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ut invalid arguments such as affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent modus tollens has the following argument form if p then q q is false therefore p is false in logical operator notation p q q p where represents the logical assertion or in set theoretic form p q x q x p p is a subset of q x is not in q therefore x is not in p the argument has two premises the first premise is the conditional if then statement namely that p implies q the second premise is that q is false from these two premises it can be logically concluded that p must be false why if p were true then q would be true by premise one but it isn t by premise two consider an example if there is fire here then there is oxygen here there is no oxygen here therefore there is no fire here another example if lizzy was the murderer then she owns an axe lizzy does not own an axe therefore lizzy was not the murderer just suppose that the premises are both true if lizzy was the murderer then she really must have owned an axe and it is a fact th |
at lizzy does not own an axe what follows that she was not the murderer it is important to note that when an argument is valid if the premises are true the conclusion must follow suppose we decide that it is not the case that if lizzy was the murderer then she would have to have owned an axe perhaps we have found that she borrowed someone s this means that the first premise is false but notice that it does not mean the argument is invalid since it remains the case that if the premises are true and in this case they are not the conclusion would follow even though in this particular case the premise is false an argument can be valid even though it has a false premise such an argument usually reaches a false conclusion if a modus tollens argument has true premises then it is sound the argument is unsound therefore its premises are false of course this particular argument applied to itself would be a paradox modus tollens became somewhat legendary when it was used by karl popper in his proposed response to the pr |
oblem of induction falsificationism see also modus ponens affirming the consequent denying the antecedent falsificationism external links mathworld wolfram com modus tollens rules of inference latin logical phrases a mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is mathematics mathematicians are employed by private firms in various capacities or as professors at universities or other educational institutions by research organizations or by military or civilian government agencies the largest employer of mathematicians in the united states for instance is the national security agency finally because mathematics is useful in a wide range of fields many who consider themselves mathematicians are involved in other subjects such as physics computer science or actuarial science mathematics can be divided into many different areas but broadly speaking mathematicians speak of pure mathematics and applied mathematics pure mathematics traditionally includes algebra geometry and some areas of analys |
is while applied mathematics involved the use of differential equations or other aspects of analysis to solve practical problems throughout the physical and social sciences and the business world much use is made of probability and statistics however with the advent of the computer even parts of algebra number theory and combinatorics and geometry elliptic curves are used in applied situations some people incorrectly believe mathematics is fully understood but the publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied such as theoretical computer science and theoretical physics one of the most exciting recent developements was the proof of fermat s last theorem following three five zero years of the brightest mathematical minds attempting to settle the problem there are many famous open problems in mathematics many dating back tens if not hundreds of years som |
e examples include the riemann hypothesis from one eight five nine the poincar conjecture one nine zero four and goldbach s conjecture one seven four two unlike the other sciences fundamental research in much of mathematics does not consist of performing experiments rather mathematics is about problem solving where truths are deduced from other known truths computer experiments and other numerical evidence can result in new problems and are sometimes used to solve them though most of the time they are just used as indicators that the work is on the right track numerical evidence is not proof to a mathematician in the end mathematics research is about constructing proofs of theorems and most journals would reject a paper consisting solely of numerical data some outstanding open problems in mathematics such as the birch and swinnerton dyer conjecture developed after analyzing numerical work on a computer not only is calculation not a big part of some areas of mathematics research but people who have had an impo |
rtant influence on mathematics do not necessarily have any extraordinary ability in adding or multiplying numbers for instance albert einstein whose ideas had a significant impact in geometry had great difficulties with mathematics when he was a youth see mental calculators to read about prodigies performing impressive mental calculations motivation mathematicians are typically interested not in calculating but in finding and describing patterns or creating proofs that justify a theorem mathematically problems have come from physics economics games computer science generalizations of earlier mathematics and some problems are simply created for the challenge of solving them although much mathematics is not immediately useful history has shown that eventually applications are found for example number theory originally seemed to be without purpose to the real world but after the development of computers it gained important applications to algorithms and cryptography there are no nobel prizes awarded to mathemati |
cians the award that is generally viewed as having the highest prestige in mathematics is the fields medal this medal sometimes described as the nobel prize of mathematics is awarded once every four years to up to four young under four zero years old awardees at a time there are more minor prizes for mathematics also the more prominent ones include the abel prize the wolf prize the schock prize and the nevanlinna prize differences mathematicians differ from philosophers in that the primary questions of mathematics are assumed for the most part to transcend the context of the human mind the idea that two two four is a true statement is assumed to exist without requiring a human mind to state the problem not all mathematicians would strictly agree with the above the philosophy of mathematics contains several viewpoints on this question nonetheless many of the great philosophers were mathematicians such as rene descartes whereas physical theories in the sciences are usually assumed to be an approximation of trut |
h mathematical statements are an attempt at capturing truth if a certain statement is believed to be true by mathematicians typically as special cases are confirmed to some degree but has neither been proven nor disproven to logically follow from some set of assumptions it is called a conjecture as opposed to the ultimate goal a theorem that is proven true physical theories may be expected to change whenever new information about our physical world is discovered mathematics changes in a different way new ideas don t falsify old ones but rather are used to generalize what was known before to capture a broader range of phenomena for instance calculus in one variable generalizes to multivariable calculus which generalizes to analysis on manifolds the development of algebraic geometry from its classical to modern forms is a particularly striking example of the way an area of mathematics can change radically in its viewpoint without making what was proved before in any way incorrect while a theorem once proved is |
true forever our understanding of what the theorem really means gains in profundity as the mathematics around the theorem grows a mathematician feels that a theorem is better understood when it can be extended to apply in a broader setting than previously known for instance fermat s little theorem for the nonzero integers modulo a prime generalizes to euler s theorem for the invertible numbers modulo any nonzero integer which generalizes to lagrange s theorem for finite groups demographics as is the case in many scientific disciplines the field of mathematics has been disproportionately dominated by men this has changed after world war ii among the prominent female mathematicians are emmy noether one eight eight two one nine three five sophie germain one seven seven six one eight three one sofia kovalevskaya one eight five zero one eight nine one r zsa p ter one nine zero five one nine seven seven julia robinson one nine one nine one nine eight five mary ellen rudin eva tardos milie du ch telet mary cartwrigh |
t and marianna cs rnyei doctoral degree statistics for mathematicians in the united states the number of doctoral degrees awarded each year in the united states has ranged from seven five zero to one two three zero over the past three five years in the early seventies degree awards were at their peak followed by a decline throughout the seventies a rise through the eighties and another peak through the nineties unemployment for new doctoral recipients peaked at one zero seven in one nine nine four but was as low as three three by two zero zero zero the percentage of female doctoral recipients increased from one five in one nine eight zero to three zero in two zero zero zero as of two zero zero zero there are approximately two one zero zero zero full time faculty positions at colleges and universities in the united states of these positions about three six are filled by mathematicians holding a bachelor s degree two three by those holding a master s degree and four one by those holding a doctoral degree the me |
dian age for doctoral recipients in one nine nine nine two zero zero zero was three zero and the mean age was three one seven trivia in popular culture the mathematician john forbes nash is well known from a mostly fictional movie a beautiful mind based on a biography of his life by sylvia nasar he was awarded a nobel prize for economics quotes the following are quotes about mathematicians or by mathematicians mathematicians in the first quote refers to astrologers beware of mathematicians and all those who make empty prophecies the danger already exists that the mathematicians have made a covenant with the devil to darken the spirit and to confine man in the bonds of hell saint augustine de genesi ad litteram a mathematician is a machine for turning coffee into theorems paul erd s die mathematiker sind eine art franzosen redet man mit ihnen so bersetzen sie es in ihre sprache und dann ist es alsobald ganz etwas anderes mathematicians are like a sort of frenchmen if you talk to them they translate it into the |
ir own language and then it is immediately something quite different johann wolfgang von goethe some humans are mathematicians others aren t jane goodall one nine seven one in the shadow of man links and references references a mathematician s apology by g h hardy memoir with foreword by c p snow reprint edition cambridge university press one nine nine two isbn zero five two one four two seven zero six one first edition one nine four zero dunham william the mathematical universe john wiley one nine nine four see also mental calculator list of mathematicians list of amateur mathematicians astronomers physicists philosophers scientists american mathematical society mathematical association of america external links the mactutor history of mathematics archive a very complete list of detailed biographies the mathematics genealogy project which allows to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians living or dead mathematical science occupations mathematicians the armed forces of a state are it |
s government sponsored defense and fighting forces and organizations they exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their governing body in some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nations armed forces armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives the study of the use of armed forces is called military science broadly speaking this involves considering offense and defense at three levels strategy operational art and tactics all of these areas study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective organization armed forces may be organized as standing forces e g regular army which describes a professional army that is engaged in no other profession than preparing for and engaging in warfare in contrast there is the citizen army a citizen army also known as a militia or reserve army is only mobilised as needed its advantage lies in the fact that it is dramatically less expensive in terms of wealth manpower and opportunity cost for the o |
rganizing society to support the disadvantage is that such a citizen s army is less well trained and organized historically professional armies often triumph over much larger citizen armies when engaged in combat a compromise between the two has a small cadre of professional ncos non commissioned officers and officers who act as a skeleton for a much larger force when war comes this skeleton is filled out with conscripts or reservists former full time soldiers who volunteer for a small stipend to occasionally train with the cadre to keep their military skills intact who form the wartime unit this balances the pros and cons of each basic organization and allows the formation of huge armies in terms of millions of combatants necessary in modern large scale warfare the armed forces in many larger countries are divided into an army an air force and usually a navy unless geography dictates otherwise these divisions may be solely for the purposes of training and support or may be completely independent branches res |
ponsible for conducting operations independently of other services most smaller countries have a single organization that encompasses all armed forces employed by the country in question in larger armed forces the culture between the different branches of a countries armed forces can be quite different it has been said that a navy and an air force man equipment whereas an army equips men the state of readiness of a military organisation may be indicated by its defcon state us or bikini state uk benefits and costs recent annual military budgets of those coutries with the greatest military expenditure the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict in recent decades armed forces personnel have also been used as emergency civil support roles in post disaster situations on the other hand they may also harm a society by engaging in counter productive or merely unsuccessful warfare expenditure on science and technology to develo |
p weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly excessive expenditure on armed forces can drain a society of needed manpower and material significantly reducing civilian living standards if continued over a significant period of time this results in reduced civilian research and development degrading the society s ability to improve its infrastructure this lack of development in turn can affect armed forces in a vicious cycle see north korea for a typical modern example of this problem transarmament is a recent movement to replace armed forces with nonviolence training and infrastructure armed forces of the world see also militaria military academy military courtesy military fiat military history military incompetence junta military rule military science military tactics military technology and equipment military aid to the civil power military aid to the civil community list of air forces list of navies list of armi |
es list of battles exchange officer military external links defencetalk janes defence military news directory of online military indexes records usa us military news defenselink mil baltic defence college microfluidics is a multidisciplinary field comprising physics chemistry engineering and biotechnology that studies the behavior of fluids at the microscale and mesoscale it also concerns the design of systems in which such small volumes of fluids will be used microscale behaviour of fluids the behavior of fluids at the microscale can differ from macrofluidic behavior in that factors such as surface tension energy dissipation and fluidic resistance start to dominate the system microfluidics studies how these behaviors change and how they can be worked around or exploited for new uses at these scales channel diameters of around one zero to several hundered micrometers some interesting and unintuitive properties appear the reynolds number which characterises the presence of turbulent flow is extremely low there |
fore the flow will remain laminar two fluids joining for example will not mix because of this the diffusion alone will cause the two compounds to mingle it is a new science having emerged only in the one nine nine zero s so the number of applications for this technology is currently small however it is potentially significant in a wide range of technologies microfluidics is used in the development of dna microarray technology micro thermal and micro propulsion technologies and lab on a chip technology another growing field similar to microfluidics is digital microfluidics instead of considering a continuous flow of liquid as in the present case digital microfluidics studies the displacement formation division fusion of micrometer scale droplets of liquid external links additional information external microfluidics tutorial from paul yager s lab at the university of washington myfluidix com miflus microfluidics terminology tree academic government laboratories david erickson microfluidics research group at cor |
nell university b j kirby microfluidics research group at cornell university bios the lab on a chip group at the university of twente netherlands n t nguyen microfluidics lab at nanyang technological university singapore charles yang s lab at nanyang technological university singapore stanford microfluidics lab imtek lab for microfluidics hsg imit dongqing li s lab university of toronto vanderbilt university microsystem technology lab at the royal institute of technology stockholm ucsb microfluidics lab purdue microfluidics lab experimental soft condensed matter group at harvard university boston george whitesides s lab at harvard university boston shuichi takayama s lab at the university of michigan axel scherer s lab at the california institute of technology rustem ismagilov s lab at the university of chicago noo li jeon s lab at uci bio poems at berkeley stephen quake s lab at stanford university albert folch s lab at the university of washington david beebe s lab at the university of wisconsin sandia nati |
onal labs microfluidics department paul yager s lab at the university of washington t kitamori s lab at the university of tokyo japan jerry westerweel s lab at the delft university of technology the netherlands sabeth verpoorte s lab at the university of groningen the netherlands david sinton s lab at the university of victoria bc canada companies micronit microfluidics glass microfluidics for lab on a chip applications www microfluidicscorp com gyros ab sensirion inc microfluidic flow sensors micralyne mems foundry fluidigm corp micronics inc nanostream inc caliper life sciences cascade microtech microfluidics metrology systems cellix ltd microfluidic biochips instrumentation and analysis software for cell based assays protea biosciences inc microfluidic products geared towards biological applications edge embossing llc plastic microfluidics design and manufacturing through soft embossing minifab design fabrication and integration of polymer microengineered systems microplumbers microsciences llc multiphysic |
s simulations for r fluid mechanics for engineers by j o wilkes fundamentals and application of microfluidics by n t nguyen and s wereley separation methods in microanalytical systems by j p kutter and y fintschenko eds see also fluids home a distributed computing project for the computer simulation of two phase fluid behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems website fluid dynamics nanotechnology biotechnology in mathematics a mersenne prime is a prime number that is one less than a prime power of two for example three one a prime number three two one two five one and five also a prime number so three one is a mersenne prime so is seven eight one two three one on the other hand two zero four seven two zero four eight one two one one one for example is not a prime because although one one is a prime making it a candidate for being a mersenne prime two zero four seven is not prime it is divisible by eight nine hence mn two n one most sources restrict the term mersenne number to where n is prime as all |
mersenne primes must be of this form as seen below mersenne primes have a close connection to perfect numbers which are numbers that are equal to the sum of their proper divisors historically the study of mersenne primes was motivated by this connection in the four th century bc euclid demonstrated that if m is a mersenne prime then m m one two is a perfect number two millennia later in the one eight th century euler proved that all even perfect numbers have this form no odd perfect numbers are known and it is suspected that none exists any that do have to belong to a significant number of special forms see perfect number for more details it is currently unknown whether there is an infinite number of mersenne primes searching for mersenne primes the identity two one two a one cdot left one two a two two dots two right shows that mn can be prime only if n itself is prime which simplifies the search for mersenne primes considerably the converse statement namely that mn is necessarily prime if n is prime is fal |
se the smallest counterexample is two one two three cdot eight nine a composite number fast algorithms for finding mersenne primes are available and this is why the largest known prime numbers today are mersenne primes the first four mersenne primes m two m three m five m seven were known in antiquity the fifth m one three was discovered anonymously before one four six one the next two m one seven and m one nine were found by cataldi in one five eight eight after more than a century m three one was verified to be prime by euler in one seven five zero the next in historical not numerical order was m one two seven found by lucas in one eight seven six then m six one by pervushin in one eight eight three two more m eight nine and m one zero seven were found early in the two zero th century by powers in one nine one one and one nine one four respectively the numbers are named after one seven th century french mathematician marin mersenne who provided a list of mersenne primes with exponents up to two five seven u |
nfortunately his list was not correct though as he mistakenly included m six seven and m two five seven and omitted m six one m eight nine and m one zero seven the best method presently known for testing the primality of mersenne numbers is based on the computation of a recurring sequence as developed originally by lucas in one eight seven eight and improved by lehmer in the one nine three zero s now known as the lucas lehmer test for mersenne numbers specifically it can be shown that for n two m n two n one is prime if and only if mn divides sn two where s zero four and for k zero s k s two two graph of number of digits in largest known mersenne prime by year electronic era note that the vertical scale is logarithmic the search for mersenne primes was revolutionized by the introduction of the electronic digital computer the first successful identification of a mersenne prime m five two one by this means was achieved at one zero zero zero p m on january three zero one nine five two using the u s national bure |
au of standards western automatic computer swac at the institute for numerical analysis at the university of california los angeles under the direction of lehmer with a computer search program written and run by prof r m robinson it was the first mersenne prime to be identified in thirty eight years the next one m six zero seven was found by the computer a little less than two hours later three more m one two seven nine m two two zero three m two two eight one were found by the same program in the next several months m four two five three is the first mersenne prime that is titanic and m four four four nine seven is the first gigantic as of december two zero zero five only four three mersenne primes are known the largest known prime number two three zero four zero two four five seven one is a mersenne prime like several previous mersenne primes it was discovered by a distributed computing project on the internet known as the great internet mersenne prime search gimps a log fit of the first four three known pr |
ime exponents places the four four th exponent around six e seven yielding a prime of one eight million digits a lower predicted value falls out based on the wagstaff conjecture theorems about mersenne prime if n is a positive integer c n d n c d sum c kd or two a one cdot left one two a two two dots two right two one by setting c two a d one and n b proof a b sum a kb sum a b sum a kb a n sum a kb sum a kb b n a n b n if two n one is prime then n is prime proof by two a one cdot left one two a two two dots two right two one if n is not prime or n ab where one therefore two a one would divide two n one or two n one is not prime list of mersenne primes the table below lists all known mersenne primes it is not known whether any undiscovered mersenne primes exist between the three eight th m six nine seven two five nine three and the four three rd m three zero four zero two four five seven on this chart the ranking is therefore provisional see also fermat prime erd s borwein constant great internet mersenne prim |
e search new mersenne conjecture prime nine five mprime lucas lehmer test for mersenne primes double mersenne number mersenne twister external links great internet mersenne prime search gimps orlando florida home page of mersenne org prime mersenne numbers history theorems and lists explanation gimps mersenne prime status page gives various statistics on search progress typically updated every week including progress towards proving the ordering of primes three nine four two ff mersenne numbers wolfram research mathematica prime mersenne numbers wolfram research mathematica mq eight x two three qy two mersenne proof pdf mq x two d y two math thesis ps mersenne prime bibliography with hyperlinks to original publications dpa reportage about prime mersenne number detection in detail german mersenne prime wiki four three rd mersenne prime found article at mathworld integer sequences prime numbers number theory magnesium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol mg and atomic number one two |
and an atomic mass of two four three one magnesium is the eighth most abundant element and constitutes about two of the earth s crust by weight and it is the third most plentiful element dissolved in seawater this alkaline earth metal is primarily used as an alloying agent to make aluminium magnesium alloys sometimes called magnalium or magnelium notable characteristics magnesium is a fairly strong silvery white light weight metal one third lighter than aluminium that slightly tarnishes when exposed to air although unlike the alkaline metals storage in an oxygen free environment is unnecessary as a powder this metal heats and ignites when exposed to moisture and burns with a white flame it is difficult to ignite in bulk though it is easy to light if it is shaved into thin strips once ignited it is difficult to extinguish being able to burn in both nitrogen forming magnesium nitride and carbon dioxide forming magnesium oxide mgo and carbon when a thin ribbon of magnesium metal is ignited and then plunged unde |
r water it continues to burn until the metal ribbon is completely consumed magnesium when it burns in air produces a brilliant white light this was used in the early days of photography when magnesium powder was used as a source of illumination flash powder later magnesium ribbon was used in electrically ignited flash bulbs magnesium powder is still used in the manufacture fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required applications magnesium compounds primarily magnesium oxide are used mainly as refractory material in furnace linings for producing iron steel nonferrous metals glass and cement magnesium oxide and other compounds also are used in agricultural chemical and construction industries as a metal this element s principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium with these aluminium magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans magnesium in its purest form can be compared to aluminium and is strong and light so it is used in several high volume part manufacturing applic |
ations including automotive and truck components specialty high grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called mag wheels in one nine five seven a corvette ss designed for racing was constructed with completely magnesium body panels volkswagon has used magnesium in its engine components for many years for a long time porsche used magnesium alloy for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage but around the early one nine eight zero s switched back to aluminium for its superior ruggedness at very high power and lower cost however there is renewed interest in magnesium engine blocks as featured in the two zero zero six bmw three two five i and three three zero i models the bmw award winning engine uses an aluminum alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high temperature magnesium alloy aj six two a the application of magnesium ae four four alloy in the two zero zero six corvette z zero six engine cradle has advanced the technology of designing robust automotive parts in magnes |
ium both of these alloys are recent developments in high temperature low creep magnesium alloys new alloy development and lower costs which are becoming competitive to aluminium will further the number of automotive applications other uses include removal of sulfur from iron and steel photoengraved plates in the printing industry combined in alloys this metal is essential for airplane and missile construction when used as an alloying agent this metal improves the mechanical fabrication and welding characteristics of aluminium additive agent for conventional propellants and used in producing nodular graphite in cast iron reducing agent for the production of pure uranium and other metals from their salts its hydroxide is used in milk of magnesia its chloride and sulfate in epsom salts and its citrates in medicine dead burned magnesite is used for refractory purposes such as brick and liners in furnaces and converters magnesium is also flammable burning at a temperature of approximately two five zero zero k two |
two zero zero c four zero zero zero f the extremely high temperature at which magnesium burns makes it a handy tool for starting emergency fires during outdoor recreation magnesium carbonate mgco three powder is also used by athletes such as gymnasts and weightlifters to improve the grip on objects the apparatus or lifting bar magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricative properties in pharmaceutical technology it is used in the manufacturing of tablets to prevent the tablets from sticking to the equipment during the tablet compression process i e when the tablet s substance is pressed into tablet form other uses include flashlight photography flares and pyrotechnics including incendiary bombs history magnesium bar the name originates from the greek word for a district in thessaly called magnesia joseph black in england recognized magnesium as being an element in one seven five five sir humphry davy electrolytically isolated pure magnesium metal in one eight zero eight from a mix of |
magnesia and hgo and a a b bussy prepared it in coherent form in one eight three one magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the earth s crust it is an alkaline earth metal and therefore does not occur uncombined with other elements it is found in large deposits of magnesite dolomite and other minerals sources although magnesium is found in over six zero minerals only dolomite magnesite brucite carnallite talc and olivine are of commercial importance in the united states this metal is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brines wells and sea water cathode mg two two e mg anode two cl cl two gas two e the united states has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal supplying four five of world production even as recently as one nine nine five today the us market share is at seven with a single domestic producer left us magnesium a company borne from now defunct magcorp as of two zero zero five china has taken over as the dominant supplier pegged at six |
zero world market share which increased from four in one nine nine five unlike the above described electrolytic process china is almost completely reliant on a different method of obtaining the metal from its ores the silicothermic pidgeon process compounds in living organisms organic magnesium is important in both plant and animal life chlorophylls are magnesium centered porphyrins the adult daily nutritional requirement which is affected by various factors including gender weight and size is three zero zero four zero zero mg day many enzymes require the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action especially enzymes utilizing atp inadequate magnesium intake frequently causes muscle spasms and has been associated with cardiovascular disease diabetes high blood pressure anxiety disorders and osteoporosis acute deficiency is rare the dri upper tolerated limit for supplemental magnesium is three five zero mg day the most common symptom of excess magnesium is diarrhea infants should not be given magnesi |
um supplements food sources green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because the center of the chlorophyll molecule contains magnesium nuts seeds and some whole grains are also good sources of magnesium although magnesium is present in many foods it usually occurs in small amounts as with most nutrients daily needs for magnesium cannot be met from a single food eating a wide variety of foods including five servings of fruits and vegetables daily and plenty of whole grains helps to ensure an adequate intake of magnesium the magnesium content of refined foods is usually low whole wheat bread for example has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed the table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium water can provide magnesium but the amount varies according to the water supply hard water contains more magnesium than soft water dietary surveys do not estimate magnesium intake from water which |
may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its variability following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them spinach one two cup eight zero milligrams mg peanut butter two tablespoons five zero mg black eyed peas one two cup four five mg milk low fat one cup four zero mg isotopes two six mg is a stable isotope that has found application in isotopic geology similar to that of aluminium two six mg is a radiogenic daughter product of two six al which has a half life of seven one seven zero zero zero years large enrichments of stable two six mg have been observed in the ca al rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites the anomalous abundance of two six mg is attributed to the decay of its parent two six al in the inclusions therefore the meteorite must have formed in the solar nebula before the two six al had decayed hence these fragments are among the oldest objects in the solar system and have preserved information about its earliest history it is conventional to plot two s |
ix mg two four mg against an al mg ratio in an isochrone plot the al mg ratio plotted is two seven al two four mg the slope of the isochron has no age significance but indicates the initial two six al two seven al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir precautions magnesium metal and alloys are highly flammable in their pure form when molten as a powder or in ribbon form burning or molten magnesium metal reacts violently with water magnesium powder is an explosive hazard one should wear safety glasses while working with magnesium the bright white light including ultraviolet produced by burning magnesium can damage the eyes water should not be used to extinguish magnesium fires because it can actually feed the fire according to the reaction mg s two h two o v mg oh two aq h two g or in words magnesium solid steam magnesium hydroxide aqueous hydrogen gas carbon dioxide fire extinguishers should not be used either because magnesium can burn in carbon dioxide formi |
ng magnesium oxide mgo and carbon a class d dry chemical fire extinguisher should be used if available or else the fire should be covered with sand an easy way to put out small metal fires is to place a polyethene bag filled with dry sand on top of the fire the heat of the fire will melt the bag and the sand will flow out onto the fire external links webelements com magnesium magnesium deficiency the magnesium website dietary reference intake computational chemistry wiki chemical elements alkaline earth metals a specialized markup language using sgml is used to write the electronic version of the oxford english dictionary this enables sophisticated queries to be performed as well as easy translation into html a markup language combines text and extra information about the text the extra information for example about the text s structure or presentation is expressed using markup which is intermingled with the primary text the best known markup language in modern use is html hypertext markup language one of the |
foundations of the world wide web historically markup was and is used in the publishing industry in the communication of printed work between authors editors and printers classes of markup languages markup languages are often divided into three classes presentational procedural and descriptive presentational markup presentational markup is an attempt to infer document structure from cues in the encoding for example in a text file the title of a document might be preceded by several newlines and or spaces thus suggesting leading spacing and centering word processing and desktop publishing products sometimes attempt to deduce structure from such conventions but as the enormous variety of wiki plain text conventions prove this is as yet an unresolved problem procedural markup procedural markup is typically also focused on the presentation of text but is usually visible to the user editing the text file and is expected to be interpreted by software in the order in which it appears to format a title a succession |
of formatting directives would be inserted into the file immediately before the title s text instructing software to switch into centered display mode then enlarge and embolden the typeface the title text would be followed by directives to reverse these effects in more advanced systems macros or a stack model make this less tedious in most cases the procedural markup capabilities comprise a turing complete programming language examples of procedural markup systems include nroff troff tex and postscript procedural markup has been widely used in professional publishing applications where professional typographers can be expected to learn the languages required descriptive markup descriptive markup or semantic markup applies labels to fragments of text without necessarily mandating any particular display or other processing semantics for example the atom syndication language provides markup to label the updated time stamp which is an assertion from the publisher as to when some item of information was last chang |
ed while the atom specification discusses the meaning of the updated timestamp and specifies the markup used to identify it it makes no assertions about whether or how it might be presented to a user software might put this markup to a variety of uses including many not foreseen by the designers of the atom language sgml and xml are systems explicitly designed to support the design of descriptive markup languages in practice the classes of markup usually co occur in any given system for example html contains markup elements which are purely procedural for example b for bold and others which are purely descriptive blockquote or the href attribute html also includes the pre element which encloses areas of presentational markup to be laid out exactly as typed sets of markup elements and rules for their use are commonly developed by standards bodies to support the kinds of documents used in particular industries or communities one of the earliest of these was cals used by the us military for technical manuals ind |
ustries with large scale documentation requirements soon followed suit developing tag sets for aircraft telecommunications automotive and computer hardware manuals this led to delivering many such manuals solely in electronic form some companies were able to produce printed online and cd based manuals all from a single descriptive markup source a notable example was sun microsystems where jon bosak who later founded the xml committee decided on sgml for multi target documentation delivery achieving considerable cost savings markup languages now abound among the more widely known are docbook mathml svg open ebook tei and xbrl many are for various kinds of text documents but specialized languages are used in many other domains generic markup is another term for descriptive markup most modern descriptive markup systems structure documents into trees while also providing some means for embedding cross references because of this documents can be readily treated as databases in which the database system is aware of |
the structure not blobs as in the past because they do not have such strict schemas as relational databases however they are commonly called semi structured databases in the third millennium great interest has arisen in document structures that are not trees for example ancient and sacred literature commonly has a rhetorical or prose structure stories pericopes paragraphs and so on as well as a reference structure books chapters verses lines since the boundaries of these units often cross they cannot readily be encoded using tree structured markup systems among the document modeling systems that support such structures are mecs developed for encoding the works of wittgenstein aspects of the tei guidelines lmnl and clix a primary virtue of descriptive markup is considered to be its flexibility if the fragments of text are labeled as to what they are as opposed to how they should be displayed software may be written to process these fragments in useful ways not anticipated by the designers of the languages for |
example html s hyperlinks originally designed for activation by a human following a link are also widely used by web search engines both in discovering new material to index and in estimating the popularity of web resources descriptive markup also facilitates the simpler task of reformatting a document as needed because the format specification is not intertwined with the content for example italics might be used both for emphasis and to indicate foreign words however if both are merely tagged presentationally or procedurally as italic this ambiguity cannot readily be sorted out if a decision is later made not to italicize foreign words there is nothing for it but to review all italic portions and sort them out one by one however if the two cases were descriptively or generically tagged differently to begin with either can be reformatted without interfering with the other history the term markup is derived from the traditional publishing practice of marking up a manuscript that is adding symbolic printer s i |
nstructions in the margins of a paper manuscript for centuries this task was done by specialists known as markup men and proofreaders who marked up text to indicate what typeface style and size should be applied to each part and then handed off the manuscript to someone else for the tedious task of typesetting by hand a familiar example of manual markup symbols still in use is proofreader s marks which are a subset of larger vocabularies of handwritten markup symbols gencode the idea of markup languages was apparently first presented by publishing executive william w tunnicliffe at a conference in one nine six seven although he preferred to call it generic coding tunnicliffe would later lead the development of a standard called gencode for the publishing industry book designer stanley fish also published speculation along similar lines in the late one nine six zero s brian reid in his one nine eight zero dissertation at carnegie mellon university developed the theory and a working implementation of descriptiv |
e markup in actual use however ibm researcher charles goldfarb is more commonly seen today as the father of markup languages because of his work on ibm gml and then as chair of the international organization for standardization committee that developed sgml the first widely used descriptive markup system goldfarb hit upon the basic idea while working on an early project to help a newspaper computerize its workflow although the published record does not clarify when he later became familiar with the work of tunnicliffe and fish and heard an early talk by reid which further sparked his interest it must be noted that the details of the early history of descriptive markup languages are hotly debated however it is clear that the notion was independently discovered several times throughout the seven zero s and possibly the late six zero s and became an important practice in the late eight zero s some early examples of markup languages available outside the publishing industry can be found in typesetting tools on un |
ix systems such as troff and nroff in these systems formatting commands were inserted into the document text so that typesetting software could format the text according to the editor s specifications it was a trial and error iterative process to get a document printed correctly availability of wysiwyg what you see is what you get publishing software supplanted much use of these languages among casual users though serious publishing work still uses markup to specify the non visual structure of texts tex another major publishing standard was tex created and continuously refined by donald knuth in the one nine seven zero s and eight zero s tex concentrated on detailed layout of text and font descriptions in order to typeset mathematical books in professional quality this required knuth to spend considerable time investigating the art of typesetting however tex requires considerable skill from the user so that it is mainly used in academia where it is a de facto standard in many scientific disciplines a tex macr |
o package known as latex provides a descriptive markup system on top of tex and is widely used sgml the first language to make a clear and clean distinction between structure and presentation was certainly scribe developed by brian reid and described in his one nine eight zero doctoral thesis in five scribe was revolutionary in a number of ways not least that it introduced the idea of styles separated from the marked up document and of a grammar controlling the usage of descriptive elements scribe influenced the development of generalized markup language later sgml and is a direct ancestor to html and latex in the early one nine eight zero s the idea that markup should be focused on the structural aspects of a document and leave the visual presentation of that structure to the interpreter led to the creation of sgml the language was developed by a committee chaired by goldfarb it incorporated ideas from many different sources including tunnicliffe s project gencode sharon adler anders berglund and james d mas |
on were also key members of the sgml committee sgml specified a syntax for including the markup in documents as well as one for separately describing what tags were allowed and where the dtd or schema this allowed authors to create and use any markup they wished selecting tags that made the most sense to them and were named in their own natural languages thus sgml is properly a meta language and many particular markup languages are derived from it from the late eight zero s on most substantial new markup languages have been based on sgml system including for example tei and docbook sgml was promulgated as an international standard by international organization for standardization iso eight eight seven nine in one nine eight six sgml found wide acceptance and use in fields with very large scale documentation requirements however it was generally found to be cumbersome and difficult to learn a side effect of attempting to do too much and be too flexible for example sgml made end tags or start tags or even both |
optional in certain contexts because it was thought that markup would be done manually by overworked support staff who would appreciate saving keystrokes html by one nine nine one it appeared to many that sgml would be limited to niche uses while wysiwyg tools which stored documents in proprietary binary formats would take over the vast majority of document processing the situation changed dramatically when sir tim berners lee learning of sgml from co worker anders berglund at cern used sgml syntax to create html html resembles any other sgml based tag language though it began as simpler than most and a formal dtd was not developed until later derose three argues that html s use of descriptive markup and sgml in particular was a major factor in the success of the web because of the flexibility and extensibility that enabled other factors include the notion of urls and the free distribution of browsers html is likely the most used document format in the world today xml another newer markup language that has ga |
ined great importance is xml extensible markup language xml was developed by the world wide web consortium in a committee created and chaired by jon bosak the main purpose of xml was to simplify sgml by focusing on a particular problem documents on the internet four xml remains a meta language like sgml allowing users to create any tags needed hence extensible and then describe those tags and their permitted uses xml adoption was greatly helped because every xml document is also an sgml document and existing sgml users and software could switch over relatively easily however xml mercilessly eliminated the complex features of sgml radically easing learning and implementation other major contributions were to rectify some sgml problems in international settings and to make it possible to parse and interpret documents correctly whether or not a schema is available xml was designed primarily for semi structured environments such as documents and publications however it appeared to hit a sweet spot between simplic |
ity and flexibility and was rapidly adopted for many other uses xml is now a markup language of choice for interchanging relational database data for communicating transaction data between servers for interactive vector graphics and for many other unanticipated uses xhtml the newest incarnation of html is also based on xml xhtml or e x tensible h yper t ext m arkup l anguage is a more rigorous and robust version that requires documents to be well formed xml documents but which uses the familiar html tags the main difference between html and xhtml from the standpoint of coding the language is that all tags must be closed empty tags such as must either be closed with a regular end tag or replaced by a special form features a common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file here for example is a small section of text marked up in html anatidae the family anatidae includes ducks geese and swans but not the closely related |
screamers the codes enclosed in angle brackets are markup instructions known as tags while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document the codes h one p and em are examples of structural markup in that they describe the intended purpose or meaning of the text they include specifically h one means this is a first level heading p means this is a paragraph and em means this is an emphasized word a device reading such structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting it using larger type boldface indentation or whatever style it prefers the i instruction is an example of presentational markup it specifies the exact appearance of the text in this case the use of an italic typeface without specifying the reason for that appearance the text encoding initiative tei has published extensive guidelines for how to encode texts of interest in the humanities and social sciences developed through years of international cooperative work these guidelines are used by countless proje |
cts encoding historical documents the works of particular scholars periods or genres and so on alternative usage while the idea of markup language was originated from text document there is an increasing usage of markup languages in areas like vector graphics web services content syndication and user interfaces most of these are applications of xml because it is clean well formatted and extensible the use of xml has also lead to the possibility of combining multiple markup languages into a single profile like xhtml smil and xhtml mathml svg see also css cascading style sheets general purpose markup language content syndication markup language lightweight markup language user interface markup language vector graphics markup language web service markup language list of markup languages references tei guidelines markup systems and the future of scholarly text processing by james h coombs allen h renear and steven j derose originally published in the november one nine eight seven cacm and reprinted several times |
in other forums this article introduced many of the concepts now used in discussing markup languages and lays out the basic arguments for the superior usability of descriptive markup three derose steven j the sgml faq book boston kluwer academic publishers one nine nine seven isbn zero seven nine two three nine nine four three nine four http www w three org tr two zero zero four rec xml one one two zero zero four zero two zero four extensible markup language xml five reid brian scribe a document specification language and its compiler ph d thesis carnegie mellon university pittsburgh pa also available as technical report cmu cs eight one one zero zero markup languages formal languages masculism or masculinism is a term relating to a number of ideologies found in most streams of the men s movement consisting of social theories political movements and moral philosophies primarily based on the experiences of men although masculism provides a general critique of social relations many of its proponents also seek t |
o analyze gender inequality and promote men s rights interests and issues masculism is viewed by its proponents as ideologically analogous to feminism and by its opponents as misogyny history of masculism the first secular response to feminism came from ernest belfort bax a socialist theoretician in the height of socialism at the beginning of the two zero th century and an associate of karl marx bax wrote the fraud of feminism in one nine one three which was in essence the first masculist text with chapter titles such as the anti man crusade always the injured innocent and the chivalry fake in its modern form masculism has evolved as a response to changing women s roles the feminist advocacy for professional women led to a similar advocacy for fathers for example following the working woman t v programs of the one nine seven zero s such as the mary tyler moore show came numerous single father shows such as the courtship of eddie s father and silver spoons as well as the child custody themed motion picture kra |
mer vs kramer warren farrell is probably the most prominent author using the term masculist today terry daly is claimed to have been the first to use it in print masculist concerns masculists cite one sided legislation selective enforcement and neglected civil rights as examples of discrimination against men and boys other examples include violence men being charged in domestic violence cases even when they are victims men being charged in rape and sexual harassment cases when there is no evidence beyond the plaintiff s complaint men forced to risk their lives in conscripted military service exceptions exist e g israel where women are also conscripted but they are not required to serve in combat humorous depiction in the media of violence by women against men particularly castration and striking of testicles and of prison rape and male children being more likely to be killed by their parents hate crimes against men portrayal of violence against women as more important than other forms of violence some masculi |
sts claim that boys are conditioned to be violent whereas girls are conditioned to nurture for example both mothers and fathers buy toy soldiers for boys and dolls for girls boys are conditioned to play the role of protector and to risk their lives for the safety of others even when men are not conscripted historically there has been strong social pressure on them to enlist during wartime in some countries it is common for teenaged boys to be taught to fight and to use weapons parenting child custody strongly favoring mothers in most countries belief that children s growth is fostered more by mothers than fathers children aborted or given up for adoption without fathers consent pregnacies carried to term despite agreements ahead of time that they would not be subjecting men to unwanted parental responsibilities and or child support expectations in most countries child custody is assigned to fathers less often than to mothers masculists argue that this should be made equal some say reversed some masculists cit |
e a lower incidence for all child development risk factors in single father households than in single mother ones furthermore if women s expectation of full custody contributes to family breakups the majority of which are initiated by women then the expectation of custody by the father might reduce the divorce rate an example of parenting discrimination according to the australian sex discrimination commission equality in child custody should begin with equal parenting time while the marriage is intact and that only when men work part time should fathers be given the same opportunity as mothers to parent their children after a separation there seems to be a double standard that caring for children is compatible with mothers but not fathers working full time it is inconsistent treatment of men and women such as this that many masculists humanists and fathers rights groups wish to change discrimination the government and feminist groups believing or teaching that anti male discrimination is acceptable legislati |
on biased against men such as wic and vawa using the word women in the law title biases in the justice system against men i e longer incarceration rates compared with women for the same crimes earlier age of autonomy for women than men in some countries in some u s states women may legally move out of their parent s home at one seven but men have to wait to be one eight likewise women may marry at younger ages than men in some u s states men fired from their jobs for dissenting with feminist ideology in the workplace research and free speech repressed unless pro feminist social concerns lack of advocacy for men s rights more social programs for women than for men special government agencies for women s affairs with no corresponding agencies for men s affairs culture that conditions males to feel bad about being male men being incarcerated for the inability to pay unrealistic child support payments men less likely to receive aid from strangers if in trouble broken down car harassed attacked by an animal etc wo |
men treated more respectfully than men in public health relative lack of funding for men s health far more money funded for female causes than for male causes e g prostate cancer vs breast cancer research widespread infant male circumcision predominantly in the usa education lack of educational aid for boys and men given that their performance enrolment at most levels lags behind girls women s some states declaring all male schools illegal and all female schools legal there is concern that university women s studies departments are more concerned with teaching feminist ideology than equality of gender the content and emphasis of these courses vary and some even discuss masculinities but masculists fear that many such courses contribute to animosity towards men some universities also carry men s studies courses to the feminist criticism that they are redundant academia throughout history predominantly being focused on men supporters of these courses note that most subjects do not deal with or study gender dire |
ctly few people would consider areas where women make up the majority such as nursing to be legitimately considered as areas of women s studies employment high risk employment but receiving no special honor for doing so harder physical entrance critera for men in many occupations such as the army police and fire service masculinists claim that requiring men to be physically stronger than women in these occupations leaves men responsible for a greater share of the physical work for no more pay differences in masculist ideology as with most social movements there is no consensus as to what exactly constitutes masculism some feel the word describes a belief that the male and female genders should be considered complementary and interdependent by necessity such expressions of masculism are built around the belief that differentiated gender roles are natural and should be exempt from government interference others masculists such as warren farrell support an ideology of equivalence between the sexes rather than a |
belief in unchangeable gender differences a more encompassing definition might be a movement to empower males in society and to redress discrimination against men because it is the name of a political and social movement masculism is sometimes considered synonymous with the men s rights or fathers rights movements however many of the fathers rights movement make a clear distinction between masculism and their own often quite varied approaches to gender relations some masculists state that one of their goals is to overturn the covert matriarchy and elect masculist politicians whom they would consider more altruistically motivated theorists such as david constantine envision structural changes in taxation or other areas to compensate for what they see as natural differences and expectations between genders gender roles in religion are a source of disagreement among masculists some support a general leadership role for men while others argue for relative equality between the genders liberal masculists such as wa |
rren farrell tend to favour a secular gender neutral stance whereas conservatives tend to prefer a religious approach such as represented in the inevitability of patriarchy by steven goldberg conservatives may promote a new patriarchy by countering feminist ideology with their own such liberal conservative dynamics illustrate the diverity of a movement that nonetheless has a unified purpose of promoting men s welfare conservative views conservative masculists tend to believe that profound gender differences are inherent in human nature contrary to the notion that both genders have the same capacity in virtually every respect they believe that feminists who have denounced differentiated gender roles as an oppressive artificial construct are conducting a fallacious experiment by attempting to negate these differences via legislation and other means this view is also held by many non masculists many conservatives believe that feminism has played a role in the high rates of divorce see marriage strike alienation |
of the genders female chauvinism love shyness disintegrating communities fatherless children high school dropout drug addiction consumerism teenage pregnancy male suicide violent crime especially murder road rage and overfilled prisons critics of gender equality laws beginning with the u s civil rights act of one nine six four believe they have helped to make feminist ideology mainstream that such laws serve primarily women and have created significant unconstitutional discrimination against men while some feminists fight against an all powerful patriarchy conservative masculists tend to consider patriarchy an inevitable result of the biological differences between the sexes some disagree that women are powerless victims of patriarchal oppression they suggest that feminists use this idea to curtail men s rights and to justify their negative views of men they claim this has achieved a covert matriarchy aided by chivalry towards women that itself undermines the notion of female oppression at the far end are men |
who assert male power is a divine right ordained by god and urge a return to responsible patriarchy liberal views liberals tend to view masculism as a complementary movement to feminism the so called new masculinity both feminism and masculism are seen as attempts to correct disadvantages induced by gender roles whereas feminists addresses areas they believe women to be disadvantaged such as equal pay and promotion masculists address areas they believe men to be disadvantaged such as criminal prosecution and sentencing these masculists may object to specific aspects of feminism or to the expressed views of specific feminist groups but do not reject feminism as a concept or believe that the feminist movement as a whole is hostile to masculism for example warren farrell states in the myth of male power isbn zero four two five one eight one four four eight that both genders are hampered by the bisexist roles of the past sexism that oppresses both genders he emphasises the compatibility of both movements i use t |
wo podiums dr farrell masculist and dr farrell feminist fred hayward in his speech to the national congress for men in one nine eight one states we must not reverse the women s movement we must accelerate it men s liberation is not a backlash for there is nothing about traditional sex roles that i want to go back to this suggests that masculism in some form can assist and aid the women s movement feminists have met this with both encouragement and trepidation some feminists believe that space for women to have a voice would be threatened by the presence of men or that a growing presence of men in the women s movement would displace the voices of the women others greet masculist interests in the women s movement as important for the eradication of sexism in society likewise gender egalitarians call for both masculists and feminists who are truly interested in equality to unite under the banner of gender egalitarianism this philosophy is sympathetic to legitimate grievances from both males and females but does |
not tolerate prejudice or bigotry from either gender criticisms of masculism while agreeing they are legitimate concerns and are in some ways underrepresented in society some critics of masculism disagree with the approach being taken they argue that too much criticism is being directed at other groups namely feminism for example while many masculists point out that the majority of murder victims are men critics point out that they fail to realise or address that the perpetrators are usually male and that for every single mother with a child that faces social hardships there is a corresponding father out there somewhere who may be contributing to it while masculists argue that there is a lack of public funding for male health issues others point to the success of drugs such as viagra and argue that doctors and pharmaceutical companies are willing to meet needs of men if they are sufficiently vocal in expressing a desire for them further as masculists express concern of lack of social programs advocacy groups |
for men as opposed to women critics point out that they took initiative money risks and work on the part of women in large groups in order to even get public funding the groups exist because women took it upon themselves to both create and be vocal in their desire for them and for them to be passed onto the next generation critics of masculism interpret what masculists term male powerlessness as consequences of male power that has always required men to equate masculinity with machismo in order to maintain male power and male male competition and control based on class though masculists may argue that the likelihood of a stranger to assist a woman but not a man in trouble is a reflection of less importance placed on men others attribute it to behavioural notions reinforced from birth such as the presumption of men as ideally self sufficient for instance a boy that had fallen and injured himself unlike a girl may be encouraged to recover by himself and praised for doing so likewise the male proclivity towards |
high risk jobs among men compared to women may be consequences of a machismo attitude that is often equated with masculinity possibly perpetuated by men themselves men generally outnumber women in risky and dangerous occupations such as the police fire service and army but in most cases it is the men themselves who voluntarily choose to enter these occupations the higher rate of successful suicide may stem from attitudes that discourage men from discussing problems that would otherwise see them getting the help they need critics also challenge the view that men are given longer sentences for the same crime and point out that in individual cases where a judge gives a woman a lesser sentence it often reflects sexist stereotypes such as she was manipulated into it or she is a soft touch critics suggest that the ability to eradicate many disadvantages lies within men because only they can take the reigns in something their own masculinity as for example women unhappy with their own situation have taken with femin |
inity over the years or minority groups have for these critics men themselves should be the focus of change they should fundamentally reevaluate how male gender roles are defined and conserved in society and pursue meaningful change through means over which they only being they are males have control the idea is that in essence the problems identified by masculists often originate in a lack of accountability and initiative on the part of men themselves the current state of masculism masculism and father s rights have edged further into mainstream thinking various western governments have reviewed laws on child custody after divorce the legality of circumcision on male infants child support guidelines etc the internet has helped groups network together frequent campaigns and demonstrations especially on father s rights attract media attention recent opposition to masculism includes statements in a government funded report requested by status of women canada a department of the canadian federal government schoo |
l success by gender a catalyst for the masculinist sic discourse examines a wide variety of masculist web sites and states these groups are largely composed of white heterosexual middle class men who have not been successful in coping with the challenge to masculinity posed by feminism this report also advocated that the people listed in the report be monitored and possibly prosecuted for hate speech due to their disagreement with feminist ideology masculists and dissident feminists such as wendy mcelroy have expressed outrage at what they see as attempts to censor or chill free expression and taxpayer financing of ideologically biased reports they have also claimed that the characterizations made of masculists by this canadian report could equally be applied to many western feminists white middle class unsuccessful coping with current role of women etc some feminists have pointed out that such generalizations do not apply to women and feminists outside of many western countries masculists note that men in po |
orer countries generally do not receive any outside funding to promote masculism like many women do for issues that concern feminism many men in such countries also face other hardships that may or may not be related to gender feminists argue that masculists should then take steps to see that they do as feminists have over the years if it is out of genuine concern and not just stone throwing see also angry harry antifeminist classical definition of effeminacy fathers for justice fathers rights humanism masculine psychology masculinity men s rights misandry paideia pater familias patriarchy promise keepers reverse discrimination warren farrell bibliography politics of aristotle asserts excellence varies with social role including gender a vindication of the rights of woman by mary wollstonecraft one seven nine two on liberty by john stuart mill one eight five nine the subjection of women by john stuart mill one eight six nine the legal subjection of men by ernest belfort bax one nine zero eight the fraud of fe |
minism by ernest belfort bax one nine one four the myth of the monstrous male and other feminist fallacies john gordon playboy press new york one nine eight two isbn zero eight seven two two three seven five eight three the myth of male power why men are the disposable sex warren farrell simon david thomas william morrow and co inc new york one nine nine three isbn zero six eight eight one one zero two four x good will toward men jack kammer st martin s press new york one nine nine four isbn zero three one two one zero four seven one five moral panic biopolitics rising john fekete robert davies publishing montreal toronto one nine nine four isbn one eight nine five eight five four zero nine one the new men s studies a selected and annotated interdisciplinary bibliography two nd edition eugene r august libraries unlimited inc englewood co one nine nine four isbn one five six three zero eight zero eight four two a man s world how real is male privilege and how high is its price ellis cose harper collins new yor |
k one nine nine five isbn zero zero six zero one seven two zero six one why men don t iron the real science of gender studies anne isbn zero zero zero two five seven zero three five one trade paperback isbn zero zero zero two five seven zero four eight three hardcover the church impotent the feminization of christianity leon j podles spence publishing co dallas tx one nine nine nine the title is a play on the catholic theological terms church militant and church triumphant spreading misandry the teaching of contempt for men in popular culture paul nathanson and katherine k young mcgill queen s university press montreal two zero zero one isbn zero seven seven three five two two seven two seven sex differences modern biology and the unisex fallacy yves christen who stole feminism how women have betrayed women christina hoff sommers isbn zero six eight four eight zero one five six six the war against boys how misguided feminism is harming our young men christina hoff sommers isbn zero six eight four eight four n |
ine five six nine if men have all the power how come women make the rules jack kammer domestic violence the one two things you aren t supposed to know by thomas b james isbn one five nine three three zero one two two seven ceasefire why women and men must join forces to achieve true equality cathy young isbn zero six eight four eight three four four two one the masculine mystique andrew kimbrell isbn zero three four five three eight six five eight two external links double standard the bias against male victims of sexual abuse table of contents for bax the fraud of feminism angry harry men s movement and men s rights by angry harry savethemale ca henry makow ph d is also the inventor of the board game scruples defending all male education a new cultural movement for a renewed debate themalevoice org men s rights men s issue s discrimination against men the post liberal feminist condition american coalition for fathers and children equal parental rights for fathers fathers for virginia national coalition of fr |
ee men men s movement and men s rights men s activism men s rights discussion group save indian family masculist movement in india yahoo men s movement groups critical of masculism pierrette bouchard isabelle boily and marie claude proulx school success by gender a catalyst for the masculinist discourse status of women canada march two zero zero three at the status of women canada site gender men s movement minuscule or lower case is the smaller form case of letters in the roman alphabet a b c originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule capital letters which were spaced between well defined upper and lower bounds when written quickly with a pen these tended to rounder and simpler forms like uncials it is from these that the first minuscule hands developed the half uncials and cursive minuscule which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines these in turn formed the foundations for carolingian minuscule developed by alcuin for use in the court of charlemagne which quickly spread across europe he |
re for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text the word itself is often spelt miniscule by association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini this is traditionally regarded as a spelling mistake but is now so common that dictionaries tend to accept it as a spelling variation however miniscule is still less likely to be used for minuscule letters the term lower case comes from manual typesetting since minuscules were more frequent in text than majuscules typesetters often stored them on the lower shelf of a desk to keep them in easy reach history traditionally more important letters those beginning sentences or nouns were made larger then they were written in a different script although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early one eight th century and even then all nouns were capitalized a system still followed in german but not in english similar developments have taken place in other alphabets the minuscule script for the gre |
ek alphabet has its origins in the seventh century and acquired its quadrilinear form in the eighth century over time uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script the earliest dated greek minuscule text is the uspenski gospels ms four six one in the year eight three five the modern practice of capitalizing every sentence seems to be imported and is commonly not used when printing ancient greek materials even today the samaritan alphabet has also had minuscule letters which makes it relatively unusual among abjads which including hebrew syriac and arabic tend to be written without case usage in scripts with a case distinction minuscules are generally used in most texts and for most of any given text with majuscules reserved for emphasis and special contexts see also minuscule numeral lowercase music alphabetic writing systems typography mojo jojo as he appeared in the powerpuff girls movie mojo jojo voiced by roger l jackson is a fictional character in the cartoon network animated series the pow |
erpuff girls he is a notorious genius monkey mad scientist who lives in his lab in the middle of townsville usa inside an astronomy observatory tower built atop a dormant volcano his main goal is to destroy the powerpuff girls crush townsville and conquer the world in that order in order to do this he spends much of his time plotting and inventing new weapons technology this normally comes in the shape of giant robots or large energy weapons he was also the creator of the rowdyruff boys ironically mojo is responsible for creating the powerpuff girls he was a lab assistant named jojo working for professor utonium when he caused the professor to accidentally add chemical x to his formula of sugar and spice and everything nice this accident created the powerpuff girls but it also caused jojo s brain to grow huge turning him into the nefarious mojo jojo he wears a delicate glass dome hat over his gigantic exposed brain the dome is frequently broken in fights with the powerpuff girls another time he tried to preve |
nt the creation of the powerpuff girls by going back in time and destroying professor utonium as a child in the nick of time the powerpuff girls also go back in time and save professor utonium in turn the professor is inspired to study science which in turn lead to the creation of the powerpuff girls thus mojo is the father of his most feared enemies twice mojo speaks english with a deep voice and a bad japanese accent he has a bad habit of repeating reiterating and re phrasing the same sentences and phrases continuously he gets this speech pattern from a humorous interpretation of dialogue that is dubbed probably from japanese into english since it takes a longer time to say certain things in japanese than in english when dubbing one wants to keep the english speaker s mouth moving for as long as the japanese actor s mouth is moving this can most easily be done by repeating phrases again and again and again thus a character in a japanese movie seems to be repeating himself when listened to by english speakin |
g audiences see engrish note that mojo seems to be unaware of this habit in one episode bubbles had her head crushed and thought that she was mojo jojo and thus spoke redundantly just as mojo does however mojo accused her of repeating phrases nonsensically he is disliked by other monkeys who think he gives monkeys a bad name when he s not doing bad things he s also a great and rather artistic chef in japanese cooking still the girls dislike his cooking possibly because he prepares sushi the traditional way with hot wasabi and small children tend to dislike too spicy dishes strangely enough there are five episodes with mojo saving the day instead of the powerpuff girls making mojo the second largest day saver in the series after the girls as is being shown in the final shot he usually hates to face it he also makes a cameo appearance as an unimaginary friend because the idea was simply copied from tv in the pilot episode of foster s home for imaginary friends the two zero zero zero cd release the powerpuff gir |
ls heroes and villains on rhino records features a cut called go monkey go by devo the corresponding music video was occasionally shown on cartoon network see also list of fictional monkeys powerpuff girls characters fictional monkeys animation villains mad scientists fictional apes meaning can be meaning linguistic meaning which is communicated through the use of language meaning non linguistic extra linguistic meaning intentional communication without the use of language and natural meaning where no intentions are involved at all meaning semiotics has to do with the distribution of signs in sign relations the production of meaning is semiosis verifiability theory of meaning meaning of life the philosophical question meaning of pain a questionable philosophy meanings of asteroid names the meaning of meaning a book subtitled a study of the influence of language upon thought and of the science of symbolism one nine two three was co authored by c k ogden and i a richards magdalene college university of cambridg |
e the meaning of things applying philosophy to life is a two zero zero page book by a c grayling first published in two zero zero one the meaning of life a monty python film meaning as a product of consciousness awareness insight or understanding meaning as knowledge or epistemology meaning as a reference or equivalence meaning as values or a value system meaning as semantics or as a relationship between ontology and truth associative meaning in an expression has to do with individual mental understandings of the speaker see also linguistics semiotics solipsism psychosis in philosophy meta ethics is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties if there are any and ethical statements attitudes and judgments meta ethics is one of the three branches of ethics generally recognized by philosophers the others being ethical theory and applied ethics ethical theory and applied ethics comprise normative ethics meta ethics has received considerable attention from academic philosophers |
in the last few decades while normative ethics addresses such questions as which things are good and bad and what should we do thus endorsing some ethical evaluations and rejecting others meta ethics addresses the question what is goodness seeking to understand the nature of ethical properties and evaluations meta ethical questions examples of meta ethical questions include what does it mean to say something is good how if at all do we know what is right and wrong how do moral attitudes motivate action are there objective or absolute values what is the source of our values meta ethical theories a meta ethical theory unlike a normative ethical theory does not contain any ethical evaluations an answer to any of the five example questions above would not itself be an ethical statement the major meta ethical views are commonly divided into realist and anti realist views moral realism holds that there are objective values realists believe that evaluative statements are factual claims which are either true or false |
and that their truth or falsity does not depend on our beliefs feelings or other attitudes towards the things that are evaluated moral realism comes in two variants ethical intuitionism and ethical non naturalism which hold that there are objective irreducible moral properties such as the property of goodness and that we sometimes have intuitive awareness of moral properties or of moral truths ethical naturalism which holds that there are objective moral properties but that these properties are reducible to entirely non ethical properties most ethical naturalists hold that we have empirical knowledge of moral truths several have argued that moral knowledge can be gained by the same means as scientific knowledge moral anti realism holds that there are no objective values this view comes in three variants ethical subjectivism which holds that moral statements are made true or false by the attitudes and or conventions of observers there are several different versions of subjectivism including moral relativism s |
ometimes called cultural relativism this is the view that for a thing to be morally right is just for it to be approved of by society this leads to the conclusion that different things are right for people in different societies though long out of favor among academic philosophers this view has been popular among anthropologists such as ruth benedict the divine command theory another subjectivist theory holds that for a thing to be right is for a unique being god to approve of it and that what is right for non god beings is obedience to the divine will this view was criticized by plato in the euthyphro but retains some modern defenders robert adams philip quinn and others individualist subjectivism another view is that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world this view was put forward by protagoras the ideal observer theory finally some hold that what is right is determined by the attitudes that a hypothetical ideal observer would have an ideal observer is usually |
characterized as a being who is perfectly rational imaginative and informed among other things richard brandt is best known for his defense of this view non cognitivism which holds that ethical sentences are neither true nor false because they do not assert genuine propositions non cognitivism encompasses emotivism defended by a j ayer and c l stevenson which holds that ethical sentences serve merely to express emotions so killing is wrong means something like boo on killing prescriptivism defended by r m hare which holds that moral statements function like imperatives so killing is wrong means something like don t kill quasi realism defended by simon blackburn which holds that ethical statements behave linguistically like factual claims and can be appropriately called true or false even though there are no ethical facts for them to correspond to error theory which holds that ethical sentences are generally false error theorists hold that there are no objective values but that the claim that there are objecti |
ve values is part of the meaning of ordinary ethical sentences that is why in their view ethical sentences are false j l mackie was the best known proponent of this view the error theory is also sometimes called moral skepticism or nihilism subjectivism non cognitivism and error theory are the only forms of anti realism if there are no objective values this must be either because ethical statements are subjective claims as subjectivists maintain or because they are not genuine claims at all as non cognitivists maintain or because they are mistaken objective claims the only alternative is for ethical statements to be correct objective claims which entails moral realism another way of categorizing meta ethical theories distinguishes between monistic theories in which there is one true or at least one highest good and pluralistic theories value pluralism contends that there are two or more genuine values knowable as such yet incommensurable so that any prioritization of these values is either non cognitive or su |
bjective a value pluralist might for example contend that both the life of a nun and that of a mother realize genuine values in an objective and cognitivist sense yet there is no purely rational measure of which is preferable see isaiah berlin history some think that in the two zero th and two one st centuries meta ethics has come to replace normative ethics as the more prevalent pursuit among academic philosophers this is supposed to have occurred simultaneously with an overall decline in belief in moral absolutes in most popular cultures as well as a greater interest in process and categorization as opposed to the identification and application of norms both in academia and in global society generally see also ethical intuitionism ethical naturalism cultural relativism subjectivism non cognitivism moral skepticism external links internet encylopedia article essays on meta ethics especially intuitionism meta ethics montesquieu can refer to charles de secondat baron de montesquieu several communes of france m |
ontesquieu in the h rault d partement montesquieu in the lot et garonne d partement montesquieu in the tarn et garonne d partement manitoba is one of canada s provinces it is the fifth canadian province created by the government in one eight seven zero its population as of october one two zero zero five statistics canada was one one seven eight one zero nine manitobans it is the easternmost of the three prairie provinces its capital and largest city containing over one half the provincial population is winnipeg other important cities and towns include brandon thompson dauphin swan river churchill the pas selkirk portage la prairie flin flon steinbach morden and winkler geography manitoba is located in the longitudinal centre of canada although it is considered part of western canada it borders saskatchewan to the west ontario to the east nunavut and the hudson bay to the north and the american states of north dakota and minnesota to the south the province has a coast with hudson bay and contains the very larg |
e lakes winnipeg manitoba its namesake and winnipegosis manitoba s lakes cover approximately one four five or nine four two four one km of its surface area important watercourses include the red river assiniboine river nelson river winnipeg river hayes river and churchill river it is generally flat and low lying though there are some hilly areas in the province baldy mountain is the highest point at eight three one m two seven two seven feet and the hudson bay coast is the lowest at sea level other upland areas include riding mountain the pembina hills and the canadian shield regions to the east which include whiteshell provincial park and nopiming provincial park the climate in manitoba is typical of its mid continent location and northerly latitude in general temperatures and precipitation decrease from south to north summers are generally warm to hot and winters very cold both spring and autumn are contracted seasons as manitoba is far removed from the moderating influences of both mountain ranges and larg |
e bodies of water all of manitoba s lakes freeze during the winter months and because of its generally flat landscape it is exposed to numerous weather systems throughout the year including prolonged cold spells in the winter months when arctic high pressure air masses settle over the province this has resulted in the capital of the province being nicknamed winterpeg in the summer months the climate is often influenced by low pressure air masses originating in the gulf of mexico resulting in hot and humid conditions and frequent thunderstorms only the southern parts of the province support extensive agriculture the most common farm found in rural areas is cattle farming three five three followed by oilseed two five eight and wheat farming nine eight around one one of the farmland in canada is in manitoba the northern reaches of the province range through coniferous forests muskeg and up to tundra in the far north forests make up about two six three million hectares of the province s five four eight million he |
ctare land base the forests generally consist of pine spruce hemlock and birch this area is renowned by naturalists and sportsmen for its pristine wilderness entering manitoba from saskatchewan on the yellowhead highway history the geographical area now named manitoba was originally inhabited by ojibwa cree dene sioux and assiniboine peoples along with other tribes entering the area to trade the whiteshell region with many petroforms may have been a trading center or even a place of learning and sharing of knowledge the first european to reach present day manitoba was sir thomas button who visited the nelson river in one six one two and may have reached somewhere along the edge of the prairies pierre gaultier de varennes sieur de la v rendrye visited the red river valley in the one seven three zero s as part of opening the area for french exploration and exploitation an important french canadian population franco manitobains still lives in manitoba especially in the saint boniface district of winnipeg there a |
re two possible sources of the name manitoba one is the assiniboine words mini and tobow meaning lake of the prairie the other more likely source is the cree word maniotwapow meaing the strait of the spirit or manitobau this latter name is derived from the sound produced by pebbles on a beach on manitoba island in lake manitoba this noise is linked to the superstition among the assiniboine of the manito or spirit beating a drum to create the noise the territory was won by britain in one seven six three as part of the french and indian war and became part of rupert s land the immense monopoly territory of the hudson s bay company lower fort garry ca one nine four nine the founding of the first agricultural community in one eight one one by lord selkirk near modern winnipeg resulted in conflict between the white colonists and the m tis who lived near there twenty colonists including the governor were killed by the m tis in the battle of seven oaks in one eight one six when rupert s land was ceded to canada in o |
ne eight six nine and incorporated into the northwest territories a lack of attention to m tis concerns led their leader louis riel to establish a provisional government the red river rebellion negotiations between this government and the canadian government resulted in the creation of the province of manitoba and its entry into confederation in one eight seven zero originally the province was only one one eight of its current size and square in shape it was known as the postage stamp province it grew progressively absorbing land from the northwest territories until it attained its current size by reaching six zero n in one nine one two the manitoba schools question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory the french thought they had been guaranteed a state supported separate school system but instead a grass roots political movement among protestants in one eight eight eight nine zero demanded the end of french schools in one eight nine zero the manitoba legislature passed a law abolish |
ing french as an official language of the province and removing funding for catholic schools the french catholic minority asked the federal government for support however the orange order and other anti catholic forces mobilized nationwide the conservatives proposed remedial legislation to over ride manitoba s legislation but they in turn were blocked by liberals led by wilfrid laurier who opposed the remedial legislation on the basis of provincial rights once elected prime minister in one eight nine six laurier proposed a compromise stating that catholics in manitoba could have a catholic education if there were enough students to warrant it on a school by school basis tensions over language remained high in manitoba and nationwide for decades to come by one nine one six in wartime national unity was at stake out of a population of five zero zero zero zero zero there were three zero zero zero zero french speakers and one zero zero zero zero zero speakers of german ukrainian polish and other immigrant tongues |
anglophones insisted on an english only policy including a repeal of the compromise that had been worked out on the school question the plan was to strengthen the education ministry upgrade the quality of education and impose a much stronger attendance law as the education minister explained morton p three five two it is necessary to deal with this law the bilingual clause both in our own interests and in the interests of the strangers within our gates who have come to make their homes with us with the purpose of becoming a part of this nation the first essential to individual progress in any land is to know the language of the country in an english speaking country as this is a knowledge of english is more necessary than a knowledge of arithmetic no matter what a man s attainments may be the doors of opportunity are closed to him if he has not a knowledge of english the common tongue we are building for the canada of tomorrow and our common school is one of the most important factors in the work in this dom |
inion we are building up under the british flag a new nationality we come from many lands and cast in our lot and from these various factors there must evolve a new nationality which shall be simply canadian and british crowd gathered outside old city hall during the winnipeg general strike june two one one nine one nine in the one nine one seven election in the midst of the conscription crisis the liberals were split in half and the new union party carried all but one seat as the war ended severe discontent among farmers over wheat prices and union members over wage rates resulted in an upseurge of radicalism with bolshevism coming to power in russia conservatives were anxious and radicals were energized the most dramatic episode was the winnipeg general strike of one nine one nine which shut down most activity for six weeks starting may one five until the strike collapsed on june two five one nine one nine as the workers were gradually returning to their jobs and the central strike committee decided to end |
the strike as historian william morton has explained morton three six five six the strike then began with two immediate aims and two subsidiary but increasingly important aspects one aim was the redress of legitimate grievances with respect to wages and collective bargaining the other was the trial of a new instrument of economic action the general strike the purpose of which was to put pressure on the employers involved in the dispute through the general public the first subsidiary aspect was that the general strike however might be a prelude to the seizure of power in the community by labour and both the utterances and the policies of the o b u leaders pointed in that direction the second subsidiary aspect was that as a struggle for leadership in the labour movement was being waged as the strike began it was not made clear which object the legitimate and limited one or the revolutionary and general one was the true purpose of the strike it is now apparent that the majority of both strikers and strike leader |