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ne french open quarter finalist bruce manson u s one nine eight one u s open quarter finalist felix mantilla spain one nine nine seven first appearance australian open quarter finalist one nine nine eight french open semi finalist john marks one nine five two australia one nine seven eight australian open finalist todd martin u s one nine nine four australian open finalist one nine nine nine and two zero zero one quarter finalist one nine nine nine u s open finalist one nine nine four and two zero zero zero semi finalist one nine nine four and one nine nine six wimbledon semi finalist one nine nine three and one nine nine nine quarter finalist nicol s mass one nine seven nine chile two zero zero four olympic gold medalist in singles and doubles geoff masters one nine five zero australia one nine seven four australian open quarter finalist wally masur australia shuzo matsuoka one nine six seven gene mayer u s sandy mayer u s tim mayotte one nine six zero u s one nine eight three australian open semi finalist o |
ne nine eight one quarter finalist one nine eight two wimbledon semi finalist one nine eight one first appearance one nine eight three one nine eight six one nine eight eight and one nine eight nine quarter finalist one nine eight nine u s open quarter finalist john mcenroe one nine five nine u s one nine seven nine one nine eight zero one nine eight one and one nine eight four u s open champion one nine eight five finalist one nine eight one one nine eight three and one nine eight four wimbledon champion one nine eight zero and one nine eight two finalist one nine eight four french open finalist one nine eight five semi finalist one nine eight three australian open semi finalist first appreance one nine seven eight one nine eight three and one nine eight four masters champion ranked world no one for one seven zero weeks patrick mcenroe one nine six six u s peter mcnamara australia ken mcgregor one nine two nine australia chuck mckinley one nine four one one nine eight six u s maurice mcloughlin one eight nin |
e zero one nine five seven u s paul mcnamee australia don mcneill one nine one eight one nine nine six u s frew mcmillan south africa miloslav me one nine six four czechoslovakia slovak one nine eight eight olympic games gold medalist one nine eight six u s open finalist one nine eight seven quarter finalist one nine eight nine australian open finalist one nine eight seven quarter finalist one nine eight seven french open semi finalist one nine eight eight wimbledon semi finalist one nine eight six quarter finalist andrei medvedev ussr ukraine one nine nine nine french open finalist fernando meligeni one nine seven one brazil one nine nine nine french open semi finalist alex metreveli one nine four four ussr one nine seven three wimbledon finalist one nine seven two and one nine seven four quarter finalist one nine seven two french open semi finalist one nine seven two australian open semi finalist one nine seven three and one nine seven five quarter finalist one nine seven four u s open quarter finalist max |
mirnyi two zero zero two u s open quarter finalist wesley moodie south africa doubles specialist two zero zero five wimbledon doubles champion raymond moore one nine four six south africa one nine seven seven u s open quarter finalist buster mottram one nine five five great britain carlos moy one nine seven six spain one nine nine eight french open champion two zero zero three and two zero zero four quarter finalist one nine nine seven australian open finalist two zero zero one quarter finalist one nine nine eight u s open semi finalist ranked world no one for two weeks marty mulligan one nine four zero australia one nine six two wimbledon finalist one nine seven zero french open quarter finalist gardnar mulloy one nine one three u s robert murray one eight nine two one nine seven zero u s thomas muster one nine six seven austria one nine nine five french open champion one nine nine zero semi finalist one nine eight nine and one nine nine seven australian open semi finalist one nine nine four quarter finalist |
one nine nine three one nine nine four and one nine nine six u s open quarter finalist ranked world no one for six weeks n rafael nadal one nine eight six spain two zero zero five french open champion first appearance david nalbandian one nine eight two argentina two zero zero two wimbledon finalist two zero zero three u s open semi finalist two zero zero four french open semi finalist two zero zero three two zero zero four and two zero zero five australian open quarter finalist two zero zero five tennis masters cup champion ilie nastase one nine four six one nine seven two u s open champion one nine seven three french open champion one nine seven one one nine seven two one nine seven three and one nine seven five masters champion one nine seven four finalist ranked world no one daniel nestor canada doubles specialist john newcombe one nine four four australia one nine six seven one nine seven zero and one nine seven one wimbledon champion one nine six seven and one nine seven three u s open champion one nin |
e seven three and one nine seven five australian open champion ranked world no one one of the handsome eight jarkko nieminen world no two four in two zero zero six two zero zero five u s open quarter finalist yannick noah one nine six zero france one nine eight three french open champion one nine nine zero australian open semi finalist one nine eight three one nine eight five and one nine eight nine u s open quarter finalist magnus norman one nine seven six sweden two zero zero zero french open finalist two zero zero zero australian open semi finalist karel nov ek czechoslovakia czech republic one nine nine four u s open semi finalist one nine eight seven and one nine nine three french open quarter finalist ji nov k one nine seven five czech republic two zero zero two australian open semi finalist hans nusslein germany joakim nystr m one nine six three sweden o world no one nine in one nine eight three mark philippoussis one nine seven six australia one nine nine eight u s open finalist two zero zero three wi |
mbledon finalist barry phillips moore one nine three seven australia one nine six eight australian championships semi finalist one nine seven one australian open quarter finalist nicola pietrangeli one nine three three italy nikki pilic yugoslavia one of the handsome eight cedric pioline france one nine nine three u s open finalist one nine nine seven wimbledon finalist one nine nine eight french open semi finalist han jurgen pohmann one nine four seven west germany one nine seven four french open quarter finalist goran prpi yugoslavia croatia patrick proisy one nine four nine france world no two three in one nine seven three one nine seven three french open finalist mariano puerta argentina two zero zero five french open finalist jim pugh u s doubles specialist mel purcell one nine five nine u s world no two one in one nine eight zero q australian championships doubles champion for one nine three six and one nine three seven partnering don turnbull and for one nine three eight one nine three nine one nine fo |
ur zero one nine four six one nine four seven one nine four eight one nine four nine one nine five zero partnering john bromwich patrick rafter one nine seven two australia one nine nine seven and one nine nine eight u s open champion two zero zero zero and two zero zero one wimbledon finalist one nine nine seven french open semi finalist two zero zero one australian open semi finalist ranked world no one for one week dennis ralston u s one of the handsome eight raul ramirez one nine five three mexico richey reneberg u s peter rennert one nine five eight u s one nine eight zero australian open quarter finalist ernest renshaw one eight six one one eight nine nine england william renshaw one eight six one one nine zero four england vinnie richards u s cliff richey u s bobby riggs one nine one eight one nine nine five u s marty riessen u s marcelo r os one nine seven five chile one nine nine eight australian open finalist one nine nine eight and one nine nine nine french open quarter finalist one nine nine seven |
u s open quarter finalist ranked world no one tommy robredo spain two zero zero three and two zero zero five french open quarter finalist tony roche one nine four five australia one of the handsome eight olivier rochus belgium andy roddick one nine eight two u s two zero zero three u s open champion two zero zero four and two zero zero five wimbledon finalist two zero zero three and two zero zero five australian open semi finalist ranked world no one for one three weeks christophe roger vasselin one nine five seven france one nine eight three french open quarter finalist ken rosewall one nine three four australia marc rosset one nine seven zero switzerland one nine nine two olympic gold medalist one nine nine six french open semi finalist one nine nine nine australian open quarter finalist derrick rostagno u s ray ruffels one nine four six australia one nine six nine and one nine seven five australian open semi finalist one one nine seven zero and one nine seven seven december quarter finalist one nine six e |
ight australian championships quarter finalist greg rusedski one nine seven three canada britain one nine nine seven u s open finalist one nine nine seven wimbledon quarter finalist s john sadri u s marat safin one nine eight zero russia two zero zero zero u s open champion two zero zero five australian open champion two zero zero two french open semi finalist two zero zero one wimbledon quarter finalist ranked world no one pete sampras one nine seven one usa one nine nine zero one nine nine three one nine nine five one nine nine six and two zero zero two u s open champion one nine nine three one nine nine four one nine nine five one nine nine seven one nine nine eight one nine nine nine and two zero zero zero wimbledon champion one nine nine four and one nine nine seven australian open champion one nine nine six french open semi finalist one nine nine one one nine nine four one nine nine six one nine nine seven and one nine nine nine atp tour world championships champion ranked world no one for two eight six |
weeks record emilio s nchez spain one nine eight eight french open quarter finalist one nine eight eight u s open quarter finalist javier s nchez spain manuel santana one nine three eight spain jiro sato one nine zero eight one nine three four japan bill scanlon usa sjeng schalken one nine seven six netherlands two zero zero two u s open semi finalist two zero zero two two zero zero three and two zero zero four wimbledon quarter finalist michiel schapers one nine five nine netherlands world no two five in one nine eight eight one nine eight five and one nine eight eight australian open quarter finalist ted schroeder one nine two one u s rainer sch e ttler one nine seven six germany two zero zero three australian open finalist frank sedgman one nine two seven australia pancho segura one nine two one ecuador u s robert seguso u s doubles specialist zenzo shimizu one eight nine one one nine seven seven japan jan siemerink the netherlands one nine nine eight wimbledon quarter finalist dick skeen u s one nine fou |
r one u s pro championship finalist henry slocum u s tom m d czechoslovakia u s stan smith one nine four six u s one nine seven one u s open champion one nine seven two wimbledon champion one nine seven one and one nine seven two french open quarter finalist one nine seven zero masters champion harold solomon u s vince nt spadea one nine seven four u s one nine nine nine australian open quarter finalist franco squillari argentina two zero zero zero french open semi finalist milan rejber czechoslovakia one nine eight six u s open quarter finalist paradorn srichaphan one nine seven nine jonathan stark u s doubles specialist carl uwe steeb germany radek t p nek czech republic brett steven one nine six nine new zealand one nine nine three australian open quarter finalist michael stich one nine six eight germany one nine nine one wimbledon champion one nine nine three atp tour world championships champion dick stockton u s les stoefen u s one nine three four u s championships semi finalist one nine three four and |
one nine three five doubles winner fred stolle australia sandon stolle australia doubles specialist jason stoltenberg australia allan stone one nine four five australia one nine seven one australian open semi finalist one nine six eight and one nine seven seven december australian open doubles champion eric sturgess south africa cyril suk one nine six seven czech republic doubles specialist henrik sundstr m sweden jonas svensson sweden t v roscoe tanner united states balazs taroczy hungary roger taylor one nine four one britain one of the handsome eight brian teacher u s one nine eight zero australian open champion eliot teltscher united states ben testerman usa big bill tilden one eight nine three one nine five three united states one nine two zero one nine two one one nine two two one nine two three one nine two four one nine two five and one nine two eight u s championships champion one nine two zero and one nine two one wimbledon champion mikael tillstr m one nine seven two sweden one nine nine six austra |
lian open quarter finalist ion tiriac romania tony trabert united states one nine five three and one nine five five u s championships champion one nine five four and one nine five five french championships champion one nine five five wimbledon champion torben ulrich one nine two eight father of metallica member lars ulrich kevin ullyett zimbabwe doubles specialist christo van rensburg south africa world no one nine in one nine eight eight robert van t hof u s martin verkerk one nine seven eight netherlands two zero zero three french open finalist guillermo vilas one nine five two argentina one nine seven seven french open champion one nine seven seven u s open champion one nine seven eight and one nine seven nine australian open champion one nine seven four masters champion ellsworth vines one nine one one one nine nine four u s numerous titles also one in world a candidate for greatest player of all time danie visser south africa doubles specialist alexander volkov russia adrian voinea one nine seven four ro |
manina one nine nine five french open quarter finalist gottfried von cramm one nine zero nine one nine seven six germany one nine three four and one nine three six french championships champion w z butch walts u s one nine seven eight u s open quarter finalist kim warwick australia one nine eight zero australian open finalist malivai washington u s one nine nine six wimbledon finalist one nine nine four australian open quarter finalist david wheaton u s one nine nine one wimbledon semi finalist one nine nine zero australian open quarter finalist one nine nine zero u s open quarter finalist mats wilander one nine six four sweden one nine eight two first appearance one nine eight five and one nine eight eight french open champion one nine eight three one nine eight four and one nine eight eight australian open champion one nine eight eight u s open champion one nine eight seven masters finalist ranked world no one tony wilding one eight eight three one nine one five new zealand tim wilkison one nine five nine u |
s one nine eight six u s open quarter finalist todd witsken one nine six three one nine nine eight u s one nine eight eight australian open quarter finalist todd woodbridge one nine seven one australia one of the woodies mark woodforde one nine six five australia one of the woodies chris woodruff one nine seven three u s two zero zero zero australian open quarter finalist mikhail youzhny one nine eight two russia jaime yzaga peru one nine nine one australian open quarter finalist first appearance one nine nine four u s open quarter finalist mariano zabaleta one nine seven eight argentina two zero zero one u s open quarter finalist vladimir zedn k one nine four seven czechoslovakia one nine seven three australian open quarter finalist slobodan zivojinovic one nine six three yugoslavia one nine eight five australian open semi finalist first appearance one nine eight six wimbledon semi finalist one nine eight seven quarter finalist see also list of female tennis players list of tennis players list of sportsmen |
lists of men lists of sportspeople tennis players metaphilosophy philosophy of philosophy is the study of the subject matter methods and aims of philosophy it is the philosophy of philosophy many people consider the recursive study of philosophy to be a part of any philosophical enterprise because it is intertwined with all branches of philosophy as is logic or epistemology philosophy is however commonly understood to encapsulate metaphilosophy so the distinction is seldom made the primary question for metaphilosophy is what is philosophy and because different philosophers have offered different answers it is the task of meta philosophy to adjudicate prior to adjudication however the metaphilosopher must identify clarify and understand the alternative conceptions of the nature of philosophy taxonomy of philosophical problems what is not controversial are the general types of problem branches which are included in philosophy these are the major branches metaphysics epistemology axiology and logic philosopher a |
nd encyclopedist mortimer adler however excludes logic and includes all second order problems i e questions presupposing the existence of abstract ideas and subsequently trying to understand them second order problems are often found arranged under various branches of philosophy which start with the phrase philosophy of adler one nine nine four divides these second order philosophical problems into two branches the first branch addresses the objects of thought such as being cause change infinity fate love the second branch addresses the subjects or procedural domains of thought e g philosophy of religion philosophy of history philosophy of language philosophy of science metaphilosophy also attempts to understand both branches of second order thought aided by the other major branches e g metaphysical knowledge in religion epistemology in religion axiology in religion in any case one problem in metaphilosophy is to provide such a taxonomy skepticism about philosophy from a theoretical perspective the most radic |
al approach to the nature of philosophy is to take a skeptical stance and proclaim that philosophy as such is impossible deluded worthless even evil or dangerous a milder skepticism would make similar claims about one or more of the major or minor branches of philosophy e g that metaphysics or epistemology axiology logic etc is either impossible deluded worthless or dangerous for each of these skeptical approaches one can find historical representatives the logical positivists one seminal example rejected axiological statements as neither true nor false and therefore meaningless progress in philosophy whether or not there is progress in philosophy depends on one s assumptions about the nature of philosophy and the criteria of progress metaphilosophical writings many philosophers have written on metaphilosophy the tradition goes back to plato whose dialogues are directly concerned with ethics but constantly raise questions concerning the nature of philosophy and its methods most explicitly addressed in the men |
o the value and proper aims of philosophy in the apology gorgias protagoras etc the proper relationship between philosophical criticism and everyday life a pervasive theme explored most famously in the republic ludwig wittgenstein s tractatus logico philosophicus and philosophical investigations directly address logic the philosophy of language and the philosophy of mind but the nature of philosophical puzzles and philosophical understanding is central to all of the discussions wittgenstein frequently diagnoses philosophical errors as involving confusions about the nature of philosophical inquiry c d broad is known for distinguishing critical from speculative philosophy see his the subject matter of philosophy and its relations to the special sciences in introduction to scientific thought one nine two three curt ducasse in philosophy as a science examines several views of the nature of philosophy and concludes that philosophy has a distinct subject matter appraisals reference adler mortimer one nine nine four |
the four dimensions of philosophy new york macmillan see also core ontology philosophy of mathematics progress philosophy meaning of life external links philosophy of philosophy philosophy carved and round backed mandolins front a mandolin is a small plucked stringed musical instrument descended from the mandola and mandolino it is characterized by eight strings in four pairs normally tuned to the tones g d a and e like the violin that are plucked with a plectrum a body with a teardrop shaped soundtable i e face or one that is essentially oval in shape a neck with a level fretted fingerboard and a level nut and bridge tuning pegs inserted through the back of the neck s head or machined metal gears and pins in lieu of the pegs a soundtable with a soundhole or f shaped soundholes that are open and not latticed in indian classical music and indian light music the mandolin is likely to be tuned to e b e b as there is no concept of absolute pitch in indian classical music any convenient tuning maintaining the rel |
ative pitch between the strings to e b e b can be used some guitarists tune a mandolin in fourths the same as the top four guitar strings e a d g or the bottom four guitar strings d g b e allowing the same fingerings as a guitar like the guitar the mandolin has relatively poor sustain slowly decaying volume a note cannot be maintained for an arbitrary length of time as with a bowed note on a violin its small size and higher pitch makes this problem more severe than with the guitar and the use of tremolo rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings is often used to create a sustained note or chords this technique works particularly well with a mandolin s paired strings where one of the pair is sounding while the other is being struck by the pick giving a more rounded sound than a single coursed instrument can mandolin forms mandolins come in several forms the neapolitan style known as a round back or bowl back or tater back or tater bug colloquial american has a vaulted back made of a number of strips of wood |
in a bowl formation similar to a lute and usually a canted two plane uncarved top the portuguese a flat back style is derived from the cittern another form has a banjo style body vega cylinder back and howe orme instruments other variants include the howe orme guitar shaped mandolin manufactured by the elias howe company between one eight nine seven and roughly one nine two zero which featured a cylindrical bulge along the top from fingerboard end to tailpiece and the vega mando lute more commonly called a cylinder back mandolin manufactured by the vega company between one nine one three and roughly one nine two seven which had a similar longitudinal bulge but on the back rather than the front of the instrument carved and round backed mandolins back in the early twentieth century another new mandolin style with carved top and back construction inspired by violin family instruments began to supplant the european style bowl back instruments especially in the united states this new style is credited to mandolin |
s designed and built by orville gibson who founded the gibson company in one nine zero two gibson mandolins evolved into two families the florentine or f style which has a scroll near the neck and two points on the lower body and the a style which is pear shaped and has no points these styles generally have either two f shaped soundholes like a violin or an oval sound hole directly under the strings naturally there is much variation among makers and different styles exist as well but these are the most common the gibson f hole f five style mandolins are considered the most typical and traditional for playing american bluegrass music while the a style is generally more appropriate for irish folk or classical music the differences are more than cosmetic or aesthetic since the f five style model is usually built to take much heavier strings and is consequently louder and punchier than the a style model making it more suited to the hard driving percussive sound typical of bluegrass music numerous modern mandolin |
makers build instruments that are largely replicas of the gibson f five artist models built in the early one nine two zero s by gibson acoustician lloyd loar original loar signed instruments are sought after and extremely valuable mandolin family the mandolin is the soprano member of the mandolin family as the violin is the soprano member of the viola family its scale length is typically about one three seven five inches three five zero mm other members of the mandolin family are the mandola us and canada termed the tenor mandola in europe ireland and the uk which is tuned to a fifth below the mandolin in the same relationship as that of the viola to the violin some also call this instrument the alto mandola its scale length is typically about one six five inches four two zero mm the octave mandolin us and canada termed the octave mandola in europe ireland and the uk which is tuned to an octave below the mandolin its scale length is typically about two zero inches five zero zero mm although instruments with s |
cales as short as one seven inches four three zero mm or as long as two one inches five three zero mm are not unknown the mandocello which is classically tuned to an octave plus a fifth below the mandolin in the same relationship as that of the cello to the violin today it is not infrequently restrung for octave mandolin tuning or the irish bouzouki s gdad its scale length is typically about two five inches six three five mm the piccolo or sopranino mandolin is a rare member of the family tuned one octave above the tenor mandola and one fourth above the mandolin the same relation as that of the piccolo or sopranino violin to the violin and viola one model was manufactured by the lyon although derived from the greek bouzouki it is constructed like a flat backed mandolin and uses fifth based tunings most often gdad an octave below the mandolin sometimes gdae adad or adae in place of the guitarlike fourths and third tunings of the four course greek bouzouki although the bouzouki s bass courses are most often tun |
ed in unisons on some instruments one of each pair is replaced with a lighter string and tuned in octaves in the fashion of the one two string guitar although occupying the same range as the octave mandolin octave mandola the irish bouzouki is distinguished from the former instrument by its longer scale length typically from two two inches five six zero mm to two four inches six one zero inches although scales as long as two six inches six six zero mm are not unknown the modern cittern is also an extension of the mandolin family being typically a five course ten string instrument having a scale length between two zero inches five zero zero mm and two two inches five six zero mm it is most often tuned to either dgdad or gdada and is essentially an octave mandola with a fifth course at either the top or the bottom of its range some luthiers such as stefan sobell also refer to the octave mandola or a shorter scaled irish bouzouki as a cittern irrespective of whether it has four or five courses mandolin music man |
dolins have a long history and much early music was written for them in the first half of the two zero th century they enjoyed a period of great popularity in europe and the americas as an easier approach to playing string music many professional and amateur mandolin groups and orchestras were formed to play traditional string repertory just as this practice was falling into disuse the mandolin found a new niche in american country old time music bluegrass and folk music more recently the baroque and classical mandolin repertory and styles have benefited from the raised awareness of and interest in early music mandolin history mandolins evolved from the lute family in italy during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the deep bowled mandolin produced particularly in naples became a common type in the nineteenth century the original instrument was the mandola mandorla is almond in italian describing the instrument s body shape and evolved in the fifteenth century from the lute a later smaller mandola w |
as developed and became known as a mandolina tremolo and fingerpicking methods are used while playing a mandolin further back around one five zero zero zero bc to eight zero zero zero bc single stringed instruments have been seen in cave paintings they were bowed struck and plucked from these the families of instruments developed single strings were long and gave a single melody line to shorten the scale length other strings were added with a different tension so one string took over where another left off in turn this led to being able to play diads and chords the bowed family became the rabob rebec and then the fiddle becoming the violin and modern family by one five two zero incidentally also in naples the plucked family led to lute like instruments in two zero zero zero bc mesopotamia and developed into the oud or ud before appearing in spain in seven one one courtesy of the moors over the next centuries frets were added and the strings doubled to courses leading to the first lute appearing in the thirtee |
nth century the history of the lute and the mandolin are intertwined from this point the lute gained a fifth course by the fifteenth century a sixth a century later and up to thirteen courses in its heyday as early as the fourteenth century a miniature lute or mandora appeared similar to the mandola it had counterparts in assyria pandura the arab countries dambura and ukraine kobza bandura from this the mandolino a small gut strung mandola with six strings tuned g b e a d g sometimes called the baroque mandolin and played with a quill wooden plectrum or finger style was developed in several places in italy the mandolino was sometimes called a mandolin in the early eighteenth century around one seven three five naples the first evidence of mandolins is from literature regarding popular italian players who travelled through europe teaching and giving concerts notable is signor leone and g b gervasio who travelled widely between one seven five zero and one eight one zero this with the records gleamed from the it |
alian vinaccia family of luthiers in naples italy musicologists believe that the mandolin was developed in naples by gennaro vinaccia active circa one seven one zero to circa one seven eight eight and his sons antonio vinaccia active circa one seven three four to circa one seven nine six and giuseppe vinnacia died one nine one four an early extant example of a mandolin is one built by antonio vinaccia in one seven seven two which resides at the victoria and albert museum in london england another is by giuseppe vinnacia built in one seven six three residing at the kenneth g fiske museum of musical instruments in claremont california these early mandolins are termed neopolitan mandolins because of their orgin from naples they are distinguished by a teardrop shaped body with a rounded back that is constructed from curved strips of wood along its length the soundtable is bent just behind the bridge the bending achieved with a straight hot poker this aids the body to support a greater string tension the strings w |
ere gut except for the lowest string which was metal wound onto gut the bridge was a moveable length of ivory the mandolins have a tortoise shell pick guard below the soundhole under the strings a quill or tortoise shell was used as a plectrum other luthiers that built mandolins included calace one eight six three onwards in naples luigi embergher one eight five six one nine four three ferrari family one seven one six onwards also originally mandolino makers and de santi one eight three four one nine one six in rome the neopolitan style of mandolin construction was adopted and developed by others notably in rome giving two distinct but similar types of mandolin neapolitan and roman the twentieth century saw the rise in popularity of the mandolin for celtic bluegrass jazz and classical styles much of the development of the mandolin from neapolitan bowl back to the flat back style actually gently rounded is thanks to orville gibson one eight five six one nine one eight and his chief designer lloyd loar the unit |
ed states of america the mandolin s popularity in the united states was spurred by the success of a group of touring young european musicians known as the spanish students or in spanish the estudiantes espa oles the group debuted in the u s on january two one eight eight zero in new york city ironically this ensemble did not play mandolins but rather bandurrias which are also small double strung instruments superficially resembling the mandolin the success of the figaro spanish students spawned several groups who imitated their musical style and colorful costumes in many cases the players in these new musical ensembles were italian born americans who had brought mandolins from their native land thus the spanish student imitators did primarily play mandolins and helped to generate enormous public interest in an instrument that previously was relatively unknown in the united states mandolins were a fad instrument from the turn of the century to the mid twenties instruments were marketed by teacher dealers much |
as the title character in the popular musical the music man often these teacher dealers would conduct mandolin orchestras groups of four five zero musicians who would play various mandolin family instruments together the instrument was primarily used in an ensemble setting well into the one nine three zero s although the fad died out at the beginning of the one nine two zero s the famous lloyd loar master model from gibson one nine two three was designed to boost the flagging interest in mandolin ensembles with little success the true destiny of the loar as the defining instrument of bluegrass music didn t appear until bill monroe purchased f five s n seven three nine eight seven in a florida barbershop in one nine four three and popularized it as his main instrument single mandolins were first used in southern string band music in the one nine three zero s most notably by brother duets such as the sedate blue sky boys bill bolick and earl bolick and the more hard driving monroe brothers bill monroe and charl |
ie monroe however the mandolin s modern popularity in country music can be directly traced to one man bill monroe the father of bluegrass music after the monroe brothers broke up in one nine three nine bill monroe formed his own group after a brief time called the blue grass boys and completed the transition of mandolin styles from a parlor sound typical of brother duets to the modern bluegrass style he joined the grand ole opry in one nine three nine and its powerful clear channel broadcast signal on wsm am spread his style throughout the south directly inspiring many musicians to take up the mandolin monroe famously played gibson f five mandolin signed and dated july nine one nine two three by lloyd loar chief acoustic engineer at gibson the f five has since become the most imitated tonally and aesthetically by modern builders monroe s style involved playing lead melodies in the style of a fiddler and also a percussive chording sound referred to as the chop for the sound that is made by the quickly struck a |
nd muted strings he also perfected a sparse percussive blues style especially up the neck in keys that had not been used much in country music notably b and e he emphasized a powerful syncopated right hand at the expense of left hand virtuosity monroe s most influential follower of the second generation is frank wakefield and nowadays mike compton of the nashville bluegrass band and david long who often tour as a duet the other major original bluegrass stylists both emerging in the early one nine five zero s and active still in two zero zero five are generally acknowledged to be jesse mcreynolds of jim and jesse who invented a syncopated banjo roll style of crosspicking and bobby osborne of the osborne brothers who is a master of clarity and sparkling single note runs highly respected and influential modern bluegrass players include herschel sizemore and doyle lawson and the multi genre sam bush who is equally at home with old time fiddle tunes rock reggae and jazz ronnie mccoury of the del mccoury band has w |
on numerous awards for his monroe influenced playing the late john duffey of the original country gentlemen and later the seldom scene did much to popularize the bluegrass mandolin among folk and urban audiences especially on the east coast and in the washington dc area jethro burns best known as half of the comedy duo homer and jethro was also the first important jazz mandolinist tiny moore popularized the mandolin in western swing music he initially played an eight string gibson but switched after one nine five two to a five string solidbody electric instrument built by paul bigsby modern virtuosos david grisman sam bush and mike marshall among others have worked since the early one nine seven zero s to demonstrate the mandolin s versatility for all styles of music chris thile of california is the best known of the younger generation of players the band nickel creek features his virtuoso playing in its blend of traditional and pop styles a handful of rock musicians use mandolins one example is tim brennan o |
f the irish american punk rock band dropkick murphys in addition to electric guitar bass and drums the band uses several instruments associated with traditional celtic music including mandolin tin whistle and great highland bagpipes the band explains that these instruments accentuate the growling sound they favor the one nine nine one r e m hit losing my religion also featured a simple mandolin lick played by guitarist peter buck who also played the mandolin in nearly a dozen other songs jack white of the white stripes played mandolin for the film cold mountain and plays mandolin on the song little ghost on the white stripes album get behind me satan the united kingdom the mandolin has been used extensively in the traditional music of england and scotland for generations and has recently featured in the playing of matt bellamy in the modern band muse and was introduced very clearly by vivian stanshall on mike oldfield s album tubular bells it was used extensively by the british folk rock band lindisfarne who |
featured two members on the instrument ray jackson and simon cowe and whose fog on the tyne was the biggest selling uk album of one nine seven one one nine seven two maggie may by rod stewart which hit no one on both the british charts and the billboard hot one zero zero also featured jackson s playing it has also been used by other british rock musicians including led zeppelin whose bassist john paul jones is an accomplished mandolin player and has recorded numerous songs on mandolin including going to california that s the way and the battle of evermore and mcguinness flint for whom benny gallagher played the mandolin on their most successful single when i m dead and gone gallagher was also briefly a member of ronnie lane s slim chance and played mandolin on their hit how come ireland the mandolin is becoming a somewhat more common instrument amongst irish traditional musicians fiddle tunes are readily accessible to the mandolin player because of the equivalent range of the two instruments and the practical |
ly identical allowing for the lack of frets on the fiddle left hand fingerings although almost any variety of acoustic mandolin might be adequate for irish traditional music virtually all irish players prefer flat backed instruments with oval sound holes to the italian style bowl back mandolins or the carved top mandolins with f holes favoured by bluegrass mandolinists the former are often too soft toned to hold their own in a session as well as having a tendency to not stay in place on the player s lap whilst the latter tend to sound harsh and overbearing to the traditioal ear greatly preferred are flat topped irish style mandolins remniscent of the wwi era martin army navy mandolin and carved arch top mandolins with oval soundholes such as the gibson a style of the one nine two zero s the mandolins built by british luthier stefan sobell are perhaps the most highly prized for irish traditional music although many other makers such as ireland s joe foley also make well regarded mandolins some american bluegra |
ss and old time mandolin players and other mandolinists from non irish styles have discovered the appeal of traditional irish music however the rhythmic pulse and melodic flow of irish music are quite distinct to the rhythmic and melodic structures that govern bluegrass and old time even in the case of the few tunes shared between these musical genres and require great effort and serious listening to learn properly also the competitive attitude of many old time and bluegrass musicians is unwelcome in the cooperative and musically courteous environment of the irish session irish musicians often perceive the bluegrasser as trying to force the session into becoming a bluegrass jam chord strumming on the mandolin particularly bluegrass style chop strumming does not blend at all well with irish traditional music setting noteworthy irish mandolinists include andy irvine who almost always tunes the e down to d mick moloney paul kelly and claudine langille continental europe an increased interest in bluegrass music e |
specially in central european countries such as the czech republic and slovak republic has inspired many new mandolin players and builders these players often mix traditional folk elements with bluegrass see the article on czech bluegrass for example brazil the mandolin called bandolim has a long and rich tradition in brazilian folk music especially in the style called choro the composer and mandolin virtuoso jacob do bandolim did much to popularize the instrument and his influence continues to the present day some contemporary mandolin players in brazil include jacob s disciple deo rian and armandinho the former a traditional choro style player the latter an eclectic innovator the mandolin came into brazil by way of portugal portuguese music has a long tradition of mandolins and mandolin like instruments see for example the portuguese guitar the mandolin is used almost exclusively as a melody instrument in brazilian folk music the role of chordal accompanyment being taken over by the cavaquinho and nylon str |
ung guitar its popularity therefore has risen and fallen with instrumental folk music styles especially choro the later part of the two zero th century saw a renaissance of choro in brazil and with it a revival of the country s mandolinistic tradition greece mandolin is played in many hellenic islands and along with the lyre and the lute it represends one of the main instruments of the cretian music it s appearance in crete is dated by the age of the venetian domination on the island it had a big impression on the residents it was used in different variants e g mantola as an instrument to accompany the lyre the violin and the lute stelios foustalierakis has said that the mandolin and the mpougari were accompanying the lyre in the beginning of the two zero th century in the city of rethimno there are also reports that the mandolin was mostly a woman s musical instrument as it was the only one that the women of the island were playing nowadays it is played mainly by its own in musical teams as well as in person |
al and family events of residents of crete mandolin players renowned modern mandolinists include david dawg grisman mike marshall sam bush nic zuppardi chris thile mike compton cas davey simon mayor and tim ware all of whom revolutionized the use of the instrument through the incorporation of various styles such as bluegrass newgrass classical rock and jazz u srinivas popularly known as mandolin srinivas was a child prodigy who plays indian classical music on the mandolin famous electric mandolin players include canadian nash the slash and todd macdonald of art folk group the winks david dawg grisman accords dave appollon as one of the most virtuostic mandolinists of all time his complete recordings are sold through dave grisman s acoustic disc web site classical mandolinists of the past include samuel adelstein samuel siegel valentine abt giuseppe pettine aubrey stauffer and willian place jr of the united states raffaele calace silvio ranieri laurent fantauzzi carlo munier of italy and hugo d alton of the uk |
prominent modern mandolinists who play the classical repertoire include carlo aonzo of savona italy caterina lichtenberg born in bulgaria but primarily based in germany gertrude weyhofen of germany richard walz of france and alison stephens of the united kingdom jack white of the white stripes has plays the mandolin the two zero zero five song little ghost from the album get behind me satan features a mandolin white has also played a mandolin live during little ghost and the denial twist footnotes musical instruments a comprehensive dictionary by sibyl marcuse corrected edition one nine seven five the new grove dictionary of music and musicians second edition edited by stanley sadie and others two zero zero one embergher history la bottega dei liutia cimcim international directory of musical instrument collections external links mandolin cafe mandolin chord finder mandolin archive mandolin magazine the mandolin pages carnatic music instruments necked bowl lutes string instruments microphotonics is a branch o |
f technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale it is used in optical networking microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size generally speaking virtually all of microphotonics relies on fresnel reflection to guide the light if the photons reside mainly in the higher index material the confinement is due to total internal reflection if the confinement is due many distributed fresnel reflections the device is termed a photonic crystal there are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides optical microcavities arrayed waveguide gratings photonic crystals photonic crystals are non conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly such a crystal can be referred to as a perfect mirror other devices employed in microphotonics include micromirrors and photonic wire waveguides these tools are used to mold the flow of light a fam |
ous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics currently microphotonics technology is being developed to replace electronics devices for instance the long standing goal of an all optical router would eliminate electronic bottlenecks speeding up the network perfect mirrors are being developed for use in fiber optic cables microdisks microtoroids and microspheres silica optical microdisk courtesty http copilot caltech edu an optical microdisk optical microtoroid or optical microsphere uses internal reflection in a circular geometry to hold onto the photons this type of circularly symmetric optical resonance is called a whispering gallery mode after lord rayleigh coined the term see also photonics photonics microsoft windows is a series of popular proprietary operating environments and operating systems created by microsoft for use on personal computers and servers microsoft first introduced an operating environment named windows in one nine eight five as an add on to ms dos this was in response to apple c |
omputer s then new computer system the apple macintosh which used a graphical user interface gui microsoft windows eventually came to dominate the world personal computer market with market analysts like idc estimating that windows has around nine zero of the client operating system market all recent versions of windows are fully fledged operating systems microsoft windows versions the term windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of microsoft operating system products these products are generally categorized as follows one six bit operating environments the early versions of windows were often thought of as just graphical user interfaces or desktops mostly because they were started from ms dos and used it for file system services however even the earliest one six bit windows versions already assumed many of typical operating system functions notably having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard and sound for applic |
ations unlike dos windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time through co operative multitasking something which competitors like gem did not offer finally windows implemented an elaborate segment based software virtual memory scheme which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory code segments and resources were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control typically waiting for user input examples include windows one zero one nine eight five and windows two zero one nine eight seven and its close relative windows two eight six hybrid one six three two bit operating environments windows three eight six introduced a three two bit protected mode kernel and virtual machine monitor for the duration of a windows session it created one or more virtual eight zero eight six environments and provided device virtualization for the video card keyboard mouse timer an |
d interrupt controller inside each of them the user visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple ms dos environments in separate windows graphical applications required switching the window to full screen mode windows applications were still multi tasked cooperatively inside one of such real mode environments windows three zero one nine nine zero and windows three one one nine nine two perfected the design notably thanks to virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers vxds which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked dos windows most important windows applications could now run in one six bit protected mode when windows was running in standard or three eight six enhanced mode which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme they still ran inside the same address space where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection and multi tasked cooperatively for w |
indows three zero microsoft also rewrote critical operations from c into assembly making this release faster and less memory hungry than its predecessors hybrid one six three two bit operating system with the introduction of three two bit file access in windows for workgroups three one one windows could finally stop relying on dos for file management leveraging this windows nine five introduced long file names reducing the eight three dos to the role of a boot loader ms dos was now bundled with windows this notably made it partially aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within windows but angered the competition the most important novelty was the possibility of running three two bit multi threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs alas the necessity of keeping compatibility with one six bit programs meant the gui components were still one six bit only and not fully reentrant which resulted in reduced performance and stability there were three releases of windows nine five the fir |
st in one nine nine five then subsequent bug fix versions in one nine nine six and one nine nine seven only released to oems which added extra features such as fat three two support microsoft s next os was windows nine eight there were two versions of this the first in one nine nine eight and the second named windows nine eight second edition in one nine nine nine in two zero zero zero microsoft released windows me me standing for millennium edition which used the same core as windows nine eight but adopted the visual appearance of windows two zero zero zero as well as a new feature called system restore allowing the user to set the computer s settings back to an earlier date it was not a very well received implementation and many user problems occurred me was considered a stopgap to the day both product lines would be seamlessly merged microsoft left little time for windows me to become popular before announcing their next version of windows which would be called xp three two bit operating systems originally |
designed and marketed for higher reliability business use with no dos heritage the first release was windows nt three one one nine nine three numbered three one to match the windows version and to one up os two two one ibm s flagship os co developed by microsoft and windows nt s main competitor at the time which was followed by nt three five one nine nine four nt three five one one nine nine five and nt four zero one nine nine six the latter implemented the windows nine five user interface microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems their first attempt windows two zero zero zero failed to meet their goals and was released as a business system the home consumer edition of windows two zero zero zero codenamed windows neptune ceased development and microsoft released windows me in its place eventually neptune was merged into their new project whistler which later became windows xp since then a new business system windows server two zero zero three has expanded the top end of th |
e range and the forthcoming windows vista will complete it windows ce microsoft s offering in the mobile and embedded markets is also a true three two bit operating system six four bit operating systems earlier windows nt operating systems up to nt four supported a few different architectures not just intel x eight six some of these platforms such as the dec alpha and mips r four zero zero zero were six four bit the newest windows six four bit operating systems are designed for amd s amd six four cpu architecture and intel s six four bit architectures intel architecture six four bit and em six four t the six four bit windows family comprises windows xp six four bit edition for itanium systems windows xp professional x six four edition and windows server two zero zero three both x six four and itanium windows xp professional and server two zero zero three x six four editions were released on april two five two zero zero five itanium editions already came out in two zero zero two windows vista the projected suc |
cessor to windows xp will be released in both three two bit and six four bit x six four only versions as well as windows server two zero zero seven x six four and itanium microsoft windows history the first independent version of microsoft windows version one zero released in one nine eight five lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity windows one zero did not provide a complete operating system rather it extended ms dos microsoft windows version two zero was released in one nine eight seven and was slightly more popular than its predecessor microsoft windows version three zero released in one nine nine zero was the first version to achieve broad commercial success it featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities in one nine nine five microsoft released windows nine five which made further changes to the user interface in two zero zero one microsoft released windows xp a version built on the windows nt kernel that also retained the consumer oriented usabil |
ity of windows nine five and its successors it shipped in two distinct editions home and professional the former lacking many of the fine grained security and networking features of the professional edition interface a typical windows xp desktop the most obvious feature of the more recent windows versions since windows nine five and nt four zero besides the window is the desktop which holds various icons or graphical objects that the user can double click to open windows has produced a significant change in the way people interact with computers it is possible to perform most common tasks some quite complex with very little computer knowledge another quite significant feature of windows since windows nine five is the start button and start menu which gives users access to installed programs and many of the other features of the operating system it is attached to the taskbar blue in the picture on the right windows xp introduced a new visual style dubbed luna which updated the classic windows style a plain gre |
y box look with a more graphical appearance the new style features bold colors and a larger titlebar and start button which some people have labelled immature or childish users can still elect to use the old windows nine x two zero zero zero visual style there is a view that modern operating systems need to cater to the vastly increased user base with a lower average computer skill level and the increased power and complexity of modern computer systems however some users accuse the windows interface of isolating the user from too much of the inner workings of the computer making it more difficult to control configure and troubleshoot some system features windows also comes with features to help the disabled through its accessibility options under windows xp these features include the narrator magnifier and contrast display mode however these are not suitable for everyone other customized builds of other operating systems may provide the needed features popularity microsoft windows is installed on the majority |
of personal computers a july two zero zero five poll of network computing magazine readers found that nine zero of their organizations used microsoft s desktop operating systems it has achieved enormous market penetration due to the domination of ms dos in the early days of pc compatible computers ibm pc clones it is also the primary platform for microsoft office and many computer games microsoft s operating system has benefited from not being tied to the success of one hardware manufacturer and from microsoft s willingness to license the operating system to manufacturers this is in contrast with apple computer which does not license mac os x to other manufacturers and sun which did not license solaris before it was made free and open source in the past companies who wanted to be in the computer business had to create their own operating systems such as the amiga or choose another os even an exclusive license with one vendor was significantly cheaper than developing and supporting a new operating system and |
software base due to microsoft s exclusive licensing agreements with many computer vendors windows presently comes pre installed on most computers as a bundled oem version making it the default or only choice for most of the market most consumers do not delete windows or install another operating system for some consumers windows is the only valid option for a computing environment or it is mandated by their workplace additionally an unfamiliarity with other operating systems results in a lack of desire to switch to other operating systems a significant percentage of computer users simply lack the technical knowledge needed to install an operating system finally the large software base of programs available for the windows family of operating systems has become the single largest self perpetuating reason for the popularity of windows in recent years many companies have been started with the sole intention of releasing windows software the fact that there is already a large customer base in place is reason eno |
ugh for such companies to spend their resources solely on windows software development as a result the fact that many companies are supporting windows exclusively is reason for many customers to choose windows security windows xp security center security has been a major weakness of windows for many years due to the widespread usage of windows on desktops many crackers also known as black hat hackers have targeted windows rather than the lesser used operating systems such as linux unix mac os x and freebsd additionally most modern operating systems were designed for security in a multi user and or networked environment and have a relatively small number of security issues windows was originally designed for ease of use on a single user pc without a network connection and did not have security features built in from the outset combined with occasionally flawed code such as buffer overflows windows is a continuous target of worms and virus writers furthemore most versions of windows are shipped with important s |
ecurity features disabled by default in june two zero zero five bruce schneier s counterpane internet security reported that it had seen over one zero zero zero new viruses and worms in the previous six months microsoft publicly admitted their ongoing security problems shortly after the turn of the century and now claims to regard security as their number one priority as a result service pack two for windows xp greatly increases the security microsoft releases security patches through its windows update service approximately once a month although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals in windows two zero zero zero windows me and windows xp updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so as another step in their focus on security microsoft has released a beta version of windows defender a free program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software the program was formerly called windows antispyware and has generally been well received window |
s xp users can download the program for free from microsoft s web site and microsoft has stated that defender will ship as part of their upcoming new operating system windows vista a study conducted by kevin mitnick and marketing communications firm avantgarde found that an unprotected and unpatched windows xp system lasted only four minutes on the internet before it was compromised the aol national cyber security alliance online safety study of october two zero zero four determined that eight zero of windows users were infected by at least one spyware adware product much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind a hardware or software firewall running anti virus and anti spyware software and installing patches as they become available through windows update windows emulation software emulation allows the use of some windows applications without using microsoft windows these include wine an al |
most complete free software open source software implementation of the windows api allowing one to run some windows applications on x eight six unix based platforms including linux crossover office a commercially packaged wine with licensed fonts codeweavers are regular contributors to wine and focus on wine running officially supported applications cedega formerly known as winex transgaming technologies proprietary fork of wine which is designed specifically for running games written for microsoft windows under linux reactos open source operating system aimed to be compatible with windows nt apps and drivers freedows and alliance os a very ambitious project and a subsequent spinoff that tried to clone windows but withered away project david ambitious and controversial project to fully emulate windows programs to run on other oss captive ntfs a software wrapper for fuller more compatible open source implementations of the windows ntfs file system ndiswrapper a driver wrapper designed to let linux ia three two |
use windows drivers for wireless networking hardware e os a virtual machine emulation system that strives for making it possible to run any program designed for any operating system without the need to actually install any other operating system further reading list of microsoft windows components history of microsoft windows windows explorer architecture of windows two zero zero zero windows vista windows media windows genuine advantage see also comparison of operating systems list of operating systems windows vs linux external links official microsoft s official windows website official promotional website windows com windows history time line from microsoft tips and documentation how to run multiple versions of windows on one pc tech recipes windows guide listing of almost five zero zero windows tutorials the windows documentation project wiki aeroxperience windows vista information and customization securing microsoft windows for home and small business users windows tips security stability etc wiki syma |
ntec anti virus research center excellent informational security resource and symantec are makers of norton anti virus three rd party software sold separately dotwhat file extension listing a huge listing of file extensions and the programs that use them windows tips and tricks for windows nine eight me nt two zero zero zero and xp windows support script the windows wiki vernalex s windows services utility an unofficial list of most windows services with detailed descriptions and recommended run states programming microsoft windows microsoft development network for programming microsoft windows programming windows in assembly language reviews and evaluation paul thurrott s supersite for windows an exhaustive evaluation of microsoft s products and technologies time to live on the network a security study by kevin mitnick and avantgarde pdf windows xp rough around the edges an ui review of windows xp frank mahler s interface hall of shame aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october two zero |
zero four pdf interface hall of shame an analysis of user interfaces with a focus on windows other windows history a windows history time line graph by ric l v nez detailed continually updated guidebook windows gallery a website dedicated to preserving and showcasing graphical user interfaces download com application programs for download for windows operating systems windows two zero th birthday microsoft windows operating systems for other uses such as mojo sauce see disambiguation mojo pronounced mo jo originated as a term with a specific meaning but in the late two zero th century became a very fluid term with many different meanings it originated as a reference to a type of magic charm the word traces its origins to africa and entered the english language in the late one nine th century or early two zero th century through use by african americans it reflects the belief common in many cultures that some people have the ability to influence others to their own advantage by casting spells in the african a |
merican folk belief called hoodoo a mojo is a small bag worn by a person under the clothes this african usage dates back to the era of slavery in the usa and has been widely known from the one nine th century and early two zero th century to the present other regional names for mojo bags or for specific types of mojos include gree gree a bantu word typically spelled gris gris by those who come from france mojo hand conjure bag toby jomo and nation sack mojo hands are carried for their supernatural powers such as protecting from evil drawing love or bringing good luck or success in gambling a mojo bag can also be prepared for use in more nefarious spell craft such as to render a man impotent by tying his nature the mojo bag usually con tains a mix of herbs powders personal concerns such as a hair or fingernail clippings sometimes a coin or dice a lodestone a petition paper or prayer and other objects thought to promote supernatural action or protection references to mojos nation sacks and tobies are common in |
two zero th century rural and urban blues songs by musicians such as blind willie mctell robert johnson blind lemon jefferson the memphis jug band and lightnin hopkins some of the earlier blues tunes were covered by white rock mr mojo risin an anagram of jim morrison in the song l a woman this understanding of the word was turned to comedy in the one nine nine nine film austin powers the spy who shagged me in which the title character has his mojo stolen and loses his confidence and sexual prowess some other slang meanings of mojo in common use include charm charisma karma cocaine and thing as in gimme that mojo despite these variant usages the word mojo continues to be widely used to mean what it always has meant in the african american community namely a conjure hand references in popular music scary day blues by blind willie mctell mojo keep your hand off of my mojo by coot grant and kid sox wesley wilson tell me woman blues by texas alexander mojo come on in my kitchen by robert johnson nation sack come t |
ogether by the beatles mojo filter got my mojo working by muddy waters i m a mojo man by lonesome sundown cornelius green i m your hoochie coochie man by muddy waters mojo l a woman by the doors explained above little queen of spades by robert johnson mojo lowdown mojo blues by blind lemon jefferson louisiana hoo doo blues by gertrude ma rainey mojo hand the mojo a k a mojo boogie by j b lemoir mojoe blues by charlie lincoln charlie hicks mojo hand by lightnin hopkins mojo hand blues by ida cox mojo pin by jeff buckley secret mojo blues by brownie mcghee spider s nest blues by hattie hart and the memphis jug band toby ticket agent blues by blind willie mctell mojo see also john the conqueror a root used in mojo bags external links hoodoo in theory and practice by cat yronwode http www luckymojo com hoodoo html blues lyrics and hoodoo by cat yronwode http luckymojo com blues html external source the secret of mojo the story of the odessa texas permian high school football team isbn zero nine six one nine seven |
zero three zero eight american folklore magic matt groening matthew abram groening born february one five one nine five four in portland oregon his family name is pronounced gre n rhyming with raining is an american cartoonist and the creator of the animated television series the simpsons and futurama he currently serves as creative consultant of the simpsons early life while at lincoln high school in portland oregon he was the student body president he graduated from the evergreen state college in olympia washington before his work in television groening created the syndicated comic strip life in hell which is still carried in many weekly newspapers and has been anthologized in a series of books career life in hell and los angeles reader at the age of two three groening moved to los angeles in one nine seven seven to become a writer however on the way there his car broke down in the fast lane of the hollywood freeway he found work for a time as a chauffeur and biographer for an unsuccessful eight eight year |
old movie director he described life in los angeles to his friends in the form of a comic book and called it life in hell which was loosely inspired by a chapter entitled how to go to hell in walter kaufmann s book critique of religion and philosophy groening started the comic in one nine seven seven by photocopying and distributing it in the book corner of licorice pizza the record store he was working in he made his first professional cartoon sale to the avant garde wet magazine in one nine seven eight the strip entitled forbidden words appeared in the september october issue and by one nine eight zero the strip had become so popular in the underground that it was picked up by the los angeles reader where he also delivered papers as well as some editing and paste up in one nine eight two the editor of the reader gave matt his own weekly rock n roll column sound mix however the column would rarely be about rock n roll as he would instead write more about his life and childhood his pet peeves and even things |
he found in the street i think the people who ran the reader felt so guilty about how little they were paying people that they let them write about whatever they wanted matt later reflected in an effort to add more rock to the column he would often simply make up stuff writing reviews of fictional bands and non existent records the following week he would confess to fabricating everything in the previous column then swear that everything in the new column was true finally he was asked to give up the music column and perhaps write a humor column under a different title matt met his wife deborah caplan in one nine eight zero at the los angeles reader they divorced in one nine nine nine in late one nine eight four she published groening s first cartoon book love is hell which was a big underground success soon afterward they left the reader and put together the life in hell co which handled syndication and merchandise for groening s projects the strip is still carried in many weekly newspapers and has been anth |
ologized in a series of books including school is hell childhood is hell work is hell the big book of hell and the huge book of hell the simpsons life in hell caught the attention of hollywood writer producer and gracie films founder james l brooks in one nine eight five he contacted groening with the proposition of working in animation on an undefined future project that project would turn out to be developing a series of short animation skits called bumpers to be featured on the fox variety show the tracey ullman show brooks wanted to use the life in hell characters but matt did not want to give up the rights to his characters so he decided to give them something new he designed the look of the simpson family in only fifteen minutes matt storyboarded and scripted every short which were then animated by david silverman and wes archer both of whom would later become directors on the series premiering on the tracey ullman show on april one nine one nine eight seven the shorts became very popular which led to a |
half hour spin off in one nine eight nine the series quickly became a worldwide phenomenon to the surprise of many said groening nobody thought the simpsons was going to be a big hit it snuck up on everybody sometime in the one nine nine zero s matt tried to pitch a live action spin off about krusty the clown but was unsuccessful he has also pitched young homer and a spin off about the non simpsons citizens of springfield supposedly there were also plans for a live action movie based off of the character troy mcclure to be played by the late phil hartman who provided troy s voice but this too was scrapped in one nine nine five matt got in a major disagreement with brooks and other simpsons producers over a star is burns a crossover episode with the critic an animated show also produced by brooks and staffed with many former simpsons crew members groening feared that viewers would see it as nothing but a pathetic attempt to advertise the critic at the expense of the simpsons he was also concerned about implic |
ation that he had created or produced the critic he requested his name be taken off the episode he currently serves at the simpsons as a creative consultant simpsons character names groening named the main simpson characters after members of his own family his parents homer and margaret marge and his younger sisters lisa and maggie as for himself he decided it was a bit too obvious to name a character after himself and therefore chose the name bart an anagram of brat however he stresses that aside from some of the sibling rivalry his family is nothing like the simpsons groening also has an older brother and sister mark and patty but these siblings were left out of the main simpson family it is questionable whether marge s sister patty s name comes from matt s sister or if it is a coincidence in a one nine nine five interview he divulged that mark is the actual inspiration for bart groening says he refused to name homer s dad after his father s real dad leaving it to other writers to name that character they g |
ave him the name of abraham which by coincidence turned out to be the name of groening s grandfather the name wiggum for the character of police chief clancy wiggum came from groening s mother s maiden name groening grew up in portland oregon and seems to have found names for some characters from major portland street names such as flanders lovejoy powell as in homer s half brother herb powell quimby kearny the bully and terwilliger sideshow bob s last name futurama after spending a few years researching science fiction matt got together with simpsons staff writer david x cohen who was still known as david s cohen at the time and developed futurama an animated series about life in the year three zero zero zero the show was a mild success but languished in the ratings after four years on the air the show was cancelled by two zero th century fox in a similar situation to family guy however strong dvd sales and very stable ratings on cartoon network have brought futurama back to life which is slated for a direct |
to video dvd movie other in one nine nine four he formed bongo comics group named after the character bongo from life in hell steve vance cindy vance and bill morrison which publishes simpsons and futurama comics including a two part comic special entitled futurama simpsons infinitely secret crossover crisis a crossover between the two as well as a few original titles the goal with bongo is to try to bring humor into the fairly grim comic book market matt also formed zongo comics in one nine nine five an imprint of bongo that publishes comics for more mature readers which included seven issues of friend gary panter s jimbo comics and several issues of mary fleener s fleener trivia his father a descendant of russian mennonites in canada spoke plautdietsch as a child in saskatchewan in the one nine two zero s but matt never learned the language he is also a descendant of the krimmer mennonite brethern in hillsboro kansas where his great grandfather s family settled when they immigrated the name groening may be |
derived from groningen city or grun n in the local dialect in the north of the netherlands he is a member of the rock and roll band the rock bottom remainders whose members include dave barry ridley pearson scott turow amy tan james mcbride mitch albom roy blount jr stephen king kathi kamen goldmark and greg iles both groening and his character bart simpson are left handed other left handed characters on the simpsons include ned flanders mr burns and moe szyslak the bartender in college groening sometimes took notes in class in the form of comic strips groening has appeared in both futurama g and the hair above in the shape of an m spelling groening s initials this was changed to normal when matt realised that if word got out of this everyone would mention it when drawing autographed pictures of homer he puts in the m g his favorite album is trout mask replica by captain beefheart several of his characters have the middle initial j eg homer j simpson bart j simpson and phillip j fry groening has said that th |
is is a reference to bullwinkle j moose awards he has received the national cartoonist society reuben award for two zero zero three and was nominated for the same award in two zero zero zero references ncs awards external links groening s official website under construction matt groening s portland from the portland tribune groening s bio at rock bottom remainders website one nine five four births american satirists comic strip cartoonists dutch americans futurama living people methodists portlanders reuben award winners simpsons writers metaphysics greek words meta after beyond and physics nature is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being ontology metaphysics as a discipline was a central part of academic inquiry and scholarly education since before the age in which aristotle coined the word long considered the queen of sciences its issues were considered no less important than the other main formal subjects of physical science medicine mathematics poetics and music sinc |
e the age of reason problems that were not originally considered metaphysical have been added to metaphysics other problems that were considered metaphysical problems for centuries are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy such as philosophy of religion philosophy of mind philosophy of perception philosophy of language and philosophy of science in rare cases subjects of metaphysical research have been found to be entirely physical and natural thus making them part of physics a somewhat informal way of considering metaphysics particularly in its more modern applications such as the philosophy of subheadings cited above is to say that it is thinking about thinking a major concern of metaphysics is a study of the thought process itself how we perceive how we reason how we communicate how we speculate and so on the subject matter is usually abstract and it might be said concerns itself with how we deal with such abstractions what might be called the core metaphysical problems wou |
ld be the ones which have always been considered metaphysical what most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of ontology the science of being being in modern times the meaning of the word metaphysics has become confused by popular significations that are really unrelated to metaphysics or ontology per se viz esotericism and occultism esotericism and occultism in their many forms are not so much concerned with inquiries into first principles or the nature of being though they do tend to proceed on the metaphysical assumption that all being is one the origin of the word metaphysics the ancient greek philosopher aristotle produced a number of works which together were called the physics in an early edition the works of aristotle were organized in such a way that another set of works was placed right after the physics these books seemed to concern a basic fundamental area of philosophical inquiry which aristotle himself called first philosophy so early aristotelian scholars called those b |
ooks ta meta ta physika biblia which means the books that come after the books about physics that is one theory of the origin of the word metaphysics in greek etymologically speaking metaphysics is the subject of those books by aristotle which were called collectively the metaphysics but the actual subject matter in the book are on the topic of things that underlie the physical beyond the physical so to speak therefore fitting the word in two ways the metaphysics was divided into three parts now regarded as the traditional branches of western metaphysics called one ontology two theology and three universal science there were also some smaller perhaps tangential matters a philosophical lexicon an attempt to define philosophy in general and several extracts from the physics repeated verbatim ontology is the study of existence it has been traditionally defined as the science of being qua being theology means here the study of god or the gods and of questions about the divine universal science is supposed to be t |
he study of so called first principles which underlie all other inquiries an example of such a principle is the law of non contradiction a a a not b not both a and b in other words the elementary laws of logic as aristotle knew them universal science or first philosophy treats of being qua being that is what is basic to all science before one adds the particular details of any one science this includes topics like causality substance species and elements it also includes topics like relationship interaction finitude and a theoretically boundless infinity examples it is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even are in metaphysics it might help to begin with a fairly simple example that will help to introduce the problems of metaphysics imagine now that we are in a room and in the middle of the room there is a table and in the middle of the table there is a big fresh juicy red apple we can ask many metaphysical questions about this apple this will hopefully help us understand better what metaphysic |
s is the apple is an excellent example of a physical object one can pick it up throw it around eat it and so on it occupies space and time and has a variety of properties suppose we ask what are physical objects this might seem like the sort of question to which one cannot give an answer what is what is what could one possibly use to explain what physical objects are but philosophers actually do try to give some general sorts of accounts of what they are they ask are physical objects just bundles of their properties or are they substances which have those properties that is called the problem of substance or objecthood here is another sort of question we said that the apple has properties like being red being big being juicy how are properties different from objects notice we say that things like apples have properties like redness but apples and redness are different sorts of items of things of entities one can pick up and touch an apple but cannot pick up and touch redness except perhaps in the sense that y |
ou can pick up and touch red things so how can we best think about what properties are this is one of the central questions in what is known as the problem of universals here is another question about what physical objects are when in general can we say that physical objects come into being and when they cease to exist surely the apple can change in many ways without ceasing to exist it could get brown and rotten but it would still be an apple but if someone ate it it would not just have changed it would no longer exist so there are some metaphysical questions to be answered about the notions of identity or being the same thing over time and change see also identity and change this apple exists in space it sits on a table in a room and in time it was not on the table a week ago and it will not be on the table a week from now but what does this talk of space and time mean can we say for example that space is like an invisible three dimensional grid in which the apple is located suppose the apple and every othe |
r physical object in the universe were to be entirely removed from existence then would space that invisible grid still exist some people say not they say that without physical objects space would not exist because space is the framework in which we understand how physical objects are related to each other there are many other metaphysical questions to ask about space and time there are some other very different sorts of problems in metaphysics the apple is one sort of thing now if sally is in the room and we say sally has a mind we are surely going to say that sally s mind is a different sort of thing from the apple if it is a sort of thing at all i might say that my mind is immaterial but the apple is a material object although there is much disagreement amongst philosophers about the metaphysical status of minds moreover it sounds a little strange to say that sally s mind is located in any particular place maybe we could say it is somewhere in the room but the apple is obviously located in a particular pla |
ce namely on the middle of the table it seems clear that minds are fundamentally different from physical bodies but if so how can something mental like a decision to eat cause a physical event to occur like biting down on the apple how are the mind and body causally interconnected if they are two totally different sorts of things this is called the mind body problem which is now typically relegated to a philosophical subdiscipline called philosophy of mind the mind body problem is sometimes still considered part of metaphysics however perhaps the most profound problem belonging to this branch is the question of consciousness no discipline has yet been able to explain fully what consciousness is or how it works criticism metaphysics has been attacked at different times in history as being futile and overly vague lord byron often mocked the subject in his works david hume and immanuel kant both prescribed a limited role to the subject and argued against knowledge progressing beyond the world of our representati |
ons except in the case of kant to knowledge that the noumena exist a j ayer is famous for leading a revolt against metaphysics where he claimed that its propositions were meaningless martin heidegger often criticised metaphysics yet he dealt with questions that many would consider to be metaphysical british universities became less concerned with the area for much of the two zero th century but it has seen a reemergence in recent times amongst philosophy departments a more nuanced view is that metaphysical statements are not meaningless statements but rather that they are generally not fallible testable or provable statements that is to say there is no valid set of empirical observations nor a valid set of logical arguments which could definitively prove metaphysical statements to be true or false hence a metaphysical statement usually implies a belief about the world or about the universe which may seem reasonable but is ultimately not provable that belief could be changed in a non arbitrary way based on exp |
erience or argument yet there exists no evidence or argument so compelling that it could rationally force a change in that belief in the sense of definitely proving it false yet this does not mean that science can be altogether freed from metaphysical assumptions or beliefs since scientific thought is based on axiomatic systems which by definition operate with unprovable assumptions one reason for that is that typically there are always more theories than valid data that could corroborate or falsify those theories cf also stefan amsterdamski s reflections on this topic but whereas the metaphysician is likely to say this is how it is the physician i e natural scientist is likely to say this is how it is though i could be proven wrong metaphysical subdisciplines ontology philosophy of religion philosophy of mind philosophy of perception metaphysical topics and problems identity and change problem of free will the nature of time the nature of the mind metaphysical jargon abstraction abstract being category of be |
ing concrete philosophy people aristotle saint thomas aquinas eminent christian metaphysician louis victor de broglie william kingdon clifford donald davidson pierre teilhard de chardin gilles deleuze who attempted to create a poststructuralist metaphysics ren descartes eminent christian metaphysician famous for the assertion cogito ergo sum i think therefore i am albert einstein who inferred from the mathematics of the theory of relativity that there is no absolute frame of reference see also logical positivism charles fillmore martin heidegger werner heisenberg ernest holmes emma curtis hopkins immanuel kant zorena kirkendoll saul kripke gottfried leibniz david lewis george edward moore charles peirce robert m pirsig author of the popular zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance which established the theory of reality known as the metaphysics of quality plato max planck karl popper willard van orman quine ayn rand carl reichenbach richard rorty bertrand russell jean paul sartre author of seminal existentia |
list text being and nothingness erwin schr dinger quantum mechanic suggested the famous schr dinger s cat thought experiment see also aesthetics buddhist philosophy dualism eastern philosophy epistemology ethics fractal metaphysics integral post metaphysics list of spirituality related topics logical positivism metaphysics of quality monism mysticism new thought movement ontology philosophy pluralism reason religious science taoism theology transcendental references lowe e j two zero zero two a survey of metaphysics oxford oxford university press loux m j two zero zero two metaphysics a contemporary introduction two nd ed london routledge kim j and ernest sosa ed one nine nine nine metaphysics an anthology blackwell philosophy anthologies kim j and ernest sosa ed two zero zero zero a companion to metaphysics malden massachusetts blackwell publishers fillmore charles one nine three one one seven th printing july two zero zero zero metaphysical bible dictionary unity village missouri unity house isbn zero eight |
seven one five nine zero six seven zero external links metaphysics one and metaphysics two introductions to metaphysics by paul newall aimed at beginners ontology a resource guide for philosophers trans by w d ross trans by hugh tredennick html at perseus aristotle s metaphysics at stanford encyclopedia of philosophy stefan amsterdamski between experience and metaphysics boston studies in the philosophy of science three five dordrecht boston reidel one nine seven five the ideal made real or applied metaphysics for beginners by christian d larson ways of seeing a common sense exploration of modern metaphysics metaphysics human spaceflight is space exploration with a human crew and possibly passengers which is in contrast to robotic space probes or remotely controlled unmanned space missions on occasion passengers of other species have ridden aboard spacecraft although not all survived the return to earth dogs not humans were the first large mammals launched from earth the first human spaceflight was vostok on |
e on april one two one nine six one soviet cosmonaut yuri gagarin made one orbit around the earth the highest earth orbit attained by a piloted vehicle was gemini one one in one nine six six which reached a height of one three seven four km the space shuttle on the missions to launch and service the hubble space telescope has also reached high earth orbit at an altitude of around six zero zero km the destination of human spaceflight missions beyond earth orbit has only been the moon which is itself in earth orbit on the first such mission apollo eight the crew orbited the moon apollo one zero was the next mission and it tested the lunar landing craft in lunar orbit without actually landing the six missions that landed were apollo one one one seven excluding apollo one three on each mission two of the three astronauts involved landed on the moon thus in the late one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s nasa s apollo program landed twelve men on the moon returning them all to earth as of two zero zer |
o five piloted space missions have been carried out by russia the people s republic of china and the united states missions carried out by the united states are both governmental nasa and civilian scaled composites a california based company brazil canada europe india japan and ukraine also have active space programs the indian parliament recently sanctioned funds to the indian space research organization for a human spaceflight by two zero zero eight although the programme has now been scaled down to start with an unmanned orbiting satellite for surveying see chandrayaan japan has announced a program to place a person on the moon by two zero two five currently the following spacecrafts and spaceports are used international space station includes soyuz tma as an emergency lander normal crew transport with the following two spacecraft soyuz tma with soyuz launch vehicle baikonur cosmodrome space shuttle john f kennedy space center shenzhou spacecraft with long march rocket jiuquan satellite launch center scale |
d composites spaceshipone with scaled composites white knight the latter does not enter space itself mojave spaceport in an attempt to win the one zero million x prize numerous private companies attempted to build their own manned spacecraft capable of repeated sub orbital flights the first private spaceflight took place on june two one two zero zero four when spaceshipone conducted a sub orbital flight with its second flight within one week spaceshipone captured the prize on october four two zero zero four nasa now uses the term human spaceflight to refer to its programme of launching people into space traditionally these endeavours have been referred to as manned space missions the term does not reflect gender but means crewed or operated by a person although does not denote gender the term manned is considered sexist by some and they may prefer to use the term crewed or piloted space missions see also list of human spaceflights list of human spaceflights chronologically list of human spaceflights by progra |
m list of manned spacecraft list of spacewalks x one five program astronaut list of astronauts by name timeline of astronauts by nationality list of space disasters human adaptation to space space colonization space and survival spaceflight records interplanetary travel atmospheric reentry monkeys in space spaceshipone external links nasa human space flight is human spaceflight obsolete essay by james a van allen the top three reasons for humans in space two zero minute video essay on human space exploration human spaceflight mendelevium also known as unnilunium unu is a synthetic element in the periodic table with the symbol md formerly mv and the atomic number one zero one a metallic radioactive transuranic element of the actinides mendelevium is synthesized by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles and was named after dmitri mendeleev notable characteristics researchers have shown that mendelevium has a moderately stable dipositive ii oxidation state in addition to the more characteristic for actinide |
elements tripositive iii oxidation state md two five six has been used to find out some of the chemical properties of this element while in an aqueous solution there are no other uses of mendelevium and only trace amounts of the element have ever been produced history mendelevium for dmitri mendeleyev surname commonly spelt as mendeleev mendel ef or even mendelejeff and first name sometimes spelt as dmitry or dmitriy was first synthesized by albert ghiorso team leader glenn t seaborg bernard harvey and greg choppin in early one nine five five the team produced md two five six half life of seven six minutes when they bombarded an einsteinium two five three target with alpha particles helium nuclei in the berkeley radiation laboratory s six zero inch cyclotron md two five six was synthesized one atom at a time element one zero one was the ninth transuranic element synthesized isotopes one five radioisotopes of mendelevium have been characterized with the most stable being md two five eight with a half life of |
five one five days md two six zero with a half life of three one eight days and md two five seven with a half life of five five two hours all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lifes that are less than nine seven minutes and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than five minutes this element also has one meta state two five eight m md t five seven minutes the isotopes of mendelevium range in atomic weight from two four five zero nine one amu md two four five to two six zero one zero four amu md two six zero references los alamos national laboratory mendelevium guide to the elements revised edition albert stwertka oxford university press one nine nine eight isbn zero one nine five zero eight zero eight three one it s elemental mendelevium external links webelements com mendelevium actinides chemical elements in logic modus ponens latin mode that affirms is a valid simple argument form often abbreviated to mp if p then q p therefore q or in logical operator notation p q p q where rep |
resents the logical assertion or may also be written p p q q in metalogics the modus ponens is the cut rule the cut elimination theorem says that the cut is valid admissible rule in some logical calculus sequent calculus the argument form has two premises the first premise is the if then or conditional claim namely that p implies q the second premise is that p the antecedent of the conditional claim is true from these two premises it can be logically concluded that q the consequent of the conditional claim must be true as well here is an example of an argument that fits the form modus ponens if democracy is the best system of government then everyone should vote democracy is the best system of government therefore everyone should vote the fact that the argument is valid cannot assure us that any of the statements in the argument are true the validity of modus ponens tells us that the conclusion must be true if all the premises are true it is wise to recall that a valid argument within which one or more of the |
premises are not true is called an unsound argument whereas if all the premises are true then the argument is sound in most logical systems modus ponens is considered to be valid however the instances of its use may be either sound or unsound if the argument is modus ponens and its premises are true then it is sound the premises are true therefore it is a sound argument a propositional argument using modus ponens is said to be deductive modus ponens can also be referred to as affirming the antecedent or law of detachment for an amusing dialog that problematizes modus ponens see lewis carroll s what the tortoise said to achilles see also modus tollens affirming the consequent denying the antecedent inference rule rules of inference latin logical phrases modus tollens latin mode that denies is the formal name for indirect proof or proof by contrapositive contrapositive inference often abbreviated to mt it can also be referred to as denying the consequent and is a valid form of argument unlike similarly named b |