by a citizen. Many societies both past and present have placed restrictions on what forms of weaponry private citizens (and to a lesser extent police) are allowed to purchase, own, and carry in public. Such crimes are public order crimes and are considered mala prohibita, in that the possession of a weapon in and of itself is not evil. Rather, the potential for use in acts of unlawful violence creates a possible need to control them. Some restrictions are strict liability, whereas others require some element of intent to use the weapon for an illegal purpose. Some regulations allow a citizen to obtain a permit or other authorization to possess the weapon under certain circumstances. Lawful uses of weapons by civilians commonly include hunting, sport, collection and self - preservation.
The penalties for carrying a firearm in an unlawful manner varies widely from state - to - state, and may range from a simple infraction punishable by a fine to a felony conviction and mandatory incarceration. An individual may also be charged and convicted of criminal charges other than unlawful possession of a firearm, such as assault, disorderly conduct, or disturbing the peace.
A comprehensive 2004 review of the existing literature by the National Academy of Sciences found that the results of existing studies were sensitive to the specification and time period examined, and concluded that a causal link between right - to - carry laws and crime rates can not be shown. Quinnipiac University economist Mark Gius summarized literature published between 1993 and 2005, and found that ten papers suggested that permissive CCW laws reduce crime, one paper suggested they increase crime, and nine papers showed no definitive results. A 2016 study in the European Economic Review which examined the conflicting claims in the existing literature concluded that the evidence CCW either increases or decreases crime on average "seems weak ''; the study 's model found "some support to the law having a negative (but with a positive trend) effect on property crimes, and a small but positive (and increasing) effect on violent crimes ''. The Washington Post fact - checker concluded that it could not stated that CCW laws reduced crime, as the evidence was murky and in dispute.
A study of eight years of Texas data found that concealed handgun licensees were much less likely to be convicted of crimes than were nonlicensees. The same study found that licensees ' convictions were more likely to be for less common crimes, "such as sexual offenses, gun offenses, or offenses involving a death. '' This is also in line with a 1997 study researching county level data from 1977 to 1992 concluding that allowing citizens to carry concealed weapons deters violent crimes and it appears to produce no increase in accidental deaths.
A 2011 article co-authored by Stanford Law professor John J. Donohue found that aggravated assaults increase when concealed carry laws are adopted. A 2017 study in the American Journal of Public Health found that "shall - issue laws '' (where concealed carry permits must be given if criteria are met) "are associated with significantly higher rates of total, firearm - related, and handgun - related homicide '' than "may - issue laws '' (where local law enforcement have discretion over who can get a concealed carry permit). In a 2017 article in the journal Science by Donohue and Duke University economist Philip J. Cook, they write that "there is an emerging consensus that, on balance, the causal effect of deregulating concealed carry (by replacing a restrictive law with an RTC law) has been to increase violent crime ''. Donohue and Cook argue that the crack epidemic made it difficult to determine the causal effects of CCW laws and that this made earlier results inconclusive; recent research does not suffer the same challenges with causality.
A Texas A&M study that looked at issuance rates of concealed - carry permits and changes in violent crime by county - level in four shall - issue states found no increases or decreases in violent crime rates with changes in permit issuances.
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which part of the indian constitution deals with the union territory | Union territory - Wikipedia
A union territory is a type of administrative division in the Republic of India. Unlike the states of India, which have their own governments, union territories are federal territories ruled directly by the union government (central government), hence the name "union territory ''.
When the Indian Constitution was adopted in 1949, there was only one union territory: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. NCT of Delhi, Chandigarh and Lakshadweep were formed by separating the territory from pre-existing states. Dadra, Nagar Haveli, Daman, Diu and Puducherry were formed from acquired territories that formerly belonged to Portuguese India or French India.
The Parliament of India can pass a law to amend the Constitution and provide a Legislature with elected Members and a Chief Minister for a union territory, as it has done for Delhi and Puducherry. In general, the President of India appoints an administrator or lieutenant - governor for each UT. There are seven union territories, including Chandigarh, the joint capital of Punjab and Haryana.
Delhi and Puducherry (Pondicherry) operate somewhat differently from the other five. Delhi and Puducherry were given partial statehood and Delhi was redefined as the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT) and incorporated into a larger area known as the National Capital Region (NCR). Delhi and Puducherry have their own elected legislative assemblies and the executive councils of ministers with partially state - like function.
The seven union territories are:
Due to existence of union territories, many critics have resolved India into a semi-federal nation, as the central and state governments each have their own domains and territories of legislation. Union territories of India have special rights and status due to their constitutional formation and development. The status of "union territory '' may be assigned to an Indian sub-jurisdiction for reasons such as safeguarding the rights of indigenous cultures, averting political turmoil related to matters of governance, and so on. These union territories could be changed to states in the future for more efficient administrative control.
The Constitution does not stipulate how tax revenue is to be devolved to the union territories, unlike for the states. The funds devolution to union territories by the union government have no criteria where all the revenue goes to the union government. Some union territories are provided more funds, while others are given less, in an arbitrary manner by the union government. As union territories are directly ruled by the union government, some union territories get more funds from the union government than entitled on per capita and backwardness basis when compared to states.
After the introduction of GST, UT - GST is applicable in union territories which are not having legislative assembly. UT - GST is levied at par with the applicable state GST in rest of the country which would eliminate the previous lower taxation in the union territories.
Article 1 (1) of the Indian constitution says that India shall be a "Union of States '', which are elaborated under Parts V (The Union) and VI (The States) of the constitution. Article 1 (3) says the territory of India comprises the territories of the states, the union territories and other territories that may be acquired. The concept of union territories was not in the original version of the constitution, but was added by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. In the constitution wherever it refers to Territories of India, it is applicable to whole country including union territories. Where it refers to only India, it is applicable to all states only but not to union territories. Thus, citizenship (part II), fundamental rights (part III), Directive Principles of State Policy (part IV), Judiciary role, the Union Territories (part VIII), Article 245, etc. are applicable to union territories as it refers specifically to Territories of India. The executive power of Union (i.e. union of states only) rests with President of India. President of India is also chief administrator of union territories per Article 239. Union public service commission role is not applicable to all territories of India as it refers to India only in Part XIV.
Per Article 240 (2), supreme power is accorded to the President in regulating the affairs of the all the union territories except Chandigarh, NCT and Puducherry, including powers to override the laws made by Parliament and the constitution of India.
Just two of the union territories have representation in the upper house of the Indian Parliament, the Rajya Sabha, Delhi and Puducherry which are also exceptional among union territories in that each has its own locally elected legislative assembly.
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the second largest party in the house of commons is usually known by what name | House of Commons of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Offices however extend to Portcullis House due to shortage of space.
The Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 members known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Members are elected to represent constituencies by first - past - the - post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved.
The House of Commons of England evolved in the 13th and 14th centuries. It eventually became the House of Commons of Great Britain after the political union with Scotland in 1707, and assumed the title of "House of Commons of Great Britain and Ireland '' after the political union with Ireland at the start of the 19th century. The "United Kingdom '' referred to was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1800, and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland after the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922. Accordingly, the House of Commons assumed its current title.
Under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords ' power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power. The Government is solely responsible to the House of Commons and the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of a majority of the Commons.
Although it does not formally elect the prime minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance. By convention, the prime minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person who has the support of the House, or who is most likely to command the support of the House -- normally the leader of the largest party in the Commons, while the leader of the second - largest party becomes the Leader of the Opposition. Since 1963, by convention, the prime minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords.
The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence. Confidence and no confidence motions are phrased explicitly, for instance: "That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty 's Government. '' Many other motions were considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government 's agenda were formerly considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged either to resign, making way for another MP who can command confidence, or to request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election.
Parliament normally sits for a maximum term of five years. Subject to that limit, the prime minister could formerly choose the timing of the dissolution of parliament, with the permission of the Monarch. However, since the Fixed - Term Parliaments Act 2011, terms are now a fixed five years, and an early general election can only be brought about either by a two - thirds majority in favour of a motion for a dissolution, or by a vote of no confidence that is not followed within fourteen days by a vote of confidence (which may be for confidence in the same government or a different one). By this second mechanism, the government of the United Kingdom can change without an intervening general election. Only four of the eight last Prime Ministers have attained office as the immediate result of a general election; the others have gained office upon the resignation of a Prime Minister of their own party. The latter four were Jim Callaghan, John Major, Gordon Brown and the current Prime Minister Theresa May; these four inherited the office from Harold Wilson, Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair and David Cameron respectively. In such circumstances there may not even have been an internal party leadership election, as the new leader may be chosen by acclaim, having no electoral rival (as in the case of both Brown and May).
A prime minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons). In such a case, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House of Commons; in practice this is usually the new leader of the outgoing prime minister 's party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader; when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor, the party was unable to nominate one. It fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new prime minister, after taking the advice of ministers.
By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who were outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament either in a by - election or by receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all prime ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the Alec Douglas - Home, 14th Earl of Home, disclaimed his peerage three days after becoming prime minister, and was immediately elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas - Home after twenty days in neither House).
In modern times, the vast majority of ministers belong to the Commons rather than the Lords. Few major cabinet positions (except Lord Privy Seal, Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) have been filled by a peer in recent times. Notable exceptions are Peter, Lord Carrington, who served as Foreign Secretary from 1979 to 1982, and David, Lord Young, who was appointed Employment Secretary in 1985. Peter Mandelson was appointed Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in October 2008; he was also briefly a member of neither the Lords nor the Commons while serving in this capacity. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers. It is also considered important for ministers, and especially senior ministers, to be responsible to the elected house. The prime minister chooses the ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.
The House of Commons scrutinises HM Government through "Prime Minister 's Questions '', when members have the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister; there are other opportunities to question other cabinet ministers. Prime Minister 's Questions occurs once each week, normally for half an hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding minister 's official government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.
In practice, the House of Commons ' scrutiny of the Government is fairly weak. Since the first - past - the - post electoral system is employed, the governing party often enjoys a large majority in the Commons, and there is often little need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Also, many ruling party MPs are paid members of the Government. Thus, during the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times -- twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by their own party 's backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions (under the Coalition, over foundation hospitals and under Labour over top - up fees and compensation for failed company pension schemes). Occasionally the Government is defeated by backbench rebellions (Terrorism Act 2006). However, the scrutiny provided by the Select Committees is more serious.
The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse: the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means, such as No Confidence Motions; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806.
Bills may be introduced in either house, though bills of importance generally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented to the Queen for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.
By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply - related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government 's election manifesto. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the most powerful branch of Parliament.
The British Parliament of today largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, although the 1706 Treaty of Union, and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty, created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, with the addition of 45 MPs and sixteen Peers to represent Scotland. Later still the Acts of Union 1800 brought about the abolition of the Parliament of Ireland and enlarged the Commons at Westminster with 100 Irish members, creating the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Although popularly considered to refer to the fact its members are commoners, the actual name of the House of Commons comes from the Norman French word for communities -- communes.
The current Commons ' layout is influenced by the use of the original St. Stephen 's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster.
The rectangular shape is derived from the shape of the chapel. Benches were arranged using the configuration of the chapel 's choir stalls whereby they were facing across from one another. This arrangement facilitated an adversarial atmosphere that is representative of the British parliamentary approach.
The distance across the floor of the House between the government and opposition benches is 3.96 metres (13.0 ft), said to be equivalent to two swords ' length.
The House of Commons underwent an important period of reform during the 19th century. Over the years, several anomalies had developed in borough representation. The constituency boundaries had not been changed since 1660, so many towns that were once important but had declined by the 19th century still retained their ancient right of electing two members, in addition to other boroughs that had never been important, such as Gatton.
Among the most notorious of these "rotten boroughs '' were Old Sarum, which had only six voters for two MPs, and Dunwich, which had largely collapsed into the sea due to coastal erosion. At the same time, large cities such as Manchester received no separate representation (although their eligible residents were entitled to vote in the corresponding county seat). Also notable were the pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees '' were invariably elected.
The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the prime minister, Charles, 2nd Earl Grey, advised King William IV to flood the House of Lords by creating pro-Reform peers. To avoid this, the Lords relented and passed the bill in 1832. The Reform Act 1832, also known as the "Great Reform Act '', abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but still retained many pocket boroughs.
In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been reduced by the Reform Bill crisis, and the power of the patrons reduced. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons had passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the confidence of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a government to remain in office.
Many more reforms were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century. The Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single - member constituencies.
In 1908, the Liberal Government under Asquith introduced a number of social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive arms race, forced the Government to seek higher taxes. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the "People 's Budget '', which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. But this measure failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords, and the government resigned.
The resulting general election returned a hung parliament, but Asquith remained prime minister with the support of the smaller parties. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the Lords be severely curtailed. After a further election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords after threatening to flood the House with 500 new Liberal peers to ensure the passage of the bill.
Thus the Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the Parliament Act 1949). Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has become the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.
In 1918, women over 30 were given the right to vote, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as members of parliament at the younger age of 21. The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz, who therefore became the first woman to be an MP. However, due to Sinn Féin 's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat.
With effect from the General Election in 1950, various forms of plural voting (i.e. some individuals had the right to vote in more than one constituency in the same election), including University constituencies, were abolished.
Since the 17th century, MPs had been unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgment of 1909. Consequently, a resolution was passed in the House of Commons in 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. Government ministers had always been paid.
In May and June 2009 revelations of MPs ' expenses claims caused a major scandal and loss of confidence by the public in the integrity of MPs, as well as causing the first forced resignation of the Speaker in 300 years.
(2017 general election) MPs for constituencies in Northern Ireland MPs for constituencies in Scotland MPs for constituencies in England
Leader of the House Shadow Leader of the House
House of Commons Chamber
Since 1950, each Member of Parliament has represented a single constituency. There remains a technical distinction between county constituencies and borough constituencies, but the only effect of this difference is in the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns. The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent Boundary Commissions, one each for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, and a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000. As of 2017, the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies, with 533 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.
General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved. The timing of the dissolution was normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see relationship with the Government above); however, as a result of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, Parliamentary terms are now fixed at five years, except in the event of the House of Commons passing a vote of no confidence or an "early election '' motion, the latter having to be passed by a two - thirds majority. The first use of this procedure was in April 2017, when MPs voted in favour of Theresa May 's call for a snap election to be held that June.
All elections in the UK are held on a Thursday. The Electoral Commission is unsure when this practice arose, but dates it to 1931, with the suggestion that it was made to coincide with market day; this would ease voting for those who had to travel into the towns to cast their ballot.
A candidate for a constituency must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from that constituency, and pay a deposit of £ 500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one member, using the first - past - the - post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors (that is, anyone under the age of 18), members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become members of the House of Commons. To vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and a British citizen, or a citizen of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.
Once elected, Members of Parliament normally continue to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament. But if a member dies or ceases to be qualified (see qualifications below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a member, but this power is exercised only in cases of serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, the vacancy is filled by a by - election in the constituency, with the same electoral system as in general elections.
The term "Member of Parliament '' is normally used only to refer to members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters "MP ''. The annual salary of each member is £ 74,962, effective from 1 April 2016. Members may also receive additional salaries for other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most members also claim for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc.) and, in the case of non-London members, for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital.
There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until s. 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural - born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections (just as the Queen does not vote); however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the Queen, who can not enter the chamber).
A person may not sit in the Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Previously, MPs detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for six months or more would have their seat vacated if two specialists reported to the Speaker that the member was suffering from a mental disorder. However, this disqualification was removed by the Mental Health (Discrimination) Act 2013. There also exists a common law precedent from the 18th century that the "deaf and dumb '' are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years. Jack Ashley continued to serve as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.
Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the Representation of the People Act 1983 disqualifies for ten years those found guilty of certain election - related offences. Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.
The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which members are not permitted to resign their seats. In practice, however, they always can. Should a member wish to resign from the Commons, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely to permit the "resignation '' of members of the House of Commons. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a member who desires to leave the House of Commons.
At the beginning of each new parliamentary term, the House of Commons elects one of its members as a presiding officer, known as the Speaker. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker - elect can not take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of whom holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always members of the House of Commons.
Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears ceremonial dress. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition was abandoned by a former Speaker, Betty Boothroyd. Michael Martin, who succeeded to the office, also did not wear a wig whilst in the chamber. The current speaker, John Bercow, has chosen to wear a gown over a lounge suit, a decision which has sparked much debate and opposition.
The Speaker or deputy presides from a chair at the front of the House. This chair was designed by Augustus Pugin, who initially built a prototype of the chair at King Edward 's School, Birmingham: that chair is called Sapientia, and is where the Chief master sits. The Speaker is also chairman of the House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the House, and he or she controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order '', on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers. Customarily, the Speaker and the deputies are non-partisan; they do not vote (with the notable exception of tied votes, where the Speaker votes in accordance with Denison 's rule), or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election to parliament is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.
The Clerk of the House is both the House 's chief adviser on matters of procedure and chief executive of the House of Commons. He or she is a permanent official, not a member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He or she chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk 's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the Serjeant - at - Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House 's premises. The Serjeant - at - Arms carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker, and the Mace is laid upon the Table of the House during sittings. The Librarian is head of the House of Commons Library, the House 's research and information arm.
Like the Lords, the Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast to the large, lavishly furnished red Lords chamber. There are benches on two sides of the chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of St Stephen 's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker 's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it, is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker 's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker 's left. In front of each set of benches a red line is drawn, which members are traditionally not allowed to cross during debates. Government ministers and the leader of the Opposition and the Shadow Cabinet sit on the front rows, and are known as frontbenchers. Other members of parliament, in contrast, are known as backbenchers. Not all Members of Parliament can fit into the Chamber at the same time, as it only has space to seat approximately two thirds of the Members. According to Robert Rogers, former Clerk of the House of Commons and Chief Executive, a figure of 427 seats is an average or a finger - in - the - wind estimate. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit at weekends.
Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, which has occurred only twice since 1950. Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers '' and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the House wanted to keep its debate private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect.
Public debates are recorded and archived in Hansard. The post war redesign of the House in 1950 included microphones, and debates were allowed to be broadcast by radio in 1975. Since 1989, they have also been broadcast on television, which is now handled by BBC Parliament.
Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters throwing objects into the Chamber from the galleries -- items thrown include leaflets, manure, flour by the group Fathers 4 Justice, and a canister of chlorobenzylidene malonitrile (tear gas). Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House. For instance, in 1976, Conservative MP Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. However, perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by Charles I, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force to arrest five members for high treason. This action was deemed a breach of the privilege of the House, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch does not set foot in the House of Commons.
Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber. When he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are traditionally slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. He then knocks on the door three times with his Black Rod, and only then is granted admittance, where he informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them, after which they proceed to the House of Lords for the Queen 's Speech.
During debates, Members may speak only if called upon by the Speaker (or a Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority. All Privy Counsellors used to be granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure in 1998 led to the abolition of this tradition.
Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker '', "Madam Speaker '', "Mr Deputy Speaker '', or "Madam Deputy Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for (constituency) '', or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for (constituency) ''. Members of the same party (or allied parties or groups) refer to each other as "my (Right) Honourable friend ''. (A member of the Armed Forces used to be called "the Honourable and Gallant Member '', a barrister "the Honourable and Learned Member '', and a woman "the Honourable Lady the Member ''.) This may not always be the case during the actual oral delivery, when it might be difficult for a member to remember another member 's exact constituency, but it is invariably followed in the transcript entered in the Hansard. The Speaker enforces the rules of the House and may warn and punish members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker 's instructions is considered a breach of the rules of the House and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote.
The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may also be restricted by the passage of "Allocation of Time Motions '', which are more commonly known as "Guillotine Motions ''. Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke Closure. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority. Today, bills are scheduled according to a Timetable Motion, which the whole House agrees in advance, negating the use of a guillotine.
When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye! '' (in favour of the motion) or "No! '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any member or the voice vote is unclear, a recorded vote known as a division follows. The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is clear, may reject the challenge. When a division occurs, members enter one of two lobbies (the "Aye '' lobby or the "No '' lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. A member who wishes to pointedly abstain from a vote may do so by entering both lobbies, casting one vote for and one against. At each lobby are two tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the members.
Once the division concludes, the tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a casting vote. Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision being taken without a majority (e.g. voting ' No ' to a motion or the third reading of a bill). Ties rarely occur -- the last one was in July 1993. The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote, including the Speaker and four tellers. If fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid.
Formerly, if a member sought to raise a point of order during a division, suggesting that some of the rules governing parliamentary procedure are violated, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998.
The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some members of parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so jeopardise promotion, or may be deselected as party candidates for future elections. Ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries who vote against the whips ' instructions usually resign. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be low, although "backbench rebellions '' by members discontent with their party 's policies do occur. A member is also traditionally allowed some leeway if the particular interests of his constituency are adversely affected. In some circumstances, however, parties announce "free votes '', allowing members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as abortion and capital punishment are typically free votes.
Pairing is an arrangement where a member from one party agrees with a member of another party not to vote in a particular division, allowing both MPs the opportunity not to attend.
A bisque is permission from the Whips given to a member to miss a vote or debate in the House to attend to constituency business or other matters.
The House of Commons recess dates for the 2017 -- 8 Parliamentary session were announced by the Leader of the House, Andrea Leadsom, in June 2017:
The British Parliament uses committees for a variety of purposes, e.g., for the review of bills. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the "Committee of the Whole House '', a body that includes all members of the Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber.
Most bills were until 2006 considered by Standing Committees, which consisted of between 16 and 50 members. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflected the strength of the parties in the House. The membership of Standing Committees changed constantly; new Members were assigned each time the committee considered a new bill. There was no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but usually only ten existed. Rarely, a bill was committed to a Special Standing Committee, which investigated and held hearings on the issues raised. In November 2006, Standing Committees were replaced by Public Bill Committees.
The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties. Each committee elects its own chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular government department. To fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is seldom used.
A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees).
The symbol used by the Commons consists of a portcullis topped by St Edward 's Crown. The portcullis has been one of the Royal Badges of England since the accession of the Tudors in the 15th century, and was a favourite symbol of King Henry VII. It was originally a pun on the name Tudor, as in tu - door. The original badge was of gold, but nowadays is shown in various colours, predominantly green or black.
In 1986, the British television production company Granada Television created a near - full size replica of the post-1950 House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in Manchester for use in its adaptation of the Jeffrey Archer novel First Among Equals. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production -- since then, it has been used in nearly every British film and television production that has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set. The major difference between the studio set and the real House of Commons Chamber is that the studio set has just four rows of seats on either side whereas the real Chamber has five.
In 2002, the set was purchased by the scriptwriter Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his BBC drama serial State of Play. Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. Abbott kept the set in storage in Oxford.
The post-1941 Commons Chamber was used in the film Ali G Indahouse, the political satire Restart by Komedy Kollective, about a British prime minister seeking re-election, and was mentioned in the Robin Williams stand - up special Robin Williams Live on Broadway in which he describes it as "like Congress, but with a two drink minimum ''. The pre-1941 Chamber was recreated in Shepperton Studios for the Ridley Scott / Richard Loncraine 2002 biographical film on Churchill, The Gathering Storm.
Coordinates: 51 ° 29 ′ 59.6 '' N 0 ° 07 ′ 28.8 '' W / 51.499889 ° N 0.124667 ° W / 51.499889; - 0.124667
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when did the nam came into existence and where | Surname - wikipedia
A surname, family name, or last name is the portion of a personal name that indicates a person 's family (or tribe or community, depending on the culture). Depending on the culture all members of a family unit may have identical surnames or there may be variations based on the cultural rules.
In the English - speaking world, a surname is commonly referred to as a last name because it is usually placed at the end of a person 's full name, after any given names. In many parts of Asia, as well as some parts of Europe and Africa, the family name is placed before a person 's given name. In most Spanish - speaking and Portuguese - speaking countries, two or more surnames are commonly used.
Surnames have not always existed and even today are not universal in all cultures. This tradition has arisen separately in different cultures around the world. In Europe, the concept of surnames became popular in the Roman Empire and expanded throughout the Mediterranean and Western Europe as a result. During the Middle Ages this practice died out as Germanic, Persian, and other influences took hold. During the later Middle Ages surnames gradually re-emerged, first in the form of bynames (typically indicating individual 's occupation or area of residence), which gradually evolved into modern surnames. In China surnames have been the norm since at least the 2nd century BC.
A family name is typically a part of a person 's personal name which, according to law or custom, is passed or given to children from one or both of their parents ' family names. The use of family names is common in most cultures around the world, with each culture having its own rules as to how these names are formed, passed and used. However, the style of having both a family name (surname) and a given name (forename) is far from universal. In many countries, it is common for ordinary people to have only one name or mononym, with some cultures not using family names. Also, in most Slavic countries, as well as other countries including Greece and Iceland, for example, there are different family name forms for male and female members of the family. Issues of family name arise especially on the passing of a name to a new - born child, on the adoption of a common family name on marriage, on renouncing of a family name and on changing of a family name.
Surname laws vary around the world. Traditionally in many European countries for the past few hundred years, it was the custom or law that a woman would on marriage use the surname of her husband and that children of a man would have the father 's surname. If a child 's paternity was not known, or if the putative father denied paternity, the new - born child would have the surname of the mother. That is still the custom or law in many countries. The surname for children of married parents is usually inherited from the father. In recent years there has been a trend towards equality of treatment in relation to family names, with women being not automatically required or expected, or in some places even forbidden, to take the husband 's surname on marriage, and children not automatically being given the father 's surname. In this article, family name and surname both mean the patrilineal (literally, father - line) surname, handed down from or inherited from the father 's line or patriline, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Thus, the term "maternal surname '' means the patrilineal surname which one 's mother inherited from either or both of her parents. For a discussion of matrilineal (' mother - line ') surnames, passing from mothers to daughters, see matrilineal surname.
In English - speaking cultures, family names are often used by children when referring to adults, but are also used to refer to someone in authority, the elderly, or in a formal setting, and are often used with a title or honorific such as Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, Dr, and so on. It is also common in English - speaking cultures for individuals to be referred to by their surname instead of their given name by their friends. Generally the given name, first name, forename, or personal name is the one used by friends, family, and other intimates to address an individual. It may also be used by someone who is in some way senior to the person being addressed. This practice also differs between cultures; see T -- V distinction.
The study of proper names (in family names, personal names, or places) is called onomastics. A one - name study is a collection of vital and other biographical data about all persons worldwide sharing a particular surname.
In many cultures (particularly in European and European - influenced cultures in the Americas, Oceania, etc., as well as the Middle East, South Asia, and most African cultures), the surname or family name ("last name '') is placed after the personal, Christian (in Europe) or given name ("first name ''). In other cultures the surname is placed first, followed by the given name or names. The latter is often called the Eastern order because Europeans are most familiar with the examples from the East Asian cultural sphere, specifically Japan, China and Taiwan, Korea (Republic of Korea and Democratic People 's Republic of Korea) and Vietnam. This is also the case in Hungary, parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, Albania and Kosovo, parts of South India, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar.
Since family names are normally written last in European societies (except in Hungary), the term last name is commonly used for family name, while in Japan (with vertical writing) the family name may be referred to as upper name (ue - no - namae (上 の 名前)).
When those from Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong write their personal name in the Latin alphabet, it is common to reverse the order of the given and family names for the convenience of Westerners, so that they know which name is the family name for official / formal purposes. Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians, but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies. Surnames have been imposed by the dominant authorities: evangelists, then administrations. Thus, the Samis saw no change or a transformation of their name. For example: some Sire became Siri, Hætta Jáhkoš Ásslat became Aslak Jacobsen Hætta -- as was the norm. Recently, integration into the EU and increased communications with foreigners prompted many Samis to reverse the order of their full name to given name followed by surname, to avoid their given name being mistaken for and used as a surname.
Indian surnames may often denote caste, profession, and village and are invariably mentioned along with the personal names. However, hereditary last names are not universal. In Indian passports the surname is shown first. In telephone directories the surname is used for collation. In North Indian states the surname is placed after given names where it exists. In parts of south India, surname is placed before personal name and in most cases it is only shown as an initial (for example ' S. ' for Suryapeth).
In English and other languages like Spanish -- although the usual order of names is "first middle last '' -- for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle, '' with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name. In France, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Latin America, administrative usage is to put the surname before the first on official documents.
While given names have been used from the most distant times to identify individuals, the advent of surnames is a relatively recent phenomenon. A four - year study led by the University of the West of England, which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th century to explain the origins of the surnames in the British isles. The study found that over 90 % of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to Britain and Ireland, with the most common in the UK being Smith, Jones, Williams, Brown, Taylor, Johnson, and Lee. The findings have been published in the Oxford English Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland, with Project leader, Professor Richard Coates calling the study "more detailed and accurate '' than those before. He elaborated on the origins; "Some surnames have origins that are occupational - obvious examples are Smith and Baker. Other names can be linked to a place, for example Hill or Green, which relates to a village green. Surnames which are ' patronymic ' are those which originally enshrined the father 's name - such as Jackson, or Jenkinson. There are also names where the origin describes the original bearer such as Brown, Short, or Thin - though Short may in fact be an ironic ' nickname ' surname for a tall person. ''
By 1400, most English and some Scottish people used surnames, but many Scottish and Welsh people did not adopt surnames until the 17th century, or even later. Henry VIII (ruled 1509 -- 1547) ordered that marital births be recorded under the surname of the father. In England and cultures derived from there, there has long been a tradition for a woman to change her surname upon marriage from her birth name to her husband 's family name. (See Maiden and married names.) The first known instance in the United States of a woman insisting on the use of her birth name was that of Lucy Stone in 1855; and there has been a general increase in the rate of women using their birth name. This has gone through periods of flux, however, and the 1990s saw a decline in the percentage of name retention among women. As of 2006, more than 80 % of American women adopted the husband 's family name after marriage.
Many cultures have used and continue to use additional descriptive terms in identifying individuals. These terms may indicate personal attributes, location of origin, occupation, parentage, patronage, adoption, or clan affiliation. These descriptors often developed into fixed clan identifications that in turn became family names as we know them today.
In China, according to legend, family names started with Emperor Fu Xi in 2852 BC His administration standardised the naming system in order to facilitate census - taking, and the use of census information. Originally, Chinese surnames were derived matrilineally, although by the time of the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE) they had become patrilineal. Chinese women do not change their names upon marriage. They can be referred to either as their full birth names or as their husband 's surname plus the word for wife. But in the past, women often had no official given name and were referred in official documents by their family name plus the character "Shi '' and when married by their husband 's surname, their birth surname, and the character "Shi. ''
In Japan, family names were uncommon except among the aristocracy until the 19th century.
In Ancient Greece, during some periods, formal identification commonly included place of origin. At other times clan names and patronymics ("son of '') were also common, as in Aristides Lysimachu. For example, Alexander the Great was known as Heracleides (as a supposed descendant of Heracles) and by the dynastic name Karanos / Caranus, which referred to the founder of the dynasty to which he belonged. In none of these cases, though, were these names considered essential parts of the person 's name, nor were they explicitly inherited in the manner that is common in many cultures today.
In the Roman Empire, the bestowal and use of clan and family names waxed and waned with changes in the various subcultures of the realm. (See Roman naming conventions.) The nomen, which was the gens name, was inherited much like last names are, but their purposes were quite different. In later Europe, last names were developed to distinguish between individuals. The nomen were to identify group kinship. The praenomen was literally the "forename '' and was originally used like a first name today. In later times, praenomen became less useful for distinguishing individuals as it was often passed down for boys along with the nomen (like an entire culture where "John Smith, Jr. '' was the norm), and girls, were often given no praenomen at all or functional names like Major and Minor ("Older '' and "Younger '') or Maxima, Maio, and Mino ("Biggest, '' "Middle, '' "Littlest '') or ordinal numbers rather than what we might think of as names: Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, etc. Around this time, the nomen became followed by one or more additional names called cognomen. It became usual that one of these cognomen was inherited, but as the praenomen and nomen became ever more rigidly used and less useful for identifying individuals, additional personal cognomen were more often used, to the point that the first the praenomen and then the nomen fell out of use entirely. With the gradual influence of Greek / Christian culture throughout the Empire, Christian religious names were sometimes put in front of traditional cognomen, but eventually, people reverted to single names. By the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, family names were uncommon in the Eastern Roman Empire. In Western Europe, where Germanic culture dominated the aristocracy, family names were almost non-existent. They would not significantly reappear again in Eastern Roman society until the 10th century, apparently influenced by the familial affiliations of the Armenian military aristocracy. The practice of using family names spread through the Eastern Roman Empire and gradually into Western Europe, although it was not until the modern era that family names came to be explicitly inherited as they are today.
In Ireland, the use of surnames has a very old history. Ireland was the first country in Europe to use fixed surnames. As noted in the Annals, the first recorded fixed surname was Ó Cleirigh, which recorded the death of Tigherneach Ua Cleirigh, lord of Aidhne in Co. Galway in the year 916.
In England, the introduction of family names is generally attributed to the preparation of the Domesday Book in 1086, following the Norman conquest. Evidence indicates that surnames were first adopted among the feudal nobility and gentry, and only slowly spread to other parts of society. Some of the early Norman nobility who arrived in England during the Norman conquest differentiated themselves by affixing ' de ' (of) before the name of their village in France. This is what is known as a territorial surname, a consequence of feudal landownership. In medieval times in France, such a name indicated lordship, or ownership, of the village. But some early Norman nobles in England chose to drop the French derivations and call themselves instead after their new English holdings.
Surnames were uncommon prior to the 12th century, and still somewhat rare into the 13th; most European surnames were originally occupational or locational, and served to distinguish one person from another if they happened to live near one another (e.g., two different people named John could conceivably be identified as ' John Butcher ' and ' John Chandler '). This still happens, in some communities where a surname is particularly common, for example on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland, many residents have the family name MacLeod (son of Lewis) and so may still be known by a surname symbolising their occupation such as ' Kevin the post ' and ' Kevin Handbag '.
In the Middle Ages, when a man from a lower - status family married an only daughter from a higher - status family, he would often adopt the wife 's family name. In the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, bequests were sometimes made contingent upon a man 's changing (or hyphenating) his family name, so that the name of the testator continued. It is rare but not unknown for an English - speaking man to take his wife 's family name, whether for personal reasons or as a matter of tradition (such as among matrilineal Canadian aboriginal groups, such as the Haida and Gitxsan); it is exceedingly rare but does occur in the United States, where a married couple may choose an entirely new last name by going through a legal change of name. As an alternative, both spouses may adopt a double - barrelled name. For instance, when John Smith and Mary Jones marry each other, they may become known as "John Smith - Jones '' and "Mary Smith - Jones. '' A spouse may also opt to use his or her birth name as a middle name. An additional option, although rarely practiced, is the adoption of a last name derived from a blend of the prior names, such as "Simones '', which also requires a legal name change. Some couples keep their own last names but give their children hyphenated or combined surnames.
In medieval Spain, a patronymic system was used. For example, Álvaro, the son of Rodrigo would be named Álvaro Rodríguez. His son, Juan, would not be named Juan Rodríguez, but Juan Álvarez. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish - speaking world. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. Delgado ("thin '') and Moreno (polysemous word, it can mean "brown skinned '', "dark skinned '', "tanned skinned '', "brunette hair '' or "black hair ''); occupations, e.g. Molinero ("miller ''), Zapatero ("Shoe - maker '') and Guerrero ("warrior ''); and geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. Alemán ("German '').
During the modern era, many cultures around the world adopted family names, particularly for administrative reasons, especially during the age of European expansion and particularly since 1600. Notable examples include the Netherlands (in the south 1795, rest 1811), Japan (1870s), Thailand (1920), and Turkey (1934). Nonetheless, their use is not universal: Icelanders, Tibetans, Burmese, Javanese, and many people groups in East Africa do not use family names.
Family names sometimes change or are replaced by non-family - name surnames under political pressure to avoid persecution. Examples are the cases with Chinese Indonesians and Chinese Thais after migration there during the 20th century, or the Jews who fled to different European countries to avoid persecution from the Nazis during World War II.
The United States followed the naming customs and practices of English common law and traditions until recent times. Beginning in the latter half of the 20th century, traditional naming practices, writes one commentator, were recognized as "com (ing) into conflict with current sensitivities about children 's and women 's rights. '' Those changes accelerated a shift away from the interests of the parents to a focus on the best interests of the child. The law in this area continues to evolve today mainly in the context of paternity and custody actions.
Upon marriage to a woman, men in the United States can easily change their surnames to that of their wives, or adopt a combination of both names with the federal government, through the Social Security Administration. Men may face difficulty doing so on the state level in some states. In some places, civil rights lawsuits or constitutional amendments changed the law so that men could also easily change their married names (e.g., in British Columbia and California). Québec law permits neither spouse to change surnames.
In 1979, the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ("CEDAW ''), which declared in effect that women and men, and specifically wife and husband, shall have the same rights to choose a "family name '', as well as a "profession '' and an "occupation. '' For a further description of and treatment of this Convention, see Matriname.
In France, until 1 January 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. Article 311 - 21 of the French Civil code now permits parents to give their children the family name of either their father, mother, or a hyphenation of both -- although no more than two names can be hyphenated. In cases of disagreement, the father 's name applies. This brought France into line with a 1978 declaration by the Council of Europe requiring member governments to take measures to adopt equality of rights in the transmission of family names, a measure that was echoed by the United Nations in 1979. Similar measures were adopted by West Germany (1976), Sweden (1982), Denmark (1983) and Spain (1999). The European Community has been active in eliminating gender discrimination. Several cases concerning discrimination in family names have reached the courts. Burghartz v. Switzerland challenged the lack of an option for husbands to add the wife 's surname to his surname, which they had chosen as the family name, when this option was available for women. Losonci Rose and Rose v. Switzerland challenged a prohibition on foreign men married to Swiss women keeping their surname if this option was provided in their national law, an option available to women. Unal Tekeli v. Turkey challenged prohibitions on women using their surname as the family name, an option only available to men. The Court found all these laws to be in violation of the Convention.
Only a fraction of surnames in English - speaking countries around the world come from Britain. English speakers ' surnames come from all parts of Europe, as well as other continents, with varying anglicization. With a few exceptions, Europe 's languages are cognate, so most European surnames have a common etymological origin. Some surnames are monogenetic (derived from one family at a specific place and time); others are polygenetic (coined independently at different places and times).
Basil Cottle classifies European surnames under just four broad categories, depending on their origin: given name (patronymics), occupational name, local name (toponymics), and nickname. This classification can be extended to surnames originating elsewhere. Other name etymologists use a fuller classification, but these four types underlie them.
These are the oldest and most common type of surname. They may be a simple first name such as "Wilhelm, '' a patronymic such as "Andersen, '' a matronymic such as "Beaton, '' or a clan name such as "O'Brien. '' Multiple surnames may be derived from a single given name: e.g. there are thought to be over 90 Italian surnames based on the given name "Giovanni. ''
The Icelandic system, formerly used in much of Scandinavia, does not use family names. A person 's last name indicates the first name of his or her father (patronymic) or in some cases mother (matronymic). Many common family names in other Scandinavian countries are a result of this naming practice, such as Hansen (son of Hans), Johansen (son of Johan) and Olsen (son of Ole / Ola), the three most common surnames in Norway. This also occurs in other cultures: Spanish and Portuguese (López or Lopes, son of Lope; Álvarez or Álvares, son of Álvaro; Domínguez or Domingues, son of Domingo or Domingos; etc.); in English (Johnson, son of John; Richardson, son of Richard), etc.
Patronymic name conventions are similar in some other nations, including Malaysia (see Malaysian name) and other Muslim countries, among most people of the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala (unlike another Indian state Andhra Pradesh, where ancestral origin village names have become surnames for the people), in Mongolia and in the Scottish Gaelic personal naming system. In Russia and Bulgaria, both patronymic and family name are obligatory parts of one 's full name: e.g. if a Russian is called Ivan Andreyevich Sergeyev, that means that his father 's name is Andrey and his family name is Sergeyev. A similar system is used in Greece.
In Ethiopia and Eritrea, a child adopts the given name of one of their parents, usually the father, as a pseudo-surname. For example, Abraham Mesfin 's father 's first name would have been Mesfin, while Abraham Mesfin 's child might be called "Netsanet Abraham. '' Just as in Iceland, referring to Abraham Mesfin as "Mr Mesfin '' would be erroneous: the correct term would be "Mr Abraham. '' Very rarely do children adopt their mother 's given name, who in any case would retain their "pseudo-surname ''.
As part of Hebrew patronymic names, Ben is followed by the father 's name, e.g. ben adam (Hebrew: בן אדם ) or Abraham ben Abraham. Bar -, "son of '' in Aramaic, is used likewise, e.g. Meir Bar - Ilan. Ben (Hebrew: בֶּן , son of) also forms part of Hebrew names, e.g. Benjamin.
There is a wide range of family name affixes with a patronymic function. Some are prefixes (e.g., Gaelic mac) but more are suffixes.
Occupational names include such simple examples as Smith (for a smith), Miller (for a miller), Farmer (for tax farmers or sometimes farmers), Thatcher (for a thatcher), Shepherd (for a shepherd), Potter (for a potter), and so on, as well as non-English ones, such as the German Eisenhauer (iron hewer, later Anglicized in America as Eisenhower) or Schneider (tailor) - or indeed, as in English, Schmidt (smith). There are also more complicated names based on occupational titles. In England it was common for servants to take a modified version of their employer 's occupation or first name as their last name, adding the letter s to the word, although this formation could also be a patronymic. For instance, the surname Vickers is thought to have arisen as an occupational name adopted by the servant of a vicar, while Roberts could have been adopted by either the son or the servant of a man named Robert. A subset of occupational names in English are names thought to be derived from the medieval mystery plays. The participants would often play the same roles for life, passing the part down to their oldest sons. Names derived from this may include King, Lord and Virgin. The original meaning of names based on medieval occupations may no longer be obvious in modern English (so the surnames Cooper, Chandler, and Cutler come from the occupations of making barrels, candles, and cutlery, respectively).
Archer, Bailey, Baker, Brewer, Butcher, Carter, Chandler, Clark, Collier, Cooper, Cook, Carpenter, Dempster, Dyer, Farmer, Faulkner, Fisher, Fletcher, Fowler, Fuller, Gardener, Glover, Hayward, Hawkins, Head, Hunt or Hunter, Judge, Knight, Miller, Mason, Page, Palmer, Parker, Porter, Potter, Sawyer, Slater, Smith, Stringer, Taylor, Thatcher, Turner, Walker, Weaver, Woodman and Wright (or variations such as Cartwright and Wainwright).
Location (toponymic, habitation) names derive from the inhabited location associated with the person given that name. Such locations can be any type of settlement, such as: homesteads, farms, enclosures, villages, hamlets, strongholds or cottages. One element of a habitation name may describe the type of settlement. Examples of Old English elements are frequently found in the second element of habitational names. The habitative elements in such names can differ in meaning, according to different periods, different locations, or with being used with certain other elements. For example, the Old English element tūn may have originally meant "enclosure '' in one name, but can have meant "farmstead '', "village '', "manor '', or "estate '' in other names.
Location names, or habitation names, may be as generic as "Monte '' (Portuguese for "mountain ''), "Górski '' (Polish for "hill '') or "Pitt '' (variant of "pit ''), but may also refer to specific locations. "Washington, '' for instance, is thought to mean "the homestead of the family of Wassa, '' while "Lucci '' likely means "resident of Lucca. '' Although some surnames, such as "London, '' "Lisboa '' or "Białystok '' are derived from large cities, more people reflect the names of smaller communities, as in Ó Creachmhaoil, derived from a village in County Galway. This is thought to be due to the tendency in Europe during the Middle Ages for migration to chiefly be from smaller communities to the cities and the need for new arrivals to choose a defining surname.
In Portuguese - speaking countries, it is not uncommon to find surnames derived from names of countries, such as Portugal, França, Brasil, Holanda.
Many Japanese surnames derive from geographical features; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means "stone river '', Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain '', and Inoue (井上) means "above the well. ''
Arabic names sometimes contain surnames that denote the city of origin. For example, in cases of Saddam Hussein al Tikriti, meaning Saddam Hussein originated from Tikrit, a city in Iraq. This component of the name is called a nisbah.
This is the broadest class of surnames, encompassing many types of origin. These include names, also known as eke - names, based on appearance such as "Schwartzkopf, '' "Short, '' and possibly "Caesar, '' and names based on temperament and personality such as "Daft, '' "Gutman, '' and "Maiden, '' which, according to a number of sources, was an English nickname meaning "effeminate. ''
Ornamental names used as surnames are more common in communities which adopted (or were forced to adopt) surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries. They occur commonly among Jewish families, Germany, and in Scandinavia. Examples include "Morgenstern '' ("morning star ''), "Safire '' ("sapphire ''), and "Reis '' ("branch ''). In some cases, such as Chinese Indonesians and Chinese Thais, certain ethnic groups are subject to political pressure to change their surnames, in which case surnames can lose their family - name meaning. For instance, Indonesian business tycoon Liem Swie Liong (林绍良) "indonesianised '' his name to Sudono Salim. In this case "Liem '' (林) was rendered by "Salim '', a name of Arabic origin, while "Sudono '', a Javanese name with the honorific prefix "su - '' (of Sanskrit origin), was supposed to be a rendering of "Swie Liong ''. During the era of the Trans - Atlantic slave trade (of Africans) many Africans lost their native names and were forced to take the surnames of their slave masters and any given name the slave master desired. In the Americas, the family names of many African - Americans have their origins in slavery (i.e. slave name). Many of them came to bear the surnames of their former owners. Many freed slaves either created family names themselves or adopted the name of their former master.
In some cultures, such as Greek, Bulgarian, Russian, Slovak, Czech, etc. surnames change form depending on the gender of the bearer. For example, in Greece, if a man called Papadopoulos has a daughter, she will likely be named Papadopoulou (if the couple have decided their offspring will take the his surname), since that name has a female version. In Poland, if the husband is named Podwiński, and his wife takes his surname, her last name, and those of their unmarried daughters, would be Podwińska. The sons would be known as Podwiński. In Lithuania, if the husband is named Vilkas, his wife will be named Vilkienė and his daughter will be named Vilkaitė. In Slovakia and Czech Republic alike, if a man is called Novák, the wife adds a feminine suffix "- ová '' to his surname after the marriage, hence Nováková. The same is true for daughters which almost always inherit the father 's surname with the feminine suffix.
The meanings of some names are unknown or unclear. The most common European name in this category may be the Irish name "Ryan '', which means little king in Irish Gaelic. Other surnames may have arisen from more than one source: the name "De Luca, '' for instance, likely arose either in or near Lucania or in the family of someone named Lucas or Lucius; in some instances, however, the name may have arisen from Lucca, with the spelling and pronunciation changing over time and with emigration. The same name may appear in different cultures by coincidence or romanization; the surname Lee is used in English culture, but is also a romanization of the Chinese surname Li. Surname origins have been the subject of much folk etymology.
In French Canada until the 19th century, several families adopted surnames that followed the family name in order to distinguish the various branches of a large family. Such a surname was preceded by the word "dit '' ("said '') and was known as a "nom - dit '' ("said - name ''). (Compare with some Roman naming conventions.) While this tradition is no longer in use, in many cases the nom - dit has come to replace the original family name. Thus the Bourbeau family has split into Bourbeau dit Verville, Bourbeau dit Lacourse, and Bourbeau dit Beauchesne. In many cases Verville, Lacourse, or Beauchesne has become the new family name. Likewise, the Rivard family has split into the Rivard dit Lavigne, Rivard dit Loranger and Rivard dit Lanoie. The origin of the nom - dit can vary. Often it denoted a geographical trait of the area where that branch of the family lived: Verville lived towards the city, Beauchesne lived near an oak tree, Larivière near a river, etc. Some of the oldest noms - dits are derived from the war name of a settler who served in the army or militia: Tranchemontagne ("mountain slasher ''), Jolicœur ("braveheart ''). Others denote a personal trait: Lacourse might have been a fast runner, Legrand was probably tall, etc.
While surnames are usually one word, in some cases a surname comprises more than one word.
In traditional Spanish culture, and as is still the case in many Spanish - speaking countries, an individual does not have only a single surname. Instead an individual inherits the surnames of all of their ancestors, in particular their father and mother. In practice individuals mostly use only the two surnames of their parents. For instance, Spanish ex-premier José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero has José Luis as his given name, Rodríguez, as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname. But in reality an individual can be referred to by any number of his or her surnames as the occasion may require. For example, Rodríguez Zapatero could also be referred to as
Additional surnames refer to grandmothers, great - grandmothers, and so forth. The number of surnames a person has is theoretically unlimited though it is rare to use more than a few (and indeed an individual may not know more than a few of his or her ancestors ' names).
This custom is not seen in the Hispanic world as being a true compound surname system per se, since it is widely understood that the first surname denotes one 's father 's family, and the second surname denotes one 's mother 's family. So "Rodríguez Zapatero '' is not considered one surname; it is two distinct surnames. Given that it is not a true compound surname, his children do not inherit the "compound '' surname "Rodríguez Zapatero. '' Only the paternal surname of both father and mother are passed on. The father 's paternal surname becomes the child 's own paternal surname, while the mother 's paternal surname becomes the child 's second surname (as the child 's own maternal surname). Thus, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero would pass on only Rodríguez to his children as their first (i.e. paternal) surname.
An additional complication is introduced by marriage. Rodríguez Zapatero 's wife was born Sonsoles Espinosa Díaz. Under Spanish tradition she is still known by that name, even after marriage. But she may also be known as
These other forms, particularly the last, are becoming less common as they are increasingly seen as sexist (i.e. that a wife is expected to take her husband 's name but not the other way around). Additionally, in Spain and some other countries it is becoming more common, in law and in practice, to allow placing the mother 's name before the father 's in a child 's surname rather than insisting that the privilege belongs exclusively to the father.
Beyond this seemingly "compound '' surname system in the Hispanic world, there are also true compound surnames in the Spanish - speaking countries. These true compound surnames are passed on and inherited as compounds. For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño, Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño. He would never be regarded as Luis Estrella, Telmo Estrella, or Luis Telmo Estrella, nor as Luis Paz, Telmo Paz, or Luis Telmo Paz. This is because "Paz '' alone is not his surname (although other people use the "Paz '' surname on its own).
In this case, Paz y Miño is in fact the paternal surname, being a true compound surname. His children, therefore, would inherit the compound surname "Paz y Miño '' as their paternal surname, while Estrella would be lost, since the mother 's paternal surname becomes the children 's second surname (as their own maternal surname). "Paz '' alone would not be passed on, nor would "Miño '' alone.
To avoid ambiguity, one might often informally see these true compound surnames hyphenated, for instance, as Paz - y - Miño. This is true especially in the English - speaking world, but also sometimes even in the Hispanic world, since to many Hispanics unfamiliar with this and other compound surnames, "Paz y Miño '' might be inadvertently mistaken as "Paz '' for the paternal surname and "Miño '' for the maternal surname. Although Miño did start off as the maternal surname in this compound surname, it was many generations ago, around five centuries, that it became compounded, and henceforth inherited and passed on as a compound.
Other surnames which started off as compounds of two or more surnames, but which merged into one single word, also exist. An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the "Paz Miño '' family of five centuries ago.
Álava, Spain is known for its incidence of true compound surnames, characterized for having the first portion of the surname as a patronymic, normally a Spanish patronymic (i.e. from the Castilian language) or more unusually a Basque language patronymic, followed by the preposition "de '', with the second part of the surname being a local toponymic surname from Álava.
Compound surnames in English and several other European cultures feature two (or occasionally more) words, often joined by a hyphen or hyphens. However, it is not unusual for compound surnames to be composed of separate words not linked by a hyphen, for example Iain Duncan Smith, a former leader of the British Conservative Party, whose surname is "Duncan Smith ''. A surname with the prefix "Fitz '' can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, as in "Fitz William '', as well as "FitzWilliam '' or "Fitzwilliam ''.
Irish surnames are the oldest surnames in Europe. The common prefixes "Ó '' and "Mac '' can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, yielding "Ó Briain '' or "Mac Millan '' as well as the anglicized "O'Brien '' and "MacMillan '' or "Macmillan. ''
In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50 % of the population, and about 1 % of the population has the surname Smith, which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker ''), a contraction, for instance, of blacksmith or other metalsmiths. Several American surnames are a result of corruptions or phonetic misappropriations of European surnames, perhaps as a result of the registration process at the immigration entry points. Spellings and pronunciations of names remained fluid in the United States until the Social Security System enforced standardization.
Approximately 70 % of Canadians have surnames that are of English, Irish, French, or Scottish derivation.
According to some estimates, 85 % of China 's population shares just 100 surnames. The names Wang, Zhang and Li are the most frequent.
In Spain and in most Spanish - speaking countries, the custom is for people to have two surnames. Usually the first surname comes from the father and the second from the mother, but it could be the other way round. When speaking or in informal situations only the first one is used, although both are needed for legal purpose. A child 's first surname will usually be their father 's first surname, while the child 's second surname will usually be the mother 's first surname. For example, if José García Torres and María Acosta Gómez had a child named Pablo, then his full name would be Pablo García Acosta. One family member 's relationship to another can often be identified by the various combinations and permutations of surnames.
In some instances, when an individual 's given name and first family name are too common (such as in José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero and Mario Vargas Llosa), both family names are used (though not necessarily both given names). A person could even take the maternal name for informal situations instead of the paternal name, for personal preferences or if the maternal name is somehow "special '' (José Luís Rodríguez Zapatero is known in Spanish as "José Luis Zapatero '' or just as "Zapatero ''). In Spain, a new law approved in 1999 allows an adult to change the order of his / her family names, and parents can also change the order of their children 's family names if they (and the child, if over 12) agree.
In Spain, especially Catalonia, the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using the conjunction y ("and '' in Spanish) or i ("and '' in Catalan), see for example the economist Xavier Sala - i - Martin or painter Salvador Dalí i Domènech.
In Spain, a woman does not change her legal surnames when she marries. In some Spanish - speaking countries in Latin America, a woman may, on her marriage, drop her mother 's surname and add her husband 's surname to her father 's surname using the preposition de ("of ''), del ("of the '', when the following word is masculine) or de la ("of the '', when the following word is feminine). For example, if "Clara Reyes Alba '' were to marry "Alberto Gómez Rodríguez '', the wife could use "Clara Reyes de Gómez '' as her name (or "Clara Reyes Gómez '', or, rarely, "Clara Gómez Reyes ''. She can be addressed as Sra. de Gómez corresponding to "Mrs Gómez ''). In some countries, this form may be mainly social and not an official name change, i.e. her name would still legally be her birth name. This custom of adding the husband 's surname is slowly fading.
Sometimes a father transmits his combined family names, thus creating a new one e.g., the paternal surname of the son of Javier (given name) Reyes (paternal family name) de la Barrera (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname Reyes de la Barrera. De is also the nobiliary particle used with Spanish surnames. This can not be chosen by the person, as it is part of the surname, for example "Puente '' and "Del Puente '' are not the same surname.
Children take the surnames of both parents, so if the couple above had two children named "Andrés '' and "Ana '', then their names would be "Andrés Gómez Reyes '' and "Ana Gómez Reyes ''. In Spain, a 1995 reform in the law allows the parents to choose whether the father 's or the mother 's surname goes first, although this order must be the same for all their children. For instance, the name of the son of the couple in the example above could be either "Andrés Gómez Reyes '' or "Andrés Reyes Gómez ''. Sometimes, for single mothers or when the father would or could not recognize the child, the mother 's surname has been used twice: for example, "Ana Reyes Reyes ''. In Spain, however, children with just one parent receive both surnames of that parent, although the order may also be changed. In 1973 in Chile, the law was changed to avoid stigmatizing illegitimate children with the maternal surname repeated.
It should be noted that some Hispanic people, after leaving their country, drop their maternal surname, even if not formally, so as to better fit into the non-Hispanic society they live or work in. Dropping the paternal surname is not unusual when it is a very common one. For instance, painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso and Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are known by their maternal surnames as "Picasso '' and "Zapatero ''. Similarly, Anglophones with just one surname may be asked to provide a second surname on official documents in Spanish - speaking countries. When none (such as the mother 's maiden name) is provided, the last name may simply be repeated.
Traditionally in most countries, and currently in some Spanish - speaking countries, women, upon marrying, keep their own family names. It is considered impolite towards her family for a woman to change her name. The higher class women of Cuba and Spain traditionally never change their names. In certain rare situations, a woman may be addressed with her paternal surname followed by her husband 's paternal surname linked with de. For example, a woman named Ana García Díaz, upon marrying Juan Guerrero Macías, could be called Ana García de Guerrero. This custom, begun in medieval times, is decaying and only has legal validity in Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Peru, Panama, and to a certain extent in Mexico (where it is optional but becoming obsolete), but is frowned upon by people in Spain, Cuba, and elsewhere. In Peru and the Dominican Republic, women normally conserve all family names after getting married. For example, if Rosa María Pérez Martínez marries Juan Martín De la Cruz Gómez, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez de De la Cruz, and if the husband dies, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez Vda. de De la Cruz (Vda. being the abbreviation for viuda, "widow '' in Spanish). The law in Peru changed some years ago, and all married women can keep their maiden last name if they wish with no alteration.
In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage, the wife is referred to as "hermana '' (sister) plus the surname of her husband. And most records of the church follow that structure as well.
A new trend in the United States for Hispanics is to hyphenate their father 's and mother 's last names. This is done because American born English - speakers are not aware of the Hispanic custom of using two last names and thus mistake the first last name of the individual for a middle name. In doing so they would, for example, mistakenly refer to Esteban Álvarez Cobos as Esteban A. Cobos. Such confusion can be particularly troublesome in official matters. To avoid such mistakes, Esteban Álvarez Cobos, would become Esteban Álvarez - Cobos, to clarify that both are last names.
In Spanish villages in Catalonia, Galicia, and Asturias and in Cuba, people are often known by the name of their dwelling or collective family nickname rather than by their surnames. For example, Remei Pujol i Serra who lives at Ca l'Elvira would be referred to as "Remei de Ca l'Elvira ''; and Adela Barreira López who is part of the "Provisores '' family would be known as "Adela dos Provisores ''. In the case of Cantabria the family 's nickname is used instead of the surname: if one family is known as "Ñecos '' because of an ancestor who was known as "Ñecu '', they would be "José el de Ñecu '' or "Ana la de Ñecu '' (collective: the Ñeco 's). Some common nicknames are "Rubiu '' (blonde or ginger hair), "Roju '' (reddish, as referred to ginger hair), "Chiqui '' (small), "Jinchu '' (big), and a bunch of names about certain characteristics, family relationship or geographical origin (pasiegu, masoniegu, sobanu, llebaniegu, tresmeranu, pejinu, naveru, merachu, tresneru, troule, mallavia, marotias, llamoso, lipa, ñecu, tarugu, trapajeru, lichón, andarível).
In the case of Portuguese naming customs, the main surname (the one used in alphasorting, indexing, abbreviations, and greetings), appears last.
Each person usually has two family names: though the law specifies no order, the first one is usually the maternal family name, whereas the last one is commonly the paternal family name. In Portugal, a person 's full name has a minimum legal length of two names (one given name and one family name from either parent) and a maximum of six names (two first names and four surnames -- he or she may have up to four surnames in any order desired picked up from the total of his / her parents and grandparents ' surnames). The use of any surname outside this lot, or of more than six names, is legally possible, but it requires dealing with bureaucracy. Parents or the person him / herself must explain the claims they have to bearing that surname (a family nickname, a rare surname lost in past generations, or any other reason one may find suitable). In Brazil there is no limit of surnames used.
In general, the traditions followed in countries like Brazil, Portugal and Angola are somewhat different from the ones in Spain. In the Spanish tradition, usually the father 's surname comes first, followed by the mother 's surname, whereas in Portuguese - speaking countries the father 's name is the last, mother 's coming first. A woman may adopt her husband 's surname (s), but nevertheless she usually keeps her birth names, or at least the last one. Since 1977, a husband can also adopt his wife 's surname. When this happens, usually both spouses change their name after marriage.
The custom of a woman changing her name upon marriage is recent. It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence, and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940, it became socially almost obligatory. Nowadays, fewer women adopt, even officially, their husbands ' names, and among those who do so officially, it is quite common not to use it either in their professional or informal life.
For the children, some bear only the last surnames of the parents. For example, Carlos da Silva Gonçalves and Ana Luísa de Albuquerque Pereira (Gonçalves) (in case she adopted her husband 's name after marriage) would have a child named Lucas Pereira Gonçalves. However, the child may have any other combination of the parents ' surnames, according to euphony, social significance or other reasons.
In ancient times a patronymic was commonly used -- surnames like Gonçalves ("son of Gonçalo ''), Fernandes ("son of Fernando ''), Nunes ("son of Nuno ''), Soares ("son of Soeiro ''), Sanches ("son of Sancho ''), Henriques ("son of Henrique ''), Rodrigues ("son of Rodrigo '') which along with many others are still in regular use as very prevalent family names.
In Medieval times, Portuguese nobility started to use one of their estates ' names or the name of the town or village they ruled as their surname, just after their patronymic. Soeiro Mendes da Maia bore a name "Soeiro '', a patronymic "Mendes '' ("son of Hermenegildo -- shortened to Mendo '') and the name of the town he ruled "Maia ''. He was often referred to in 12th century documents as "Soeiro Mendes, senhor da Maia '', Soeiro Mendes, lord of Maia. Noblewomen also bore patronymics and surnames in the same manner and never bore their husband 's surname. First - born males bore their father 's surname, other children bore either both or only one of them at their will.
Only during the Early Modern Age, lower - class males started to use at least one surname; married lower - class women usually took up their spouse 's surname, since they rarely ever used one beforehand. After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, Portuguese authorities realized the benefits of enforcing the use and registry of surnames. Henceforth, they became mandatory, although the rules for their use were very liberal.
Until the end of the 19th century it was common for women, especially those from a very poor background, not to have a surname and so to be known only by their first names. A woman would then adopt her husband 's full surname after marriage. With the advent of republicanism in Brazil and Portugal, along with the institution of civil registries, all children now have surnames. During the mid-20th century, under French influence and among upper classes, women started to take up their husbands ' surname (s). From the 1960s onwards, this usage spread to the common people, again under French influence, this time, however, due to the forceful legal adoption of their husbands ' surname which was imposed onto Portuguese immigrant women in France.
From the 1974 Carnation Revolution onwards the adoption of their husbands ' surname (s) receded again, and today both the adoption and non-adoption occur, with non-adoption being chosen in the majority of cases in recent years (60 %). Also, it is legally possible for the husband to adopt his wife 's surname (s), but this practice is rare.
Brazilians usually call people only by their given names, omitting family names, even in many formal situations, as in the press referring to authorities, e.g. "Former President Fernando Henrique '', never Former President Cardoso, or even "Former President Lula '' ("Lula '' is actually his nickname). When formality or a prefix requires a family name, the given name usually precedes the surname, e.g. João Santos, or Sr. João Santos.
The Assyrians (a.k.a. Chaldo - Assyrian) are a distinct ethnic group, descendant largely from the population of ancient Assyria, indigenous to Mesopotamia with deep and long roots in the Middle East, mainly present - day Iraq, northwest Iran, northeast Syria and southeast Turkey.
Surnames come from the Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic dialects of the Assyrian (Chaldo - Assyrian) people. Some surnames are connected to East Syrian Rite Christianity, the religion Assyrians currently follow and have followed since the 1st Century AD, with others being of distinctly ancient Assyrian / Mesopotamian origin.
Common surnames include: Aboona, Abraham, Abro, Agajan, Agassi, Aghase, Akkad, Akbalit / Akbalut, Alamasha, Alawerdy, Aldawid, Amo Baba, Amu, Antar, Aprim, Apshu, Afarcan, Arad, Ashai, Ashouri, Ashurian, Ashur, Awdishu, Awikam, Awishalim, Awitor, Awia, Awrohum, Aziz, Azzo, Baba, Bacchus, Badel, Barkha / Barkho, Brikha, Bronit, Balou, Barkoo, Benassi, Benyamin, Bidavid, Bidawid, Bishu, Cabani, Dadashu / Dadasho, Darmu, Dinkha, Daoud, Dayan / Daian, Disho, Duman, Elia, Elias, Enwia, Eshai, Farhad, Gorges / Georgis, Gewargis, Hadad / Adad, Hamsho, Hasso, Harshu, Hormis, Hosanna, Hurmis, Ilshu, Ilishu, Ishmael, Ishai, Isaac, Ishaq, Iskhaq, Iwassi, Jabri, Jelu, Jendo, Juna, Kambar, Karam, Karoukian, Kasri, Khamo, Khanbaba, Khanisho / Khnanisu, Khnaninia, Khedroo, Khoshanu, Khoshaba, Malech, Malek, Malka, Malkai, Malick, Mamendo, Matti, Merza, Mikhael / Mikhail, Mnashi, Nisan, Nimrod, Narsai, Ninweh, Nineveh, Nessar, Odah, Odisha, Odisho, Oraham, Oshana, Qateneh, Raaba, Rabi, Rafael, Ramsin / Rumsin, Rassam, Rifkha, Ronay, Samo, Sargis, Sargon, Sarkis, Sarmas, Sayad, Semma, Shabad, Shamash / Shamasha, Shamshi, Sinharib, Sharrukin, Shimun, Shamoon, Shimon, Shimonaya, Shinu, Shinai, Sleman, Shulman, Sliwoo / Sliwa, Tematheus, Thoma, Thomaya, Tamraz, Tiras, Tiyareh / Tyareh, Urshan, Warda, Warad, Yacoub, Yawalaha, Yalda, Yatrin, Yetron, Yelu, Yoel, Yohannan, Yonan, Yonadam Yoseph, Yoshu, Youkhana, Younan, Yousif, Yukhannan, Zakharia, Zilkha, Zimri.
In the case of Circassians, especially Adyges and Kabardians, hereditary surnames have been borne by people for many years.
Most surnames of Adyge origin fall into six types:
Shogen comes from the Christian era, and Yefendi and Mole come from the Muslim era.
Circassian women, even when they marry, do not change their surnames. By keeping their surnames and passing it on to the next generation, children come to distinguish relatives from the maternal side and respect her family as well as those from their father 's side.
On the other hand, children can not marry someone who bears the same surname as they do, no matter how distantly related.
In the Circassian tradition, the formula for surnames is patterned to mean "daughter of... ''
Abkhaz families follow similar naming patterns reflecting the common roots of the Abkhazian, Adygean and Wubikh peoples.
Circassian family names can not be derived from women 's names or from the name of female ancestors.
Jewish names have historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions. The most usual last name for those of the priest tribe is "Cohen '' / "Kahen '' / "Kogan '' / "Kohen '' / "Katz '' (a Hebrew acronym of Kohen Tzedek, or righteous Kohen) and for those of the Levites, "Levi '' / "Levine ''. Those who came from Central or Eastern Europe usually have "Rosen '' ("rose ''), "Spiel '', "Gold '', and other German words as their names ' prefixes, and "man '', "wyn '' / "wein '' ("wine ''), "berg '' ("mountain ''), and other German words as their names ' suffixes. Many Sephardic Jews adopted Spanish or Arabic names, like "Toledo '', "Bejarano '', "Azizi '' ("you 're (someones) love ''), "Hassan '' or added words to their original names, Beizaee ("Iza '', God is perfection), like "Kohenzadeh '' ("(she) bore a Kohen ''). Names like "Johnson '' and "Peterson '' may be used in Jewish tradition as they too used the father 's name as identification. So "Johnson '' in Hebrew is "Ben Yochanon '', meaning "Yochanon (John) 's son ''. Many Yemenite Jews ' family names are consisting of the place in which their ancestors have come to Yemen (like Sana'a) and an "i '' in the end (like the family name "San'ani ''), indicating belonging to the place they have originated from.
The majority of Kurds do not hold Kurdish names because the names have been banned in the countries they primarily live in (namely Iran, Turkey and Syria). Kurds in these respective countries tend to hold Turkish, Persian or Arabic names, in the majority of cases, forcefully appointed by the ruling governments. Others hold Arabic names as a result of the influence of Islam and Arab culture.
Kurds holding authentic Kurdish names are generally found in Diaspora or in Iraqi Kurdistan where Kurds are relatively free. Traditionally, Kurdish family names are inherited from the tribes of which the individual or families are members. However, some families inherit the names of the regions they are from.
Common affixes of authentic Kurdish names are "- î '' and "- za '' also "- a '' and "- ê '' by two surnames. e.g.: Name + 1Surname + 2Surname Male:
Baran of Mem of Alan
Female:
Berfin of Sarah of Evin there are also names with the word "Mal (a) '' (House (of)) e.g.:
Baran of House of Alan
Berfin of House of Evin
Some common Kurdish last names, which are also the names of their respective tribes, include Baradost, Barzani, Berwari, Berzinji, Chelki, Diri, Doski, Jaf, Mutki, Rami, Rekani, Rozaki, Sindi, and Tovi. Other names include Akreyi, Alan, Amedi, Botani, Hewrami, Mukri, and Serhati.
Traditionally, Kurdish women did not inherit a man 's last name. Although still not in practice by many Kurds, this can be more commonly found today.
Tibetan people are often named at birth by the local Buddhist Lama or they may request a name from the Dalai Lama. The majority do not have family names. They may change their name throughout life if advised by a Buddhist Lama, for example if a different name removes obstacles. Tibetans who enter monastic life take a name from their ordination Lama, which will be a combination of the Lama 's name and a new name for them.
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how long did it take to film apocalypse now | Apocalypse Now - wikipedia
Apocalypse Now is a 1979 American epic war film directed, produced, and co-written by Francis Ford Coppola. It stars Marlon Brando, Robert Duvall, Martin Sheen, Frederic Forrest, Albert Hall, Sam Bottoms, Laurence Fishburne, and Dennis Hopper. The screenplay, co-written by Coppola and John Milius (who received an Oscar nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay) and featuring narration written by Michael Herr, is an updating of Joseph Conrad 's novella Heart of Darkness. The setting was changed from late nineteenth - century Congo to the Vietnam War ca. 1969 -- 70, the years in which Green Beret Colonel Robert Rheault, commander of the 5th Special Forces Group, was indicted for murder and President Richard Nixon authorized the secret Cambodian Campaign. Coppola said that Rheault was an inspiration for the character of Colonel Kurtz. The voice - over narration of Willard was written by war correspondent Herr, whose 1977 Vietnam memoir Dispatches brought him to the attention of Coppola. A major influence on the film was Werner Herzog 's Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972), which also features a river journey and an insane soldier. The film revolves around a river journey from South Vietnam into Cambodia undertaken by Captain Benjamin L. Willard (a character based on Conrad 's Marlow and played by Sheen), who is on a secret mission to assassinate Colonel Kurtz, a renegade Army officer accused of murder who is presumed insane.
The film has been noted for the problems encountered while making it, chronicled in the documentary Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse (1991). These problems included Brando arriving on the set overweight and completely unprepared, expensive sets being destroyed by severe weather, and Sheen having a breakdown and suffering a near - fatal heart attack while on location. Problems continued after production as the release was postponed several times while Coppola edited thousands of feet of film.
Apocalypse Now was honored with the Palme d'Or at Cannes Film Festival, nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Drama. Initial reviews were mixed; while Vittorio Storaro 's cinematography was widely acclaimed, several critics found Coppola 's handling of the story 's major themes to be anticlimactic and intellectually disappointing. Reevaluated in subsequent years, Apocalypse Now is today considered to be one of the greatest films ever made. It ranked No. 14 in Sight & Sound 's greatest films poll in 2012. In 2000, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1969, during the Vietnam War, United States Army Special Forces Colonel Walter E. Kurtz is deemed insane and now commands his own Montagnard troops, inside neutral Cambodia, as a demi - god. Colonel Lucas and General Corman, increasingly concerned with Kurtz 's vigilante operations, assign MACV - SOG Captain Benjamin L. Willard to "terminate '' Kurtz "with extreme prejudice ''.
Willard, initially ambivalent, joins a United States Navy river patrol boat (PBR) commanded by Chief, with crewmen Lance, "Chef '', and "Mr. Clean '' to head upriver. They rendezvous with surfing enthusiast Lieutenant Colonel Bill Kilgore, 1st Cavalry commander, to discuss going up the Nùng. Kilgore scoffs, but befriends Lance after discovering he is a famous surfer and agrees to escort them through the Nùng 's Viet Cong -- held coastal mouth. They successfully raid at dawn, with Kilgore ordering a napalm strike on the local cadres. Willard gathers his men to the PBR and journeys upriver.
Tension arises as Willard believes himself in command of the PBR while Chief prioritizes other objectives over Willard 's. Slowly making their way upriver, Willard reveals his mission partially to the Chief to assuage his concerns about why his mission should proceed. As night falls, the PBR reaches the American Do Lung Bridge outpost on the Nùng River. Willard and Lance enter seeking information for what is upriver. Unable to find the commander, Willard orders the Chief to continue as an unseen enemy launches an assault on the bridge.
The next day, Willard learns from dispatch that another MACV - SOG operative, Captain Colby, who was sent on an earlier mission identical to Willard 's, had joined Kurtz. Meanwhile, as the crew read letters from home, Lance activates a smoke grenade, attracting the attention of a camouflaged enemy, and Mr. Clean is killed. Further upriver, Chief is impaled by a spear thrown by the natives and attempts to kill Willard by impaling him. Willard suffocates him, and Lance buries Chief in the river. Willard reveals his mission to Chef, but despite his anger towards the mission, he rejects Willard 's offer for him to continue alone and insists that they complete the mission together.
The PBR arrives at Kurtz 's outpost and the surviving crew are met by an American freelance photojournalist, who manically praises Kurtz 's genius. As they wander through they come across a near - catatonic Colby, along with other US servicemen now in Kurtz 's renegade army. Returning to the PBR, Willard later takes Lance with him, leaving Chef behind with orders to call in an airstrike on Kurtz 's compound if they do not return. Chef is later killed by Kurtz.
In the camp, Willard is subdued, bound, and brought before Kurtz in a darkened temple. Tortured and imprisoned for several days, Willard is released and allowed to freely roam the compound. Kurtz lectures him on his theories of war, the human condition, and civilization while praising the ruthlessness and dedication of the Viet Cong. Kurtz discusses his family, and asks that Willard tell his son about him after his death.
That night, as the Montagnards ceremonially slaughter a water buffalo, Willard stealthily enters Kurtz 's chamber, as he is making a recording, and attacks him with a machete. Mortally wounded, Kurtz utters "... The horror... the horror... '' and dies. All in the compound see Willard departing, carrying a collection of Kurtz 's writings, and bow down to him. Willard then leads Lance to the boat and the duo motor away. Kurtz 's final words echo eerily as everything fades to black.
Although inspired by Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness, the film deviates extensively from its source material. The novella, based on Conrad 's experience as a steamboat captain in Africa, is set in the Congo Free State during the 19th century. Kurtz and Marlow (whose corresponding character in the movie is Capt. Willard) work for a Belgian trading company that brutally exploits its native African workers.
After arriving at Kurtz 's outpost, Marlow concludes that Kurtz has gone insane and is lording over a small tribe as a god. The novella ends with Kurtz dying on the trip back and the narrator musing about the darkness of the human psyche: "the heart of an immense darkness ''.
In the novella, Marlow is the pilot of a river boat sent to collect ivory from Kurtz 's outpost, only gradually becoming infatuated with Kurtz. In fact, when he discovers Kurtz in terrible health, Marlow makes an effort to bring him home safely. In the film, Willard is an assassin dispatched to kill Kurtz. Nevertheless, the depiction of Kurtz as a god - like leader of a tribe of natives and his malarial fever, Kurtz 's written exclamation "Exterminate all the brutes! '' (which appears in the film as "Drop the bomb. Exterminate them all! '') and his last words "The horror! The horror! '' are taken from Conrad 's novella.
Coppola argues that many episodes in the film -- the spear and arrow attack on the boat, for example -- respect the spirit of the novella and in particular its critique of the concepts of civilization and progress. Other episodes adapted by Coppola, the Playboy Playmates ' (Sirens) exit, the lost souls, "take me home '' attempting to reach the boat and Kurtz 's tribe of (white - faced) natives parting the canoes (gates of Hell) for Willard, (with Chef and Lance) to enter the camp are likened to Virgil and "The Inferno '' (Divine Comedy) by Dante. While Coppola replaced European colonialism with American interventionism, the message of Conrad 's book is still clear.
Coppola 's interpretation of the Kurtz character is often speculated to have been modeled after Tony Poe, a highly decorated Vietnam - era paramilitary officer from the CIA 's Special Activities Division. Poe 's actions in Vietnam and in the ' Secret War ' in neighbouring Laos, in particular his highly unorthodox and often savage methods of waging war, show many similarities to those of the fictional Kurtz; for example, Poe was known to drop severed heads into enemy - controlled villages as a form of psychological warfare and use human ears to record the number of enemies his indigenous troops had killed. He would send these ears back to his superiors as proof of the efficacy of his operations deep inside Laos. Coppola denies that Poe was a primary influence and says the character was loosely based on Special Forces Colonel Robert B. Rheault, who was the actual head of 5th Special Forces Group (May to July 1969), and whose 1969 arrest over the murder of suspected double agent Thai Khac Chuyen in Nha Trang generated substantial contemporary news coverage, in the Green Beret Affair, including making public the phrase "terminate with extreme prejudice '', which was used prominently in the movie.
In the film, shortly before Colonel Kurtz dies, he recites part of T.S. Eliot 's poem "The Hollow Men ''. The poem is preceded in printed editions by the epigraph "Mistah Kurtz -- he dead '', a quotation from Conrad 's Heart of Darkness.
Two books seen opened on Kurtz 's desk in the film are From Ritual to Romance by Jessie Weston and The Golden Bough by Sir James Frazer, the two books that Eliot cited as the chief sources and inspiration for his poem "The Waste Land ''. Eliot 's original epigraph for "The Waste Land '' was this passage from Heart of Darkness, which ends with Kurtz 's final words:
Did he live his life again in every detail of desire, temptation, and surrender during that supreme moment of complete knowledge? He cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision, -- he cried out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath --
When Willard is first introduced to Dennis Hopper 's character, the photojournalist describes his own worth in relation to that of Kurtz with: "I should have been a pair of ragged claws / Scuttling across the floors of silent seas '', from "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock ''.
While working as an assistant for Francis Ford Coppola on The Rain People, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg encouraged their friend and filmmaker John Milius to write a Vietnam War film. Milius had wanted to volunteer for the war, and was disappointed when he was rejected for having asthma. Milius came up with the idea for adapting the plot of Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness to the Vietnam War setting. He had read the novel when he was a teenager and was reminded about it by one of his college lecturers who had mentioned the several unsuccessful attempts to adapt it into a movie.
Coppola gave Milius $15,000 to write the screenplay with the promise of an additional $10,000 if it were green - lit. Milius claims that he wrote the screenplay in 1969 and originally called it The Psychedelic Soldier. He wanted to use Conrad 's novel as "a sort of allegory. It would have been too simple to have followed the book completely. ''
Milius based the character of Willard and some of Kurtz 's on a friend of his, Fred Rexer. Rexer claimed to have experienced, first - hand, the scene related by Brando 's character wherein the arms of villagers are hacked off by the Viet Cong. Kurtz was based on Robert B. Rheault, head of special forces in Vietnam. Scholars have never found any evidence to corroborate Rexer 's claim, nor any similar Viet Cong behavior, and consider it an urban legend.
At one point, Coppola told Milius, "Write every scene you ever wanted to go into that movie '', and he wrote ten drafts, amounting to over a thousand pages. Milius changed the film 's title to Apocalypse Now after being inspired by a button badge popular with hippies during the 1960s that said "Nirvana Now ''. He was influenced by an article written by Michael Herr titled, "The Battle for Khe Sanh '', which referred to drugs, rock ' n ' roll, and people calling airstrikes down on themselves. He was also inspired by such films as Dr Strangelove.
Milius says the classic line "Charlie do n't surf '' was inspired by a comment Ariel Sharon made during the Six - Day War, when he went skin diving after capturing enemy territory and announced "We 're eating their fish ''. He says the line "I love the smell of napalm in the morning '' just came to him.
Milius had no desire to direct the film himself and felt that Lucas was the right person for the job. Lucas worked with Milius for four years developing the film, alongside his work on other films, including his script for Star Wars. He approached Apocalypse Now as a black comedy, and intended to shoot the film after making THX 1138, with principal photography to start in 1971. Lucas 's friend and producer Gary Kurtz traveled to the Philippines, scouting suitable locations. They intended to shoot the film in both the rice fields between Stockton and Sacramento, California, and on - location in Vietnam, on a $2 million budget, cinéma vérité style, using 16 mm cameras, and real soldiers, while the war was still going on. However, due to the studios ' safety concerns and Lucas 's involvement with American Graffiti and Star Wars, Lucas decided to shelve the project for the time being.
Originally, Coppola wanted the film to be a special event by having it play in exactly one theater somewhere in Kansas in the geographical center of the country, built especially for the film, with a specially - made sound system, where the film would run continuously for ten years, and then hopefully anybody who wanted to show the film in their theaters would have to approach Coppola and exhibit it on his terms.
Coppola was drawn to Milius 's script, which he described as "a comedy and a terrifying psychological horror story ''. In the spring of 1974, Coppola discussed with friends and co-producers Fred Roos and Gray Frederickson the idea of producing the film. He asked Lucas and then Milius to direct Apocalypse Now, but both men were involved with other projects; in Lucas 's case, he got the go - ahead to make Star Wars, and declined the offer to direct Apocalypse Now. Coppola was determined to make the film and pressed ahead himself. He envisioned the film as a definitive statement on the nature of modern war, the difference between good and evil, and the impact of American society on the rest of the world. The director said that he wanted to take the audience "through an unprecedented experience of war and have them react as much as those who had gone through the war ''.
In 1975, while promoting The Godfather Part II in Australia, Coppola and his producers scouted possible locations for Apocalypse Now in Cairns in northern Queensland, that had jungle resembling Vietnam. He decided to make his film in the Philippines for its access to American equipment and cheap labor. Production coordinator Fred Roos had already made two low - budget films there for Monte Hellman, and had friends and contacts in the country. Coppola spent the last few months of 1975 revising Milius 's script and negotiating with United Artists to secure financing for the production. According to Frederickson, the budget was estimated between $12 and 14 million. Coppola 's American Zoetrope assembled $8 million from distributors outside the United States and $7.5 million from United Artists who assumed that the film would star Marlon Brando, Steve McQueen, and Gene Hackman. Frederickson went to the Philippines and had dinner with President Ferdinand Marcos to formalize support for the production and to allow them to use some of the country 's military equipment.
Steve McQueen was Coppola 's first choice to play Willard, but the actor did not accept because he did not want to leave America for 17 weeks. Al Pacino was also offered the role but he too did not want to be away for that long a period of time and was afraid of falling ill in the jungle as he had done in the Dominican Republic during the shooting of The Godfather Part II. Jack Nicholson, Robert Redford, and James Caan were approached to play either Kurtz or Willard. Tommy Lee Jones, Keith Carradine, Nick Nolte, and Frederic Forrest were also considered for the role of Willard.
In a 2015 The Hollywood Reporter interview, Clint Eastwood revealed that Coppola offered him the role of Willard, but much like McQueen and Pacino, did n't want to be away from America for a long time. Eastwood also revealed that McQueen tried to convince him to play Willard while he would play Kurtz because he would only have to work for two weeks.
Coppola and Roos had been impressed by Martin Sheen 's screen test for Michael in The Godfather and he became their top choice to play Willard, but the actor had already accepted another project and Harvey Keitel was cast in the role based on his work in Martin Scorsese 's Mean Streets. Principal photography began three weeks later. Within a few days, Coppola was unhappy with Harvey Keitel 's take on Willard, saying that the actor "found it difficult to play him as a passive onlooker ''. After viewing early footage, the director took a plane back to Los Angeles and replaced Keitel with Martin Sheen. By early 1976, Coppola had persuaded Marlon Brando to play Kurtz for an enormous fee of $3.5 million for a month 's work on location in September 1976. Dennis Hopper was cast as a war correspondent and observer of Kurtz; when Coppola heard Hopper talking nonstop on location, he remembered putting "the cameras and the Montagnard shirt on him, and (shooting) the scene where he greets them on the boat ''. James Caan was the first choice to play Colonel Lucas. Caan wanted too much money for what was considered a minor part in the movie, and Harrison Ford was eventually cast instead.
On March 1, 1976, Coppola and his family flew to Manila and rented a large house there for the five - month shoot. Sound and photographic equipment had been coming in from California since late 1975.
Typhoon Olga wrecked the sets at Iba and on May 26, 1976, production was closed down. Dean Tavoularis remembers that it "started raining harder and harder until finally it was literally white outside, and all the trees were bent at forty - five degrees ''. One part of the crew was stranded in a hotel and the others were in small houses that were immobilized by the storm. The Playboy Playmate set had been destroyed, ruining a month 's shooting that had been scheduled. Most of the cast and crew went back to the United States for six to eight weeks. Tavoularis and his team stayed on to scout new locations and rebuild the Playmate set in a different place. Also, the production had bodyguards watching constantly at night and one day the entire payroll was stolen. According to Coppola 's wife, Eleanor, the film was six weeks behind schedule and $2 million over budget; he had to offer his car, house, and The Godfather profits as security to finish the film.
Coppola flew back to the U.S. in June 1976. He read a book about Genghis Khan to get a better handle on the character of Kurtz. After filming commenced, Marlon Brando arrived in Manila very overweight and began working with Coppola to rewrite the ending. The director downplayed Brando 's weight by dressing him in black, photographing only his face, and having another, taller actor double for him in an attempt to portray Kurtz as an almost mythical character.
After Christmas 1976, Coppola viewed a rough assembly of the footage but still needed to improvise an ending. He returned to the Philippines in early 1977 and resumed filming. On March 5, 1977, Sheen had a heart attack and struggled for a quarter of a mile to reach help. By that time, the film was already so over-budget, even he worried funding would be halted if word about his condition were to reach the investors, and claimed he suffered heat stroke instead. He was back on the set on April 19. A major sequence in a French plantation cost hundreds of thousands of dollars but was cut from the final film. Rumors began to circulate that Apocalypse Now had several endings but Richard Beggs, who worked on the sound elements, said, "There were never five endings, but just the one, even if there were differently edited versions ''. These rumors came from Coppola departing frequently from the original screenplay. Coppola admitted that he had no ending because Brando was too fat to play the scenes as written in the original script. With the help of Dennis Jakob, Coppola decided that the ending could be "the classic myth of the murderer who gets up the river, kills the king, and then himself becomes the king -- it 's the Fisher King, from The Golden Bough ''.
A water buffalo was slaughtered with a machete for the climactic scene. The scene was inspired by a ritual performed by a local Ifugao tribe which Coppola had witnessed along with his wife (who filmed the ritual later shown in the documentary Hearts of Darkness) and film crew. Although this was an American production subject to American animal cruelty laws, scenes like this filmed in the Philippines were not policed or monitored and the American Humane Association gave the film an "unacceptable '' rating. The budget remained a problem; after Star Wars became a gigantic hit, Coppola sent a telegram to George Lucas asking for money. Principal photography ended on May 21, 1977.
Japanese composer Isao Tomita was scheduled to provide an original score, with Coppola desiring the film 's soundtrack to sound like Tomita 's electronic adaptation of The Planets by Gustav Holst. Tomita went as far as to accompany the film crew in the Philippines, but label contracts ultimately prevented his involvement. In the summer of 1977, Coppola told Walter Murch that he had four months to assemble the sound. Murch realized that the script had been narrated but Coppola abandoned the idea during filming. Murch thought that there was a way to assemble the film without narration but it would take ten months and decided to give it another try. He put it back in, recording it all himself. By September, Coppola told his wife that he felt "there is only about a 20 % chance (I) can pull the film off ''. He convinced United Artists executives to delay the premiere from May to October 1978. Author Michael Herr received a call from Zoetrope in January 1978 and was asked to work on the film 's narration based on his well - received book about Vietnam, Dispatches. Herr said that the narration already written was "totally useless '' and spent a year writing various narrations with Coppola giving him very definite guidelines.
Murch had problems trying to make a stereo soundtrack for Apocalypse Now because sound libraries had no stereo recordings of weapons. The sound material brought back from the Philippines was inadequate, because the small location crew lacked the time and resources to record jungle sounds and ambient noises. Murch and his crew fabricated the mood of the jungle on the soundtrack. Apocalypse Now had novel sound techniques for a movie, as Murch insisted on recording the most up - to - date gunfire and employed the Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track system for the 70mm release. This used two channels of sound from behind the audience as well as three channels of sound from behind the movie screen. The 35mm release used the new Dolby Stereo optical stereo system, but due to the limitations of the technology at the time, this 35mm release that played in the majority of theaters did not include any surround sound.
In May 1978, Coppola postponed the opening until spring of 1979 and screened a "work in progress '' for 900 people in April 1979 that was not well received. That same year, he was invited to screen Apocalypse Now at the Cannes Film Festival. United Artists were not keen on showing an unfinished version in front of so many members of the press. Since his 1974 film The Conversation won the Palme d'Or, Coppola agreed to screen Apocalypse Now with only a month before the festival. The week prior to Cannes, Coppola arranged three sneak previews of slightly different versions. He allowed critics to attend the screenings and believed that they would honor the embargo placed on reviews. On 14 May, Rona Barrett reviewed the film on television and called it "a disappointing failure ''. At Cannes, Zoetrope technicians worked during the night before the screening to install additional speakers on the theater walls, to achieve Murch 's 5.1 soundtrack. On August 15, 1979 Apocalypse Now was released in the U.S. in only 15 theaters equipped to play the Dolby Stereo 70mm prints with stereo surround sound.
At the time of its release, discussion and rumors circulated about the supposed various endings for Apocalypse Now. Coppola said the original ending was written in haste, where Kurtz convinced Willard to join forces and together they repelled the air strike on the compound. Coppola said he never fully agreed with the Kurtz and Willard dying in fatalistic explosive intensity, preferring to end the film in a more encouraging manner.
When Coppola originally organized the ending, he considered two significantly different ends to the movie. One involved Willard leading Lance by the hand as everyone in Kurtz 's base throws down their weapons, and ends with images of Willard piloting the PBR slowly away from Kurtz 's compound, this final scene superimposed over the face of a stone idol, which then fades into black. The other option showed an air strike being called and the base being blown to bits in a spectacular display, consequently killing everyone left within it.
The original 1979 70mm exclusive theatrical release ended with Willard 's boat, the stone statue, then fade to black with no credits, save for ' "Copyright 1979 Omni Zoetrope '' ' right after the film ends. This mirrors the lack of any opening titles and supposedly stems from Coppola 's original intention to "tour '' the film as one would a play: the credits would have appeared on printed programs provided before the screening began.
There have been, to date, many variations of the end credit sequence, beginning with the 35mm general release version, where Coppola elected to show the credits superimposed over shots of the jungle exploding into flames. Rental prints circulated with this ending, and can be found in the hands of a few collectors. Some versions of this had the subtitle "A United Artists release '', while others had "An Omni Zoetrope release ''. The network television version of the credits ended with "... from MGM / UA Entertainment Company '' (the film made its network debut shortly after the merger of MGM and UA). One variation of the end credits can be seen on both YouTube and as a supplement on the current Lionsgate Blu - ray.
Later when Coppola heard that audiences interpreted this as an air strike called by Willard, Coppola pulled the film from its 35 mm run and put credits on a black screen. However, the "air strike '' footage continued to circulate in repertory theaters well into the 1980s, and it was included in the 1980s LaserDisc release. In the DVD commentary, Coppola explains that the images of explosions had not been intended to be part of the story; they were intended to be seen as completely separate from the film. He had added the explosions to the credits as a graphic background to the credits.
Coppola explained he had captured the now - iconic footage during demolition of the sets (set destruction and removal was required by the Philippine government). Coppola filmed the demolition with multiple cameras fitted with different film stocks and lenses to capture the explosions at different speeds. He wanted to do something with the dramatic footage and decided to add them to the credits.
In 2001, Coppola released Apocalypse Now Redux in cinemas and subsequently on DVD. This is an extended version that restores 49 minutes of scenes cut from the original film. Coppola has continued to circulate the original version as well: the two versions are packaged together in the Complete Dossier DVD, released on August 15, 2006 and in the Blu - ray edition released on October 19, 2010.
The longest section of added footage in the Redux version is a chapter involving the de Marais family 's rubber plantation, a holdover from the colonization of French Indochina, featuring Coppola 's two sons Gian - Carlo and Roman as children of the family. Around the dinner table, a young French child recites a poem by Charles Baudelaire entitled L'Albatros. The French family patriarch is not satisfied with the child 's recitation. The child is sent away. These scenes were removed from the 1979 cut, which premiered at Cannes. In behind - the - scenes footage in Hearts of Darkness, Coppola expresses his anger, on the set, at the technical limitations of the shot scenes, the result of tight allocation of resources. At the time of the Redux version, it was possible to digitally enhance the footage to accomplish Coppola 's vision. In the scenes, the French family patriarchs argue about the positive side of colonialism in Indochina and denounce the betrayal of the military men in the First Indochina War. Hubert de Marais argues that French politicians sacrificed entire battalions at Điện Biên Phủ, and tells Willard that the US created the Viet Cong (as the Viet Minh) to fend off Japanese invaders.
Other added material includes extra combat footage before Willard meets Kilgore, a humorous scene in which Willard 's team steals Kilgore 's surfboard (which sheds some light on the hunt for the mangoes), a follow - up scene to the dance of the Playboy Playmates, in which Willard 's team finds the Playmates awaiting evacuation after their helicopter has run out of fuel (trading two barrels of fuel for two hours with the Bunnies), and a scene of Kurtz reading from a Time magazine article about the war, surrounded by Cambodian children.
A deleted scene titled "Monkey Sampan '' shows Willard and the PBR crew suspiciously eyeing an approaching sampan juxtaposed to Montagnard villagers joyfully singing "Light My Fire '' by The Doors. As the sampan gets closer, Willard realizes there are monkeys on it and no helmsman. Finally, just as the two boats pass, the wind turns the sail and exposes a naked dead civilian tied to the sail boom. His body is mutilated and looks as though the man had been whipped. The singing stops. It is assumed the man was tortured by the Viet Cong. As they pass on by, Chief notes out loud, "That 's comin ' from where we 're going, Captain. '' The boat then slowly passes the giant tail of a shot down B - 52 bomber as the noise of engines high in the sky is heard. Coppola said that he made up for cutting this scene by having the PBR pass under an airplane tail in the final cut.
A 289 - minute workprint circulates as a video bootleg, containing extra material not included in either the original theatrical release or the "redux '' version.
A three - hour version of Apocalypse Now was screened as a "work in progress '' at the 1979 Cannes Film Festival and met with prolonged applause. At the subsequent press conference, Coppola criticized the media for attacking him and the production during their problems filming in the Philippines and said, "We had access to too much money, too much equipment, and little by little we went insane '', and "My film is not about Vietnam, it is Vietnam ''. The filmmaker upset newspaper critic Rex Reed who reportedly stormed out of the conference. Apocalypse Now won the Palme d'Or for best film along with Volker Schlöndorff 's The Tin Drum -- a decision that was reportedly greeted with "some boos and jeers from the audience ''.
Apocalypse Now performed well at the box office when it opened in August 1979. The film initially opened in one theater in New York City, Toronto, and Hollywood, grossing USD $322,489 in the first five days. It ran exclusively in these three locations for four weeks before opening in an additional 12 theaters on October 3, 1979 and then several hundred the following week. The film grossed over $78 million domestically with a worldwide total of approximately $150 million.
The film was re-released on August 28, 1987 in six cities to capitalize on the success of Platoon, Full Metal Jacket, and other Vietnam War movies. New 70mm prints were shown in Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Jose, Seattle, St. Louis, and Cincinnati -- cities where the film did financially well in 1979. The film was given the same kind of release as the exclusive engagement in 1979, with no logo or credits and audiences were given a printed program.
Upon its release, Apocalypse Now received mixed reviews. In his original review, Roger Ebert wrote, "Apocalypse Now achieves greatness not by analyzing our ' experience in Vietnam ', but by re-creating, in characters and images, something of that experience ''. In his review for the Los Angeles Times, Charles Champlin wrote, "as a noble use of the medium and as a tireless expression of national anguish, it towers over everything that has been attempted by an American filmmaker in a very long time ''.
Other reviews were less positive; Frank Rich in Time said: "While much of the footage is breathtaking, Apocalypse Now is emotionally obtuse and intellectually empty ''. Vincent Canby argued, "Mr. Coppola himself describes it as "operatic, '' but... Apocalypse Now is neither a tone poem nor an opera. It 's an adventure yarn with delusions of grandeur, a movie that ends -- in the all - too - familiar words of the poet Mr. Coppola drags in by the bootstraps -- not with a bang, but a whimper. ''
Ebert added Coppola 's film to his list of The Great Movies, stating: "Apocalypse Now is the best Vietnam film, one of the greatest of all films, because it pushes beyond the others, into the dark places of the soul. It is not about war so much as about how war reveals truths we would be happy never to discover ''.
Various commentators have debated whether Apocalypse Now is an anti-war or pro-war film. Some commentators ' evidence of the film 's anti-war message include the purposeless brutality of the war, the absence of military leadership, and the imagery of machinery destroying nature. Advocates of the film 's pro-war stance, however, view these same elements as a glorification of war and the assertion of American supremacy. According to Frank Tomasulo, "the U.S. foisting its culture on Vietnam, '' including the destruction of a village so that soldiers could surf, affirms the film 's pro-war message. Additionally, the author Anthony Swofford recounted how his marine platoon watched Apocalypse Now before being sent to Iraq in 1990 in order to get excited for war. Nidesh Lawtoo illustrates the pro-war / anti-war tendencies of the film by focusing on the contradictory responses the movie in general and the "Ride of the Valkyries '' scene in particular triggered in a university classroom. According to Coppola, the film may be considered anti-war, but is even more anti-lie: "... the fact that a culture can lie about what 's really going on in warfare, that people are being brutalized, tortured, maimed, and killed, and somehow present this as moral is what horrifies me, and perpetuates the possibility of war ''.
In May 2011, a newly restored digital print of Apocalypse Now was released in UK cinemas, distributed by Optimum Releasing. Total Film magazine gave the film a five - star review, stating: "This is the original cut rather than the 2001 ' Redux ' (be gone, jarring French plantation interlude!), digitally restored to such heights you can, indeed, get a nose full of the napalm. ''
Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a "Certified Fresh '' rating of 96 % based on 84 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus states that "Francis Ford Coppola 's haunting, hallucinatory Vietnam war epic is cinema at its most audacious and visionary ''.
Today, the movie is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the New Hollywood era. Roger Ebert considered it to be the finest film on the Vietnam war and included it on his list for the 2002 Sight & Sound poll for the greatest movie of all time. It is on the American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list at number 28, but it dropped two spots to number 30 on their 10th anniversary list. Kilgore 's quote, "I love the smell of napalm in the morning, '' written by Milius, was number 12 on the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list and was also voted the greatest movie speech of all time in a 2004 poll. It is listed at number 7 on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time. Entertainment Weekly ranked Apocalypse Now as having one of the "10 Best Surfing Scenes '' in cinema.
In 2002, Sight and Sound magazine polled several critics to name the best film of the last 25 years and Apocalypse Now was named number one. It was also listed as the second best war film by viewers on Channel 4 's 100 Greatest War Films and was the second rated war movie of all time based on the Movifone list (after Schindler 's List) and the IMDb War movie list (after The Longest Day). It is ranked number 1 on Channel 4 's 50 Films to See Before You Die. In a 2004 poll of UK film fans, Blockbuster listed Kilgore 's eulogy to napalm as the best movie speech. The helicopter attack scene with the Ride of the Valkyries soundtrack was chosen as the most memorable film scene ever by Empire magazine (this same piece of music was also used in 1915 to similar effect to accompany The Birth of a Nation). This scene is recalled in one of the last acts of the 2012 video game Far Cry 3 as the song is played while the character shoots from a helicopter. It was likewise adapted for the Cat 's Eye anime episode "From Runan Island with Love '' and the Battle of Italica scene in Gate: Jieitai Kano Chi nite, Kaku Tatakaeri.
In 2009, the London Film Critics ' Circle voted Apocalypse Now the best film of the last 30 years.
In August 2009, the head of the German Financial Regulator told the Bundestag Finance Committee that the failure of the "terrible '' Depfa Bank, which was completely supervised by its Irish equivalent, led to the collapse of its German parent which forced Berlin to bail it out at a cost of € 102 billion. The committee was told that the alternative was a run on German banks and the eventual collapse of the European finance system and "You would have woken up on Monday morning in the film Apocalypse Now ''.
In 2011, actor Charlie Sheen, son of Martin Sheen, started playing clips from the film on his live tour and played the film in its entirety during post-show parties. One of Charlie Sheen 's films, the 1993 comedy Hot Shots! Part Deux, includes a brief scene in which Charlie is riding a boat up a river in Iraq while on a rescue mission and passes Martin, as Captain Willard, going the other way. As they pass, each man shouts to the other "I loved you in Wall Street! '', referring to the 1987 film that had featured both of them. Additionally, the promotional material for Hot Shots! Part Deux included a mockumentary that aired on HBO titled Hearts of Hot Shots! Part Deux -- A Filmmaker 's Apology, in parody of the 1991 documentary Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse, about the making of Apocalypse Now.
On January 25, 2017, Coppola announced that he was seeking funding through Kickstarter for a horror role - playing video game based on Apocalypse Now. The game has since been cancelled by Montgomery Markland (the game 's director), as revealed on the official game Tumblr.
French theorist Jean Baudrillard dedicated a chapter to Apocalypse Now in his 1981 treatise Simulacra and Simulation. Baudrillard accuses the Vietnam War, a non-event, of having become "film '' and Coppola of having made the Vietnam War an actual event and a victory through the film Apocalypse Now:
Coppola makes his film like the Americans made war -- in this sense, it is the best possible testimonial -- with the same immoderation, the same excess of means, the same monstrous candor... and the same success. The war as entrenchment, as technological and psychedelic fantasy, the war as a succession of special effects, the war become film even before being filmed... In this sense, his film is really the extension of the war through other means, the pinnacle of this failed war, and its apotheosis. The war became film, the film becomes war, the two are joined by their common hemorrhage into technology... The real war is waged by Coppola as it is by Westmoreland: without counting the inspired irony of having forests and Philippine villages napalmed to retrace the hell of South Vietnam... Coppola can certainly deck out his helicopter captain in a ridiculous hat of the light cavalry, and make him crush the Vietnamese village to the sound of Wagner 's music -- those are not critical, distant signs, they are immersed in the machinery, they are part of the special effect, and he himself makes movies in the same way (as Wagner), with the same retro megalomania, and the same non-signifying furor, with the same clownish effect in overdrive.
(I) f the Americans (seemingly) lost the other (war), they certainly won this one. Apocalypse Now is a global victory. Cinematographic power equal and superior to that of the industrial and military complexes, equal or superior to that of the Pentagon and of governments.
The first home video releases of Apocalypse Now were pan-and - scan versions of the original 35 mm Technovision anamorphic 2.35: 1 print, and the closing credits, white on black background, were presented in compressed 1.33: 1 full - frame format to allow all credit information to be seen on standard televisions. The first letterboxed appearance, on Laserdisc on December 29, 1991, cropped the film to a 2: 1 aspect ratio (conforming to the Univisium spec created by cinematographer Vittorio Storaro), and included a small degree of pan-and - scan processing at the insistence of Coppola and Storaro. The end credits, from a videotape source rather than a film print, were still crushed for 1.33: 1 and zoomed to fit the anamorphic video frame. All DVD releases have maintained this aspect ratio in anamorphic widescreen, but present the film without the end credits, which were treated as a separate feature. The Blu - ray releases of Apocalypse Now restore the film to a 2.35: 1 aspect ratio, making it the first home video release to display the film in its theatrical aspect ratio of 2.39: 1.
As a DVD extra, the footage of the explosion of the Kurtz compound was featured without text credits but included commentary by Coppola, explaining the various endings based on how the film was screened.
On the cover of the Redux DVD, Willard is erroneously listed as "Lieutenant Willard ''.
Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse (American Zoetrope / Cineplex Odeon Films) (1991) Directed by Eleanor Coppola, George Hickenlooper, and Fax Bahr
Apocalypse Now -- The Complete Dossier DVD (Paramount Home Entertainment) (2006). Disc 2 extras include:
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
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what part of the philippines is marawi city | Marawi - wikipedia
Marawi City, officially known as the Islamic City of Marawi (Maranao: Inged san Marawi; Arabic: مدينة مراوي ; Filipino: Lungsod Islamiko ng Marawi), is the capital and the largest city of the province of Lanao del Sur on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 201,785.
The people of Marawi are called the Maranaos and speak the Maranao language. They are named after Lake Lanao, which is called Meranau in the language, upon whose shores Marawi lies. The city is also called the "Summer Capital of the South '' because of its higher elevation and cooler climate, a nickname it shares with Malaybalay, which legally holds the title.
An armed conflict against the ISIL - affiliated Maute group is in progress within the city since May 2017.
Marawi was founded as Dansalan in 1639 by the Spaniards led by Francisco Atienza who came from Iligan and were attempting to conquer the entire Lake Lanao area. However, it was abandoned later the same year when thousands of Maranao warriors invested the then - fortifying settlement, pressing the Spaniards hard and thus they returned to Iligan, having failed in their quest. The Spaniards only returned to the area when they began the conquest of the Sultanate of Maguindanao in the late 19th century, only to be abandoned once again when the Americans came there in 1900. It served as the capital of the undivided Lanao province from 1907 to 1940. Dansalan in Meranaw is a place where ships berth -- a port of entry.
A Tribal leader of Marawi before Spanish colonization was "Datu Buadi Sa Kayo ''. He collected taxes in his era.
According to the late well - known Meranaw scholar Dr. Mamitua Saber, Marawi got its charter in 1940. The granting of a charter to the old Dansalan municipality was jointly conceived by the Philippine Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon and Assemblyman, later Senator, Tomas L. Cabili. The changing of the official name from Dansalan to Marawi was through Congressional amendment of the Charter in 1956 sponsored by Sen. Domocao Alonto (nl). This is embodied by Republic Act No. 1552 dated June 16, 1956.
The renaming of the city as "Islamic City of Marawi '' was proposed by Parliamentary Bill No. 261 in the defunct Batasang Pambansa, the former parliament of the Philippines during the Marcos regime, reportedly to attract funds from the Middle East.
On May 23, 2017, a pro-Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant group called the Maute group attacked the city. The battle is ongoing since May 23. CNN Philippines reports that the militants have about 500 men. Philippine President Duterte has declared Martial Law on the island of Mindanao, where the fighting is taking place.
Marawi has a total land area of 8,755 hectares (21,630 acres). It is located on the northernmost shores of Lake Lanao and straddles the area where the Agus River starts. It is bounded to the north by the municipalities of Kapai and Saguiaran; to the south by Lake Lanao; to the east by the municipalities of Bubong and Ditsaan - Ramain; and to the west by the municipalities of Marantao and Saguiaran. The Bagang beach is situated 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) from the city 's commercial center.
The Islamic city also hosts a national park, the Sacred Mountain National Park which spans the barangays of Guimba and Papandayan covering an area of 94 - hectare (230 - acre). The protected area was established on August 5, 1965 by Republic Act no. 4190. The park is dominated by Mount Mupo, a 900 - foot (270 m) tall extinct volcanic cone. The park is ideal for birdwatching and mountain climbing to the summit that features a small pond.
Mountains, rolling hills, valleys and a large placid lake dominate the city 's landscape. Angoyao Hills (Brgy. Sogod) served as natural viewpoint over the water of the Lake Lanao. Signal Hill (Brgy. Matampay), Arumpac Hill (Brgy. Saduc) and Mt. Mupo (Brgy. Guimba) are considered beautiful but mysterious. Mt. Mupo, located within the Sacred Mountain National Park, is known for its untouched trees and beautiful, perfect cone.
Marawi is politically subdivided into 96 barangays.
Due to its high elevation, with the elevation along Lake Lanao at around 2,300 feet (700 m), Marawi 's weather is cool (in tropical terms) and pleasant, distinguished by an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
Maranao or Meranaw is widely spoken in Marawi; however, local inhabitants can also speak Cebuano, Tagalog, English, and Arabic.
Marawi City is predominantly Muslim city which accounts for 99.6 % of the population. Sharia criminal law exists but without stoning, amputations, flagellations or other Islamic punishments as they are against the law of the Philippines. The distribution of alcoholic products and gambling is forbidden and women must cover their heads, though non-Muslims are exempted from this rule. Other than sharia law in personal matters, these laws are not applicable elsewhere in Lanao del Sur.
The economy of Marawi is largely based on agriculture, trading and exporting. Most industries in the city are agriculture - oriented. They include rice and corn farming, hollow blocks manufacturing, goldsmithing, and saw milling. Small and cottage - size enterprises are engaged in garment making, mat and malong weaving, wood carving, brassware making, web development, and blacksmithing.
Apart from that, Marawi is home to NPC - Agus 1 Hydro Electric Power Plant and the first of the six cascading Agus Hydro Power Plants.
The feeling of the unique natural setting of the Maranaos in Marawi is manifested by the presence of many large Torogans, an antique royal high - roofed houses with carvings designed by the Meranau, and Amai Sambitory old Buildings in Barrio Naga in front of Tuaka Laput, Marawi.
Marawi is home to the main campus of Mindanao State University, the biggest state university in Mindanao and next to University of the Philippines. Other institutions and colleges are well established in the city and are as follows:
Other notable secondary schools are:
TESDA is also stationed in Marawi which caters to technical training of students for the province.
Within the Mindanao State University is the Aga Khan Museum of Islamic Arts which is named in honor of Sultan Aga Khan who contributed to the realization of the museum. Historical development of the country is bank on the large space upon the conservation of cultural materials. It has huge, collection of indigenous art, displayed ethnic music tape recorded, the native folk dances from different regions of Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan, the native tools and weapons used by the Muslims and different artistic designs of houses are the main attractions of museum. Indigenous art and cultural material are being displayed.
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short story of ruskin bond the blue umbrella | The Blue umbrella - wikipedia
The Blue Umbrella is a 1980 Indian novel written by Ruskin Bond. It was adapted into 2005 Hindi film by the same name, directed by Vishal Bhardwaj, which later won the National Film Award for Best Children 's Film. In 2012, the novel was adapted into a comic by Amar Chitra Katha publications, titled, The Blue Umbrella -- Stories by Ruskin Bond, and included another story, Angry River. This story appeared in Bond 's collection of short stories, Children 's Omnibus.
In a small village of Himachal Pradesh, there lived a little girl, Binya. In the village the shopkeeper keeps an old ruined shop and sells warm Coca Cola bottles and sweets to the school going kids. Binya has been given a beautiful blue umbrella by Japanese tourists in exchange of her leopard claw pendant. The people in the village of Himachal Pradesh become very fond of her umbrella. Soon the shopkeeper becomes envious of the umbrella and tries to buy it from Binya by telling her that this is a ' fancy umbrella ' small girls should not have it, he tried his best to buy the umbrella but Binya refuses by saying that, "This is not for sale. ''
As time passes by, Ram Bharosa 's desire to get the umbrella turns in to obsession. The school closes due to the arrival of the monsoon and Ram Bharosa employs a boy named Ramrajan from the next village to work at the shop. When he comes to know about his master 's desire to own it. He makes an attempt to steal the umbrella but fails and on being caught, he gives Ram Bharosa 's name. Now everyone stopped coming to Ram Bharosa 's shop. ram Bharosa had got a bear necklace and he coated it with silver However, Binya realizes her mistake and that she should n't have shown off her umbrella because for now, due to it, Ram Bharosa was suffering. In the end, Binya gives the umbrella to Ram Bharosa, who gifts her a necklace with a bear 's claw.
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what was the reaction to the industrial revolution | Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution - wikipedia
Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution underwent vast social and economic changes, the result of developments in mechanised working methods, and the introduction of the factory system and the steam engine. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain about 1760, continuing through to the early 19th century. The lives of large sections of the population of Great Britain underwent massive changes during the Industrial Revolution. Work became more regimented and disciplined and began to take place outside the home. A movement of the population to the cities from the countryside produced dramatic changes in lifestyle.
The industrial belts of Great Britain included the Scottish Lowlands, South Wales, northern England, and the English Midlands. The establishment of major factory centers helped develop networks of canals, roads, and railroads, particularly in Derbyshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire, and Yorkshire. This is where the proletariat class was born. The Industrial Revolution helped create opportunities for employment for all members of the family. However, any improvement to the quality of life for the working class had come from a hard and bitter experience from factory labour.
It is generally agreed that the impact of the industrial revolution was negative for children. In the industrial districts, children tended to enter the workforce at younger ages. Many of the new factory owners preferred to employ children as they viewed them as more docile tractable than adults. Although most families channeled their children 's earnings into providing a better diet for them, the physical toll of working in the factories was very great and led to detrimental outcomes for children.
Children were preferred workers in textile mills because they worked for lower wages. Child laborers tended to be orphans, children of widows, or from the poorest families. Children were needed for low pay, and nimble fingers. Child labor was not an invention of the industrial revolution, they were first exploited by their parents on the farm. Now for the first time in history children were an important factor of an economic system, but at a terrible price.
Children were required to work under machines and were constantly cleaning and oiling tight areas. Young children were worked to near exhaustion, to such an extent that they would fall asleep over machines. If they were caught sleeping or showed up to work late, they were beaten and tortured by their supervisors. Cruelty and torture was enacted on children by master - manufacturers to maintain high output or to keep them awake. The children 's bodies become crooked and deformed from the work in the mills and factories. Their bodies and bones became so weak that they could n't hold themselves up, and their backs permanently hunched. Children in the mines did not have it any better. They would start working at the age of 4 or 5, both boys and girls. A large proportion of children working in the mines were under 13 and a larger proportion from ages of 13 - 18. Mines were not built for stability, rather, they were small and low and children were needed to crawl through them. The conditions in the mines were not remotely safe, children would often have limbs crippled, and bodies distorted or be killed. Children could get lost within the mines for days at a time. The air in the mines was injuring to breathe and could caused painful and fatal diseases.
The impact of the industrial revolution on adults is more complex and has been the subject of extensive debate amongst historians for the past one hundred years. Optimists have argued that industrialisation brought higher wages and better living standards to most people. Pessimists have argued that these gains have been over-exaggerated. They argue that wages did not rise significantly during this period, and furthermore, that whatever economic gains were actually made - these must be offset against the worsening health and housing of the new urban sectors. Since the 1990s, many contributions to the standard of living debate has tilted towards the pessimist interpretation. Most of the work has been within the economic history framework. There have been attempts to measure variables such as real wages, mortality, and heights. More recently the historian Emma Griffin has marked a departure from this approach by using a large number of working - class autobiographies to consider how working people themselves conceived of these changes. She has argued that some working men did see improvements in their lives at this time, through higher wages and a greater degree of autonomy and self - determination.
The traditional marriage of the laboring class during the Georgian society, women would marry men of the same social status. Example, a shoemaker 's daughter would marry a shoemaker 's son. And marriage outside this norm was not common. Marriage during the Industrial Revolution shifted from this tradition to a more sociable union between wife and husband in the laboring class. Women and men tended to marry someone from the same job, geographical location or from the same social group. But throughout the Industrial Revolution miners were the exception of this new trend. A coal miner 's daughter would marry a coal miner 's son.
The traditional work sphere was dictated by the father, and he controlled the pace of work for his family. However, factories and mills undermined the old style of authority. Factories put husbands, wives and child under the same conditions and authority of the manufacturer masters.
The norm for women in the latter half of the Industrial Revolution, who worked in the factories or mills tended not to have children or already had children that were grown up. However, Mothers who worked in the factories and mills would often use narcotics to put their small infants to sleep. This was a common trend, because mothers would work 14 to 16 hours a day, leaving their infant with a babysitter for most of the day. Narcotics such as Godfrey, including ingredients of opium, treacle, water and spices. Mothers would, use Godfrey / opium on their small infants as much as three times a day, one before work, one after in the afternoon tea time, and last one when they get home off work. Infant mortality rate in some areas were as high 16.7 % and Godfrey / opium did contribute to the cause of mortality.
Safety was very poor in early industrial factories and mines and there was no injury compensation for the workers as well. The injuries from machinery could cause whole fingers to be cut off, mild burns, severe arm and leg injuries, amputation of limbs and death. However, diseases and cancer were the most common health issues that had long - term effects to the workers. Cotton mills, coal mines, iron - works, and brick factories all had bad air, which caused chest diseases, coughs, blood - spitting, hard breathing, pains in chest, and sleepless nights for the workers.
Housing for the workers was overcrowded and unclean, making it suitable for the hazards of typhoid, cholera, and smallpox. Workers during these times did not have sick days, and forced themselves to work to provide money to support the family. Traditionally women and girls were always in charge of cleaning the house, but since the women were spending just as much time working as the men, they had no time to clean the house. The housing was tiny, dirty, and sickly for the working laboring class during the Industrial Revolution, and the workers had no personal time to clean or change their own atmosphere even if they wished to.
The first factory act Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 tried to help the condition for workers. The act tried to make factory owners more responsible for the housing and clothing for the workers, but with little success. This act was never put into practice, because magistrates fail to stop or forced mill masters.
The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act forbade the employment of children in cotton mills of children under the age of 9. Limited the hours of work for children 9 - 16 to 12 hours. This act is a major step towards a better life for children. They were less likely to fall asleep during work, therefore less injuries and beating to occur to them in the work place.
Michael Sadler was one of the pioneers in addressing the living and working conditions of the industrial workers. In 1832, he led a parliamentary investigation of the conditions of the textile workers. The Ashley Commission was another investigation committee that studied the plight of the mine workers. What came out of the investigation was that with increased productivity the number of working hours of the wage workers also doubled in many cases. The efforts of Michael Sadler and the Ashley Commission resulted in the passage of the 1833 act which limited the number of work hours for women and children and money babies. This bill made children from ages 9 to 18 not to work more than 48 hours a week, and spend two hours at school during work hours. The Act also created the factory inspector and provided for routine inspections of factories. This guaranteed that factories will follow laws of the reforms.
According to a cotton manufacturer, "We have never worked more than seventy - one hours a week before Sir John Hobhouse 's Act was passed. We then came down to sixty - nine; and since Lord Althorp 's Act was passed, in 1833, we have reduced the time of adults to sixty - seven and a half hours a week, and that of children under thirteen years of age to forty - eight hours in the week, though to do this latter has, I must admit, subjected us to much inconvenience, but the elder hands to more, inasmuch as the relief given to the child is in some measure imposed on the adult. ''
First report for women and children in mines were in 1842 Mines and Collieries Act 1842 this act made children under the age 10 could not work in mines and also no women or girls could work in the mines as well. Second report for children commission 1843 reinforced this act to the public.
The Factories Act 1844 made women and young adults work 12 - hour days and children from the ages 9 to 13 were to work 9 hour days. As well as making mill masters and owners more account for injuries to workers. The Factories Act 1847 or also known was the ten - hour bill, made it law that women and young people work 10 hours, and maximum of 63 hours a week. The last two major Factory acts of the Industrial Revolution were introduced in 1850, and 1856. These acts made it that factories could no longer dictate work hours for women and children. They were to work from 6am to 6pm in the summer, and 7am to 7pm in the winter. These acts took a lot of power and authority away from the manufactures, and allowed women and children to have more personal time for the family and for themselves.
Prevention of Cruelty to, and Protection of, Children Act 1889 founded to stop the abuse of children in the work and family sphere of life.
The Elementary Education Act 1870 allowed all children within the United Kingdom to have access to education. Education was not made compulsory immediately (not until 1880) since many factory owners feared the removal of children as a source of cheap labor. However, with the simple mathematics and English they were acquiring, factory owners now had workers who could read and make measurements. A great contribution to the factory.
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how many ice rinks are there in canada | Ice Hockey by country - wikipedia
Ice hockey is a sport played primarily in cold weather countries in the world. The International Ice Hockey Federation has 76 members (54 full members, 21 associate members and 1 affiliate member).
Former countries played ice hockey through the years.
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who came up with the game marco polo | Marco Polo (game) - wikipedia
The sport Marco Polo / ˈmɑːrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ / (listen) is an American form of tag played in a swimming pool.
One player is chosen as "It ''. This player closes his or her eyes and tries to find and tag the other players without the use of vision. The player who is "It '' shouts "Marco '' and the other players must respond by shouting "Polo '', which "It '' uses to try to find them. If a player is tagged, then that player becomes "It. ''
The game can also be played on land, with slightly modified rules, or played with the addition of rules from Fish out of Water and others. It is similar to blind man 's buff, where one person is blindfolded while others choose hiding places around the room.
The game shares its name with the 13th - century Italian trader and explorer Marco Polo. The game, or at least the wording of the game likely originated from the 1938 movie The Adventures of Marco Polo. In act 1, scene 2, a gondolier is seen paddling through a Venice canal, repeatedly calling out for Marco Polo. (He is eventually found gambling in the apartment of a beautiful woman.). As a Venetian, Marco Polo 's association with water would seem logical.
According to one whimsical explanation, "legend has it that the famed explorer did n't really have a clue as to where he was going, much like (the "It '' person) ". WiseGeek says, "No one seems to know what the origins of the name are, although there are a number of apocryphal stories, '' adding "There does not appear to be any real link between the game of Marco Polo and the explorer of the same name, despite the creative efforts by some people, and it is hard to determine when the first game of Marco Polo was played. ''
The game has similar traits with blind man 's buff (essentially the same game played on dry land) and can be considered an offshoot. Wisegeek notes, "Blind man 's buff dates back to at least the 1500s, and it was once a very popular parlor game, especially with ladies. '' Marco Polo was known as a water game in America by the 1960s. Between 1965 and 1970, some respondents to a Dictionary of American Regional English survey, when asked to name a game played in the water, responded with "Marco Polo. ''
Although water polo was another popular pool game at the time, the name of the game ' Marco Polo ' is apparently unrelated.
In modern times, Marco Polo has been played worldwide. Various regions have their own versions of the game, with names such as Mermaid on the Rocks and Alligator. The term "marco polo game '' is sometimes used to describe an online game where a similar call - and - response system of gameplay is adopted.
Marco Polo is an "easily modifiable game '', and is based on the notion of call - and - response. Marco Polo is not a location - based game because players are confined to a set space and because players must locate each other using auditory clues. Encyclopedia of Play in Today 's Society argues "there is bipolarity in the reversal of roles... there are repeated actions, a routine to be repeated, rules to be observed, and verbal signs to be used ''. Playing this game can allow children to experiment with different social roles, for example learning what it means to be an outcast in the role of "It '' (isolated, confined to a space, and unable to see others). According to the Nevada Regional Medical Center, "Marco Polo is not only fun, it can be a good workout. It also puts less stress on your bones and joints because the water makes your body float. ''
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what major cellular event happen during the s phase of interphase | S phase - wikipedia
S phase (synthesis phase) is the part of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated, occurring between G phase and G phase. Precise and accurate DNA replication is necessary to prevent genetic abnormalities which often lead to cell death or disease. Due to the importance, the regulatory pathways that govern this event in eukaryotes are highly conserved. This conservation makes the study of S - phase in model organisms such as Xenopus laevis embryos and budding yeast relevant to higher organisms.
The G1 / S transition is a major checkpoint in the regulation of the cell cycle. To produce two similar daughter cells, the centrosome and complete DNA instructions in the cell must be duplicated. DNA replication occurs during this S (synthesis) phase. Depending on levels of nutrients, energy and external factors, cells must decide to enter the cell cycle or move into a non-dividing state known as G phase. This transition, as with all of the major checkpoint transitions in the cell cycle, is signaled by cyclins and cyclin dependent kinase (CDKs). The pulse of G1 / S cyclins causes CLN3 - Cdk1 to activate Cln1 / 2 (start point), as well as Clb5 / 6 at the initiation of S - phase. This pathway contains 2 positive feedback loops, allowing for rapid, unidirectional movement into S - phase. Redundant pathways like this are not uncommon because they allow for tuning the output of the system and often lead to faster genetic evolution.
The major event in S - phase is DNA replication. The goal of this process is to create exactly two identical semi-conserved chromosomes. The cell prevents more than one replication from occurring by loading pre-replication complexes onto the DNA at replication origins during G phase which are dismantled in S - phase as replication begins. In synthesis, the enzyme helicase unwinds the DNA double helix, and the enzyme DNA polymerase re-binds free - floating nucleotides to the separate DNA single strands in accordance with the complementary base pairing rule. DNA synthesis can occur as fast as 2000 nucleotides / second and must create fewer than 2 errors (I.e., wrong bases) in 10 nucleotide additions.
Damage to DNA is detected and fixed during S - phase. When the replication fork comes upon damaged DNA, ATR, a protein kinase is activated. This kinase initiates several complex downstream pathways, which causes a halt in the initiation of new replication origins, prevention of mitosis and replication fork stabilization in order to keep the replication bubble open and DNA polymerase complex attached while the damage is being fixed.
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who is in line for throne in england | Succession to the British throne - wikipedia
Succession to the British throne is determined by descent, gender (for people born before October 2011), legitimacy, and religion. Under common law, the Crown is inherited by a sovereign 's children or by a childless sovereign 's nearest collateral line. The Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701 restrict succession to the throne to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover that are in "communion with the Church of England ''. Spouses of Roman Catholics were disqualified from 1689 until the law was amended in 2015. Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Roman Catholics are eligible.
Queen Elizabeth II is the sovereign, and her heir apparent is her eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales. Next in line after him is Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, the Prince of Wales 's elder son. Third in line is Prince George, the eldest child of the Duke of Cambridge, followed by his sister, Princess Charlotte and younger brother, Prince Louis. Sixth in line is Prince Henry, Duke of Sussex, the younger son of the Prince of Wales. Any of the first six in line marrying without the sovereign 's consent would be disqualified from succession.
The first four individuals in the line of succession who are over 21, and the sovereign 's consort, may be appointed Counsellors of State. Counsellors of State perform some of the sovereign 's duties in the United Kingdom while he or she is out of the country or temporarily incapacitated. Otherwise, individuals in the line of succession need not have specific legal or official roles.
The United Kingdom is one of the 16 Commonwealth realms. Each of those countries has the same person as monarch and the same order of succession. In 2011, the prime ministers of the realms agreed unanimously to adopt a common approach to amending the rules on the succession to their respective Crowns so that absolute primogeniture would apply for persons born after the date of the agreement, instead of male - preference primogeniture, and the ban on marriages to Roman Catholics would be lifted, but the monarch would still need to be in communion with the Church of England. After the necessary legislation had been enacted in accordance with each realm 's constitution, the changes took effect on 26 March 2015.
No official, complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained. The exact number, in remoter collateral lines, of the persons who would be eligible is uncertain. In 2001, American genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner compiled a list of 4,973 living descendants of the Electress Sophia in order of succession, but did so disregarding Roman Catholic status. When updated in January 2011, the number was more than 5,000.
The annotated list below covers the first part of this line of succession, being limited to descendants of the sons of George V (the present Queen 's grandfather). The order of the first seventeen numbered in the list is given on the official website of the British Monarchy; other list numbers and exclusions are explained by annotations (Notes and sources below) and footnotes. Persons named in italics are unnumbered either because they are deceased or because sources report them to be excluded from the succession.
The current succession law in the United Kingdom evolved from succession law in both England and Scotland. Originally in both countries, there were no fixed rules governing succession to the throne. The individual could have relied on inheritance, statute, election (by Parliament or by another body), nomination (by a reigning sovereign in his or her will), conquest or prescription (de facto possession of the Crown). It was often unclear which of these bases should take precedence; often, the outcome depended not on the legal strength of the claims, but on the political or military power of the claimants.
However, over time, the default rule became male primogeniture: later monarchs coming to the throne by exception to this rule went to great lengths to explain and justify going against these rules, and to prove their rivals illegitimate. Eventually, Parliament asserted control of succession.
In 1485, Henry Tudor, a female - line descendant of a legitimated branch of the royal house of Lancaster, the House of Beaufort, assumed the English crown as Henry VII, after defeating Richard III, who was killed at the battle of Bosworth when leading a charge against Henry 's standard. Richard was the last king of the House of York, and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. Henry declared himself king retroactively from 21 August 1485, the day before his victory over Richard at Bosworth Field, and caused Richard 's Titulus Regius to be repealed and expunged from the Rolls of Parliament. After Henry 's coronation in London in October that year, his first parliament, summoned to meet at Westminster in November, enacted that "the inheritance of the crown should be, rest, remain and abide in the most royal person of the then sovereign lord, King Henry VII, and the heirs of his body lawfully coming. ''
Henry VII was followed by his son, Henry VIII. Though his father descended from the Lancastrians, Henry VIII could also claim the throne through the Yorkist line, as his mother Elizabeth was the sister and heiress of Edward V. In 1542 Henry also assumed the title King of Ireland; this would pass down with the monarchs of England, and later Great Britain, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate crowns into that of the United Kingdom.
Henry VIII 's numerous marriages led to several complications over succession. Henry VIII was first married to Catherine of Aragon, by whom he had a daughter named Mary. His second marriage, to Anne Boleyn, resulted in a daughter named Elizabeth. Henry VIII had a son, Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. An Act of Parliament passed in 1533 declared Mary illegitimate; another passed in 1536 did the same for Elizabeth. Though the two remained illegitimate, an Act of Parliament passed in 1544 allowed reinserting them, providing further "that the King should and might give, will, limit, assign, appoint or dispose the said imperial Crown and the other premises... by letters patent or last will in writing. '' Mary and Elizabeth, under Henry VIII 's will, were to be followed by descendants of the King 's deceased sister Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk (he however excluded his niece Frances Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk). This will also excluded from the succession the descendants of Henry 's eldest sister Margaret Tudor, who were the rulers of Scotland.
When Henry VIII died in 1547, the young Edward succeeded him, becoming Edward VI. Edward VI was the first Protestant Sovereign to succeed to the rule of England. He attempted to divert the course of succession in his will to prevent his Catholic half - sister, Mary, from inheriting the throne. He excluded Mary and Elizabeth, settling on the Duchess of Suffolk 's daughter, Lady Jane Grey. Jane was also originally excluded on the premise that no woman could reign over England. Nonetheless, the will, which originally referred to Jane 's heirs - male, was amended to refer to Jane and her heirs - male. Upon Edward VI 's death in 1553, Jane was proclaimed Queen of England and Ireland. She was not universally recognised and after nine days she was overthrown by the popular Mary. As Henry VIII 's will had been approved by an Act of Parliament in 1544, Edward 's contravening will was unlawful and ignored.
Mary was succeeded by her half - sister, Elizabeth, who broke with the precedents of many of her predecessors, and refused to name an heir. Whilst previous monarchs (including Henry VIII) had specifically been granted authority to settle uncertain successions in their wills, the Treasons Act 1571 asserted that Parliament had the right to settle disputes, and made it treason to deny Parliamentary authority. Wary of threats from other possible heirs, Parliament further passed the Act of Association 1584, which provided that any individual involved in attempts to murder the Sovereign would be disqualified from succeeding. (The Act was repealed in 1863.)
The House of Stewart (later Stuart) had ruled in Scotland since 1371. It had followed strict rules of primogeniture until the deposition and exile of Mary I in 1567; even then she was succeeded by her son, James VI.
Elizabeth I of England and Ireland was succeeded by King James VI of Scotland, her first cousin twice removed, even though his succession violated Henry VIII 's will, under which Lady Anne Stanley, heiress of Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, was supposed to succeed. James asserted that hereditary right was superior to statutory provision, and as King of Scotland was powerful enough to deter any rival. He reigned as James I of England and Ireland, thus effecting the Union of the Crowns, although England and Scotland remained separate sovereign states until 1707. His succession was rapidly ratified by Parliament.
James 's eldest surviving son and successor, Charles I, was overthrown and beheaded in 1649. The monarchy itself was abolished. A few years later, it was replaced by the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, effectively a monarch with the title of Lord Protector rather than King. Cromwell had the right to name his own successor, which he exercised on his deathbed by choosing his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard was ineffective, and was quickly forced from office. Shortly afterwards, the monarchy was restored, with Charles I 's son Charles II as King.
James II and VII, a Roman Catholic, followed his brother Charles II, despite efforts in the late 1670s to exclude him in favour of Charles 's illegitimate Protestant son, the Duke of Monmouth. James was deposed when his Protestant opponents forced him to flee from England in 1688. Parliament then deemed that James had, by fleeing the realms, abdicated the thrones and offered the Crowns not to the King 's infant son James but to his Protestant daughter Mary and to her husband William, who as James 's nephew was the first person in the succession not descended from him. The two became joint Sovereigns (a unique circumstance in British history) as William III of England and Ireland (and II of Scotland) and Mary II of England, Scotland and Ireland. William had insisted on this unique provision as a condition of his military leadership against James.
The English Bill of Rights passed in 1689 determined succession to the English, Scottish and Irish Thrones. First in the line were the descendants of Mary II. Next came Mary 's sister Princess Anne and her descendants. Finally, the descendants of William by any future marriage were added to the line of succession. Only Protestants were allowed to succeed to the Thrones, and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded.
After Mary II died in 1694, her husband continued to reign alone until his own death in 1702. The line of succession provided for by the Bill of Rights was almost at an end; William and Mary never had any children, and Princess Anne 's children had all died. Therefore, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement. The Act maintained the provision of the Bill of Rights whereby William would be succeeded by Princess Anne and her descendants, and thereafter by his own descendants from future marriages. The Act, however, declared that they would be followed by James I & VI 's granddaughter Sophia, Electress Dowager of Hanover (the daughter of James 's daughter Elizabeth Stuart), and her heirs. As under the Bill of Rights, non-Protestants and those who married Roman Catholics were excluded.
Upon William 's death, Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Because the Parliament of England settled on Sophia as Anne 's heir - presumptive without consulting Scottish leaders, the Estates of Scotland retaliated by passing the Scottish Act of Security. The Act provided that, upon the death of Anne, the Estates would meet to select an heir to the throne of Scotland, who could not be the same person as the English Sovereign unless numerous political and economic conditions were met. Anne originally withheld the Royal Assent, but was forced to grant it when the Estates refused to raise taxes and sought to withdraw troops from the Queen 's army. England 's Parliament responded by passing the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to cripple Scotland 's economy by cutting off trade with them. Thus, Scotland had little choice but to unite with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707; the Crown of the new nation (along with the Crown of Ireland) was subject to the rules laid down by the English Act of Settlement.
Anne was predeceased by Sophia, Electress Dowager of Hanover, and was therefore succeeded by the latter 's son, who became George I in 1714.
Attempts were made in the risings of 1715 and 1745 to restore Stuart claimants to the Throne, supported by those who recognised the Jacobite succession. The House of Hanover nonetheless remained undeposed, and the Crown descended in accordance with the appointed rules. In 1801, following the Acts of Union 1800, the separate crowns of Great Britain and Ireland were merged and became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Between 1811 and 1820, when George III was deemed unfit to rule, the Prince of Wales (later George IV) acted as his regent. Some years later the Regency Act 1830 made provision for a change in the line of succession had a child been born to William IV after his death, but this event did not come about.
In 1936 Edward VIII abdicated 11 months after he succeeded to the throne immediately on his father 's death. Edward was proclaimed King in January 1936, and opened (for the only time) Parliament in November 1936. Edward VIII had desired to marry Wallis Simpson, a divorcee, but the Church of England, of which the British Sovereign is Supreme Governor, would not authorize the marriage of divorcees. Consequently, Parliament passed His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, by which Edward VIII ceased to be Sovereign "immediately upon '' his royal assent as King being signified in Parliament on 11 December. The Act provided that he and his descendants, if any, were not to have any "right, title or interest in or to the succession to the Throne ''. Edward died childless in 1972.
Edward 's abdication was "a demise of the Crown '' (in the words of the Act), and the Duke of York, his brother who was then next in the line, immediately succeeded to the throne and to its "rights, privileges, and dignities '', taking the regnal name George VI. He in turn was succeeded in 1952 by his own elder daughter, Elizabeth II. By that time the monarch of the United Kingdom no longer reigned in the greater part of Ireland (which had become a republic in 1949), but was the monarch of a number of independent sovereign states (Commonwealth realms).
Each of the Commonwealth realms has the same person as monarch and, to maintain that arrangement, they have agreed to continue the same line of succession; some realms do so through domestic succession laws, while others stipulate whoever is monarch of the United Kingdom will also be monarch of that realm. In February 1952, on her accession, Elizabeth II was proclaimed as sovereign separately throughout her realms. In October 2011, the heads of government of all 16 realms agreed unanimously at a meeting held in Perth, Australia, to proposed changes to the royal succession laws that would see the order of succession for people born after 28 October 2011 governed by absolute primogeniture -- wherein succession passes to an individual 's children according to birth order, regardless of gender -- instead of male - preference primogeniture. They also agreed to lift a ban on those who marry Roman Catholics. The ban on Catholics themselves was retained to ensure that the monarch would be in communion with the Church of England. The changes came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, after legislation was made according to each realm 's constitution.
Following the changes coming into effect, the positions of the first 27 in line remained unchanged, including Princess Anne and her children and grandchildren, until the birth of Princess Charlotte of Cambridge on 2 May 2015. The first to be affected by the changes, on the day they came into effect in March, were the children of Lady Davina Lewis -- her son Tāne (born 2012) and her daughter Senna (born 2010) -- who were reversed in the order of succession, becoming 29th and 28th in line respectively.
The Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement (restated by the Acts of Union) still govern succession to the throne. They were amended in the United Kingdom by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, which was passed mainly "to make succession to the Crown not depend on gender '' and "to make provision about Royal Marriages '' (according to its long title), thereby implementing the Perth Agreement in the UK and in those realms that, by their laws, have as their monarch automatically whoever is monarch of the UK. Other realms passed their own legislation.
Anyone ineligible to succeed is treated as if they were "dead ''. That individual 's descendants are not also disqualified, unless they are personally ineligible.
The Act of Settlement 1701 provides that Protestant "heirs of the body '' (that is, legitimate descendants) of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, are eligible to succeed to the throne, unless otherwise disqualified. The meaning of heir of the body is determined by the common law rules of male preference primogeniture (the "male - preference '' criterion is no longer applicable, in respect of succession to the throne, to persons born after 28 October 2011), whereby older children and their descendants inherit before younger children, and a male child takes precedence over a female sibling. Children born out of wedlock and adopted children are not eligible to succeed. Illegitimate children whose parents subsequently marry are legitimated, but remain ineligible to inherit the Crown.
The Royal Marriages Act 1772 (repealed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013) further required descendants of George II to obtain the consent of the reigning monarch to marry. (The requirement did not apply to descendants of princesses who married into foreign families, as well as, from 1936, any descendants of Edward VIII, of which there are none.) The Act provided, however, that if a dynast older than twenty - five years notified the Privy Council of his or her intention to marry without the consent of the Sovereign, then he or she may have lawfully done so after one year, unless both houses of Parliament expressly disapproved of the marriage. A marriage that contravened the Royal Marriages Act was void, and the resulting offspring illegitimate and thus ineligible to succeed, though the succession of the dynast who failed to obtain consent was not itself affected. This also had the consequence that marriage to a Roman Catholic without permission was void, so that the dynast was not disqualified from succeeding on account of being married to a Roman Catholic. Thus when the future George IV attempted to marry the Roman Catholic Maria Fitzherbert in 1785 without obtaining permission from George III he did not disqualify himself from inheriting the throne in due course. A marriage voided by the 1772 act prior to its repeal remains void "for all purposes relating to the succession to the Crown '' under the 2013 act.
The constitutional crisis arising from Edward VIII 's decision to marry a divorcee in 1936 led to His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936, which provided that Edward VIII and his descendants would have no claim to the throne. The Act is no longer applicable, because Edward died in 1972 without issue.
Under the 2013 Succession to the Crown Act, the first six persons in line to the throne must obtain the sovereign 's approval before marrying. Marriage without the Sovereign 's consent disqualifies the person and the person 's descendants from the marriage from succeeding to the Crown, but the marriage is still legally valid.
Rules relating to eligibility established by the Bill of Rights are retained under the Act of Settlement. The preamble to the Act of Settlement notes that the Bill of Rights provides "that all and every person and persons that then (at the time of the Bill of Right 's passage) were, or afterwards should be reconciled to, or shall hold communion with the See or Church of Rome, or should profess the popish religion, or marry a papist, should be excluded. '' The Act of Settlement continues, providing "that all and every Person and Persons who shall... is, are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish religion or shall marry a papist shall be subject to such Incapacities '' as the Bill of Rights established.
The clause precludes a Roman Catholic from succeeding to the throne. The monarch is required to be in communion with the Church of England.
The Act of Settlement further provided that anyone who married a Roman Catholic was ineligible to succeed. The Act did not require that the spouse be Anglican; it only barred those who marry Roman Catholics. Since the passage of the Act it has been determined (in the case of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent) that an individual is not barred because his or her spouse later converts to Roman Catholicism after their marriage. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 removed the bar on individuals married to Roman Catholics, though not on Roman Catholics themselves.
Under the Treason Act 1702 and the Treason (Ireland) Act 1703, it is treason to "endeavour to deprive or hinder any person who shall be the next in succession to the crown... from succeeding... to the imperial crown of this realm ''. Since the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, the maximum penalty has been life imprisonment.
In the Commonwealth realms, upon the death of a sovereign, the heir apparent or heir presumptive succeeds to the throne immediately, with no need for confirmation or further ceremony. Nevertheless, the Accession Council meets and decides upon the making of the accession proclamation, which by custom has for centuries been ceremonially proclaimed in public places, in London, York, Edinburgh and other cities. The anniversary is observed throughout the sovereign 's reign as Accession Day, including royal gun salutes in the United Kingdom.
Formerly, a new sovereign proclaimed his or her own accession. But on the death of Elizabeth I an Accession Council met to proclaim the accession of James I to the throne of England. James was then in Scotland and reigning as King James VI of Scotland. This precedent has been followed since. Now, the Accession Council normally meets in St James 's Palace. Proclamations since James I 's have usually been made in the name of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, the Privy Council, the Lord Mayor, Aldermen and citizens of the City of London and "other principal Gentlemen of quality '', though there have been variations in some proclamations. The proclamation of accession of Elizabeth II was the first to make mention of representatives of members of the Commonwealth.
Upon his or her accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths. The Bill of Rights of 1689 first required the sovereign to make a public declaration of non-belief in Roman Catholicism. This declaration, known as the Accession Declaration, is required to be taken at either the first meeting of parliament of his or her reign (i.e. during the State Opening of Parliament) or at his or her coronation, whichever occurs first. The current wording of this declaration was adopted in 1910 as the previous wording was deemed to be controversial and overtly anti-Catholic. Rather than denouncing Roman Catholicism, the sovereign now declares him or herself to be a Protestant and that he or she will "uphold and maintain '' the Protestant succession. In addition to the Accession Declaration, the new sovereign is required by the Acts of Union 1707 to make an oath to "maintain and preserve '' the Church of Scotland. This oath is normally made at the sovereign 's first meeting of the Privy Council following his or her accession. According to the Regency Act 1937, should the sovereign be under the age of 18, such oaths and declarations required to be taken by the sovereign shall be made upon his attainment of that age.
After a period of mourning, the new sovereign is usually consecrated and crowned in Westminster Abbey. Normally, the Archbishop of Canterbury officiates, though the sovereign may designate any other bishop of the Church of England. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; for example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet during his short reign was the undoubted king.
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who wrote the song angry all the time | Angry All the Time - Wikipedia
"Angry All the Time '' is a song written by Bruce Robison and first recorded on his 1998 album Wrapped. It was later covered by Tim McGraw with guest vocals from his wife Faith Hill. Released in July 2001, McGraw 's version was the second single from his Set This Circus Down album. The song reached Number One on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart.
The song is a ballad in which the narrator talks about the relationship unraveling.
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably calling it one of the best ballads of the year. She also says that McGraw 's voice "oozes hurt and disillusionment. '' Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song an A - grade, saying that the song beings "with the sound of hushed acoustic strumming, the arrangement picks up force as the song progresses, but the focus of attention remains the story of a marriage gradually unraveling. He goes on to say that the song "all comes through in McGraw 's evocative performance, showcasing the layers of subtlety his voice had picked up in the years since his ' Indian Outlaw ' days, while wife Faith Hill 's plaintive background vocals add a further layer of pathos. ''
"Angry All the Time '' debuted at # 48 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart for the week of July 28, 2001.
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brown bird with yellow tipped tail and red tipped wings | Cedar waxwing - wikipedia
Ampelis cedrorum
The cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) is a member of the family Bombycillidae or waxwing family of passerine birds. It is a medium - sized, mostly brown, gray, and yellow bird named for its wax - like wing tips. It is a native of North and Central America, breeding in open wooded areas in southern Canada and wintering in the southern half of the United States, Central America, and the far northwest of South America. Its diet includes cedar cones, fruit, and insects. The cedar waxwing is not endangered.
The genus name Bombycilla comes from the Ancient Greek bombux, "silk '' and the Modern Latin cilla, "tail ''; this is a direct translation of the German Seidenschwanz, "silk - tail '', and refers to the silky - soft plumage of these birds. The specific cedrorum is Latin for "of the cedars ''.
Cedar waxwings are medium - sized birds approximately 6 -- 7 in (15 -- 18 cm) long and weighing roughly 30 g (1.1 oz). They are smaller and browner than their close relative, the Bohemian waxwing (which breeds farther to the north and west). Their markings are a "silky, shiny collection of brown, gray, and lemon - yellow, accented with a subdued crest, rakish black mask, and brilliant - red wax droplets on the wing feathers. '' These droplets may be the same color as the madrone berries they are known to eat. These birds ' most prominent feature is this small cluster of red wax - like droplets on tips of secondary flight feathers on the wings, a feature they share with the Bohemian waxwing (but not the Japanese waxwing). The wings are "broad and pointed, like a starling 's. '' The tail is typically yellow or orange depending on diet. Birds that have fed on berries of introduced Eurasian honeysuckles while growing tail feathers will have darker orange - tipped tail - feathers. The tail is somewhat short, and square - tipped. Adults have a pale yellow belly. The waxwing 's crest often "lies flat and droops over the back of the head. '' It has a short and wide bill. The waxwing 's black mask has a thin white border. Immature birds are streaked on the throat and flanks, and often do not have the black mask of the adults. Males and females look alike.
The flight of waxwings is strong and direct, and the movement of the flock in flight resembles that of a flock of small pale European starlings. Cedar waxwings fly at 40 km / h (25 mph) and fly at an altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft).
Cedar waxwings are also known as the southern waxwing, Canada robin, cedar bird, cherry bird, or recellet.
The oldest observed cedar waxwing was eight years and two months old.
The two common calls of these birds include very high - pitched whistles and buzzy trills about a half second long often represented as see or sree. Its call can also be described as "high, thin, whistles. '' They call often, especially in flight.
Preferred habitat consists of trees at the edge of wooded areas, or "open '' forests, especially those that provide access to berry sources as well as water. They are frequently seen in fruiting trees. Waxwings are attracted to the sound of running water, and love to bathe in and drink from shallow creeks. In urban or suburban environments, waxwings often favor parkland with well - spaced trees; golf courses, cemeteries, or other landscaping with well - spaced trees; bushes that provide berries; and a nearby water source such as a fountain or birdbath. Also look for them near farms, orchards, and gardens, particularly ones with fruiting trees or shrubs.
Outside the breeding season, cedar waxwings often feed in large flocks numbering hundreds of birds. This species is nomadic and irruptive, with erratic winter movements, though most of the population migrates farther south into the United States and beyond, sometimes reaching as far as northern South America. They will move in huge numbers if berry supplies are low. Rare vagrants have reached western Europe, and there are two recorded occurrences of cedar waxwing sightings in Great Britain. Individual Bohemian waxwings will occasionally join large winter flocks of cedar waxwings.
Cedar waxwings are sociable, seen in flocks year round. They are non-territorial birds and "will often groom each other. '' They move from place to place depending on where they can find good sources of berries.
Mating season for this bird begins around the end of spring and runs through late summer. The male will do a "hopping dance '' for the female. If she is interested, she 'll hop back. During courtship the male and female will sit together and pass small objects back and forth, such as flower petals or an insect. Mating pairs will sometimes rub their beaks together affectionately. The nest is a loose open cup built with grass and twigs, lined with softer materials and supported by a tree branch averaging 2 to 6 m (6.6 to 19.7 ft) above ground but, at times, considerably higher. It takes around five or six days for the female waxwing to build the nest and can take up to 2,500 trips back and forth. Sometimes the female will steal nest material from other species ' nests to save time. The outer diameter of the nest is approximately 12 to 16 cm (4.7 to 6.3 in). Usually 5 or 6 eggs are laid and the female incubates them for 11 to 13 days. The eggs are oval shaped with a smooth surface and very little, if any, gloss. The egg shells are of various shades of light or bluish grey with irregular, dark brown spots or greyish - brown splotches. Both parents build the nest and feed the young. Typically, there are one or two broods during the mating season. Young leave the nest about 14 to 18 days after hatching.
The cedar waxwing eats berries and sugary fruit year - round, including "dogwood, serviceberry, cedar, juniper, hawthorn, and winterberry '', with insects becoming an important part of the diet in the breeding season. Its fondness for the small cones of the eastern redcedar (a kind of juniper) gave this bird its common name. They eat berries whole. They sometimes fly over water to catch insects.
When the end of a twig holds a supply of berries that only one bird at a time can reach, members of a flock may line up along the twig and pass berries beak to beak down the line so that each bird gets a chance to eat.
Sometimes, cedar waxwings will eat fruit that is overripe and has begun to ferment, intoxicating the bird.
Waxwings are evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. Populations are increasing in their range partly because fields are being allowed to grow into forests and shrublands, and fruiting trees like mountain ash are being planted as landscaping. On the other hand, cedar waxwings do sometimes crash into windows, and get hit by cars while foraging along roadsides.
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list of fruits and gifts of the holy spirit | Fruit of the Holy Spirit - wikipedia
The Fruit of the Holy Spirit is a biblical term that sums up nine attributes of a person or community living in accord with the Holy Spirit, according to chapter 5 of the Epistle to the Galatians: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self - control. '' The fruit is contrasted with the works of the flesh which immediately precede it in this chapter.
Catholic tradition follows the Vulgate version of Galatians in listing 12 fruits: charity, joy, peace, patience, benignity (kindness), goodness, longanimity (generosity), mildness (gentleness), faith, modesty, continency (self - control), and chastity. This tradition was defended by Thomas Aquinas in his work Summa Theologica.
Aquinas pointed out that numbered among the fruits of the Holy Spirit are certain virtues, such as charity, meekness, faith, and chastity. Augustine defined virtue as "a good habit consonant with our nature. ''
Though traditionally discussed as nine attributes of the Fruit of the Spirit, the original Greek term translated as "fruit '' is singular. Aquinas explained, "Consequently fruit is mentioned there in the singular, on account of its being generically one, though divided into many species which are spoken of as so many fruits. '' Augustine 's commentary on Galatians 5: 25 - 26, says, "the Apostle had no intention of teaching us how many (either works of the flesh, or fruits of the Spirit) there are; but to show how the former should be avoided, and the latter sought after. ''
Agape (love) denotes an undefeatable benevolence and unconquerable goodwill that always seeks the highest in others, no matter their behavior. It is a love that gives freely without asking anything in return, and does not consider the worth of its object. Agape is more a love by choice than philos, which is love by chance; and it refers to the will rather than the emotion. Agape describes the unconditional love God has for the world. Paul describes love in 1 Corinthians 13: 4 -- 8:
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. 5 It does not dishonor others, it is not self - seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away.
According to Strong 's Greek Lexicon, the word ἀγάπη (G26) (Transliteration: agapē) means love, i.e. affection or benevolence; specially (plural) a love - feast: -- (feast of) charity (- ably), dear, love.
Outline of Biblical Usage:
The Greek word ἀγάπη (agapē) occurs 117 times in 106 verses in the Greek concordance of the NASB.
The joy referred to here is deeper than mere happiness, is rooted in God and comes from Him. Since it comes from God, it is more serene and stable than worldly happiness, which is merely emotional and lasts only for a time.
According to Strong 's Greek Lexicon, the Greek word listed in the verse is χαρά (G5479), meaning ' joy ', ' gladness ', or ' a source of joy '. The Greek χαρά (chara) occurs 59 times in 57 verses in the Greek concordance of the NASB.
Joy (Noun and Verb), Joyfulness, Joyfully, Joyous:
"joy, delight '' (akin to chairo, "to rejoice ''), is found frequently in Matthew and Luke, and especially in John, once in Mark (Mar 4: 16, RV, "joy, '' AV, "gladness ''); it is absent from 1 Cor. (though the verb is used three times), but is frequent in 2 Cor., where the noun is used five times (for 2Cr 7: 4, RV, see Note below), and the verb eight times, suggestive of the Apostle 's relief in comparison with the circumstances of the 1st Epistle; in Col 1: 11, AV, "joyfulness, '' RV, "joy. '' The word is sometimes used, by metonymy, of the occasion or cause of "joy, '' Luk 2: 10 (lit., "I announce to you a great joy ''); in 2Cr 1: 15, in some mss., for charis, "benefit; '' Phl 4: 1, where the readers are called the Apostle 's "joy; '' so 1Th 2: 19, 20; Hbr 12: 2, of the object of Christ 's "joy; '' Jam 1: 2, where it is connected with falling into trials; perhaps also in Mat 25: 21, 23, where some regard it as signifying, concretely, the circumstances attending cooperation in the authority of the Lord.
Note: In Hbr 12: 11, "joyous '' represents the phrase meta, "with, '' followed by chara, lit., "with joy. '' So in Hbr 10: 34, "joyfully; '' in 2Cr 7: 4 the noun is used with the Middle Voice of huperperisseuo, "to abound more exceedingly, '' and translated "(I overflow) with joy, '' RV (AV, "I am exceeding joyful '').
The Greek word εἰρήνη (Strong 's G1515) (eirēnē) (transliteration: i - ray ' - nay), probably derived from a primary verb εἴρω eírō (to join), means peace (literally or figuratively); by implication, prosperity: -- one, peace, quietness, rest, + set at one again.
The word "peace '' comes from the Greek word eirene, the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew word shalom, which expresses the idea of wholeness, completeness, or tranquility in the soul that is unaffected by the outward circumstances or pressures. The word eirene strongly suggests the rule of order in place of chaos.
The Greek εἰρήνη (eirēnē) occurs 92 times in 86 verses in the Greek concordance of the KJV. The KJV translates Strong 's G1515 in the following manner: peace (89x), one (1x), rest (1x), quietness (1x). The outline of Biblical usage is as follows:
Jesus is described as the Prince of Peace, who brings peace to the hearts of those who desire it. He says in John 14: 27: "Peace I leave with you, My peace I give to you; not as the world gives do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid ''. In Matthew 5: 9 he says, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God. ''
Generally the Greek world applied this word to a man who could avenge himself but did not. This word is often used in the Greek Scriptures in reference to God and his attitude to man. Exodus 34: 6 describes the Lord as "slow to anger and rich in kindness and fidelity. ''
Patience, which in some translations is "longsuffering '' or "endurance '', is defined in Strong 's by two Greek words, makrothumia and hupomone.
The first, pronounced (mak - roth - oo - mee - ah) comes from makros, "long '', and thumos, "temper ''. The word denotes lenience, forbearance, fortitude, patient endurance, longsuffering. Also included in makrothumia is the ability to endure persecution and ill - treatment. It describes a person who has the power to exercise revenge but instead exercises restraint. (Strong 's # 3115)
The latter, hupomone, (hoop - om - on - ay) is translated "endurance '': Constancy, perseverance, continuance, bearing up, steadfastness, holding out, patient endurance. The word combines hupo, "under '', and mone, "to remain ''. It describes the capacity to continue to bear up under difficult circumstances, not with a passive complacency, but with a hopeful fortitude that actively resists weariness and defeat, (Strong 's # 5281) with hupomone (Greek ὑπομονή) being further understood as that which would be "as opposed to cowardice or despondency ''
"With lowliness and meekness, with longsuffering, forbearing one another in love ''.
In Greek, old wine was called "chrestos '' which meant that it was mellow or smooth. Christ used this word in Matthew 11: 30, "For my yoke is easy, and my burden light. ''
In contrast, kindness is acting for the good of people regardless of what they do, properly, "useable, i.e. well - fit for use (for what is really needed); kindness that is also serviceable ''.
Strong 's # 5544: Kindness is goodness in action, sweetness of disposition, gentleness in dealing with others, benevolence, kindness, affability. The word describes the ability to act for the welfare of those taxing your patience. The Holy Spirit removes abrasive qualities from the character of one under His control. (emphasis added)
The word kindness comes from the Greek word chrestotes (khray - stot - ace), which meant to show kindness or to be friendly to others and often depicted rulers, governors, or people who were kind, mild, and benevolent to their subjects. Anyone who demonstrated this quality of chrestotes was considered to be compassionate, considerate, sympathetic, humane, kind, or gentle. The apostle Paul uses this word to depict God 's incomprehensible kindness for people who are unsaved (see Romans 11: 22; Ephesians 2: 7; Titus 3: 4).
One scholar has noted that when the word chrestotes is applied to interpersonal relationships, it conveys the idea of being adaptable to others. Rather than harshly require everyone else to adapt to his own needs and desires, when chrestotes is working in a believer, he seeks to become adaptable to the needs of those who are around him. (Sparkling Gems from the Greek, Rick Renner)
Kindness is doing something and not expecting anything in return. Kindness is respect and helping others without waiting for someone to help one back. It implies kindness no matter what. We should live "in purity, understanding, patience and kindness; in the Holy Spirit and in sincere love; in truthful speech and in the power of God; with weapons of righteousness in the right hand and in the left ''.
Popular English Bibles (e.g. NIV, NASB, NLT) translate the single Greek word chrestotes into two English words: kindness and goodness. "Wherefore also we pray always for you, that our God would count you worthy of this calling, and fulfill all the good pleasure of his goodness, and the work of faith with power ''. "For the fruit of the Spirit is in all goodness and righteousness and truth '', with agathosune being "found only in Biblical and ecclesiastical writings, uprightness of heart and life ''
The root of pistis ("faith '') is peithô that is to persuade or be persuaded which supplies the core - meaning of faith as being "divine persuasion '', received from God, and never generated by man. It is defined as the following: objectively, trustworthy; subjectively, trustful: -- believe (- ing, - r), faithful (- ly), sure, true.
The Greek πιστός (pistos) occurs 67 times in 62 verses in the Greek concordance of the KJV: faithful (53x), believe (6x), believing (2x), true (2x), faithfully (1x), believer (1x), sure (1x).
Outline of Biblical Usage
Examples:
"O Lord, thou art my God; I will exalt thee, I will praise thy name; for thou hast done wonderful things; thy counsels of old are faithfulness and truth ''. "I pray that out of his glorious riches he may strengthen you with power through his Spirit in your inner being, so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith ''.
The writer of the Letter to the Hebrews describes it this way: "Let us fix our eyes on Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who for the joy set before him endured the cross, scorning its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God ''.
Gentleness, in the Greek, prautes, commonly known as meekness, which is "a divinely - balanced virtue that can only operate through faith (cf.;).
. The New Spirit Filled Life Bible defines gentleness as
"a disposition that is even - tempered, tranquil, balanced in spirit, unpretentious, and that has the passions under control. The word is best translated ' meekness, ' not as an indication of weakness, but of power and strength under control. The person who possesses this quality pardons injuries, corrects faults, and rules his own spirit well ''.
"Brothers and sisters, if someone is caught in a sin, you who live by the Spirit should restore that person gently. But watch yourselves, or you also may be tempted ''.
"Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love ''.
The Greek word used in Galatians 5: 23 is "egkrateia '', meaning "strong, having mastery, able to control one 's thoughts and actions. ''
"... make every effort to add to your faith goodness; and to goodness, knowledge; and to knowledge, self - control; and to self - control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; and to godliness, mutual affection; and to mutual affection, love ''.
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who was the leader of the small american militia force in lexington | Battles of Lexington and Concord - wikipedia
Strategic American victory
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775 in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present - day Arlington), and Cambridge. They marked the outbreak of armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies in America.
In late 1774, Colonial leaders adopted the Suffolk Resolves in resistance to the alterations made to the Massachusetts colonial government by the British parliament following the Boston Tea Party. The colonial assembly responded by forming a Patriot provisional government known as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and calling for local militias to train for possible hostilities. The Colonial government exercised effective control of the colony outside of British - controlled Boston. In response, the British government in February 1775 declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion.
About 700 British Army regulars in Boston, under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, were given secret orders to capture and destroy Colonial military supplies reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord. Through effective intelligence gathering, Patriot leaders had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations. On the night before the battle, warning of the British expedition had been rapidly sent from Boston to militias in the area by several riders, including Paul Revere and Samuel Prescott, with information about British plans. The initial mode of the Army 's arrival by water was signaled from the Old North Church in Boston to Charlestown using lanterns to communicate "one if by land, two if by sea ''.
The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington. Eight militiamen were killed, including Ensign Robert Munroe, their third in command. The British suffered only one casualty. The militia were outnumbered and fell back, and the regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they broke apart into companies to search for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord, approximately 400 militiamen engaged 100 regulars from three companies of the King 's troops at about 11: 00 am, resulting in casualties on both sides. The outnumbered regulars fell back from the bridge and rejoined the main body of British forces in Concord.
The British forces began their return march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies, and more militiamen continued to arrive from neighboring towns. Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston. Upon returning to Lexington, Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy, a future duke of Northumberland known as Earl Percy. The combined force of about 1,700 men marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown. The accumulated militias then blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the Siege of Boston.
Ralph Waldo Emerson describes the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge in his "Concord Hymn '' as the "shot heard round the world ''.
The British Army 's infantry was nicknamed "redcoats '' and sometimes "devils '' by the colonists. They had occupied Boston since 1768 and had been augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce what the colonists called The Intolerable Acts, which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish the Province of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of defiance.
General Thomas Gage was the military governor of Massachusetts and commander - in - chief of the roughly 3,000 British military forces garrisoned in Boston. He had no control over Massachusetts outside of Boston, however, where implementation of the Acts had increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the pro-British Tory minority. Gage 's plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from Whig militias using small, secret, and rapid strikes. This struggle for supplies led to one British success and several Patriot successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as governor of the colony and as general of an occupying force. Edmund Burke described Gage 's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. ''
The colonists had been forming militias since the very beginnings of Colonial settlement for the purpose of defense against Indian attacks. These forces also saw action in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763 when they fought alongside British regulars. Under the laws of each New England colony, all towns were obligated to form militia companies composed of all males 16 years of age and older (there were exemptions for some categories), and to ensure that the members were properly armed. The Massachusetts militias were formally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, but militia companies throughout New England elected their own officers. Gage effectively dissolved the provincial government under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act, and these existing connections were employed by the colonists under the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the military threat from Britain.
A February 1775 address to King George III, by both houses of Parliament, declared that a state of rebellion existed:
We... find that a part of your Majesty ' s subjects, in the Province of the Massachusetts Bay, have proceeded so far to resist the authority of the supreme Legislature, that a rebellion at this time actually exists within the said Province; and we see, with the utmost concern, that they have been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engagements entered into by your Majesty 's subjects in several of the other Colonies, to the injury and oppression of many of their innocent fellow - subjects, resident within the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the rest of your Majesty ' s Dominions...
We... shall... pay attention and regard to any real grievances... laid before us; and whenever any of the Colonies shall make a proper application to us, we shall be ready to afford them every just and reasonable indulgence. At the same time we... beseech your Majesty that you will... enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the supreme Legislature; and... it is our fixed resolution, at the hazard of our lives and properties, to stand by your Majesty against all rebellious attempts in the maintenance of the just rights of your Majesty, and the two Houses of Parliament.
On April 14, 1775, Gage received instructions from Secretary of State William Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, to disarm the rebels and to imprison the rebellion 's leaders, but Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in his commands. Gage 's decision to act promptly may have been influenced by information he received on April 15, from a spy within the Provincial Congress, telling him that although the Congress was still divided on the need for armed resistance, delegates were being sent to the other New England colonies to see if they would cooperate in raising a New England army of 18,000 colonial soldiers.
On the morning of April 18, Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about 20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment of Foot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who might be out on horseback. This patrol behaved differently from patrols sent out from Boston in the past, staying out after dark and asking travelers about the location of Samuel Adams and John Hancock. This had the unintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing their preparedness. The Lexington militia in particular began to muster early that evening, hours before receiving any word from Boston. A well - known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer, Josiah Nelson, mistook the British patrol for the colonists and asked them, "Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out? '' upon which he was slashed on his scalp with a sword. However, the story of this incident was not published until over a century later, which suggests that it may be little more than a family myth.
Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that he was not to read them until his troops were underway. He was to proceed from Boston "with utmost expedition and secrecy to Concord, where you will seize and destroy... all Military stores... But you will take care that the soldiers do not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property. '' Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders for the arrest of rebel leaders, as he feared doing so might spark an uprising.
On March 30, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress issued the following resolution:
Whenever the army under command of General Gage, or any part thereof to the number of five hundred, shall march out of the town of Boston, with artillery and baggage, it ought to be deemed a design to carry into execution by force the late acts of Parliament, the attempting of which, by the resolve of the late honourable Continental Congress, ought to be opposed; and therefore the military force of the Province ought to be assembled, and an army of observation immediately formed, to act solely on the defensive so long as it can be justified on the principles of reason and self - preservation.
The rebellion 's leaders -- with the exception of Paul Revere and Joseph Warren -- had all left Boston by April 8. They had received word of Dartmouth 's secret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before they reached Gage himself. Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home of one of Hancock 's relatives in Lexington, where they thought they would be safe from the immediate threat of arrest.
The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons, powder, and supplies at Concord and much further west in Worcester. An expedition from Boston to Concord was widely anticipated. After a large contingent of regulars alarmed the countryside by an expedition from Boston to Watertown on March 30, The Pennsylvania Journal, a newspaper in Philadelphia, reported, "It was supposed they were going to Concord, where the Provincial Congress is now sitting. A quantity of provisions and warlike stores are lodged there... It is... said they are intending to go out again soon. ''
On April 18, Paul Revere began the "midnight ride '' to Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning an expedition. The ride was finished by Samuel Prescott. Upon hearing Prescott 's news, the townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute them among other towns nearby.
The colonists were also aware that April 19 would be the date of the expedition, despite Gage 's efforts to keep the details hidden from all the British rank and file and even from the officers who would command the mission. There is reasonable speculation, although not proven, that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage, General Gage 's New Jersey - born wife, who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship with Warren.
Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18, 1775, Joseph Warren told Revere and William Dawes that the British troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington and Concord. Warren 's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars ' movements later that night would be the capture of Adams and Hancock. They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching to Concord, since the supplies at Concord were safe, but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of the potential danger that night. Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearby towns.
Dawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington. Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown using lanterns hung in the steeple of Boston 's Old North Church. He then traveled the northern water route, crossing the mouth of the Charles River by rowboat, slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor. Crossings were banned at that hour, but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode west to Lexington, warning almost every house along the route. Additional riders were sent north from Charlestown.
After they arrived in Lexington, Revere, Dawes, Hancock, and Adams discussed the situation with the militia assembling there. They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two men and that Concord was the main target. The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns, and Revere and Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott. In Lincoln, they ran into the British patrol led by Major Mitchell. Revere was captured, Dawes was thrown from his horse, and only Prescott escaped to reach Concord. Additional riders were sent out from Concord.
The ride of Revere, Dawes, and Prescott triggered a flexible system of "alarm and muster '' that had been carefully developed months before, in reaction to the colonists ' impotent response to the Powder Alarm. This system was an improved version of an old notification network for use in times of emergency. The colonists had periodically used it during the early years of Indian wars in the colony, before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War. In addition to other express riders delivering messages, bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town, notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because over 500 regulars were leaving Boston. This system was so effective that people in towns 25 miles (40 km) from Boston were aware of the army 's movements while they were still unloading boats in Cambridge. These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient number of colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day. Adams and Hancock were eventually moved to safety, first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica.
Around dusk, General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House. He informed them that instructions from Lord Dartmouth had arrived, ordering him to take action against the colonials. He also told them that the senior colonel of his regiments, Lieutenant Colonel Smith, would command, with Major John Pitcairn as his executive officer. The meeting adjourned around 8: 30 pm, after which Earl Percy mingled with town folk on Boston Common. According to one account, the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of the British soldiers in the town. When Percy questioned one man further, the man replied, "Well, the regulars will miss their aim. ''
"What aim? '' asked Percy. "Why, the cannon at Concord '' was the reply. Upon hearing this, Percy quickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage. Stunned, Gage issued orders to prevent messengers from getting out of Boston, but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere from leaving.
The British regulars, around 700 infantry, were drawn from 11 of Gage 's 13 occupying infantry regiments. Major Pitcairn commanded ten elite light infantry companies, and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11 grenadier companies, under the overall command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith.
Of the troops assigned to the expedition, 350 were from grenadier companies drawn from the 4th (King 's Own), 5th, 10th, 18th (Royal Irish), 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments of Foot, and the 1st Battalion of His Majesty 's Marine Forces. Protecting the grenadier companies were about 320 light infantry from the 4th, 5th, 10th, 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd, and 59th Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of the Marines. Each company had its own lieutenant, but the majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute, drawn from all the regiments stationed in Boston. This lack of familiarity between commander and company would cause problems during the battle.
The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water 's edge on the western end of Boston Common by 10 pm. Colonel Smith was late in arriving, and there was no organized boat - loading operation, resulting in confusion at the staging area. The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightly that there was no room to sit down. When they disembarked near Phipps Farm in Cambridge, it was into waist - deep water at midnight. After a lengthy halt to unload their gear, the regulars began their 17 miles (27 km) march to Concord at about 2 am. During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition, cold salt pork, and hard sea biscuits. They did not carry knapsacks, since they would not be encamped. They carried their haversacks (food bags), canteens, muskets, and accoutrements, and marched off in wet, muddy shoes and soggy uniforms. As they marched through Menotomy, sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers who were aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise.
At about 3 am, Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord. At about 4 am Smith made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements.
Though often styled a battle, in reality the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish. As the regulars ' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19, 1775, about 80 Lexington militiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on the village common watching them, and between 40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road. Their leader was Captain John Parker, a veteran of the French and Indian War, who was suffering from tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear. Of the militiamen who lined up, nine had the surname Harrington, seven Munroe (including the company 's orderly sergeant, William Munroe), four Parker, three Tidd, three Locke, and three Reed; fully one quarter of them were related to Captain Parker in some way. This group of militiamen was part of Lexington 's "training band '', a way of organizing local militias dating back to the Puritans, and not what was styled a minuteman company.
After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops (and wondering if Paul Revere 's warning was true), at about 4: 15 a.m., Parker got his confirmation. Thaddeus Bowman, the last scout that Parker had sent out, rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming, but coming in force and they were close. Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice his men for no purpose. He knew that most of the colonists ' powder and military supplies at Concord had already been hidden. No war had been declared. (The Declaration of Independence was a year in the future.) He also knew the British had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts, found nothing, and marched back to Boston.
Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again. The Regulars would march to Concord, find nothing, and return to Boston, tired but empty - handed. He positioned his company carefully. He placed them in parade - ground formation, on Lexington Common. They were in plain sight (not hiding behind walls), but not blocking the road to Concord. They made a show of political and military determination, but no effort to prevent the march of the Regulars. Many years later, one of the participants recalled Parker 's words as being what is now engraved in stone at the site of the battle: "Stand your ground; do n't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here. '' According to Parker 's sworn deposition taken after the battle:
I... ordered our Militia to meet on the Common in said Lexington to consult what to do, and concluded not to be discovered, nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops (if they should approach) unless they should insult or molest us; and, upon their sudden Approach, I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse, and not to fire: -- Immediately said Troops made their appearance and rushed furiously, fired upon, and killed eight of our Party without receiving any Provocation therefor from us.
Rather than turn left towards Concord, Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair, at the head of the advance guard, decided on his own to protect the flank of the British column by first turning right and then leading the companies onto the Common itself, in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia. Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them. The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston.
A British officer (probably Pitcairn, but accounts are uncertain, as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland) then rode forward, waving his sword, and called out for the assembled militia to disperse, and may also have ordered them to "lay down your arms, you damned rebels! '' Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home, but, because of the confusion, the yelling all around, and due to the raspiness of Parker 's tubercular voice, some did not hear him, some left very slowly, and none laid down their arms. Both Parker and Pitcairn ordered their men to hold fire, but a shot was fired from an unknown source.
(A) t 5 o'clock we arrived (in Lexington), and saw a number of people, I believe between 200 and 300, formed in a common in the middle of town; we still continued advancing, keeping prepared against an attack though without intending to attack them; but on our coming near them they fired on us two shots, upon which our men without any orders, rushed upon them, fired and put them to flight; several of them were killed, we could not tell how many, because they were behind walls and into the woods. We had a man of the 10th light Infantry wounded, nobody else was hurt. We then formed on the Common, but with some difficulty, the men were so wild they could hear no orders; we waited a considerable time there, and at length proceeded our way to Concord.
According to one member of Parker 's militia, none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced the oncoming British troops. The British did suffer one casualty, a slight wound, the particulars of which were corroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe. Munroe stated that:
After the first fire of the regulars, I thought, and so stated to Ebenezer Munroe... who stood next to me on the left, that they had fired nothing but powder; but on the second firing, Munroe stated they had fired something more than powder, for he had received a wound in his arm; and now, said he, to use his own words, ' I 'll give them the guts of my gun. ' We then both took aim at the main body of British troops the smoke preventing our seeing anything but the heads of some of their horses and discharged our pieces.
Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge or around the corner of a tavern. Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first. Both sides generally agreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other. Speculation arose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behind a wall, but this has been discredited. Some witnesses (on each side) claimed that someone on the other side fired first; however, many more witnesses claimed to not know. Yet another theory is that the first shot was one fired by the British, that killed Asahel Porter, their prisoner who was running away (he had been told to walk away and he would be let go, though he panicked and began to run). Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there may actually have been multiple near - simultaneous shots. Historian Mark Urban claims the British surged forward with bayonets ready in an undisciplined way, provoking a few scattered shots from the militia. In response the British troops, without orders, fired a devastating volley. This lack of discipline among the British troops had a key role in the escalation of violence.
Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began to fire volleys without receiving orders to do so. A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were only firing powder with no ball, but when they realized the truth, few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire. The rest ran for their lives.
We Nathaniel Mulliken, Philip Russell, (and 32 other men...) do testify and declare, that on the nineteenth in the morning, being informed that... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord... About five o'clock in the morning, hearing our drum beat, we proceeded towards the parade, and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us, some of our company were coming to the parade, and others had reached it, at which time, the company began to disperse, whilst our backs were turned on the troops, we were fired on by them, and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded, not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us, and continued firing until we had all made our escape.
The regulars then charged forward with bayonets. Captain Parker 's cousin Jonas was run through. Eight Lexington men were killed, and ten were wounded. The only British casualty was a soldier who was wounded in the thigh. The eight colonists killed were John Brown, Samuel Hadley, Caleb Harrington, Jonathon Harrington, Robert Munroe, Isaac Muzzey, Asahel Porter, and Jonas Parker. Jonathon Harrington, fatally wounded by a British musket ball, managed to crawl back to his home, and died on his own doorstep. One wounded man, Prince Estabrook, was a black slave who was serving in the militia.
The companies under Pitcairn 's command got beyond their officers ' control in part because they were unaware of the actual purpose of the day 's mission. They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes. Colonel Smith, who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars, heard the musket fire and rode forward from the grenadier column to see the action. He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly. The grenadiers arrived shortly thereafter, and once order was restored among the soldiers, the light infantry were permitted to fire a victory volley, after which the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord.
In response to the raised alarm, the militiamen of Concord and Lincoln had mustered in Concord. They received reports of firing at Lexington, and were not sure whether to wait until they could be reinforced by troops from towns nearby, or to stay and defend the town, or to move east and greet the British Army from superior terrain. A column of militia marched down the road toward Lexington to meet the British, traveling about 1.5 miles (2 km) until they met the approaching column of regulars. As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at this time only numbered about 250, the militia column turned around and marched back into Concord, preceding the regulars by a distance of about 500 yards (457 m). The militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town, and their officers discussed what to do next. Caution prevailed, and Colonel James Barrett withdrew from the town of Concord and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about a mile north of town, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the center of town. This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companies arriving from the western towns joined them there.
When the British troops arrived in the village of Concord, Lt. Col. Smith divided them to carry out Gage 's orders. The 10th Regiment 's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole, while seven companies of light infantry under Captain Parsons, numbering about 100, secured the North Bridge, where they were visible across the cleared fields to the assembling militia companies. Captain Parsons took four companies from the 5th, 23rd, 38th and 52nd Regiments up the road 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond the North Bridge to search Barrett 's Farm, where intelligence indicated supplies would be found. Two companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments were stationed to guard their return route, and one company from the 43rd remained guarding the bridge itself. These companies, which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie, were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400 - plus militiamen. The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Lt. Col. Smith requesting reinforcements.
Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies, the grenadier companies searched the small town for military supplies. When they arrived at Ephraim Jones 's tavern, by the jail on the South Bridge road, they found the door barred shut, and Jones refused them entry. According to reports provided by local Loyalists, Pitcairn knew cannon had been buried on the property. Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried. These turned out to be three massive pieces, firing 24 - pound shot, that were much too heavy to use defensively, but very effective against fortifications, with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland. The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted. They also burned some gun carriages found in the village meetinghouse, and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself, local resident Martha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building. Nearly a hundred barrels of flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond, as were 550 pounds of musket balls. Of the damage done, only that done to the cannon was significant. All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the British left. During the search, the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals, including paying for food and drink consumed. This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals, who were able to misdirect searches from several smaller caches of militia supplies.
Barrett 's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before, but few weapons remained now, and according to family legend, these were quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted. The troops sent there did not find any supplies of consequence.
Colonel Barrett 's troops, upon seeing smoke rising from the village square as the British burned cannon carriages, and seeing only a few light infantry companies directly below them, decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about 300 yards (274 m) from the North Bridge. As the militia advanced, the two British companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments that held the position near the road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett 's men.
Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from Acton, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more groups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie 's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90 -- 95 men. Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two abreast on the highway leading down to the bridge, and then he called for another consultation. While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill, Barrett, Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford and the other Captains discussed possible courses of action. Captain Isaac Davis of Acton, whose troops had arrived late, declared his willingness to defend a town not their own by saying, "I 'm not afraid to go, and I have n't a man that 's afraid to go. ''
Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance. Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge. The Minutemen and militia from Concord, Acton and a handful of Westford Minutemen, advanced in column formation, two by two, led by Major Buttrick, Lt. Col. Robinson, then Capt. Davis, on the light infantry, keeping to the road, since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.
Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision. Since his summons for help had not produced any results, he ordered his men to form positions for "street firing '' behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river. This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city, but not for an open path behind a bridge. Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up in the street - firing position of the other troops. Lieutenant Sutherland, who was in the rear of the formation, saw Laurie 's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out. But as he was from a company different from the men under his command, only three soldiers obeyed him. The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow the orders of the superior officer.
A shot rang out. It was likely a warning shot fired by a panicked, exhausted British soldier from the 43rd, according to Captain Laurie 's report to his commander after the fight. Two other regulars then fired immediately after that, shots splashing in the river, and then the narrow group up front, possibly thinking the order to fire had been given, fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stop them.
Two of the Acton Minutemen, Private Abner Hosmer and Captain Isaac Davis, who were at the head of the line marching to the bridge, were hit and killed instantly. Rev. Dr. Ripley recalled:
The Americans commenced their march in double file... In a minute or two, the Americans being in quick motion and within ten or fifteen rods of the bridge, a single gun was fired by a British soldier, which marked the way, passing under Col. Robinson 's arm and slightly wounding the side of Luther Blanchard, a fifer, in the Acton Company.
Four more men were wounded. Major Buttrick then yelled to the militia, "Fire, for God 's sake, fellow soldiers, fire! '' At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge, and were only 50 yards (46 m) apart. The few front rows of colonists, bound by the road and blocked from forming a line of fire, managed to fire over each other 's heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge. Four of the eight British officers and sergeants, who were leading from the front of their troops, were wounded by the volley of musket fire. At least three privates (Thomas Smith, Patrick Gray, and James Hall, all from the 4th) were killed or mortally wounded, and nine were wounded. In 1824, Reverend and Minuteman Joseph Thaxter wrote:
I was an eyewitness to the following facts. The people of Westford and Acton, some few of Concord, were the first who faced the British at Concord bridge. The British had placed about ninety men as a guard at the North Bridge; we had then no certain information that any had been killed at Lexington, we saw the British making destruction in the town of Concord; it was proposed to advance to the bridge; on this Colonel Robinson, of Westford, together with Major Buttrick, took the lead; strict orders were given not to fire, unless the British fired first; when they advanced about halfway on the causeway the British fired one gun, a second, a third, and then the whole body; they killed Colonel Davis, of Acton, and a Mr. Hosmer. Our people then fired over one another 's heads, being in a long column, two and two; they killed two and wounded eleven. Lieutenant Hawkstone, said to be the greatest beauty of the British army, had his cheeks so badly wounded that it disfigured him much, of which he bitterly complained. On this, the British fled, and assembled on the hill, the north side of Concord, and dressed their wounded, and then began their retreat. As they descended the hill near the road that comes out from Bedford they were pursued; Colonel Bridge, with a few men from Bedford and Chelmsford, came up, and killed several men.
The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered. Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy, with their spirit broken, and likely not having experienced combat before, they abandoned their wounded, and fled to the safety of the approaching grenadier companies coming from the town center, isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for arms at Barrett 's Farm.
The colonists were stunned by their success. No one had actually believed either side would shoot to kill the other. Some advanced; many more retreated; and some went home to see to the safety of their homes and families. Colonel Barrett eventually began to recover control. He moved some of the militia back to the hilltop 300 yards (274 m) away and sent Major Buttrick with others across the bridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall.
Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in the town moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie. He quickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridge himself. As these troops marched, they met the shattered remnants of the three light infantry companies running towards them. Smith was concerned about the four companies that had been at Barrett 's, since their route to town was now unprotected. When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall, he halted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take a closer look. One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed, "If we had fired, I believe we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front, but we had no orders to fire and there was n't a gun fired. '' During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes, a mentally ill local man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider.
At this point, the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett 's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area. They passed through the now mostly - deserted battlefield, and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge. There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped, which angered and shocked the British soldiers. They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11: 30 a.m., under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued to maintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town, ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston.
Lieutenant Colonel Smith, concerned about the safety of his men, sent flankers to follow a ridge and protect his forces from the roughly 1,000 colonials now in the field as the British marched east out of Concord. This ridge ended near Meriam 's Corner, a crossroads about a mile (2 km) outside the village of Concord, where the main road came to a bridge across a small stream. To cross the narrow bridge, the British had to pull the flankers back into the main column and close ranks to a mere three soldiers abreast. Colonial militia companies arriving from the north and east had converged at this point, and presented a clear numerical advantage over the regulars. The British were now witnessing once again what General Gage had hoped to avoid by dispatching the expedition in secrecy and in the dark of night: the ability of the colonial militiamen to rise and converge by the thousands when British forces ventured out of Boston. As the last of the British column marched over the narrow bridge, the British rear guard wheeled and fired a volley at the colonial militiamen, who had been firing irregularly and ineffectively from a distance but now had closed to within musket range. The colonists returned fire, this time with deadly effect. Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded, with no colonial casualties. Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge.
On Brooks Hill (also known as Hardy 's Hill) about 1 mile (1.6 km) past Meriam 's Corner, nearly 500 militiamen had assembled to the south of the road, awaiting opportunity to fire down upon the British column on the road below. Smith 's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off, but the colonists did not withdraw, inflicting significant casualties on the attackers. Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill, and the column continued on to another small bridge into Lincoln, at Brooks Tavern, where more militia companies intensified the attack from the north side of the road.
The regulars soon reached a point in the road now referred to as the "Bloody Angle '' where the road rises and curves sharply to the left through a lightly - wooded area. At this place, the militia company from Woburn had positioned themselves on the southeast side of the bend in the road in a rocky, lightly - wooded field. Additional militia flowing parallel to the road from the engagement at Meriam 's Corner positioned themselves on the northwest side of the road, catching the British in a crossfire, while other militia companies on the road closed from behind to attack. Some 500 yards (460 m) further along, the road took another sharp curve, this time to the right, and again the British column was caught by another large force of militiamen firing from both sides. In passing through these two sharp curves, the British force lost thirty soldiers killed or wounded, and four colonial militia were also killed, including Captain Jonathan Wilson of Bedford, Captain Nathan Wyman of Billerica, Lt. John Bacon of Natick, and Daniel Thompson of Woburn. The British soldiers escaped by breaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the woods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount more than a harassing attack from the rear.
As militia forces from other towns continued to arrive, the colonial forces had risen to about 2,000 men. The road now straightened to the east, with cleared fields and orchards along the sides. Lt. Col. Smith sent out flankers again, who succeeded in trapping some militia from behind and inflicting casualties. British casualties were also mounting from these engagements and from persistent long - range fire from the militiamen, and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition.
When the British column neared the boundary between Lincoln and Lexington, it encountered another ambush from a hill overlooking the road, set by Captain John Parker 's Lexington militiamen, including some of them bandaged up from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day. At this point, Lt. Col. Smith was wounded in the thigh and knocked from his horse. Major John Pitcairn assumed effective command of the column and sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear the militia forces.
The light infantry cleared two additional hills as the column continued east -- "The Bluff '' and "Fiske Hill '' -- and took still more casualties from ambushes set by fresh militia companies joining the battle. In one of the musket volleys from the colonial soldiers, Major Pitcairn 's horse bolted in fright, throwing Pitcairn to the ground and injuring his arm. Now both principal leaders of the expedition were injured or unhorsed, and their men were tired, thirsty, and exhausting their ammunition. A few surrendered or were captured; some now broke formation and ran forward toward Lexington. In the words of one British officer, "we began to run rather than retreat in order... We attempted to stop the men and form them two deep, but to no purpose, the confusion increased rather than lessened... the officers got to the front and presented their bayonets, and told the men if they advanced they should die. Upon this, they began to form up under heavy fire. ''
Only one British officer remained uninjured among the three companies at the head of the British column as it approach Lexington Center. He understood the column 's perilous situation: "There were very few men had any ammunition left, and so fatigued that we could not keep flanking parties out, so that we must soon have laid down our arms, or been picked off by the Rebels at their pleasure -- nearer to -- and we were not able to keep them off. '' He then heard cheering further ahead. A full brigade, about 1,000 men with artillery under the command of Earl Percy, had arrived to rescue them. It was about 2: 30 p.m., and the British column had now been on the march since 2 o'clock in the morning. Westford Minuteman, Rev. Joseph Thaxter, wrote of his account:
We pursued them and killed some; when they got to Lexington, they were so close pursued and fatigued, that they must have soon surrendered, had not Lord Percy met them with a large reinforcement and two field - pieces. They fired them, but the balls went high over our heads. But no cannon ever did more execution, such stories of their effects had been spread by the tories through our troops, that from this time more wont back than pursed. We pursued to Charlestown Common, and then retired to Cambridge. When the army collected at Cambridge, Colonel Prescott with his regiment of minute men, and John Robinson, his Lieutenant Colonel, were prompt at being at their post.
In their accounts afterward, British officers and soldiers alike noted their frustration that the colonial militiamen fired at them from behind trees and stone walls, rather than confronting them in large, linear formations in the style of European warfare. This image of the individual colonial farmer, musket in hand and fighting under his own command, has also been fostered in American myth: "Chasing the red - coats down the lane / Then crossing the fields to emerge again / Under the trees at the turn of the road, / And only pausing to fire and load. '' To the contrary, beginning at the North Bridge and throughout the British retreat, the colonial militias repeatedly operated as coordinated companies, even when dispersed to take advantage of cover. Reflecting on the British experience that day, Earl Percy understood the significance of the American tactics:
During the whole affair the Rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance & resolution, nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself much mistaken. They have men amongst them who know very well what they are about, having been employed as Rangers against the Indians & Canadians, & this country being much covered with wood, and hilly, is very advantageous for their method of fighting.
General Gage had anticipated that Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition might require reinforcement, so Gage drafted orders for reinforcing units to assemble in Boston at 4 a.m. But in his obsession for secrecy, Gage had sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade, whose servant then left the envelope on a table. Also at about 4 a.m., the British column was within three miles of Lexington, and Lt. Col. Smith now had clear indication that all element of surprise had been lost and that alarm was spreading throughout the countryside. So he sent a rider back to Boston with a request for reinforcements. At about 5 a.m., the rider reached Boston, and the 1st Brigade was ordered to assemble: the line infantry companies of the 4th, 23rd, and 47th Regiments, and a battalion of Royal Marines, under the command of Earl Percy. Unfortunately for the British, once again only one copy of the orders were sent to each commander, and the order for the Royal Marines was delivered to the desk of Major John Pitcairn, who was already on the Lexington Common with Smith 's column at that hour. After these delays, Percy 's brigade, about 1,000 strong, left Boston at about 8: 45 a.m., headed toward Lexington. Along the way, the story is told, they marched to the tune of "Yankee Doodle '' to taunt the inhabitants of the area. By the Battle of Bunker Hill less than two months later, the song would become a popular anthem for the colonial forces.
Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge, which some quick - thinking colonists had stripped of its planking to delay the British. His men then came upon an absent - minded tutor at Harvard College and asked him which road would take them to Lexington. The Harvard man, apparently oblivious to the reality of what was happening around him, showed him the proper road without thinking. (He was later compelled to leave the country for inadvertently supporting the enemy.) Percy 's troops arrived in Lexington at about 2: 00 p.m. They could hear gunfire in the distance as they set up their cannon and deployed lines of regulars on high ground with commanding views of the town. Colonel Smith 's men approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them. Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range, dispersing the colonial militiamen. Smith 's men collapsed with exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy 's lines.
Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance, Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for the two artillery pieces they brought with them, thinking the extra wagons would slow him down. Each man in Percy 's brigade had only 36 rounds, and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side - boxes. After Percy had left the city, Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men to follow. This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older, veteran militiamen still on the "alarm list, '' who could not join their militia companies because they were well over 60 years of age. These men rose up in ambush and demanded the surrender of the wagons, but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on. The old men opened fire, shot the lead horses, killed two sergeants, and wounded the officer. The British survivors ran, and six of them threw their weapons into a pond before they surrendered.
Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1,700 men and let them rest, eat, drink, and have their wounds tended at field headquarters (Munroe Tavern) before resuming the march. They set out from Lexington at about 3: 30 p.m., in a formation that emphasized defense along the sides and rear of the column. Wounded regulars rode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired at by gatherings of militia. Percy 's men were often surrounded, but they had the tactical advantage of interior lines. Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed, while the colonial militia were required to move around the outside of his formation. Percy placed Smith 's men in the middle of the column, while the 23rd Regiment 's line companies made up the column 's rear guard. Because of information provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking, Percy ordered the rear guard to be rotated every mile or so, to allow some of his troops to rest briefly. Flanking companies were sent to both sides of the road, and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead.
During the respite at Lexington, Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia. Earlier in the day, he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren, who had left Boston that morning, and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Heath and Warren reacted to Percy 's artillery and flankers by ordering the militiamen to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire. Instead, they surrounded Percy 's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties at minimum risk.
A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount, fire muskets at the approaching regulars, then remount and gallop ahead to repeat the tactic. Unmounted militia would often fire from long range, in the hope of hitting somebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving, since both British and colonials used muskets with an effective combat range of about 50 yards (46 m). Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of the British column. When it moved out of range, those units would move around and forward to re-engage the column further down the road. Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units, directing them to appropriate places along the road to engage the regulars. Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming the militia. Heath and Warren did lead skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves, but it was the presence of effective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics. Percy wrote of the colonial tactics, "The rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance and resolution, nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself very much mistaken. ''
The fighting grew more intense as Percy 's forces crossed from Lexington into Menotomy. Fresh militia poured gunfire into the British ranks from a distance, and individual homeowners began to fight from their own property. Some homes were also used as sniper positions, turning the situation into a soldier 's nightmare: house - to - house fighting. Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him to defend his house by saying, "An Englishman 's home is his castle. '' He stayed and was killed in his doorway. His friends, depending on which account is to be believed, either hid in the cellar, or died in the house from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers who followed them in. The Jason Russell House still stands and contains bullet holes from this fight. A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell 's orchard was caught by flankers, and eleven men were killed, some allegedly after they had surrendered.
Percy lost control of his men, and British soldiers began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping at the North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant, often unseen enemy. Based on the word of Pitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith 's command, Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stone walls, trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at the column. He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places.
Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted, enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings. For example, two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day 's events. Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda value (and to get financial compensation from the colonial government), it is certainly true that taverns along the road were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops, who in some cases became drunk themselves. One church 's communion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston. Aged Menotomy resident Samuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead. (He recovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98.) All told, far more blood was shed in Menotomy and Cambridge than elsewhere that day. The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there, and the British lost 40 killed and 80 wounded, with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties. Each was about half the day 's fatalities.
The British troops crossed the Menotomy River (today known as Alewife Brook) into Cambridge, and the fight grew more intense. Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation, and Percy used his two artillery pieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson 's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them.
Earlier in the day, Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled. Percy 's brigade was about to approach the broken - down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track (now Beech Street, near present - day Porter Square) and onto the road to Charlestown. The militia (now numbering about 4,000) were unprepared for this movement, and the circle of fire was broken. An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill (in modern - day Somerville), which dominated the road, but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed them with his last rounds of ammunition.
A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead. They might have cut off Percy 's route to Charlestown, but these men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape. Some accused the commander of this force, Colonel Timothy Pickering, of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventing a total defeat of the regulars. Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath 's orders, but Heath denied this. It was nearly dark when Pitcairn 's Marines defended a final attack on Percy 's rear as they entered Charlestown. The regulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown. Some of them had been without sleep for two days and had marched 40 miles (64 km) in 21 hours, eight hours of which had been spent under fire. But now they held high ground protected by heavy guns from HMS Somerset. Gage quickly sent over line companies of two fresh regiments -- the 10th and 64th -- to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications. Although they were begun, the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works built two months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill. General Heath studied the position of the British Army and decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge.
In the morning, Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army, numbering over 15,000, which had marched from throughout New England. Unlike the Powder Alarm, the rumors of spilled blood were true, and the Revolutionary War had begun. Now under the leadership of General Artemas Ward, who arrived on the 20th and replaced Brigadier General William Heath, they formed a siege line extending from Chelsea, around the peninsulas of Boston and Charlestown, to Roxbury, effectively surrounding Boston on three sides. In the days immediately following, the size of the colonial forces grew, as militias from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut arrived on the scene. The Second Continental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army. Even now, after open warfare had started, Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston. He persuaded the town 's selectmen to surrender all private weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town.
The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties. However, in terms of supporting the British political strategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms, the battle was a significant failure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent, and because few weapons were actually seized.
The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion. Within four days of the battle, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners. When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London, the Provincial Congress sent a packet of these detailed depositions, signed by over 100 participants in the events, on a faster ship. The documents were presented to a sympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage 's report arrived. Gage 's official report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone 's opinion. George Germain, no friend of the colonists, wrote, "the Bostonians are in the right to make the King 's troops the aggressors and claim a victory. '' Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions. The British troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington and Concord.
The day after the battle, John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields. He became convinced that "the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed. '' Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of the argument between the colonies and the Home Country as "a kind of law - suit '', but after news of the battle reached him, he "rejected the hardened, sullen - tempered Pharaoh of England forever. '' George Washington received the news at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend, "the once - happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice? '' A group of hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June. It eventually became the city of Lexington, Kentucky.
It was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence be maintained for this first battle of the war. The history of Patriot preparations, intelligence, warning signals, and uncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades. The story of the wounded British soldier at the North Bridge, hors de combat, struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet, the purported "scalping '', was strongly suppressed. Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not published and were returned to the participants (this notably happened to Paul Revere). Paintings portrayed the Lexington fight as an unjustified slaughter.
The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century. For example, older participants ' testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775. All now said the British fired first at Lexington, whereas fifty or so years before, they were n't sure. All now said they fired back, but in 1775, they said few were able to. The "Battle '' took on an almost mythical quality in the American consciousness. Legend became more important than truth. A complete shift occurred, and the Patriots were portrayed as actively fighting for their cause, rather than as suffering innocents. Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began to portray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance.
Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 "Concord Hymn ''. The "Concord Hymn '' became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution, and that for much of the 19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution, helping to forge the identity of the nation.
After 1860, several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem "Paul Revere 's Ride ''. Historically it is inaccurate (for example, Paul Revere never made it to Concord), but it captures the idea that an individual can change the course of history.
-- First verse of Emerson 's "Concord Hymn ''
In the 20th century, popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day, often reflecting the political mood of the time. Isolationist anti-war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature of Paul Revere 's contribution (if any) to the efforts to rouse the militia. Anglophilia in the United States after the turn of the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle. During World War I, a film about Paul Revere 's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the United States and Britain.
During the Cold War, Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol, but also as a capitalist one. In 1961, novelist Howard Fast published April Morning, an account of the battle from a fictional 15 - year - old 's perspective, and reading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools. A film version was produced for television in 1987, starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones. In the 1990s, parallels were drawn between American tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord.
The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a National Historic Landmark. Several memorials commemorating the battle have been established there.
The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord, as well as approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) of the road along with surrounding lands and period buildings between Meriam 's Corner and western Lexington are part of Minuteman National Historical Park. There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that the colonists might have used that skirted the road, and the Park Service often has personnel (usually dressed in period dress) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day. A bronze bas relief of Major Buttrick, designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915, is in the park, along with French 's Minute Man statue. The Civil War Trust, its members and partners have saved one acre of the battlefield at the site of Parker 's Revenge through the organization 's "Campaign 1776 '' project to acquire and preserve battleground land of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812.
Four current units of the Massachusetts National Guard units (181st Infantry, 182nd Infantry, 101st Engineer Battalion, and 125th Quartermaster Company) are derived from American units that participated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord. There are only thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
Several ships of the United States Navy, including two World War II aircraft carriers, were named in honor of the Battle of Lexington.
Patriots ' Day is celebrated annually in honor of the battle in Massachusetts, Maine, and by the Wisconsin public schools, on the third Monday in April. Re-enactments of Paul Revere 's ride are staged, as are the battle on the Lexington Green, and ceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge.
On April 19, 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant and members of his cabinet joined 50,000 people to mark the 100th anniversary of the battles. The sculpture by Daniel Chester French, The Minute Man, located at the North Bridge, was unveiled on that day. A formal ball took place in the evening at the Agricultural Hall in Concord.
In April 1925 the United States Post Office issued three stamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Battles at Lexington and Concord. The Lexington -- Concord commemorative stamps were the first of many commemoratives issued to honor the 150th anniversaries of events that surrounded America 's War of Independence. The three stamps were first placed on sale in Washington, D.C. and in five Massachusetts cities and towns that played major roles in the Lexington and Concord story: Lexington, Concord, Boston, Cambridge, and Concord Junction (as West Concord was then known). This is not to say that other locations were not involved in the battles.
The Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government, the military, the diplomatic corps, the arts, sciences, and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles. On April 19, 1975, as a crowd estimated at 110,000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial in Concord, President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge, which was televised to the nation.
Freedom was nourished in American soil because the principles of the Declaration of Independence flourished in our land. These principles, when enunciated 200 years ago, were a dream, not a reality. Today, they are real. Equality has matured in America. Our inalienable rights have become even more sacred. There is no government in our land without consent of the governed. Many other lands have freely accepted the principles of liberty and freedom in the Declaration of Independence and fashioned their own independent republics. It is these principles, freely taken and freely shared, that have revolutionized the world. The volley fired here at Concord two centuries ago, ' the shot heard round the world ', still echoes today on this anniversary.
President Ford laid a wreath at the base of The Minute Man statue and then respectfully observed as Sir Peter Ramsbotham, the British Ambassador to the United States, laid a wreath at the grave of British soldiers killed in the battle.
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who owns southern glazer's wine and spirits | Southern Wine & Spirits - wikipedia
Southern Glazer 's Wine and Spirits of America is the largest wine and spirits distributor in the United States with operations in 35 states. Southern 's portfolio is 45 % wine and 55 % spirits.
Southern Wine and Spirits was founded in 1968 in Florida by Jay W. Weiss, Harvey R. Chaplin, and Howard Preuss, and is headquartered in Miami. The company expanded from Florida to California in 1969. In 1977 Howard Preuss died due to cancer. His widow, Celia Preuss, sold her part of the company to the remaining owners. Southern was one of the first companies to have statewide distribution in California, which is the company 's largest market; prior to Southern 's presence, California had dozens of small distributors.
The company spread to Nevada in 1976, Arizona in 1992, South Carolina in 1993, Pennsylvania in 1995, Hawaii in 1996, Kentucky in 1998, New Mexico in 2000, Colorado in 2001, Illinois in 2002, New York in 2004, Maine, Mississippi, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Vermont, Virginia and West Virginia in 2005. In 2006, the company began operations in Alabama and in 2008 entered Delaware. In July 2008, Southern Wine and Spirits merged with the Odom Corporation which added Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Alaska to its distribution areas. Southern entered the Indiana market in 2010.
Southern now has a presence in Maryland and the District of Columbia through a joint venture with F.P. Winner Wine & Spirits as well as a joint venture operation in Minnesota with J.J. Taylor Distributing Company. Southern holds operating licenses and permits in Indiana, Nebraska and Texas.
In Jan 2016, the company merged with Glazer 's, changing the name to Southern Glazer 's Wine and Spirits
Harvey R. Chaplin is the Chairman.
His son, Wayne E. Chaplin, serves as the President and CEO.
Mel Dick is the Senior Vice President of Southern Wine & Spirits of America and President of the company 's Wine Division. In 2001, Mel Dick was awarded the Legion of Honor medal by the President of France, Jacques Chirac for his efforts to promote French wine. He was first hired at Southern Wine and Spirits in 1969 as General Sales Manager - Wine to develop the wine operations of the company and promoted to Senior Vice President in 1991.
Brad Vassar serves as Executive Vice President and C.O.O.
Southern Glazer 's represents approximately 1,500 wine, spirits, beer, and beverage suppliers from around the world, and markets, promotes, merchandises, and distributes over 5,000 brands. The company employs more than 20,000 people. During a working week the sales, delivery, and support staff of Southern Glazer 's collectively calls on or services over 250,000 different chain and independent retail and restaurant customers across the country.
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how many teams make it to world cup from south america | FIFA World Cup qualification - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup qualification is the process that a national association football team goes through to qualify for the FIFA World Cup finals. The FIFA World Cup is the largest international team sport competition in the world with a qualification process required to reduce the large field of countries from 211 to just 32 for the World Cup finals until the 2022 edition.
Qualifying tournaments are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, Europe), and are organized by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides beforehand the number of places in the finals allocated to each of the continental zones, based on the numbers or relative strength of the confederations ' teams.
The hosts of the World Cup receive an automatic berth. Unlike many other sports, results of the previous World Cups or of the continental championships are not taken into account. Until 2002, the defending champions also received an automatic berth, but starting from the 2006 World Cup this is no longer the case.
The current qualification process is the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification which commenced in 2015 and will finish in late 2017.
Over many years, the World Cup 's qualification has evolved, from having no qualification at all in 1930, when the tournament was invitational and only 13 teams entered, to the current two - year process. The first World Cup qualifying match was played on 11 June 1933 when Sweden defeated Estonia 6 -- 2 in Stockholm. The first ever goal in a World Cup qualifying match was scored 7 minutes into the game: it was scored according to some sources by Swedish captain Knut Kroon, or according to other sources by Estonian goalkeeper Evald Tipner (own goal).
While the number of teams which qualified for the finals has increased steadily, from 16 between 1934 and 1978, to 24 between 1982 and 1994, and finally to 32 starting from 1998, the qualification format has been basically the same throughout the history of the World Cup. The teams have been grouped continentally, and they competed for a fixed number of places, with one or two places awarded to the winners of intercontinental play - offs.
The table below lists the numbers of spots allocated by FIFA for each continent in each tournament. If no places were allocated to a continent, such as in the case of Oceania prior to 1966 and Africa in 1950, this does not indicate an exclusion of those continents by FIFA, but rather that no country of those continents made an entry to the aforementioned Cups.
A large part of Africa was under colonial rule during part of the 20th century, mainly the first half of the century. As of 1954, only 3 African countries were affiliated to FIFA: Egypt, in 1923, Sudan, in 1948, and Ethiopia, in 1952. Sudan and Ethiopia made entries for no Cup prior to 1958. Egypt made entries for the 1934, 1938 and 1954 Cups, though not for the 1930 and 1950 Cups. Though an African country, Egypt entered in 1938 and 1954 in the European group, therefore the table below gives no data about Africa for these two Cups.
Places in the intercontinental play - offs count as 0.5 spots. Numbers in bold represent the winners of the intercontinental play - offs. "+ C '' denotes an additional spot for defending champions. "+ H '' denotes an additional spot for hosts.
The number of teams entering the qualification process and the number of matches played have been steadily growing over time. Though an African country, Egypt entered in 1938 and 1954 into the European group, therefore being zero the below indicator as for Africa in these years.
Note: Only teams that played at least one match are considered for the purposes of first appearance. Teams that withdrew prior to the qualification, or that qualified to the World Cup by walkover due to other teams ' withdrawals, are not considered.
Teams in bold are still participating in the 2018 qualification. The table is updated to matches played in October 2017.
Players in bold are still active.
(update of FIFA World Cup 2018 qualifiers in progress, last update: 11 October 2017)
Currently, 32 places are available in the final tournament. One of them is reserved for the host nation, but if two or more nations host the competition jointly, each is awarded a place. From 1934 to 2002, one berth was reserved for the winners of the previous World Cup. In November 2001, FIFA announced that the defending champion would no longer get automatic entry to the subsequent tournament, starting with the 2006 finals. This decision was made to address the issue of the returning champions being at a disadvantage to their fellow competitors due to having not played a competitive match in the previous two years. The problem was amply demonstrated at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, as returning champions France tumbled out in the first round, finishing bottom of their group without scoring a single goal. 2002 winner Brazil qualified for 2006 at the top of their qualifiers group. However, Italy, defending champions from 2006, finished bottom of their group in 2010, despite playing in the qualifying matches. At Brazil 2014, 2010 champions Spain finished third in their group and failed to advance to the Round of 16, despite having qualified as first in their group.
FIFA decides beforehand the number of spots awarded to each of the continental zones. For the 2018 World Cup, the following numbers are being used:
The number of berths allocated per continent is widely debated, with the main point of contention being the extent to which berths should be allocated to regions based on sheer population vs. talent. A historically weaker continent, Africa has called for more places, as they are allocated only five in comparison to Europe 's 13. In early October 2016, it was announced that the World Cup would have featured 40 teams starting with the 2026 tournament, then FIFA President Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48 - team World Cup, mainly to address African concerns. On 10 January 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand the World Cup to a 48 team tournament that will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32. Other than a play - off tournament, for the last two World Cup berths, that consists of one team from each confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country, the new format for the qualifying process has yet to be confirmed.
These numbers vary slightly between tournaments (see above).
Qualification in all zones ends at approximately the same time, in September -- November of the year preceding the finals.
The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations and over time. The systems being used in 2018 are outlined below.
The CAF qualification process began with two preliminary rounds (to narrow the field of 53 entrants to 20 teams) in October 2015. Zimbabwe were disqualified and therefore ineligible.
The group stage consisted of 5 groups of 4, with the group winners advancing to the World Cup finals.
Bhutan and Guam entered the AFC qualification process, while Indonesia were suspended and therefore ineligible.
Qualifying was altered significantly from the 2014 method, with changes to the structure of the preliminary rounds -- which were held before the main draw. One home - and - away preliminary round reduced the 12 entrants to 6, followed by a first group stage with the 6 first round winners joining the top sides and 4 best runners - up from 5 groups of 5 advancing to a final group stage. The winners and runners - up of the two final groups of 5 advanced to the World Cup finals with the two third - placed sides playing off in the fourth round for the right to play in an inter-confederation play - off for a final World Cup spot. The first two rounds also acted as the qualifiers for the expanded 2019 AFC Asian Cup.
A total of 24 teams eliminated from World Cup qualification in the second round compete in the third round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification (which is separate from the third round of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification), where they are divided into six groups of four teams and compete for the remaining slots of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. The 24 teams consist of the 16 highest ranked teams eliminated in the second round, and the eight teams that advance from the play - off round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification which are contested by the remaining 12 teams eliminated in the second round.
The European qualification is unchanged from the 2010 system. The 54 national teams were divided into nine groups of six teams, with the group winners qualifying directly to the finals, and the best eight runners - up playing home - and - away ties for the remaining four places.
With the admission of Gibraltar and Kosovo as FIFA members in May 2016, both national teams made their debuts in World Cup qualifying. With two groups of only five teams in the first round, Kosovo was assigned to group I as it was decided that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia should not play against Kosovo for security reasons, and Gibraltar was then added to group H.
The 2018 CONCACAF qualification process has changed significantly from the 2014 qualification cycle. The first three rounds have teams play home - and - away over two legs. A first preliminary round involved the 14 lowest ranked teams and the seven winners advanced to the second round. The 13 higher ranked sides received byes in the second round and were joined by the seven first round winners; the ten winners advanced to the third round. Two higher ranked teams received byes in the third round and were joined by ten second round winners; the six winners advanced to the preliminary group stage.
As in 2014, the remaining 12 teams play in 3 semifinal groups of 4 teams with the top two in each group advancing to a final six - team group.
The final round -- often referred to as the "hexagonal '' because there are six teams involved -- will see the top three teams advance to the World Cup finals, while the fourth placed side will enter an inter-confederation play - off for a final World Cup spot.
Qualification in Oceania was held as part of a further competition. The first stage took place with one group of four lowest ranked teams and the winner advanced to the second stage (which also acted as the 2016 OFC Nations Cup). In the second stage the top three teams advanced to the third round, among them Nations Cup champions New Zealand. Two groups of three teams contest the third round, or final group stage, and the winners of each group will enter a two - leg final. The winners of this final advance to an inter-confederation play - off for a World Cup spot.
As in recent qualification series CONMEBOL qualification consists of a single group of all entrants. Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were determined by a draw, which was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw, on 25 July 2015.
The top 4 teams from the 10 - team group will advance to the World Cup finals, while the fifth placed team will enter an inter-confederation play - off for a World Cup spot.
Like the previous 2014 tournament, the pairings for the two play - offs were determined by an open draw on 25 July 2015, as part of the aforementioned preliminary draw. Intercontinental play - offs are played as home - and - away ties.
Qualification tournaments generally consist of a number of stages, made up of groups or knock - out ties.
In all group tournaments, three points are awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. FIFA has set the order of the tie - breakers for teams that finish level on points:
Where teams are still not able to be separated, the following tie - breakers are used:
Where teams are still equal, then a play - off on neutral ground, with extra time and penalties if necessary will be played if FIFA deems such a play - off able to be fitted within the coordinated international match calendar. If this is not deemed feasible, then the result will be determined by the drawing of lot.
Note that this order of tie - breaker application has not always been applied. While it was used in the 2010 qualifiers, the qualification for the 2006 World Cup used the head - to - head comparison prior to goal difference (although this system was -- where applicable -- used in the 2006 finals themselves). If these rules had applied in 2006, then Nigeria would have qualified rather than Angola.
Most knock - out qualifiers (such as the inter-confederation play - offs, the second round of UEFA qualifying and many preliminary ties) are played over two legs. The team that scores a greater aggregate number of goals qualifies. Away goals rule applies. If these rules fail to determine the winner, extra time and penalty shootouts are used.
Occasionally -- usually when one entrant lacks adequate facilities to host international matches -- ties are played over a single leg, in which case matches level after 90 minutes will go to extra time and then to a penalty shootout if required.
Alternatively, "home '' matches can be played in neutral countries, or occasionally one team will host both matches. In the latter case the visiting team will still be considered as the "home '' team for one of the legs -- which may determine which side advances under the away goals rule, as occurred in CONCACAF qualification in 2010.
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when did the battle of vimy ridge end | Battle of Vimy Ridge - Wikipedia
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was part of the Battle of Arras, in the Nord - Pas - de-Calais region of France, during the First World War. The main combatants were the four divisions of the Canadian Corps in the First Army, against three divisions of the German 6th Army. The battle took place from 9 to 12 April 1917 at the beginning of the Battle of Arras, the first attack of the Nivelle Offensive, which was intended to attract German reserves from the French, before their attempt at a decisive offensive on the Aisne and the Chemin des Dames ridge further south.
The Canadian Corps was to capture the German - held high ground of Vimy Ridge, an escarpment on the northern flank of the Arras front. This would protect the First Army and the Third Army farther south from German enfilade fire. Supported by a creeping barrage, the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day of the attack. The village of Thélus fell during the second day, as did the crest of the ridge, once the Canadian Corps overran a salient against considerable German resistance. The final objective, a fortified knoll located outside the village of Givenchy - en - Gohelle, fell to the Canadians on 12 April. The 6th Army then retreated to the Oppy -- Méricourt line.
Historians attribute the success of the Canadian Corps to technical and tactical innovation, meticulous planning, powerful artillery support and extensive training, as well as the failure of the German 6th Army properly to apply the new German defensive doctrine. The battle was the first occasion when all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force fought together and it was made a symbol of Canadian national achievement and sacrifice. A 100 - hectare (250 - acre) portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.
Vimy Ridge is an escarpment 8 km (5.0 mi) northeast of Arras on the western edge of the Douai Plain. The ridge rises gradually on its western side and drops more quickly on the eastern side. At approximately 7 km (4.3 mi) in length and culminating at an elevation of 145 m (476 ft) or 60 m (200 ft) above the Douai Plains, the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco - British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette. The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the village of Souchez at the western base of the ridge. The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach. In all, the French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.
The British XVII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant - General Sir Julian Byng, relieved the French Tenth Army in the sector in February 1916, permitting the French to expand their operations at Verdun. The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches. The Royal Engineers immediately deployed specialist tunnelling companies along the front to combat the German mining operations. In response to increased British mining aggression, German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916. On 21 May 1916, after shelling both forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from no less than 80 out - of - sight batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge, the German infantry began operation Schleswig Holstein, an attack on the British lines along a 2,000 yd (1,800 m) front in an effort to eject them from positions along the ridge. The Germans captured several British - controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions. Small counterattacks by units of the 140th and 141st British Brigades took place on 22 May but did not manage to change the situation. The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.
On 28 May 1916, Byng took command of the Canadian Corps from Lieutenant - General Sir Edwin Alderson. Formal discussions for a spring offensive near Arras began, following a conference of corps commanders held at the First Army Headquarters on 21 November 1916. In March 1917, the First Army headquarters formally presented Byng with orders outlining Vimy Ridge as the Canadian Corps objective for the Arras Offensive. A formal assault plan, adopted in early March 1917, drew heavily on the briefings of staff officers sent to learn from the experiences of the French Army during the Battle of Verdun. For the first time the four Canadian divisions would fight together. The nature and size of the attack needed more resources than the Canadian Corps possessed; the British 5th Division, artillery, engineer and labour units were attached to the corps, bringing the nominal strength of the Canadian Corps to about 170,000 men, of whom 97,184 were Canadian.
In January 1917, three Canadian Corps officers accompanied other British and Dominion officers attending a series of lectures hosted by the French Army regarding their experiences during the Battle of Verdun. The French counter offensive devised by General Robert Nivelle had been one of a number of Allied successes of 1916. Following extensive rehearsal, eight French divisions had assaulted German positions in two waves along a 6 mi (9.7 km) front. Supported by extremely strong artillery, the French had recovered lost ground and inflicted heavy casualties on five German divisions.
On their return from the lectures, the Canadian Corps staff officers produced a tactical analysis of the Verdun battles and delivered a series of corps and divisional - level lectures to promote the primacy of artillery and stress the importance of harassing fire and company and platoon flexibility. The report of 1st Canadian Division commander Arthur Currie highlighted the lessons he believed the Canadian Corps could learn from the experiences of the French. The final plan for the assault on Vimy Ridge drew heavily on the experience and tactical analysis of the officers who attended the Verdun lectures. British First Army commander General Henry Horne approved the plan on 5 March 1917.
The plan divided the Canadian Corps advance into four coloured objective lines. The attack would be made on a front of 7,000 yd (6,400 m), with its centre opposite the village of Vimy, to the east of the ridge. The first objective, represented by the Black Line, was to seize the German forward defensive line. The final objective of the northern flank was the Red Line: taking the highest point on the ridge, the fortified knoll known as the Pimple, the Folie Farm, the Zwischen - Stellung trench and the hamlet of Les Tilleuls. The southern two divisions were to achieve two additional objectives: the Blue Line encompassing the village of Thélus and the woods outside the village of Vimy and the Brown Line, which aimed at capturing the Zwölfer - Graben trench and the German second line. The infantry would proceed close behind a creeping barrage placed down by light field guns, advancing in timed 100 - yard (90 m) increments. The medium and heavy howitzers would establish a series of standing barrages further ahead of the infantry against known defensive systems.
The plan called for units to leapfrog over one another, as the advance progressed, to maintain momentum during the attack. The initial wave would capture and consolidate the Black Line and then push forward to the Red Line. The barrage would pause, to enable reserve units to move up and then move forward with the units pushing beyond the Red Line to the Blue Line. Once the corps secured the Blue Line, advancing units would once again leapfrog established ones and capture the Brown Line. Conducted properly, the plan would leave the German forces little time to exit the security of their deep dugouts and defend their positions against the infantry advance. If the corps maintained its schedule, the troops would advance as much as 4,000 yd (3,700 m) and have the majority of the ridge under control by 1: 00 pm of the first day.
The experience of the Battle of the Somme led the German command to conclude that the policy of rigidly defending a trench position line was no longer effective against the firepower that the Entente armies had accumulated. Ludendorff published a new defensive doctrine in December 1916, in which deeper defences were to be built, within which the garrison would have room to manoeuvre, rather than rigidly holding successive lines of trenches. Along Vimy Ridge, the German forces spent two years constructing fortifications designed for rigid defence. Little reconstruction based upon the new defence - in - depth doctrine had been accomplished by April 1917 because the terrain made it impractical.
The topography of the Vimy battlefield made defence - in - depth difficult to realize. The ridge was 700 metres (2,300 ft) wide at its narrowest point, with a steep drop on the eastern side, all but eliminating the possibility of counterattacks if the ridge was captured. The Germans were apprehensive about the inherent weakness of the Vimy Ridge defences. The German defensive scheme was to maintain a front line defence of sufficient strength to defend against an initial assault and move operational reserves forward, before the enemy could consolidate their gains or overrun remaining German positions. As a result, the German defence at Vimy Ridge relied largely on machine guns, which acted as force multipliers for the defending infantry.
Three line divisions, comprising seven infantry regiments were responsible for the immediate defence of the ridge. The paper strength of each division was approximately 15,000 men but their actual strength was significantly fewer. In 1917, a full - strength German rifle company consisted of 264 men; at Vimy Ridge, each rifle company contained approximately 150 men. Each German regiment held a zone approximately 1,000 metres (1,100 yd) wide as far back as the rear area. When the Canadian Corps attacked, each German company faced two or more battalions of approximately 1,000 men each. Reserve divisions were kept about 24 kilometres (15 mi) back instead of assembling close behind the second line according the defence - in - depth theory.
The Canadian Corps ' divisional artillery formations, totalling eight field artillery brigades and two heavy artillery groups, were insufficient for the task at hand and were consequently reinforced with outside formations. Four heavy artillery groups, nine field artillery brigades, three divisional artillery groups and the artillery complement of the British 5th Division was attached to the Canadian Corps. In addition, ten heavy artillery groups of the flanking I and XVII Corps were assigned tasks in support of the Canadian Corps. The artillery batteries of I Corps were particularly important because they enfiladed German gun positions behind Vimy Ridge. In total, the British made available to the Canadian Corps twenty - four brigade artillery groups consisting of four hundred and eighty 18 pounder field guns, one hundred thirty - eight 4.5 inch howitzers, ninety - six 2 inch trench mortars, twenty - four 9.45 inch mortars, supported by 245 corps - level siege guns and heavy mortars. This firepower gave a density of one heavy gun for every 20 metres (20 yd) and one field gun for every 10 metres (10 yd) of Canadian Corps frontage, representing a considerable average increase, including three times the heavy guns, over the distribution of artillery at the Battle of the Somme a year earlier.
Brigadier - General Edward Morrison developed and subsequently issued a 35 - page multi-phased fire support plan called Canadian Corps Artillery Instruction No. 1 for the Capture of Vimy Ridge to support the efforts of the infantry. For its operations, the Canadian Corps received three times the artillery normally assigned to a corps for regular operations. To manage the logistics associated with the increased artillery, Royal Artillery staff officer Major Alan Brooke developed coordinated communication and transport plans to work in conjunction with the complex barrage plans.
A 1.6 million shell allotment allowed the artillery along the Canadian Corps front to maintain a high sustained rate of fire. Improvements in the quality of the shells compared to those used earlier in the war ensured fewer duds. The introduction of the instantaneous No. 106 fuze greatly improved the effectiveness of the artillery since this fuse burst reliably with the slightest of contact, unlike older timed fuses, making it especially effective at cutting barbed wire before the advance. To maintain communications during the battle, particularly with the artillery, field units laid over 870 mi (1,400 km) of telegraph and field telephone cabling, normally at a depth of 2 metres (7 ft). In addition, the corps conducted coordinated counter-battery initiatives before the battle. The First Army Field Survey Company printed barrage maps for all batteries, produced artillery boards and provided counter-battery support with their flash spotting groups and sound ranging sections. Utilizing flash spotting, sound ranging and aerial reconnaissance from No. 16 Squadron and Nos. 1 & 2 Balloon Companies of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) in the week before the battle, the counter battery artillery under command of Lieutenant - Colonel Andrew McNaughton fired 125,900 shells, harassing an estimated 83 % of the German gun positions.
In February 1917, the British General Staff released a training pamphlet titled SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action, espousing the return to the pre-war emphasis on fire and movement tactics and the use of the platoon as the basic tactical unit. The pamphlet noted the importance of specialist hand grenade, rifle grenade, rifle and Lewis gun sections in suppressing enemy strong points with an appropriate level of fire to permit other military units to advance. Coupled with the observations and suggestions made by Currie in the report he submitted in January 1917 following the Verdun lectures, the Canadian Corps instilled the tactical change with vigour. The corps implemented the tactical doctrine for small units by assigning objectives down to the platoon level. Assaulting infantry battalions used hills behind the lines as full - scale models of the battlefield. Taped lines demarcated German trench lines while officers on horseback carried flags to represent the advancing front of the artillery barrage.
Recognizing that the men in leadership positions were likely to be wounded or killed, soldiers learned the jobs of those beside and above them. At the British First Army headquarters, a large plasticine model of the Vimy sector was constructed and used to show commissioned and senior non-commissioned officers the topographical features of the battlefield and details of the German trench system. Upwards of 40,000 topographical trench maps were printed and distributed to ensure that even platoon sergeants and section commanders possessed a wider awareness of the battlefield. The new measures gave each platoon a clearer picture of how it fitted into the greater battle plan and in so doing, reduced the command and control problems that plagued First World War combat.
Operations along the Vimy Ridge were accompanied by extensive underground excavations. The Arras -- Vimy sector was conducive to tunnelling owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the chalk underground. Underground warfare had been conducted on the Vimy sector since 1915. Bavarian engineers had blown twenty mines in the sector by March 1915. By early 1916, German miners had gained an advantage over their French counterparts. British tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers took over progressively from the French between February and May 1916.
On their arrival, the British began offensive mining against German miners, first stopping the German underground advance and then developing a defensive strategy that prevented the Germans from gaining a tactical advantage by mining. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge and during the first two months of their tenure of the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this 4.3 mi (7 km) sector of the Western Front. In May 1916, Operation Schleswig - Holstein, a German infantry attack, forced the British back 700 yd (640 m), to stop British mining by capturing the shaft entrances. In the second half of 1916, the British constructed strong defensive underground positions and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme for a big infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of 7.5 mi (12 km).
The Canadian Corps was posted to the northern part of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 and preparations for an attack were revived in February 1917. British tunnelling companies created extensive underground networks and fortifications. Twelve subways, up to 1.2 km (0.75 mi) long were excavated at a depth of 10 metres (33 ft) and used to connect reserve lines to front lines, permitting soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely and unseen. Often incorporated into subways were light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts and communication centres. The Germans dug a number of similar tunnels on the Vimy front, to provide covered routes to the front line and protection for headquarters, resting personnel, equipment, and ammunition. The Germans also conducted counter-mining against the British tunnellers and destroyed a number of British attempts to plant mines under or near their lines.
Prior to the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the British tunnelling companies also secretly laid 13 mines under German positions to destroy surface fortifications before the assault. To protect some advancing troops from German machine gun fire, as they crossed no man 's land during the attack, eight smaller Wombat charges were laid at the end of the subways to allow troops to move more quickly and safely enter the German trench system by creating an elongated trench - depth crater that spanned the length of no man 's land. At the same time, 19 crater groups existed along this section of the Western Front, each with several large craters. To assess the consequences of infantry having to advance across cratered ground after a mining attack, officers from the Canadian Corps visited La Boisselle and Fricourt where the mines had been blown on the First day of the Somme. Their reports and the experience of the Canadians at The Actions of St Eloi Craters in April 1916, where mines had so altered and damaged the landscape as to render occupation of the mine craters by the infantry all but impossible, led to the decision to remove offensive mining from the central sector allocated to the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge. Further British mines in the area were vetoed following the blowing by the Germans on 23 March 1917 of nine craters along no man 's land as it was probable that the Germans were aiming to restrict an Allied attack to predictable points. The three mines already laid by 172nd Tunnelling Company were also dropped from the British plans. The mines were left in place after the assault and were only removed in the 1990s. Another mine, prepared by 176th Tunnelling Company against the German strongpoint known as the Pimple, was not completed in time for the attack. The gallery had been pushed silently through the clay, avoiding the sandy and chalky layers of the Vimy Ridge but by 9 April 1917 was still 21 metres (70 ft) short of its target. In the end, two mines were blown before the attack, while three mines and two Wombat charges were fired to support the attack, including those forming a northern flank.
Trench raiding involved making small - scale surprise attacks on enemy positions, often in the middle of the night for reasons of stealth. All belligerents employed trench raiding as a tactic to harass their enemy and gain intelligence. In the Canadian Corps trench raiding developed into a training and leadership - building mechanism. The size of a raid would normally be anything from a few men to an entire company, or more, depending on the size of the mission. The four months before the April attack saw the Canadian Corps execute no fewer than 55 separate trench raids. Competition between units even developed with units competing for the honour of the greatest number of prisoners captured or most destruction wrought. The policy of aggressive trench raiding was not without its cost. A large - scale trench raid on 13 February 1917, involving 900 men from the 4th Canadian Division, resulted in 150 casualties. An even more ambitious trench raid, using chlorine gas, on 1 March 1917, once again by the 4th Canadian Division, failed and resulted in 637 casualties including two battalion commanders and a number of company commanders killed. This experience did not lessen the extent to which the Canadian Corps employed trench raiding with raids being conducted nightly between 20 March and the opening of the offensive on 9 April, resulting in approximately 1,400 additional Canadian casualties. The Germans operated an active patrolling policy and although not as large and ambitious as those of the Canadian Corps, they also engaged in trench raiding. As an example, a German trench raid launched by 79 men against the 3rd Canadian Division on 15 March 1917 was successful in capturing prisoners and causing damage.
The RFC launched a determined effort to gain air superiority over the battlefield in support of the spring offensive. The Canadians considered activities such as artillery - observation and photography of opposing trench systems, troop movements and gun emplacements essential to continue their offensive. The Royal Flying Corps deployed 25 squadrons totalling 365 aircraft along the Arras sector, outnumbering the Luftstreitkräfte (Imperial German Air Service) by 2 - to - 1. Byng was given use of No. 2 Squadron, No. 8 (Naval) Squadron, No. 25 Squadron, No. 40 Squadron and No. 43 Squadron, with No. 16 Squadron permanently attached to the Canadian Corps and employed exclusively for reconnaissance and artillery - observation.
Aerial reconnaissance was often a hazardous task because of the necessity of flying at slow speeds and at low altitude. The task was made more dangerous with the arrival of additional German flying squadrons, including the highly experienced and well equipped Jasta 11 (Manfred von Richthofen) which led to a sharp increase in RFC losses. Although significantly outnumbering the Germans, the RFC lost 131 aircraft during the first week of April (Bloody April). Despite the losses suffered by the RFC, the Luftstreitkräfte failed to prevent the British from carrying out its priority, air support of the army during the Battle of Arras with up - to - date aerial photographs and other reconnaissance information.
German 6th Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen was responsible for the Cambrai -- Lille sector and commanded 20 divisions, plus reserves. Vimy Ridge itself was principally defended by the ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl von Fasbender. However, a division of Gruppe Souchez, under VIII Reserve Corps General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura, was involved in the frontline defence along the northernmost portion of the ridge.
Three divisions were ultimately responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps. The 16th Bavarian Division was located opposite the village of Souchez and responsible for the defence of the northernmost section of the ridge. The division had been created in January 1917 by amalgamating existing Bavarian formations and had so far only opposed the Canadian Corps. The 79th Reserve Division was responsible for the defence of the vast central section, including the highest point of the ridge, Hill 145. The 79th Reserve Division had fought for two years on the Eastern Front before being transferred to the Vimy sector at the end of February 1917. The 1st Bavarian Reserve Division had been in the Arras area since October 1914 and held the villages of Thélus, Bailleul and the southern slope of the ridge.
Byng commanded four attacking divisions, one division in reserve and numerous support units. He was supported to the north by the 24th Division, I Corps, which advanced north of the Souchez river and by the XVII Corps to the south. The 4th Canadian Division was responsible for the northern portion of the advance that included the capture of the highest point of the ridge, followed by the elaborately fortified Pimple just west of the village of Givenchy - en - Gohelle. The 3rd Canadian Division was responsible for the narrow central section of the ridge, including the capture of La Folie Farm. The 2nd Canadian Division, which later included a brigade from the 5th Division, was directly south of 3rd Canadian Division and entrusted with the capture of the village of Thélus. The 1st Canadian Division was responsible for the broad southern sector of the corps advance and expected to cover the longest distance. Byng planned for a healthy reserve for contingencies that included the relief of forward troops, help in consolidating positions and aiding the 4th Canadian Division with the capture of the Pimple. As a result, the 9th Canadian Brigade and the British 15th and 95th Brigades were kept in corps reserve.
Foreign intelligence gathering by the Germans, big Allied trench raids and troop concentrations seen west of Arras, made it clear to the Germans that a spring offensive in the area was being prepared. In February 1917, a German - born Canadian soldier deserted and helped confirm many of the suspicions held by the Germans, providing them with a great deal of useful information. By March 1917, the 6th Army knew that an offensive was imminent and would include operations aimed at capturing Vimy Ridge. General of Infantry Ernst August Marx von Bachmeister, commanding the German 79th Reserve Division, reported in late March that he believed the Canadian Corps was moving into an echelon formation and were preparing for a big attack. The Germans quickly planned Operation Munich (Unternehmen München), a spoiling attack to capture the northern section of the Zouave Valley, along the northernmost portion of the Canadian front. Munich was not undertaken because the extent of Canadian Corps artillery fire made it impracticable.
The preliminary phase of the Canadian Corps artillery bombardment began on 20 March 1917, with a systematic two - week bombardment of German batteries, trenches and strong points. The Canadian Corps gunners paid particular attention to eliminating German barbed wire, a task made easier with the introduction of the No. 106 instantaneous fuse. Only half of the artillery fired at once and the intensity of the barrage was varied to confuse the Germans about Canadian intentions. Phase two lasted the week beginning 2 April 1917 and employed all of the guns supporting the Canadian Corps, massing the equivalent of a heavy gun for every 18 metres (20 yd) and a field gun for every 9.1 metres (10 yd). The German soldiers came to refer to the week before the attack as "the week of suffering ''. In the German account, their trenches and defensive works were almost completely demolished. The health and morale of the German troops suffered from the stress of remaining at the ready for eleven straight days under extremely heavy artillery bombardment. Compounding German difficulties was the inability of ration parties to bring food supplies to the front lines. On 3 April, General von Falkenhausen ordered his reserve divisions to prepare to relieve front line divisions over the course of a long drawn - out defensive battle in a manner similar to the Battle of the Somme and the divisions were kept 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the battlefield to avoid being shelled.
The attack was to begin at 5: 30 am on Easter Monday, 9 April 1917. The attack was originally planned for the morning of 8 April (Easter Sunday) but it was postponed for 24 hours at the request of the French. During the late hours of 8 April and early morning of 9 April the men of the leading and supporting wave of the attack were moved into their forward assembly positions. The weather was cold and later changed to sleet and snow. Although physically discomforting for everyone, the northwesterly storm provided some advantage to the assaulting troops by blowing snow in the faces of the defending troops. Light Canadian and British artillery bombardments continued throughout the night but stopped in the few minutes before the attack, as the artillery recalibrated their guns in preparation for the synchronized barrage. At 5: 30 am, every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing. Thirty seconds later, engineers detonated the mine charges laid under no man 's land and the German trench line, destroying a number of German strong points and creating secure communication trenches directly across no man 's land. Light field guns laid down a barrage that mostly advanced at a rate of 100 yards (91 m) in three minutes while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead against known defensive systems. During the early fighting, the German divisional artilleries, despite many losses, were able to maintain their defensive firing. As the Canadian assault advanced, it overran many of the German guns because large numbers of their draught horses had been killed in the initial gas attack.
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective, the Black Line, by 6: 25 am. The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later. After a planned pause when the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions consolidated their positions, the advance resumed. Shortly after 7: 00 am, the 1st Canadian Division captured the left half of its second objective, the Red Line and moved the 1st Canadian Brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder. The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the village of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time. A mine explosion that killed many German troops of Reserve Infantry Regiment 262 manning the front line, preceded the advance of the 3rd Canadian Division. The remaining German troops could do no more than man temporary lines of resistance until later manning a full defence at the German third line. As a result, the southern section of the 3rd Canadian Division was able to reach the Red Line at the western edge of the Bois de la Folie at around 7: 30 am. At 9: 00 am the division learned of its exposed left flank, as the 4th Canadian Division had not yet captured Hill 145. The 3rd Canadian Division was thus called upon to establish a divisional defensive flank to its north. Although the German commanders were able to maintain open lines of communication and issue orders, even with swift staff work the tempo of the assault was such that German decision cycle was unable to react decisively.
The only portion of the Canadian assault that did not go as planned was the advance of the 4th Canadian Division, collapsing almost immediately after exiting their trenches. The commanding officer of one of the assaulting battalions requested that the artillery leave a portion of German trench undamaged. Machine gun nests in the undamaged sections of the German line pinned down, wounded, or killed much of the 4th Canadian Division 's right flank. The progress on the left flank was eventually impeded by harassing fire from the Pimple that was made worse when the creeping barrage got too far ahead of the advancing troops. In view of the German defence, the 4th Canadian Division did not attempt a further frontal assault throughout the afternoon. Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division came forward and once again attacked the German positions on the top of the ridge. Persistent attacks eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill 145 to withdraw, but only after they had run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.
Towards midday, the 79th Reserve Division was ordered to recapture the portions of its third line lost during the progression of the Canadian attack. However, it was not until 6: 00 pm that the force was able to organize and counterattack, clearing the Canadian Corps troops out of the ruined village of Vimy, but not recapturing the third line south of the village. By night time, the German forces holding the top of the ridge believed they had overcome the immediate crisis for the time being. Additional German reinforcements began arriving and by late evening portions of the 111th Infantry Division occupied the third line near Acheville and Arleux, with the remainder of the division arriving the following day.
The British moved three fresh brigades up to the Red Line by 9: 30 am on 10 April to support the advance of the 1st and 2nd Canadian Division, whereupon they were to leapfrog existing units occupying the Red line and advance to the Blue Line. Fresh units including two sections of tanks and the 13th British Brigade were called up from reserve to support the advance of the 2nd Canadian Division. By approximately 11: 00 am, the Blue Line, including Hill 135 and the village of Thélus, had been captured. To permit the troops time to consolidate the Blue Line, the advance halted and the barrage remained stationary for 90 minutes while machine guns were brought forward. Shortly before 1: 00 pm, the advance recommenced with both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reporting their final objective. The tank - supported advance via Farbus and directed at the rear of the 79th Reserve Division, was eventually halted by concentrated German fire short of the village. The Canadian 1st and 2nd Divisions were nonetheless able to secure the Brown Line by approximately 2: 00 pm.
The 4th Canadian Division had made an attempt to capture the northern half of Hill 145 at around 3: 15 pm, briefly capturing the peak before a German counterattack retook the position. The Germans occupying the small salient on the ridge soon found themselves being attacked along their flanks by continuously reinforced Canadian Corps troops. When it became obvious that the position was completely outflanked and there was no prospect of reinforcement, the German troops pulled back. The German forces were evacuated off the ridge with German artillery batteries moved west of the Vimy -- Bailleul railway embankment or to the Oppy -- Méricourt line. By nightfall of 10 April, the only Canadian objective not yet achieved was the capture of the Pimple.
The 4th Canadian Division faced difficulties at the start of the battle that forced it to delay its assault on the Pimple until 12 April. The Pimple was initially defended by the 16th Bavarian Infantry Division but the Canadian Corps ' preliminary artillery bombardment leading up to the assault on 9 April caused heavy casualties amongst its ranks. On 11 April, the 4th Guards Infantry Division first reinforced and then relieved affected 16th Bavarian Infantry Division units. The night before the attack, artillery harassed German positions while a gas section of Royal Engineers, employing Livens Projectors, fired more than 40 drums of gas directly into the village of Givenchy - en - Gohelle to cause confusion. The defending German troops managed to drive back the initial Canadian assaults at around 4: 00 am using small arms fire. The 10th Canadian Brigade attacked once again at 5: 00 am, this time supported by a significant amount of artillery and the 24th Division of I Corps to the north. The German defensive artillery fire was late and too light to cause the assaulting troops great difficulty, allowing the Canadian Corps to exploit wide gaps and break into the German positions. The 10th Canadian Brigade, assisted by snow and a westerly wind, fought hastily entrained German troops to capture the entire Pimple by 6: 00 pm.
By nightfall on 12 April 1917, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge. The corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded. The German 6th Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with approximately 4,000 men becoming prisoners of war. Four members of the Canadian Corps received the Victoria Cross, the highest military decoration awarded to British and Commonwealth forces for valour, for their actions during the battle:
At least two Orders Pour le Mérite, the Kingdom of Prussia 's highest military order, were awarded to German commanders for their actions during the battle:
Following the defeat, the Chief of the German General Staff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, ordered the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) to conduct a court of enquiry into the defensive collapse of the Arras sector. The court concluded that the 6th Army headquarters had disregarded frontline commander reports, noting a possible imminent attack and as a result, reserve units were kept too far back to execute a timely and effective counterattack. The court concluded that 6th Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen failed to apply an elastic defence properly as espoused by German defensive doctrine of the time. Instead, the defensive system was a series of unmoving strong points and static lines of resistance, which the Allied artillery ultimately isolated and destroyed. As a result of the inquiry, Hindenburg removed Falkenhausen from his command and transferred him to Belgium where he served the remainder of the war as that country 's Governor General.
The Germans did not see the Canadian Corps 's capture of Vimy Ridge as a loss. Contemporary German sources viewed the action, at worst, as a draw, given that no full - scale breakthrough occurred following the attack. The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge, even during the Spring Offensive and it remained under British control until the end of the war. The loss of Vimy Ridge forced the Germans to reassess their defensive strategy in the area. Instead of mounting a counterattack, they pursued a scorched earth policy and retreated to the Oppy -- Méricourt line. The complete failure of the French Nivelle Offensive in the week after the Arras Offensive placed pressure on Field Marshal Douglas Haig to keep the Germans occupied in the Arras sector to minimize French losses. The Canadian Corps participated in several of these actions including the Battle of Arleux and the Third Battle of the Scarpe in late April and early May 1917.
After the end of World War I, Byng was raised to the peerage as Baron Byng of Vimy, of Thorpe - le - Soken in the County of Essex, on 7 October 1919. The next month, he retired from the military.
The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada. Although the battle is not generally considered the greatest achievement of the Canadian Corps in strategic importance or results obtained, it was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions, made up of troops drawn from all parts of the country, fought as a cohesive formation. The image of national unity and achievement is what, according to one of many recent patriotic narratives, initially gave the battle importance for Canada. According to Pierce, "The historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada 's coming of age as a nation. '' The idea that Canada 's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that in the late twentieth century became widely held in military and general histories of Canada. According to McKay and Swift, the theory that Vimy Ridge is a source of Canada 's rise as a nation is highly contested and developed in the latter part of the twentieth century after most of those who experienced the Great War had passed away.
British composer Thomas Bidgood composed a march titled "Vimy Ridge '' in 1921 in commemoration of the battle.
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial is Canada 's largest and principal overseas war memorial. Located on the highest point of the Vimy Ridge, the memorial is dedicated to the commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge and Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War. It serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers killed in France during the First World War with no known grave. France granted Canada perpetual use of a section of land at Vimy Ridge in 1922 for the purpose of a battlefield park and memorial. A 100 - hectare (250 - acre) portion of the former battlefield is preserved as part of the memorial park that surrounds the monument. The grounds of the site are still honeycombed with wartime tunnels, trenches, craters and unexploded munitions and are largely closed off for public safety. A section of preserved trenches and a portion of a tunnel have been made accessible to site visitors.
The memorial was designed by Toronto architect and sculptor Walter Seymour Allward, who described it as a "sermon against the futility of war ''. The memorial took eleven years and cost $1.5 million ($21.16 million in present terms) to build. The unveiling was conducted on 26 July 1936, by King Edward VIII accompanied by President Albert Lebrun of France and a crowd of over 50,000 people, including at least 6,200 Canadian veterans and their families. The Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King was absent, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance. Edward VIII thanked France, in both English and French, for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead.
A restoration project began in 2004, which included general cleaning and the recarving of many inscribed names. Queen Elizabeth II rededicated the restored monument on 9 April 2007, during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. Veterans Affairs Canada maintains the memorial site. The commemoration at the memorial on 9 April 2017 for the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge was attended by dignitaries including Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Governor General David Johnston, Charles, Prince of Wales, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and President of France François Hollande.
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where is the footage recorded on most cameras | Digital cinematography - wikipedia
Digital cinematography is the process of capturing (recording) a motion picture using digital image sensors rather than through film stock. As digital technology has improved in recent years, this practice has become dominant. Since the mid 2010s most of the movies across the world are captured as well as distributed digitally.
Many vendors have brought products to market, including traditional film camera vendors like Arri and Panavision, as well as new vendors like RED, Blackmagic, Silicon Imaging, Vision Research and companies which have traditionally focused on consumer and broadcast video equipment, like Sony, GoPro, and Panasonic.
As of 2017, professional 4K digital film cameras are approximately equal to 35mm film in their resolution and dynamic range capacity, however, digital film still has a slightly different look to analog film. Some filmmakers still prefer to use analogue picture formats to achieve the desired results.
Beginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of "electronic cinematography, '' utilizing its analog Sony HDVS professional video cameras. The effort met with very little success. However, this led to one of the earliest high definition video shot feature movies, Julia and Julia (1987).
Rainbow (1996) was the world 's first film utilizing extensive digital post production techniques. Shot entirely with Sony 's first Solid State Electronic Cinematography cameras and featuring over 35 minutes of digital image processing and visual effects, all post production, sound effects, editing and scoring were completed digitally. The Digital High Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative via electron beam recorder for theatrical release.
The first digitally filmed and post produced feature film was Windhorse, shot in Tibet and Nepal in 1996 on a prototype of the digital - beta Sony DVW - 700WS and the prosumer Sony DCE - VX1000. The offline editing (avid) and the online post and color work (Roland House / da Vinci) were also all digital. The film, transferred to 35mm negative for theatrical release, won Best U.S. Feature at the Santa Barbara Film Festival in 1998.
In 1998, with the introduction of HDCAM recorders and 1920 × 1080 pixel digital professional video cameras based on CCD technology, the idea, now re-branded as "digital cinematography, '' began to gain traction in the market. Shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature - length video shot and edited entirely on consumer - level digital equipment.
In May 1999 George Lucas challenged the supremacy of the movie - making medium of film for the first time by including footage filmed with high - definition digital cameras in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. The digital footage blended seamlessly with the footage shot on film and he announced later that year he would film its sequels entirely on hi - def digital video. Also in 1999, digital projectors were installed in four theaters for the showing of The Phantom Menace. In June 2000, Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones began principal photography shot entirely using a Sony HDW - F900 camera as Lucas had previously stated. The film was released in May 2002. In May 2001 Once Upon a Time in Mexico was also shot in 24 frame - per - second high - definition digital video, partially developed by George Lucas using a Sony HDW - F900 camera, following Robert Rodriguez 's introduction to the camera at Lucas ' Skywalker Ranch facility whilst editing the sound for Spy Kids. Two lesser - known movies, Vidocq (2001) and Russian Ark (2002), had also been shot with the same camera, the latter notably consisting of a single long take.
Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC and Canon offer a variety of choices for shooting high - definition video. At the high - end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. These cameras from Sony, Vision Research, Arri, Silicon Imaging, Panavision, Grass Valley and Red offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited needs of broadcast television.
In 2009, Slumdog Millionaire became the first movie shot mainly in digital to be awarded the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and the highest - grossing movie in the history of cinema, Avatar, not only was shot on digital cameras as well, but also made the main revenues at the box office no longer by film, but digital projection.
In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely. Anchorman 2 was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while The Wolf of Wall Street was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally.
Digital cinematography captures motion pictures digitally in a process analogous to digital photography. While there is no clear technical distinction that separates the images captured in digital cinematography from video, the term "digital cinematography '' is usually applied only in cases where digital acquisition is substituted for film acquisition, such as when shooting a feature film. The term is seldom applied when digital acquisition is substituted for video acquisition, as with live broadcast television programs.
Professional cameras include the Sony CineAlta (F) Series, Blackmagic Cinema Camera, RED ONE, Arriflex D - 20, D - 21 and Alexa, Panavisions Genesis, Silicon Imaging SI - 2K, Thomson Viper, Vision Research Phantom, IMAX 3D camera based on two Vision Research Phantom cores, Weisscam HS - 1 and HS - 2, GS Vitec noX, and the Fusion Camera System. Independent filmmakers have also pressed low - cost consumer and prosumer cameras into service for digital filmmaking.
Digital cinematography cameras capture images using CMOS or CCD sensors, usually in one of two arrangements.
Single chip cameras designed specifically for the digital cinematography market often use a single sensor (much like digital photo cameras), with dimensions similar in size to a 16 or 35 mm film frame or even (as with the Vision 65) a 65 mm film frame. An image can be projected onto a single large sensor exactly the same way it can be projected onto a film frame, so cameras with this design can be made with PL, PV and similar mounts, in order to use the wide range of existing high - end cinematography lenses available. Their large sensors also let these cameras achieve the same shallow depth of field as 35 or 65 mm motion picture film cameras, which many cinematographers consider an essential visual tool.
Unlike other video formats, which are specified in terms of vertical resolution (for example, 1080p, which is 1920 × 1080 pixels), digital cinema formats are usually specified in terms of horizontal resolution. As a shorthand, these resolutions are often given in "nK '' notation, where n is the multiplier of 1024 such that the horizontal resolution of a corresponding full - aperture, digitized film frame is exactly 1024 n (\ displaystyle 1024n) pixels. Here the "K '' has a customary meaning corresponding to the binary prefix "kibi '' (ki).
For instance, a 2K image is 2048 pixels wide, and a 4K image is 4096 pixels wide. Vertical resolutions vary with aspect ratios though; so a 2K image with an HDTV (16: 9) aspect ratio is 2048 × 1152 pixels, while a 2K image with a SDTV or Academy ratio (4: 3) is 2048 × 1536 pixels, and one with a Panavision ratio (2.39: 1) would be 2048 × 856 pixels, and so on. Due to the "nK '' notation not corresponding to specific horizontal resolutions per format a 2K image lacking, for example, the typical 35mm film soundtrack space, is only 1828 pixels wide, with vertical resolutions rescaling accordingly. This led to a plethora of motion - picture related video resolutions, which is quite confusing and often redundant with respect to nowadays few projection standards.
All formats designed for digital cinematography are progressive scan, and capture usually occurs at the same 24 frame per second rate established as the standard for 35mm film. Some films such as The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey have a High Frame Rate of 48 fps, although in some theatres it was also released in a 24 fps version which many fans of traditional film prefer.
The DCI standard for cinema usually relies on a 1.89: 1 aspect ratio, thus defining the maximum container size for 4K as 4096 × 2160 pixels and for 2K as 2048 × 1080 pixels. When distributed in the form of a Digital Cinema Package (DCP), content is letterboxed or pillarboxed as appropriate to fit within one of these container formats.
In the early years of digital cinematography, 2K was the most common format for digitally acquired major motion pictures however, as new camera systems gain acceptance, 4K is becoming more prominent. The Arri Alexa captured a 2.8 k image. During 2009 at least two major Hollywood films, Knowing and District 9, were shot in 4K on the RED ONE camera, followed by The Social Network in 2010. As of 2017, 4k cameras are now commonplace, with most high - end films being shot at 4k resolution.
Broadly, two workflow paradigms are used for data acquisition and storage in digital cinematography.
With video - tape - based workflow, video is recorded to tape on set. This video is then ingested into a computer running non-linear editing software, using a deck. Upon ingestion, a digital video stream from tape is converted to computer files. These files can be edited directly or converted to an intermediate format for editing. Then video is output in its final format, possibly to a film recorder for theatrical exhibition, or back to video tape for broadcast use. Original video tapes are kept as an archival medium. The files generated by the non-linear editing application contain the information necessary to retrieve footage from the proper tapes, should the footage stored on the computer 's hard disk be lost. With increasing convenience of file - based workflows, the tape - based workflows have become marginal in recent years.
Digital cinematography has mostly shifted towards "tapeless '' or "file - based '' workflows. This trend has accelerated with increased capacity and reduced cost of non-linear storage solutions such as hard disk drives, optical discs, and solid - state memory. With tapeless workflows digital video is recorded as digital files onto random - access media like optical discs, hard disk drives or flash memory - based digital "magazines ''. These files can be easily copied to another storage device, typically to a large RAID (array of computer disks) connected to an editing system. Once data is copied from the on - set media to the storage array, they are erased and returned to the set for more shooting.
Such RAID arrays, both of "managed '' (for example, SANs and NASs) and "unmanaged '' (for example, JBoDs on a single computer workstation), are necessary due to the throughput required for real - time (320 MB / s for 2K @ 24fps) or near - real - time playback in post-production, compared to throughput available from a single, yet fast, hard disk drive. Such requirements are often termed as "on - line '' storage. Post-production not requiring real - time playback performances (typically for lettering, subtitling, versioning and other similar visual effects) can be migrated to slightly slower RAID stores.
Short - term archiving, "if ever '', is accomplished by moving the digital files into "slower '' RAID arrays (still of either managed and unmanaged type, but with lower performances), where playback capability is poor to non-existent (unless via proxy images), but minimal editing and metadata harvesting still feasible. Such intermediate requirements easily fall into the "mid-line '' storage category.
Long - term archiving is accomplished by backing up the digital files from the RAID, using standard practices and equipment for data backup from the IT industry, often to data tapes (like LTOs).
Most digital cinematography systems further reduce data rate by subsampling color information. Because the human visual system is much more sensitive to luminance than to color, lower resolution color information can be overlaid with higher resolution luma (brightness) information, to create an image that looks very similar to one in which both color and luma information are sampled at full resolution. This scheme may cause pixelation or color bleeding under some circumstances. High quality digital cinematography systems are capable of recording full resolution color data (4: 4: 4) or raw sensor data.
Most compression systems used for acquisition in the digital cinematography world compress footage one frame at a time, as if a video stream is a series of still images. This is called intra-frame compression. Inter frame compression systems can further compress data by examining and eliminating redundancy between frames. This leads to higher compression ratios, but displaying a single frame will usually require the playback system to decompress a number of frames from before & after it. In normal playback this is not a problem, as each successive frame is played in order, so the preceding frames have already been decompressed. In editing, however, it is common to jump around to specific frames and to play footage backwards or at different speeds. Because of the need to decompress extra frames in these situations, inter-frame compression can cause performance problems for editing systems. Inter-frame compression is also disadvantageous because the loss of a single frame (say, due to a flaw writing data to a tape) will typically ruin all the frames until the next keyframe occurs. In the case of the HDV format, for instance, this may result in as many as 6 frames being lost with 720p recording, or 15 with 1080i. An inter-frame compressed video stream consists of groups of pictures (GOPs), each of which has only one full frame, and a handful of other frames referring to this frame. If the full frame, called I - frame, is lost due to transmission or media error, none of the P - frames or B - frames (the referenced images) can be displayed. In this case, the whole GOP is lost.
For theaters with digital projectors, digital films may be distributed digitally, either shipped to theaters on hard drives or sent via the Internet or satellite networks. Digital Cinema Initiatives, LLC, a joint venture of Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Universal and Warner Bros. Studios, has established standards for digital cinema projection. In July 2005, they released the first version of the Digital Cinema System Specification, which encompasses 2K and 4K theatrical projection. They also offer compliance testing for exhibitors and equipment suppliers.
Theater owners initially balked at installing digital projection systems because of high cost and concern over increased technical complexity. However new funding models, in which distributors pay a "digital print '' fee to theater owners, have helped to alleviate these concerns. Digital projection also offers increased flexibility with respect to showing trailers and pre-show advertisements and allowing theater owners to more easily move films between screens or change how many screens a film is playing on, and the higher quality of digital projection provides a better experience to help attract consumers who can now access high - definition content at home. These factors have resulted in digital projection becoming an increasingly attractive prospect for theater owners, and the pace of adoption has been rapidly increasing.
Since some theaters currently do n't have digital projection systems, even if a movie is shot and post-produced digitally, it must be transferred to film if a large theatrical release is planned. Typically, a film recorder will be used to print digital image data to film, to create a 35 mm internegative. After that the duplication process is identical to that of a traditional negative from a film camera.
Unlike a digital sensor, a film frame does not have a regular grid of discrete pixels.
Determining resolution in digital acquisition seems straightforward, but it is significantly complicated by the way digital camera sensors work in the real world. This is particularly true in the case of high - end digital cinematography cameras that use a single large bayer pattern CMOS sensor. A bayer pattern sensor does not sample full RGB data at every point; instead, each pixel is biased toward red, green or blue, and a full color image is assembled from this checkerboard of color by processing the image through a demosaicking algorithm. Generally with a bayer pattern sensor, actual resolution will fall somewhere between the "native '' value and half this figure, with different demosaicing algorithms producing different results. Additionally, most digital cameras (both bayer and three - chip designs) employ optical low - pass filters to avoid aliasing; suboptimal antialiasing filtering can further reduce system resolution.
Film has a characteristic grain structure. Different film stocks have different grain.
Digitally acquired footage lacks this grain structure. It has electronic noise.
The process of using digital intermediate workflow, where movies are color graded digitally instead of via traditional photochemical finishing techniques, has become common.
In order to utilize digital intermediate workflow with film, the camera negative must first be processed and then scanned to a digital format. Some filmmakers have years of experience achieving their artistic vision using the techniques available in a traditional photochemical workflow, and prefer that finishing / editing process.
Digitally shot movies can be printed, transferred or archived on film. Large scale digital productions are often archived on film, as it provides a safer medium for storage, benefiting insurance and storage costs. As long as the negative does not completely degrade, it will always be possible to recover the images from it in the future, regardless of changes in technology, since all that will be involved is simple photographic reproduction.
In contrast, even if digital data is stored on a medium that will preserve its integrity, highly specialized digital equipment will always be required to reproduce it. Changes in technology may thus render the format unreadable or expensive to recover over time. For this reason, film studios distributing digitally - originated films often make film - based separation masters of them for archival purposes.
Film proponents have argued that digital cameras lack the reliability of film, particularly when filming sequences at high speed or in chaotic environments, due to digital cameras technical glitches. Cinematographer Wally Pfister noted that for his shoot on the film Inception, "Out of six times that we shot on the digital format, we only had one useable piece and it did n't end up in the film. Out of the six times we shot with the Photo - Sonics camera and 35mm running through it, every single shot was in the movie. '' Michael Bay stated that when filming Transformers: Dark of the Moon, 35mm cameras had to be used when filming in slow - motion and sequences where the digital cameras were subject to strobing or electrical damage from dust.
Some film directors such as Christopher Nolan, Paul Thomas Anderson and Quentin Tarantino have publicly criticized digital cinema, and advocated the use of film and film prints. Tarantino has suggested he may retire because he will no longer be able to have his films projected in 35mm in most American cinemas. Tarantino considers digital cinema to be simply "television in public. '' Christopher Nolan has speculated that the film industry 's adoption of digital formats has been driven purely by economic factors as opposed to digital being a superior medium to film: "I think, truthfully, it boils down to the economic interest of manufacturers and (a production) industry that makes more money through change rather than through maintaining the status quo. ''
Another concern with digital image capture is how to archive all the digital material. Archiving digital material is turning out to be extremely costly, and it creates issues in terms of long - term preservation. In a 2007 study, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences found that the cost of storing 4K digital masters is "enormously higher -- 1100 % higher -- than the cost of storing film masters. '' Furthermore, digital archiving faces challenges due to the insufficient longevity of today 's digital storage: no current media, be it magnetic hard drives or digital tape, can reliably store a film for a hundred years, something that properly stored and handled film can do. Although this also used to be the case with optical disc, in 2012 Millenniata, Inc. a digital storage company based in Utah, released M - DISC, an optical storage solution, designed to last up to 1,000 years, thus, offering a possibility of digital storage as a viable storage solution.
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what stage did spain get to in 2014 world cup | 2014 FIFA World Cup group B - wikipedia
Group B of the 2014 FIFA World Cup consisted of Spain, the Netherlands, Chile, and Australia. This group contained the finalists of the previous World Cup in 2010: Spain (reigning champion) and the Netherlands (runners - up). Play began on 13 June and ended on 23 June 2014. The Netherlands and Chile progressed to the knockout stage, while Australia and Spain were eliminated after suffering two defeats in their opening two matches. Chile was eliminated by Brazil in the second round after penalties, while the Netherlands made their way to the semi-finals in which they lost to Argentina on penalties. The third place match was won by the Netherlands with a convincing 3 -- 0 victory against Brazil.
The two teams had met in 9 previous matches, including in the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final, won by Spain 1 -- 0 after extra time. This was the first time in the FIFA World Cup that the previous finalists met in the group stage.
Halfway into the first half, the referee judged that Diego Costa caught a trailing leg from Stefan de Vrij 's attempted tackle. Xabi Alonso scored the penalty kick for Spain, shooting into the bottom - right corner with his right foot, putting them into the lead. They were unable to keep the lead until half time though, with Robin van Persie scoring a 15 - yard diving looping header after a long ball from Daley Blind from the left after he spotted Iker Casillas slightly off his line. In the second half, Blind assisted another goal for Netherlands, this time setting up Arjen Robben who controlled the pass before coming inside to finish with his left foot from ten yards out. Twelve minutes later, Netherlands scored again, as De Vrij headed the ball in from a tight angle from a Wesley Sneijder free kick on the left. Spanish goalkeeper Iker Casillas protested that he had been fouled by Van Persie, but the goal was allowed to stand and Casillas received a yellow card for his protest. Not long after this, a backpass from Sergio Ramos was miscontrolled by Casillas with his left leg, resulting in Van Persie gathering the ball and scoring into an empty net for his second goal of the game. The fifth goal for Netherlands was a solo effort from Robben. Having received the ball near the halfway line from a Wesley Sneijder pass, he outran Ramos, Jordi Alba and Casillas, before slotting the ball into the net from 10 yards out with his left foot.
The 5 -- 1 scoreline was the biggest loss margin for a defending champion in the FIFA World Cup, and also Spain 's second biggest loss in the World Cup after their 6 -- 1 thrashing against Brazil in 1950. With their goals, Van Persie and Robben became the first Dutch players to score in three World Cups. Casillas and Xavi joined Andoni Zubizarreta as the only Spanish players to appear in four World Cups.
Man of the Match: Robin van Persie (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Renato Faverani (Italy) Andrea Stefani (Italy) Fourth official: Svein Oddvar Moen (Norway) Fifth official: Kim Haglund (Norway)
The two teams had met in five previous matches, including in the 1974 FIFA World Cup group stage, a 0 -- 0 draw.
Chile took a 2 -- 0 lead within the first 15 minutes. First, Alexis Sánchez controlled an Eduardo Vargas header in the penalty area to slot home. Two minutes later, Jorge Valdivia 's shot from a Sánchez pass doubled the lead. Australia pulled one back through a Tim Cahill header from a cross by Ivan Franjic before half time.
Australia could not find the equaliser in the second half, and in stoppage time, Chilean substitute Jean Beausejour converted the rebound after Mauricio Pinilla 's shot was saved by Mathew Ryan.
With their respective goals, Cahill became the first Australian player to score in three World Cups, while Beausejour became the first Chilean player to score in two World Cups.
Man of the Match: Alexis Sánchez (Chile)
Assistant referees: Songuifolo Yeo (Ivory Coast) Jean - Claude Birumushahu (Burundi) Fourth official: Roberto Moreno (Panama) Fifth official: Eric Boria (United States)
The two teams had met in three previous matches, all in friendlies, most recently in 2009.
The Netherlands took the lead after Arjen Robben collected a Daley Blind headed pass at the halfway line, burst into the penalty area and scored with a low shot to the goalkeepers left. Soon after the restart, Australia equalised through Tim Cahill 's left - foot volley into the goal from the underside of the bar from Ryan McGowan 's cross. Australia took the lead in the second half with Mile Jedinak 's penalty, awarded for a handball by Daryl Janmaat, but Robin van Persie equalised after he received substitute Memphis Depay 's pass and scored. Ten minutes later, Memphis Depay received a pass from Jonathan de Guzmán and his long range effort beat Australia goalkeeper Mathew Ryan.
With his goal Depay became the youngest ever Dutch scorer in the World Cup at the age of 20.
Man of the Match: Arjen Robben (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Rédouane Achik (Morocco) Abdelhak Etchiali (Algeria) Fourth official: Bakary Gassama (Gambia) Fifth official: Evarist Menkouande (Cameroon)
The two teams had met in ten previous matches, including twice in the FIFA World Cup group stage, both won by Spain (1950: 2 -- 0; 2010: 2 -- 1).
Chile opened the scoring when Charles Aránguiz squared a pass to Eduardo Vargas to score home in the penalty area. Near the end of the first half Alexis Sánchez 's free kick was parried by Spanish goalkeeper Iker Casillas to Aránguiz who put in the rebound. Spain, which needed at least a point to stay alive in the competition, had its best chance in the second half which fell to Sergio Busquets, but he missed from close range. Spain 's loss confirmed the qualification of both Chile and the Netherlands into the knockout stage, and eliminated both Spain and Australia.
Spain became the fifth defending champions to be knocked out in the group stage, and the first since 1950 to be eliminated after only two games (Italy were drawn into a three - team group and only played two games in 1950).
Man of the Match: Eduardo Vargas (Chile)
Assistant referees: Sean Hurd (United States) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Fifth official: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain)
The two teams had never met before. Australia forward Tim Cahill was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
In a match between two already - eliminated teams, Spain went in front in the 36th minute after Andrés Iniesta threaded a pass down the right to overlapping full - back Juanfran, who then crossed the ball low to David Villa to finish with a back flick of his right foot low to the net. In the second half, Fernando Torres scored Spain 's second with a low finish from the left of the penalty area after a pass from Iniesta, before substitute Juan Mata, receiving a pass from Cesc Fàbregas, scored from the right of the penalty area with a low shot between the goalkeeper 's legs.
Villa 's goal was his ninth career World Cup goal. Already Spain 's record World Cup goalscorer, he also joined Fernando Hierro, Raúl and Julio Salinas as Spanish players who had scored in three World Cups.
Man of the Match: David Villa (Spain)
Assistant referees: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Ebrahim Saleh (Bahrain) Fourth official: Norbert Hauata (Tahiti) Fifth official: Aden Marwa (Kenya)
The two teams had never met before. Netherlands forward Robin van Persie was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
With both teams already assured of qualifying for the knockout stage after their first two matches, this match would decide which team would win the group: the Netherlands needed only a draw while Chile needed a win. The Netherlands went in front in the 77th minute with a header from six yards by substitute Leroy Fer after a Daryl Janmaat cross from the right. Another substitute Memphis Depay got the second in injury time, when he scored from close range after Arjen Robben had made a run down the left before crossing from the byline. With this win the Netherlands won Group B with a perfect record of three wins out of three, while Chile finished as group runners - up.
Man of the Match: Arjen Robben (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Evarist Menkouande (Cameroon) Felicien Kabanda (Rwanda) Fourth official: Joel Aguilar (El Salvador) Fifth official: William Torres (El Salvador)
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american federation of musicians of the us & canada | American Federation of Musicians - wikipedia
The American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada (AFM / AFofM) is a 501 (c) (5) labor union representing professional musicians in the United States and Canada. The AFM, which has its headquartered in New York City, is led by president Raymond M. Hair, Jr. Founded in Cincinnati in 1896 as the successor to the "National League of Musicians, '' the AFM is the largest organization in the world to represent professional musicians. They negotiate fair agreements, protect ownership of recorded music, secure benefits such as health care and pension, and lobby legislators. In the US, it is the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) -- and in Canada, the Canadian Federation of Musicians / Fédération canadienne des musiciens (CFM / FCM). The AFM is affiliated with AFL -- CIO, the largest federation of Unions in the United States; and the Canadian Labour Congress, the federation of unions in Canada.
Among the most famous AFM actions was the 1942 -- 44 musicians ' strike, to pressure record companies to agree to a better arrangement for paying royalties.
The American Federation of Labor recognized the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) in 1896. In 1900, the American Federation of Musicians modified its name to "American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada ''.
In the early 1900s, record companies produced recordings and musicians profited. However, around World War I, general unemployment also affected musicians. Movies displaced some traditional entertainments, and were silent films. Because of that, the declining economy, and other factors, many musicians were laid off.
The Musical Mutual Protective Union of New York became Local 301 of the American Federation of Musicians in 1902. In 1904, the local had 5,000 members, who were almost entirely German. In 1910, approximately 300 black musicians were members in the roughly 8,000 - member local. The local lost its charter and was disbanded in 1921.
By the end of the 1920s, many factors had reduced the number of recording companies. As the nation recovered from World War I, technology advanced and there was diversity in recording and producing music. This encouraged the American Federation of Musicians. AFM was motivated to bring music awareness of music to the public. In 1938, the American Federation of Musicians established signed an agreement with motion pictures companies.
Among the most famous AFM actions was the 1942 -- 44 musicians ' strike, to pressure record companies to agree to a royalty system more beneficial to the musicians. This was sometimes called the "Petrillo ban '', because James Petrillo was the newly elected head of the union. Petrillo organized a second recording ban in 1948 (from January 1 to December 14), in response to the Taft -- Hartley Act.
The early 1960s marked a new beginning to the music industry. Rock and roll became mainstream in the 1960s. After the second World War, American culture entered the baby boom era. Rock and roll brought an explosion to the music industry market. It became "mainstream '' music, proving its popularity through record sales.
By 1970s, North American music had divided in into more genres than ever before. As more genres were entered the market, record sales accelerated as well. Earlier genres such as classical, jazz, and rhythm and blues contributed to new sounds such as gospel, rap, and hip hop.
At the AFM convention in Las Vegas on June 23, 2010, the AFM elected Ray Hair for a three - year term as president. Hair was re-elected for an additional three years in July 2013. He was elected for a third term in June 2016.
The AFM is active in trying to prevent plagiarism and illegal downloading. The sheer volume of recording industry output contributes to the possibility that songs might overlap in sound, melody, or other details of composition. Also, as Internet and technology advances and becomes easily accessible, it is easier for people to share the music online.
There are several AFM departments:
The main American Federation of Musicians headquarters is in New York City. AFM has branches in Los Angeles, Hawaii, Washington, Toronto, and hundreds of small branches in smaller cities throughout the United States and Canada.
According to the AFM 's Department of Labor records since 2006, when membership classification was first reported, around 81 %, or three quarters, of the union 's membership are "regular '' members, who are eligible to vote for the union. In addition to the other voting eligible "life '' and "youth '' classifications, the "inactive '' members have the rights of active union members except that "they shall not be allowed to vote or hold office '' according to the bylaws in exchange for the rate less than "life '' members. As of 2016, this accounts for 63,337 "regular members '' (84 % of total), 10,465 "life '' members (14 %), 686 "inactive '' members (1 %) and 1,054 "youth '' members (1 %).
As of 2017, the president of the AFM is Ray Hair. As of 2016, the executive committee consists of the following AFM members: John Acosta, Tino Gagliardi, Tina Morrison, Joe Parente and Dave Pomeroy.
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michael jackson song give me one more chance | One More Chance (Michael Jackson song) - wikipedia
"One More Chance '' is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson. It was penned by R. Kelly and co-produced by Jackson and Kelly for inclusion on Jackson 's compilation album Number Ones, released in 2003. The song was later included on the Australian, French, Swedish and Indonesian editions of King of Pop and the Japanese limited edition of The Ultimate Collection box set.
Released on November 20, 2003, "One More Chance '' was the last original single released during Jackson 's lifetime. It received a positive reception from music critics and reached the top ten in Italy and the United Kingdom. It was released as a single on November 20, 2003, reaching number 5 in the UK. The song also managed to reach the top 30 in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and peaked at number 83 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
"One More Chance '' is a mid-tempo R&B ballad penned by R. Kelly, who along with Jackson also produced and sang background vocals for the track. The song is played in the key of G major at 80 bpm.
Jackson had already done two other songs called "One More Chance '' with the Jackson 5 / Jacksons on the ABC album and the Victory album respectively. The song on Victory album was written and performed (lead vocals) by younger brother Randy Jackson. Michael 's baby sister Janet also made a song called One More Chance on her 1993 self - titled album in her single "If '' as a B - side.
Michael Jackson 's Neverland Ranch was raided by the Santa Barbara County Sheriff 's Office. Michael Jackson had been shooting the video late into the night of November 17, 2003, but following the raid, production was stopped. The music video was directed by Nicholas Brandt. The single was instead promoted using a montage video of highlights from Jackson 's career to date.
On October 13, 2010, the official website of Michael Jackson announced that the music video would be released in a deluxe DVD box set Michael Jackson 's Vision on November 22, 2010. A rough 2 minute cut of the video leaked online on November 15, 2010. On November 19, 2010, the full length of the video premiered on Jackson 's official website. As with the song being the last brand new single released during his lifetime, the music video is also Jackson 's last music video and the first with new footage to be released posthumously. The video begins with a group of people walking onto a stage. The curtain opens to reveal a cafe that Jackson starts dancing in with the group of people watching. The lack of closeups on Jackson 's face is a result of scheduling conflicts that were brought about by the raid.
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where does the yellow brick road lead to | Yellow Brick road - wikipedia
The Yellow Brick Road is a fictional element in the 1900 children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by American author L. Frank Baum. The road also appears in the several sequel Oz books such as The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) and The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1913).
The road 's most notable portrayal is in the classic 1939 MGM musical movie The Wizard of Oz, loosely based on Baum 's first Oz book. In the novel 's first edition the road is mostly referred to as the "Road of Yellow Bricks ''. In the original story and in later films based on it such as The Wiz (1978), Dorothy Gale must find the road before embarking on her journey, as the tornado did not deposit her farmhouse directly in front of it as in the 1939 film.
The following is an excerpt from the third chapter of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, in which Dorothy sets off to see the Wizard:
... "There were several roads near by, but it did not take Dorothy long to find the one paved with yellow bricks. Within a short time she was walking briskly toward the Emerald City; her Silver Shoes tinkling merrily on the hard, yellow road - bed ".
The road is first introduced in the third chapter of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The road begins in the heart of the eastern quadrant called Munchkin Country in the Land of Oz. It functions as a guideline that leads all who follow it, to the road 's ultimate destination -- the imperial capital of Oz called Emerald City that is located in the exact center of the entire continent. In the book, the novel 's main protagonist, Dorothy, is forced to search for the road before she can begin her quest to seek the Wizard. This is because the cyclone from Kansas did not release her farmhouse closely near it as it did in the various film adaptations. After the council with the native Munchkins and their dear friend the Good Witch of the North, Dorothy begins looking for it and sees many pathways and roads nearby, (all of which lead in various directions). Thankfully it does n't take her too long to spot the one paved with bright yellow bricks.
Later in the book, Dorothy and her companions, the Scarecrow, Tin Woodman and Cowardly Lion discover that the road has fallen into disrepair in some parts of the land, having several broken chasms ending at dangerous cliffs with deadly drops. In the end of the book we learn the road 's history; unlike in Walt Disney 's prequel film Oz the Great and Powerful (2013), the Emerald City and yellow brick road did not exist prior to Oz 's arrival. When Oscar Diggs arrived in Oz via hot air - balloon that had been swept away in a storm, the people of the land were convinced he was a great "Wizard '' who had finally come to fulfill Oz 's long - awaited prophecy. Since the recent fall of Oz 's mortal King Pastoria, and the mysterious disappearance of his baby daughter Princess Ozma, Oscar immediately proclaimed himself as Oz 's new dominant ruler and had his people build the road as well as the city in his honor.
In the second Oz book, The Marvelous Land of Oz, Tip and his companion Jack Pumpkinhead, likewise follow a yellow brick road to reach Emerald City while traveling from Oz 's northern quadrant, the Gillikin Country. In the book The Patchwork Girl of Oz, it is revealed that there are two yellow brick roads from Munchkin Country to the Emerald City: according to the Shaggy Man, Dorothy took the longer and more dangerous one in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.
In the classic 1939 film, a red brick road can be seen starting at the same point as the yellow brick road and is entwined with it, despite seemingly going in a different direction. This version of the road does not exist in Baum 's books. Also, at the cornfield where Dorothy meets and befriends the Scarecrow, there is a fork in the yellow brick road leading in different directions. Luckily they choose the correct one of the three branches that leads to Emerald City.
In Disney 's 1985 live action semi-sequel to the 1939 movie Return to Oz, Dorothy returns to Oz six months after being sent back home to Kansas from her first visit. Upon her second arrival she finds the yellow brick road in ruins by the hands of the evil Nome King who also conquered the Emerald City. In the end, it is presumed that after she defeats him and saves the city and its citizens, the road is restored as well.
The actual road is believed to be one in Peekskill, New York, where L. Frank Baum attended Peekskill Military Academy. According to a local legend, the Yellow Brick Road was derived from a road paved with yellow bricks near Holland, Michigan, where Baum spent summers. Ithaca, New York, also makes a claim for being Frank Baum 's inspiration. He opened a road tour of his musical, The Maid of Arran, in Ithaca, and he met his future wife Maud Gage Baum while she was attending Cornell University. At the time, yellow bricks paved local roads. Yellow brick roads can also be found in Aberdeen, South Dakota; Albany, New York; Rossville (Baltimore County), Maryland; Montclair, New Jersey (Parkhurst Place and Afterglow Way); Bronxville, New York (on Prescott and Valley roads); Chicago, Illinois; Liberal, Kansas; Sedan, Kansas and Chittenango, New York, as well as a school in Abington, Pennsylvania, and abroad in Sofia, Bulgaria.
Two direct, and the only published, references to the origin of the Yellow Brick Road came from Baum 's own descendants: his son Frank Joslyn Baum in To Please A Child and the other by Roger S. Baum, the great - grandson of L. Frank Baum who stated, "Most people do n't realize that the Wizard of Oz was written in Chicago, and the Yellow Brick Road was named after winding cobblestone roads in Holland, Michigan, where great - grandfather spent vacations with his family. ''
Dallas, Texas makes a claim that Baum once stayed at a downtown hotel during his newspaper career (located near what is now the Triple Underpass) at a time when the streets were paved with wooden blocks of Bois D'Arc also known as Osage Orange. Supposedly, after a rainstorm the sun came out and he saw a bright yellow brick road from the window of his room.
The Vision Oz Fund was established in November 2009 to raise funds that will be used to help increase the awareness, enhancement, and further development of Oz - related attractions and assets in Wamego, Kansas. The first fundraiser is underway and includes selling personalized engraved yellow bricks, which will become part of the permanent walkway (aka "The Yellow Brick Road '') in downtown Wamego.
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each member nation of the united nations answers.com | United Nations Economic and Social Council - wikipedia
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC; French: Conseil économique et social des Nations unies, CESNU) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, responsible for coordinating the economic, social, and related work of 15 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. The ECOSOC has 54 members. The General Assembly selects 18 new members for ECOSOC each year for the term of 3 years with a provision that a retiring member can be re-elected. It holds one seven - week session each year in July, and since 1998, it has also held an annual meeting in April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
ECOSOC serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system. A number of non-governmental organisations have been granted consultative status to the Council to participate in the work of the United Nations.
The president is elected for a one - year term and chosen from the small or mid-sized powers represented on the ECOSOC. Inga Rhonda King was elected seventy - fourth President of ECOSOC on 26 July 2018. Ambassador King is currently the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to the United Nations in New York.
The Council has 54 member states out of the 193 UN member states, which are elected each year by the United Nations General Assembly for overlapping three - year terms. Seats on the Council are based on geographical representation with 14 allocated to African states, 11 to Asia - Pacific states, 6 to East European states, 10 to Latin American and Caribbean states and 13 to West European and other states.
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Previous
Participation on a continuing basis:
Participation on an ad hoc basis:
The UN Commission on the Status of Women formally became a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council on 21 June 1946. The UN Commission on the status of women is a global intergovernmental body dedicated to promoting gender equality, and empowering women. Originally, the proposal for the council was turned down with the thought that the Commission on Human Rights would be sufficient to deal with women 's issues. Eventually at the urging of the then Danish delegate, Bodil Begtrup, the Commission on the Status of Women was formed as a freestanding functional commission, dedicated specifically to women 's issues, in 1946. Bodil Begtrup went on to become the first chair of the Commission on the Status of Women. The Commission on the Status of Women engages with the Commission on Human Rights and serves as a lobby specifically for women, often working closely with women 's NGOs. The commission was initially focused on women 's rights to equality, gradually shifting to a focus on issues of women 's education, social status, political equality etc.
These specialised agencies are autonomous organisations working with the United Nations and each other inter alia through the coordinating machinery of the Economic and Social Council.
In a report issued in early July 2011, the UN called for spending nearly USD 2 trillion on green technologies to prevent what it termed "a major planetary catastrophe '', warning that "It is rapidly expanding energy use, mainly driven by fossil fuels, that explains why humanity is on the verge of breaching planetary sustainability boundaries through global warming, biodiversity loss, and disturbance of the nitrogen - cycle balance and other measures of the sustainability of the earth 's ecosystem ''.
UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon added: "Rather than viewing growth and sustainability as competing goals on a collision course, we must see them as complementary and mutually supportive imperatives ''. The report concluded that "Business as usual is not an option ''.
Governance of the multilateral system has historically been complex and fragmented. This has limited the capacity of ECOSOC to influence international policies in trade, finance and investment. Reform proposals aim to enhance the relevance and contribution of the council. A major reform was approved by the 2005 World Summit on the basis of proposals submitted by secretary - general Kofi Annan. The Summit aimed to establish ECOSOC as a quality platform for high - level engagement among member states and with international financial institutions, the private sector and civil society on global trends, policies and action. It was decided to hold biennial high - level Development Cooperation Forums at the national - leadership level by transforming the high - level segment of the Council to review trends in international development cooperation and promote greater coherence in development activities. At the Summit it was also decided to hold annual ministerial - level substantive reviews to assess progress in achieving internationally agreed development goals (particularly the Millennium Development Goals). These "Annual Ministerial Reviews '' will be replaced by the High Level Political Forum from 2016 onwards after the new post-MDG / post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals are agreed.
Subsequent proposals by the High - Level Panel Report on System - Wide Coherence in November 2006 aimed to establish a forum within the ECOSOC as a counter-model to the exclusive clubs of the G8 and G20. The Forum was to comprise 27 heads of state (L27, corresponding to half of ECOSOC 's membership) to meet annually and provide international leadership in the development area. This proposal, however, was not approved by the General Assembly.
The Economic and Social Council Chamber in the United Nations Conference Building was a gift from Sweden. It was conceived by Swedish architect Sven Markelius, one of the 11 architects in the international team that designed the UN headquarters. Wood from Swedish pine trees was used in the delegates ' area for the railings and doors.
The pipes and ducts in the ceiling above the public gallery were deliberately left exposed; the architect believed that anything useful could be left uncovered. The "unfinished '' ceiling is a symbolic reminder that the economic and social work of the United Nations is never finished; there will always be something more which can be done to improve living conditions for the world 's people.
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department of homeland security - federal emergency management agency (fema) | Federal Emergency Management agency - Wikipedia
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security, initially created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1, 1979. The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster. The only exception to the state 's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset -- for example, the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return - flight disaster.
While on - the - ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA 's charter, the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields and funding for rebuilding efforts and relief funds for infrastructure by directing individuals to access low interest loans, in conjunction with the Small Business Administration. In addition to this, FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agency 's preparedness effort.
Federal emergency management in the U.S. has existed in one form or another for over 200 years.
A series of devastating fires struck the port city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, early in the 19th century. The 7th U.S. Congress passed a measure in 1803 that provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by extending the time they had for remitting tariffs on imported goods. This is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster.
Between 1803 and 1930, ad hoc legislation was passed more than 100 times for relief or compensation after a disaster. Examples include the waiving of duties and tariffs to the merchants of New York City after the Great Fire of New York (1835). After the collapse of the John T. Ford 's Theater in June 1893, the 54th Congress passed legislation compensating those who were injured in the building.
After the start of the Great Depression in 1929, President Herbert Hoover had commissioned the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932. The purpose of the RFC was to lend money to banks and institutions to stimulate economic activity. RFC was also responsible for dispensing federal dollars in the wake of a disaster. RFC can be considered the first organized federal disaster response agency.
The Bureau of Public Roads in 1934 was given authority to finance the reconstruction of highways and roads after a disaster. The Flood Control Act of 1944 also gave the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authority over flood control and irrigation projects and thus played a major role in disaster recovery from flooding.
Federal disaster relief and recovery was brought under the umbrella of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), in 1973 by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973, and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration was created as an organizational unit within the department. This agency would oversee disasters until its incorporation into FEMA in 1978.
Prior to implementation of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 by E.O. 12127 and E.O. 12148, many government agencies were still involved in disaster relief; in some cases, more than 100 separate agencies might be jockeying for control and jurisdiction of a disaster.
Over the years, Congress increasingly extended the range of covered categories for assistance, and several presidential executive orders did the same. By enacting these various forms of legislative direction, Congress established a category for annual budgetary amounts of assistance to victims of various types of hazards or disasters, it specified the qualifications, and then it established or delegated the responsibilities to various federal and non-federal agencies.
In time, this expanded array of agencies themselves underwent reorganization. One of the first such federal agencies was the Federal Civil Defense Administration, which operated within the Executive Office of the President. Functions to administer disaster relief were then given to the President himself, who delegated to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. Subsequently, a new office of the Office of Defense Mobilization was created. Then, the new Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, managed by the EOP; after that, the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, which renamed the former agency; then, the Office of Civil Defense, under the Department of Defense (DoD); the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW); the Department of Agriculture; the Office of Emergency Planning (OEmP); the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (replacing the OCD in the DoD); the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the General Services Administration (GSA) (upon termination of the OEmP).
These actions demonstrated that, during those years, the nation 's domestic preparedness was addressed by several disparate legislative actions, motivated by policy and budgetary earmarking, and not by a single, unifying, comprehensive strategy to meet the nation 's needs over time. Then, in 1978 an effort was made to consolidate the several singular functions; FEMA was created to house civil defense and disaster preparedness under one roof. This was a very controversial decision.
FEMA was established under the 1978 Reorganization Plan No. 3, and activated April 1, 1979, by President Jimmy Carter in an Executive Order.
In July, Carter signed Executive Order 12148 shifting disaster relief efforts to the new federal - level agency. FEMA absorbed the Federal Insurance Administration, the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, the National Weather Service Community Preparedness Program, the Federal Preparedness Agency of the General Services Administration and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration activities from HUD. FEMA was also given the responsibility for overseeing the nation 's Civil Defense, a function which had previously been performed by the Department of Defense 's Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.
One of the disasters FEMA responded to was the dumping of toxic waste into Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York, in the late 1970s. FEMA also responded to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident where the nuclear generating station suffered a partial core meltdown. These disasters, while showing the agency could function properly, also uncovered some inefficiencies.
In 1993, President Bill Clinton appointed James Lee Witt as FEMA Director. In 1996, the agency was elevated to cabinet rank. This was not continued by President George W. Bush. Witt initiated reforms that would help to streamline the disaster recovery and mitigation process. The end of the Cold War also allowed the agency 's resources to be turned away from civil defense to natural disaster preparedness.
After FEMA 's creation through reorganization and executive orders, Congress continued to expand FEMA 's authority by assigning responsibilities to it. Those responsibilities include dam safety under the National Dam Safety Program Act; disaster assistance under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act; earthquake hazards reduction under the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and further expanded by Executive Order 12699, regarding safety requirements for federal buildings and Executive Order 12941, concerning the need for cost estimates to seismically retrofit federal buildings; emergency food and shelter under the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987; hazardous materials, under the Emergency Planning and Community Right - to - Know Act of 1986;
In addition, FEMA received authority for counter terrorism through the Nunn - Lugar - Domenici amendment under the Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996, which was a response to the recognized vulnerabilities of the U.S. after the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995.
Congress funded FEMA through a combination of regular appropriations and emergency funding in response to events.
Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Congress passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which created the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to better coordinate among the different federal agencies that deal with law enforcement, disaster preparedness and recovery, border protection and civil defense. FEMA was absorbed into DHS effective March 1, 2003. As a result, FEMA became part of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of Department of Homeland Security, employing more than 2,600 full - time employees. It became the Federal Emergency Management Agency again on March 31, 2007, but remained in DHS.
President Bush appointed Michael D. Brown as FEMA 's director in January 2003. Brown warned in September 2003 that FEMA 's absorption into DHS would make a mockery of FEMA 's new motto, "A Nation Prepared '', and would "fundamentally sever FEMA from its core functions '', "shatter agency morale '' and "break longstanding, effective and tested relationships with states and first responder stakeholders ''. The inevitable result of the reorganization of 2003, warned Brown, would be "an ineffective and uncoordinated response '' to a terrorist attack or a natural disaster.
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 demonstrated that the vision of further unification of functions and another reorganization could not address the problems FEMA had previously faced. The "Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina '', released February 15, 2006, by the U.S. Government Printing Office, revealed that federal funding to states for "all hazards '' disaster preparedness needs was not awarded unless the local agencies made the purposes for the funding a "just terrorism '' function. Emergency management professionals testified that funds for preparedness for natural hazards was given less priority than preparations for counter terrorism measures. Testimony also expressed the opinion that the mission to mitigate vulnerability and prepare for natural hazard disasters before they occurred had been separated from disaster preparedness functions, making the nation more vulnerable to known hazards, like hurricanes.
In fall 2008, FEMA took over coordination of the Ready Campaign, the national public service advertising (PSA) campaign in collaboration with the Ad Council to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man - made disasters. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish language version Listo asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit, make a family emergency plan and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond. The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs, as well as brochures, toll - free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites.
During the debate of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, some called for FEMA to remain as an independent agency. Later, following the failed response to Hurricane Katrina, critics called for FEMA to be removed from the Department of Homeland Security. Today FEMA exists as a major agency of the Department of Homeland Security. The Administrator for Federal Emergency Management reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. In March 2003, FEMA joined 22 other federal agencies, programs and offices in becoming the Department of Homeland Security. The new department, headed by Secretary Tom Ridge, brought a coordinated approach to national security from emergencies and disasters -- both natural and man - made.
FEMA manages the National Flood Insurance Program. Other programs FEMA previously administered have since been internalized or shifted under direct DHS control.
FEMA is also home to the National Continuity Programs Directorate (formerly the Office of National Security Coordination). ONSC was responsible for developing, exercising, and validating agency wide continuity of operations and continuity of government plans as well as overseeing and maintaining continuity readiness including the Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center. ONSC also coordinated the continuity efforts of other Federal Executive Agencies.
FEMA began administering the Center for Domestic Preparedness in 2007.
FEMA has an annual budget of $13 billion that is used and distributed in different states according to the emergencies that occur in each one. An annual list of the use of these funds is disclosed at the end of the year on FEMA 's website.
FEMA 's Mitigation Directorate is responsible for programs that take action before a disaster, in order to identify risks and reduce injuries, loss of property, and recovery time. The agency has major analysis programs for floods, hurricanes and tropical storms, dams, and earthquakes.
FEMA works to ensure affordable flood insurance is available to homeowners in flood plains, through the National Flood Insurance Program, and also works to enforce no - build zones in known flood plains and relocate or elevate some at - risk structures.
Pre-Disaster Mitigation grants are available to acquire property for conversion to open space, retrofit existing buildings, construct tornado and storm shelters, manage vegetation for erosion and fire control, and small flood control projects.
The safe room construction plans and specifications from FEMA P - 320, Taking Shelter From the Storm, are available in pdf and. dwg format.
FEMA 's emergency response is based on small, decentralized teams trained in such areas as the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), Urban Search and Rescue (USAR), Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team (DMORT), Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT), and Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS).
FEMA 's National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) is a multiagency center located at FEMA HQ that coordinates the overall Federal support for major disasters and emergencies, including catastrophic incidents in support of operations at the regional - level. The FEMA Administrator, or his or her delegate, activates the NRCC in anticipation of, or in response to, an incident by activating the NRCC staff, which includes FEMA personnel, the appropriate Emergency Support Functions, and other appropriate personnel (including nongovernmental organization and private sector representatives). During the initial stages of a response FEMA will, as part of the whole community, focus on projected, potential, or escalating critical incident activities. The NRCC coordinates with the affected region (s) and provides needed resources and policy guidance in support of incident - level operations. The NRCC staff specifically provides emergency management coordination, planning, resource deployment, and collects and disseminates incident information as it builds and maintains situational awareness -- all at the national - level. FEMA maintains the NRCC as a functional component of the NOC for incident support operations.
An example of NRCC activity is the coordination of emergency management activities that took place in connection with the 2013 Colorado floods.
The NDMS was transferred from the Department of Homeland Security to the Department of Health and Human Services, under the Pandemic and All - Hazards Preparedness Act, signed by President George W. Bush, on December 18, 2006.
NDMS is made of teams that provide medical and allied care to disaster victims. These teams include doctors, nurses, pharmacists, etc., and are typically sponsored by hospitals, public safety agencies or private organizations. Also, Rapid Deployment Force (RDF) teams, composed of officers of the Commissioned Corps of the United States Public Health Service, were developed to assist with the NDMS.
Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) provide medical care at disasters and are typically made up of doctors and paramedics. There are also National Nursing Response Teams (NNRT), National Pharmacy Response Teams (NPRT) and Veterinary Medical Assistance Teams (VMAT). Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORT) provide mortuary and forensic services. National Medical Response Teams (NMRT) are equipped to decontaminate victims of chemical and biological agents.
The Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces perform rescue of victims from structural collapses, confined spaces, and other disasters, for example mine collapses and earthquakes.
These teams provide communications support to local public safety. For instance, they may operate a truck with satellite uplink, computers, telephone and power generation at a staging area near a disaster so that the responders can communicate with the outside world. There are also Mobile Air Transportable Telecommunications System (MATTS) assets which can be airlifted in. Also portable cellphone towers can be erected to allow local responders to access telephone systems.
On August 1, 2008, FEMA had released "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) incidents '' which indicate action guide in case of radioactive contamination. This Notice is specified as action guide for Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) involving high levels of radiation. According to the Federation of American Scientists, during the Cold War FEMA prepared assessments of the likely consequences of a full - scale Soviet nuclear attack on the United States for use in planning mitigation and recovery efforts.
FEMA offers a large number of training classes, either at its own centers, through programs at the state level, in cooperation with colleges and universities, or online. The latter are free classes available to anyone, although only those with U.S. residency or work eligibility can take the final examinations. More information is available on the FEMA website under the "Emergency Personnel '' and "Training '' subheadings. Other emergency response information for citizens is also available at its website.
FEMA runs the Incident Workforce Academy, a two - week emergency preparedness training program for FEMA employees. The first class of the academy graduated in early 2014.
The Training and Education Division within FEMA 's National Integration Center directly funds training for responders and provides guidance on training - related expenditures under FEMA 's grant programs. Information on designing effective training for first responders is available from the Training and Education Division. Emergency managers and other interested members of the public can take independent study courses for certification at FEMA 's online Emergency Management Institute.
EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States Citizens. Note that students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be a federal employee for some of the programs.
EMI maintains a strategic partnerships with Frederick Community College. FCC has contracted with the Emergency Management Institute to provide college credit for the Independent Study Program (ISP). FCC offers 8 specialized Letters of Recognition, an Undergraduate Certificate, and an Associate of Applied Science degree in Emergency Management.
FEMA Corps, who range in age from 18 -- 24 years old, is a cadre dedicated to disaster response and recovery. It is a new partnership between The Corporation for National and Community Service 's AmeriCorps NCCC and FEMA. The Corps, described as a "dedicated, trained, and reliable disaster workforce '' works full - time for 10 months on federal disaster response and recovery efforts. Over 150 members of the inaugural FEMA Corps class graduated in June 2013, at the AmeriCorps NCCC campus in Vicksburg, Mississippi. The Corps work on teams of 8 to 12 people, and follow the traditional NCCC model of living together and traveling together. In addition to working with FEMA, corps members must perform AmeriCorps responsibilities such as Physical Training three times a week, National Days of Service, and Individual Service Projects in communities throughout the United States. The Corps receives $4.75 a day for food, and a living stipend of approximately $4,000 over 10 months. An education award is distributed to corps members who successfully serve 10 months of service, completing 1,700 total hours.
FEMA has led a Public - Private Partnership in creating a National Donations Management Program making it easier for corporations or individuals not previously engaged to make offers of free assistance to States and the Federal Government in times of disaster. The program is a partnership among FEMA, relief agencies, corporations / corporate associations and participating state governments. The technical backbone of the program is an online technology solution called The Aidmatrix Network which is managed by the independent nonprofit organization, Aidmatrix.
In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew struck the Florida and Louisiana coasts with 165 mph (265 km / h) sustained winds. FEMA was widely criticized for its response to Andrew, summed up by the famous exclamation, "Where in the hell is the cavalry on this one? '' by Kate Hale, emergency management director for Dade County, Florida. FEMA and the federal government at large were accused of not responding fast enough to house, feed and sustain the approximately 250,000 people left homeless in the affected areas. Within five days the federal government and neighboring states had dispatched 20,000 National Guard and active duty troops to South Dade County to set up temporary housing. This event and FEMA 's performance was reviewed by the National Academy of Public Administration in its February 1993 report "Coping With Catastrophe '' which identified several basic paradigms in Emergency Management and FEMA administration that were causes of the failed response.
FEMA had previously been criticized for its response to Hurricane Hugo, which hit South Carolina in September 1989, and many of the same issues that plagued the agency during Hurricane Andrew were also evident during the response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Additionally, upon incorporation into DHS, FEMA was legally dissolved and a new Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate was established in DHS to replace it. Following enactment of the Post Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 FEMA was reestablished as an entity within DHS, on March 31, 2007.
South Florida newspaper Sun - Sentinel has an extensive list of documented criticisms of FEMA during the four hurricanes that hit the region in 2004. Some of the criticisms include:
FEMA received intense criticism for its response to the Hurricane Katrina disaster in August 2005. FEMA had pre-positioned response personnel in the Gulf Coast region. However, many could not render direct assistance and were only able to report on the dire situation along the Gulf Coast, especially from New Orleans. Within three days, a large contingent of National Guard and active duty troops were deployed to the region.
The enormous number of evacuees simply overwhelmed rescue personnel. The situation was compounded by flood waters in the city that hampered transportation and poor communication among the federal government, state, and local entities. FEMA was widely criticized for what is seen as a slow initial response to the disaster and an inability to effectively manage, care for, and move those who were trying to leave the city.
Then - FEMA Director Michael D. Brown was criticized personally for a slow response and an apparent disconnection with the situation. Michael Brown would eventually be relieved of command of the Katrina disaster and soon thereafter resigned.
Katrina was seen as the first major test of the nation 's new disaster response plan under DHS. It is widely held that many things did not function as planned.
According to the U.S. House of Representatives Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina:
Other failings were also noted. The Committee devoted an entire section of the report to listing the actions of FEMA. Their conclusion was:
For years emergency management professionals have been warning that FEMA 's preparedness has eroded. Many believe this erosion is a result of the separation of the preparedness function from FEMA, the drain of long - term professional staff along with their institutional knowledge and expertise, and the inadequate readiness of FEMA 's national emergency response teams. The combination of these staffing, training, and organizational structures made FEMA 's inadequate performance in the face of a disaster the size of Katrina all but inevitable.
Pursuant to a temporary restraining order issued by Hon. Stanwood R. Duva l, United States District Court Judge, Eastern District of Louisiana as a result of the McWaters v. FEMA class - action, February 7, 2006 was set as the deadline for the official end of any further coverage of temporary housing costs for Katrina victims.
After the February 7 deadline, Katrina victims were left to their own devices either to find permanent housing for the long term, or to continue in social welfare programs set up by other organizations. There were many Katrina evacuees living in temporary shelters or trailer parks set up by FEMA and other relief organizations in the first months after the disaster hit, but many more were still unable to find housing.
In July 2007, ice that had been ordered for Katrina victims but had never been used and kept in storage facilities, at a cost of $12.5 million, was melted down.
In June 2008, a CNN investigation found that FEMA gave away about $85 million in household goods meant for Hurricane Katrina victims to 16 other states.
FEMA came under attack for their response to the October Surprise Storm on October 13, 2006 in Buffalo, New York. As FEMA legally can not interfere with state business unless asked, FEMA responded that as per procedure, the Governor of the state of New York had not asked for FEMA 's assistance. FEMA Headquarters had been in constant contact with State congressional offices providing them with the latest information available. Claims state that FEMA officials did not arrive until October 16, three days after the storm hit. The snowstorm damage by this time included downed power wires, downed trees, and structural damage to homes and businesses.
Many people of Dumas, Arkansas, especially victims of the February 24, 2007 tornadoes, criticized FEMA 's response in not supplying the amount of new trailers they needed, and only sending a set of used trailers, lower than the needed quantity. Following the storm, U.S Senator Mark Pryor had criticized FEMA 's response to the recovery and cleanup efforts.
FEMA came under intense criticism when it was revealed that a press conference on the October 2007 California wildfires was staged. Deputy Administrator Harvey E. Johnson was answering questions from FEMA employees who were posing as reporters. Many of these questions were "soft ball '' questions (i.e., "Are you happy with FEMA 's response so far? ''), intentionally asked in a way that would evoke a positive response giving the impression that FEMA was doing everything right. In this way, any scrutiny from real reporters (many of whom were only given a 15 - minute notice) would have been avoided. Fox News, MSNBC, and other media outlets aired the staged press briefing live. Real reporters were notified only 15 minutes in advance and were only able to call in to a conference line, which was set to "listen - only '' mode. The only people there were primarily FEMA public affairs employees.
In September 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica and Puerto Rico with 175 mph (280 km / h) sustained winds. People reported the FEMA food packages were unhealthy snacks such as skittles. FEMA was widely criticized for its response to Maria, as the island quickly fell into a humanitarian crisis.
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who is the dad on chrisley knows best | Chrisley Knows Best - wikipedia
Chrisley Knows Best is an American reality television series airing on the USA Network. It centers around the lives of wealthy Georgia real estate mogul Todd Chrisley and his family. The show formerly took place in Roswell and Alpharetta, Georgia, both near Atlanta. The show is currently in its fifth season, which was filmed mainly in Nashville, Tennessee. In the summer of 2017, it was announced that a sixth season of Chrisley Knows Best would air.
The series is executive produced by Adam Greener, Jim Sayer, and Stephanie Chambers. Maverick TV and All3Media America are the production companies behind the series. On April 14, 2014, the USA Network ordered a 12 - episode second season of Chrisley Knows Best. It is also USA Network 's youngest - skewing original series. On October 20, 2014, the series was renewed for a 12 - episode third season. On February 5, 2015, the episode order was increased by 6 episodes for a total of 18 for season 3. On July 7, 2016, USA renewed the show for a fifth season. That same day, the network announced that the second half of season 4 will premiere in August bringing it to a total of 26 episodes. On July 25th, 2017, a sixth season was picked up of Chrisley Knows Best, and on that same day it was confirmed that Season 5 will start back airing on September 12, 2017, and a sixth season will begin filming in November 2017.
The first season averaged 1.16 million viewers.
The second season averaged 1.49 million viewers.
The third season averaged 1.61 million viewers.
The fourth season averaged 1.62 million viewers.
The 5th season averaged 1.95 million viewers so far.
The show has received mixed reviews. Tom Gliatto of People gave the show a rating of 75 % and gave a positive review, saying "This is the best ' family ' reality series since Honey Boo Boo or even The Osbournes from several eons ago ''. Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review, saying "If you can get past the canned lines and sub-sitcom storylines, the Chrisley crew can be fun ''. Brian Lowry of Variety gave a mixed review, saying "As intriguing in the details as it is uncomfortable to watch, ' Chrisley Knows Best, ' a self - consciously sitcom - like reality show, initially seems to be just another knockoff designed to cash in on the ' Duck Dynasty ' demo. Cut through the deep - fried window dressing, though, and this USA series is almost entirely devoted to its subtext, intended to elicit sniggering regarding that which goes unsaid about the show 's wealthy father of five, whom his son - in - law understandably dubs ' flamboyant. ' Played as epic farce, the skein should have a disparate range of appeal, but let 's hope the Chrisleys do n't mind being laughed at, not with ''.
Chrisley Knows Best is broadcast on USA Network in the United States. In the UK, it airs on ITVBe.
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who discovered sea route from europe to america | Voyages of Christopher Columbus - wikipedia
In 1492, a Spanish - based transatlantic maritime expedition led by Christopher Columbus encountered the Americas, a continent which was previously unknown in Europe, leading to the colonization of the Americas.
For a very long time, it was believed that Columbus and his crew had been the first Europeans to make landfall in the Americas. However, they were not the first explorers from Europe to reach the Americas, having been preceded by the Viking expedition led by Leif Erikson in the 11th century; however, Columbus 's voyages led to the first ongoing European contact with the Americas, inaugurating a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization that has lasted several centuries.
Columbus was an Italian - born navigator sailing for the Crown of Castile in search of a westward route to Asia, to access the sources of spices and other oriental goods. This led to the discovery of a New World between Europe and Asia. Columbus made a total of four voyages to the Americas between 1492 and 1502, setting the stage for the European exploration and colonization of the Americas, ultimately leading to the Columbian Exchange.
At the time of both the Erikson and Columbus voyages, the Americas were inhabited by the Indigenous Americans, the descendants of Paleo - Indians who crossed the Bering Strait, at that time a land bridge, to North America beginning around 20,000 years ago. Columbus 's voyages led to the widespread knowledge that a new continent existed west of Europe and east of Asia. This breakthrough in geographical science led to the exploration and colonization of the New World by Spain and other European sea powers, and is sometimes cited as the start of the modern era.
Spain, Portugal, and other European kingdoms sent expeditions and established colonies throughout the New World, converted the native inhabitants to Christianity, and built large trade networks across the Atlantic, which introduced new plants, animals, and food crops to both continents. The search for a westward route to Asia continued in 1513 when Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the narrow Isthmus of Panama to become the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean. The search was completed in 1521, when the Castilian (Spanish) Magellan expedition sailed across the Pacific and reached Southeast Asia.
Portugal had been the main European power interested in pursuing trade routes overseas. Their next - door neighbors, Castile (predecessor of Spain) had been somewhat slower to begin exploring the Atlantic because of the bigger land area it had to re-conquer (the Reconquista) from the Moors. It was not until the late 15th century, following the dynastic union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon and the completion of the Reconquista, that the unified crowns of what would become Spain (although countries still legally existing) emerged and became fully committed to looking for new trade routes and colonies overseas. In 1492 the joint rulers conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada, which had been providing Castile with African goods through tribute. Columbus had previously failed to convince King John II of Portugal to fund his exploration of a western route, but the new king and queen of the re-conquered Spain decided to fund Columbus 's expedition in hopes of bypassing Portugal 's lock on Africa and the Indian Ocean, reaching Asia by traveling west.
He proposed the king equip three sturdy ships and grant Columbus one year 's time to sail out west into the Atlantic, search for a western route to India, and return. Columbus also requested he be made "Great Admiral of the Ocean Sea '' (Atlantic Ocean), appointed governor of any and all lands he discovered, and be given one - tenth of all revenue from those lands. The king submitted the proposal to his experts, who rejected it after several years. It was their considered opinion that Columbus 's estimation of a travel distance of 2,400 miles (3,900 km) was, in fact, far too short.
In 1488 Columbus appealed to the court of Portugal, receiving a new invitation for an audience with King John II. This also proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal following a successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa. With an eastern sea route now under its control, Portugal was no longer interested in trailblazing a western trade route to Asia crossing unknown seas. Columbus traveled from Portugal to Castile to convince the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon to finance the expedition.
King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1469, uniting the two largest kingdoms into what would later be the Spanish Crown. They were known jointly as the Catholic Monarchs, and ruled their kingdoms independently, but had common internal and foreign policies.
Columbus was granted an audience with them; on May 1, 1489, he presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who referred them to a committee. They pronounced the idea impractical, and advised the monarchs not to support the proposed venture.
However, to expand the Spanish empire and Catholicism in the name of Spanish Kings, and to assure a better market position in trading, the Queen gave Columbus an annual allowance of 12,000 maravedis and part of the newly conquered lands.
After continually asking, nagging, begging, and crying for the monarchs to support his plan at the royal court and enduring two years of negotiations, Columbus finally succeeded in January 1492. Queen Isabella 's forces had just conquered the Moorish Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold of Al - Andalus on the Iberian peninsula, for Castile. Isabella and Ferdinand received Columbus in the Alcázar (castle) in Córdoba to support his plans.
The monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made "Admiral of the Seas '' and would receive a portion of all profits. The terms were unusually generous but, as his son later wrote, the monarchs were not confident of his return.
According to Columbus 's contract made for the expedition commission by Queen Isabella for Castile, if Columbus claimed any new islands or mainland for the Crown, he would receive many high rewards. In terms of power, he would be given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy and Governor of the newly colonised lands. He had the right to nominate three people, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands. He would be entitled to ten per cent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity.
Europe had long enjoyed a safe land passage to China and India -- sources of valued goods such as silk, spices, and opiates -- under the hegemony of the Mongol Empire (the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol peace). With the Fall of Constantinople to the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1453, the land route to Asia became more difficult. In response to this the Columbus brothers had, by the 1480s, developed a plan to travel to the Indies, then construed roughly as all of southern and eastern Asia, by sailing directly west across what was believed to be the singular "Ocean Sea, '' the Atlantic Ocean.
Washington Irving 's 1828 biography of Columbus popularized the idea that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because Europeans thought the Earth was flat. In fact, the primitive maritime navigation of the time relied on the stars and the curvature of the spherical Earth. The knowledge that the Earth was spherical was widespread, and the means of calculating its diameter using an astrolabe was known to both scholars and navigators.
A spherical Earth had been the general opinion of Ancient Greek science, and this view continued through the Middle Ages (for example, Bede mentions it in The Reckoning of Time). In fact Eratosthenes had measured the diameter of the Earth with good precision in the 2nd century BC. Where Columbus did differ from the generally accepted view of his time was in his incorrect arguments that assumed a significantly smaller diameter for the Earth, claiming that Asia could be easily reached by sailing west across the Atlantic. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy 's correct assessment that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, and dismissed Columbus 's claim that the Earth was much smaller, and that Asia was only a few thousand nautical miles to the west of Europe. Columbus 's error was attributed to his insufficient experience in navigation at sea.
Columbus believed the incorrect calculations of Marinus of Tyre, putting the landmass at 225 degrees, leaving only 135 degrees of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that one degree represented a shorter distance on the Earth 's surface than was actually the case -- he read maps as if the distances were calculated in Italian miles (about 1,480 meters). Accepting the length of a degree to be 562⁄3 miles, from the writings of Alfraganus, he therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as 25,255 km (13,637 nautical miles; 15,693 miles) at most, and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan as 3,000 Italian miles (3,700 km (2,000 nautical miles; 2,300 miles)). Columbus did not realize Alfraganus used the much longer Arabic mile (about 1,830 m).
The true circumference of the Earth is about 40,000 km (22,000 nautical miles; 25,000 miles), a figure first established approximately by Eratosthenes in the 2nd century BC, and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan 19,600 km (10,600 nautical miles; 12,200 miles). No ship that was readily available in the 15th century could carry enough food and fresh water for such a journey. Most European sailors and navigators concluded, probably correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia non-stop would die of thirst, scurvy or starvation long before reaching their destination. Spain, however, having just completed the expensive Reconquista, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries in trade with the East Indies. Columbus promised such an advantage.
Europeans generally assumed that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. While hints of North America, Vinland, were already surfacing in Europe, historians agree that Columbus calculated too short a distance from the Canary Islands to Japan by the standards of his peers.
There was a further element of key importance in the plans of Columbus, a closely held fact discovered by or otherwise learned by Columbus: the Trade Winds. A brisk westward wind from the east, commonly called an "easterly '', propelled Santa María, La Niña, and La Pinta for five weeks from the Canary Islands off Africa. To return to Spain eastward against this prevailing wind would have required several months of an arduous sailing technique upwind, called beating, during which food and drinkable water would have been utterly exhausted. Columbus returned home by following prevailing winds northeastward from the southern zone of the North Atlantic to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, where prevailing winds are eastward (westerly) to the coastlines of Western Europe, where the winds curve southward towards the Iberian Peninsula. So he used the North Atlantic 's great circular wind pattern, clockwise in direction, in both legs of his voyage.
At 8: 00 in the morning of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Castilian Palos de la Frontera (on the river Saltes, at the confluence of the rivers Rio Tinto and Rio Odiel). Columbus and his crew embarked on a voyage to find a shorter route to India and the Orient with three medium - sized ships, the Niña (real name Santa Clara), the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The ships were the property of Juan de la Cosa and the Pinzón brothers (Martín Alonso Pinzón and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón), but the monarchs forced the Palos de la Frontera inhabitants to contribute to the expedition as well.
The Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María
A conjectural replica of the Niña
A replica of the Pinta in Palos de la Frontera
A replica of the Santa María at West Edmonton Mall
One large carrack, the Santa María, was always referred to by Columbus as La Capitana ("The Captain ''). The two smaller caravels, La Pinta ("The Painted '') and La Niña (lit. "The Girl '', but actually named after her owners, the Niño brothers of Moguer.) are today better known by their nicknames: the real name of the Pinta has been lost; the Niña was actually named Santa Clara, after the patron saint of Moguer.
Three days into the journey, on 6 August 1492, the rudder of the Pinta broke. The owners of the ship, Gomez Rascon and Christoval Quintero, were suspected of sabotage, as they and their ship had been pressed into service against their will. The crew was able to secure the rudder with ropes until they could reach the Canary Islands, where they arrived on 9 August 1492. Here the Pinta was repaired and the Niña 's lateen sails were re-rigged to standard square sails. While securing provisions from the island of La Gomera, Columbus received word that three Portuguese caravels had been seen hovering near the island of El Hierro with the supposed intention of capturing him. However, on September 6, 1492 the westward voyage began without incident. The ships departed San Sebastián de la Gomera for what turned out to be a six - week long voyage across the terrible ocean.
As described in the abstract of his log made by Bartolome de Las Casas, on the outward bound voyage Columbus recorded two sets of distances. Las Casas originally interpreted that he reported the shorter distances to his crew so they would not worry about sailing too far from Spain. However, according to Oliver Dunn and James Kelley, this was a misunderstanding by Las Casas. Columbus did report two distances each day but one was in measurements he normally used, the other in the Portuguese maritime leagues used by his crew.
On 13 September 1492, Columbus observed that the needle of his compass no longer pointed to the North Star. The needle instead had varied a half point to the northwest, and continued to vary further as the journey progressed. Columbus at first made no mention of this, knowing his crew to be prone to panic with their destination unknown, but after several days his pilots took notice with much anxiety. Allegedly the crew grew so homesick and fearful that they threatened to sail back to Spain. Columbus reasoned that the needle did not point to the North Star, but to some invisible point on the Earth. His reputation as an astronomer held weight with the crew, and his theory alleviated their alarm. It was once believed that Columbus had discovered magnetic declination, but it was later shown that the phenomenon was already known, both in Europe and in China.
After twenty - nine days out of sight of land, on 7 October 1492, the crew spotted "(i) mmense flocks of birds '', some of which his sailors trapped and determined to be "field '' birds (probably Eskimo curlews and American golden plovers). Columbus changed course to follow their flight.
Land was first sighted at 2 a.m. on October 12, 1492, by a sailor named Rodrigo de Triana (also known as Juan Rodriguez Bermejo) aboard La Pinta. Columbus would later assert that he had first seen the land and, thus, earned the reward of 10,000 maravedís. Columbus called the island San Salvador, in the present - day Bahamas or Turks and Caicos; the indigenous residents had named it Guanahani. Exactly which island in the Bahamas or Turks and Caicos this corresponds to is an unresolved topic; prime candidates are Samana Cay, Plana Cays, Grand Turk, Cat Island or San Salvador Island (Watlings Island named San Salvador in 1925 in the belief that it was Columbus 's San Salvador).
The indigenous people he encountered in their homelands were peaceful and friendly. At the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas, and the Leeward Islands; the Island Caribs (Kalina) and Galibi in the Windward Islands and Guadeloupe; and the Ciboney (a Taíno people) and Guanahatabey of central and western Cuba, respectively. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico; Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago; and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib - speaking and Arawak - speaking groups. Most of modern Central America was part of the Mesoamerican civilization. The Native American societies of Mesoamerica occupied the land ranging from central Mexico in the north to Costa Rica in the south. The cultures of Panama traded with both Mesoamerica and South America and can be considered transitional between those two cultural areas.
Columbus proceeded to observe the people and their cultural lifestyle. He also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, landing on 28 October 1492, and the north - western coast of Hispaniola, present day Haiti, by 5 December 1492. Here, the Santa Maria ran aground on Christmas Day, December 25, 1492, and had to be abandoned. Columbus was received by the native cacique Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus founded the settlement, La Navidad, leaving behind 39 men.
On 15 January 1493, he set sail for home aboard the Niña.
While returning to Spain, the Niña and Pinta encountered the roughest storm of their journey, and, on the night of 13 February, lost contact with each other. All hands on the Niña vowed, if they were spared, to make a pilgrimage to the nearest church of Our Lady wherever they first made land. On the morning of February 15, land was spotted. Columbus believed they were approaching the Azore Islands, but other members of the crew felt that they were considerably north of the islands. Columbus turned out to be right. On the night of February 17, the Niña laid anchor at Santa Maria Island, but the cable broke on sharp rocks, forcing Columbus to stay offshore until the morning, when a safer location was found to drop anchor nearby. A few sailors took a boat to the island, where they were told by several islanders of a still safer place to land, so the Niña moved once again. At this spot, Columbus took on board several islanders who had gathered onshore with food, and told them that his crew wished to come ashore to fulfill their vow. The islanders told him that a small shrine dedicated to Our Lady was nearby. Columbus sent half of the crew members to the island to fulfill their vow, but he and the rest of the crew stayed on the Niña, planning to send the other half to the island upon the return of the first crew members. While the first crew members were saying their prayers at the shrine, they were taken prisoner by the islanders, under orders from the island 's captain, João de Castanheira, ostensibly out of fear that the men were pirates. The boat that the crew members had taken to the island was then commandeered by Castanheira, which he took with several armed men to the Niña, in an attempt to arrest Columbus. During a verbal battle across the bows of both craft, during which Columbus did not grant permission for him to come aboard, Castanheira announced that he did not believe or care who Columbus said that he was, especially if he was indeed from Spain. Castanheira returned to the island. However, after another two days, Castanheira released the prisoners, having been unable to get confessions from them, and having been unable to capture his real target, Columbus. There are later claims that Columbus was also captured, but this is not backed up by Columbus 's log book.
Leaving the island of Santa Maria in the Azores on 23 February, Columbus headed for Castilian Spain, but another storm forced him into Portugal 's Lisbon. He anchored next to the King 's harbor patrol ship on March 4, 1493, where he was told a fleet of 100 caravels had been lost in the storm. Astoundingly, both the Niña and the Pinta had been spared. Not finding King John II in Lisbon, Columbus wrote a letter to him and waited for the king 's reply. The king requested that Columbus go to Vale do Paraíso north of Lisbon to meet him.
Relations between Portugal and Castile were poor at the time. Columbus went to meet with the king at Vale do Paraíso. Hearing of Columbus 's discoveries, the Portuguese king informed him that he believed the voyage to be in violation of the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas. After spending more than a week in Portugal, he set sail for Spain. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe. He reached Barcelona on 15 March, and the Monument a Colom commemorates his arrival.
Columbus and his remaining crew came home to a hero 's welcome when they returned to Spain. He showed off what he had brought back from his voyage to the monarchs, including a few small samples of gold, pearls, gold jewelry stolen from natives, a few natives he had kidnapped, flowers, and a hammock. He gave the monarchs a few of the gold nuggets, gold jewelry, and pearls, as well as the previously unknown tobacco plant, the pineapple fruit, the turkey, and the hammock. The monarchs invited Columbus to dine with them. A taster even tasted the food from each of his dishes before he ate to "make sure it was not poisoned. '' He was given his own footmen to open doors for him and to serve him at the table. Columbus was even rewarded with his own coat of arms. He did not bring any of the coveted East Indies spices, such as the exceedingly expensive black pepper, ginger or cloves. In his log, he wrote "there is also plenty of ' ají ', which is their pepper, which is more valuable than black pepper, and all the people eat nothing else, it being very wholesome ''. The word "ají '' is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers.
Columbus 's letter on the first voyage to the royal court in Madrid was extravagant. He insisted he had reached Asia (it was Cuba) and an island off the coast of China (Hispaniola). His descriptions were part fact, part fiction: "Hispaniola is a miracle. Mountains and hills, plains and pastures, are both fertile and beautiful... the harbors are unbelievably good and there are many wide rivers of which the majority contain gold... There are many spices, and great mines of gold and other metals... ''
After Columbus 's return, Pope Alexander VI divided the "newly discovered '' lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a north -- south meridian 958 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the coast of Africa in the mid-Atlantic), thus granting Spain all land discovered by Columbus. This division was never accepted by the rulers of England or France. (See also the Treaty of Tordesillas that followed the papal decree.)
Before he left Spain on his second voyage, Columbus had been directed by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain friendly, even loving, relations with the natives. He set sail from Cádiz, Spain, on September 24, 1493.
The fleet for the second voyage was much larger: two naos and 15 caravels. The two naos were the flagship Marigalante and the Gallega; the caravels were the Fraila, San Juan, Colina, Gallarda, Gutierre, Bonial, Rodriga, Triana, Vieja, Prieta, Gorda, Cardera, and Quintera. The Niña returned for this expedition, which also included a ship named Pinta probably identical to that from the first expedition. In addition, the expedition saw the construction of the first ship in the Americas, the Santa Cruz or India.
On November 3, 1493, Christopher Columbus landed on a rugged shore on an island that he named Dominica. On the same day, he landed at Marie - Galante, which he named Santa María la Galante. After sailing past Les Saintes (Todos los Santos), he arrived at Guadeloupe (Santa María de Guadalupe), which he explored between November 4 and November 10, 1493. The exact course of his voyage through the Lesser Antilles is debated, but it seems likely that he turned north, sighting and naming many islands including Santa María de Montserrat (Montserrat), Santa María la Antigua (Antigua), Santa María la Redonda (Saint Martin), and Santa Cruz (Saint Croix). He also sighted and named the island chain of the Santa Úrsula y las Once Mil Vírgenes (the Virgin Islands), and named the islands of Virgen Gorda. He continued to the Greater Antilles, and landed on the island of San Juan Bautista, present day Puerto Rico, on November 19, 1493. His men rescued two boys who had just been castrated by their captors.
On November 22, he returned to Hispaniola, where he found his men at La Navidad had fallen into dispute with natives in the interior and had been killed, but he did not accuse Chief Guacanagari, his ally, of any wrongdoing. Another Chief, named Caonabo in Jaragua, was charged. Columbus established a new settlement at La Isabela, on the north coast of Hispaniola, where gold had first been found, but it was a poor location and the settlement was short - lived. He spent some time exploring the interior of the island for gold. Finding some, he established a small fort in the interior.
He left Hispaniola on April 24, 1494, and arrived at the island of Juana (Cuba) (which he had discovered and named during his first voyage) on April 30 and Discovery Bay, Jamaica on May 5. He explored the south coast of Juana, which he believed to be a peninsula of China rather than an island, and several nearby islands including La Evangelista (the Isle of Youth), before returning to Hispaniola on August 20. After staying for a time on the western end of present - day Haiti he finally returned to Spain.
During the second voyage, Columbus sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the Americas ' people, specifically from the Carib tribe, on the grounds of their independence - minded aggressiveness and their status as enemies of the Taíno tribe. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in February 1495, Columbus disobeyed the Queen and took 1,600 people from the Arawak tribe who were then taken by the Carib as captives and slaves. No room was available for about 400 of the kidnapped Arawak leading to their release. The long term consequence for the Arawaks of contact with Europeans was eight million people almost entirely exterminated by torture, forced labour, despair, disease and other factors brought on by Christopher Columbus.
The many voyages of discovery did not pay for themselves, and there was no funding for pure science in the Renaissance. Columbus had planned for Queen Isabella to set up trading posts with the cities of the Far East made famous by Marco Polo, but whose Silk Road and eastern maritime routes had been blockaded to her crown 's trade. Of course, Columbus would never find Cathay (China) or Zipangu (Japan), and there was no longer any Great Khan for trade treaties.
Slavery was practiced widely at that time amongst many peoples of the world, including some Native Americans. For the Portuguese -- from whom Columbus received most of his maritime training -- the profits from enslaving people had resulted in the first "financial return '' on a 75 - year investment in Africa.
Columbus enslaved five hundred and sixty people. The slaves were shipped to Spain; 200 died during the route back to Spain, and half of the remainder were ill when they arrived. After legal proceedings in the Cortes, some survivors were ordered released and to be returned to their las Americas homeland, whereas others were used by Queen Isabella as galley slaves. Columbus, desperate to repay his investors, failed to realize that Isabella and Ferdinand did not plan to follow or allow Portuguese slavery policy in this respect. Rounding up the slaves led to the first major battle between the Spanish and the native peoples in their homeland, called by Europeans "the New World ''.
Columbus was eager to pay back dividends to those who had invested in his promise to fill his ships with gold. And since so many of the slaves died in captivity, he developed a plan while in the Province of Cicao on Hispaniola. Columbus imposed a tribute system, similar to that of the still - unknown Aztec Empire tribute on the mainland. All Cicaoan indigenous residents above 14 years of age were required to find and deliver a specific quota of gold every three months. Upon their doing so, they would receive copper tokens that they wore around their necks. Any Indian found without a copper token had their hands cut off and subsequently bled to death.
Despite or because of such extreme enforcement, Columbus did not obtain much gold, and many new foreign "settlers '' were unhappy with the climate and disillusioned about their chances of getting rich quickly. A classic gold rush had been set off that would have tragic consequences for the Caribbean 's indigenous people and cultures. Anthropologists have shown there was more intermarriage and assimilation than previously believed (see the Black Legend). Columbus allowed settlers to return to their homeland with any Indian women with whom they had started families, or to Queen Isabella 's fury, had kidnapped and owned as slaves.
According to the abstract of Columbus 's journal made by Bartolomé de Las Casas, the objective of the third voyage was to verify the existence of a continent that King John II of Portugal suggested was located to the southwest of the Cape Verde Islands. King John reportedly knew of the existence of such a mainland because "canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea (West Africa) and sailed to the west with merchandise. ''
On May 30, 1498, Columbus left the port of Sanlúcar with a fleet of six ships, sending three directly to the West Indies while leading the other three: the Santa María de Guía, the Vaqueños, and the Correo -- to the Portuguese Porto Santo Island, his wife 's native homeland. He then sailed to the island of Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain João Gonçalves da Câmara before sailing to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde. The ships found King John 's hypothesized continent, which is South America, when they sighted the land of Trinidad on 31 July approaching from the southeast. The fleet sailed along the southern coast and entered Dragon 's Mouth, anchoring near Soldado Rock where they made contact with a group of native Amerindians in canoes. Columbus then landed on Trinidad at Icacos Point (which he named Punta de Arenal) on 2 August.
From August 4 through August 12, 1498, he explored the Gulf of Paria which separates Trinidad from mainland Venezuela. He then explored the mainland of South America, including the Orinoco River. He also sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita Island and sighted and named islands Bella Forma (Tobago) and Concepcion (Grenada). He described the new lands as belonging to a previously unknown new continent, but he pictured it hanging from China, bulging out to make the earth pear - shaped.
Columbus returned from South America to Hispaniola on August 19, 1498 to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontent, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and natives. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him.
During Columbus 's term as Viceroy and Governor of the Indies, he had been accused of governing tyrannically, called "the tyrant of the Caribbean ''. Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted; his body was wracked by arthritis and his eyes by ophthalmia. In October 1499, he sent two ships to Spain, asking the Cortes Generales of Castile to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern.
The Cortes appointed Francisco de Bobadilla, a member of the Order of Calatrava; however, his authority stretched far beyond what Columbus had requested. Bobadilla was given complete control as governor from 1500 until he was killed in a hurricane in 1502. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away, Bobadilla immediately received many serious complaints about all three Columbus brothers: Christopher, Bartolomé, and Diego. The testimonies of 23 people who had seen or heard about the treatment meted out by Columbus and his brothers -- had originally been lost for centuries, but was rediscovered in 2005 in the Spanish archives in Valladolid. It contained an account of Columbus 's seven - year reign as the first Governor of the Indies Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian, states: "Even those who loved him (Columbus) had to admit the atrocities that had taken place. ''
As a result of these testimonies and without being allowed a word in his own defense, Columbus upon his return, had manacles placed on his wrists and chains placed on his ankles and was cast into prison to await return to Spain. He was 49 years old.
Columbus was arrested in 1500 and supplanted from his posts. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. Francisco de Bobadilla arrived on August 23, 1500 and detained Columbus and his brothers and had them shipped home. On October 1, 1500, Columbus and his two brothers, likewise in chains, were sent back to Spanish Aragon. Once in Cádiz, a grieving Columbus wrote to a friend at court:
It is now seventeen years since I came to serve these princes with the Enterprise of the Indies. They made me pass eight of them in discussion, and at the end rejected it as a thing of jest. Nevertheless I persisted therein... Over there I have placed under their sovereignty more land than there is in Africa and Europe, and more than 1,700 islands... In seven years I, by the divine will, made that conquest. At a time when I was entitled to expect rewards and retirement, I was incontinently arrested and sent home loaded with chains... The accusation was brought out of malice on the basis of charges made by civilians who had revolted and wished to take possession on the land...
I beg your graces, with the zeal of faithful Christians in whom their Highnesses have confidence, to read all my papers, and to consider how I, who came from so far to serve these princes... now at the end of my days have been despoiled of my honor and my property without cause, wherein is neither justice nor mercy.
Columbus and his brothers were jailed for six weeks before the busy King Ferdinand ordered them released. Not long thereafter, the king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to their presence at the Alhambra palace in Granada. There the royal couple heard the brothers ' pleas; restored their freedom and their wealth; and, after much persuasion, agreed to fund Columbus 's fourth voyage. But the door was firmly shut on Christopher Columbus 's role as governor. From that point forward, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres was to be the new Governor of the Indies.
Although he regained his freedom, he did not regain his prestige and lost all his titles including the governorship. As an added insult, the Portuguese had won the race to the East Indies: Vasco da Gama returned in September 1499 from a trip to India, having sailed east around Africa.
Columbus made a fourth voyage, nominally in search of a westward passage to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his stepbrother Bartolomeo, Diego Mendez, and his son Fernando, he left Cádiz, Spain on May 12, 1502, with his flagship, Capitana, as well as the Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos. He sailed to Arzila on the Moroccan coast to rescue the Portuguese soldiers who he heard were under siege by the Moors. On June 15, 1502, they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique (Martinica). A hurricane was brewing, so he continued on, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola. He arrived at Santo Domingo on June 29, 1502, but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his storm prediction. Instead, while Columbus 's ships sheltered at the mouth of the Jaina River, the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane. The only ship to reach Spain had Columbus 's money and belongings on it, and all of his former enemies (and a few friends) had drowned, including Francisco de Bobadilla, who 'd had Columbus sent back to Spain in chains two years earlier.
After a brief stop at Jamaica, he sailed to Central America, arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on July 30, 1502. Here Bartolomeo found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley '' and was filled with cargo. On August 14, 1502, he landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near Trujillo, Honduras. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, before arriving in Almirante Bay, Panama on October 16, 1502.
In Panamá, he learned from the Ngobe of gold and a strait to another ocean. After some exploration, he established a garrison at the mouth of Belén River in January 1503.
By April 6, the garrison he had established captured the local leader El Quibían, who had demanded they not go down the Belén River. El Quibían escaped, and returned with an army to attack and repel the Spanish, damaging some of the ships so that one vessel had to be abandoned. Columbus left for Hispaniola on April 16, but sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel any farther, the ships were beached in St. Ann 's Bay, Jamaica, on June 25, 1503.
For a year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Mendez, and some natives paddled a canoe to get help from Hispaniola. The island 's governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. In the meantime, Columbus mesmerized the natives by correctly predicting a lunar eclipse for February 29, 1504, using the Ephemeris of the German astronomer Regiomontanus.
Help finally arrived, from the governor, on June 29, 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Castile, on November 7, 1504. Columbus died in Valladolid, Spain, on May 20, 1506, at around the age of 54, probably of the effects of chronic reactive arthritis perhaps acquired secondarily to food poisoning.
After his death, Columbus 's sons, Diego and Fernando, took legal action to enforce their father 's contract. Many of the allegations against Columbus and his tyrannical governorship were initiated by the Crown during these lengthy court cases, known as the Pleitos Colombinos. The family had some success in their first litigation, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego 's position as Viceroy, but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512 lasting until 1536, and further disputes continued until 1790.
The success of Columbus 's first voyage touched off a series of westward explorations by European seafaring states. These states sought to exploit the New World 's riches; build trade networks and colonies; and built the Indian reductions (settlements) to relocate, use the labor of, and attempt Christian conversions of the native people.
With the Age of Discovery starting in the 15th century, Europeans explored the world by ocean, searching for particular trade goods, humans to enslave, and trading locations and ports. The most desired trading goods were gold, silver and spices. Columbus did not reach Asia but rather found what was to the Europeans a New World, the Americas. For the Catholic monarchies of Spain and Portugal, a division of influence became necessary to avoid conflict. This was resolved by Papal intervention in 1494 when the Treaty of Tordesillas purported to divide the world between the two powers. The Portuguese were to receive everything outside of Europe east of a line that ran 270 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, thought to include the continents of Africa and Asia, but none of the New World. The Spanish received everything west of this line, territory that was still almost completely unknown, and proved to be primarily the vast majority of the American continents and the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. This arrangement was somewhat subverted in 1500, when the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived at a point on the eastern coast of South America, and realized that it was on the Portuguese side of the dividing line between the two empires. This would lead to the Portuguese colonization of what is now Brazil.
Columbus and other Iberian explorers were initially disappointed with their discoveries -- unlike Africa or Asia, the Caribbean islanders had little to trade with the Castillo ships. The islands thus became the focus of colonization efforts. It was not until the continent itself was explored that Spain found the wealth it had sought in the form of abundant gold. In the Americas the Spanish found a number of empires that were as large and populous as those in Europe. However, small bodies of Spanish conquistadors, with large armies of indigenous Americans groups, managed to conquer these states. The most notable amongst the conquered states were the Aztec empire in Mexico (conquered in 1521) and the Inca empire in modern Peru (conquered in 1532). During this time, pandemics of European disease such as smallpox devastated the indigenous populations. Once Spanish sovereignty was established, the Spanish focused on the extraction and export of gold and silver.
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carbohydrates that help form glycoproteins are made here | Glycoprotein - wikipedia
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to polypeptide side - chains. The carbohydrate is attached to the protein in a cotranslational or posttranslational modification. This process is known as glycosylation. Secreted extracellular proteins are often glycosylated.
In proteins that have segments extending extracellularly, the extracellular segments are also often glycosylated. Glycoproteins are also often important integral membrane proteins, where they play a role in cell -- cell interactions. It is important to distinguish endoplasmic reticulum - based glycosylation of the secretory system without reversible cytosolic - nuclear glycosylation. Glycoprotein of the cytosol and nucleus can be modified through the reversible addition of a single GlcNAc residue that is considered reciprocal to phosphorylation and the functions of these are likely to be additional regulatory mechanism that controls phosphorylation - based signalling. In contrast, classical secretory glycosylation can be structurally essential. For example, inhibition of asparagine - linked, i.e. N - linked, glycosylation can prevent glycoprotein folding and full inhibition can be toxic to an individual cell. In contrast, perturbation of terminal processing, which occurs in the Golgi apparatus, is dispensable for isolated cells (as evidence by survival with glycosides inhibitors) but can lead to human disease (congenital disorders of glycosylation) and can be lethal in animal models. It is therefore likely that the fine processing of glycans is important for endogeneous functionality, such as cell trafficking, but that this is likely to have been secondary to its role in host - pathogen interactions. A famous example of this latter effect is the ABO blood system.
There are several types of glycosylation, although the first two are the most common.
Monosaccharides commonly found in eukaryotic glycoproteins include:
The sugar group (s) can assist in protein folding or improve proteins ' stability.
One example of glycoproteins found in the body is mucins, which are secreted in the mucus of the respiratory and digestive tracts. The sugars when attached to mucins give them considerable water - holding capacity and also make them resistant to proteolysis by digestive enzymes.
Glycoproteins are important for white blood cell recognition, especially in mammals. Examples of glycoproteins in the immune system are:
H antigen of the ABO blood compatibility antigens. Other examples of glycoproteins include:
Soluble glycoproteins often show a high viscosity, for example, in egg white and blood plasma.
Variable surface glycoproteins allow the sleeping sickness Trypanosoma parasite to escape the immune response of the host.
The viral spike of the human immunodeficiency virus is heavily glycosylated. Approximately half the mass of the spike is glycosylation and the glycans act to limit antibody recognition as the glycans are assembled by the host cell and so are largely ' self '. Over time, some patients can evolve antibodies to recognise the HIV glycans and almost all so - called ' broadly neutralising antibodies (bnAbs) recognise some glycans. This is possible mainly because the unusually high density of glycans hinders normal glycan maturation and they are therefore trapped in the premature, high - mannose, state. This provides a window for immune recognition. In addition, as these glycans are much less variable than the underlying protein, they have emerged as promising targets for vaccine design.
Hormones that are glycoproteins include:
A variety of methods used in detection, purification, and structural analysis of glycoproteins are
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canadian 1000 dollar bill who is on it | Banknotes of the Canadian dollar - wikipedia
Banknotes of the Canadian dollar are the banknotes or bills (in common lexicon) of Canada, denominated in Canadian dollars (CAD, C $, or $ locally). Currently, they are issued in $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100 denominations. All current notes are issued by the Bank of Canada, which released its first series of notes in the year of 1935. The current series of polymer banknotes as we know them now were introduced into circulation between November 2011 and November 2013. Banknotes issued in Canada can be viewed at the Currency Museum of the Bank of Canada in Ottawa.
The first paper money issued in Canada denominated in dollars were British Army notes, issued between 1813 and 1815 in denominations between $1 and $400. These were emergency issues due to the War of 1812. The first banknotes were issued in 1817 by the Montreal Bank.
Large numbers of chartered banks were founded in the 1830s, 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, although many issued paper money for only a short time. Others, including the Montreal Bank (later called the Bank of Montreal), issued notes for several decades. Until 1858, many notes were issued denominated in both shillings / pounds and dollars (5 shillings = $1 therefore 1 pound = $4). A large number of different denominations were issued, including $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $10, $20, $25, $40, $50, $100, $500, $750 and $1000. After 1858, only dollar denominations were used. The Bank Act of 1871 limited the smallest denomination the chartered banks could issue to $4, increased to $5 in 1880. To facilitate purchases below $5 without using Dominion notes, some charted banks issued notes in unusually domesticated denominations, such as the $6 and $7 notes issued by the Molsons Bank in 1871.
Before Canadian Confederation, dollar - denominated notes were issued by the governments of the Colony of British Columbia, the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. Of these, the Province of Canada, established in 1841, was the most prolific issuer of paper money. Notes were produced for the government by the Bank of Montreal between 1842 and 1862, in denominations of $4, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. In 1866, the Province of Canada began issuing its own paper money, in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 and $500. The Dominion of Newfoundland issued notes denominated in Newfoundland dollars from 1901 until it joined confederation in 1949.
For a temporary period following Confederation in 1867, Province of Canada notes served as the Dominion of Canada 's first national currency, and notes were dispatched from Ontario and Quebec to the other provinces. In 1870, the first Dominion of Canada notes were issued in denominations of 25 ¢, $1, $2, $500 and $1000. $50 and $100 notes followed in 1872. The bulk of later government note production was of $1 and $2 notes, with a $4 denomination added in 1882. $5 notes were issued starting in 1912. The last 25 ¢ notes, known as shinplasters due to their small size, were dated 1923. Special notes called Bank Legals were issued by the Dominion of Canada only to banks for transferring large sums of money in denominations of $500, $1000, $5000, and $50,000. Issuance of all Dominion notes ceased in 1935, after the establishment of the Bank of Canada.
Some municipalities also issued dollar - denominated notes. This was most prevalent in the 1930s, when depression scrip was issued in an attempt to alleviate the effects of the Great Depression on local citizens. The province of Alberta also launched its own scheme in 1936 by issuing prosperity certificates.
In 1934, with only ten chartered banks still issuing notes, the Bank of Canada was founded and began issuing notes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $25, $50, $100, $500 and $1000. In 1944, the chartered banks were prohibited from issuing their own currency, with the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal among the last to issue notes. From that point forward, the Bank of Canada has been the sole issuer of bank notes denominated in Canadian dollars. A liability of more than $12 million remains on the Bank of Canada 's books up to the present day, representing the face value of Dominion of Canada, provincial, and chartered bank notes still outstanding.
Notes are issued by the Bank of Canada, but the actual production of the banknotes is outsourced to the Canadian Bank Note Company in accordance with the specifications and requirements of the Bank of Canada. All wording on the notes appears in both of Canada 's official languages, English and French. Bank notes were printed on paper composed of pure cotton. Cotton fibre was discontinued and replaced by a synthetic polymer starting in 2011, with the last of the synthetic Bank Notes being made available in November 2013.
Other bank notes include denominations that are no longer issued but continue to be legal tender. Bank notes in circulation are non-interest - bearing liabilities and are due on demand.
In accordance with the Bank of Canada Act, the Bank has the sole authority to issue bank notes for circulation in Canada. As of 2014 the new series of polymer notes now constitutes some 75 per cent of notes in circulation. A breakdown by denomination is presented below.: "Bank of Canada annual report 2014 '' (PDF). p. 7, 90.
Efforts to reduce counterfeiting in recent years have sharply reduced the number of counterfeit notes in circulation. The number of counterfeit notes passed annually in Canada peaked in 2004, when 553,000 counterfeit notes were passed. Counterfeiting has decreased annually since that peak, with only 53,536 notes passed in 2010. The new Frontier Series of banknotes significantly improves security primarily by using a polymer substrate to make up the note instead of the previously used fabric. Even as Canada 's counterfeiting problem escalated, the shift to polymer was viewed as too expensive. A polymer note costs 19 cents to produce, compared to 9 cents for a typical cotton - paper note.
Counterfeiting is measured using a system borrowed from chemistry known as parts per million (PPM). Normally used to judge the potency of molecules in a solution, PPM in the counterfeit sense refers to the number of fake banknotes found in circulation for every one million genuine notes. In 1990, Canada 's counterfeit ratio was just 4 PPM, ranking its currency among the most secure in the world. By the late 1990s, the rise of powerful and affordable home computers, store - bought graphics software, easy - to - use scanners and colour ink - jet printers were breeding a new generation of counterfeiters. The number of fake Canadian bills rose as high as 117 PPM by 1997. In 2004 Canada 's counterfeit rate had ballooned to 470 PPM. In 2012, the counterfeiting rate had fallen to its lowest point, at 28 PPM. It has since started modestly rising to 36 PPM in 2014. The Bank of Canada 's MTP (Medium Term Plan) target to stay below is 30 PPM. Most G20 nations used 50 PPM as their benchmark to stay below.
The 1935 series was the only series to have included $25 and $500 denominations. Both denominations were short lived. The $25 note was withdrawn on May 18, 1937. Stacks of unissued 1935 $500 notes were destroyed in February 1938, and issued $500 notes were recalled and withdrawn from circulation five months later.
Some of the most significant recent developments in Canadian currency were the withdrawal of the $1, $2, and $1,000 notes in 1989, 1996, and 2000 respectively. The $1 and $2 denominations have been replaced with coins, colloquially referred to as the "loonie '' and "toonie '' respectively. In 2000, the $1,000 note was removed at the request of the Solicitor General of Canada and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as it was reported that they were largely being used for money laundering and organized crime.
The Bank of Canada was created in 1934 and given responsibility, through an Act of Parliament, to regulate the country 's money supply and to "promote the economic and financial welfare of Canada. '' Accordingly, it was given the exclusive right to issue bank notes in Canada. On 11 March 1935, the Bank of Canada issued its first series of bank notes.
The creation of a second series of bank notes, only two years after the first issue, was prompted by changes in Canadian government legislation requiring the Bank of Canada to produce bilingual bank notes. Another contributing factor was the death of King George V on 20 January 1936 and the subsequent abdication of Edward VIII.
The third series of banknotes of the Canadian dollar issued by the Bank of Canada was the 1954 series. The banknotes were designed in 1952 following the accession of Elizabeth II to the throne after the death of her father George VI. Her portrait appeared on all denominations in the series. The banknote designs differed significantly from the 1937 series, though the denomination colours and bilingual printing were retained. The design changes were made to portray themes more typical of Canada. This was the first series to include the Canadian coat of arms, which appeared centrally in the background of the obverse.
The banknote series became known as the "Devil 's Head '' series, because the hair behind the Queen 's head looked somewhat like a grinning demon. This led to design modifications for all denominations. The second variant of the series was issued in 1956.
Because of a growing concern over counterfeiting, the Bank of Canada began to release a new series of bank notes in 1969.
This series represented another complete departure in design from earlier issues:
In 1986 the Bank of Canada introduced new banknotes called the Birds of Canada Series. The design on the back of each note features a bird indigenous to Canada with a background representing the typical landscape for that bird. The portraits on the front of the note were made larger than those of previous series, and a metallic patch was introduced on the larger notes. Each banknote weighs 1 gram. This series was the first to include a bar code with the serial number. This allows the visually impaired to distinguish notes with the use of a hand - held device that tells the note 's denomination.
This was also the last series that the $2 and $1,000 notes were issued. The $2 note was withdrawn in 1996 and replaced by the $2 coin, known as the toonie. The $1,000 note was withdrawn by the Bank of Canada on 12 May 2000 at the request of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) as part of a program to reduce organized crime. At the time, 2,827,702 of the $1000 bills were in circulation; by 2011, fewer than 1 million were in circulation, most held by organized crime.
Beginning in 2001, the Bank of Canada introduced a new series of notes called "Canadian Journey '', featuring images of Canadian heritage and excerpts from Canadian literature. The $10 was first issued on January 17, 2001; the $5 on March 27, 2002; the $100 note on March 17, 2004, the $20 on September 29, 2004, and the $50 on November 17, 2004.
The $20, $50, and $100 notes introduce watermark security features for the first time on Canadian currency since the four - dollar Dominion notes; they also boast significantly expanded holographic security features. Also among the new features are a windowed colour - shifting thread woven into the paper, a see - through number, and enhanced fluorescence under ultraviolet lighting. These features are designed to help Canadians protect themselves by detecting counterfeit notes. All post-2001 series notes also include the EURion constellation, on both sides of the note. The new notes have a tactile feature, which is a series of raised dots (but not Braille) in the upper right corner on the face of each note to aid the visually impaired in identifying currency denominations.
The newer security features on the $20, $50, and $100 notes were added to an updated version of the $10 note released on 18 May 2005, and the Bank of Canada began issuing a $5 note with upgraded security features on 15 November 2006 as part of its ongoing effort to improve the security of Canadian bank notes. The illustrations on the front and back of the upgraded notes are the same as those on the $5 and $10 notes issued in 2001 and 2002.
The "Canadian Journey '' literary excerpts are printed in English and French, with the English versions being:
Canadian Journey banknotes (2004 style) incorporates background color and consists of series years 2001, 2003, 2003A, 2004, 2004A and 2006. All the notes except the $100 note have additional series years 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2009A (some banknotes only). The $100 2009 series began issuing to the public in early 2010 and was printed in 2009 before they were issued. The 2004 - 2009 series of the $100 note was withdrawn from the circulation in November 2011. The $50 note was withdrawn on March 26, 2012 and $5 -- $20 notes would be withdrawn in the next 2 years before it will be officially announced.
Beginning in 2011, the Bank of Canada introduced a new series of polymer banknotes. The $100 note was issued on November 14, 2011; the $50 was issued on March 26, 2012; the $20 banknote was issued on November 7, 2012, and the $10 and $5 denominations were issued on November 7, 2013.
These are the first Canadian notes produced on polymer. In place of a watermark are two visual features: a translucent maple leaf and a transparent window. The leaf includes a security feature that, when viewed close to the eye with a single - point light source behind, produces a circular image displaying the note 's denomination. The window is fringed by maple leaves; at its top is a smaller version of the portrait, and at its bottom a light - refracting metallic likeness of an architectural feature from the parliament buildings. The portraits on the face are more centred on the note. The backs of the notes introduce new cultural and thematic imagery, but the literary quotation is not continued. The polymer notes continue the tactile feature, from the Canadian Journey series.
A new series of banknotes will be issued by 2018. On International Women 's Day 2016, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced that an ' iconic ' Canadian woman would be featured on one of the upcoming notes.
On December 8, 2016, the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada announced that civil rights activist Viola Desmond will replace Sir John A. Macdonald (who had been on the face of the $10 note since 1971) as the first non-royal woman to appear alone on a regularly circulated Bank of Canada note. This note will be released in late 2018 and is vertically oriented.
‡ Withdrawn from circulation. Currency withdrawn from circulation is still legal tender. Despite the introduction of new notes, older notes are still in use.
+ Two varieties were printed, the first with conventional serial numbers, the second with the double date "1867 - 1967 '' appearing twice instead. Neither type is scarce. Both varieties also have on the obverse a stylized maple leaf with the double date below it.
All notes of 1954 series or later measure 152.4 mm by 69.85 mm (6 by 23⁄4 inches).
See also Withdrawn Canadian banknotes.
A number of myths have circulated regarding Canadian banknotes.
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what did morrie and mitch talk about on the third tuesday | Tuesdays with Morrie - wikipedia
Tuesdays with Morrie is a memoir by American writer Mitch Albom. The story was later recreated by Thomas Rickman into a TV movie of the same name directed by Mick Jackson, which aired on December 5, 1999 and starred Hank Azaria.
The book topped the New York Times Non-Fiction Bestsellers of 2000. However, according to Amazon, this title is listed under fiction, biographical fiction, philosophical fiction, and memoir. An unabridged audiobook was also published, narrated by Albom himself. The appendix of the audiobook contains several minutes of excerpts from the audio recordings Albom made in his conversations with Morrie Schwartz in preparation for writing the book.
In 2007, the 10th anniversary of the book 's publishing, a new edition with an afterword by Mitch Albom was released.
Newspaper sports columnist Mitch Albom recounts the time spent with his 78 - year - old sociology professor, Morrie Schwartz, at Brandeis University, who was dying from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Albom, a former student of Schwartz, had not corresponded with him since attending his college classes 16 years earlier. The first three chapters incorporate an ambiguous introduction to the final conversation between Albom and Schwartz, a brief flashback to Albom 's graduation, and an account of the events Albom experienced between graduation and the reunion with his professor. The name Morrie comes from its meaning in Hebrew (mori מורי), which means "my teacher. ''
Albom is a successful sports columnist for the Detroit Free Press despite his childhood dream of being a pianist. After seeing Schwartz on Nightline, Albom called Schwartz, who remembered his former pupil despite the lapse of 16 years. Albom was prompted to travel from Michigan to Massachusetts to visit Schwartz. A newspaper strike frees Albom to commute weekly, on Tuesdays, to visit with Schwartz. The resulting book is based on these fourteen Tuesdays they meet, supplemented with Schwartz 's lectures and life experiences and interspersed with flashbacks and allusions to contemporary events.
Mitch Albom, is the author of Tuesdays With Morrie and serves as one of the main characters for the novel. Within the novel, Albom is a writer for a sports column in the Detroit Free Press and possess a Masters in Journalism. The book 's main story revolves around his rediscovery of his old college professor, Morrie Schwartz, through an episode of Nightline. After reconnecting with his old teacher, he finds himself Morrie 's pupil once again as the latter passes teachings of life, death, to Mitch.
Morrie Schwartz was a professor of sociology at Brandeis University and a previous teacher of Albom during the latter 's college years. He is the main character within the story. After falling out of contact, Morrie is diagnosed with ALS and finds himself in deteriorating health. He later makes an appearance on Nightline, gaining national attention and reconnecting with Albom. Morrie once again serves as Albom 's teacher, this time, imparting wisdom about the happenings of life and death. Morrie eventually passes away from the terminal disease, but the impact of his final lesson is still relevant today through Albom 's writings.
Tuesdays With Morrie examines the interactions and phenomena between the human experience of living and dying. A theme of personal transcendence appears for both characters: Morrie and Albom. This transformation is experienced by both characters through Morrie 's deteriorating health. Morrie shows us the value of retaining dignity in the face of death; that love is the most valuable thing we can offer to each other. For readers, this allows a casual avenue for learning about the dying process; learning "that not all stories end happily with a person going into remission and thus avoiding death. Rather, dying and death are natural processes and need to be acknowledged for what they are -- natural events. '' The role that culture plays in the development of happiness within our lives is also examined within the novel. Morrie remarks that we often see ourselves as dissimilar to each other, rather than similar. He goes on to promote the value of investing in people rather than material objects.
A 1999 TV movie of the same name was released. It was directed by Mick Jackson, written by Thomas Rickman, and executive produced by Oprah Winfrey. The movie premiered on December 5, 1999 on the ABC Network and starred Jack Lemmon as Morrie and Hank Azaria as Mitch. This was one of Lemmon 's final performances before his death in 2001.
On November 19, 2002, the book was adapted as a stage play that opened Off Broadway at the Minetta Lane Theatre. Co-authored by Mitch Albom and Jeffrey Hatcher (Three Viewings) and directed by David Esbjornson (The Goat or Who Is Sylvia?). Tuesdays with Morrie starred Alvin Epstein as Morrie and Jon Tenney as Mitch; it met with positive reviews.
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who did abin sur get his ring from | Abin Sur - wikipedia
Abin Sur is a fictional character and a superhero from the DC Comics universe. He was a member of the Green Lantern Corps and is best known as the predecessor of Green Lantern Hal Jordan, whom Abin Sur 's power ring chose as his replacement. In the Post-Infinite Crisis continuity, Abin Sur was revealed to be a brother - in - law of Sinestro and uncle of his daughter Soranik Natu. He was modeled after Yul Brynner.
Abin Sur first appeared in Showcase # 22 and was created by John Broome and Gil Kane.
Originally a history professor on the planet Ungara, Abin Sur is appointed Green Lantern of Space Sector 2814 in the mid-1860s. As a child, he became best friends with Ruch Ehr and later, by association, Munni Jah. The two of them were a couple and Abin secretly loved Munni, but never spoke openly of this.
Recruited by the Green Lantern known as Starkaor, he is known to have come to Earth on several occasions. In the American Old West, he teams up with an ancestor of Hal Jordan 's to battle an alien named Traitor (who was responsible for the death of Starkaor). Abin would then wield Starkaor 's ring after his mentor 's death. In 1873, while severely wounded, he recruits the lawman Daniel Young to be a temporary Green Lantern. During World War II, he encounters Starman and Bulletman when the three battle an alien being under the control of Mr. Mind. On a later visit, his ring 's power is neutralized by the foe he is tracking. He discovers the unconscious forms of Alan Scott and Jay Garrick, and borrows Scott 's slightly different ring. He uses it against his adversary, taking advantage of the ring 's effectiveness against the color yellow. He also visits Earth at some point between the Golden and Silver Ages, when he encounters the Martian Manhunter. At one point, Abin Sur imprisons the evil wizard Myrhydden inside his own ring, depriving him of the voice needed to cast his spells. Later, he is sent to retrieve Earth 's most infamous gangster, Al Magone, whose evil had brought him to the notice of the Guardians. Abin Sur imprisoned Magone on a prison planet where time did not pass, an action that would have ripples throughout the Corps for decades to come.
While on patrol, he is attacked and pursued by the being known as Legion while on its way to Oa. Pre-Crisis his ship was hit by yellow sun radiation. Badly injured and with his spaceship seriously damaged, he makes an emergency landing on the nearest habitable planet (Earth). Due to his injuries, Sur was aware that his death was inevitable and he uses his ring to search for a successor, a man without fear. The first possibility was Clark Kent. Since he was not native to Earth, he is not chosen. The next candidates were Hal Jordan and Guy Gardner. As Jordan was closer, the ring chose him as the most suitable replacement right before Sur 's death, and brings him to Sur, who gives him the ring. Pre-Crisis Hal first tested his ring by lifting a mountain, then hid the ship and Sur 's remains under it, as Sur had told him to dispose of them. Later it is shown these were the Sierre Madre mountains. Hal had made sure to bury Sur in nearly inaccessible area and leave a small stone marker.
For a brief time during Zero Hour, he was pulled into the present, where he assists the Darkstars in their battle against Entropy. A Darkstar from Abin 's own time, one he is familiar with, supports them all. Both are unexpectedly returned to their own era at the end of the battle.
In the afterlife Sur is able to help Jordan again when Jordan enters the realm of the death lord, Nekron. Jordan is attempting to stop Nekron from entering the living universe and destroying it. Jordan manages to incite the spirits of the deceased members of the Corps to destroy the god long enough for the Guardians to drive Krona and his forces back and seal the portal. Before the sealing was complete, Sur helps his successor exit the realm while saying how proud he was of Jordan. Abin Sur later sacrifices his soul to assist the Swamp Thing in rescuing his infant daughter Tefé Holland from the demon Nergal in Hell.
Abin Sur 's afterlife is further disrupted when unknown events send him back to Earth. He attempts to assist the Green Lantern Kyle Rayner in investigating the situation but is torn away against his will.
It is later revealed that part of his soul was still being tortured in Hell while his spirit was acting as a companion to Hal Jordan during his brief stint as the Spectre. Eventually, he frees his soul from Hell and assisted Hal Jordan on several spiritual adventures and metaphysical dilemmas. Eventually, Abin Sur engaged in the Karamm - Jeev Descent, an Ungaran form of reincarnation, and was reborn as Lagzia, daughter of Sur 's old friends Ruch Ehr and Munni Jah.
During some point in his life, Abin sires a son, Amon Sur, who grew up to become leader of the Black Circle crime syndicate. Amon is angry at his deceased father for abandoning him for the Corps, and decides to take his anger out on all Green Lanterns. Amon is eventually stopped by Hal Jordan 's successor, Kyle Rayner and a second - generation Guardian of the Universe called Lianna. Amon eventually has a confrontation with Hal Jordan himself, who had returned to his position as Green Lantern after being both resurrected and freed from the influence of Parallax. Hal defeats Amon, but Amon received a duplicate of Sinestro 's ring from the Qwardians and vanishes. After Hal finally took Abin 's body home and buried it, a mysterious yellow light appears in the sky after Hal left.
During Sinestro Corps War, it is revealed that Abin discovered a prophecy concerning the Multiverse, The Powers of the Emotional Spectrum, and The Blackest Night prior to his death. Green Lantern: Secret Origin, reveals details of Abin 's quest to learn more about The Blackest Night as he interrogated The Five Inversions on Ysmault, who had foreseen the prophecy. He learns that Earth is the birthplace of The Black: the antithesis of the emotional spectrum that the prophecy predicts will "one day consume all light and all life. '' He discovers that the prophecy foretells his own death, when his ring fails him in his time of greatest need. He subsequently journeys to Earth in an effort to learn more about The Blackest Night, so that he might stop the prophecy 's fulfillment. During his quest, Abin Sur begins to lose his faith in his willpower and his ring, and begins to feel fear. His weakened willpower results in his ring creating correspondingly weaker constructs, allowing his prisoner, Atrocitus, to break free and attack him, and cause his ship to crash on Earth. Abin Sur is critically injured in the crash, leading him to instruct his ring to seek out a successor and the ring chose Hal Jordan. His discovery of the prophecy from The Five Inversions was noted in the Book of Oa. However, this was believed to be a lie from their enemies and one of the Guardians, later named Scar, burned the page which has Sur 's prophecy years later. Only two Guardians, Ganthet and Sayd, as well as a Zamaron tribe, would take his discovery seriously.
In the "Blackest Night '' storyline, the finale of the prophecy becomes reality. A black power ring reaches Abin Sur 's grave on Ungara and bids him to rise. A flashback to Sur 's past reveals that he once had a sister named Arin, whom Sinestro was romancing before her death due to unknown circumstances. Indigo - 1, leader of the Indigo Tribe also claimed to have met Abin before his death. Black Lantern Abin and Arin arrive on Korugar shortly after, ready to confront Sinestro and Hal Jordan. They are defeated by the combined efforts of Jordan, Sinestro, Indigo - 1, and Carol Ferris, who join their lights together to destroy the black rings, rendering Abin and Arin 's corpses inert. Before dying, Abin states that he recognizes Indigo - 1. In Blackest Night # 5, the Indigo Tribe oath is revealed, and includes a line which mentions a lantern and Abin Sur 's name. Due to the Indigo Tribe oath being spoken in an unintelligible language, no further details are known.
During Krona 's takeover of the Green Lantern Corps, Sinestro and other ring - wielders are briefly trapped in the Book of the Black and experience visions of their pre-ring pasts, with Sinestro encountering a pre-Tribe Indigo - 1 locked in a prison and trying to find out where Abin Sur has imprisoned her, but Sinestro departs to focus on his own escape rather than try to rescue her, leaving her history a continued mystery. It is later revealed that Abin Sur had discovered the Indigo light on the planet Nok during a mission, which he along with Natromo forged it into a battery, with Abin Sur bringing Indigo - 1 who was allegedly his worst enemy and responsible for the death of his daughter to the planet to become the first Indigo Tribe, all subsequent members of the Tribe being selected as the worst psychopaths of their worlds. Abin Sur did this as he foresaw the danger that the Guardians of the Universe would pose once the "Blackest Night '' had passed, and sought to find a way to stop the Guardians by changing them due to the impossibility of killing them.
Subsequently, in DC Rebirth, Abin Sur appears in an unknown world of Emerald Space where the Green Lantern Corps were memorial in the afterlife. When Hal Jordan is transported into Emerald Space after defeated Sinestro in battle, Abin Sur introduces himself and explains to Hal that he does not belong to Emerald Space. When Hal is about to returned the universe. Abin Sur then tells Hal that the Green Lantern Corps are awaits him to find hope.
The question was raised of why Abin Sur needed a ship, but in the Green Lantern Origins serial, it is stated that out of paranoia of the prophecy of his destruction, he navigated the cosmos in a ship filled with weapons, not trusting the powers of his ring, as the prophecy stated that his ring would fail him when he needed it most.
In the story "Earth 's First Green Lantern, '' Jordan revealed that he wondered that himself and asked his ring to explain.
The ring told the story of how Abin Sur found a world which was still at a Middle Age stage of advancement even though it should have been in the atomic age, and discovered a parasitic energy being species that fed on sentient beings ' "I - factor, '' a substance that enabled inventiveness, attacking civilizations and stalling their development, as they had no I - factor themselves. Sur captured them to stop their destruction, placing them in a bubble, but one of their number had escaped as it was attacking another world and vowed to free his brethren. To do so, he tracked down Sur 's planet and created a disaster by making a volcano erupt to force him to appear to stop it. Since Sur did not mask himself, the being recognized him immediately and followed him to his home. As Sur neglected to charge his ring before going to sleep, he was unable to stop the being from taking control of him.
With the being in control of his body and about to force him to go and free his fellows, Sur tricked the being into thinking that he would not be able to do so because the ring would be low on power after the trip there while in reality the ring 's charge is purely time based. The being decided to have Sur take a ship to the destination, but before leaving, Sur managed to get a hold of his invisible power battery without the creature noticing. On the ship, Sur piloted the ship and waited until he moved into a green colored planetary radiation belt which allowed Sur to charge his ring without the being noticing, as his ring glowed green when recharging. Thus armed, Sur battled and captured the being, sending it of into orbit of the same star that his fellow beings were imprisoned at. However, during the fight, the ship wandered into Earth 's radiation belt. With his ring useless, Sur lost control of the battered ship and crashed. Mortally wounded, Sur sought out his replacement and drew Jordan to him. Jordan learnt of this from the ring.
According to Jordan, this account prompted him to keep a secret identity as a security precaution and to carefully navigate around Earth 's radiation belts.
In Tales of the Green Lantern Corps Annual # 2 (1986) story "Tygers '', writer Alan Moore answered the question with a story of how the hero once visited Ysmault, a prison planet for an ancient race of demons, the Empire of Tears, vanquished millennia ago by the Oans. He was on a rescue mission and felt he could not wait for instruction from the Guardians.
While there, Abin Sur met a demon named Qull of the Five Inversions, a humanoid with a gaping mouth in his chest and a tongue - shaped head, crucified by three glowing spikes topped with the symbol of the Green Lantern Corps. This unholy messiah predicted the hero would die when his power ring ran out of energy at a critical moment, while he was fighting an opponent or unprotected in hard vacuum. Abin Sur, worried by this prophecy, began using a starship for interstellar voyages, as an additional safeguard.
A decade later, fleeing his enemy, his spaceship collided with a girdle of yellow radiation around Earth that rendered his starship and his power - ring useless within moments. Had he relied on his ring alone, he realized, he might have tested the planet 's magnetosphere before rashly entering it. Thus, while Legion may have wounded him, it could be argued that it was Qull that was actually responsible for Abin Sur 's death, having sown the seeds of doubt in the Green Lantern 's mind.
In the Secret Origins arc (Green Lantern vol. 4), Abin Sur 's final fate was tweaked again to incorporate elements of the Parallax impurity. Still forced to use a starship due to his growing fear of impending death, Abin Sur dies while escorting Atrocitus, another prisoner of the Empire of Tears to Earth in his search for the Black Energies foretold to bring on the Blackest Night. Atrocitus successfully manages to free himself and Abin Sur is left to choose between a crash landing on Coast City, or a riskier one in the desert nearby. Abin Sur chooses sacrifice, and lands in the desert. He dies of his wounds after warning Sinestro, still a loyal Lantern at the time, and designating Hal Jordan as his successor.
In the Crime Syndicate 's universe, Abin Sur 's ring hosted the malevolent, ancient entity Volthoom. When Abin crashed to Earth, the ring chose a cowardly janitor employed by Carol Ferris.
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Abin Sur is still the Green Lantern of Sector 2814. As the Blackest Night falls in the universe, Abin Sur is dispatched to Earth by the Guardians of the Universe with the mission to retrieve the White Lantern Entity and bring it back to Oa. While reaching planet Earth, Abin Sur 's ship is damaged by a laser and he 's forced to crash land on the planet. He survives and is approached by Hal Jordan, but is subsequently taken into custody by Cyborg and the US government to be questioned about his reasons for being on Earth. Although he agrees to work with Earth 's heroes, he is subsequently attacked by Sinestro, who reveals that he has learned of the prophecy of the "Flashpoint '', the moment when everything changes and the original world that existed before this one, during which it is revealed that Abin 's home planet has been destroyed in this reality. Seeking the power of the Flash so that he can restore history according to his own vision rather than another, Sinestro cuts off Abin 's hand, severing his connection with his ring. The ring then flies onto Abin 's other hand, and he manages to defeat and imprison Sinestro. The Guardians then contact Abin, demanding that he bring the Entity to them, and refusing to listen to Sinestro 's talk of "the Flashpoint ''. They then discharge Abin from the Corps, telling him that the ring will find a new wielder when it runs out of power. Abin joins the battle in Europe, and, when a cataclysmic earthquake starts, dives into the crevice, just before his ring runs out of power. The Entity then bonds with Abin, and he sees a vision of his sister, telling him to truly experience life, rather than just living it. Abin then flies into space, and attempts to heal the damage made to the Earth. This version of Abin appears in the Convergence crossover, incorrectly believing the Flashpoint Gotham is endangered by another Superman.
In this alternate universe, Bruce Wayne, unsure and confused over his chosen vigilante mission, is picked as Abin Sur 's successor. He receives the ring moments before Abin passes away from his spacecraft - inflicted injures.
On an alternate Earth just after World War 2, Abin Sur assists in a war against Vandal Savage 's inter-dimensional army. This Abin had horns, making him look like the classic archetype of Satan, a fact he is well aware of. He is then called upon to protect the entire multiverse against a rampaging cosmic army. Assisted by dozens of other heroes, they manage to force a stalemate.
In Superman: Red Son, Sur 's spacecraft was the UFO that crashed at Roswell. Sur died shortly after the crash, and it is mentioned that J. Edgar Hoover arranged for Sur and his ship to be hidden in Area 51. In 1978, John F. Kennedy arranges for Lex Luthor to be allowed to examine the wreckage to develop weapons to use against Superman, in this setting the ruler of the Soviet Union.
In the story, Superman: Last Son of Earth, Abin Sur failed to protect Earth from a meteor that nearly destroyed the planet, resulting in the deaths of all but one million people, due to him being preoccupied by another conflict elsewhere in his sector. He is later seen towards the end of the novel picking up Kal - El 's Green Lantern Power Battery and Ring due to the latter 's resignation from the Corps.
In Superman / Batman: Absolute Power, Sur 's ring is passed on to Uncle Sam when Wonder Woman attempts to rally a resistance against the dictatorship of Superman and Batman.
In Elseworld 's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl, a world with no male protectors of Gotham or Metropolis, Abin has been a long - time member of the Justice Society. He bonds closely with Supergirl, as Abin had visited Krypton many times and she treasures his recollections of her long - lost home planet.
Abin Sur is mentioned in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham level "Jailhouse Nok '', where Martian Manhunter mentions that Abin Sur was the founder of Indigo Tribe. Statues of him holding an Indigo Lantern battery also appear.
Mattel produced an Abin Sur figure in a two - pack of their DC Universe Classics line, accompanied by a Green Lantern Hal Jordan figure. There was also a Black Lantern Abin Sur figure packaged individually later on. Abin Sur was also part of the action figure line based on the live - action movie.
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how old was nina dobrev in vampire diaries season one | The vampire Diaries (season 1) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries is an American supernatural horror romance television series created by Kevin Williamson based on the novels of the same name by author L.J. Smith. It was officially picked up for the 2009 -- 10 season on May 19, 2009. It premiered on September 10, 2009, on The CW and received the highest ratings for a series premiere in the networks history scoring 4.91 million live viewers.
The series focuses on the fictional town of Mystic Falls, Virginia, that is charged with supernatural history. It follows Elena Gilbert portrayed by Nina Dobrev as she begins to get over her parents ' death and two vampire brothers, Stefan and Damon Salvatore, portrayed by Paul Wesley and Ian Somerhalder, respectively. Kayla Ewell portrayed Vicki Donovan for the first seven episodes until her character was killed off. Matt Davis was later cast as a history teacher in a recurring role to fill the void. He was later upgraded to series regular status. The season concluded on May 13, 2010, comprising 22 episodes.
On February 6, 2009, Variety announced that The CW had greenlit the pilot for The Vampire Diaries with Kevin Williamson and Julie Plec set as the head writers and executive producers. On May 19, 2009, the series was officially ordered for the 2009 -- 2010 season.
The pilot was filmed in Vancouver, but the rest of the episodes have been filmed in Covington, Georgia (which doubles as the fictional small town of Mystic Falls, Virginia) and various other communities around Greater Atlanta. The series was given a full, 22 - episode order on October 31, 2009, after strong ratings for the first half of the season.
The season begins after the deaths of Elena and Jeremy Gilbert 's parents. Both are put in their Aunt Jenna 's custody. Jeremy has become a loner and Elena starts dating a boy named Stefan Salvatore. It is soon revealed that Stefan is a vampire and his brother Damon shows up in Mystic Falls and kills people at random.
Another supernatural revelation occurs when Elena 's friend Bonnie Bennett discovers she is born into a line of witches and is a witch herself. She gets help from her grandmother to use her powers. Elena 's friends and acquaintances also become involved such as Tyler Lockwood, son of the mayor, and Matt Donovan, Elena 's ex-boyfriend and Caroline Forbes, daughter of the sheriff. It also turns out that Elena is the doppelganger of Katherine Pierce, a woman who, centuries ago, seduced the Salvatore brothers and turned them into vampires, turning their vampire hunting father against them, though Stefan ends up killing him. Katherine was presumably trapped in a tomb beneath the church and Damon is planning on releasing her. Lexi, a friend of Stefan 's shows up and befriends Elena, but is killed by Damon, driving a wedge between brothers.
Jeremy falls in love with Vicki Donovan, Matt 's sister, who uses drugs like him, but she was dating Tyler and starts a rivalry between the boys. Vicki breaks up with Tyler for Jeremy. She is later turned into a vampire by Damon, but her bloodlust was out of control and she is killed by Stefan. Jeremy witnesses this and Elena asks Damon to make Jeremy forget this to spare him the pain. Matt on the other hand is devastated.
After the history teacher is killed, a man named Alaric is hired to take his place. Alaric came to town to kill Damon, believing him to have killed his wife, Isobel. Damon tries to kill him in self - defense, but Alaric wears a ring that keeps him from dying at supernatural hands. It is revealed Damon did n't kill Isobel, but turned her into a vampire on her own account. Later, Alaric and Damon become friends.
At one point, Damon finds the tomb under the church, and has Bonnie and her grandmother help open it to find Katherine. During the search, a number of vampires escape, and it is discovered Katherine already escaped long ago. The tomb vampires are led by a female vampire named Pearl and her daughter Anna. Bonnie 's grand mother dies and Bonnie begins to resent vampires. It also turns out a group called the Founder 's Council know of the vampires and wish to kill them. The Council is led by Tyler 's abusive father, Richard Lockwood. Caroline 's mother, Sheriff Elizabeth Forbes is also a member, despite being friends with Damon, unknown that he is a vampire. Anna also starts a relationship with Jeremy. Jenna also starts dating a man named Logan, who cheated on her in the past. Soon, Logan is turned into a vampire by Anna, and is killed by Alaric, who tells her he left town. From that point Jenna starts dating Alaric.
It is n't long before Elena and Jeremy 's uncle John, who they grew up hating shows up. John is working for the Council. The Council wish to use the Gilbert device to kill all vampires in Mystic Falls. Damon tries to kill John, but he is wearing a ring similar to Alaric 's. It is revealed that John and Isobel, Alaric 's vampire wife, are Elena 's biological parents, they had Elena adopted by John 's brother for her protection. It turns out they are also working for Katherine, and are using Mayor Lockwood and the others as pawns, although Isobel tells Elena their unofficial goal is to protect her.
In the seasons climax, during Founders day, Richard and John execute their plan to kill the vampires, both willing to use innocent people as collateral damage. Sheriff Forbes tries to oppose their plan, but is knocked out by John and chained up. John uses the local police who are in on the scheme as foot soldiers. The device is activated and the vampires are neutralized and taken away to be burnt in a basement, but Tyler is affected by the device as he had supernatural genes himself (later revealed to be werewolf); since Richard has these genes, the deputies think he is a vampire and lock him in the basement where he is burnt alive and killed by the vampires. Richard 's wife, Carol goes to the station to rescue the sheriff but they are unable to save Richard. John also kills Anna, so Jeremy, not wanting to deal with the pain tries to become a vampire via Anna 's blood. During the fiasco, Caroline is in a car accident, Elena also confronts John with the knowledge that he 's her father and Bonnie rescues the Salvatore brothers, letting them off with a warning so Damon does n't kill anyone innocent.
Sheriff Forbes finds her daughter has been injured and goes to the hospital where she is comforted by Damon. John heads home and finds Katherine, who is posing as Elena. Katherine stabs John several times and severs his ring finger and leaves him to die. As Katherine leaves, Elena comes in and finds her father injured.
The initial reception of the show was mixed, Entertainment Weekly gave the pilot a B+, stating that the show "signals a welcome return to form for writer - producer Kevin Williamson ''. They end by saying that "Diaries promises us a season of sharp - tongued amusement. '' Metacritic gave the show a score of 50 / 100 based on 22 critical reviews, indicating mixed - to - average response.
However, many critics felt that the series improved with each episode. Sarah Hughes of The Independent says The Vampire Diaries turns into "a well - crafted, interestingly developed series '' despite a poor opening episode. The New York Post also praised the portrayal of Elena, finding the character to be a strong - minded woman who does n't allow her feelings for her boyfriend to control her. The San Diego Union - Tribune said: "The supernatural drama is a first - class production, featuring an insanely gorgeous cast, sharp scripts and a brooding vibe that is hard for even the most levelheaded adult to resist. '' Mike Hale of The New York Times gave the series an honorable mention on his list of the top TV shows of 2009.
The Vampire Diaries premiered on September 10, 2009, and gave The CW its biggest series premiere ratings in its network history scoring 4.9 million viewers. Adding in DVR numbers, the ratings for the premiere increased to 5.7 million viewers. Although ratings decreased as the season went on, it reached a series high in adults 18 -- 34 (2.3 / 7) on October 29, with the broadcast of its Halloween episode. Including DVR ratings the second episode brought in 4.7 million viewers, the third 4.6 million, the fourth 4.3 million, the fifth 4.4 million, the sixth 4.6 million, the ninth 4.9 million, and 4.3 million viewers for the fifteenth episode.
Vampire Diaries Season 1 aired in Urdu Language in Pakistan on FILMAX. The series was the No. 1 show on The CW for the 2009 -- 10 season averaging 3.60 million viewers weekly, thus becoming the first show to overtake America 's Next Top Model which had been The CW 's No. 1 show since the network began in 2006.
For its first season The Vampire Diaries won seven Teen Choice Awards and one People 's Choice Award.
Season one was released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 and on Blu - ray in Regions A and B. Both United States versions include commentary by cast and crew members on selected episodes, deleted scenes, behind - the - scenes featurettes, webisodes, and a downloadable audiobook of L.J. Smith 's The Vampire Diaries: The Awakening. It was released on DVD in Region 2 on August 23, 2010. Following that release, Region 1 began selling DVDs on August 31, 2010, and Region 4 on September 1, 2010. In Region A, it was released on Blu - ray on August 31, 2010. Region B 's releases varied; United Kingdom on August 23, 2010, Brazil on August 26, 2010, and Australia on September 1, 2010.
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when does the chinese new year event start | Chinese New Year - wikipedia
Chinese New Year, also known as the Spring Festival in modern China, is an important Chinese festival celebrated at the turn of the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. It is one of several Lunar New Years in Asia. Celebrations traditionally run from the evening preceding the first day, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first calendar month. The first day of the New Year falls on the new moon between January 21 and February 20 In 2018, the first day of the Lunar New Year was on Friday, 16 February, initiating the year of the Dog.
It is one of the world 's most prominent and celebrated festivals, and involves the largest annual mass human migration in the world. It is a major holiday in Greater China and has strongly influenced the lunar new year celebrations of China 's neighbouring cultures, including the Korean New Year (seol), the Tết of Vietnam, and the Losar of Tibet. It is also celebrated worldwide in countries with significant Overseas Chinese populations, including Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Australia, the Philippines and Mauritius, as well as many countries in North America and Europe.
The New Year festival is centuries old and associated with several myths and customs. Traditionally, the festival was a time to honour deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Lunar New Year vary widely. Often, the evening preceding Lunar New Year 's Day is an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean the house, in order to sweep away any ill - fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Windows and doors are decorated with red colour paper - cuts and couplets with popular themes of "good fortune '' or "happiness '', "wealth '', and "longevity ''. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes. In about one third of the Mainland population, or 500 million Northerners, dumplings (especially those of vegetarian fillings) feature prominently in the meals celebrating the festival.
The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Lunar New Year. The calendar is also used in countries that have been influenced by, or have relations with, China -- such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam, though occasionally the date celebrated may differ by one day or even one moon cycle due to using a meridian based on a different capital city in a different time zone or different placements of intercalary months.
Chinese calendar defines the lunar month with winter solstice as the 11th month, which means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In more than 96 % of the years, the Chinese New Year 's Day is the closest new moon to lichun (Chinese: 立春; "start of spring '') on 4 or 5 February, and the first new moon after Dahan (Chinese: 大寒; "major cold ''). In the Gregorian calendar, the Lunar New Year begins at the new moon that falls between 21 January and 20 February.
The Gregorian Calendar dates for Chinese New Year from 1912 to 2101 are below, along with the year 's presiding animal zodiac and its Stem - branch. The traditional Chinese calendar follows a Metonic cycle (like the modern Jewish Calendar), and returns to the same date in Gregorian calendar roughly. The names of the Earthly Branches have no English counterparts and are not the Chinese translations of the animals. Alongside the 12 - year cycle of the animal zodiac there is a 10 - year cycle of heavenly stems. Each of the ten heavenly stems is associated with one of the five elements of Chinese astrology, namely: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The elements are rotated every two years while a yin and yang association alternates every year. The elements are thus distinguished: Yang Wood, Yin Wood, Yang Fire, Yin Fire, etc. These produce a combined cycle that repeats every 60 years. For example, the year of the Yang Fire Rat occurred in 1936 and in 1996, 60 years apart.
Many people inaccurately calculate their Chinese birth - year by converting it from their Gregorian birth - year. As the Chinese New Year starts in late January to mid-February, the previous Chinese year dates through 1 January until that day in the new Gregorian year, remaining unchanged from the previous Gregorian year. For example, the 1989 year of the Snake began on 6 February 1989. The year 1989 is generally aligned with the year of the Snake. However, the 1988 year of the Dragon officially ended on 5 February 1989. This means that anyone born from 1 January to 5 February 1989 was actually born in the year of the Dragon rather than the year of the Snake. Many online Chinese Sign calculators do not account for the non-alignment of the two calendars, using Gregorian - calendar years rather than official Chinese New Year dates.
One scheme of continuously numbered Chinese - calendar years assigns 4709 to the year beginning, 2011, but this is not universally accepted; the calendar is traditionally cyclical, not continuously numbered.
Although the Chinese calendar traditionally does not use continuously numbered years, outside China its years are sometimes numbered from the purported reign of the mythical Yellow Emperor in the 3rd millennium BCE. But at least three different years numbered 1 are now used by various scholars, making the year beginning CE 2015 the "Chinese year '' 4712, 4713, or 4652.
According to tales and legends, the beginning of the Chinese New Year started with a mythical beast called the Nian. Nian would eat villagers, especially children. One year, all the villagers decided to go hide from the beast. An old man appeared before the villagers went into hiding and said that he 's going to stay the night, and decided to get revenge on the Nian. All the villagers thought he was insane. The old man put red papers up and set off firecrackers. The day after, the villagers came back to their town to see that nothing was destroyed. They assumed that the old man was a deity who came to save them. The villagers then understood that the Nian was afraid of the color red and loud noises. When the New Year was about to come, the villagers would wear red clothes, hang red lanterns, and red spring scrolls on windows and doors. People also used firecrackers to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. After that, Nian retreated to a nearby mountain. The name of the mountain has long been lost over the years.
Chinese New Year is observed as a public holiday in a number of countries and territories where there is a sizable Chinese population. Since Chinese New Year falls on different dates on the Gregorian calendar every year on different days of the week, some of these governments opt to shift working days in order to accommodate a longer public holiday. In some countries, a statutory holiday is added on the following work day when the New Year falls on a weekend, as in the case of 2013, where the New Year 's Eve (9 February) falls on Saturday and the New Year 's Day (10 February) on Sunday. Depending on the country, the holiday may be termed differently; common names are "Chinese New Year '', "Lunar New Year '', "New Year Festival '', and "Spring Festival ''.
For New Year celebrations that are lunar but not based on the Chinese New Year (such as Korea 's Seollal and Vietnam 's Tết), see the article on Lunar New Year.
For other countries where Chinese New Year is celebrated but not an official holiday, see the section below on Festivities outside China.
During the festival, people around China will prepare different gourmet for families and guests. Influenced by the flourished cultures, foods from different places look and taste totally different. Among them, the most well - known ones are dumplings from northern China and Tangyuan from southern China.
On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the Laba holiday (simplified Chinese: 腊八; traditional Chinese: 臘八; pinyin: làbā), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (simplified Chinese: 腊八粥; traditional Chinese: 臘八粥; pinyin: làbā zhōu), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called La, that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that believe in Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. Layue (simplified Chinese: 腊月; traditional Chinese: 臘月; pinyin: Làyuè) is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as larou (simplified Chinese: 腊肉; traditional Chinese: 臘肉; pinyin: làròu). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family 's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It 's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the "La month '' is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day.
On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their homes a thorough cleaning. There is a Cantonese saying "Wash away the dirt on nin ya baat '' (Chinese: 年 廿 八, 洗 邋遢; pinyin: nián niàn bā, xǐ lātà; Jyutping: nin4 jaa6 baat3, sai2 laap6 taap3 (laat6 taat3)), but the practice is not restricted to nin ya baat (the 28th day of month 12). It is believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready for good luck. Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good luck can not be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window - frames a new coat of red paint; decorators and paper - hangers do a year - end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year. Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing new clothing and shoes also symbolize a new start. Any hair cuts need to be completed before the New Year, as cutting hair on New Year is considered bad luck due to the homonymic nature of the word "hair '' (fa) and the word for "prosperity ''. Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts outstanding for the year before the new year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Thus it is a common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members.
In many households where Buddhism or Taoism is prevalent, home altars and statues are cleaned thoroughly, and decorations used to adorn altars over the past year are taken down and burned a week before the new year starts, to be replaced with new decorations. Taoists (and Buddhists to a lesser extent) will also "send gods back to heaven '' (Chinese: 送 神; pinyin: sòngshén), an example would be burning a paper effigy of Zao Jun the Kitchen God, the recorder of family functions. This is done so that the Kitchen God can report to the Jade Emperor of the family household 's transgressions and good deeds. Families often offer sweet foods (such as candy) in order to "bribe '' the deities into reporting good things about the family.
Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity, with a Christian prayer offered instead.
The biggest event of any Chinese New Year 's Eve is the annual reunion dinner. Dishes consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians.
In northern China, it is customary to make dumplings (jiaozi) after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Niángāo (Pinyin) literally means "new year cake '' with a homophonous meaning of "increasingly prosperous year in year out ''.
After dinner, some families go to local temples hours before the new year begins to pray for a prosperous new year by lighting the first incense of the year; however in modern practice, many households hold parties and even hold a countdown to the new year. Traditionally, firecrackers were lit to scare away evil spirits with the household doors sealed, not to be reopened until the new morning in a ritual called "opening the door of fortune '' (simplified Chinese: 开 财 门; traditional Chinese: 開 財 門; pinyin: kāicáimén).
Beginning in 1982, the CCTV New Year 's Gala is broadcast in China four hours before the start of the New Year and lasts until the succeeding early morning. A tradition of going to bed late on New Year 's Eve, or even keeping awake the whole night and morning, known as shousui (守岁), is still practised as it is thought to add on to one 's parents ' longevity.
The first day is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and earth, officially beginning at midnight. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers and to make as much of a din as possible to chase off the evil spirits as encapsulated by nian of which the term Guo Nian was derived. Many Buddhists abstain from meat consumption on the first day because it is believed to ensure longevity for them. Some consider lighting fires and using knives to be bad luck on New Year 's Day, so all food to be consumed is cooked the days before. On this day, it is considered bad luck to use the broom, as good fortune is not to be "swept away '' symbolically.
Most importantly, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time to honor one 's elders and families visit the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great - grandparents.
For Buddhists, the first day is also the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (better known as the more familiar Budai Luohan), the Buddha - to - be. People also abstain from killing animals.
Some families may invite a lion dance troupe as a symbolic ritual to usher in the Chinese New Year as well as to evict bad spirits from the premises. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as lai see (Cantonese dialect) or angpow (Hokkien dialect / Fujian), or hongbao (Mandarin), a form of blessings and to suppress the aging and challenges associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers also give bonuses through red packets to employees for good luck, smooth - sailing, good health and wealth.
While fireworks and firecrackers are traditionally very popular, some regions have banned them due to concerns over fire hazards. For this reason, various city governments (e.g., Kowloon, Beijing, Shanghai for a number of years) issued bans over fireworks and firecrackers in certain precincts of the city. As a substitute, large - scale fireworks display have been launched by governments in such city - states as Hong Kong and Singapore. However, it is a tradition that the indigenous peoples of the walled villages of New Territories, Hong Kong are permitted to light firecrackers and launch fireworks in a limited scale.
The second day of the Chinese New Year, known as "beginning of the year '' (simplified Chinese: 开 年; traditional Chinese: 開 年; pinyin: kāinián), was when married daughters visited their birth parents, relatives and close friends. (Traditionally, married daughters did n't have the opportunity to visit their birth families frequently.)
During the days of imperial China, "beggars and other unemployed people circulate (d) from family to family, carrying a picture (of the God of Wealth) shouting, "Cai Shen dao! '' (The God of Wealth has come!). '' Householders would respond with "lucky money '' to reward the messengers. Business people of the Cantonese dialect group will hold a ' Hoi Nin ' prayer to start their business on the 2nd day of Chinese New Year so they will be blessed with good luck and prosperity in their business for the year.
As this day is believed to be The Birthday of Che Kung, a deity worshipped in Hong Kong, worshippers go to Che Kung Temples to pray for his blessing. A representative from the government asks Che Kung about the city 's fortune through kau cim.
The third day is known as "red mouth '' (Chinese: 赤口; pinyin: Chìkǒu). Chikou is also called "Chigou 's Day '' (Chinese: 赤 狗 日; pinyin: Chìgǒurì). Chigou, literally "red dog '', is an epithet of "the God of Blazing Wrath '' (Chinese: 熛 怒 之 神; pinyin: Biāo nù zhī shén). Rural villagers continue the tradition of burning paper offerings over trash fires. It is considered an unlucky day to have guests or go visiting. Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home. This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one 's future told.
In those communities that celebrate Chinese New Year for 15 days, the fourth day is when corporate "spring dinners '' kick off and business returns to normal. Other areas that have a longer Chinese New Year holiday will celebrate and welcome the gods that were previously sent on this day.
This day is the god of Wealth 's birthday. In northern China, people eat jiaozi, or dumplings, on the morning of powu (Chinese: 破五; pinyin: pòwǔ). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers.
It is also common in China that on the 5th day people will shoot off firecrackers to get Guan Yu 's attention, thus ensuring his favor and good fortune for the new year.
The seventh day, traditionally known as Renri (the common person 's birthday), is the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity.
For many Chinese Buddhists, this is another day to avoid meat, the seventh day commemorating the birth of Sakra, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology who is analogous to the Jade Emperor.
Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor, the ruler of heaven. People normally return to work by the eighth day, therefore the Store owners will host a lunch / dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year.
Approaching 12 midnight on this day, Hokkien people prepare for the "Jade Emperor ritual '' (Hokkien: 拜 天公 Pài Thin - kong) during which incense is burnt and food offerings made to the Jade Emperor and also to Zao Jun, the Kitchen god who reports on each family to the Jade Emperor.
Some people will hold a ritual prayer after midnight on the eighth day. In Malaysia, especially, people light fireworks, often more than on the first day.
This practice of Bai Ti Gong can also be seen in Singapore and Indonesia, especially in Hokkien - speaking chinese areas like Sumatra.
The ninth day of the New Year is a day for Chinese to offer prayers to the Jade Emperor of Heaven in the Daoist Pantheon. The ninth day is traditionally the birthday of the Jade Emperor. This day, called Ti Kong Dan (Hokkien: 天公 诞 Thin - kong Tan), Ti Kong Si (Hokkien: 天公 生 Thin - kong Sin) or Pai Ti Kong (Hokkien: 拜 天公 Pài Thin - kong), is especially important to Hokkiens, even more important than the first day of the Chinese New Year.
Come midnight of the eighth day of the new year, Hokkiens will offer thanks to the Emperor of Heaven. A prominent requisite offering is sugarcane. Legend holds that the Hokkien were spared from a massacre by Japanese pirates by hiding in a sugarcane plantation during the eighth and ninth days of the Chinese New Year, coinciding with the Jade Emperor 's birthday. Since "sugarcane '' (Hokkien: 甘蔗 kam - chià) is a near homonym to "thank you '' (Hokkien: 感谢 kám - siā) in the Hokkien dialect, Hokkiens offer sugarcane on the eve of his birthday, symbolic of their gratitude.
In the morning of this birthday (traditionally anytime from midnight to 7 am), Taiwanese households set up an altar table with 3 layers: one top (containing offertories of six vegetables (Chinese: 六 斋; pinyin: liù zhāi), noodles, fruits, cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel, all decorated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (containing the five sacrifices and wines) to honor the deities below the Jade Emperor. The household then kneels three times and kowtows nine times to pay obeisance and wish him a long life.
Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper is served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person.
The Jade Emperor 's party is celebrated on this day.
The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as "Yuanxiao Festival '' (simplified Chinese: 元宵 节; traditional Chinese: 元宵 節; pinyin: Yuán xiāo jié), also known as "Shangyuan Festival '' (simplified Chinese: 上 元 节; traditional Chinese: 上 元 節; pinyin: Shàng yuán jié) or the Lantern Festival (otherwise known as Chap Goh Mei Chinese: 十 五 暝; pinyin: Shíwǔmíng; literally: "the fifteen night '' in Fujian dialect). Rice dumplings tangyuan (simplified Chinese: 汤圆; traditional Chinese: 湯圓; pinyin: tang yuán), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. This day is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, and families walk the street carrying lighted lanterns.
In China, Malaysia, and Singapore, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking a romantic partner, akin to Valentine 's Day. Nowadays, single women write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw them in a river or a lake after which single men collect the oranges and eat them. The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate.
This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities.
A reunion dinner, named as "Nian Ye Fan '', is held on New Year 's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year 's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax - cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish (traditional Chinese: 魚; simplified Chinese: 鱼; pinyin: yú) is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year '' (traditional Chinese: 年 年 有餘; simplified Chinese: 年 年 有余; pinyin: niánnián yǒu yú) sounds the same as "let there be fish every year. '' Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served.
Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets often contain money in certain numbers that reflect good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things.
Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar - sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money.
In 1928, the ruling Kuomintang party in China decreed that Chinese New Year will fall on 1 Jan of the Gregorian Calendar, but this was abandoned due to overwhelming opposition from the populace. In 1967 during the Cultural Revolution, official Chinese New Year celebrations were banned in China. The State Council of the People 's Republic of China announced that the public should "Change Customs '', have a "revolutionized and fighting Spring Festival '', and since people needed to work on Chinese New Year Eve, they did n't have holidays during Spring Festival day. The public celebrations were reinstated by the time of the Chinese economic reform.
Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets (Cantonese: lai sze or lai see; 利 是, 利 市 or 利 事; Pinyin: lìshì; Mandarin: hóngbāo 红包; Hokkien: ang pow; POJ: âng - pau; Hakka: fung bao) are passed out during the Chinese New Year 's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors. It is also common for adults or young couples to give red packets to children.
During this period, red packets are also known as 壓歲錢 / 压岁钱 (yàsuìqián, which was evolved from 壓 祟 錢 / 压 祟 钱, literally, "the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit '').
Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Per custom, the amount of money in the red packets should be of even numbers, as odd numbers are associated with cash given during funerals (帛 金: báijīn). The number 8 is considered lucky (for its homophone for "wealth ''), and $8 is commonly found in the red envelopes in the US. The number six (六, liù) is also very lucky as it sounds like "smooth '' (流, liú), in the sense of having a smooth year. The number four (四) is the worst because its homophone is "death '' (死). Sometimes chocolate coins are found in the red packets.
Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for example, are odd numbers and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, it is common and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note -- with ten or fifty yuan bills used frequently. It is customary for the bills to be brand new printed money. Everything regarding the New Year has to be new in order to have good luck and fortune.
The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): 讨 紅包 tǎo - hóngbāo, 要 利 是 or (Cantonese): 逗 利 是. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be "out of luck '' in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune.
In Taiwan in the 2000s, some employers also gave red packets as a bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, although whether this is appropriate is controversial.
The Japanese have a similar tradition of giving money during the New Year, called Otoshidama.
In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, and never pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies.
Certain items should not be given, as they are considered taboo. Taboo gifts include:
Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. These usually open - air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks and firecrackers. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decorations. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree.
Hong Kong filmmakers also release "New Year celebration films '' (賀歲 片), mostly comedies, at this time of year.
Bamboo stems filled with gunpowder that was burnt to create small explosions were once used in ancient China to drive away evil spirits. In modern times, this method has eventually evolved into the use of firecrackers during the festive season. Firecrackers are usually strung on a long fused string so it can be hung down. Each firecracker is rolled up in red papers, as red is auspicious, with gunpowder in its core. Once ignited, the firecracker lets out a loud popping noise and, as they are usually strung together by the hundreds, the firecrackers are known for their deafening explosions that are thought to scare away evil spirits. The burning of firecrackers also signifies a joyful time of year and has become an integral aspect of Chinese New Year celebrations.
The use of firecrackers, although a traditional part of the celebration, has over the years led to many unfortunate outcomes. There have been reported incidents every year of users of fireworks being blinded, losing body parts, or suffering other grievous injuries, especially during the Chinese New Year season. Hence, many governments and authorities eventually enacted laws completely banning the use of firecrackers privately, primarily because of safety issues.
"Happy New Year! '' (Chinese: 新年 好 呀; pinyin: Xīn Nián Hǎo Ya; literally: "New Year 's Good, Ya '') is a popular children 's song for the New Year holiday. The melody is similar to the American folk song, Oh My Darling, Clementine.
Clothing mainly featuring the color red or bright colors is commonly worn throughout the Chinese New Year because it was once believed that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. In addition, people typically wear new clothes from head to toe to symbolize a new beginning in the new year. Wearing new clothes also symbolizes having more than enough things to use and wear in the new year. Red is a color of good luck.
In some places, the taking of a family portrait is an important ceremony after the relatives are gathered. The photo is taken at the hall of the house or taken in front of the house. The most senior male head of the family sits in the center.
As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond - shaped fu characters (Chinese: 福; pinyin: fú; Cantonese Yale: fuk1; literally: "blessings, happiness ''), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word dao (Chinese: 倒; pinyin: dào; literally: "upside down ''), is homophonous or nearly homophonous with (Chinese: 到; pinyin: dào; literally: "arrive '') in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity.
For the Cantonese - speaking people, if the fu sign is hung upside down, the implied dao (upside down) sounds like the Cantonese word for "pour '', producing "pour the luck (away) '', which would usually symbolize bad luck; this is why the fu character is not usually hung upside - down in Cantonese communities.
Red is the predominant color used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this color also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are colored red. The sound of the Chinese word for "red '' (simplified Chinese: 红; traditional Chinese: 紅; pinyin: hóng; Cantonese Yale: hung4) is in Mandarin homophonous with the word for "prosperous ''. Therefore, red is an auspicious color and has an auspicious sound.
Nianhua can be a form of Chinese colored woodblock printing, for decoration during Chinese New Year.
The following are popular floral decorations for the New Year and are available at new year markets.
Traditionally, families gather together during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year 's Eve. Owing to a large number of interprovincial travelers, special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year 's Day. This 40 - day period is called chunyun, and is known as the world 's largest annual migration. More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China.
In Taiwan, spring travel is also a major event. The majority of transportation in western Taiwan is in a north - south direction: long distance travel between urbanized north and hometowns in the rural south. Transportation in eastern Taiwan and that between Taiwan and its islands is less convenient. Cross-strait flights between Taiwan and mainland China began in 2003 as part of Three Links, mostly for "Taiwanese businessmen '' to return to Taiwan for the new year.
Chinese New Year is also celebrated annually in many countries with significant Chinese populations. These include countries throughout Asia, Oceania, and North America. Sydney, London, and San Francisco claim to host the largest New Year celebration outside of Asia and South America.
In some countries of Southeast Asia, Chinese New Year is a national public holiday and considered to be one of the most important holidays of the year. Chinese New Year 's Eve is typically a half - day holiday for Malaysia and Singapore. The biggest celebrations take place in Malaysia (notably in Kuala Lumpur, George Town and Klang) and Singapore.
In Singapore, Chinese New Year is accompanied by various festive activities. One of the main highlights is the Chinatown celebrations. In 2010, this included a Festive Street Bazaar, nightly staged shows at Kreta Ayer Square and a lion dance competition. The Chingay Parade also features prominently in the celebrations. It is an annual street parade in Singapore, well known for its colorful floats and wide variety of cultural performances. The highlights of the Parade for 2011 include a Fire Party, multi-ethnic performances and an unprecedented travelling dance competition.
In Philippines, Chinese New Year is considered to be the most important festival for Filipino - Chinese, and its celebration has also extended to the non-Chinese majority Filipinos. In 2012, Chinese New Year was included in public holidays in the Philippines, which is only the New Year 's Day itself.
In Indonesia, the Chinese New Year is officially named as Hari Tahun Baru Imlek, or Sin Cia in Hokkien. It was celebrated as one of the official national religious holiday by Chinese - Indonesians since 18 June 1946 to 1 January 1953 through government regulation signed by President Sukarno on 18 June 1946. It was unofficially celebrated by ethnic Chinese from 1953 to 1967 based on government regulation signed by Vice President Muhammad Hatta in 5 February 1953 which annul the previous regulation, among others, the Chinese New Year as a national religious holiday,. Effectively from 6 December 1967, until 1998, the spiritual practice to celebrate the Chinese New Year by Chinese families was restricted specifically only inside of the Chinese house. This restriction is made by Indonesian government through a Presidential Instruction, Instruksi Presiden No. 14 Tahun 1967, signed by President Suharto. This restriction is ended when the regime has changed and the President Suharto was overthrown. The celebration is conducted unofficially by Chinese community from 1999 to 2000. On 17 January 2000, the President Abdurrahman Wahid issued a Presidential Decree through Keputusan Presiden RI No 6 Tahun 2000 to annul Instruksi Presiden No. 14 Tahun 1967. On 19 January 2001, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia) issued a Decree through Keputusan Menteri Agama RI No 13 Tahun 2001 tentang Imlek sebagai Hari Libur Nasional to set of Hari Tahun Baru Imlek as a Facultative Holiday for Chinese Community. Through the Presidential Decree it was officially declared as a 1 (one) day public religious holiday as of 9 April 2002 by President Megawati. The Indonesian government authorize only the first day of the Chinese New Year as a public religious holiday and it is specifically designated only for Chinese people. In Indonesia, the first day of the Chinese New Year is recognized as a part of the celebration of the Chinese religion and tradition of Chinese community. There are no other official or unofficial of the Chinese New Year as a public holiday. The remaining 14 days are celebrated only by ethnic Chinese families. In Indonesia, the Chinese Year is named as a year of Kǒngzǐ (孔子) or Kongzili in Bahasa Indonesia. Every year, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia) set the specific date of religious holiday based on input from religious leaders. The Chinese New Year is the only national religious holiday in Indonesia that was enacted specifically with the Presidential Decree, in this case with the Keputusan Presiden Republik Indonesia (Keppres RI) No 19 Tahun 2002 dated on 9 April 2002. The celebration of the Chinese New Year as a religious holiday is specifically intended only for Chinese People in Indonesia (tradisi masyarakat Cina yang dirayakan secara turun temurun di berbagai wilayah di Indonesia, dan umat Agama Tionghoa) and it is not intended to be celebrated by Indonesian Indigenous Peoples or Masyarakat Pribumi Indonesia.
Oddly and funny, most Chinese - Indonesian who are not adhere to Chinese religion thinks and believes that the Chinese New Year is only for one day, in this case is on the first day, and the remaining day especially on the fifteenth day is not considered as a part of Chinese New Year. The same things is happening to Indonesian Indigenous peoples who insists that the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year is a kind of jamboree or carnival and thinks it has not related with Chinese New Year at all. It is believed that this behaviour occurs because of the religion dilemma where mostly a majority of Indigenous peoples in Indonesia are religious thus by denying that the Chinese New Year activities are not related with any of religion then they can make a justification to participate and celebrate the Chinese New Year especially on the fifteenth day of the celebration. Their primary motives to participate the Chinese New Year festival and Chinese religion activities are money from carrying the Chinese gods statues, playing the lion and dragon dance and free foods, and the opportunity to meet and seeking a Chinese partner for marriages. Some are even trying to find a mate to have a sexual intercourse during the festival. A large number of Non-Chinese men are even continue to come to the Chinese temple on a regular basis to pray to the Chinese deities and wishing to get for an ethnic Chinese woman as a wife. Some have succeed in marrying with ethnic Chinese. Sadly, all of the descendant of this mix - marriages claim that they have a pure blood of Chinese descendant. By marrying a Chinese, and actively participate as a follower of Chinese religion and thus to get into the deep of the inside environment of ethnic Chinese family inner - circle, the Non-Chinese people believed that they can upgrade their social and financial status instantly. To disguise their identity many changed their Indonesian name into Chinese look - alike name and falsified their ancestral history family tree. A lot of Non-Chinese people who have married also put in their children to Chinese temple and Chinese school with the hope that as they grow - up they have the first opportunity to marry with the Chinese. After marrying with Chinese people, most of the Non-Chinese people, if not all, including their children are always claiming and insists that they have a pure blood of a Chinese descendant, consequently, mostly, if not all, the Chinese people itself in Indonesia, because of lack of comparisons, can not differentiate who is a Chinese and who is not. Furthermore, because of this ignorance, more and more of Chinese people in Indonesia thinks they are already marrying with a Chinese because they have met at the Chinese temple. They assume that only Chinese people goes to the Chinese temple, but the truth is not. No wonder that at least 90 %, if not all, of Chinese - Indonesian who claimed that they have a pure blood of Chinese have a very different skin complexion, and a different physical characteristics with an odd facial features compares with the other Chinese people in the world. Everyone even want to claim that they are a Chinese descendant even though their DNA is not a Chinese at all. This phenomenon explains why there are crowds on every Chinese New Year events and roughly 90 % of Chinese temple visitors in some places are Indonesian Indigenous peoples and a descendant of a mix - marriages even though the Chinese community only accounted for 1, 2 %, of Indonesian population. Some of Non-Chinese and Chinese people are also celebrated Chinese New Year inside a Church with dragon dance, incense for praying and food offerings to Mary, Mother of Jesus and Jesus Christ. Because of the majority of Chinese temple congregation are Non-Chinese people, consequently they are also bringing their own culture, customs, beliefs and ritual of worship of their gods to be practiced inside the Chinese temple, thus in some parts of Indonesia the practice of Chinese religion and Chinese New Year would be totally different with the other Chinese community in the other parts of the world. Some of Non-Chinese people who have a deep knowledge of Chinese religion is becoming the Chinese religious leaders and routinely gives preaching to Chinese community. Some are even becoming the chairman and the leaders of the Chinese religious association. There are tons of evidence supporting the above statements, anyone who want to pursue further about this matter is encouraged to go to Facebook.com and do research using the keywords, such as: kelenteng indonesia, klenteng indonesia, bio indonesia, vihara indonesia and to study carefully in detail about the social changes of the Chinese community in Indonesia especially in relation with the identity as a Chinese, the practice of Chinese religion and the practice of Chinese New Year celebration.
Big Chinese population cities and towns like Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang and Pontianak always have its own New Year 's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon - decorated at front of their house. The temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around.
With one of the largest Chinese populations outside of Asia, Sydney also claims to have the largest Chinese New Year Celebrations outside of Asia with over 600,000 people attending the celebrations in Chinatown annually. The events there span over three weeks including the launch celebration, outdoor markets, evening street food stalls, Chinese top opera performances, dragon boat races, a film festival and multiple parades that incorporate Chinese, Japanese, Korean people and Vietnamese performers. More than 100,000 people attend notably the main parade with over 3,500 performers. The festival also attracts international media coverage, reaching millions of viewers in Asia. The festival in Sydney is organized in partnership with a different Chinese province each year. Apart from Sydney, other state capital cities in Australia also celebrate Chinese New Year due to large number of Chinese residents. The cities include: Brisbane, Adelaide, Melbourne Box Hill and Perth. The common activities are lion dance, dragon dance, New Year market, and food festival. In the Melbourne suburb of Footscray, Victoria a Lunar New Year celebration initially focusing on the Vietnamese New Year has expanded into a celebration of the Chinese New Year as well as the April New Year celebrations of the Thais, Cambodians, Laotians and other Asian Australian communities who celebrate the New Year in either January / February or April.
The city of Wellington hosts a two - day weekend festival for Chinese New Year, and a one - day festival is held in Dunedin, centred on the city 's Chinese gardens.
Many cities in North America sponsor official parades for Chinese New Year. Among the cities with such parades are San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York City, Boston, Chicago, Mexico City, Toronto, and Vancouver. However, even smaller cities that are historically connected to Chinese immigration, such as Butte, Montana, have recently hosted parades.
Multiple groups in New York City cooperate to sponsor a week - long Lunar New Year celebration. The festivities include cultural festival, music concert, fireworks on the Hudson River near the Chinese Consulate, and special exhibits. In June 2015, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio declared that the Lunar New Year would be made a public school holiday.
The San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade is the oldest and largest event of its kind outside of Asia, and the largest Asian cultural event in North America.
The festival incorporates Grant and Kearny Streets into its street festival and parade route, respectively. The use of these streets traces its lineage back to early parades beginning the custom in San Francisco. In 1849, with the discovery of gold and the ensuing California Gold Rush, over 50,000 people had come to San Francisco to seek their fortune or just a better way of life. Among those were many Chinese, who had come to work in the gold mines and on the railroad. By the 1860s, the residents of San Francisco 's Chinatown were eager to share their culture with their fellow San Francisco residents who may have been unfamiliar with (or hostile towards) it. The organizers chose to showcase their culture by using a favorite American tradition -- the parade. They invited a variety of other groups from the city to participate, and they marched down what today are Grant Avenue and Kearny Street carrying colorful flags, banners, lanterns, drums, and firecrackers to drive away evil spirits.
In San Francisco, over 100 units participate in the annual Chinese New Year Parade held since 1958. The parade is attended by some 500,000 people along with another 3 million TV viewers.
In London, the celebrations take place throughout Chinatown, Leicester Square and Trafalgar Square. Festivities include a parade, cultural feast, fireworks, concerts and performances. The celebration attracts between 300,000 and 500,000 people yearly according to the organisers.
In Paris, the celebrations are held since the 1980s in several districts during one month with many performances and the main of the three parades with 40 groups and 4,000 performers is attended alone by more than 200,000 people in the 13th arrondissement.
Many celebrate the festival in Chinatown, Kolkata, India where a significant community of people of Chinese origin exists. In Kolkata, Chinese New Year is celebrated with lion and dragon dance.
In Pakistan, the Chinese New Year is also celebrated among the sizable Chinese expatriate community that lives in the country. During the festival, the Chinese embassy in Islamabad arranges various cultural events in which Pakistani arts and cultural organizations and members of the civil society also participate.
The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as 吉祥 話 (jíxiánghuà) in Mandarin or 吉利 說話 (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as auspicious words or phrases. New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as chunlian (春聯) or fai chun (揮 春), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year.
Some of the most common greetings include:
Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, one may then say 歲 歲 平安 (Suìsuì - píng'ān) immediately, which means "everlasting peace year after year ''. Suì (歲), meaning "age '' is homophonous with 碎 (suì) (meaning "shatter ''), in the demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, 年 年 有餘 (niánnián yǒu yú), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word yú that can also refer to 魚 (yú meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish - based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts.
The most common auspicious greetings and sayings consist of four characters, such as the following:
These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come.
Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase 恭喜 發財, 紅包 拿 來 (in Traditional Chinese; Simplified Chinese: 恭喜 发财, 红包 拿 来; Pinyin: gōngxǐfācái, hóngbāo nálái; Cantonese: 恭喜 發財, 利 是 逗 來; Jyutping: gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4, lei6 si6 dau6 loi4), roughly translated as "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope! ''. In Hakka the saying is more commonly said as ' Gung hee fatt choi, hung bao diu loi ' which would be written as 恭喜 發財, 紅包 逗 來 -- a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying.
Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say 恭喜 發財, 利 是 逗 來, 斗 零 唔 愛 (Cantonese, Gung Hei Fat Choy, Lai Si Tau Loi, Tau Ling M Ngoi), which was recorded in the pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, children in Hong Kong used the saying: 恭喜 發財, 利 是 逗 來, 伍 毫 嫌 少, 壹 蚊 唔 愛 (Cantonese), roughly translated as, "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, do n't want a dollar either. '' It basically meant that they disliked small change -- coins which were called "hard substance '' (Cantonese: 硬 嘢). Instead, they wanted "soft substance '' (Cantonese: 軟 嘢), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar note.
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when was international day of friendship celebrated all over the world | Friendship Day - wikipedia
Friendship Day, mona Chinese: 国际 友谊 日, French: Journée internationale de l'amitié, Russian: Международный день дружбы, Spanish: Día del Amigo, Hindi: मित्रता दिवस) is a day for celebrating friendship... The day is a popular celebration in several Asian countries since it was first proposed in 1958 in Paraguay as the ' International Friendship Day '.
It was initially created by the greeting card industry, evidence from social networking sites shows a revival of interest in the holiday that may have grown with the spread of the Internet, particularly in India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia. Digital communication modes such as the Internet and cell phones may be helping to popularize the custom, since greeting friends en masse is now easier than before.
Those who promote the holiday in South Asia attribute the tradition of dedicating a day in honor of friends to have originated in the United States in 1935, but it actually dates from 1919. The exchange of Friendship Day gifts like flowers, cards and wrist bands is a popular tradition of this occasion.
Friendship Day celebrations occur on different dates in different countries. The first World Friendship Day was proposed for 30 July in 1958, by the World Friendship Crusade. On 27 April 2011 the General Assembly of the United Nations declared 30 July as official International Friendship Day. However, some countries, including India, celebrate Friendship Day on the first Sunday of August. In Oberlin, Ohio, Friendship Day is celebrated on 8 April each year.
Friendship Day was originated by Joyce Hall, the founder of Hallmark cards in 1930, intended to be 2 August and a day when people celebrated their friendships by holiday celebrations. Friendship Day was promoted by the greeting card National Association during the 1920s but met with consumer resistance -- given that it was too obviously a commercial gimmick to promote greetings cards. By the 1940s the number of Friendship Day cards available in the U.S. by had dwindled and the holiday largely died out there. There is no evidence to date for its uptake in Europe; however, it has been kept alive and revitalised in Asia, where several countries have adopted it.
In honor of Friendship Day in 1998, Nane Annan, wife of UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan, named Winnie the Pooh as the world 's Ambassador of Friendship at the United Nations. The event was co-sponsored by the U.N. Department of Public Information and Disney Enterprises, and was co-hosted by Kathy Lee Gifford.
Some friends acknowledge each other with exchanges of gifts and cards on this day. Friendship bands are very popular in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and parts of South America. With the advent of social networking sites, Friendship Day is also being celebrated online. The commercialization of the Friendship Day celebrations has led to some dismissing it as a "marketing gimmick ''. But nowadays it is celebrated on the first Sunday of August rather than 30 July. However, on 27 July 2011 the 65th Session of the United Nations General Assembly declared 30 July as "International Day of Friendship ''.
The idea of a World Friendship Day was first proposed on 20 July 1958 by Dr. Ramon Artemio Bracho during a dinner with friends in Puerto Pinasco, a town on the River Paraguay about 200 miles north of Asuncion, Paraguay.
Out of this humble meeting of friends, the World Friendship Crusade was born. The World Friendship Crusade is a foundation that promotes friendship and fellowship among all human beings, regardless of race, color or religion. Since then, 30 July has been faithfully celebrated as Friendship Day in Paraguay every year and has also been adopted by several other countries.
The World Friendship Crusade has lobbied the United Nations for many years to recognise 30 July as World Friendship Day and finally on 20 May, General Assembly of the United Nations decided to designate 30 July as the International Day of Friendship; and to invite all Member States to observe the International Day of Friendship in accordance with the culture and customs of their local, national and regional communities, including through education and public awareness - raising activities.
In Argentina, Friend 's Day, on 20 July, is an excuse for a friendly gathering and greeting both current and old friends. Since it is not an Argentine public holiday, people tend to gather during the evening.
Friend 's Day has in recent years turned into a very popular mass phenomenon. In 2005, the amount of well - wishing friends led breakdown of the mobile phone network in the cities of Buenos Aires, Mendoza, Córdoba and Rosario, comparable to the one experienced in 2004 on Christmas and New Year 's Day. Seats in most restaurants, bars, and other establishments are often completely booked a week before the celebration.
Since the death of the Argentine cartoonist and writer Roberto Fontanarrosa in 2007, a proposal has existed to change the date to 19 July, the day of his death.
In Brazil, Friend 's Day is also celebrated on 20 July.
In Finland and Estonia Valentine 's Day is celebrated as Friend 's Day.
In India, Friendship Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of August every year. Youngsters celebrate by exchanging greetings / text messages and tying friendship bands.
In Paraguay, the eve of 30 July is used for giving presents to close friends and loved ones, and celebrations often take place in bars and nightclubs. The game of the Invisible Friend (Amigo Invisible) is considered a tradition, in which small sheets of paper with names are given to all members of a group, each of them secretly selects one, and on 30 July gives a present to the person on the paper. This custom is practiced in both schools and workplaces in Asunción and other Paraguayan cities.
Since 2009, Peru celebrates "El dia del Amigo '' on the first Saturday in July. This day was proposed by Pilsen Callao. The objective was to recognize true friendship and differentiate its celebration from Valentine 's Day.
On the 6th Day of October, the USA celebrates Friendship Day.
First Sunday of August, the UAE celebrates Friendship Day.
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which bollywood actress has won the most filmfare awards | Filmfare award for Best Actress - wikipedia
The Filmfare Award for Best Actress is given by Filmfare as part of its annual Filmfare Awards for Hindi films, to recognise a female actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role. The award was first given in 1954 for the films released in preceding year 1953.
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speed limit on a roads in the uk | Road speed limits in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Road speed limits in the United Kingdom are used to define the maximum legal speed (which may be variable) for vehicles using public roads in the UK, and are one of the measures available to attempt to control traffic speeds. The speed limit in each location is indicated on a nearby traffic sign or by the presence of street lighting. Signs show speed limits in miles per hour (mph) or use the national speed limit (NSL) symbol.
The speed limit is 70 mph (112km / h) on motorways, 70 mph (112km / h) on dual carriageways, 60 mph (96km / h) on single carriageways and 30 mph (48km / h) in areas with street lighting (restricted roads). These limits may be reduced by roadside signs and apply to cars, motorcycles, car - derived vans up to 2 tonnes maximum laden weight (MLW), and to motorhomes or motor caravans not more than 3.05 tonnes maximum unladen weight. Other classes of vehicles are subject to lower limits on some roads.
Speed limits in the UK are used to define maximum desirable traffic speeds for the purposes of road safety (to reduce the number of road casualties), to reduce negative environmental impacts of traffic, to increase fuel use efficiency and to satisfy local community wishes.
Enforcement of UK road speed limits was traditionally done using police ' speed traps ' set up and operated by the police who now increasingly use speed guns, automated in - vehicle systems and automated roadside traffic cameras. Some vehicle categories have various lower maximum limits enforced by speed limiters.
Ever since they have been introduced, speed limits have been controversial. They have either been opposed or supported from various sources; including motoring advocacy groups, anti-motoring groups and others who either consider them to be irrelevant, set too low or set too high.
Default maximum speed limits apply to all roads where no specific lower numeric speed limit is already in force. The default speed limit is known as the national speed limit (NSL). The NSLs vary by road type and for vehicle types.
Some classes of vehicles are required to have speed limiters which enforce a maximum speed by physical means. Older vehicles still in use do not have limiters fitted or have them set at a higher speeds. New vehicles should be fitted with limiters as follows:
Some other vehicles, especially light commercial or service vehicles, may be voluntarily fitted with limiters by their owners (either private businesspeople or company fleets), generally set at 90, 97, 100, 110 or 113 km / h (56, 60, 62, 68 or 70 mph), though some ultralight citybound service vehicles may be limited to 80 km / h (50 mph) or less. In all cases, a warning sticker must be displayed on the rear of the vehicle.
Speed limit road signs are used to inform road users where speed limits other than the applicable national speed limit apply. For some types of vehicles, on some types of road, speed limits lower than the signed limit apply.
* a small, decreasing number of single - carriageway motorways do exist, both technical / "secret '' and overtly signed, but they are almost universally either subject to a signed limit below 70 mph, or too short for any but the most powerful vehicles to exceed 60 mph for any significant distance.
Variable speed limits are used on some major traffic roads. These can be changed in response to weather, traffic levels, time of day or for other reasons with the currently applicable speed limit is displayed using an electronic road sign. Signs with the speed shown in a red circle are compulsory, signs where the speed is not within a red circle are advisory and exceeding these speeds while driving safely within the applicable national speed limit is not in itself an offence. Variable speed limits were introduced on some congested major routes as an element of controlled motorway techniques to improve traffic flows for given prevailing conditions. Part - time variable speed limits may also be used outside schools.
Rarely, minimum speed limits are used, such as through the Mersey Tunnels, to maintain free flow and safe passage through otherwise hazardous or enclosed areas. Circular blue signs with white numbers indicate the start of these limits, and similar signs with a red diagonal line indicate their end. Contrary to popular belief, there is no minimum speed limit on motorways, although certain classes of slow vehicles (as well as those of any class that can not maintain 25 mph on the level whilst unladen) are prohibited on safety grounds and drivers are expected to not cause unnecessary obstruction by driving unusually slowly.
According to the government, speed limits are used to help achieve appropriate traffic speeds for safety, and environmental and accessibility reasons. The Department for Transport state that "speed limits play a fundamental role '' in the effective management of traffic speeds in relation to the safety of both drivers and all other road users.
The 30 mph (48km / h) speed limit in built - up areas was introduced in 1930 in response to high casualty levels. The 70 mph (112km / h) limit on previously unrestricted roads was introduced in 1965 following a number of serious motorway accidents in fog earlier the same year.
The Department for Transport believes that effective speed management involves many components but that speed limits play a ' fundamental role ' and are ' a key source of information to road users ' particularly as an indicator of the nature and risks posed by that road to both themselves and other motorised and non-motorised road users.
The Parliamentary Select Committee for Transport Safety published a report entitled ' The Ending the Scandal of Complacency ' in 2007 which highlighted how casualty levels rise with increasing speed and recommended reducing speed limits on streets with high pedestrian populations and on dangerous rural roads. The report highlights that when two cars crash at 60 mph a driver there is a 90 % chance of death which falls to 65 % at 50 mph. While recommending 20 mph speed zones the committee noted that these zones ' should not rely on heavy - handed enforcement measures '.
The World Health Organisation published a report in 2004 highlighting that a total of 22 % of all ' injury mortality ' worldwide were from road traffic injuries in 2002 and that the speed of vehicles was ' at the core of the problem Road incidents are said to be the leading cause of deaths among children 10 -- 19 years of age (260,000 children die a year, 10 million are injured).
In 2008 14 % of collisions reported to the police had a speed related contributory factor (either "exceeding the speed limit '' or "travelling too fast for conditions '') reported rising to 24 % for fatal accidents and 25 % of all road deaths. "Exceeding the speed limit '' was reported as a contributory factor in 5 % of collisions and 14 % of fatal collisions. "Travelling too fast for conditions '' (but within the prevailing speed limit) was recorded as one of the contributory factors in a further 8 % of all collisions (and 9 % of all fatal, 9 % of all serious and 8 % of all slight accidents),
The UK government publishes Reported Road Casualties Great Britain (RRCGB) each year, based on road traffic casualties data (STATS19) reported to the police, which has been collected since 1949, and with additional data going back to 1926. The highest number of road fatalities recorded in a single year in GB was 9,196 in 1941. The highest number of fatalities during peacetime was 7,985 for 1966, following the introduction of the national 70 mph speed limit in 1965 and the year before the legal drink drive limit and the associated Breathalyzer laws were introduced.
The 2009 edition also summarised the characteristics of speed related fatal collisions as typically occurring on unclassified rural 60 mph speed limit roads, the driver being a male under the age of 30, with the collision types being head - on, lost control or cornering and the cause being loss of control whilst cornering or overtaking and the contributory factors being excess or inappropriate speed, loss of control, aggressive, careless or reckless behaviour or in a hurry.
Speed limits are also used where reduced vehicle speeds are desired to help reduce vehicle emissions and traffic noise, and to improve the accessibility conditions for more vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists and to reduce the perceived traffic risk for local people.
During the 1973 oil crisis a temporary maximum national speed limit of 50 mph (80 km / h) was introduced on all roads, including motorways to reduce fuel consumption, which was later progressively raised on Motorways (to 70 mph) and dual carriageways (to 60 mph), before a final change to single and dual carriageway non-motorway roads that produced the current NSL situation.
Parliament estimates that "Most drivers and pedestrians think speeds are generally too high but 95 % of all drivers admit to exceeding speed limits ''. DfT guidance makes it clear that setting speed limits in isolation, or setting ones that are "unrealistically low '' may be ineffective and lead to disrespect for the speed limit. Bath and North East Somerset Council say that speed limits on their own do not necessarily reduce traffic speeds and should be supported by enforcement to target "irresponsible drivers '' or traffic calming.
The Department for Transport encourages the use of either ' 20 mph speed limits ' or ' 20 mph speed limit zones ' in urban situations where vulnerable road users are at particular risk.
In 1998 the TRL reported that signed 20 mph (32 km / h) speed limits only reduced traffic speeds by about 1 mph and delivered no discernible reduction in accident numbers but that 20 mph zones achieved average speed reductions of 10 mph with child pedestrian accident reductions of 70 % and child cyclist accident reductions of 48 %. The report noted that the cost of wide area traffic calming was prohibitive.
20 mph speed limits are based on signage alone and are used where 85th percentile speeds are already below 24 mph.
A report published in 2010 by the Department for Transport regarding Portsmouth City Council 's 20 mph (32 km / h) speed limit on 410 km (250 mi) of the city 's 438 km (272 mi) of roads found a small (1.3 mph) reduction in traffic speed and a small 8 % increase in the number of serious accidents -- neither of which were statistically significant -- and a 21 % reduction in the number of accidents. There was a 6 % increase in the numbers killed or seriously injured (KSI) -- also not statistically significant due to the small numbers involved -- and a 22 % reduction in the total number of road casualties.
In places where 20 mph speeds are desired but where excessive speeds (85th percentile speed of 24 mph or above) occur, 20 mph zones are recommended. These have to use traffic calming measures to reduce speeds to below 20 mph.
In 1992 David Harding - Price a parish councillor in Barrow - Upon - Humber proposed a 20 mph speed limit outside the local school. This was rejected by the council. By August 2002, Kingston upon Hull had introduced 112 20 - mph zones and 190 km of roads subject to a 20 mph limit covering 26 % of the city 's streets which they described as contributing to "dramatic reductions in road casualties ''. Total collisions were reduced by 56 %, Killed & seriously injured collisions down 90 %, child casualties collisions down 64 % and all pedestrian collisions down 54 % and child pedestrian collisions down 74 %.
A report published in 2008 estimated that following the introduction of 20 mph zones in London, a reduction of casualties by 45 % and KSI by 57 % occurred.
Research carried out for the Department for Transport, to provide supporting evidence for Local Transport Note 1 / 11 on shared space, showed that in all of the ten shared space sites that were studied, that although they all had speed limits of 30 mph, that the average speeds on them was around 20 mph.
In 1966, at the end of the 4 - month trial of a blanket 70 mph (113 km / h) speed limit on previously unrestricted roads and motorways, speed checks on the M6 in Cheshire suggested that although cars were actually being driven about 10 mph (16 km / h) faster, they were still usually travelling at speeds below the new limit. The crash rate was lower on the M6 in Staffordshire (the better weather was noted too) and continued to fall on the M5 in Worcestershire as it had before the new limit was imposed, and there was no change in the crash rate on the M6 in Cheshire or on the M1 in Northamptonshire.
Speed limit enforcement is used to check that road vehicles are complying with the speed limits. Methods used include Fixed speed cameras, Average speed cameras and also police operated LIDAR speed guns and older radar speed guns. In addition Vehicle activated sign and Community Speed Watch groups also encourage compliance. For lower speed limits, physical Traffic Calming is normally required. Fixed speed cameras are controversial with various advocacy groups supporting and opposing their use.
The Nottingham Safety Camera Pilot achieved "virtually complete compliance '' on the major ring road into the city using average speed cameras, and across all Nottinghamshire SPECS installations their KSI figures have fallen by an average of 65 %.
Since they have been introduced various groups have campaigned on the subject who either consider them to be irrelevant, set too low or set too high.
Advocacy groups include Association of British Drivers, The Automobile Association, Living Streets (The Pedestrians ' Association), RAC Foundation, RoadPeace, Royal Automobile Club (originally the Automobile Club), Twenty is Plenty (20 's Plenty for Us), Safe Speed and others.
The first speed limits in the United Kingdom were set by a series of restrictive Locomotive Acts (in 1861, 1865 and 1878). The 1861 Act introduced a 10 mph (16 km / h) limit (powered passenger vehicles were then termed "light locomotives ''). The 1865 ' Red Flag Act ' reduced the speed limit to 4 mph (6 km / h) in the country and 2 mph (3 km / h) in towns and required a man with a red flag or lantern to walk 60 yards (50 m) ahead of each vehicle, and warn horse riders and horse drawn traffic of the approach of a self - propelled machine. The 1878 Act removed the need for the flag and reduced the distance of the escort to 20 yards (20 m).
Following intense advocacy by motor vehicle enthusiasts, including Harry J. Lawson of the Daimler Company the most restrictive parts of the acts were lifted by the Locomotives on Highways Act 1896. which raised the speed limit to 14 mph (23 km / h) and removed the need for the escort. A celebratory run from London to Brighton was held soon after the act was passed and has been commemorated each year since 1927 by the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run.
The speed limit for motor cars was raised to 20 mph (32 km / h) by the Motor Car Act 1903 which stood until 1 January 1931 when all speed limits for cars and motorcycles were abolished under the Road Traffic Act 1930. Lord Buckmaster 's opinion at the time was that the speed limit was removed because "the existing speed limit was so universally disobeyed that its maintenance brought the law into contempt ''. Between 1930 and 1935 the number of annual road fatalities dropped from 7,305 to 6,502. The same act also introduced a 30 mph (48 km / h) speed limits for UK coach services, UK bus services and most HGVs. Buses were not necessarily fitted with Speedometers at this stage.
A ' Road traffic (speedometer) bill ' was debated in 1933 relating only to vehicles to which current speed limits applied.
The Road Traffic Act 1934, created by Leslie Hore - Belisha, the then Minister of Transport, introduced a speed limit of 30 mph (48 km / h) in built - up areas for cars and motorcycles which came into effect on 18 March 1935. The definition of a built - up area was based on the presence of street lighting, which had previously been mandated by the Public Health Act 1875. The re-introduction of a speed limit for cars was in response to concern at increased road casualties. The number of fatalities had increased to 7,343 deaths, half of the deaths were pedestrians and of three - quarters of these occurred in built - up areas. Between 1935 and 1940 the number of annual road fatalities increased from 6,502 to 8,609.
Speedometers were made compulsory for new cars in 1937.
A 20 mph (32 km / h) night - time speed limit for built - up areas was introduced in 1940 as an attempt to halt the increase in the number of road casualties occurring during the World War II blackouts. Following the introduction of blackouts fatalities rose on speed - limited roads from 289 in March 1939 to 325 in March 1940. For October 1940 the total number of deaths during daylight (when the speed limit did n't apply) fell, in relation to those for October 1939, from 511 to 462, whereas the figures for the black - out hours (when the speed limit did apply) rose from 501 to 684. The highest number of deaths in any one year in the UK occurred the following year (9,196 people in 1941).
On 1 October 1956, the 30 mph (48 km / h) speed limit for built - up areas became permanent under the Road Traffic Act 1956. The speed limit, introduced on a trial basis in 1935, had relied on being renewed by Parliament each year. The maximum speed limit for goods vehicles was raised from 20 mph (32 km / h) to 30 mph (48 km / h) in 1957.
In addition, around 1958 some 30 mph roads had the limit raised to 40 mph to improve transit times, an early example being on Croydon Road in Mitcham, Surrey, saving, it was estimated, 33 seconds in journey time across Mitcham common.
Following a series of serious motorway multiple crashes in the fog in 1965, Tom Fraser, the then Minister of Transport, following consultations in early November with the police and with the National Road Safety Advisory Council (NRSAC), concluded that the crashes were caused by vehicles travelling too fast for the prevailing conditions. The NRSAC advised that a 20 mph (32 km / h) motorway speed limit should be imposed on motorway stretches affected by fog and that a general speed limit of 70 mph (113 km / h) should be experimentally applied for the winter months.
On 25 November 1965 the government announced that a temporary 30 mph (48 km / h) speed limit would be applied to sections of motorway (there were 350 miles (560 km) of it at that time) affected by fog, ice or snow and that a general maximum speed limit of 70 mph (113 km / h) would be applied to all otherwise unrestricted roads, including motorways, for a trial period of four months starting just before Christmas. The four - month trial 70 mph (113 km / h) speed limit on 100,000 miles (160,000 km) of previously unrestricted roads and motorways was introduced at noon on 22 December 1965. Also on that day, the power for the police to apply advisory speed limits of 30 mph (48 km / h) to motorways affected by bad weather was also introduced. The advisory limit was activated by the use of flashing amber lights placed at 1 mile (1.6 km) intervals along the motorways.
In April 1966 Barbara Castle, the new Minister of Transport, decided to extend the experimental 70 mph (113 km / h) limit for a further two months to allow the Road Research Laboratory (RRL) time to collect data as there was still no conclusive evidence of its effectiveness. In May 1966 Barbara Castle extended the experimental period by a further fifteen months to 3 September 1967 as "the case is not proven '' but there were signs of crash rate reduction.
In July 1966 the speed limit for "public service vehicles '' (notably buses) was raised from 40 mph (64 km / h) to 50 mph (80 km / h). During 1966, the highest number of fatalities during peacetime at 7,985 deaths, was recorded.
In July 1967, Castle announced that 70 mph (113 km / h) was to become the permanent maximum speed limit for all roads and motorways. She had accepted RRL evidence that the speed limit had reduced the number of casualties on motorways. She ruled out minimum speed limits for motorways which would also reduce the danger of slow traffic as being too difficult to enforce and likely to increase congestion off the motorways.
The two major motoring organisations at the time, The Automobile Association and the R.A.C. welcomed the maximum speed limits for all - purpose roads, but the R.A.C. would have preferred more flexibility for motorways. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents suggested that a lower speed limit would be more appropriate for all - purpose roads and the Pedestrian 's Association for Road Safety condemned the new limits as being too high, preferring 60 mph (97 km / h) limits for all roads. Castle 's decision and acceptance of the RRL research at face value was controversial. Peter Walker 's motion in Parliament to annul the speed limit on motorways was negatived.
Due to the 1973 oil crisis, a temporary maximum national speed limit of 50 mph (80 km / h) for all roads, including motorways, was introduced on 8 December 1973. The 70 mph (113 km / h) limit was restored on motorways in March 1974 and on all other roads on 8 May 1974.
As an initiative to reduce energy consumption, the national speed limits for otherwise unrestricted single - carriageway and dual - carriageway roads were temporarily reduced to 50 mph (80 km / h) and 60 mph (97 km / h) respectively (motorway speed limits were left unchanged at 70 mph (113 km / h)) from 14 December 1974. In November 1976 the temporary speed limits were extended at least until the end of May 1977. In April 1977, the government announced that the national speed limits for single - carriageway roads was to be increased to 60 mph (97 km / h) and that the 70 mph (113 km / h) speed limit was to be restored on dual - carriageways on 1 June 1977.
A speed limiter requirement for mopeds was introduced in 1977, with the speed cap being progressively redefined from 35 mph (56 km / h), to 30 mph (48 km / h), back up to 50 km / h (31 mph) and finally to 45 km / h (28 mph) in the late 2000s.
The 70 mph (113 km / h) speed limit was made permanent in 1978.
The Road Traffic Regulation Act, which was passed in 1984, includes legislation relating to speed limits. Part VI of the Act defines the default speed limit for ' regularly ' - lit roads, gives local authorities powers to create ' speed limit orders ', and exempts emergency vehicles from speed limits; the Act also defines speeding offences.
The first 20 mph (32 km / h) speed limits for residential areas were introduced in 1991 and then speed limiters for buses and coaches set at 65 mph (105 km / h) and also for HGVs set at 56 mph (90 km / h) in 1994. It was made easier for local authorities to introduce a 20 mph (32 km / h) limit in 1999.
In March 2009 the Government consulted on reducing speed limits on rural roads (on which 52 % of fatalities had occurred in the previous year) to 50 mph. It explained that ' crashes were more likely on rural parts of the road network, upon most of which the national speed limit of 60 mph applies '. The Conservative opposition party and the AA were both opposed. The president of the AA said that speed limits that are too low can result in a greater number of accidents and that a "blanket reduction of speed limits would not make roads safer, given that many accidents on rural roads involved only one car ''.
In February 2010 the Department for Transport undertook a consultation to set a 65 mph speed limit for all buses, minibuses and coaches with more than eight passenger seats. These proposals were not taken up.
In April 2015 the speed limit for Heavy Goods Vehicles over 7.5 tonnes was increased from 40 to 50 mph on single carriageways and from 50 mph to 60 mph on dual carriageways in England and Wales, but not Scotland.
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who sings make it rain on sons of anarchy | Make It Rain (Foy Vance song) - wikipedia
"Make It Rain '' is a song by Northern Irish musician Foy Vance. It was made famous by Ed Sheeran in 2014 when it was used in the television series Sons of Anarchy.
Ed Sheeran 's recording of the song was used in an episode in season 7 of the television series Sons of Anarchy. Sheeran was an avid fan of the music for the series and mentioned it in a tweet. When the show 's creator (Kurt Sutter) read the tweet, he proposed that Sheeran record a song for one of the episodes. As Sheeran was touring with Foy Vance at the time, and as one of Vance 's songs (Make It Rain) started with the lyrics "When the sins of my father / Weigh down in my soul '', Sheeran thought it was appropriate for the series and with Vance 's approval, Sheeran recorded the song to be used in the episode "Red Rose '' broadcast on 2 December 2014.
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how many times have the warriors won a championship | Golden State Warriors - wikipedia
The Golden State Warriors are an American professional basketball team based in Oakland, California. The Warriors compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Warriors play their home games at the Oracle Arena in Oakland. The Warriors have reached nine NBA Finals, winning five NBA championships in 1947, 1956, 1975, 2015 and 2017. Golden State 's five NBA championships are tied for fourth-most in NBA history with the San Antonio Spurs, and behind only the Boston Celtics (17), Los Angeles Lakers (16) and Chicago Bulls (6). As of 2017, the Warriors are the third most valuable NBA franchise according to Forbes, with an estimated value of $2.6 billion.
The team was established in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a founding member of the Basketball Association of America (BAA). In 1962, the franchise relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area and was renamed the San Francisco Warriors. In 1971, the team changed its geographic moniker to Golden State, California 's state nickname. The team is nicknamed the Dubs as a shortening of "W 's ''.
Wilt Chamberlain and Stephen Curry have both been named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player while playing for the Warriors, for a total of three MVP awards. 18 Hall of Famers have played for the Warriors, while four have coached the team. Golden State holds the NBA records for best regular season with 73 -- 9 and most wins in a season (regular season and postseason combined) with 88 in 2015 -- 16, as well as best postseason with 16 -- 1 (. 941 winning percentage) in 2016 -- 17.
The Warriors were founded in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors, a charter member of the Basketball Association of America. They were owned by Peter A. Tyrrell, who also owned the Philadelphia Rockets of the American Hockey League. Tyrrell hired Eddie Gottlieb, a longtime basketball promoter in the Philadelphia area, as coach and general manager. The owners named the team after the Philadelphia Warriors, an old basketball team who played in the American Basketball League in 1925.
Led by early scoring sensation Joe Fulks, the team won the championship in the league 's inaugural 1946 -- 47 season by defeating the Chicago Stags, four games to one. The NBA, which was created by a 1949 merger, officially recognizes that as its own first championship. Gottlieb bought the team in 1951.
The Warriors won its other championship in Philadelphia in the 1955 -- 56 season, defeating the Fort Wayne Pistons four games to one. The Warrior stars of this era were future Hall of Famers Paul Arizin, Tom Gola and Neil Johnston. In 1959, the team signed draft pick Wilt Chamberlain. Known as "Wilt the Stilt '', he led the team in scoring six times, quickly began shattering NBA scoring records and changed the NBA style of play forever. On March 2, 1962, in a Warrior "home '' game played on a neutral court in Hershey, Pennsylvania, Chamberlain scored 100 points against the New York Knicks, a single - game record the NBA ranks among its finest moments.
In 1962, Franklin Mieuli purchased the majority shares of the team and relocated the franchise to the San Francisco Bay Area, renaming them the San Francisco Warriors. The Warriors played most of their home games at the Cow Palace in Daly City (the facility lies just south of the San Francisco city limits) from 1962 to 1964 and the San Francisco Civic Auditorium from 1964 to 1966, though occasionally playing home games in nearby cities such as Oakland and San Jose.
Prior to the 1963 -- 64 NBA season, the Warriors drafted big man Nate Thurmond to go along with Chamberlain. The Warriors won the Western Division crown that season, but lost the 1964 NBA Finals to the Boston Celtics, four games to one. In the 1964 -- 65 season, the Warriors traded Chamberlain to the Philadelphia 76ers for Connie Dierking, Lee Shaffer, Paul Neumann and $150,000 and won only 17 games. In 1965, they drafted Rick Barry in the first round who went on to become NBA Rookie of the Year that season and then led the Warriors to the NBA finals in the 1966 -- 67 season, losing (four games to two) to Chamberlain 's new team that had replaced the Warriors in Philadelphia, the 76ers.
Angered by management 's failure to pay him certain incentive bonuses he felt were due him, Barry sat out the 1967 -- 68 season and signed with the Oakland Oaks of the rival American Basketball Association for the following year, but after four seasons in the ABA rejoined the Warriors in 1972. During Barry 's absence, the Warriors were no longer title contenders, and the mantle of leadership fell to Thurmond, Jeff Mullins and Rudy LaRusso. They began scheduling more home games in Oakland with the opening of the Oakland Coliseum Arena in 1966 and the 1970 -- 71 season would be the team 's last as the San Francisco Warriors.
The franchise adopted its brand name Golden State Warriors prior to the 1971 -- 72 season, in order to suggest that the team represented the entire state of California. Almost all home games were played in Oakland that season; six were played in San Diego, but none in San Francisco or Daly City. Oakland Arena became the team 's exclusive home court in 1971.
The Warriors made the playoffs from 1971 to 1977 except in 1974, and won their first NBA championship on the West Coast in 1974 -- 75. In what many consider the biggest upset in NBA history, Golden State not only defeated the heavily favored Washington Bullets but humiliated them in a four - game sweep. That team was coached by former Warrior Al Attles, and led on the court by Rick Barry and Jamaal Wilkes. Barry was named MVP of the finals.
At 59 - 23, the Warriors had the league 's best record during the 1975 -- 76 season. They were upset, however, by the 42 - 40 Phoenix Suns in seven games in the Western Conference Finals.
Because of the loss of key players such as Barry, Wilkes and Thurmond to trades and retirements, the Warriors struggled to put a competitive team on the court from 1978 to 1987 after being one of the NBA 's dominant teams in the 1960s and most of the 1970s. Through the NBA draft, however, they acquired some players such as high - scoring forward Purvis Short (1978), former Purdue center Joe Barry Carroll (1980) and center Robert Parish (1976), who was traded to the Boston Celtics in 1980 along with the draft pick that would become Kevin McHale for the pick used to draft Carroll. In 1983, the Warriors matched the New York Knicks ' offer for free - agent Bernard King, but, unable to pay his high salary, quickly traded him to the Knicks for guard Micheal Ray Richardson, whom they soon shipped to New Jersey in exchange for former Georgetown Hoya point guard Eric "Sleepy '' Floyd, and journeyman forward Mickey Johnson. (Floyd once scored 29 points for the Warriors in the fourth quarter of a playoff game against the Lakers, though he was later traded to the Houston Rockets).
The departure of these players for various reasons symbolized the franchise 's futility during this period, as head coach Attles moved up to the front office as general manager in 1980 and the team made several coaching changes. New owners Jim Fitzgerald and Dan Finane finally managed to return the team to respectability by hiring former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach George Karl as head coach in 1986 after selecting St. John 's small forward Chris Mullin in the 1985 NBA draft.
After a subpar stretch in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the team had a brief resurgence under coach Karl, culminating in a 1987 Western Conference Semifinal match against Magic Johnson and the Los Angeles Lakers which is still shown on TV in the NBA 's Greatest Games series. In the game, Warriors ' All - Star point guard Sleepy Floyd 's performance in the second half still stands as the NBA playoff record for points scored in a quarter (29) and in a half (39). His six consecutive field goals in the fourth quarter led to a 51 - point finish for him and a victory for the Warriors.
The "Sleepy Floyd game '' was a catalyst for increased interest in the NBA in the Bay Area which was furthered by new coach Don Nelson, who engineered another successful string of wins in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the high - scoring trio of point guard Tim Hardaway, guard Mitch Richmond and forward Chris Mullin (collectively known as "Run TMC '' after the rap group Run - D.M.C.). But "Run TMC '' stayed together for only two seasons (winning only one playoff series), when coach Nelson, in a move to get a promising young front - court player to complement his run - and - gun system, sent Richmond to the Sacramento Kings for rookie power forward Billy Owens. Nelson had been brought to the Warriors from the Milwaukee Bucks by Jim Fitzgerald, who along with Dan Finnane owned the team between 1986 and 1995. In 1993 -- 94, with first - round draft pick and Rookie of the Year power forward Chris Webber playing alongside off - guard Latrell Sprewell, the Warriors made the playoffs.
At the start of the next season, however, a rift formed between Webber and Sprewell on the one hand and Nelson on the other. All three soon left the team, and the organization went into a tailspin. 1994 -- 95 was the first season under new team owner Chris Cohan, who had bought out Fitzgerald and Finnane. The Warriors selected power forward prospect Joe Smith as their first overall draft pick in 1995 and hired Rick Adelman as the new head coach. They sent Tim Hardaway and Chris Gatling to the Miami Heat for Kevin Willis and Bimbo Coles midway through the 1995 -- 96 season, and ended up with a 36 -- 46 record, three wins short of making the playoffs. While their home court, the Oakland Coliseum Arena, was being extensively renovated, the 1996 -- 97 Warriors played their home games in the San Jose Arena and struggled to a 30 -- 52 finish.
Longtime Seton Hall college coach P.J. Carlesimo, who had been recently fired by the Portland Trail Blazers, replaced Adelman as head coach for 1997 -- 98. Sprewell was suspended for the remainder of the 1997 -- 98 season for losing his temper and choking Carlesimo during a team practice in December, generating the glaring newspaper headline "WARRIORS HIT ROCK BOTTOM '' and the declaration by GM Garry St. Jean that Sprewell would never play for the Warriors again. He would not play in the NBA again until he was dealt in January 1999 to the New York Knicks for John Starks, Chris Mills and Terry Cummings.
St. Jean had become the new Warriors ' GM in July 1997; he and his predecessor Dave Twardzik received much of the blame for the Warriors ' struggles early in Cohan 's turbulent tenure as owner in addition to Cohan himself. St. Jean brought in players such as Terry Cummings, John Starks and Mookie Blaylock who were well past their primes. Twardzik drafted several flops, such as Todd Fuller (while Kobe Bryant was still available as well as Steve Nash and Jermaine O'Neal) and Steve Logan (who never played an NBA game). In the following draft, the team selected Adonal Foyle while Tracy McGrady was still available. St. Jean did, however, draft future two - time NBA slam dunk champion off - guard Jason Richardson (from Michigan State), a Warriors ' star scorer through the 2006 -- 07 season.
For a few years, with rising stars Richardson, small forward Antawn Jamison and point guard Gilbert Arenas leading the team, the Warriors seemed like a team on the rise; but the young Warriors did not have enough in the competitive Western Conference to make the playoffs. After the 2002 -- 03 season, St. Jean 's earlier mistakes of committing money to players like Danny Fortson, Adonal Foyle and Erick Dampier were painfully felt by Warriors ' fans when the team was unable to re-sign Arenas despite his desire to stay in the Bay Area. A new rule was implemented in response to second - round draft picks who quickly become superstars. Chris Mullin succeeded St. Jean with the title of Executive Vice President of Basketball Operations in 2004. He hoped to build a winning team around Jason Richardson, Mike Dunleavy Jr and Troy Murphy, and drafted 7 - foot center Andris Biedriņš from Latvia (11th overall). At the 2005 trading deadline, he bolstered to the team with the acquisition of point guard Baron Davis, bringing to the team its first superstar since Mullin himself. The Warriors enjoyed a great start to the 2005 -- 06 season, entering the new year with a plus. 500 winning percentage for the first time since 1994, but managed to win only 13 more games through the end of March due to injuries. Davis often found himself at odds with new head coach Mike Montgomery (used to dealing with college players in his long tenure at Stanford) and failed to remain healthy, playing in just 54 games. On April 5, 2006, the Warriors were officially eliminated from playoff contention in a 114 -- 109 overtime loss to the Hornets, extending their playoff drought to 12 seasons.
Entering the 2006 -- 07 season, the Warriors held the active record (12) for the most consecutive seasons without a playoff appearance (see Active NBA non-playoff appearance streaks). During the 2006 off - season, Golden State announced that it had bought out the remaining two years of coach Montgomery 's contract and hired previous Golden State and former Dallas Mavericks coach Don Nelson to take over for him. During training camp, small forward Matt Barnes established himself in the rotation. On January 17, 2007, the Warriors traded the disappointing Murphy and Dunleavy with promising young power forward Ike Diogu and Keith McLeod to the Indiana Pacers for forward Al Harrington, forward / guard Stephen Jackson, guard Šarūnas Jasikevičius and forward Josh Powell. This trade allowed the Warriors to "run and gun '' their way to the playoffs with a more athletic and talented team. On March 4, 2007, the Warriors suffered a 106 -- 107 loss in Washington, the Wizards handing them their 6th straight loss when former Warrior Arenas hit a technical free throw with less than one second remaining after Nelson had protested a controversial call with the Warriors ahead by a slim margin. The loss dropped them to 26 -- 35.
March 4 marked the turning point for the Warriors. The Warriors closed out the regular season (42 -- 40) at 16 -- 5 in their last 21 games. "We Believe '' became the Warriors ' slogan for the last two months of the season and the playoffs.
Led by a healthy Baron Davis, an ever - improving Jason Richardson and young future star off - guard Monta Ellis as well as center Biedriņš, the Warriors immediately dashed the highly favored top - seed Dallas Mavericks ' expectations of a short and easy series win with a Game 1 victory in Dallas thanks to Davis ' frantic style of play. The Mavericks came back to win Game 2 easily to tie the series at a game apiece, but the Warriors won both Games 3 & 4 with a huge lift from the home crowd at Oracle Arena. A close Game 5 saw the Mavericks eke out a 118 -- 112 victory with a last - minute surge led by superstar forward Dirk Nowitzki to send the series back to California at 3 -- 2. In Game 6, the Warriors engineered a third - quarter 18 -- 0 run to eliminate the Mavericks and become the NBA 's first No. 8 seed to beat a No. 1 seed in a seven - game series (and the first NBA No. 8 seed to beat the top seed since 1999 when the New York Knicks eliminated the Miami Heat). It was an upset in name only, given the fact that the Warriors had swept the Mavericks in the regular season series.
The Warriors went on to play the Utah Jazz in the second round of the 2006 -- 07 playoffs, where they dropped two close games at EnergySolutions Arena to open the series. The series then shifted to the Oracle Arena, where the Warriors won Game 3 in a convincing blowout. Davis scored 32 points and electrified the crowd with a monster dunk on Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko late in the fourth quarter, but they lost Game 4 at home, their first loss in Oakland in well over a month and the Jazz closed them out in Game 5 in Salt Lake City.
The Warriors faced early difficulties in their attempt to return to the playoffs. Richardson was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for rookie Brandan Wright. To make things even worse, Jackson was suspended for seven games over a firearm incident. They opened the 2007 -- 08 season with six straight losses, but Ellis ' rise, Davis ' solid injury - free season (21.6 points, 8 assists, 4.6 rebounds per game), and an overall improvement in team chemistry brought them back to playoff contention; but in the end the Warriors failed to make the playoffs despite a 48 -- 34 season, which is the best record in NBA history for a non-playoff team since the NBA playoffs had expanded to eight teams per conference. The Western Conference was very strong that season; every playoff team won 50 games, leaving the Warriors two games out of the last playoff spot. The Warriors sold out nearly every home game during the season averaging 19,631 per game, the highest in team history.
In the offseason, Baron Davis opted to return to his home town and sign with the Los Angeles Clippers. With the 14th pick of the 2008 NBA draft, the Warriors selected and signed Anthony Randolph out of LSU. To compensate for the loss of Davis, the Warriors signed free agents Corey Maggette and Ronny Turiaf and re-signed Ellis and Andris Biedriņš to long - term contracts.
The Warriors had a disappointing 2008 -- 2009 season, finishing 29 -- 53. Ellis was injured in a moped accident, and suspended for 30 games for riding the vehicle against the terms of his contract, depriving the Warriors of their top player. They traded disenchanted forward Al Harrington to the New York Knicks for guard Jamal Crawford, and were undone by injuries and the minimal experience of their young players such as Anthony Morrow and Brandan Wright. Coach Nelson often had to make adjustments to the starting lineups since many of the original starters missed games due to injuries. Despite the team 's losing record, the Warriors were hard to beat when they had a healthy lineup and a strong bench. With leadership and improvement in their young players, they were sometimes able to defeat powerhouse teams such as the Boston Celtics, 99 - 89.
During the 2009 off - season, Warrior ownership declined to renew the contract of general manager Mullin. Larry Riley, Nelson 's longtime assistant coach, was promoted in his place and drafted Stephen Curry as an outstanding 7th lottery pick, but dubiously traded Jamal Crawford to the Atlanta Hawks for Acie Law and Speedy Claxton.
The Warriors had another injury - prone year in 2009 -- 10. as they were consistently unable to field their ideal starting lineup. In November, a malcontented Stephen Jackson and seldom - used Acie Law were traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Raja Bell (out for the season with an injury) and Vladimir Radmanovic. Four days later, they signed center Chris Hunter. Starting in January 2010, they issued multiple 10 - day contracts, most notably to power forward Anthony Tolliver from the Idaho Stampede. Due to their multiple injuries, they were granted an exception allowing them to sign Reggie Williams from the Sioux Falls Skyforce to a 10 - day contract on March 2, making it their fifth D - League call - up that season, tying an NBA record. They eventually waived the injured Bell to sign Williams for the rest of the year, and finished the season 26 -- 56, fourth in the Pacific Division.
On June 24, the Warriors selected Ekpe Udoh, a power forward from Baylor, as the 6th pick of the 2010 NBA draft. They also introduced a modernized version of their "The City '' logo depicting the new eastern span of the San Francisco - Oakland Bay Bridge, and switched to a simplified color scheme of royal blue and gold. They also introduced new uniforms reminiscent of the 1969 -- 71 "The City '' uniforms. The Warriors made an offseason trade that sent Turiaf, Randolph and Kelenna Azubuike to the New York Knicks in return for star high - scoring power forward David Lee via a sign - and - trade. Lee agreed to a six - year, $80 million deal, on a framework contingent on the decision of superstar forward LeBron James to leave the Cleveland Cavaliers to sign with the Miami Heat that same day. Following Morrow 's departure after he signed the New Jersey Nets ' offer sheet, the Warriors signed Dorell Wright, formerly with the Miami Heat, to a three - year, $11 million deal.
On July 15, owner Chris Cohan sold the Warriors to Peter Guber of Mandalay Entertainment and his partner Joe Lacob for a then - record $450 million. On November 15, the Warriors announced the new 19 - person ownership group composed of Joe Lacob, Peter Guber, Vivek Ranadivé, Erika Glazer, Fred Harman, Bob Piccinini, Larry Bowman, Danny German, Marty Glick, Chad Hurley, Craig R. Johnson, Bruce Karsh, Jeffrey A. Miller, Paul Schaeffer, David Scially, Nick Swinmurn, Harry Tsao, John Walecka and Dennis Wong.
The Warriors continued their signing spree by adding Harvard guard Jeremy Lin to their roster with a one - year partially guaranteed contract containing a second - year team option, the first Taiwanese - American player in NBA history. Louis Amundson was then added for little under $5 million in mid-September. Keith Smart was hired as head coach that same month after Nelson had resigned before the start of training camp.
In February 2011, the Warriors traded Brandan Wright and Dan Gadzuric for Troy Murphy and a 2011 second - round pick. On February 27, Murphy and the Warriors reached a buyout agreement and he was waived.
During a steady season without making any real ground in the playoff race, the Warriors broke franchise records with 21 made 3 's in a win against the Orlando Magic. In April 2011, Dorell Wright made a franchise record of 184 3 's in a season in a home win versus Los Angeles Lakers, surpassing Richardson 's 183 in 2005 -- 06. He then broke another NBA record, as the first player to have scored more points in his seventh season than in all his first six seasons combined in a win against the Portland Trail Blazers. He ended the season with the most three - pointers made in the NBA that season with 194, as well as the most 3s attempted with 516, both of which set new Warrior franchise records.
The Warriors failed to make the playoffs after a 36 - win season in 2010 -- 11, and coach Smart was dismissed on April 27 due to the change in ownership. 17 - year NBA veteran and former ABC and ESPN commentator Mark Jackson replaced him as head coach on June 6. On December 19, they traded Amundson to the Indiana Pacers for small forward Brandon Rush.
The Warriors did not improve in the 2011 -- 12 NBA season under coach Jackson, finishing the lockout - shorted season with a 23 -- 43 record, 13th in the conference. The team suffered several injuries to key players, and due to the lockout, Jackson could not establish his system in training camp. They then entered into another chaotic rebuilding phase.
Team leader Monta Ellis was traded in mid-March 2012, along with Kwame Brown and Ekpe Udoh, to the Milwaukee Bucks for center Andrew Bogut (out injured for the season) and former Warrior small forward Stephen Jackson, who without playing a game for the Warriors was quickly traded to the San Antonio Spurs for Richard Jefferson and a conditional first - round pick on March 15. These moves saw the rise of Stephen Curry and David Lee to team co-captains, and saw off - guard Klay Thompson, the 11th overall pick of the 2011 NBA draft, move into a starting role. On July 11, they acquired point guard Jarrett Jack from the New Orleans Hornets in a three - team trade also including the Philadelphia 76ers, who received Dorell Wright from Golden State. On August 1, they signed forward Carl Landry on the termination of his one - year contract with the Hornets. In the 2012 NBA draft, they selected small forward Harrison Barnes with the 7th overall pick, center Festus Ezeli with the 30th pick, small forward Draymond Green 35th overall, and 7 - foot 1 - inch center Ognjen Kuzmic 52nd overall. In early November, swingman Rush was lost for the year with a torn ACL after falling awkwardly on the court early in the second game of the season, and less than a month later the team announced that Bogut was out indefinitely with a foot injury that was more serious than originally reported. Bogut did not return to regular play until late in the season.
Coming out of this maelstrom of trades and injuries with a team starting two rookies (Barnes and Ezeli), the Warriors had one of their best starts in decades, earning their 20th win before hitting the 30 - game mark for the first time since 1992. The Warriors also achieved a milestone by completing their first ever 6 -- 1 road trip in franchise history, including a 97 -- 95 win over the defending champion Heat in Miami. On April 9, 2013, with a win over the Minnesota Timberwolves, the Warriors clinched the playoffs for the second time in 19 years and the first time since the 2006 -- 07 "We believe '' Warriors. This time, the local battlecry was "we belong ''.
The team finished the season with a record of 47 -- 35, earning the sixth seed in the Western Conference, and defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round of the playoffs by winning four out of six games. They lost in the second round to the San Antonio Spurs, four games to two. This was the first playoff experience for all of the starters of this group except for Andrew Bogut.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry 's 272 three - point baskets to set an NBA single - season record, giving him the nickname "baby - faced assassin '', and the naming of forward David Lee to the 2013 NBA All - Star Game as a reserve, ending the team 's 16 - year drought without an All Star selection, dating back to Latrell Sprewell in the 1997 season. Curry and Klay Thompson, dubbed the "Splash Brothers '' by team employee Brian Witt for their backcourt shooting prowess, combined for 483 three - pointers during the season, easily besting the prior record of 435 set by the Orlando Magic 's Nick Anderson and Dennis Scott in 1995 -- 96.
With their lone selection in the 2013 NBA draft, the Warriors made 22 - year - old Serbian combo - guard Nemanja Nedovic the 30th and final pick of the first round. In early July 2013, Golden State signed former Denver Nuggets swingman and free agent Andre Iguodala to a four - year, $48 million deal. To make room under their salary cap, the Warriors traded Richard Jefferson, Andris Biedrins and Brandon Rush, along with multiple draft picks, including their 2014 and 2017 first - round picks, to the Utah Jazz. The Warriors lost free - agent guard Jarrett Jack, who departed for the Cleveland Cavaliers, and free agent power forward Carl Landry, who went to the Sacramento Kings. To help fill the void left by Landry, the Warriors signed forward - center Marreese Speights to a three - year, $10 million contract. The team also signed one - year deals with veteran center Jermaine O'Neal ($2 million) and point guard Toney Douglas ($1.6 million). On August 21, the Warriors signed 7 ft 1 in Serbian center Ognjen Kuzmic, who had been playing in Europe since his selection in the 2012 NBA draft, to a guaranteed two - year deal.
The Warriors began the 2013 -- 14 season showing flashes of brilliance and also plenty of lapses. In early December their record was 12 -- 9, as compared to 17 -- 4 the year before. One challenging factor was a tough starting schedule that saw them play 14 of their first 22 games on the road, including 10 games against teams holding playoff spots in the standings. A stream of injuries also held the team back, including injuries to Festus Ezeli (off - season surgery to repair the right knee, out for the season), Toney Douglas (left tibia stress reaction, out nearly a month from mid-November to December), and Jermaine O'Neal (right wrist injury and surgery, out from mid-November to early February). Stephen Curry and Harrison Barnes were also out for at least four games before the all - star break, each with minor injuries. Most prominently of all, Iguodala suffered a hamstring pull in late November that kept him out for over a month, during which time the Warriors ' performance suffered significantly on both the defensive and offensive ends of the court, and the team posted a losing 5 -- 7 record while revealing a lack of depth on their bench. With Iguodala back in the lineup, the Warriors went on a 10 - game winning streak, which included six consecutive wins on a single road trip, tying an NBA record. The winning streak was the longest for the franchise since the 1975 championship year, and just one short of the team record of 11 consecutive wins, set in the 1971 -- 72 season.
To strengthen their underperforming bench, the Warriors made a three - team trade on January 15, sending Douglas to the Miami Heat and picking up guards Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks from the Boston Celtics and then, a day before the trade deadline, trading Kent Bazemore and Brooks to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for veteran point guard Steve Blake. Thanks in part to the improved effectiveness of their backup squad, boosted by the additions of Blake and Crawford and the play of 35 - year - old Jermaine O'Neal (who returned sooner than expected from wrist surgery), the Warriors were one of the winningest teams in the NBA after the all - star break. Nonetheless, and despite several victories over top contenders, the team displayed a pattern of losing games to inferior teams even at their home arena. On April 11, in a 112 -- 95 stomping of the Los Angeles Lakers at the Staples Center, the Warriors clinched a playoff berth in consecutive seasons for the first time since 1991 and 1992. However, just one day earlier in a loss against the Portland Trail Blazers, Andrew Bogut suffered a cracked rib that would keep him out of the post-season, a big blow to the sixth - seed Warriors ' playoff hopes.
The Warriors ended the season 51 -- 31, winning more than 50 games for only the fourth time in franchise history, finishing 20 games over. 500 for the first time in 22 years, and tying the 1991 -- 92 squad for the franchise 's all - time mark of 24 wins on the road. Even without Bogut, in the first round of the playoffs the Warriors battled the third - seed Los Angeles Clippers to a seventh and deciding game, which the Warriors lost, bringing their 2013 -- 14 season to an end. It was season of many thrilling moments in which the Warriors ' played in 17 regular - season games decided by 2 points or less, 6 games with winning shots in the final 3 seconds, and 7 comeback wins in which the Warriors had been behind by 15 points or more.
In other noteworthy occurrences for the season, Curry was named to the starting lineup for the 2014 NBA All - Star Game. For Curry, the only Warrior named to the team, this was his first all - star appearance in five seasons as an NBA player. Curry hit another notable milestone in posting 4 triple - doubles for the season, tying a franchise record unequaled since Wilt Chamberlain in 1963 -- 64. Curry also averaged career - bests in points and assists; averaging 24.0 points and 8.5 assists in the season. Curry and Klay Thompson continued to set league records in three - point shooting. On February 7, in a 102 -- 87 win over the Chicago Bulls, the backcourt duo became the first teammates to each make a three - pointer in 30 consecutive games. Curry, who finished the season with 261 threes, set an individual record for most three - pointers in a span of two seasons with 533, surpassing the previous mark of 478 set by Seattle Supersonic Ray Allen in 2004 -- 05 and 2005 -- 06. Together, Thompson and Curry combined for 484 threes on the year, besting by one the NBA record they had set the year before.
Even as the team rolled towards the post-season, signs emerged of trouble in the Warriors ' front office. On March 25, the team reassigned assistant coach Brian Scalabrine to the team 's NBA Development League Affiliate in Santa Cruz because of what head coach Mark Jackson called a "difference in philosophies '' and what unnamed league sources cited by Yahoo! Sports called "an increasingly dysfunctional atmosphere '' on the Warriors ' coaching staff. Fewer than two weeks later, assistant coach Darren Erman was fired for secretly recording conversations between coaches, staff and players. During the post season, rumors persisted in the press that Mark Jackson 's job as head coach was in jeopardy, leading the players to make a unanimous declaration of support for Jackson 's return only minutes after the Warriors ' first - round, game seven playoff loss to the Clippers. Nonetheless, three days later, on May 6, the team announced the firing of Mark Jackson as head coach. In his three - season tenure as head coach, Jackson compiled a 121 - 109 (. 526) record, overseeing a terrific turnaround. When Jackson took the helm in 2011, the franchise had made the playoffs only one time over the prior 17 seasons, averaging 30.2 wins per season during that period. Jackson, 49, became just the third head coach in franchise history to lead a team to at least 50 wins in a season, joining Don Nelson and Alvin Attles, who both hit the mark twice with the Warriors. With 121 wins overall, Jackson ranks fourth on the franchise 's all - time wins list, trailing Attles (557), Nelson (422) and Eddie Gottlieb (263). On May 14, 2014, the Golden State Warriors named Steve Kerr the team 's head coach in a reported $25 million deal over five years. It was a first - time head - coaching position for Kerr, 48, a five - time NBA champion point guard who holds the all - time career record for accuracy in three - point shooting (. 454). Kerr formerly served as president and general manager for the Phoenix Suns basketball team (2007 to 2010), and had most recently been working as an NBA broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT).
The Warriors completed the regular season with a record of 67 - 15, the best in the league and the most wins in franchise history. The Warriors also finished with a home record of 39 -- 2, the second best in NBA history. They were first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. On May 4, Stephen Curry was named the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player, the first Warrior to do so since Wilt Chamberlain in 1960. In the first round of the playoffs, they swept the New Orleans Pelicans, defeated Memphis Grizzlies in the second round in six games and defeated Houston Rockets in five games of the Western Conference Finals. The Warriors advanced to their first NBA Finals since 1975, where they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in six games to win their fourth NBA title, and their first in 40 years. Andre Iguodala was named Finals MVP.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry breaking his own record for three - pointers made in a single season with 286. He and Klay Thompson made a combined 525 three - pointers, the most by a duo in NBA history. In the postseason, Curry shattered Reggie Miller 's record of 58 made three - pointers in a single postseason with 98. On January 23, 2015, Klay Thompson broke an NBA record for points in a quarter with 37 in the third. Curry was also the leader in the voting polls for the 2015 NBA All - Star Game, won the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player award and the 2015 ESPYs Best Male Athlete award.
The Warriors began the season by winning their first 24 games, eclipsing the previous best start in NBA history, set by the 1993 -- 94 Houston Rockets and the 1948 -- 49 Washington Capitols at 15 -- 0. The Warriors surpassed the 1969 -- 70 New York Knicks for the best road start in NBA history at 14 -- 0, which is also the joint - third longest road win streak. Their record - setting start ended when they were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks on December 12, 2015. The Warriors broke a 131 - year - old record of 20 -- 0 set by the 1884 St. Louis Maroons baseball team, to claim the best start to a season in all of the major professional sports in America. Golden State also won 28 consecutive regular - season games dating back to the 2014 -- 15 season, eclipsing the 2012 -- 13 Miami Heat for the second longest winning streak in NBA history. The team set an NBA record 54 - straight regular season home game winning streak, which spanned from January 31, 2015, to March 29, 2016. The previous record of 44 was held by the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls team led by Michael Jordan.
Stephen Curry, Draymond Green and Klay Thompson were all named to the All - Star Game, the first time the Warriors have had three All - Stars since 1976. Green broke the Golden State franchise record of nine triple - doubles in a season. Curry broke numerous three - point records during the season, including his own NBA record for made three - pointers in a season of 286; he finished the season with 402 three pointers. He made a three - pointer in 151 consecutive games, which broke the NBA record of 127 set by Kyle Korver in 2014. On February 27, 2016, Curry also tied the NBA record of twelve three - pointers made in a single game, jointly holding it with Donyell Marshall and Kobe Bryant.
On April 13, 2016, Golden State set the record for most wins in a single season, beating Memphis, and finishing 73 - 9. On May 10, 2016, Stephen Curry was named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player (MVP) for the second straight season. Curry is the 11th player to win back - to - back MVP honors and became the first player in NBA history to win the MVP award by unanimous vote, winning all 131 first - place votes. The Golden State Warriors went to their second consecutive appearance in the finals with a rematch against the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors went to a 3 - 1 advantage but the Cavaliers made a comeback to tie the series at 3 wins apiece. In Game 7 the Golden State Warriors lost the championship series on their homecourt, and earned the unfortunate distinction of becoming the first team to blow a 3 - 1 lead in the NBA finals.
On July 4, 2016, Kevin Durant announced he would leave the Oklahoma City Thunder in order to sign a 2 - year contract with the Golden State Warriors. On July 7, Durant signed his contract, which gave the Warriors a fourth All - NBA player on their team. The Durant signing made the Warriors the prohibitive favorites to win the NBA championship, according to oddsmakers.
The Warriors posted many notable achievements during the 2016 -- 17 regular season. On November 7, 2016, Stephen Curry set the NBA record for most 3 - pointers in a game with 13 in a 116 - 106 win over the Pelicans. On December 5, 2016, Klay Thompson scored 60 points in 29 minutes in a 142 -- 106 victory over the Pacers. In doing so, Thompson became the first player in NBA history to score 60 or more points in fewer than 30 minutes of playing time. Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, Draymond Green, and Klay Thompson were all named to the 2017 NBA All - Star Game, making the Warriors only the eighth team in NBA history to have four All - Stars. On February 10, 2017, Draymond Green recorded a triple - double with 12 rebounds, 10 assists, and 10 steals, becoming the first player in NBA history to post a triple - double with fewer than 10 points. On March 2, 2017, the Warriors ' streak for most games without back - to - back losses ended at 146 with a 94 -- 87 loss to the Chicago Bulls. The streak eclipsed the previous record of 95 held by the Utah Jazz.
The Warriors earned home - court advantage throughout the 2017 playoffs, thanks to a 2016 -- 17 regular season record of 67 -- 15. They were the first team in NBA playoff history to start 12 -- 0, defeating in order the Trail Blazers, the Jazz, and the Spurs. The 2017 Finals once again pitted the Warriors against the Cavaliers, becoming the first time in NBA history that two teams met in the Finals for three consecutive years. The Warriors won the championship after going 4 -- 1 in the Finals, and their 16 -- 1 playoff record garnered the best winning percentage (. 941) in NBA playoffs history.
In April 2014, the Warriors began the purchase process for a 12 - acre site in Mission Bay, San Francisco, to hold a new 18,000 - seat arena which is expected to be ready for the 2019 - 20 NBA season, with construction to begin in early 2016. The sale was finalized in October 2015. The location was selected after an original proposal to construct the arena on Piers 30 and 32, just south of the Bay Bridge, met with vocal opposition due to concerns about traffic, environmental impacts and obstruction of views. The new location, which still faces some vocal opposition in San Francisco, apparently eliminates the need for any voter approval, which would have been required with the original site. Some type of waterfront park is planned across from the projected arena, which will be located at an already - existing Muni T - Third stop. The Central Subway, planned to open in 2018, may provide a direct connection between the new site and the downtown Powell Street Muni / BART station. The Golden State Warriors may consider a concurrent name change, possibly returning to their former name of San Francisco Warriors, although the team 's recent success has them reconsidering that decision. On January 27, 2016, it was announced that the Warriors ' new arena would be called Chase Center as part of an agreement with JP Morgan Chase.
Bob Fitzgerald has done television play - by - play, and former Warrior guard Jim Barnett has done color commentary for the Warriors for more than 15 years, currently on Comcast SportsNet Bay Area, where they telecast more than 70 Warrior games a year. They also host Roundtable Live, a half - hour pre-game show leading up to the broadcast of select Golden State home games. Fitzgerald is in his 16th season as the Warriors ' play - by - play man, while Barnett is in his 27th season as color man. Greg Papa, Garry St. Jean, and Kelenna Azubuike are also members of the telecast team, specializing in in - game, halftime and post-game analysis, while Rosalyn Gold - Onwude serves as the sideline reporter.
Tim Roye has done the radio play - by - play for Warrior games since 1995. He is joined in the booth by former Warriors forward Tom Tolbert for home games only. On August 25, 2016, the Warriors announced they were leaving long time station KNBR and all of their games will be broadcast on KGMZ. After each game, Roye, Fitzgerald and Barnett get together for post-game radio analysis and a next - game preview.
The team trains at Rakuten Performance Center, Oakland, California.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2017 - 07 - 05
The Warriors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee, who is n't signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
Arizin, Fulks, Gola, Johnston and Phillip played all or most of their tenure with the Warriors in Philadelphia. Rodgers ' tenure was evenly divided between Philadelphia and San Francisco, and Chamberlain 's nearly so. King (Knicks), Lucas (Knicks), Parish (Celtics), Richmond (Kings), Sampson (University of Virginia and Rockets), White (Celtics), and Wilkes (Lakers) were elected mostly for their performances with other teams. Marčiulionis played most of his NBA career with Golden State, but his induction is also for his distinguished international career (Statyba, USSR, and Lithuania). Of those elected to the hall primarily as Warriors, only Thurmond, Barry and Mullin spent significant time with the team since the 1971 move to Oakland and the name change to "Golden State ''.
Most Valuable Player
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Scoring Champion
NBA Defensive Player of the Year
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Sportsmanship Award
NBA Community Assist Award
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star selections
NBA All - Star Game head coach
NBA All - Star Game MVP
Slam Dunk Contest
Three - Point Contest
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where does the oil in cheese come from | Cooking oil - wikipedia
Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil.
Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.
There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil), corn oil, peanut oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal - based oils like butter and lard.
Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic.
A guideline for the appropriate amount of fat -- a component of daily food consumption -- is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10 % or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, and 20 - 35 % of total daily calories should come from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.
While consumption of small amounts of saturated fats is common in diets, meta - analyses found a significant correlation between high consumption of saturated fats and blood LDL concentration, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Other meta - analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats (a 10 % lower risk for 5 % replacement).
Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably monounsaturated) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. The US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, listing olive and canola oils as sources of healthier monounsaturated oils while soybean and sunflower oils as good sources of polyunsaturated fats. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower are preferable to the consumption of palm oil for lowering the risk of heart disease.
Peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut - based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy.
Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health. The consumption of trans fats increases one 's risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of "bad '' LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of "good '' HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils.
Several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and the American Heart Association (AHA) all have recommended limiting the intake of trans fats.
Heating an oil changes its characteristics. Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures, so when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil 's heat tolerance with the temperature which will be used. Deep - fat frying temperatures are commonly in the range of 170 -- 190 ° C (338 -- 374 ° F), less commonly, lower temperatures ≥ 130 ° C (266 ° F) are used.
Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand deep frying at higher temperatures and is resistant to oxidation compared to high - polyunsaturated vegetable oils. Since about 1900, palm oil has been increasingly incorporated into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep frying, or in baking at very high temperatures, and for its high levels of natural antioxidants, though the refined palm oil used in industrial food has lost most of its carotenoid content (and its orange - red color).
The following oils are suitable for high - temperature frying due to their high smoke point above 230 ° C (446 ° F):
Less aggressive frying temperatures are frequently used. A quality frying oil has a bland flavor, at least 200 ° C (392 ° F) smoke and 315 ° C (599 ° F) flash points, with maximums of 0.1 % free fatty acids and 3 % linolenic acid. Those oils with higher linolenic fractions are avoided due to polymerization or gumming marked by increases in viscosity with age. Olive oil resists thermal degradation and has been used as a frying oil for thousands of years.
All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production -- a process called tank blanketing.
In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.
Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as macadamia oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil, keep about six months. Rancidity tests have shown that the shelf life of walnut oil is about 3 months, a period considerably shorter than the best before date shown on labels.
By contrast, oils high in saturated fats, such as avocado oil, have relatively long shelf lives and can be safely stored at room temperature, as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability.
Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids. For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable. High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high - oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower.
The smoke point is marked by "a continuous wisp of smoke. '' It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of nutrients and phytochemicals characteristic of the oil.
Above the smoke point are flash and fire points. The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will ignite but are n't produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about 275 -- 330 ° C (527 -- 626 ° F). The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will catch on fire and burn. As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease. They depend more on an oil 's acidity than fatty - acid profile.
The smoke point of cooking oils varies generally in association with how an oil is refined: a higher smoke point results from removal of impurities and free fatty acids. Residual solvent remaining from the refining process may decrease the smoke point. It has been reported to increase with the inclusion of antioxidants (BHA, BHT, and TBHQ). For these reasons, the published smoke points of oils may vary.
Oils are extracted from nuts, seeds, olives, grains or legumes by extraction using industrial chemicals or by mechanical processes. Expeller pressing is a chemical - free process that collects oils from a source using a mechanical press with minimal heat. Cold - pressed oils are extracted under a controlled temperature setting usually below 105 ° C (221 ° F) intended to preserve naturally occurring phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, plant sterols and vitamin E which collectively affect color, flavor, aroma and nutrient value.
Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet buyer expectations.
There are three broad types of oil extraction:
In large - scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction and / or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible.
Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination):
Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it does n't alter the state of the oil.
Most large - scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product that 's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life. Cooking oil intended for the health food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high temperatures and chemical processing.
Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste - management concern. Oil can congeal on pipes provoking blockages.
Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage. Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.
Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used as animal feed, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel, soap, and other industrial products.
In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food - processing industries (typically from deep fryers or griddles) is called recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable oil (WVO), or yellow grease.
Yellow grease is used to feed livestock, and to make soap, make - up, clothes, rubber, detergents, and biodiesel fuel.
Used cooking oil, besides being converted to biodiesel, can be used directly in modified diesel engines and for heating.
Grease traps or interceptors collect fats and oils from kitchen sinks and floor drains which would othewise clog sewer lines and interfere with septic systems and sewage treatment. The collected product is called brown grease in the recycling industry. Brown grease is contaminated with rotted food solids and considered unsuitable for re-use in most applications.
Gutter oil and trench oil are terms used in China to describe recycled oil processed to resemble virgin oil, but containing toxic contaminants and sold illegally for cooking; its origin is frequently brown grease from garbage.
In Kenya, thieves sell transformer oil stolen from electric transformers to operators of roadside food stalls for use in deep frying, suitable for prolonged use longer than regular cooking oil, but a threat to consumer health due to the presence of PCBs.
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who is one of state's u.s. senators now | Current members of the United States Senate - wikipedia
There are 100 senators, two from each of the 50 U.S. states. This is a list of the current members of the United States Senate (115th United States Congress).
Democratic Republican Independent
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who sings when i think about you i touch myself | I Touch Myself - wikipedia
"I Touch Myself '' is a song written and recorded by the Australian rock band Divinyls. It was released in November 1990 as the lead single from their fifth album, diVINYLS, and is a paean to female pleasure, eroticism, orgasm and masturbation.
The single achieved great success, reaching number four on the U.S Billboard Hot 100 on 18 March 1991; meanwhile in their native country, Australia, the single reached the number one position. The song was written by Divinyls bandmembers Christina Amphlett and Mark McEntee and professional songwriters Tom Kelly and Billy Steinberg. It has since been covered by numerous artists.
Christina Amphlett and Mark McEntee wrote the song in 1990 with the songwriting team of Tom Kelly and Billy Steinberg (who have written songs such as "I 'll Stand by You, '' "Like a Virgin, '' "Eternal Flame, '' "True Colors '' and "So Emotional ''). Billy Steinberg had "I Touch Myself '' in his notebook; he had written the first verse and the chorus lyric. Amphlett liked it immediately. The next day, McEntee, Steinberg, Kelly, and Amphlett got together and wrote the rest, an unusual move, as Steinberg and Kelly rarely collaborated with others. Putting the song together took a lot of trial and error. It was recorded to two - inch tape, making it difficult to edit. After significant experimentation they came up with an unusual structure with the bridge placed after the first chorus. It 's written in the key of F Major.
The song was featured in the 1997 comedy film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, in the scene where Austin dances to make the Fembot 's heads explode. The song was also featured in the Chilean soap opera Graduados and TV show Supernatural. The song was also featured in the film Prelude to a Kiss. In 2014, some of Australia 's leading female artists came together to reincarnate Amphlett 's anthem, "I Touch Myself ''. Each provided their own interpretation and distinct style to the song in an effort to raise awareness and funds for breast cancer.
In Australia "I Touch Myself '' was released on 19 November 1990 on 7 '' and cassette, and the CD single was released on 3 December 1990. The single debuted at No. 77 on 2 December 1990. On its tenth week on the chart, the song reached No. 1, replacing Vanilla Ice 's debut single "Ice Ice Baby '', and stayed there for another week. The single was certified platinum in Australia.
"I Touch Myself '' debuted on the UK Singles Chart at No. 69 and on its eighth week it peaked at No. 10, spending a total of twelve weeks in the chart. When released in the United States, the song caused a minor controversy. However, it managed to reach the top five of the Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at No. 4, and at No. 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart, after receiving extensive play on modern rock radio, which was more accepting of the song 's subject matter. Divinyls are considered a one - hit wonder in the US, as "I Touch Myself '' was their only Stateside Top 40.
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when did star spangled banner became national anthem | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of one octave and one fifth (a semitone more than an octave and a half), it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "The Star - Spangled Banner '', as well as "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes, but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War.
Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use, and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased, and its first public performance took place in October, when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The Italian opera composer Giacomo Puccini used an extract of the melody in writing the aria "Dovunque al mondo... '' in 1904 for his work Madama Butterfly.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward she attempted a gesture of ball players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1932, there was no proscription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942 the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegence versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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difference between reid vapour pressure and true vapour pressure | Reid vapor pressure - Wikipedia
Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a common measure of the volatility of gasoline. It is defined as the absolute vapor pressure exerted by a liquid at 37.8 ° C (100 ° F) as determined by the test method ASTM - D - 323. The test method measures the vapor pressure of gasoline, volatile crude oil, and other volatile petroleum products, except for liquefied petroleum gases. RVP is stated in kilopascals and represents a relative pressure to the atmospheric pressure because ASTM - D - 323 measures the gauge pressure of the sample in a non-evacuated chamber. All values are in SI units and are regarded as standards. Imperial units are for information only.
The matter of vapor pressure is important relating to the function and operation of gasoline - powered, especially carbureted, vehicles. High levels of vaporization are desirable for winter starting and operation and lower levels are desirable in avoiding vapor lock during summer heat. Fuel can not be pumped when there is vapor in the fuel line (summer) and winter starting will be more difficult when liquid gasoline in the combustion chambers has not vaporized. Thus, oil refineries manipulate the Reid Vapor Pressure seasonally specifically to maintain gasoline engine reliability.
The Reid vapor pressure (RVP) differs slightly from the true vapor pressure (TVP) of a liquid due to small sample vaporization and the presence of water vapor and air in the confined space of the test equipment. That is, the RVP is the absolute vapor pressure and the TVP is the partial vapor pressure.
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george frederick handel's hallelujah chorus from messiah is what form of music | Messiah (Handel) - wikipedia
Messiah (HWV 56) is an English - language oratorio composed in 1741 by George Frideric Handel, with a scriptural text compiled by Charles Jennens from the King James Bible, and from the version of the Psalms included with the Book of Common Prayer. It was first performed in Dublin on 13 April 1742 and received its London premiere nearly a year later. After an initially modest public reception, the oratorio gained in popularity, eventually becoming one of the best - known and most frequently performed choral works in Western music.
Handel 's reputation in England, where he had lived since 1712, had been established through his compositions of Italian opera. He turned to English oratorio in the 1730s in response to changes in public taste; Messiah was his sixth work in this genre. Although its structure resembles that of opera, it is not in dramatic form; there are no impersonations of characters and no direct speech. Instead, Jennens 's text is an extended reflection on Jesus as the Messiah called Christ. The text begins in Part I with prophecies by Isaiah and others, and moves to the annunciation to the shepherds, the only "scene '' taken from the Gospels. In Part II, Handel concentrates on the Passion and ends with the "Hallelujah '' chorus. In Part III he covers the resurrection of the dead and Christ 's glorification in heaven.
Handel wrote Messiah for modest vocal and instrumental forces, with optional settings for many of the individual numbers. In the years after his death, the work was adapted for performance on a much larger scale, with giant orchestras and choirs. In other efforts to update it, its orchestration was revised and amplified by (among others) Mozart. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the trend has been towards reproducing a greater fidelity to Handel 's original intentions, although "big Messiah '' productions continue to be mounted. A near - complete version was issued on 78 rpm discs in 1928; since then the work has been recorded many times.
The composer George Frideric Handel, born in Halle, Germany in 1685, took up permanent residence in London in 1712, and became a naturalised British subject in 1727. By 1741 his pre-eminence in British music was evident from the honours he had accumulated, including a pension from the court of King George II, the office of Composer of Musick for the Chapel Royal, and -- most unusually for a living person -- a statue erected in his honour in Vauxhall Gardens. Within a large and varied musical output, Handel was a vigorous champion of Italian opera, which he had introduced to London in 1711 with Rinaldo. He subsequently wrote and presented more than 40 such operas in London 's theatres.
By the early 1730s public taste for Italian opera was beginning to fade. The popular success of John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepusch 's The Beggar 's Opera (first performed in 1728) had heralded a spate of English - language ballad - operas that mocked the pretensions of Italian opera. With box - office receipts falling, Handel 's productions were increasingly reliant on private subsidies from the nobility. Such funding became harder to obtain after the launch in 1730 of the Opera of the Nobility, a rival company to his own. Handel overcame this challenge, but he spent large sums of his own money in doing so.
Although prospects for Italian opera were declining, Handel remained committed to the genre, but as alternatives to his staged works he began to introduce English - language oratorios. In Rome in 1707 -- 08 he had written two Italian oratorios at a time when opera performances in the city were temporarily forbidden under papal decree. His first venture into English oratorio had been Esther, which was written and performed for a private patron in about 1718. In 1732 Handel brought a revised and expanded version of Esther to the King 's Theatre, Haymarket, where members of the royal family attended a glittering premiere on 6 May. Its success encouraged Handel to write two more oratorios (Deborah and Athalia). All three oratorios were performed to large and appreciative audiences at the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford in mid-1733. Undergraduates reportedly sold their furniture to raise the money for the five - shilling tickets.
In 1735 Handel received the text for a new oratorio named Saul from its librettist Charles Jennens, a wealthy landowner with musical and literary interests. Because Handel 's main creative concern was still with opera, he did not write the music for Saul until 1738, in preparation for his 1738 -- 39 theatrical season. The work, after opening at the King 's Theatre in January 1739 to a warm reception, was quickly followed by the less successful oratorio Israel in Egypt (which may also have come from Jennens). Although Handel continued to write operas, the trend towards English - language productions became irresistible as the decade ended. After three performances of his last Italian opera Deidamia in January and February 1741, he abandoned the genre. In July 1741 Jennens sent him a new libretto for an oratorio; in a letter dated 10 July to his friend Edward Holdsworth, Jennens wrote: "I hope (Handel) will lay out his whole Genius & Skill upon it, that the Composition may excell all his former Compositions, as the Subject excells every other subject. The Subject is Messiah ''.
In Christian theology, the Messiah is the saviour of the Jewish people and humankind. The Messiah who is called Christ, is identified with the person of Jesus, known by his followers as the Christ or "Jesus Christ ''. Handel 's Messiah has been described by the early - music scholar Richard Luckett as "a commentary on (Jesus Christ 's) Nativity, Passion, Resurrection and Ascension '', beginning with God 's promises as spoken by the prophets and ending with Christ 's glorification in heaven. In contrast with most of Handel 's oratorios, the singers in Messiah do not assume dramatic roles; there is no single, dominant narrative voice; and very little use is made of quoted speech. In his libretto, Jennens 's intention was not to dramatise the life and teachings of Jesus, but to acclaim the "Mystery of Godliness '', using a compilation of extracts from the Authorized (King James) Version of the Bible, and from the Psalms included in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.
The three - part structure of the work approximates to that of Handel 's three - act operas, with the "parts '' subdivided by Jennens into "scenes ''. Each scene is a collection of individual numbers or "movements '' which take the form of recitatives, arias and choruses. There are two instrumental numbers, the opening Sinfony in the style of a French overture, and the pastoral Pifa, often called the "pastoral symphony '', at the mid-point of Part I.
In Part I, the Messiah 's coming and the virgin birth are predicted by the Old Testament prophets. The annunciation to the shepherds of the birth of the Christ is represented in the words of Luke 's gospel. Part II covers Christ 's passion and his death, his resurrection and ascension, the first spreading of the gospel through the world, and a definitive statement of God 's glory summarised in the "Hallelujah ''. Part III begins with the promise of redemption, followed by a prediction of the day of judgment and the "general resurrection '', ending with the final victory over sin and death and the acclamation of Christ. According to the musicologist Donald Burrows, much of the text is so allusive as to be largely incomprehensible to those ignorant of the biblical accounts. For the benefit of his audiences Jennens printed and issued a pamphlet explaining the reasons for his choices of scriptural selections.
Charles Jennens was born around 1700, into a prosperous landowning family whose lands and properties in Warwickshire and Leicestershire he eventually inherited. His religious and political views -- he opposed the Act of Settlement of 1701 which secured the accession to the British throne for the House of Hanover -- prevented him from receiving his degree from Balliol College, Oxford, or from pursuing any form of public career. His family 's wealth enabled him to live a life of leisure while devoting himself to his literary and musical interests. Although the musicologist Watkins Shaw dismisses Jennens as "a conceited figure of no special ability '', Donald Burrows has written: "of Jennens 's musical literacy there can be no doubt ''. He was certainly devoted to Handel 's music, having helped to finance the publication of every Handel score since Rodelinda in 1725. By 1741, after their collaboration on Saul, a warm friendship had developed between the two, and Handel was a frequent visitor to the Jennens family estate at Gopsall.
Jennens 's letter to Holdsworth of 10 July 1741, in which he first mentions Messiah, suggests that the text was a recent work, probably assembled earlier that summer. As a devout Anglican and believer in scriptural authority, Jennens intended to challenge advocates of Deism, who rejected the doctrine of divine intervention in human affairs. Shaw describes the text as "a meditation of our Lord as Messiah in Christian thought and belief '', and despite his reservations on Jennens 's character, concedes that the finished wordbook "amounts to little short of a work of genius ''. There is no evidence that Handel played any active role in the selection or preparation of the text, such as he did in the case of Saul; it seems, rather, that he saw no need to make any significant amendment to Jennens 's work.
The music for Messiah was completed in 24 days of swift composition. Having received Jennens 's text some time after 10 July 1741, Handel began work on it on 22 August. His records show that he had completed Part I in outline by 28 August, Part II by 6 September and Part III by 12 September, followed by two days of "filling up '' to produce the finished work on 14 September. The autograph score 's 259 pages show some signs of haste such as blots, scratchings - out, unfilled bars and other uncorrected errors, but according to the music scholar Richard Luckett the number of errors is remarkably small in a document of this length. The original manuscript for Messiah is now held in the British Library 's music collection.
At the end of his manuscript Handel wrote the letters "SDG '' -- Soli Deo Gloria, "To God alone the glory ''. This inscription, taken with the speed of composition, has encouraged belief in the apocryphal story that Handel wrote the music in a fervour of divine inspiration in which, as he wrote the "Hallelujah '' chorus, "he saw all heaven before him ''. Burrows points out that many of Handel 's operas, of comparable length and structure to Messiah, were composed within similar timescales between theatrical seasons. The effort of writing so much music in so short a time was not unusual for Handel and his contemporaries; Handel commenced his next oratorio, Samson, within a week of finishing Messiah, and completed his draft of this new work in a month. In accordance with his frequent practice when writing new works, Handel adapted existing compositions for use in Messiah, in this case drawing on two recently completed Italian duets and one written twenty years previously. Thus, Se tu non lasci amore from 1722 became the basis of "O Death, where is thy sting? ''; "His yoke is easy '' and "And he shall purify '' were drawn from Quel fior che alla'ride (July 1741), "Unto us a child is born '' and "All we like sheep '' from Nò, di voi non vo ' fidarmi (July 1741). Handel 's instrumentation in the score is often imprecise, again in line with contemporary convention, where the use of certain instruments and combinations was assumed and did not need to be written down by the composer; later copyists would fill in the details.
Before the first performance Handel made numerous revisions to his manuscript score, in part to match the forces available for the 1742 Dublin premiere; it is probable that his work was not performed as originally conceived in his lifetime. Between 1742 and 1754 he continued to revise and recompose individual movements, sometimes to suit the requirements of particular singers. The first published score of Messiah was issued in 1767, eight years after Handel 's death, though this was based on relatively early manuscripts and included none of Handel 's later revisions.
Handel 's decision to give a season of concerts in Dublin in the winter of 1741 -- 42 arose from an invitation from the Duke of Devonshire, then serving as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. A violinist friend of Handel 's, Matthew Dubourg, was in Dublin as the Lord Lieutenant 's bandmaster; he would look after the tour 's orchestral requirements. Whether Handel originally intended to perform Messiah in Dublin is uncertain; he did not inform Jennens of any such plan, for the latter wrote to Holdsworth on 2 December 1741: "... it was some mortification to me to hear that instead of performing Messiah here he has gone into Ireland with it. '' After arriving in Dublin on 18 November 1741, Handel arranged a subscription series of six concerts, to be held between December 1741 and February 1742 at the Great Music Hall, Fishamble Street. These concerts were so popular that a second series was quickly arranged; Messiah figured in neither series.
In early March Handel began discussions with the appropriate committees for a charity concert, to be given in April, at which he intended to present Messiah. He sought and was given permission from St Patrick 's and Christ Church cathedrals to use their choirs for this occasion. These forces amounted to 16 men and 16 boy choristers; several of the men were allocated solo parts. The women soloists were Christina Maria Avoglio, who had sung the main soprano roles in the two subscription series, and Susannah Cibber, an established stage actress and contralto who had sung in the second series. To accommodate Cibber 's vocal range, the recitative "Then shall the eyes of the blind '' and the aria "He shall feed his flock '' were transposed down to F major. The performance, also in the Fishamble Street hall, was originally announced for 12 April, but was deferred for a day "at the request of persons of Distinction ''. The orchestra in Dublin comprised strings, two trumpets, and timpani; the number of players is unknown. Handel had his own organ shipped to Ireland for the performances; a harpsichord was probably also used.
The three charities that were to benefit were prisoners ' debt relief, the Mercer 's Hospital, and the Charitable Infirmary. In its report on a public rehearsal, the Dublin News - Letter described the oratorio as "... far surpass (ing) anything of that Nature which has been performed in this or any other Kingdom ''. Seven hundred people attended the premiere on 13 April. So that the largest possible audience could be admitted to the concert, gentlemen were requested to remove their swords, and ladies were asked not to wear hoops in their dresses. The performance earned unanimous praise from the assembled press: "Words are wanting to express the exquisite delight it afforded to the admiring and crouded Audience ''. A Dublin clergyman, Rev. Delaney, was so overcome by Susanna Cibber 's rendering of "He was despised '' that reportedly he leapt to his feet and cried: "Woman, for this be all thy sins forgiven thee! '' The takings amounted to around £ 400, providing about £ 127 to each of the three nominated charities and securing the release of 142 indebted prisoners.
Handel remained in Dublin for four months after the premiere. He organised a second performance of Messiah on 3 June, which was announced as "the last Performance of Mr Handel 's during his Stay in this Kingdom ''. In this second Messiah, which was for Handel 's private financial benefit, Cibber reprised her role from the first performance, though Avoglio may have been replaced by a Mrs Maclaine; details of other performers are not recorded.
The warm reception accorded to Messiah in Dublin was not repeated in London when Handel introduced the work at the Covent Garden theatre on 23 March 1743. Avoglio and Cibber were again the chief soloists; they were joined by the tenor John Beard, a veteran of Handel 's operas, the bass Thomas Rheinhold and two other sopranos, Kitty Clive and Miss Edwards. The first performance was overshadowed by views expressed in the press that the work 's subject matter was too exalted to be performed in a theatre, particularly by secular singer - actresses such as Cibber and Clive. In an attempt to deflect such sensibilities, in London Handel had avoided the name Messiah and presented the work as the "New Sacred Oratorio ''. As was his custom, Handel rearranged the music to suit his singers. He wrote a new setting of "And lo, the angel of the Lord '' for Clive, never used subsequently. He added a tenor song for Beard: "Their sound is gone out '', which had appeared in Jennens 's original libretto but had not been in the Dublin performances.
The custom of standing for the "Hallelujah '' chorus originates from a belief that, at the London premiere, King George II did so, which would have obliged all to stand. There is no convincing evidence that the king was present, or that he attended any subsequent performance of Messiah; the first reference to the practice of standing appears in a letter dated 1756, three years prior to Handel 's death.
London 's initially cool reception of Messiah led Handel to reduce the season 's planned six performances to three, and not to present the work at all in 1744 -- to the considerable annoyance of Jennens, whose relations with the composer temporarily soured. At Jennens 's request, Handel made several changes in the music for the 1745 revival: "Their sound is gone out '' became a choral piece, the soprano song "Rejoice greatly '' was recomposed in shortened form, and the transpositions for Cibber 's voice were restored to their original soprano range. Jennens wrote to Holdsworth on 30 August 1745: "(Handel) has made a fine Entertainment of it, though not near so good as he might & ought to have done. I have with great difficulty made him correct some of the grosser faults in the composition... '' Handel directed two performances at Covent Garden in 1745, on 9 and 11 April, and then set the work aside for four years.
The 1749 revival at Covent Garden, under the proper title of Messiah, saw the appearance of two female soloists who were henceforth closely associated with Handel 's music: Giulia Frasi and Caterina Galli. In the following year these were joined by the male alto Gaetano Guadagni, for whom Handel composed new versions of "But who may abide '' and "Thou art gone up on high ''. The year 1750 also saw the institution of the annual charity performances of Messiah at London 's Foundling Hospital, which continued until Handel 's death and beyond. The 1754 performance at the hospital is the first for which full details of the orchestral and vocal forces survive. The orchestra included fifteen violins, five violas, three cellos, two double - basses, four bassoons, four oboes, two trumpets, two horns and drums. In the chorus of nineteen were six trebles from the Chapel Royal; the remainder, all men, were altos, tenors and basses. Frasi, Galli and Beard led the five soloists, who were required to assist the chorus. For this performance the transposed Guadagni arias were restored to the soprano voice. By 1754 Handel was severely afflicted by the onset of blindness, and in 1755 he turned over the direction of the Messiah hospital performance to his pupil, J.C. Smith. He apparently resumed his duties in 1757 and may have continued thereafter. The final performance of the work at which Handel was present was at Covent Garden on 6 April 1759, eight days before his death.
During the 1750s Messiah was performed increasingly at festivals and cathedrals throughout the country. Individual choruses and arias were occasionally extracted for use as anthems or motets in church services, or as concert pieces, a practice that grew in the 19th century and has continued ever since. After Handel 's death, performances were given in Florence (1768), New York (excerpts, 1770), Hamburg (1772), and Mannheim (1777), where Mozart first heard it. For the performances in Handel 's lifetime and in the decades following his death, the musical forces used in the Foundling Hospital performance of 1754 are thought by Burrows to be typical. A fashion for large - scale performances began in 1784, in a series of commemorative concerts of Handel 's music given in Westminster Abbey under the patronage of King George III. A plaque on the Abbey wall records that "The Band consisting of DXXV (525) vocal & instrumental performers was conducted by Joah Bates Esqr. '' In a 1955 article, Sir Malcolm Sargent, a proponent of large - scale performances, wrote, "Mr Bates... had known Handel well and respected his wishes. The orchestra employed was two hundred and fifty strong, including twelve horns, twelve trumpets, six trombones and three pairs of timpani (some made especially large). '' In 1787 further performances were given at the Abbey; advertisements promised, "The Band will consist of Eight Hundred Performers ''.
In continental Europe, performances of Messiah were departing from Handel 's practices in a different way: his score was being drastically reorchestrated to suit contemporary tastes. In 1786, Johann Adam Hiller presented Messiah with updated scoring in Berlin Cathedral. In 1788 Hiller presented a performance of his revision with a choir of 259 and an orchestra of 87 strings, 10 bassoons, 11 oboes, 8 flutes, 8 horns, 4 clarinets, 4 trombones, 7 trumpets, timpani, harpsichord and organ. In 1789, Mozart was commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten and the Gesellschaft der Associierten to re-orchestrate several works by Handel, including Messiah. Writing for a small - scale performance, he eliminated the organ continuo, added parts for flutes, clarinets, trombones and horns, recomposed some passages and rearranged others. The performance took place on 6 March 1789 in the rooms of Count Johann Esterházy, with four soloists and a choir of 12. Mozart 's arrangement, with minor amendments from Hiller, was published in 1803, after his death. The musical scholar Moritz Hauptmann described the Mozart additions as "stucco ornaments on a marble temple ''. Mozart himself was reportedly circumspect about his changes, insisting that any alterations to Handel 's score should not be interpreted as an effort to improve the music. Elements of this version later became familiar to British audiences, incorporated into editions of the score by editors including Ebenezer Prout.
In the 19th century, approaches to Handel in German and English - speaking countries diverged further. In Leipzig in 1856, the musicologist Friedrich Chrysander and the literary historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus founded the Deutsche Händel - Gesellschaft with the aim of publishing authentic editions of all Handel 's works. At the same time, performances in Britain and the United States moved away from Handel 's performance practice with increasingly grandiose renditions. Messiah was presented in New York in 1853 with a chorus of 300 and in Boston in 1865 with more than 600. In Britain a "Great Handel Festival '' was held at the Crystal Palace in 1857, performing Messiah and other Handel oratorios, with a chorus of 2,000 singers and an orchestra of 500.
In the 1860s and 1870s ever larger forces were assembled. Bernard Shaw, in his role as a music critic, commented, "The stale wonderment which the great chorus never fails to elicit has already been exhausted ''; he later wrote, "Why, instead of wasting huge sums on the multitudinous dullness of a Handel Festival does not somebody set up a thoroughly rehearsed and exhaustively studied performance of the Messiah in St James 's Hall with a chorus of twenty capable artists? Most of us would be glad to hear the work seriously performed once before we die. '' The employment of huge forces necessitated considerable augmentation of the orchestral parts. Many admirers of Handel believed that the composer would have made such additions, had the appropriate instruments been available in his day. Shaw argued, largely unheeded, that "the composer may be spared from his friends, and the function of writing or selecting ' additional orchestral accompaniments ' exercised with due discretion. ''
One reason for the popularity of huge - scale performances was the ubiquity of amateur choral societies. The conductor Sir Thomas Beecham wrote that for 200 years the chorus was "the national medium of musical utterance '' in Britain. However, after the heyday of Victorian choral societies, he noted a "rapid and violent reaction against monumental performances... an appeal from several quarters that Handel should be played and heard as in the days between 1700 and 1750 ''. At the end of the century, Sir Frederick Bridge and T.W. Bourne pioneered revivals of Messiah in Handel 's orchestration, and Bourne 's work was the basis for further scholarly versions in the early 20th century.
Although the huge - scale oratorio tradition was perpetuated by such large ensembles as the Royal Choral Society, the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and the Huddersfield Choral Society in the 20th century, there were increasing calls for performances more faithful to Handel 's conception. At the turn of the century, The Musical Times wrote of the "additional accompaniments '' of Mozart and others, "Is it not time that some of these ' hangers on ' of Handel 's score were sent about their business? '' In 1902, the musicologist Ebenezer Prout produced a new edition of the score, working from Handel 's original manuscripts rather than from corrupt printed versions with errors accumulated from one edition to another. However, Prout started from the assumption that a faithful reproduction of Handel 's original score would not be practical:
(T) he attempts made from time to time by our musical societies to give Handel 's music as he meant it to be given must, however earnest the intention, and however careful the preparation, be foredoomed to failure from the very nature of the case. With our large choral societies, additional accompaniments of some kind are a necessity for an effective performance; and the question is not so much whether, as how they are to be written.
Prout continued the practice of adding flutes, clarinets and trombones to Handel 's orchestration, but he restored Handel 's high trumpet parts, which Mozart had omitted (evidently because playing them was a lost art by 1789). There was little dissent from Prout 's approach, and when Chrysander 's scholarly edition was published in the same year, it was received respectfully as "a volume for the study '' rather than a performing edition, being an edited reproduction of various of Handel 's manuscript versions. An authentic performance was thought impossible: The Musical Times correspondent wrote, "Handel 's orchestral instruments were all (excepting the trumpet) of a coarser quality than those at present in use; his harpsichords are gone for ever... the places in which he performed the ' Messiah ' were mere drawing - rooms when compared with the Albert Hall, the Queen 's Hall and the Crystal Palace. In Australia, The Register protested at the prospect of performances by "trumpery little church choirs of 20 voices or so ''.
In Germany, Messiah was not so often performed as in Britain; when it was given, medium - sized forces were the norm. At the Handel Festival held in 1922 in Handel 's native town, Halle, his choral works were given by a choir of 163 and an orchestra of 64. In Britain, innovative broadcasting and recording contributed to reconsideration of Handelian performance. For example, in 1928, Beecham conducted a recording of Messiah with modestly sized forces and controversially brisk tempi, although the orchestration remained far from authentic. In 1934 and 1935, the BBC broadcast performances of Messiah conducted by Adrian Boult with "a faithful adherence to Handel 's clear scoring. '' A performance with authentic scoring was given in Worcester Cathedral as part of the Three Choirs Festival in 1935. In 1950 John Tobin conducted a performance of Messiah in St Paul 's Cathedral with the orchestral forces specified by the composer, a choir of 60, a counter-tenor alto soloist, and modest attempts at vocal elaboration of the printed notes, in the manner of Handel 's day. The Prout version sung with many voices remained popular with British choral societies, but at the same time increasingly frequent performances were given by small professional ensembles in suitably sized venues, using authentic scoring. Recordings on LP and CD were preponderantly of the latter type, and the large scale Messiah came to seem old - fashioned.
The cause of authentic performance was advanced in 1965 by the publication of a new edition of the score, edited by Watkins Shaw. In the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, David Scott writes, "the edition at first aroused suspicion on account of its attempts in several directions to break the crust of convention surrounding the work in the British Isles. '' By the time of Shaw 's death in 1996, The Times described his edition as "now in universal use ''.
Messiah remains Handel 's best - known work, with performances particularly popular during the Advent season; writing in December 1993, the music critic Alex Ross refers to that month 's 21 performances in New York alone as "numbing repetition ''. Against the general trend towards authenticity, the work has been staged in opera houses, both in London (2009) and in Paris (2011). The Mozart score is revived from time to time, and in Anglophone countries "singalong '' performances with many hundreds of performers are popular. Although performances striving for authenticity are now usual, it is generally agreed that there can never be a definitive version of Messiah; the surviving manuscripts contain radically different settings of many numbers, and vocal and instrumental ornamentation of the written notes is a matter of personal judgment, even for the most historically informed performers. The Handel scholar Winton Dean has written:
(T) here is still plenty for scholars to fight over, and more than ever for conductors to decide for themselves. Indeed if they are not prepared to grapple with the problems presented by the score they ought not to conduct it. This applies not only to the choice of versions, but to every aspect of baroque practice, and of course there are often no final answers.
The numbering of the movements shown here is in accordance with the Novello vocal score (1959), edited by Watkins Shaw, which adapts the numbering earlier devised by Ebenezer Prout. Other editions count the movements slightly differently; the Bärenreiter edition of 1965, for example, does not number all the recitatives and runs from 1 to 47. The division into parts and scenes is based on the 1743 word - book prepared for the first London performance. The scene headings are given as Burrows summarised the scene headings by Jennens.
Scene 1: Isaiah 's prophecy of salvation
Scene 2: The coming judgment
Scene 3: The prophecy of Christ 's birth
Scene 4: The annunciation to the shepherds
Scene 5: Christ 's healing and redemption
Scene 1: Christ 's Passion
Scene 2: Christ 's Death and Resurrection
Scene 3: Christ 's Ascension
Scene 4: Christ 's reception in Heaven
Scene 5: The beginnings of Gospel preaching
Scene 6: The world 's rejection of the Gospel
Scene 7: God 's ultimate victory
Scene 1: The promise of eternal life
Scene 2: The Day of Judgment
Scene 3: The final conquest of sin
Scene 4: The acclamation of the Messiah
Handel 's music for Messiah is distinguished from most of his other oratorios by an orchestral restraint -- a quality which the musicologist Percy M. Young observes was not adopted by Mozart and other later arrangers of the music. The work begins quietly, with instrumental and solo movements preceding the first appearance of the chorus, whose entry in the low alto register is muted. A particular aspect of Handel 's restraint is his limited use of trumpets throughout the work. After their introduction in the Part I chorus "Glory to God '', apart from the solo in "The trumpet shall sound '' they are heard only in "Hallelujah '' and the final chorus "Worthy is the Lamb ''. It is this rarity, says Young, that makes these brass interpolations particularly effective: "Increase them and the thrill is diminished ''. In "Glory to God '', Handel marked the entry of the trumpets as da lontano e un poco piano, meaning "quietly, from afar ''; his original intention had been to place the brass offstage (in disparte) at this point, to highlight the effect of distance. In this initial appearance the trumpets lack the expected drum accompaniment, "a deliberate withholding of effect, leaving something in reserve for Parts II and III '' according to Luckett.
Although Messiah is not in any particular key, Handel 's tonal scheme has been summarised by the musicologist Anthony Hicks as "an aspiration towards D major '', the key musically associated with light and glory. As the oratorio moves forward with various shifts in key to reflect changes in mood, D major emerges at significant points, primarily the "trumpet '' movements with their uplifting messages. It is the key in which the work reaches its triumphant ending. In the absence of a predominant key, other integrating elements have been proposed. For example, the musicologist Rudolf Steglich has suggested that Handel used the device of the "ascending fourth '' as a unifying motif; this device most noticeably occurs in the first two notes of "I know that my Redeemer liveth '' and on numerous other occasions. Nevertheless, Luckett finds this thesis implausible, and asserts that "the unity of Messiah is a consequence of nothing more arcane than the quality of Handel 's attention to his text, and the consistency of his musical imagination ''. Allan Kozinn, The New York Times music critic, finds "a model marriage of music and text... From the gentle falling melody assigned to the opening words ('' Comfort ye ") to the sheer ebullience of the "Hallelujah '' chorus and the ornate celebratory counterpoint that supports the closing "Amen '', hardly a line of text goes by that Handel does not amplify ".
The opening Sinfony is composed in E minor for strings, and is Handel 's first use in oratorio of the French overture form. Jennens commented that the Sinfony contains "passages far unworthy of Handel, but much more unworthy of the Messiah ''; Handel 's early biographer Charles Burney merely found it "dry and uninteresting ''. A change of key to E major leads to the first prophecy, delivered by the tenor whose vocal line in the opening recitative "Comfort ye '' is entirely independent of the strings accompaniment. The music proceeds through various key changes as the prophecies unfold, culminating in the G major chorus "For unto us a child is born '', in which the choral exclamations (which include an ascending fourth in "the Mighty God '') are imposed on material drawn from Handel 's Italian cantata Nò, di voi non vo'fidarmi. Such passages, says the music historian Donald Jay Grout, "reveal Handel the dramatist, the unerring master of dramatic effect ''.
The pastoral interlude that follows begins with the short instrumental movement, the Pifa, which takes its name from the shepherd - bagpipers, or pifferari, who played their pipes in the streets of Rome at Christmas time. Handel wrote the movement in both 11 - bar and extended 32 - bar forms; according to Burrows, either will work in performance. The group of four short recitatives which follow it introduce the soprano soloist -- although often the earlier aria "But who may abide '' is sung by the soprano in its transposed G minor form. The final recitative of this section is in D major and heralds the affirmative chorus "Glory to God ''. The remainder of Part I is largely carried by the soprano in B flat, in what Burrows terms a rare instance of tonal stability. The aria "He shall feed his flock '' underwent several transformations by Handel, appearing at different times as a recitative, an alto aria and a duet for alto and soprano before the original soprano version was restored in 1754. The appropriateness of the Italian source material for the setting of the solemn concluding chorus "His yoke is easy '' has been questioned by the music scholar Sedley Taylor, who calls it "a piece of word - painting... grieviously out of place '', though he concedes that the four - part choral conclusion is a stroke of genius that combines beauty with dignity.
The second Part begins in G minor, a key which, in Hogwood 's phrase, brings a mood of "tragic presentiment '' to the long sequence of Passion numbers which follows. The declamatory opening chorus "Behold the Lamb of God '', in fugal form, is followed by the alto solo "He was despised '' in E flat major, the longest single item in the oratorio, in which some phrases are sung unaccompanied to emphasise Christ 's abandonment. Luckett records Burney 's description of this number as "the highest idea of excellence in pathetic expression of any English song ''. The subsequent series of mainly short choral movements cover Christ 's Passion, Crucifixion, Death and Resurrection, at first in F minor, with a brief F major respite in "All we like sheep ''. Here, Handel 's use of Nò, di voi non vo'fidarmi has Sedley Taylor 's unqualified approval: "(Handel) bids the voices enter in solemn canonical sequence, and his chorus ends with a combination of grandeur and depth of feeling such as is at the command of consummate genius only ''.
The sense of desolation returns, in what Hogwood calls the "remote and barbarous '' key of B flat minor, for the tenor recitative "All they that see him ''. The sombre sequence finally ends with the Ascension chorus "Lift up your heads '', which Handel initially divides between two choral groups, the altos serving both as the bass line to a soprano choir and the treble line to the tenors and basses. For the 1754 Foundling Hospital performance Handel added two horns, which join in when the chorus unites towards the end of the number. After the celebratory tone of Christ 's reception into heaven, marked by the choir 's D major acclamation "Let all the angels of God worship him '', the "Whitsun '' section proceeds through a series of contrasting moods -- serene and pastoral in "How beautiful are the feet '', theatrically operatic in "Why do the nations so furiously rage '' -- towards the Part II culmination of "Hallelujah ''. This, as Young points out, is not the climactic chorus of the work, although one can not escape its "contagious enthusiasm ''. It builds from a deceptively light orchestral opening, through a short, unison cantus firmus passage on the words "For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth '', to the reappearance of the long - silent trumpets at "And He shall reign for ever and ever ''. Commentators have noted that the musical line for this third subject is based on Wachet auf, Philipp Nicolai 's popular Lutheran chorale.
The opening soprano solo in E major, "I know that my Redeemer liveth '' is one of the few numbers in the oratorio that has remained unrevised from its original form. Its simple unison violin accompaniment and its consoling rhythms apparently brought tears to Burney 's eyes. It is followed by a quiet chorus that leads to the bass 's declamation in D major: "Behold, I tell you a mystery '', then the long aria "The trumpet shall sound '', marked pomposo ma non allegro ("dignified but not fast ''). Handel originally wrote this in da capo form, but shortened it to dal segno, probably before the first performance. The extended, characteristic trumpet tune that precedes and accompanies the voice is the only significant instrumental solo in the entire oratorio. Handel 's awkward, repeated stressing of the fourth syllable of "incorruptible '' may have been the source of the 18th - century poet William Shenstone 's comment that he "could observe some parts in Messiah wherein Handel 's judgements failed him; where the music was not equal, or was even opposite, to what the words required ''. After a brief solo recitative, the alto is joined by the tenor for the only duet in Handel 's final version of the music, "O death, where is thy sting? '' The melody is adapted from Handel 's 1722 cantata Se tu non lasci amore, and is in Luckett 's view the most successful of the Italian borrowings. The duet runs straight into the chorus "But thanks be to God ''.
The reflective soprano solo "If God be for us '' (originally written for alto) quotes Luther 's chorale Aus tiefer Not. It ushers in the D major choral finale: "Worthy is the Lamb '', leading to the apocalyptic "Amen '' in which, says Hogwood, "the entry of the trumpets marks the final storming of heaven ''. Handel 's first biographer, John Mainwaring, wrote in 1760 that this conclusion revealed the composer "rising still higher '' than in "that vast effort of genius, the Hallelujah chorus ''. Young writes that the "Amen '' should, in the manner of Palestrina, "be delivered as though through the aisles and ambulatories of some great church ''.
Many early recordings of individual choruses and arias from Messiah reflect the performance styles then fashionable -- large forces, slow tempi and liberal reorchestration. Typical examples are choruses conducted by Sir Henry Wood, recorded in 1926 for Columbia with the 3,500 - strong choir and orchestra of the Crystal Palace Handel Festival, and a contemporary rival disc from HMV featuring the Royal Choral Society under Malcolm Sargent, recorded at the Royal Albert Hall.
The first near - complete recording of the whole work (with the cuts then customary) was conducted by Sir Thomas Beecham in 1928. It represented an effort by Beecham to "provide an interpretation which, in his opinion, was nearer the composer 's intentions '', with smaller forces and faster tempi than had become traditional. His contralto soloist, Muriel Brunskill, later commented, "His tempi, which are now taken for granted, were revolutionary; he entirely revitalised it ''. Nevertheless, Sargent retained the large scale tradition in his four HMV recordings, the first in 1946 and three more in the 1950s and 1960s, all with the Huddersfield Choral Society and the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra. Beecham 's second recording of the work, in 1947, "led the way towards more truly Handelian rhythms and speeds '', according to the critic Alan Blyth. In a 1991 study of all 76 complete Messiahs recorded by that date, the writer Teri Noel Towe called this version of Beecham 's "one of a handful of truly stellar performances ''.
In 1954 the first recording based on Handel 's original scoring was conducted by Hermann Scherchen for Nixa, quickly followed by a version, judged scholarly at the time, under Sir Adrian Boult for Decca. By the standards of 21st - century performance, however, Scherchen 's and Boult 's tempi were still slow, and there was no attempt at vocal ornamentation by the soloists. In 1966 and 1967 two new recordings were regarded as great advances in scholarship and performance practice, conducted respectively by Colin Davis for Philips and Charles Mackerras for HMV. They inaugurated a new tradition of brisk, small scale performances, with vocal embellishments by the solo singers. Among recordings of older - style performances are Beecham 's 1959 recording with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, with orchestration commissioned from Sir Eugene Goossens and completed by the English composer Leonard Salzedo, Karl Richter 's 1973 version for DG, and David Willcocks 's 1995 performance based on Prout 's 1902 edition of the score, with a 325 - voice choir and 90 - piece orchestra.
By the end of the 1970s the quest for authenticity had extended to the use of period instruments and historically correct styles of playing them. The first of such versions were conducted by the early music specialists Christopher Hogwood (1979) and John Eliot Gardiner (1982). The use of period instruments quickly became the norm on record, although some conductors, among them Sir Georg Solti (1985), continued to favour modern instruments. Gramophone magazine and The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music highlighted two versions, conducted respectively by Trevor Pinnock (1988) and Richard Hickox (1992). The latter employs a chorus of 24 singers and an orchestra of 31 players; Handel is known to have used a chorus of 19 and an orchestra of 37. Performances on an even smaller scale have followed.
Several reconstructions of early performances have been recorded: the 1742 Dublin version by Scherchen in 1954, and again in 1959, and by Jean - Claude Malgoire in 1980 There are several recordings of the 1754 Foundling Hospital version, including those under Hogwood (1979), Andrew Parrott (1989), and Paul McCreesh. In 1973 David Willcocks conducted a set for HMV in which all the soprano arias were sung in unison by the boys of the Choir of King 's College, Cambridge, and in 1974, for DG, Mackerras conducted a set of Mozart 's reorchestrated version, sung in German.
The first published score of 1767, together with Handel 's documented adaptations and recompositions of various movements, has been the basis for many performing versions since the composer 's lifetime. Modern performances which seek authenticity tend to be based on one of three 20th - century performing editions. These all use different methods of numbering movements:
The edition edited by Friedrich Chrysander and Max Seiffert for the Deutsche Händel - Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1902) is not a general performing edition, but has been used as a basis of scholarship and research.
In addition to Mozart 's well - known reorchestration, arrangements for larger orchestral forces exist by Goossens and Andrew Davis; both have been recorded at least once, on the RCA and Chandos labels respectively.
Notes
References
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what happens when there is a surplus in a market | Excess supply - Wikipedia
In economics, an excess supply or economic surplus is a situation in which the quantity of a good or service supplied is more than the quantity demanded, and the price is above the equilibrium level determined by supply and demand. That is, the quantity of the product that producers wish to sell exceeds the quantity that potential buyers are willing to buy at the prevailing price. It is the opposite of an economic shortage (excess demand).
In cultural evolution, agricultural surplus in the Neolithic period is theorized to have produced a greater division of labor, resulting in social stratification and class.
Prices and the occurrence of excess supply illustrate a strong correlation. When the price of a good is set too high, the quantity of the product demanded will be diminished while the quantity supplied will be enhanced, so there is more quantity supplied than quantity demanded. The occurrence of excess supply either leads to the lowering of the price or unsold supply, the latter reflecting excess supply. Lowering the price of a good encourages consumers to purchase more and suppliers to produce less.
A disequilibrium occurs due to a non-equilibrium price giving a lack of balance between supply and demand. Excess supply is one of the two types of disequilibrium in a perfectly competitive market, excess demand being the other. When quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, the equilibrium level does not obtain and instead the market is in disequilibrium. An excess supply prevents the economy from operating efficiently.
Excess supply in a perfectly competitive market is the "extra '' amount of supply, beyond the quantity demanded. As an example, suppose the price of a television is $600, the quantity supplied at that price is 1000 televisions, and the quantity demanded is 300 televisions. This illustrates that sellers are seeking to sell 700 more televisions than buyers are willing to purchase. Hence, an excess supply of 700 televisions exists, indicating that the market is in a state of disequilibrium. In this situation, producers would not be able to sell all the televisions they produce at the desired price of $600. This will induce them to reduce their price in order to make the product more attractive for the buyers. In response to the reduction in the price of the product, consumers will increase their quantity demanded and producers will not produce as many as before. The market will eventually become balanced as the market is transitioning to an equilibrium price and quantity.
Excess supply in one market can affect supply or demand in another market. For example, when there is excess supply in the labor market -- that is, unemployment -- consumer - laborers will be constrained in their disposable income and hence will demand a smaller quantity of goods at any given price. This diminished goods demand resulting from a constraint in another market is known as the effective demand for goods.
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where is gandhi museum situated and what does it have | National Gandhi Museum - Wikipedia
A. Annamalai
The National Gandhi Museum or Gandhi Memorial Museum is a museum located in New Delhi, India showcasing the life and principles of Mahatma Gandhi. The museum first opened in Mumbai, shortly after Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. The museum relocated several times before moving to Raj Ghat, New Delhi in 1961.
Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948. Shortly after his death, collectors began searching India for anything of importance about Gandhi. Originally the personal items, newspapers, and books related to Gandhi were taken to Mumbai. In 1951, the items were moved to buildings near the Kota House in New Delhi. The museum moved again in 1957 to a mansion.
In 1959, The Gandhi Museum moved for a final time to Rajghat, New Delhi next to the Samadhi of Mahatma Gandhi. The museum officially opened in 1961, on the 13th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi 's assassination, when Dr. Rajendra Prasad, then President of India, formally opened the new location.
The Gandhi Museum 's library is both a showcase for Gandhi 's work and a general studies library. The books are divided into two sections, those written by or about Gandhi and books on other subject matters. There are currently over 35,000 books or documents in the museum 's library. The library also has a collection of 2,000 periodicals in both English and Hindi chronicling the life of Gandhi.
The National Gandhi Museum Gallery has a large number of paintings and personal items of Mahatma Gandhi. The most notable items in the collection are a Satyagraha woodcut by Willemia Muller Ogterop, one of Gandhi 's walking sticks, the shawl and dhoti worn by Gandhi when he was assassinated, one of the bullets that were used to kill Gandhi and his urn. The Museum also displays some of Gandhi 's teeth and his ivory toothpick.
In addition to the museum 's Gandhi based permanent collection, the museum also showcases other exhibits mainly dealing with the history of India. Most exhibits are based on Indian political leaders, and peace movements, though major world events also have collections.
Coordinates: 29 ° 04 ′ 28 '' N 77 ° 24 ′ 58 '' E / 29.07444 ° N 77.41611 ° E / 29.07444; 77.41611
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who was in government when grenfell towers was built | Grenfell Tower fire - wikipedia
The Grenfell Tower fire occurred on 14 June 2017 at the 24 - storey Grenfell Tower block of public housing flats in North Kensington, Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, West London. It caused an estimated 80 deaths and over 70 injuries. A definitive death toll is not expected before 2018. As of 22 September 2017, 67 victims had been identified by the Metropolitan Police and Coroner. Occupants for 23 of 129 flats died. Around 255 people survived. Inquests for 60 known victims were opened and adjourned at Westminster Coroner 's Court.
The fire is the subject of a Public Inquiry. On 14 September 2017, the first hearing opened. Evidential hearings will start in October. Police and fire services believe the fire started accidentally in a fridge - freezer on the fourth floor. The rapid growth of the fire is thought to have been accelerated by the building 's exterior cladding, which is of a common type in widespread use. An independent review of building regulations and fire safety is in progress.
Emergency services received the first report of the fire at 00: 54 local time. It burned for about 60 hours until finally extinguished. More than 250 firefighters and 70 fire engines from stations all over London were involved in efforts to control the fire. Over 100 London Ambulance Service crew on at least 20 ambulances attended, joined by the specialist Hazardous Area Response Team. London 's Air Ambulance sent teams of HEMS doctors and paramedics by road in support.
Firefighters rescued 65 people. Seventy - four people were confirmed by the NHS to be in six hospitals across London with 20 of them in critical care.
Many firefighters continued to fight pockets of fire on the higher floors after most of the rest of the building had been gutted. Residents of surrounding buildings were evacuated due to concerns that the tower could collapse, but the building was later determined to be structurally sound.
The Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, criticised safety protocols, in particular those telling people to stay in their flats until rescued. This advice presumed that the building 's structure could contain a fire within a single flat, but in this case the fire was spreading rapidly via the building 's exterior.
Since 2013, the residents ' organisation Grenfell Action Group had repeatedly expressed concern about fire safety, saying in November 2016 that only a catastrophic fire would force the block 's management to adequately address fire precautions and maintenance of fire - related systems.
On 16 June 2017, Prime Minister Theresa May, who had been criticised for failing to meet Grenfell Tower residents following the tragedy, announced a £ 5 million fund for those affected by the fire. All those made homeless were to receive an initial down payment of £ 5,500, with each household to be given at least £ 500 in cash and £ 5,000 paid into an account. On 18 June the government announced that a new disaster management team was taking over, acknowledging that the initial response by the state, both locally and nationally, was inadequate. On 21 June, the government announced that 68 new flats in the local borough were to be made available to survivors.
A total of 151 homes were destroyed in the tower and surrounding area. The incident ranks as the deadliest structural fire in the United Kingdom since the start of the 20th century, when detailed records began. The death toll is higher than the Bradford City stadium fire of 1985, which killed 56 people.
Grenfell Tower was in North Kensington, Inner London, in a mainly working - class housing complex surrounded by affluent neighbourhoods in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (RBKC). The tower was managed on behalf of Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council by Kensington and Chelsea Tenant Management Organisation (KCTMO), the largest TMO in England, responsible for nearly 10,000 properties in the borough.
The KCTMO has a board comprising eight residents (tenants or leaseholders), four council - appointed members, and three independent members. The tower was built as council housing, but 14 of the flats had been bought under the Right to Buy policy. These were occupied by leaseholders, or were privately rented out by them on the open market.
The 24 - storey tower block was designed in 1967 in the Brutalist style of the era by Clifford Wearden and Associates, with the council approving construction in 1970 as part of the Lancaster West redevelopment project.
Construction, by contractors AE Symes of Leyton, under the council housing system, ran from 1972 to 1974. The 67.30 - metre (220 ft 10 in) tall building contained 120 one - and two - bedroom flats. The upper 20 of 24 storeys had six dwellings and 10 bedrooms each. The lower four storeys were used for non-residential purposes. Later, two floors were converted to residential use, bringing the total to 129 apartments, housing up to 600 people.
Like many towers in the UK, Grenfell had a single central staircase. Unlike many other countries, UK regulations do not require a second.
The original lead architect for the building, Nigel Whitbread, said in 2016 that the tower had been designed with attention to strength following the Ronan Point partial collapse of 1968 "and from what I can see could last another hundred years. ''
Grenfell Tower underwent a major renovation which was publicised in 2012 and completed in 2016. Overseen by Studio E Architects, the £ 8.7 million refurbishment was undertaken by Rydon Ltd of Forest Row, East Sussex, in conjunction with Artelia for contract administration and Max Fordham as specialist mechanical and electrical consultants.
As part of the project, in 2015 -- 2016, the concrete structure received new windows and new aluminium composite rainscreen cladding, in part to improve the appearance of the building. Two types were used: Arconic 's Reynobond PE, which consists of two, coil - coated, aluminium sheets that are fusion bonded to both sides of a polyethylene core; and Reynolux aluminium sheets. Beneath these, and fixed to the outside of the walls of the flats, was Celotex RS5000 PIR thermal insulation. The work was carried out by Harley Facades of Crowborough, East Sussex, at a cost of £ 2.6 million.
The original contractor, Leadbitter, had been dropped by KCTMO because their price of £ 11.278 million was £ 1.6 million higher than the proposed budget for the refurbishment. The contract was put out to competitive tender. Rydon 's bid was £ 2.5 million less than Leadbitter 's. An alternative cladding with better fire resistance was refused due to cost.
The renovation included a water - based heating system for individual flats.
Residents expressed significant safety concerns prior to the fire, with criticism levelled against the council for fire safety and building maintenance failures. They had also said repeatedly that in the event of a fire, their escape path was limited to a single staircase.
Exposed gas pipes were another concern raised by the Grenfell Tower Leaseholders ' Association in the months before the fire - while a fire safety expert had ordered them to be covered by fire - retardant boxing, two - thirds remained exposed at the time of the fire.
There is concern that cuts to legal aid prevented tenants and tenants ' groups taking legal action over their safety concerns. Robert Bourns of The Law Society said, "There have been reports that tenants of Grenfell Tower were unable to access legal aid to challenge safety concerns because of the cuts. If that is the case then we may have a very stark example of what limiting legal aid can mean. ''
Following the fire, the Conservative leader of the council, Nicholas Paget - Brown said that the Grenfell Tower residents did not have a collective view in favour of installing sprinklers during the recent renovations. He also said that if they had been installed, it would have delayed the refurbishment and been more disruptive. ITV business editor Joel Hills stated that he had been told that the installation of sprinklers had not even been discussed. In a 2012 report, the British Automatic Fire Sprinkler Association said that sprinklers could be retrofitted in Grenfell Tower for an average cost of £ 1,150 per flat, which would have added up to a total cost of £ 138,000 for the whole block.
The government is accused of having ignored warnings about fire safety in tower blocks. A former chief fire officer and secretary of the all - party parliamentary group on fire safety, Ronnie King, said ministers stonewalled requests for meetings and efforts to tighten rules. He said that the then -- housing minister Gavin Barwell, refused requests for meetings. King said: "We have had replies, but the replies were to the effect that you have met my predecessor (earlier housing minister James Wharton) and there were a number of matters that we are looking at and we are still looking at it. (...) They always seem to need a significant loss of life before things are changed. '' After six people were killed in the 2009 Lakanal House fire, the coroner made a series of safety recommendations for the government to consider, and the Department for Communities and Local Government agreed to hold a review in 2013. In March 2014, the All - Party Parliamentary Fire Safety and Rescue Group sent a letter to then -- Minister for Communities Stephen Williams, which said in part:
"Surely... when you already have credible evidence to justify updating... the guidance... which will lead to saving of lives, you do n't need to wait another three years in addition to the two already spent since the research findings were updated, in order to take action?
"As there are estimated to be another 4,000 older tower blocks in the UK, without automatic sprinkler protection, can we really afford to wait for another tragedy to occur before we amend this weakness? ''
After further correspondence, Williams replied:
"I have neither seen nor heard anything that would suggest that consideration of these specific potential changes is urgent and I am not willing to disrupt the work of this department by asking that these matters are brought forward. ''
Sadiq Khan, London Mayor said: "Those who mock health and safety, regulations and red tape need to take a hard look at the consequences of cutting these and ask themselves whether Grenfell Tower is a price worth paying. Nowadays, we would not dream of building towers to the standards of the 1970s, but their inhabitants still have to live with that legacy. It may well be the defining outcome of this tragedy that the worst mistakes of the 1960s and 1970s are systematically torn down. ''
On 18 June 2017, the father of one of the victims, 27 - year - old architect Marco Gottardi, who had moved to the building three months before, reported to the media that his son had told him he thought the building was "unsafe '', although it had been recently renovated, since the renovation had followed inadequate safety guidelines.
A residents ' organisation, Grenfell Action Group (GAG), published a blog in which it highlighted major safety problems. In 2013, the group published a 2012 fire risk assessment done by a TMO Health and Safety Officer which recorded safety concerns. Firefighting equipment at the tower had not been checked for up to four years; on - site fire extinguishers had expired, and some had the word "condemned '' written on them because they were so old. GAG documented its attempts to contact KCTMO management; they also alerted the council Cabinet Member for Housing and Property but said they never received a reply from him or his deputy.
In January 2016, GAG warned that people might be trapped in the building if a fire broke out, pointing out that the building had only one entrance and exit, and corridors that had been allowed to fill with rubbish, such as old mattresses. GAG frequently cited other fires in tower blocks when it warned of the hazards at Grenfell.
In November 2016, GAG published online an article attacking KCTMO as an "evil, unprincipled, mini-mafia '' and accusing the council of ignoring health and safety laws. GAG suggested that "only a catastrophic event will expose the ineptitude and incompetence of (KCTMO) '', adding, "(We) predict that it wo n't be long before the words of this blog come back to haunt the KCTMO management and we will do everything in our power to ensure that those in authority know how long and how appallingly our landlord has ignored their responsibility to ensure the heath (sic) and safety of their tenants and leaseholders. They ca n't say that they have n't been warned! '' The group had also published other articles criticising fire safety and maintenance practices at Grenfell Tower.
The fire started in the early hours of Wednesday 14 June 2017. The London Fire Brigade were first called at 00: 54 BST (UTC + 1) and the first crews arrived six minutes after the alarm. Firefighters put out the fire in the flat within minutes. When the crew was leaving the building, firefighters outside spotted flames rising up the exterior of the building, where it began to spread at a "terrifying rate ''.
The fire is reported to have begun on the fourth floor. Residents alerted neighbours and began to evacuate the building. Due to Ramadan, many observing Muslim residents were awake for the pre-dawn meal of suhur, which enabled them to alert neighbours and help them to escape.
A team of more than 250 firefighters from 70 fire engines attempted to control the blaze. Firefighters entered the building to rescue people, undertaking efforts that broke their own safety protocols, but reported that they were hindered by the extreme heat. At the height of the blaze, a hundred or more firefighters were inside the building.
The fire on the exterior moved upward and to the other side, re-entering the building. Fire crews with breathing apparatus searched for people trapped in the building and carried them out; they reported thick smoke and zero visibility above the fourth floor. After three hours, the original teams of firefighters were replaced by new crews. A contingent of riot police was present; each of them attended a firefighter and held a shield horizontally above their heads to protect the two from falling heavy debris such as burning pieces of the cladding. Police equipped with red "Enforcer '' battering rams also attended to provide a method of entry into locked flats.
By sunrise, the firefighters were still battling the fire and trying to spray areas where people were seen trapped. The watching crowd were pushed back from the building because of falling debris. At 04: 14, officials from the Metropolitan Police Service addressed the large crowd of onlookers and urgently instructed them to contact anyone they knew who was trapped in the building -- if they are able to reach them via phone or social media -- to tell them they must try to self - evacuate and not wait for the fire brigade. At 05: 00, the building was still burning and severely damaged.
Witnesses reported seeing people trapped inside the burning building, switching the lights in their flats on and off or waving from windows to attract help, some holding children. There were two witness accounts of parents dropping their children down to people below, including a baby who was caught after being thrown from the ninth or tenth floor, and a small boy thrown from the fifth or sixth floor.
There were also eyewitness reports that some people were jumping out, and three victims were later found to have died from "injuries consistent with falling from a height ''. At least one person used knotted blankets to make a rope and escape from the burning building. Frequent explosions that were reported to be from gas lines in the building were heard. Firefighters were able to rescue an elderly, partially sighted man on the 11th floor, pictured on live television waving for help, after twelve hours. At a news conference in the afternoon of 14 June, London Fire Brigade reported firefighters had rescued 65 people from the building and reached all 24 floors.
The fire continued to burn on the tower 's upper floors. It was not brought under control until 01: 14 BST (UTC + 1) on 15 June and firefighters were still damping down pockets of fire when the Brigade issued an update on 16 June. Although fears were expressed that the building could collapse, structural engineers determined that it was not in danger and that rescue teams could enter it to search for survivors and casualties.
The fire brigade subsequently used a drone to inspect the building and search for casualties.
As of 22 September 2017, The Metropolitan Police in agreement with Westminster Coroner, Dr. Fiona Wilcox, record 67 formally identified victims, including a stillborn baby. Police estimate up to 80 people died. There are said to be about 255 survivors but some have not come forward and there is no formal register of who was in the building. The police said they were using "every imaginable source '' of information "from government agencies to fast food companies '' to identify casualties, but did not expect a final figure until 2018 when the search and recovery operation is over.
On 28 June, the authorities stated that there were known survivors from 106 of the tower 's 129 flats; eighteen people among the occupants of these flats were reported as dead or missing presumed dead, whereas most of those killed were said to have been in the remaining 23 flats between the 11th and 23rd floors. Some people from lower floors may have tried to move up the building, and it is thought a number of people may have ended up in one flat. Some victims were identified from twenty - six 999 calls made from inside the 23 flats.
The missing included many children. The youngest of those known killed, Leena Belkadi, was 6 months old. One victim died in hospital on 15 June due to inhalation of fire fumes. Additionally, one then pregnant survivor lost her baby through stillbirth as a result of the fire. On 20 September 2017, coroner Dr Fiona Wilcox announced that all missing children had been identified.
The disaster escalated as follows:
On 26 July, at the fourth public meeting of the Grenfell Response Team, a local volunteer reported that there had been at least 20 suicide attempts in north Kensington since the fire, one of which had been successful. The mental health of many survivors has been damaged.
There was concern that the death toll may be higher than indicated by the official figures, due to the number of undocumented subtenants, migrants and asylum seekers believed to have been living in the building. Mayor Sadiq Khan called for an amnesty to ensure that people with pertinent information could come forward.
On 22 June 2017, Theresa May promised in the House of Commons that no immigration checks would be performed on anyone coming forward to help the authorities identify casualties, or to provide information to the criminal investigation. However, two weeks later the government said that anyone coming forward would be subject to normal immigration rules, including the possibility of deportation after twelve months. May also said that the death toll may rise further; in some cases, entire families had perished.
Communities Secretary Sajid Javid announced on 2 July 2017 that anyone who had been illegally subletting flats in Grenfell Tower and could provide information on who had been in the building at the time of the fire would be protected from prosecution.
Members of the local community, including celebrities Lily Allen and rapper Akala, stated that the official figures were far short of the actual death toll, which they believed to be well into triple digits. Shadow Home Secretary Diane Abbott expressed her belief that the final number of people who had died in the disaster would be in triple digits, describing the deaths as a consequence of "second - class standards of safety '' and "a direct consequence of deregulation ''.
By 28 June 2017, two weeks after the fire, residents frustrated with the slow release of information by the authorities, in particular the lack of official numbers for those known to have survived and those normally resident in the tower, had formed groups conducting their own investigations into the death toll, compiling lists of survivors and people missing. A spokesperson for one of these groups, Grenfell United, estimated that more than 120 people had died in the fire.
On 2 July 2017 a Fire Brigades Union representative was reported as saying, "We know the death toll will be higher than the official figure -- and we 're not talking about one or two higher. There 's a strong possibility we are talking about three figures. '' Another firefighter said, "We 've been told by our management do n't speak, ideally. The coroner has said it could obstruct the investigation. I do n't know how it can -- what 's happened has happened, but that 's what we 're being told. ''
The official Grenfell Tower Response Unit said that of the 129 households in the block, 99 had received emergency payments by 28 June, enabling a rough estimate of how many households had survivors, although payments to some families were reportedly still outstanding.
On 10 July 2017, police said that they expected the death toll to remain at about 80, stating that of an estimated 350 people living in the building, 255 had survived the blaze, and that another 14 were not in the building at the time of the fire.
At the third public meeting held by the Grenfell Response Team, on 18 July, a resident told those in charge, "I was from the tower. We have been in these meetings several times, it just feels like school meetings because you do n't want to tell the truth to the people. We definitely know how many people have died and how many people are alive now. You have got so many ways, so many possibilities in your hand to find out how many people have died. Therefore it is obvious that you do n't want to tell the truth, but everybody here knows the truth. ''
On 19 September 2017, Metropolitan Police Commander Stuart Cundy stated that 60 victims had been identified and that the initial estimate of 80 dead was expected to be lower. This was based on recoveries and identifications made from Grenfell Tower, and police analysis of CCTV evidence showing 240 people leaving the building. Additionally, eight people are being investigated for possible fraudulent financial claims for non-existent victims.
On 31 August 2017 Immigration Minister Brandon Lewis announced that the deadline to register for the one - year immigration amnesty for displaced undocumented residents of Grenfell Tower was to be extended by three months to 30 November 2017. Sir Martin Moore - Bick (who leads the public inquiry) wrote to the Prime Minister asking her to consider the long term future for these residents beyond their value as witnesses for the inquiry. These views were echoed by campaign groups BMELawyers4Grenfell and Justice4Grenfell.
A resident from the fourth - floor told the media that the initial source of combustion was a neighbour 's fridge which had caught fire at 00: 50 BST. A small fire could be seen in his kitchen through his opened door. They immediately began knocking on doors to alert people. Within 30 minutes the fire was out of control. Flames rapidly spread via the outside of the building to cover an area from the second floor to the top.
Police announced on 23 June 2017 that the root of the fire was a model FF175BP fridge - freezer produced under the Hotpoint brand for Whirlpool. Owners of the types FF175BP and FF175BG were urged to register their appliance with the manufacturer to receive any updates. Sixty - four thousand of these models were made between March 2006 and July 2009, after which the model was discontinued. It is unknown how many are still in use.
The government ordered immediate testing of the type of fridge - freezer that was involved. Greg Clark, the business secretary, said: "The safety of consumers is paramount. The device is being subject to immediate and rigorous testing to establish the cause of the fire. I have made clear to the company that I will expect them to replace any item without delay if it is established that there is a risk in using them. ''
While there was much criticism of the lack of fire sprinkler systems, Geoff Wilkinson, the building regulations columnist for the Architects ' Journal, wrote on 14 June 2017 that if a gas riser was leaking or the cladding was at fault, sprinklers would have had little effect. He also said that reports of combustible material stored in the common walkways suggested poor overall management. David Siber, an advisor to the Fire Brigades Union, said sprinklers would have prevented the fire, if it started in a kitchen, from ever spreading beyond that room.
Research by John Sweeney for BBC Newsnight described several issues. There was insufficient mains water pressure for the hoses the fire service used and Thames Water had to be called to increase it. Also, a high ladder did not arrive for 32 minutes, by which time the fire was out of control. Matt Wrack of the Fire Brigades Union said, "... having that on the first attendance might have made a difference because it allows you to operate a very powerful water tower from outside the building onto the building. '' Before Grenfell, 70 % of fire brigades would have automatically sent a high ladder to tower fires.
An independent fire expert told the BBC having the ladder earlier could have stopped the fire getting out of control. The London Fire Brigade told Newsnight the first attendance procedure for tower fires has now been changed from four engines to five engines plus a high ladder unit. Firefighters said inside the building they lacked sufficient ' extended duration ' breathing apparatus. They had difficulty getting vital radio messages through due to ' overuse of the system ' and from the need to get the signal through layers of concrete.
There are questions as to why a 42 m (138 ft) firefighting platform had to be borrowed from Surrey for Grenfell (67 m (220 ft) high) as the London Fire Brigade does not have its own. The Surrey platform did not arrive until the fire had been burning for several hours. A London Fire Brigade spokesman said, "The commissioner has made clear her intention to fully review the brigade 's resources and seek funding for any additional requirements. '' London mayor, Sadiq Khan promised to supply new equipment that the London Fire Brigade needed promptly and stated he would not wait for the public inquiry.
Commissioner Dany Cotton later said having more firefighters may not have helped as there would not have physically been enough room for them in the building. The single stairwell also restricted access.
Kensington and Chelsea Council was warned in 2010 that building a new secondary school very near Grenfell Tower could block access by emergency vehicles. A 2013 blog post by Grenfell Action Group stated, "There is barely adequate room to manoeuvre for fire engines responding to emergency calls, and any obstruction of this emergency access zone could have lethal consequences in the event of a serious fire or similar emergency in Grenfell Tower or the adjacent blocks. '' The council demolished a multi-storey car park to build the school. This added to congestion and parked cars in streets around Grenfell Tower that were already narrow and made it hard for fire engines to get to the fire.
Some residents said no fire alarms went off when the fire started and that they were alerted to the fire only by people screaming for help or knocks on the door and not by a fire alarm. Another resident said they were alerted to the fire by the sound of an alarm and the sight of smoke. Others reported that they survived by ignoring the "stay put '' advice given by council notices: a directive instructing residents to remain in their flat in case of fire. The emergency services originally repeated the "stay put '' advice to residents while the fire was spreading; they later reversed this advice, but by then it was more difficult to exit the building.
The London - wide Radical Housing Network, a self - described "group of groups... fighting for housing justice across London '' of which the Grenfell Action Group is a member, said that the fire was "a horrific, preventable tragedy '' that was the result of a "combination of government cuts, local authority mismanagement, and sheer contempt for council tenants and the homes they live in ''.
After the fire, the Grenfell Action Group said that its years of complaints to warn the council, who own the building, and the KCTMO, who "supposedly manage all social housing in RBKC on the council 's behalf '', had been ignored, posting a message on its website:
Regular readers of this blog will know that we have posted numerous warnings in recent years about the very poor fire safety standards at Grenfell Tower and elsewhere in RBKC. ALL OUR WARNINGS FELL ON DEAF EARS and we predicted that a catastrophe like this was inevitable and just a matter of time.
The council had threatened the Grenfell Action Group with legal action in 2013 in a bid to prevent the group criticising the council, saying that such criticism amounted to "defamation and harassment ''.
In a July 2014 Grenfell Tower regeneration newsletter, the KCTMO instructed residents to stay in the flat in case of a fire ("Our longstanding ' stay put ' policy stays in force until you are told otherwise '') and stated that the front doors for each unit could survive a fire for up to 30 minutes.
The May 2016 newsletter had a similar message, adding that it was on the advice of the Fire Brigade:
The smoke detection systems have been upgraded and extended. The Fire Brigade has asked us to reinforce the message that, if there is a fire which is not inside your own home, you are generally safest to stay put in your home to begin with; the Fire Brigade will arrive very quickly if a fire is reported.
The standard advice for people to stay put until rescued relies on the assumption that fire services can contain a fire within the building 's interior; but this is impossible if the fire is spreading rapidly via the building 's exterior.
Sadiq Khan, the Mayor of London, said that he wanted answers about the fire safety condition at Grenfell Tower, and criticised the official "stay put '' policy: "Thankfully residents did n't take that advice but fled ''. He added, "These are some of the questions that have to be answered. We have lots of people in London living in tower blocks... We ca n't have people 's lives being put at risk because of bad advice or lack of maintenance. ''
Dany Cotton said Grenfell was unique in terms of volume and behaviour of fire. She said it was a matter for the inquiry, but defended the general "stay put '' policy for most buildings by reasoning that if residents all evacuate at once, they could block firefighters from entering. Furthermore, smoke and fire could be spread within a building by residents opening doors.
Former Conservative Housing Minister, Gavin Barwell, faced criticism after political journalist Joe Watts wrote in The Independent that he had delayed a fire safety review, and that a report into fire safety in tower blocks had been shelved for four years; Barwell had been due to meet the All - Party Parliamentary Fire Safety and Rescue Group to discuss the review in 2017, but the meeting was postponed after the snap general election was called. Barwell lost his seat in the election and was appointed Downing Street Chief of Staff shortly afterwards. In his report Watts stated that a review of fire - safety regulations had been necessary, but not undertaken, for years before Barwell took office.
The newly renovated façade of the tower is believed to have been built as follows:
Both the aluminium - polyethylene cladding and the PIR insulation plates failed fire safety tests conducted after the fire, according to the police. In 2014 safety experts cautioned that the planned insulation was only suitable for use with non-combustible cladding. The Guardian saw a certificate from the building inspectors ' organisation, Local Authority Building Control (LABC), which stated that the chosen insulation for the refit should be used on tall buildings only with fibre cement panels, which do not burn. Combustible panels with polyethylene were put up on top of insulation known as Celotex RS5000, made from polyisocyanurate, which burns when heated giving off toxic cyanide fumes.
Despite the above, the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea certified the Grenfell tower building work as allegedly conforming to "the relevant provisions ''. Council building inspectors visited the site 16 times from August 2014 to July 2016. Kooltherm, a phenolic insulation was also used on Grenfell. Kooltherm was never tested with polyethylene core aluminium panels according to the manufacturer. The manufacturer, Kingspan, "would be very surprised if such a system... would ever pass the appropriate British Standard 8414 large - scale test ''. Kooltherm 's LABC certificate states phenolic products, "do not meet the limited combustibility requirements '' of building regulations.
The combustible materials used on Grenfell Tower were considerably cheaper than non-conbustible alternatives would have been. There appear to have been intense cost pressures over the Grenfell refurbishment. In June 2017 it was stated the project team chose cheaper cladding that saved £ 293,368, after the Kensington and Chelsea Tenant Management Organisation mentioned in an email the need for "good costs for Cllr Fielding Mellen (the council 's former deputy leader) ''.
A building control officer from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea reportedly passed the cladding on Grenfell Tower on 15 May 2015, though there was a nationwide warning that the combustible insulation used should only be used with cladding that does not burn.
Of 173 buildings tested, 165 have failed combustion tests conducted since the Grenfell fire. There are calls for the government to give financial assistance to councils that have to carry out expensive building renovations. Councillor Simon Blackburn, chair of the LGA 's Safer and Stronger Communities Board, said:
The tragedy at Grenfell Tower has clearly exposed a systemic failure of the current system of building regulation. The government must commit to meet the full cost to councils of removing and replacing cladding and insulation systems.
It is also imperative that this testing process moves quickly to identify what landlords should be replacing these systems with as soon as possible. With these latest test - fails affecting buildings owned by a range of different landlords across the country, the government also needs to make sure there is capacity within the housebuilding industry to take quick action to carry out the scale of remedial work that looks likely to be needed.
Fire safety experts have said that the building 's new external cladding was a possible cause of the rapid spread of the fire. Experts said the gap between the cladding and the insulation worked like a chimney to spread the fire. The cladding could be seen burning and melting, causing additional speculation that it was not made of fire - resistant material. One resident said: "The whole one side of the building was on fire. The cladding went up like a matchstick. ''
Concerns about the dangers of external cladding were raised years before, following a fire in 1991 at flats in Knowsley Heights, Liverpool. Recent major high - rise fires that have involved flammable cladding are listed below.
Records show that a contractor had been paid £ 2.6 million to install an "ACM rainscreen over-clad '' during the recent refurbishment at Grenfell Tower. ACM stands for "aluminium composite material '', also known as a sandwich panel, the combustibility of which depends on the choice of insulation core material.
One of the products used was Arconic 's Reynobond, which is available with different types of core material -- polyethylene, as reportedly used in Grenfell Tower (Reynobond PE), or a more fire - resistant material (Reynobond FR). The Reynobond cladding reportedly cost £ 24 per square metre for the fire - retardant version, and £ 22 for the combustible version.
According to Arconic 's website and brochure for the mainland European market at the time of the fire, the Reynobond PE cladding used was suitable only for buildings 10 metres or less tall; the fire - retardant Reynobond FR was suitable for buildings up to 30 metres tall; and above the latter height, such as the upper parts of Grenfell Tower, the non-combustible A2 version was supposed to be used ("As soon as the building is higher than the firefighters ' ladders, it has to be conceived with an incombustible material ''). After the fire, Arconic stopped sales of Reynobond PE worldwide for tower blocks.
Similar cladding containing highly flammable insulation material is believed to have been installed on thousands of other high - rise buildings in countries including Britain, France, the UAE and Australia. This goes against advice published by the Centre for Window and Cladding Technology.
Sam Webb, the architect who investigated the Lakanal fire and who sits on the All - Party Parliamentary Fire Safety and Rescue Group, said "This tragedy was entirely predictable, sadly. '' Webb added, "I really do n't think the building industry understands how fire behaves in buildings and how dangerous it can be. The government 's mania for deregulation means our current safety standards just are n't good enough. ''
In September 2014 a building regulations notice for the re-cladding work was submitted to the authority, and marked with a status of "Completed -- not approved ''. The use of a "Building Notice '' building control application is used to remove the need to submit detailed plans and proposals to a building control inspector in advance, where the works performed will be approved by the inspector during the course of their construction. Building inspector Geoff Wilkinson remarked that this type of application is "wholly inappropriate for large complex buildings and should only be used on small, simple domestic buildings ''.
On 18 June, Chancellor of the Exchequer Philip Hammond stated that the cladding used on Grenfell Tower was banned in the United Kingdom. Grenfell Tower was inspected 16 times while the cladding was being put on but none of these inspections noticed that materials effectively banned in tall buildings were being used. Judith Blakeman, local Labour councillor questioned the competence of the inspectors. Blakeman representing the Grenfell residents, said, "This raises the question of whether the building regulations officers were sufficiently competent and did they know what they were looking at. It also begs a question about what they were actually shown. Was anything concealed from them. ''
The Department for Communities and Local Government stated that cladding with a polyethylene core "would be non-compliant with current Building Regulations guidance. This material should not be used as cladding on buildings over 18 metres (59 ft) in height. '' On 31 July 2017, the Department released results of fire safety testing on the cladding panels used at Grenfell Tower, which were carried out by the Building Research Establishment and assigned the polyethylene filling a category three rating, designating a total lack of flame retardant properties.
According to US - based Arconic, the polyethylene version of the material is banned in the United States for use in buildings exceeding 40 feet (12 m) in height, because of the risk of spreading fire and smoke. NPR subsequently stated that nearly all jurisdictions in the US (except three states and the District of Columbia) have enacted the International Building Code (IBC) requirement that external wall assemblies (cladding, insulation, and wall) on high - rise buildings with combustible components must pass a rigorous real - world simulation test promulgated by the National Fire Protection Association under the name NFPA 285.
To perform the test, the entire planned assembly is constructed on a standardised test rig two - storeys tall, with a window opening in the middle, and is continuously ignited with gas burners from two different angles for 30 minutes. The assembly must satisfy numerous performance criteria to pass, including a requirement that flames can not spread more than 10 ft (3.0 m) vertically from the top of the window opening or 5 ft (1.5 m) horizontally.
A single NFPA 285 test can cost over $30,000, and it certifies only a particular assembly, meaning that any change to any part used requires a new test. To date, ACM cladding with a polyethylene core has not been able to pass the NFPA 285 test, and thus has been effectively banned on US high - rises for decades. In contrast, the UK does not mandate the use of such simulations.
Fire safety experts said the tests the government is doing on cladding only are insufficient as the whole unit of cladding and insulation should be tested including fire stops. Fire safety experts maintain further that the tests lack transparency as the government has not described what tests are being done. However Christopher Booker said that inferior EU building fire tests which required testing each component separately were introduced in 2002 and the Building Research Establishment 's standard BS 8414 which MP 's recommended after a fire in Scotland was optional.
The refurbishment also used an insulation foam product named Celotex RS5000, installed behind the cladding. Police said this insulation proved "more flammable than the cladding ''.
According to its datasheet, the polyisocyanurate (PIR) product -- charred pieces of which littered the area around Grenfell Tower after the fire -- "will burn if exposed to a fire of sufficient heat and intensity ''. PIR insulation foams "will, when ignited, burn rapidly and produce intense heat, dense smoke and gases which are irritating, flammable and / or toxic '', among them carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. The fire toxicity of polyisocyanurate foams has been well understood for some time.
At least three survivors were treated for cyanide poisoning. Exposure to carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide simultaneously produces a higher lethality than exposure to the two gases separately.
Celotex 's Rainscreen Compliance Guide when specifying Celotex RS5000 in buildings above 18 metres (59 ft) sets out the conditions under which the product was tested and for which it has been certified as meeting the required fire safety standards. These include the use of (non-combustible) 12 mm fibre cement rainscreen panels, ventilated horizontal fire breaks at each floor slab edge and vertical non-ventilated fire breaks. It states that any changes from the tested configuration "will need to be considered by the building designer ''.
Building regulations are to be reviewed in the light of the fire due to a number of concerns. As of July 2017 it is unclear if the problems are with the rules or their enforcement but there is concern over fire safety issues with many other buildings.
Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) commissioned "whole system '' tests which are designed to see how different cladding systems reacted in a fire. Seven combinations were tested and six deemed dangerous. It reported back in August 2017 that there are 228 buildings in the United Kingdom cladded using these methods. The seventh, a combination of aluminium composite material (ACM) cladding with a limited flammability filling and stone - wool insulation was deemed safe. There are no existing building in the Uk using it, but it could be used to reclad all the building using the other methods. These findings will used to help revise the Building Regulations.
Reinhard Ries, the fire chief in Frankfurt, Germany, was critical of lax fire regulations in the United Kingdom, contrasting the laws in Germany that ban flammable cladding on buildings higher than 22 m and require segregated fire - stairs and firefighting lifts which can be used by the fire brigade and injured or disabled people.
Russ Timpson of the Tall Buildings Fire Safety Network told The Telegraph that "foreign colleagues are staggered '' when they learn that UK regulations permit high - rise buildings to have only a single staircase, and called on government to review the relevant regulations.
Other criticisms of UK fire regulations voiced in the aftermath of the fire include the lack of external sprinklers, mandated in Dubai and Australia for example for buildings featuring combustible cladding, the lack of internal sprinklers, which could have contained the original fire, and a 1986 change in the law under the then Conservative government that abolished a requirement that external walls should have at least one hour 's fire resistance to prevent blazes from re-entering a building and spreading to other apartments. Wales has required sprinklers to be installed in new houses and flats built since 2016. A BBC Breakfast investigation, focusing on half of the UK 's council owned and housing association owned tower blocks, found that 2 % of them have full sprinkler systems. Deaths were 87 % lower when buildings with sprinklers caught fire. England, Wales and Scotland all require sprinklers in newly built tall buildings but this does not apply retrospectively to older buildings. The same investigation found that one tower block in three has more than one staircase where people can be evacuated. The London fire chief has called for sprinklers to be retrofitted in all social housing blocks.
The New York Times reported that because of the Great Fire of London, UK building codes have historically been overly focused on containing horizontal fire spread between buildings or between units in larger buildings, as opposed to vertical fire spread in high - rises.
There is a political tension between those wishing to place the blame on a technical failures, like a fridge or the wrong type of cladding and those who see the blame lying on the systemic failure of government housing policies, and more recently Theresa May 's policies of austerity and a chronic underfunding of local housing authorities preventing them from fulfilling their statutory duties, and maintaining standards of health and safety.
The philosophical difference of providing a high standard of public housing and providing the bare minimum to house only those most in need first occurred as the Lancaster West Estate was being built. Grenfell and the finger blocks were built to Parker Morris standards, the tower provided one and two bedroomed flats for single occupiers or childless families. The incoming Conservative government revised the standards down, using the Local Government, Planning and Land Act 1980 to replace the mandatory Space in the Home document They required that flats were allocated to the most needy, not the most suitable thus putting families in the tower. Phase two of the planned estate was cancelled, and then built with smaller units.
It was a political decision to deprive local authorities of the resources needed to provide an adequate service. Local authority budgets have been cut by 40 % as a result of the 2010 austerity budget of the Conservative Coalition Government, and the fire service cuts have resulted in 11,000 fewer firefighters. The building inspection regime is under pressure as mandatory competition between Local Authority Building Control and private approved inspectors was introduced to drive down costs. This impacts on quality. Local authority budget cuts have led to fewer building control inspectors and fewer planning inspectors and also the recommendations of a coroner 's report into the Lakanal House tower block fire in Southwark in 2009 has not been acted on nor have building regulations been overhauled. The responsibility for fire safety checks had been switched from the fire brigade onto building owners for similar cost cutting reasons, by the previous Blair government. Southwark council was fined £ 570,000 for fire safety offences following the 2009 Lakanal House fire, where six people died. Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn brought this to the attention of the House. He said these "terrible consequences of deregulation and cutting corners '' stemmed from a "disregard for working - class communities ''.
The building regulations covering fire are now ambiguous and confusing, with four different routes to compliance with Part B. One route is to follow the prescriptive guidance in Part B. This states that insulation and "filler materials '' used for external cladding should be of limited combustibility but other elements, including the core of an external rainscreen panel, are n't covered by this definition. The building inspection regime is under pressure, competition between Local Authority Building Control and private approved inspectors has driven down costs, which must impact on quality. Local authority budget cuts have reduced the number of building control officers.
Calls to update Part B after fatal fires in 2000 and 2013 spread up the exterior of multi-storey buildings have been ignored by both Labour and Conservative governments. One of these fires took place in Scotland, which took the lessons of the inquiry on board and the devolved Scottish government updated its regulations in 2005.
On 15 June 2017, the Prime Minister visited the site, but refused to speak to any of the residents, citing security reasons while the following day HM Queen made a similar visit and openly spoke with rescuers and survivors. On 21 June 2017 the Prime Minister then criticised the quality of the support given to the victims in the period immediately after the fire as a "failure of the state, local and national, to help people when they needed it most ''.
The local council 's response to the Grenfell Tower fire has been subject to widespread criticism. Council member Emma Dent Coad, also the newly elected Labour MP for the area (Kensington constituency) and a former board member of KCTMO, accused the council of having failed and betrayed its residents; characterising the fire as "entirely preventable '', she added that "I ca n't help thinking that poor quality materials and construction standards may have played a part in this hideous and unforgivable event ''.
Edward Daffam of the Grenfell Action Group said, "They did n't give a stuff about us. We were the carcass and they were the vultures. North Kensington was like a goldmine, only they did n't have to dig for the gold. All they had to do was to marginalise the people who were living here, and that 's what they were doing. ''
Moore - Bick is seen as aloof and lacking empathy; he concerned residents by suggesting only the technical causes of the fire would be investigated. Dent Coad said she still had less than "total confidence '' in Moore - Bick, but "we have to work with the system we have, unfortunately. '' Sources close to the inquiry suggest Moore - Bick is thinking of proposing an advisory panel. He is also inclined to recommend a two - stage inquiry: the first stage investigating the immediate causes of the fire, the second investigating broader issues over a longer period. Dent Coad said there must be a legal commitment to a second stage. "We need to look at all the broader issues. One of the concerns about a two part inquiry -- like with Hillsborough -- is if it 's held off for too long and then it does n't happen at all, so that 's a concern. '' Dent Coad wants the first stage to, "look at accountability and recommendations straight away so that the things that have become most obvious throughout the inquiry are put into action straight away. ''
Inquest, a group campaigning for people who die in controversial situations, wants the inquiry to, "address the pain, trauma and individual and community damage caused by the tragedy, and the lack of public trust and confidence in the state institutions involved. '' Inquest suggested three areas of investigation for the inquiry, the state of affairs leading up to the fire, its cause, spread and impact, also the immediate emergency response, and the after effects of the fire including, "the role that discrimination, inequality or institutional indifference played in the systemic failures in the aftermath and the response at a local and national level. ''
Grenfell Tower is in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, one of the wealthiest local authorities in the country, containing some of the most expensive houses in the world, and with the highest gap between rich and poor anywhere in the country. Grenfell Tower was populated by poorer, mainly ethnic - minority residents. The Conservative - run council was criticised for neglecting the borough 's poorer residents, and some have blamed their neglect as a cause of the fire.
In 2016, the council took £ 55 million in rent but only invested less than £ 40 million in council housing. One journalist described the incident as an example of Britain 's inequality. Data released in June 2017 by Trust for London and New Policy Institute shows large divides between rich and poor in the borough of Kensington and Chelsea. The analysis found that it is a borough with some very high incomes, as well as the highest average incomes in London, there are pockets of deprivation, particularly in the north end of the borough, including the ward in which Grenfell Tower is located.
After the council leader Nicholas Paget - Brown was interviewed on BBC 's Newsnight, he was criticised for his remark that "many residents felt that we needed to get on with the installation of new hot water systems, new boilers and that trying to retrofit more would delay the building and that sprinklers are n't the answer. ''
After the fire, volunteer people and groups worked to help those made homeless and without possessions. The volunteers criticised council officials for doing little to coordinate these efforts. There were calls to jail those responsible for the fire. Deborah Orr wrote, "We know that fire - safe cladding was available. The idea of being energy efficient and safe was not impossible, or even undesirable in theory. But fire - resistant cladding would have raised the cost for the whole building by an estimated £ 5,000. That sum may be what people died for. ''
On 17 June 2017, MPs asked the council to describe why it had amassed £ 274 million of reserves, after years of underspending, and had not used any of its budget surplus to increase fire safety, given that residents had issued repeated warnings about the Grenfell Tower fire risk. The council actually used the surplus to pay top - rate council taxpayers a £ 100 rebate shortly before local elections which returned a Conservative council. After the fire, some former residents of Grenfell Tower still had rent payment taken out of their bank account for the burnt - out property by the council.
The council received further criticism for their lack of support on 18 June 2017. Some families were reported to be sleeping on the floor in local centres four days after the event. A leading volunteer in the relief effort said: "Kensington and Chelsea are giving £ 10 to the survivors when they go to the hotels -- a tenner -- there is money pouring in from all these amazing volunteers. We ca n't get access to this money. ''
London mayor Sadiq Khan said "years of neglect '' by the council and successive governments were responsible for what had been a "preventable accident ''. There are calls for the council leader and some others to resign.
Dawn Foster, contributing editor on housing for The Guardian, said that this was an "atrocity '' that "was explicitly political '' and "a symbol of the United Kingdom 's deep inequality ''. Data released in June 2017 by Trust for London and New Policy Institute shows large divides between rich and poor in the borough of Kensington and Chelsea. The analysis found that whilst Kensington and Chelsea is a borough with some very high incomes, as well as the highest average incomes in London, there are pockets of deprivation, particularly in the north end of the borough, including the ward in which Grenfell Tower is located.
Patrick Cockburn of The Independent criticised deregulation of the building industry by the government, which he described as "cutting red tape ''. This was contrasted with the increasing complexity of processes faced by prospective benefits claimants including those with mental health issues. Cockburn said long inquiries were not necessary to establish what went wrong; the tower 's cladding was inflammable and no sprinklers had been installed. Cockburn said that "The Government is clearly frightened that the burned bodies in Grenfell Towers will be seen as martyrs who died because of austerity, deregulation and outsourcing. ''
In his column on the disaster, Aditya Chakrabortty of The Guardian drew comparisons to the often lethal living and working conditions faced by the working classes and poor in Victorian Manchester, which Friedrich Engels characterised as social murder in his 1845 study The Condition of the Working Class in England. Chakrabortty stated that "those dozens of Grenfell residents did n't die: they were killed. What happened last week was n't a "terrible tragedy '' or some other studio - sofa platitude: it was social murder... Over 170 years later, Britain remains a country that murders its poor. ''
Residents approved initial plans for fire resistant zinc cladding but this was later changed to cheaper aluminium cladding with combustible polyethylene core which residents did not approve, saving nearly £ 300,000.
On 29 June, Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council held its first full meeting since the fire. The council had tried to exclude the press and public from the meeting, citing safety concerns. Journalists sought an injunction to force the council let them attend, which was granted. The meeting was adjourned shortly after it began, with members of the council 's cabinet saying that to proceed would be prejudicial to the forthcoming public inquiry. Sadiq Khan and Robert Atkinson, Labour group leader on the council, both called for the council 's entire cabinet to resign. Atkinson described the situation as "an absolute fiasco ''. Khan said that it beggared belief that the council was trying to hold meetings in secret when the meeting was the first chance the council had to provide some answers and show transparency. He said that some people were asking whether or not the council was involved in a cover up. Conservative council leader Nicholas Paget - Brown resigned on 30 June.
Sadiq Khan and others have called on the government to appoint commissioners to run Kensington and Chelsea council till the next elections because critics maintain confidence in the current administration has been lost. Khan said he wanted ' untainted ' commissioners with a genuine empathy with residents and their situation.
Describing the council response, David Alexander, professor of disaster management at University College, London said, "North Kensington is now in a crucial transition and planning phase between the intense efforts of immediate relief and longer - term reconstruction when failures of leadership can be particularly damaging. We find that in some cases -- the worst ones -- it is n't a transition at all, or rather it is a transition from nothing much to nothing else. Absence of clear strategies breeds lack of trust in authority, loss of confidence and a fear of the future that, sadly, is often well founded. ''
Jon Snow a veteran television journalist used the MacTaggart Lecture at the Edinburgh International Television Festival to complain that the media was "comfortably with the elite, with little awareness, contact or connection with those not of the elite '' and this lack of connection was "dangerous ''. He demanded "Why did n't any of us see the Grenfell action blog? ''
He said "Grenfell speaks to us all about our own lack of diversity, and capacity to reach into the swaths of western society with whom we have no connection. Our own record on diversity is nothing like good enough. '' The Sutton Trust has stated that just under 80 % of top editors were educated at private or grammar schools. Compare that with the 88 % of the British public now at comprehensives.
The fire 's proximity to Latimer Road tube station caused a partial closure of London Underground 's Hammersmith & City and Circle lines. The A40 Westway was closed in both directions. Bus routes were also being diverted. Services on the Hammersmith & City, and Circle lines were again suspended on 17 June due to concerns about debris falling from the tower.
People from surrounding buildings were evacuated due to concerns that the tower might collapse.
Kensington Aldridge Academy sits adjacent to Grenfell Tower, inside the police cordon, and has been closed since the fire. Students have been temporarily relocated to different schools in the area for lessons and exams. This was during the annual exam period, typically late May to Early July when pupils take their GCSEs and A-Levels
Following the general election of 8 June, which resulted in no overall majority, a deal was expected to be announced between the Conservative Party and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), but DUP sources informed the BBC that the fire would delay the finalisation and announcement of this agreement. The announcement would be postponed until the following week and thus could postpone discussions on Brexit that had been scheduled to take place.
The City of London cancelled the annual Mansion House Dinner, hosted by the Lord Mayor of London due to take place the day after the fire. Philip Hammond, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, had been due to address the event, but had said he would not do so following the fire.
A national minute 's silence was held at 11.00 am on 19 June.
The fire also severely affected three low - rise "finger blocks '' adjoining Grenfell Tower. Their residents were evacuated due to the fire and many remained in temporary accommodation at the start of July. The blocks, Barandon Walk, Testerton Walk and Hurstway Walk, also lost access to hot water as they shared a boiler beneath Grenfell Tower that was destroyed in the fire.
People in the immediate area and from across London rallied to assist victims of the fire, in a response that saw people of all ages, races and social classes come together. Donations of food, water, toys, and clothes were made. St Clement 's Church, Treadgold Street and St James ' Church, Norlands, in the Deanery of Kensington, provided shelter for people evacuated from their homes, as did nearby mosques and temples. Notting Hill Methodist Church near to Grenfell tower became a focus of tributes and held regular vigils for the victims.
Nearby Queens Park Rangers F.C. offered their Loftus Road venue as a relief centre and have been accepting donations of food, drink and clothing from the local community, and other nearby football clubs Brentford and Chelsea also offered their stadiums as relief centres.
Following her private visit to the scene of the fire on 15 June 2017, Prime Minister Theresa May ordered a full public inquiry into the fire. Also on 15 June, the government issued information including details of a dedicated benefits line and a fund to support the survivors.
On 16 June 2017 the government announced the establishment of an interim £ 5 million fund for survivors of the fire and committed to ensuring that those who had lost their homes will be rehoused in the borough or neighbouring boroughs, as close as possible to Grenfell Tower, within three weeks.
On 18 June 2017 an announcement followed that all those made homeless would receive £ 5,500, with each household to be given at least £ 500 in cash and £ 5,000 paid into an account.
The government also announced details of how the £ 5 million fund would be spent. This included funds to support people in temporary accommodation, a discretionary fund to help with funeral costs, and funding to help with residents ' legal representation. An extra £ 1.5 million was promised for emergency services ' mental health support.
The same day, Theresa May said in the House of Commons that there had been a "failure of the state -- local and national -- to help people when they needed it most '', adding, "As Prime Minister, I apologise for that failure. As Prime Minister I have taken responsibility for doing what we can to put things right. That is why each family whose home was destroyed is receiving a down payment from the emergency fund so they can buy food, clothes and other essentials. And all those who have lost their homes will be rehoused within three weeks. ''
On 22 June 2017, Theresa May stated in the House of Commons that anyone affected by the tragedy, regardless of their immigration status, would be entitled to support, including healthcare services and accommodation. No immigration checks would be performed on those affected. (Two weeks later, however, the government said that anyone coming forward would be subject to normal immigration rules, including the possibility of deportation, after twelve months.) May added that it was important for those receiving payments from the fund to understand that they could keep the money -- they would not have to pay it back, and it would not impact their entitlement to any other benefits.
May said that further residential buildings with flammable cladding of the type used in Grenfell Tower had been identified.
In August 2017, it was announced that the Kensington and Chelsea TMO would no longer manage the Lancaster Estate containing Grenfell Tower, which would come under direct council control.
On 18 June 2017 the government relieved Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council of responsibility for supporting the survivors, after their inadequate response to the disaster. Responsibility was handed over to the Grenfell Fire Response Team (GRT) led by a group of chief executives from councils across London. John Barradell, City of London Corporation chief executive, is leading the response team. Resources available to them include: central government, the British Red Cross, the Metropolitan Police, the London Fire Brigade and local government in London. Neighbouring councils sent in staff to improve the rehousing response.
The government also announced that they will send in a task force to take over some of Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council 's functions when the GRT is gradually wound down. This move from the government stops short of demands from the London mayor who called for ministers to appoint external commissioners to take over the running of the whole council.
Grenfell Tower was insured by Protector Forsikring ASA for £ 20 million, but the direct costs of the fire are likely to be substantially higher. According to The Times, the financial impact of the fire could reach as high as £ 1 billion due to a combination of litigation, compensation for deaths and injuries, rehousing and rehabilitation, the cost of demolition and rebuilding and the possibility that other tower blocks may have to be improved or evacuated.
The Queen said that her thoughts and prayers were with the affected families. The Prime Minister, Theresa May, said she was saddened and called for a cross-government meeting, and a meeting with the Civil Contingencies Secretariat. The Mayor of London London Sadiq Khan issued a statement saying he was devastated and also praising the emergency services on the scene. Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn praised the emergency services for their actions, but said that questions needed to be answered about the fire. The Bishop of Kensington, Graham Tomlin, went to the site fire in the morning, and counselled firefighters moving in and out of the building. In the afternoon, he spent his time with survivors, and also helped collect charity donations in various churches around his parish.
May made a private visit to Grenfell Tower to speak with London Fire Brigade commissioner Dany Cotton and other members of the emergency services. Conservative MP Tobias Ellwood stated that security concerns were the reason not to meet with people who lived in the tower. BBC political editor Laura Kuenssberg commented that May 's decision not to meet those who lived in the tower might be interpreted as indicative of a lack of empathy. An editorial in The Guardian called it May 's "Hurricane Katrina moment ''. Former Conservative cabinet minister Michael Portillo described her meeting with members of the emergency services as "a good thing '' but felt she "should have been there with the residents. She wanted an entirely controlled situation in which she did n't use her humanity ''. The government confirmed Bellwin scheme financial assistance would be available to the council.
Jeremy Corbyn visited a nearby community centre and spoke to some of the volunteers who were helping those affected by the fire.
The Queen and Prince William visited the Westway Sports Centre, where a relief centre had been set up to help the victims of the fire.
May made a visit to some of the victims at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital. On a second visit that day, May visited St Clement 's Church which had been set up as a relief centre. From there she announced a £ 5 million fund for victims of the fire and promised that residents would be given new housing, as close to Grenfell Tower as possible, "as far as possible within the borough, or in neighbouring boroughs '', within the next three weeks. Some people proceeded to shout "coward '', "murderer '' and "shame on you '' at her. Minor scuffles broke out.
An article written by former Conservative MP Matthew Parris in The Times described her as "a good and moral person, who wants the best for her country, and is not privately unfeeling,... in public is crippled by personal reserve ''. Andrea Leadsom, the Leader of the House of Commons subsequently visited a relief centre at the Rugby Portobello Trust, where she was confronted by residents angered by May 's response, and described the prime minister as being "absolutely heartbroken '' over events at Grenfell Tower.
Jeremy Corbyn visited a nearby community centre and spoke to some of the volunteers who were helping those affected by the fire. He called for private property to be "requisitioned if necessary '', to provide homes for those displaced by the fire, referring to the large number of empty properties in Kensington. This proposal was characterised by The Telegraph as unlawful. In a survey, 59 % of those polled by YouGov supported Corbyn 's proposal.
During the afternoon of 16 June 2017, hundreds of people protested at Kensington Town Hall, demanding that victims be rehoused within the borough and that funds be made available for those rendered homeless. The actions of some protesters caused a number of council officials having to be evacuated from the Town Hall.
On her Official Birthday, the Queen released a statement in which she said it was "difficult to escape a very sombre national mood '' following the Grenfell Tower fire, and terrorist attacks in London and Manchester shortly before. She led a minute 's silence at the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony held at Horse Guards Parade. May met with victims at 10 Downing Street. BBC Two cancelled transmission of the documentary Venice Biennale: Sink or Swim, scheduled for 7.30 pm that evening, as it features artist Khadija Saye, who was killed in the fire, and BBC One rescheduled an edition of its new series Pitch Battle because the programme contained themes and song lyrics deemed to be inappropriate so soon after the fire.
Responsibility for managing the aftermath of the fire was removed from Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council. It was transferred to a new body comprising representatives from central and other local London government, the London Fire Brigade, Metropolitan Police and Red Cross. Residents living near the tower, who had been evacuated and were also effectively homeless, accused the council 's leadership of going into hiding. Some families reportedly returned home after being told that rehoming priorities were aimed at those who had lived in Grenfell Tower, amid confusion and uncertainty over whether their homes were safe.
The chief executive of Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council, Nicholas Holgate, resigned. Holgate said he had been asked to leave by the local government secretary Sajid Javid; the government refuted this.
The 2017 Glastonbury Festival opened with a minute 's silence for the victims of the Grenfell tower fire and the Manchester Arena bombing, led by Peter Hook, co-founder of Manchester band Joy Division. Camden London Borough Council ordered the evacuation of all 800 flats of the five blocks on the Chalcots Estate following an inspection of the cladding on the buildings. Celotex Saint Gobain announced on its website that it was to stop the supply of RS5000 for use in rainscreen cladding systems in buildings over 18 metres (59 ft) tall.
The Football Association announced that proceeds from the 2017 FA Community Shield match, between London rivals Arsenal and Chelsea, will be donated to support the victims.
Music producer Simon Cowell, a borough resident, arranged the recording of a charity single of Simon & Garfunkel 's "Bridge over Troubled Water '', at nearby Sarm West Studios. Artists involved included Liam Payne, Stormzy, Louisa Johnson, Emeli Sandé, Pixie Lott, Rita Ora, Leona Lewis, Tulisa Contostavlos and Stereophonics singer Kelly Jones. A total of around fifty artists contributed to the single, which was released under the title Artists for Grenfell on 21 June. It sold 120,000 copies in its first day, the highest volume of opening - day sales of the 2010s, and reached number one on the UK Singles Chart on 23 June. The choir, conducted by Gareth Malone, included residents from Grenfell Tower.
On 21 June 2017, the government announced the acquisition of 68 flats in a newly built development at Kensington Row which would be used to rehouse families made homeless by the fire. The development is in Kensington, in the same borough as Grenfell Tower, and about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from the Tower. Not all residents in the area of the new flats welcomed the idea of those from Grenfell Tower being rehoused near them.
Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council has made 169 offers of accommodation to the survivors, 46 of which have been accepted but only twelve households have been rehoused by 1 August. The council has secured 105 flats so far, including 68 at Kensington Row and 31 on Hortensia Road, Chelsea, and is in the process of allocating the properties.
On 9 September 2017, The New York Times reported that almost three months on from the fire, only 24 out of 158 households rendered homeless by the blaze had been placed in permanent housing.
On 30 August 2017, the Department for Communities and Local Government published the terms of reference for the Independent Review of Building Regulations and Fire Safety. This independent review will be led by Dame Judith Hackitt, who is a senior engineer and civil servant with experience as the Chair of the Health and Safety Executive. The review will report to both DCLG head Sajid Javid and Home Secretary Amber Rudd. An initial report is expected in the autumn of 2017 with a final report due in spring 2018. Recommendations will be reconsidered after the conclusion of the public inquiry. The two main aims of the review are firstly to develop improved building regulations for the future, with a focus on residential high - rise blocks, and secondly to provide reassurance to residents that their homes are safe.
In the days after the fire, local authorities across the United Kingdom undertook reviews of fire safety in their residential tower blocks, including Brighton and Hove City Council, Manchester City Council, Plymouth City Council, Portsmouth City Council, Swindon Borough Council. Around 200 National Health Service trusts across the country were urged by NHS Improvement to check the cladding on their buildings, with particular attention being paid to those buildings housing in - patients.
In London, councils affected included Brent London Borough Council, Camden London Borough Council, Hounslow London Borough Council, Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council, Newham London Borough Council, and Wandsworth London Borough Council.
There are estimated to be about 600 high - rise blocks of flats in the UK that have similar cladding and unspecified fire safety tests have been carried out on panels sent in by councils at the Building Research Establishment in Watford, on behalf of the Department for Communities and Local Government. By 28 June 2017, 120 high - rise buildings in 37 different local authority areas were reported to have failed fire safety tests, a 100 % failure rate of samples tested. Councils had been instructed to begin with those buildings that caused the most concern, and every single one of those had failed the test.
The government 's fire safety tests were criticised for looking only at the cladding and not the insulation behind it, which had burned rapidly in the Grenfell Tower fire; testing the insulation is left to councils and landlords. By 6 July, only one of 191 samples tested had passed. It was announced that large - scale tests were to be done on a 9 - metre (30 ft) high wall, simulating a fire breaking out of a window.
In August, it was announced that the 52 - bed trauma unit at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford was to close for up to twelve months due to concerns over flammable cladding on the building and other "serious and embedded '' fire safety issues.
On 20 September, it was revealed that combustible cladding had been identified on 57 buildings across Glasgow. It was also revealed that neither residents nor the fire service had been informed of this by Glasgow City Council. Scottish Housing Minister Kevin Stewart said that he expected Glasgow City Council to inform all relevant parties. MSP Bob Doris described the development as "deeply concerning ''.
Other tower blocks are being investigated over structural safety concerns. Four 13 - storey tower blocks on the Ledbury estate in Peckham have had their gas supplies cut off as a precaution. In the event of a gas explosion, they could be at risk of collapse. These blocks, containing 242 flats, were constructed using the same "large panel system '' as Ronan Point, which partly collapsed in 1968. There are fears that more tower blocks across the country may also be at risk.
Authorities worldwide conducted reviews of fire safety in tower blocks.
In Australia, authorities decided to remove similar cladding from all its tower blocks. It was stated that every tower block built in Melbourne in the previous 20 years had the cladding. In Malta, the Chamber of Engineers and the Chamber of Architects urged the government to update building regulations with regards to fire safety. On 27 June, an 11 - storey tower block in Wuppertal, North Rhine - Westphalia, Germany was evacuated after it was found that the cladding was similar to that installed on Grenfell Tower.
The local borough pledged to carry out a full investigation into the fire. Prime Minister Theresa May ordered a full public inquiry, saying that people "deserve answers '' to why the fire was able to spread as quickly as it did. Sophie Khan, who acted as solicitor for some families in the Lakanal House fire, told BBC Two 's Newsnight that inquests would be better for the families as they would allow the families to participate and ask questions. She said the coroner was independent but a public inquiry was government - led and she wondered what information the Prime Minister knew that she wanted to hide.
Another solicitor, Louise Christian, who also acted for families in relation to Lakanal House, wrote in The Guardian that a public inquiry was the best approach. She wrote about a promised public inquiry for Lakanal House being "downgraded to an inquest '' and that inquests would be delayed by a criminal investigation. She acknowledged that victims ' interests are often sidelined in a public inquiry but wrote that the scope of a public inquiry is wider and that a rapid inquiry would put the government under more pressure to implement its findings immediately.
On 15 June Metropolitan Police Commander Stuart Cundy announced that a criminal investigation had been opened to establish if there is any case for charges to be brought. On 27 July 2017 Police issued a public notice to residents saying that they had "reasonable grounds '' to suspect that both the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and the Kensington and Chelsea Tenant Management Organisation "may have committed '' Corporate manslaughter. Senior representatives of both organisations are likely to face police interviews under caution. More than 60 companies and organisations are associated with Grenfell Tower and police are keeping open all options for a range of possible charges.
In an interview with the London Evening Standard on 7 August 2017, the Director of Public Prosecutions, Alison Saunders, said investigations are at an early stage and nothing is ruled out. Ms Saunders said it was more important to build strong cases than to rush to court and that the DPP had yet to see the evidence. Health and safety legislation and other criminal laws will be considered. If proven, the offence of Gross Negligence Manslaughter carries a maximum life sentence, with a guideline minimum of 12 years. In brief, for such a charge the prosecution must show sufficient evidence to pass a four stage "Adomako Test '' proving a reprehensible breach of duty of care which caused or contributed to the victims death.
On 19 September 2017, Commander Stuart Cundy briefed that eight people were being investigated for allegedly making false claims to financial support in the name of fictitious victims.
On 23 June 2017 at New Scotland Yard, Detective Superintendent Fiona McCormack gave details on how the investigation was being conducted. Tests were made of the fridge suspected of starting the fire, and the cladding used on the building which may have spread the fire. She announced that the police had expert evidence showing the fire was not deliberate and that it had started in a Hotpoint fridge - freezer. Owners of Hotpoint model numbers FF175BP and FF175BG were advised to contact Hotpoint Customer Services.
McCormack stated: '' Preliminary tests show the insulation samples collected from Grenfell Tower combusted soon after the test started. The initial tests on equivalent aluminium composite tiles failed the safety tests. '' The Department for Communities and Local Government was immediately notified of these findings so local councils could act quickly to protect the public.
Tenants repeatedly complained about electrical power surges causing appliances to smoke and such a surge may have started the fire. The Local Authority knew about complaints and had paid tenants compensation for damaged appliances. Judith Blakeman, a local Labour councilor said the surges affected many appliances including fridges. Blakeman maintains the cause of the surges was never solved.
Detailed investigations into the causes and possible criminal charges of manslaughter or breach of regulations are in progress. Search dogs, fingertip searches, DNA matching, fingerprinting, dental records and forensic anthropologists are being used. An external lift was fitted to the building to improve access.
The scale of the search and recovery operation is challenging. Human remains are mixed within an estimated 15.5 tonnes (17.1 tons) of debris on every floor. Time and care are being taken to maintain a judicial standard and avoid mistaken identity, which could cause further distress to surviving relatives. Disaster Victim Identification is expected by police to continue to 2018.
By way of comparison, 40 % of World Trade Center victims have still not been identified. Such is the similarity, Metropolitan Police Deputy Commissioner Craig Mackey said on 20 July 2017 that investigators with comparable experience from working on the New York 9 / 11 WTC recovery were being consulted.
Following the Newsnight report of 7 July 2017, the LFB said issues encountered in its response to the fire would also form part of the police investigation. LFB Commissioner Dany Cotton said in a Channel 4 News interview on 11 July 2017 that she expected reasonable criticism of the LFB response in the investigation and public inquiry.
BBC Radio 4 reported on 16 August 2017 that the Fire Brigade was advised by KCTMO during the refurbishment and fire officers had been shown "fire safety features ''. Council opposition leader Robert Atkinson, structural engineer Paul Follows and building inspector Geoff Wilkinson all expressed shock that the fire had happened given prior consultation with LFB.
London Fire Brigade said it had not given approval for the work, saying its legal powers are limited. It said firefighters regularly visit buildings to gain familiarity with the layout and equipment, but that this was not the same as a detailed inspection.
There are around 250 specialists investigating possible cause and culpability, placing additional load on the Metropolitan Police when they are also dealing with recent terrorist incidents, including the London Bridge and Finsbury Park attacks.
Cotton defended the heroism of emergency service workers who themselves were affected by Psychological trauma. An on - call counsellor has been made available. Around 80 firefighters and Met Police officers are reported to be suffering from their experiences.
An extra four full - time counsellors have been employed (reversing previous staff reductions) and 60 volunteer counsellors were brought in. All firefighters who attended Grenfell are being given a psychological health check. The BBC report that LFB are using its reserve budget to bring counselling staff back to 2008 levels.
On 6 July 2017, NHS England issued an open letter to GPs giving advice on symptoms for mental health conditions such as PTSD that those affected by this fire (or recent terrorism) may be experiencing.
On 21 August 2017, in an interview with Nick Ferrari on LBC radio, LFB Commissioner Dany Cotton said that she herself was undergoing counselling.
On 29 June, Sir Martin Moore - Bick was appointed to lead the public inquiry into the fire. He pledged that the inquiry would be "open, transparent and fair. '' His appointment was not welcomed by some of the survivors, as Moore - Bick 's background was in the Commercial Court and the Court of Appeal. They believed strongly that the investigation into the fire should be a criminal matter. Theresa May said on 29 June that she expected that Moore - Bick will want to produce an interim report "as early as possible ''.
On 30 June Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn had written to Theresa May saying that the Inquiry 's Terms of Reference should be broad and he wrote to May once more on 17 July expressing "concern among residents and others that the judge leading the inquiry has already been directed towards a narrowly defined Terms of Reference ''.
On 15 August Theresa May announced the terms of reference, accepting in full Martin - Moore Bick 's proposals. The Inquiry 's public hearings started on 14 September 2017. An interim report is due in Easter 2018. They include consideration of the actions of Kensington and Chelsea Borough Council and KCTMO both before and after the fire occurred, as well as the adequacy of relevant building regulations and whether they were complied with.
There is concern that previous inquiries under Theresa May that appeared to be independent were controlled and there is uncertainty how far the Grenfell inquiry will be independent.
Grenfell Tower site manager Michael Lockwood told a public meeting on 26 July 2017 that the building is to be covered in a protective wrap supported by scaffolding during August. This is initially to protect forensic evidence but would later allow the building to be taken down towards the end of 2018. The community will be consulted on how the space should be used after demolition.
The following are similar fires that spread through exterior wall assemblies (cladding, insulation, wall) containing combustible components. Most of them involved high - rise buildings.
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