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48,928,726	Delhi Mellei	Delhi Mellei is a 2014 Indian Meitei language film directed by Ajit Ningthouja, produced by Bishoya Potshangbam and presented by Mixn Raj under the banner of Rajkumar Films. It stars Bala Hijam as the titular protagonist with Gurumayum Bonny in the lead roles. The story of the film was written by Mixn Raj and Maheiba Moirangcha. The shooting of the film was mainly done in Delhi.The film was premiered at Shankar Lal Auditorium, University of Delhi North Campus, New Delhi, on 15 November 2014 and released at Bhagyachandra Open Air Theatre (BOAT), Imphal, Manipur, on 21 December 2014. The film was also premiered at Physics Auditorium, Punjab University, Chandigarh, on 16 November 2014; St. Patricks Community Hall, Bengaluru on 26 January 2015; Andra Saraswatha Parisab Auditorium, Opposite Aditya Hospital, Hyderabad on 1 February 2015 and Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Memorial Hall, German Bakery, Karegaon Park, Pune on 15 February 2015.	Delhi Mellei is a 2014 Indian Meitei language film directed by Ajit Ningthouja, produced by Bishoya Potshangbam and presented by Mixn Raj under the banner of Rajkumar Films. It stars Bala Hijam as the titular protagonist with Gurumayum Bonny in the lead roles. The story of the film was written by Mixn Raj and Maheiba Moirangcha. The shooting of the film was mainly done in Delhi.The film was premiered at Shankar Lal Auditorium, University of Delhi North Campus, New Delhi, on 15 November 2014 and released at Bhagyachandra Open Air Theatre (BOAT), Imphal, Manipur, on 21 December 2014. The film was also premiered at Physics Auditorium, Punjab University, Chandigarh, on 16 November 2014; St. Patricks Community Hall, Bengaluru on 26 January 2015; Andra Saraswatha Parisab Auditorium, Opposite Aditya Hospital, Hyderabad on 1 February 2015 and Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Memorial Hall, German Bakery, Karegaon Park, Pune on 15 February 2015. The full movie was officially released by TANTHA in YouTube on 29 June 2015. Synopsis The film is about a lady, Mellei (Bala) from Manipur, northeast India, who came to Delhi to pursue her studies in Ramjas College, Delhi University but returned empty-handed when she went on a wrong path and wasn't able to tackle the situations and events happening around her with a positive energy. Cast Gurumayum Bonny as Tomthin Bala Hijam as Mellei Ratan Lai as Gunanu, Tomthin's roommate Christy Moirangthem as Sanatombi Takhellambam Lokendra as Mellei's father Heisnam Geeta as Mellei's mother Anu Sagolshem Raj Baduria Rohen Shila Telheiba Soundtrack Poirei Thokchom and Boy Soraisham composed the soundtrack for the film and Mixn Raj and Maheiba Moirangcha wrote the lyrics. The songs are titled Eigi Delhi Mellei and Lottuna Thamladara. == References ==	[ "Culture" ]
4,995,366	Daniel Santbech	Daniel Santbech (fl. 1561) was a Dutch mathematician and astronomer. He adopted the Latinized name of Noviomagus, possibly suggesting that he came from the town of Nijmegen, called Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum by the Romans. In 1561, Santbech compiled a collected edition of the works of Regiomontanus (1436–1476), De triangulis planis et sphaericis libri quinque (first published in 1533) and Compositio tabularum sinum recto, as well as Santbech's own Problematum astronomicorum et geometricorum sectiones septem. It was published in Basel by Henrich Petri and Petrus Perna.	Daniel Santbech (fl. 1561) was a Dutch mathematician and astronomer. He adopted the Latinized name of Noviomagus, possibly suggesting that he came from the town of Nijmegen, called Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum by the Romans. In 1561, Santbech compiled a collected edition of the works of Regiomontanus (1436–1476), De triangulis planis et sphaericis libri quinque (first published in 1533) and Compositio tabularum sinum recto, as well as Santbech's own Problematum astronomicorum et geometricorum sectiones septem. It was published in Basel by Henrich Petri and Petrus Perna. Santbech's work consisted of studies on astronomy, sundials, surveying, and levelling for water courses. It also includes descriptions of astronomical instruments, information for navigators and geographers, and general information about astronomy in the first years after Nicolaus Copernicus. Santbech also studied the subject of gunnery and ballistics as a theoretic discourse as well as for the practical application of war, and utilized the foundations of geometry, with ample references to Euclid and Ptolemy, in order to do so. Santbech seem not to have been aware of similar studies by Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia.[1] Santbech's text included theoretical illustrations of trajectories. These were depicted with abruptly acute angles and straight lines, allowing him to create a right-angled triangle from which ranges were computed with the help of a table of sines. Santbech was of course fully aware that a cannonball's true trajectory would not consist of a straight line and a sudden drop, but these depictions were meant to assist with mathematical calculations. In 1651, Riccioli gave Santbech's name to the crater Santbech on the Moon. References Andreas Kleinert: Zur Ballistik des Daniel Santbech. In: Janus 63 (1976), pp. 47–59. [in German] External links (in English) The Geometry of War (in English) Polybiblio: Regiomontanus, Johannes/Santbech, Daniel, ed. De Triangulis Planis et Sphaericis libri quinque. Basel Henrich Petri & Petrus Perna 1561 Problematum astronomicorum et geometricorum sectiones septem (Full Latin Text at Perseus Project) ***Link Dead as of July 2021	[ "Mathematics" ]
3,169,726	Michael I Komnenos Doukas	Michael I Komnenos Doukas, Latinized as Comnenus Ducas (Greek: Μιχαήλ Κομνηνός Δούκας, romanized: Mikhaēl Komnēnos Doukas), and in modern sources often recorded as Michael I Angelos, a name he never used, was the founder and first ruler of the Despotate of Epirus from c. 1205 until his assassination in 1214/15. Born c. 1170, Michael was a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos and a cousin of emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos. He began his public career in 1190, as a hostage to the Third Crusade, and went on to serve as governor of the province of Mylasa and Melanoudion in the 1190s and again in c. 1200/01. During the latter tenure he rebelled against Alexios III but was defeated and forced to flee to the Seljuk Turks. In the aftermath of the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, he attached himself to Boniface of Montferrat.	Michael I Komnenos Doukas, Latinized as Comnenus Ducas (Greek: Μιχαήλ Κομνηνός Δούκας, romanized: Mikhaēl Komnēnos Doukas), and in modern sources often recorded as Michael I Angelos, a name he never used, was the founder and first ruler of the Despotate of Epirus from c. 1205 until his assassination in 1214/15. Born c. 1170, Michael was a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos and a cousin of emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos. He began his public career in 1190, as a hostage to the Third Crusade, and went on to serve as governor of the province of Mylasa and Melanoudion in the 1190s and again in c. 1200/01. During the latter tenure he rebelled against Alexios III but was defeated and forced to flee to the Seljuk Turks. In the aftermath of the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, he attached himself to Boniface of Montferrat. Soon, however, he abandoned the Crusader leader and went to Epirus, where he established himself as ruler, apparently through marriage with the daughter or widow of a local magnate. Michael's domain in Epirus became a refuge and centre of resistance of the Greeks against the Latin Crusaders. At about the same time, according to some modern scholars, he may have led the abortive Greek resistance to the Crusaders in the Peloponnese, which was crushed at the Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras; according to other views, he may have led a campaign there between 1207 and 1209. In order to avoid invasion and buy time to consolidate his position in Epirus, Michael soon entered into negotiations with Pope Innocent III, and concluded treaties with the Latin Empire and the Republic of Venice. In the meantime, his rule received a boost in legitimacy when he ransomed the deposed Alexios III from captivity. According to later chroniclers, Alexios III conferred the hereditary rule of Epirus to Michael and his descendants. By 1210, Michael was secure enough to launch an attack against the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica, in conjunction with the Bulgarians. Repelled by the intervention of the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders, Michael quickly switched sides and joined the Latins to prevent the city from falling into Bulgarian hands. In 1212, he conquered most of Thessaly from the Lombard lords of Thessalonica. At about the same time, his troops briefly took over the Lordship of Salona. He then went on to recover Dyrrhachium and the island of Corfu from the Venetians in 1213–1214, but was thwarted in his attempt to push further north into Zeta. He was assassinated soon after in his sleep, and was succeeded by his half-brother Theodore Komnenos Doukas. Early life Michael was the illegitimate son of the sebastokrator John Doukas. His paternal grandparents were Constantine Angelos and Theodora, a daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118). Michael's uncle, Andronikos, was the father of the future emperors Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203), who were thus Michael's first cousins. Despite this kinship, he never used the surname "Angelos", which has been applied by some modern scholars to Michael and his dynasty. The few documents surviving from his own hand and a couple of lead seals show his name as "Michael Doukas" or "Michael Komnenos Doukas" (Μιχαήλ Κομνηνός ὁ Δούκας), evidently in an effort to emphasize his relation to the revered Doukas and Komnenos dynasties, rather than the disastrous reign of the Angeloi. The only medieval sources to use the surname "Angelos" to refer to Michael were later pro-Palaiologos historians hostile to him and the Epirote state's rival claims to the Byzantine inheritance.It is unknown when Michael was born; the only relevant information is the statement of Niketas Choniates that he was a "young man" in 1201. The Greek scholar Konstantinos Varzos places his birth approximately in 1170. Michael is first mentioned on 14 February 1190, when he, along with other imperial relatives, served as a hostage to Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190) during the passage of the Third Crusade through Byzantine territory. He then went on to serve as governor (doux and anagrapheus) of the theme of Mylasa and Melanoudion in Asia Minor during the last years of Isaac II's first reign. Many scholars assign him the rank of sebastos from a seal attributed to him, but this is disputed by Lucien Stiernon, as he is nowhere else mentioned with this title. Alexios III re-appointed him to the same province, probably in 1200. Demetrios Polemis, in his study on the Doukas family, reports that he was reappointed to the post by Alexios IV (r. 1203–1204), but as Varzos remarks, this is evidently an error by Polemis. In early 1201, for unknown reasons, Michael rose in revolt against the emperor. Alexios III campaigned against him in the summer 1201 and defeated him, forcing Michael to seek refuge at the court of the Seljuk Turk Sultan of Rûm, Süleymanshah II (r. 1196–1204). In his service he led Turkish raids into Byzantine territory around the Maeander River valley. According to Geoffrey of Villehardouin, a participant in the Fourth Crusade and author of De la Conquête de Constantinople, at the time of the fall of Constantinople to the forces of the Fourth Crusade, Michael was present in the city, having possibly returned from exile in the period after the deposition of Alexios III and the restoration of Isaac II and his son Alexios IV in 1203–04. Michael then entered into the service of Boniface of Montferrat, who received the Kingdom of Thessalonica and overlordship over Greece in the division of the spoils among the Crusaders, and followed Boniface west as the latter went to take up his kingdom in September 1204. Villehardouin reports that Boniface trusted Michael, but the latter soon abandoned Boniface and went to Epirus, where he installed himself as the leader of the local Greeks against the Latin Crusaders.The process of Michael's establishment in Epirus is obscure. The hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta, written in the late 13th century, maintains that Alexios III had appointed Michael as governor in the Peloponnese and a certain Senachereim, who was Michael's relative by marriage (they both had married first cousins from the Melissenos family), as governor of the Theme of Nicopolis in Epirus. When the local inhabitants rose in revolt against him, Senachereim called upon Michael for aid. Michael rushed to Nicopolis, but not before the locals had killed Senachereim. After that, Michael, himself widowed, took Senachereim's widow as his wife and succeeded him as governor. Although generally regarded as inaccurate due to the many errors it contains, this part of the hagiography is at least partially corroborated by Villehardouin's account that he married the daughter of a local magnate. It is certain that Michael was never appointed governor of the Peloponnese, but the hagiography's reference to the peninsula has led to suggestions by modern scholars that he is to be identified with the Michael who led the Peloponnesian Greeks in the Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras against the Crusaders, in the summer of 1205. This commonly held identification has been questioned by more recent research by the historian Raymond-Joseph Loenertz, who suggests that Michael leaving Epirus, which still was not securely under his control, to go on campaign in the Peloponnese would have been extremely unlikely as it would leave Epirus open to attack by Boniface. Loenertz does however consider that Michael may indeed have led another expedition into the Peloponnese a few years later, in 1207–09 (see below). Ruler of Epirus From his base at Arta, Michael proceeded to expand his control over most of the region of Epirus, including much of modern Albania, quickly establishing an independent domain encompassing the lands between Dyrrhachium (Durazzo) in the north and Naupactus in the south, bordering the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica in the east, the possessions of the Republic of Venice to the north and west, and the Bulgarians and Serbs to the north and east. He maintained good relations with the Albanian and Vlach chieftains in the area, and their men provided able troops for his army.The state Michael established is commonly known in historiography as the "Despotate of Epirus", and it was long thought that Michael was the first Epirote ruler to claim the title of despotes, it being surmised that he was granted the title by the deposed emperor Alexios III after his ransoming (see below). In reality, as modern research has shown, neither Michael nor his half-brother and successor, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, bore the title. It was Michael's bastard son, Michael II Komnenos Doukas, who became the first ruler of Epirus to be titled a despotes in the 1230s, while the designation of the Epirote state as a "despotate" first appears in Western, rather than Byzantine, sources in the 14th century. Rapprochement with the Latin powers Along with the other major Greek successor state, the Empire of Nicaea in western Asia Minor, Epirus became the main Greek centre resisting Latin rule. Michael's chief preoccupation therefore was the threat posed by the Latin Crusader states and the Republic of Venice. In the treaty of partition of the Byzantine Empire among the Crusaders, Epirus had been allotted to Venice, but although it had occupied in 1205 Dyrrhachium, the chief port for the Albanian hinterland, and the island of Corfu in 1207, the maritime-minded Republic had shown little interest in the rest of its mainland. To insure himself against a Latin attack, Michael began negotiations with Pope Innocent III, hinting at a possible union of the Orthodox Church of his domains with the Roman Catholic Church. The relationship was not untroubled–in a letter of 17 August 1209, the Pope asked of "Michael Komnenos of Romania" that, if he were truly the Pope's servant, as he claimed in his letters, he should allow the Latin Archbishop of Dyrrhachium access to the estates owned by the archbishopric in Michael's domains—but it did serve for the moment to earn Michael the Pope's goodwill, as well as precious time. According to Loenertz, it also appears that at some point Michael had paid homage to the Kingdom of Thessalonica as its vassal. Despite these diplomatic manoeuvrings, according to a series of letters of Innocent III dated to autumn 1210, Michael engaged in combat with the Prince of Achaea Geoffrey I of Villehardouin (r. 1209–1229) and his barons; the letters do not give any further details. Modern researchers have linked this reference either with his supposed leadership in the battle of Kountouras, or, more plausibly, with an abortive campaign in the Peloponnese sometime in 1207–09 in order to aid the beleaguered ruler of Argos and Corinth, Leo Sgouros, who was being besieged by the Crusaders in his citadel on the Acrocorinth. Traditionally, several scholars, such as Karl Hopf and Antoine Bon, have furthermore identified a certain Theodore, who appears as "lord of Argos" and Sgouros' successor in leading the resistance against the Crusaders, with Michael's half-brother Theodore Komnenos Doukas. Loenertz points out, however, that not only is there no evidence for such an assumption, but that Theodore Komnenos Doukas is known to have been in the service of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore I Laskaris (r. 1205–1222), at the time.In summer 1209, after the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders (r. 1205–1216) quelled a revolt of the Lombard barons of Thessalonica and brought the Kingdom of Thessalonica under his effective control, Michael sent envoys to propose an alliance. Henry distrusted Michael's sincerity, but sent an embassy to Epirus with his terms, which amounted to Michael declaring himself a vassal of the Latin Empire. Michael was able to sidestep an outright declaration of submission by offering the hand of his eldest daughter to the Emperor's brother, Eustace, and a third of his lands as her dowry. Henry accepted, and the peace agreement was sealed with the marriage of Eustace and Michael's daughter. Finally, in early 1210, Michael's envoys, the Bishop of Tzernikon Theodore and Symeon Kounales, met with the Venetian duke of Dyrrhachium, Marino Vallaresso, and negotiated a treaty, confirmed by oath on 20 June. Thereby Michael accepted to become a vassal of Venice, holding his lands in fief from Venice as confirmed in a charter issued by Doge Pietro Ziani (r. 1205–1229). Michael granted the Venetians extensive trading privileges and tax exemptions, just as they had enjoyed under the chrysobulls of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), promised to expedite the grain exports to Venice, and to assist in any shipwreck of a Venetian vessel off the Epirote coast. In addition, as a sign of his vassalage he would pay to the Venetian duke of Dyrrhachium an annual tribute of 42 litrai of gold hyperpyra in two instalments, and send annually a rich brocade for the altar of St. Mark's Basilica and one for the Doge. Ransoming of Alexios III At about the same time, Michael's rule received a boost in legitimacy through his ransoming of emperor Alexios III. After his deposition by the Crusaders in July 1203, Alexios with his wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera had been roaming Greece seeking protection. A marriage alliance with Leo Sgouros failed due to the latter's hasty retreat before the advance of Boniface of Montferrat. Left stranded in Thessaly, Alexios was captured by Boniface. The former emperor was initially held in comfortable captivity, but at some point he fell foul of Boniface; sources differ on whether he tried to flee to Michael's domains and was captured by Boniface's knights en route or whether Boniface simply came to distrust him as a potential rival focal point for the loyalties of the Greek population. He and his wife were then imprisoned, either in Thessalonica or, according to other sources, in Montferrat. Learning of their fate, Michael offered to ransom the former imperial couple and eventually secured their release, welcoming them at Salagora, the port of Arta, where they arrived by ship.Michael treated the couple with every courtesy, but Alexios did not remain long in Arta. The deposed emperor was eager to regain his throne by taking over the Empire of Nicaea with the aid of the Seljuk Sultan Kaykhusraw I. Leaving his wife behind, and accompanied by Michael's half-brother Constantine Komnenos Doukas, Alexios took sail for Asia Minor. His attempt ended in complete failure in the Battle of Antioch on the Maeander in 1211, where Theodore I Laskaris killed Kaykhusraw and took Alexios prisoner. The hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta claims that on his departure, Alexios granted Michael and his descendants hereditary possession of his domain, while the 14th-century Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea claims that Alexios left Michael as his lieutenant in the west. From these references some earlier scholars erroneously inferred that Michael received the title of despotes from Alexios. Lucien Stiernon, followed by Varzos, places the ransoming of Alexios in 1206/7. Loenertz on the other hand considers it a result of Michael's rapprochement with the Latins and places it in 1210, when the interests of the Latin Empire in curbing the growing power of Nicaea coincided with Michael's intention to ransom Alexios. Territorial expansion Michael seized the opportunity of Henry's focus on his planned campaign against Nicaea to attack Thessalonica. At the head of Latin mercenaries, he captured the constable of the Kingdom of Thessalonica and baron of Domokos, the Lombard Amé Buffa, and a hundred of his companions. He is alleged to have been excessively cruel to his prisoners, killing or whipping many of them, while Buffa, his confessor, and three other nobles were crucified. Michael's army proceeded to capture several fortresses and kill the Latin garrisons, including priests. Enraged, Henry sped to Thessalonica's aid, covering the distance from Constantinople in only twelve days. Michael in the meantime had allied himself with the Bulgarian ruler Strez, but they were defeated by Henry. It is possible that during this campaign, Henry was assisted by his vassals from Achaea, thereby explaining the reference in the Pope's correspondence of Achaean barons fighting against Michael, rather than assuming an Epirote expedition to the Peloponnese. The Latin Emperor wrested lands from both allies, but was forced to cut short his campaign and return to Constantinople, which was being threatened by the Bulgarian emperor Boril. Henry left Thessalonica in the charge of his brother Eustace and of Berthold of Katzenelnbogen, who then defeated another invasion by Strez, supported with troops from his brother Boril. Disquieted by the Bulgarian attacks on Thessalonica, Michael switched sides and joined the Latins in defeating the Bulgarians at Pelagonia. It is commonly assumed that during these conflicts, Michael terminated his vassalage to the Latin Empire; historian Philip Van Tricht however points out that there are no sources for this, and that this vassalage may have survived until 1217, when Michael's brother Theodore captured Latin Emperor Peter II of Courtenay near Dyrrhachium.Sometime between 1210 and 1214, according to the Chronicle of Galaxeidi, Michael came into conflict with the Latin Lord of Salona, Thomas I d'Autremencourt. When d'Autremencourt seized a few islands in the Corinthian Gulf off Galaxeidi, the inhabitants of the latter called upon Michael for aid, and in the ensuing battle, Thomas was killed and Salona (modern Amfissa) was occupied. Epirote rule there proved short-lived, however, as d'Autremencourt's son Thomas II soon recovered his father's lordship. In 1212, his troops invaded Thessaly in force, overrunning the resistance of the local Lombard nobles. The Epirotes took Larissa, where they deposed the Latin Archbishop and restored the local see to an Orthodox metropolitan, Velestino, the fief of Berthold of Katzenelnbogen, and reached the shores of the Pagasetic Gulf at Demetrias. The newly gained Thessalian territories were entrusted to Michael's son-in-law Constantine Maliasenos as a hereditary appanage.Soon after, probably in 1213, he took Dyrrhachium from Venice, followed in 1214 by Corfu. Very little is known about the details of these successes, as the generally hostile stance of the pro-Nicaean Byzantine historians towards Michael means that his achievements were often ignored. According to local Corfiot tradition, the castle of Angelokastro was built by Michael. Michael continued to push northward into Albania and Macedonia, taking Kruja and ending the independence of the principality of Arbanon and its ruler, Dimitri Progoni, but his attempt to seize Zeta was stopped by the Serbs at Skadar. Death and legacy Michael himself did not long outlive these successes: in late 1214 or in 1215, he was assassinated in his sleep at Velegrada by a servant called Rhomaios. According to the historian John V. A Fine, "whether he was hired to do the act, and, if so, by whom is unknown". As his only surviving son was illegitimate and underage, Michael was succeeded by his half-brother Theodore. Theodore had been in the service of Nicaea, and Michael had requested Laskaris to send him to Epirus because his own son's position was weak. In the event, Theodore not only sidelined the young Michael II, but according to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta, sent him and his mother to exile in the Peloponnese for the duration of his reign. Theodore proved a powerful and warlike ruler, greatly expanding the Epirote state and capturing Thessalonica in 1224, where he was crowned emperor. The rise of Theodore's Empire of Thessalonica ended abruptly with his defeat and capture by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230, that allowed the exiled Michael II to return to Epirus and recover his father's domain.Michael laid the foundations of the Epirote state, and initiated a dynasty, the Komnenoi–Doukai, who would rule over Epirus until 1318, when the Italian Orsini family took over. Members of the family also ruled over Thessaly, and for a while claimed the imperial title as rulers of Thessalonica from 1224 until its capture by the Nicaeans in 1246. It appears that during his lifetime, Michael was a popular ruler with his subjects; the contemporary metropolitan bishop of Naupactus, John Apokaukos, lauded Michael as a "new Noah", at whose side the refugees of the Latin cataclysm found refuge. The contemporary Archbishop of Ohrid Demetrios Chomatianos even estimated that at least half, if not most, of those who fled from Constantinople, found refuge in Epirus, including many of the senatorial aristocracy. More still came from the Peloponnese, fleeing Latin rule there. Apokaukos also praises him for his refoundation and refortification of the city of Ioannina, where many of the refugees were settled; the city thenceforth chose the Archangel Michael as its patron saint in his honour. Family The exact identity of Michael's wife or wives is unknown. According to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta, he married twice. His first wife was a lady of the aristocratic Melissenos family, who died at an unknown time. Her first cousin, likewise a Melissenos, married the governor of Nicopolis, Senachereim (see above). After his murder by the locals, Michael avenged him, took his place and married his widow. Despite the unreliability of the hagiography, its account is partially confirmed by Villehardouin's reference to the daughter of an Epirote magnate. Furthermore, as Michael's second wife was a first cousin of his first, their marriage was uncanonical in the eyes of the Church and of hostile historians; it is therefore likely that the "concubine" referenced by the latter as the mother of Michael II Komnenos Doukas was in reality Michael's second wife.Michael had five children, three by his (first) wife and two by his second wife or concubine: An unnamed daughter, who in 1209 married Eustace, brother of the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders. Theodora Komnene Doukaina, only mentioned briefly by Demetrios Chomatianos in 1216. Constantine Komnenos Doukas, mentioned only in the Latin text of the 1210 treaty with Venice, where he is designated as his father's successor. He must have died at a young age, before Michael's own death. Maria Komnene Doukaina, who married Constantine Maliasenos. Michael II Komnenos Doukas, an illegitimate son who succeeded as ruler of Epirus in 1230 until his death ca. 1268. He is the first Epirote ruler to have borne the title of despotes. References Sources Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Loenertz, Raymond-Joseph (1973). "Aux origines du despotat d'Épire et de la principauté d'Achaïe" [On the origins of the Despotate of Epirus and the Principality of Achaea]. Byzantion (in French). 43: 360–394. Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1976). "Refugees, Mixed Population and Local Patriotism in Epiros and Western Macedonia after the Fourth Crusade". XVe Congrès international d'études byzantines (Athènes, 1976), Rapports et corapports I. Athens. pp. 3–33.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Nicol, Donald M. (1984). The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13089-9. Polemis, Demetrios I. (1968). The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography. London: The Athlone Press. OCLC 299868377. Stiernon, Lucien (1959). "Les origines du despotat d'Épire. À propos d'un livre récent" [The origins of the Despotate of Epirus. On the occasion of a recent book]. Revue des études byzantines (in French). 17: 90–126. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1959.1200. ISSN 0766-5598. Stiernon, Lucien (1963). "Ferjančić (Božidar), Despoti a Vižantiji i juznoslovenskim Zemljama". Revue des études byzantines (in French). 21: 291–296. ISSN 0766-5598. Talbot, Alice-Mary (1991). "Michael I Komnenos Doukas". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1362. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Talbot, Alice-Mary; Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Epiros, Despotate of". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 716–717. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Van Tricht, Filip (2011). The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20323-5. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). Vol. B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784665. Further reading Lappas, Nikolaos A. (2007). Πολιτική ιστορία του κράτους της Ηπείρου κατά τον 13ο αι [Political history of the State of Epirus during the 13th century] (PhD thesis) (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. doi:10.12681/eadd/20550.	[ "Human_behavior" ]
21,452,628	Ian Sommerville (technician)	Ian Sommerville (June 3, 1940 – February 5, 1976) was an electronics technician and computer programmer. He is primarily known through his association with William S. Burroughs's circle of Beat Generation figures, and lived at Paris's so-called "Beat Hotel" by 1960, when they were regulars there, becoming Burroughs's lover and "systems adviser". Sommerville was educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Around 1960, he programmed a random-sequence generator that Brion Gysin used in his cut-up technique. He and Gysin also collaborated in 1961 in developing the Dreamachine, a phonograph-driven stroboscope described as "the first art object to be seen with the eyes closed", and intended to affect the viewer's brain alpha wave activity.	Ian Sommerville (June 3, 1940 – February 5, 1976) was an electronics technician and computer programmer. He is primarily known through his association with William S. Burroughs's circle of Beat Generation figures, and lived at Paris's so-called "Beat Hotel" by 1960, when they were regulars there, becoming Burroughs's lover and "systems adviser". Sommerville was educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Around 1960, he programmed a random-sequence generator that Brion Gysin used in his cut-up technique. He and Gysin also collaborated in 1961 in developing the Dreamachine, a phonograph-driven stroboscope described as "the first art object to be seen with the eyes closed", and intended to affect the viewer's brain alpha wave activity. Sommerville and Burroughs made the 5-minute tape "Silver Smoke of Dreams" in the early 1960s, and later provided the basis for the quarter-hour audio "cut-up" and "K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens" around 1965. The following year Sommerville also installed two Revox reel-to-reel machines for Paul McCartney in Ringo Starr's apartment at 34 Montagu Square, Marylebone, London, and recorded Burroughs on the machine.Sommerville along with Gysin and Burroughs collaborated on Let The Mice In, published in 1973. Burroughs' book My Education: A Book of Dreams, indeed largely composed of accounts of his dreams, includes dreams of talking with Sommerville. He died in a car accident on William Burroughs's birthday, 5 February 1976. Burroughs's biographer, Barry Miles reports that Ian had sent Burroughs a telegram that day saying "Happy birthday. Lots of love. No realisation. Ian". "No realisation" referred to Ian's unsuccessful search for a job as a computer programmer in America. == References ==	[ "Technology" ]
75,318,853	Justin Dunnavant	Justin Dunnavant is an anthropologist who has done various works involving maritime archaeology and historical connections. He is an assistant professor at the University of California, Los Angeles in the Department of Anthropology. His area of interests revolve around anthropology and history with specifics to Atlantic and Indian Ocean Slave Trade, community-based archaeology, and black geographies. He has been part of many research projects, from terrestrial to maritime archaeology, and even coral reef restorations. Some of the content he has been a part of include being featured in various streaming services such as Netflix and Hulu, public academic magazines such as National Geographic, and contributed publications.	Justin Dunnavant is an anthropologist who has done various works involving maritime archaeology and historical connections. He is an assistant professor at the University of California, Los Angeles in the Department of Anthropology. His area of interests revolve around anthropology and history with specifics to Atlantic and Indian Ocean Slave Trade, community-based archaeology, and black geographies. He has been part of many research projects, from terrestrial to maritime archaeology, and even coral reef restorations. Some of the content he has been a part of include being featured in various streaming services such as Netflix and Hulu, public academic magazines such as National Geographic, and contributed publications. Academic achievements 2017 - Ph. D : University of Florida 2009 - B.A. : Howard UniversityAwards 2021 : National Geographic Society's Emerging Explorer 2021 : Explorer's Club 50 - Fifty People Changing the World 2021 : Society for American Archaeology's Outstanding Public Archaeology Initiative Award 2021-2019 : Vanderbilt Provost's Postdoctoral Fellow 2019-2017 : University of California President's Postdoctoral Fellow 2017 : GMAC Diversity Field School Award for commitment to diversity in historical archaeology 2017-2014 : Ford Foundation Predoctoral Fellow 2013 : Stetson Kennedy Vox Populi Award for Oral History and Social Justice (SPOHP) 2010-2009 : Fulbright US Scholars Program 2007 : District of Columbia Mayor's Award for Excellence in Historic Preservation Netflix's Explained: Pirates In this Netflix Original series called Explained, Justin Dunnavant is a special guest in this episode called Pirates. This 20 minute episode goes into the in-depth reality of what pirates were and are today. The information provided in this episode ranges from analyzing various known pirates, like Black Beard and Captain Morgan, and discoveries of ships, like "The Queen Anne's Revenge". What the analysis and research of the various special guest provide is that the pirates we know of are not what we consider them to be, nor what we think of pirate ships. The reality is that those ships were used for slave trade, production transportation, profit and status elevation during that time. Dunnavant provides information on how pirates took a part the slave trade, who Captain Morgan truly was and how he obtained his wealth, and what impact those pirates had within those location they had at their plantations or trading requests. This episode goes into the change of criminal charges onto pirates, what connections the government had with raids, the legality of it, and what this lifestyle provided within that culture. In the history aspect of this episode, pirates have been known and around ever since ships have been on sea. Aside from how we know pirates within movies and characteristics that apply to pirates, like the exaggerated "R" or the requirement of alcohol, the most known pirate was Cheng I Sao due to her strict constitution, the size of her fleet, her control over the salt trade versus the government, and how her punishment was handled. This episode went in-depth of what we know of pirates, how they are able to maintain their lifestyle, the reality of their illegal activity including slave trade, and how pirates are known today within society as criminals. Hulu's Your Attention Please: Volume 6 Your Attention Please is a Hulu Show hosted by Craig Robinson who dives into the wide spectrum of passions and personal journeys from various African American individuals that have made an impact not only for themselves, but for their ancestry, culture, and future. These individuals that Craig Robinson learns more about embark on their personal struggles, lifestyle, backgrounds, goals, and choices that have led them to where they are now. In the episodes, the audience gets to know that the individuals featured go through their own journey, which includes pushing their limits and creating something new in their own form of art. Each episode has a time frame of 6 minutes to 35 minutes. This episode of the series features Annie Bercy, Rhonda Harper, and Justin Dunnavant. In the segment of Justin Dunnavant, it goes into his background and his purpose within the field of archaeology, along with what the field research can provide: "offering solutions to the problems". Some of the background information provided about him includes his attendance to college at Howard University at the age of 16 with an archaeological dig that was set as an abroad trip being a critical point to his life that led him into world of archaeology. His specialty within archaeology centers around Africa and any migration patterns, along with a focal point about pirates. Apart from pirates, Dunnavant makes the audience rethink what we know about history and challenge it with a new lens based on Afrofutuerism, the compelling work of Diving with a Purpose and National Association of Black Scuba Divers, and new evidential sites. This show and its special guests have the purpose of inspiring the African American community to learn more about their history, question the multitude of possibilities their journey can answer, and take pride in who they are. National Geographic This article was published on January 27, 2022 and stated to be a 4 minute read. Under the heading "Impact", by the title of "Justin Dunnavant: Excavating stories from the relics of our past", this article goes into the methods of how Dunnavant is adding more to what we know about our past. Some of the location include the U.S. Virgin Islands, Danish West Indies, and coast of Florida Keys, with data collection of relics to disclose the relationship that can be provided from environmental factors and the slave trade. Further into the article, it goes into why Dunnavant went into this field of study, his goal with this field and representation, what opportunities maritime archaeology can provide, and his contributions as being an assistant professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. == References ==	[ "Humanities" ]
1,559,261	Riverdale Park (Toronto)	Riverdale Park is a large park spanning the Lower Don River in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, between Cabbagetown to the west and Broadview Avenue in Riverdale to the east.	Riverdale Park is a large park spanning the Lower Don River in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, between Cabbagetown to the west and Broadview Avenue in Riverdale to the east. Description The park has recreational fields for soccer, baseball, and Ultimate on both sides of the river. There is also a swimming pool, tennis courts and outdoor hockey rink to the northeast, and a running track in the centre. A footbridge crosses the Don Valley Parkway, Bayview Avenue, the Canadian National Railway Bala subdivision tracks, and the river and joins the two sides of the valley as well as the Lower Don Recreational Trail that follows the river. The bridge is located near the site of a butternut tree bridge built by Ely Playter that provided access to his property and mill around the 1790s. The bridge is depicted by Elizabeth Simcoe's watercolour painting Playter's Bridge near York, ca. 1796.At the south-east corner of the park is Bridgepoint Hospital and a monument to Sun Yat-Sen. Immediately to the west of the park in Cabbagetown is Riverdale Farm, a city operated, publicly accessible farm. In the summer, a free movie series takes place in the park. According to its website, "Everyone is welcome ~ Bring a picnic, friends and family to enjoy great PG rated films under the stars. All the films begin at dusk" History The land on the east side of the Don River was originally owned by John Scadding, one of the early settlers to Toronto and the estate manager and clerk for John Graves Simcoe, Governor of Upper Canada. John Scadding's cabin, built in 1794 just south of the present day park, was relocated to the grounds of the Canadian National Exhibition in 1879. 120 acres (49 ha) of Scadding's farm property had been purchased by the City of Toronto in 1856 for the Don Jail, and the rest of the lands opened as a park in 1880. The park acquired a 32-pounder cannon from Quebec City and since relocated to Marie Curtis Park. More land was added later to bring the park up to 162 acres (66 ha) in size, but the construction of the Don Valley Parkway in the 1960s reduced this to the current figure of 104 acres (42 ha). On Broadview Avenue east of the park is John Cox Cottage, an 1807 log home. In 1886, road construction immediately east of the park uncovered artifacts of a First Nations settlement or encampment on the area above the valley. A small number of artifacts are on display in a display case at Withrow Avenue Junior Public School. A plaque is affixed to the main entrance of the school on Bain Avenue. The eastern side of the park was also used as a landfill in the 1920s. A walk along Broadview Avenue shows the evidence of this in the form of green exhaust pipes to vent the methane gas from the former dump beneath the park.In the 1970s, the park was the original site proposed for a new 40,000 seat stadium, a project that would eventually become SkyDome. The plan was eventually abandoned, in part due to the strong objections of local Alderman John Sewell.In 1990, a grassy slope on the eastern side was planted with trees. This was the first public event hosted by the Task Force to Bring Back the Don. The slope is now moderately forested with trees averaging 3–4 metres in height. In 2002, Bring Back the Don created a small marsh at the bottom of the slope. Water collects there from the slope as well as from adjacent playing fields. Other restoration projects include trees planted along a berm adjacent to the Don Valley Parkway. References External links Riverdale Park East Riverdale Park West Bring Back the Don restoration projects in the park Lost Rivers page on restoration efforts Historic sketches and photos from around the park and Riverdale Zoo	[ "Geography" ]
46,911,531	Stelia Aerospace	Stelia Aerospace (stylized STELIA Aerospace) is an aerospace company headquartered in Toulouse, France. It specializes in the design and manufacture of aerostructures, pilot seats and premium class passenger seats, mainly for the commercial aviation sector. Stelia Aerospace was created on 1 January 2015 by the merger of two Airbus business units: Aerolia and SOGERMA. The company is a wholly owned subsidiary of Airbus.	Stelia Aerospace (stylized STELIA Aerospace) is an aerospace company headquartered in Toulouse, France. It specializes in the design and manufacture of aerostructures, pilot seats and premium class passenger seats, mainly for the commercial aviation sector. Stelia Aerospace was created on 1 January 2015 by the merger of two Airbus business units: Aerolia and SOGERMA. The company is a wholly owned subsidiary of Airbus. History Stelia Aerospace can trace its origins back to the merge of two companies, SOGERMA and Aerolia. SOGERMA (Société girondine d’entretien et de réparation de matériel aéronautique) was a French company founded in 1924 amid the early days of aviation.Prior to its restructuring in 2006, the company largely focused on maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO), but subsequently directed its resources to its specialist aerostructures and seating activities.AEROLIA SA was founded on 1 January 2009 as a spin-off of Airbus France's aerostructures activities. This involved the Méaulte and Saint-Nazaire industrial plants, along with a design office in Toulouse.In 2007, EADS' management decided to respond to the weakening US dollar and large investments required for the Airbus A380 and A350 XWB programs by restructuring in order to streamline, divest several non-core activities, and cut costs. Aerospace periodical Flight International compared the move to Boeing's then-recent spin-off of Spirit AeroSystems.On 1 January 2015, Stelia Aerospace was created via the merger of Aerolia and Sogerma. At the time, Stelia Aerospace employed roughly 6,100 staff across 11 different locations, and the two merged businesses were considered "complementary". Contracts previously undertaken by the two firms carried over to the new entity, including those for fitting-out work on Airbus airliners.In March 2017, Stelia Aerospace inaugurated its new aeronautics factory in Méaulte, Northern France; this facility, which handles production of the forward fuselages of Airbus airliners and central fuselage of Bombardier Aerospace’s Global 7500 series of business jets, had required a €70 million investment. In February 2018, Stelia Aerospace demonstrated a metallic fuselage panel manufactured using 3D printing techniques. The same year, the firm acquired a majority share of Toulouse-based digital modelling specialist Portalliance Engineering.In October 2019, Stelia Aerospace announced plans to build a new assembly plant in Portugal at a cost of €40 million. In February 2020, the company started a three-year partnership with Bombardier for the AILE (Aile Intelligente et Légère pour l’Environnement, or Intelligent and Light Wing for Environment) research programme.Starting on 1 January 2022, Stelia Aerospace sites worldwide were grouped with other Airbus sites in Nantes and Montoir-de-Bretagne under the newly formed Airbus subsidiary Airbus Atlantic. Business activities Stelia Aerospace has three main business segments: Aerostructures Premium class airline seats (First, Business, Premium Economy) Pilot seatsStelia Aerospace also manufactures aircraft interiors. Aerostructures Stelia Aerospace designs and manufactures fully equipped aircraft fuselage sections from the nose to the rear, wings and special Work Packages such as the main landing gear bay, A400M ramp door, and helicopter tail boom.A major portion of the company's business is the design and manufacturing of aerostructures, including complex detailed parts comprising both composite and metallic materials. STELIA Aerospace claims that it is one of a small number of companies able to provide a fully equipped section (metallic and/or composite fuselage section, with all the tubes and wiring systems integrated), developing the “plug and fly” concept.- Wings of the ATR family, which are fully equipped and tested up to the final test benches. - Central section of the Bombardier large business jet Global 7000/8000. - Various sections of the Airbus A220, such as the cockpit and aft fuselage. - Elements of the Airbus BelugaXL, including the nose section, cargo door, and upper fuselage with pre-integrated systems (electrical, hydraulic, air conditioning, oxygen, etc.) Locations Stelia Aerospace is a global business with 11 worldwide industrial facilities and supporting offices. References External links Stelia Aerospace official website Stelia North-America official website	[ "Business", "Science" ]
1,135,781	Refrigerator car	A refrigerator car (or "reefer") is a refrigerated boxcar (U.S.), a piece of railroad rolling stock designed to carry perishable freight at specific temperatures. Refrigerator cars differ from simple insulated boxcars and ventilated boxcars (commonly used for transporting fruit), neither of which are fitted with cooling apparatus. Reefers can be ice-cooled, come equipped with any one of a variety of mechanical refrigeration systems, or utilize carbon dioxide (either as dry ice, or in liquid form) as a cooling agent. Milk cars (and other types of "express" reefers) may or may not include a cooling system, but are equipped with high-speed trucks and other modifications that allow them to travel with passenger trains.	A refrigerator car (or "reefer") is a refrigerated boxcar (U.S.), a piece of railroad rolling stock designed to carry perishable freight at specific temperatures. Refrigerator cars differ from simple insulated boxcars and ventilated boxcars (commonly used for transporting fruit), neither of which are fitted with cooling apparatus. Reefers can be ice-cooled, come equipped with any one of a variety of mechanical refrigeration systems, or utilize carbon dioxide (either as dry ice, or in liquid form) as a cooling agent. Milk cars (and other types of "express" reefers) may or may not include a cooling system, but are equipped with high-speed trucks and other modifications that allow them to travel with passenger trains. History Background: North America After the end of the American Civil War, Chicago, Illinois emerged as a major railway center for the distribution of livestock raised on the Great Plains to Eastern markets. Transporting the animals to market required herds to be driven up to 1,200 miles (1,900 km) to railheads in Kansas City, Missouri or other locations in the midwest, such as Abilene and Dodge City, Kansas, where they were loaded into specialized stock cars and transported live ("on-the-hoof") to regional processing centers. Driving cattle across the plains also caused tremendous weight loss, with some animals dying in transit. Upon arrival at the local processing facility, livestock were slaughtered by wholesalers and delivered fresh to nearby butcher shops for retail sale, smoked, or packed for shipment in barrels of salt. Costly inefficiencies were inherent in transporting live animals by rail, particularly the fact that approximately 60% of the animal's mass is inedible. The death of animals weakened by the long drive further increased the per-unit shipping cost. Meat processors sought a method to ship dressed meats from their Chicago packing plants to eastern markets. Early attempts at refrigerated transport During the mid-19th century, attempts were made to ship agricultural products by rail. As early as 1842, the Western Railroad of Massachusetts was reported in the June 15 edition of the Boston Traveler to be experimenting with innovative freight car designs capable of carrying all types of perishable goods without spoilage. The first refrigerated boxcar entered service in June 1851, on the Northern Railroad (New York) (or NRNY, which later became part of the Rutland Railroad). This "icebox on wheels" was a limited success since it was only functional in cold weather. That same year, the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain Railroad (O&LC) began shipping butter to Boston in purpose-built freight cars, utilizing ice for cooling. Meat The first consignment of dressed beef left the Chicago stock yards in 1857 in ordinary boxcars retrofitted with bins filled with ice. Placing meat directly against ice resulted in discoloration and affected the taste, proving to be impractical. During the same period Gustavas Swift experimented by moving cut meat using a string of ten boxcars with their doors removed, and made a few test shipments to New York during the winter months over the Grand Trunk Railway (GTR). The method proved too limited to be practical. Detroit's William Davis patented a refrigerator car that employed metal racks to suspend the carcasses above a frozen mixture of ice and salt. In 1868, he sold the design to George H. Hammond, a Detroit meat packer, who built a set of cars to transport his products to Boston using ice from the Great Lakes for cooling. The load had the tendency of swinging to one side when the car entered a curve at high speed, and use of the units was discontinued after several derailments. In 1878 Swift hired engineer Andrew Chase to design a ventilated car that was well insulated, and positioned the ice in a compartment at the top of the car, allowing the chilled air to flow naturally downward. The meat was packed tightly at the bottom of the car to keep the center of gravity low and to prevent the cargo from shifting. Chase's design proved to be a practical solution, providing temperature-controlled carriage of dressed meats, This allowed Swift and Company to ship their products across the United States and internationally. Swift's attempts to sell Chase's design to major railroads were rebuffed, as the companies feared that they would jeopardize their considerable investments in stock cars, animal pens, and feedlots if refrigerated meat transport gained wide acceptance. In response, Swift financed the initial production run on his own, then — when the American roads refused his business — he contracted with the GTR (a railroad that derived little income from transporting live cattle) to haul the cars into Michigan and then eastward through Canada. In 1880 the Peninsular Car Company (subsequently purchased by ACF) delivered the first of these units to Swift, and the Swift Refrigerator Line (SRL) was created. Within a year, the Line's roster had risen to nearly 200 units, and Swift was transporting an average of 3,000 carcasses a week to Boston, Massachusetts. Competing firms such as Armour and Company quickly followed suit. By 1920, the SRL owned and operated 7,000 of the ice-cooled rail cars. The General American Transportation Corporation would assume ownership of the line in 1930. Live cattle and dressed beef deliveries to New York (short tons): The subject cars travelled on the Erie, Lackawanna, New York Central, and Pennsylvania railroads. Source: Railway Review, January 29, 1887, p. 62. 19th Century American Refrigerator Cars: Source: Poor's Manual of Railroads and ICC and U.S. Census reports. Fruit & Fresh Produce In the 1870s, the lack of a practical means to refrigerate peaches limited the markets open to Samuel Rumph, a Georgia peach grower. In 1875, he invented a refrigerated railcar and crates that allowed him to grow peaches on a very large scale and ship them to distant markets. He was the first to achieve this. His innovations created Georgia's fame for peaches, a crop now eclipsed economically by blueberries.Edwin Tobias Earl was born on a fruit ranch near Red Bluff, California on May 30, 1858. His father was Joseph Earl, his mother Adelia Chaffee, and his brother was Guy Chaffee Earl. He started his career in the shipping of fruits. By 1886, he was President of the Earl Fruit Company. In 1890, he invented the refrigerator car to transport fruits to the East Coast of the United States. He established the Continental Fruit Express and invested US$2,000,000 in refrigerator cars. In 1901, he sold his refrigerator cars to Armour and Company of Chicago and became a millionaire. By the turn of the 20th century, manufactured ice became more common. The Pacific Fruit Express (PFE) - a joint venture between the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railroads, with a fleet of 6,600 refrigerator cars built by the American Car and Foundry Company (ACF) - maintained seven natural harvesting facilities, and operated 18 artificial ice plants. Their largest plant (located in Roseville, California) produced 1,200 short tons (1,100 t) of ice daily, and Roseville's docks could accommodate up to 254 cars. At the industry's peak, 1,300,000 short tons (1,200,000 t) of ice was produced for refrigerator car use annually. On the east coast of the United States, in 1920 the company Fruit Growers Express (FGE) was established and owned by a consortium of eastern railroads to serve the wholesale market for refrigerated produce delivered by railcar. In addition to operating and servicing refrigerated railcars, FGE became a major manufacturer of insulated boxcars and mechanical refrigerated cars. Ice The use of ice to refrigerate and preserve food dates back to prehistoric times. Through the ages, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice was a regular practice of many cultures. China, Greece, and Rome stored ice and snow in caves, dugouts or ice houses lined with straw or other insulating materials. Rationing of the ice allowed the preservation of foods during hot periods, a practice that was successfully employed for centuries. For most of the 19th century, natural ice (harvested from ponds and lakes) was used to supply refrigerator cars. At high altitudes or northern latitudes, one foot tanks were often filled with water and allowed to freeze. Ice was typically cut into blocks during the winter and stored in insulated warehouses for later use, with sawdust and hay packed around the ice blocks to provide additional insulation. A late-19th century wood-bodied reefer required re-icing every 250 miles (400 km) to 400 miles (640 km). Top icing is the practice of placing a 2-inch (51 mm) to 4-inch (100 mm) layer of crushed ice on top of agricultural products that have high respiration rates, need high relative humidity, and benefit from having the cooling agent sit directly atop the load (or within individual boxes). Cars with pre-cooled fresh produce were top iced just before shipment. Top icing added considerable dead weight to the load. Top-icing a 40-foot (12 m) reefer required in excess of 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of ice. It had been postulated that as the ice melts, the resulting chilled water would trickle down through the load to continue the cooling process. It was found, however, that top-icing only benefited the uppermost layers of the cargo, and that the water from the melting ice often passed through spaces between the cartons and pallets with little or no cooling effect. It was ultimately determined that top-icing is useful only in preventing an increase in temperature, and was eventually discontinued. The typical service cycle for an ice-cooled produce reefer (generally handled as a part of a block of cars): The cars were cleaned with hot water or steam. Depending on the cargo, the cars might have undergone four hours of "pre-cooling" prior to loading, which entailed blowing in cold air through one ice hatch and allowing the warmer air to be expelled through the other hatches. The practice, dating back almost to the inception of the refrigerator car, saved ice and resulted in fresher cargo. The cars' ice bunkers were filled, either manually from an icing dock, via mechanical loading equipment, or (in locations where demand for ice was sporadic) using specially designed field icing cars. The cars were delivered to the shipper for loading, and the ice was topped-off. Depending on the cargo and destination, the cars may have been fumigated. The train would depart for the eastern markets. The cars were reiced in transit approximately once a day. Upon reaching their destination, the cars were unloaded. If in demand, the cars would be returned to their point of origin empty. If not in demand, the cars would be cleaned and possibly used for a dry shipment. Refrigerator cars required effective insulation to protect their contents from temperature extremes. "Hairfelt" derived from compressed cattle hair, sandwiched into the floor and walls of the car, was inexpensive, yet flawed over its three- to four-year service life it would decay, rotting out the car's wooden partitions and tainting the cargo with a foul odor. The higher cost of other materials such as "Linofelt" (woven from flax fibers) or cork prevented their widespread adoption. Synthetic materials such as fiberglass and polystyrene foam, both introduced after World War II, offered the most cost-effective and practical solution. The United States Office of Defense Transportation implemented mandatory pooling of class RS produce refrigerator cars from 1941 through 1948. World War II experience found the cars spending 60 percent of their time traveling loaded, 30 percent traveling empty, and 10 percent idle; and indicated the average 14 loads each car carried per year included 5 requiring bunker icing, 1 requiring heating, and 8 using ventilation or top icing. Following experience with assorted car specifications, the United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association (UFF&VA) listed what they considered the best features of ice refrigerator cars in 1948: Steel cars (vs wood) for better insulation protection and greater rigidity resulting in reduced leakage around doors A minimum of 4 inches (10 cm) insulation thickness with all insulation protected from moisture Cushioned trucks and draft gear to minimize jarring and bruising of produce Standardized interior dimensions to allow improved loading methods with standardized containers Adjustable ice bunker bulkheads to allow greater floor space for shippers using top icing alone Vertically adjustable grates within the ice bunkers to allow half-stage icing to reduce icing charges where appropriate Forced air circulation within the car An additional lining to allow side wall flues circulating air around all cargo preventing contact with exterior car walls Perforated floor racks providing similar protection and air circulation under the cargo Provisions for pre-cooling the cars with a portable unit at the loading platforms. Mechanical refrigeration In the latter half of the 20th century, mechanical refrigeration began to replace ice-based systems. Soon after, mechanical refrigeration units replaced the armies of personnel required to re-ice the cars. The sliding plug door was introduced experimentally by P.F.E. (Pacific Fruit Express) in April 1947, when one of their R-40-10 series cars, #42626, was equipped with one. P.F.E.'s R-40-26 series reefers, designed in 1949 and built in 1951, were the first production series cars to be so equipped. In addition, the Santa Fe Railroad first used plug doors on their SFRD RR-47 series cars, which were also built in 1951. This type of door provided a larger six foot opening to facilitate car loading and unloading. These tight-fitting doors were better insulated and could maintain an even temperature inside the car. By the mid-1970s, the few remaining ice bunker cars were relegated to "top-ice" service, where crushed ice was applied atop the commodity. Cryogenic refrigeration The Topeka, Kansas shops of the Santa Fe Railway built five experimental refrigerator cars employing liquid nitrogen as the cooling agent in 1965. A mist induced by liquified nitrogen was released throughout the car if the temperature rose above a pre-determined level. Each car carried 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) of refrigerant and could maintain a temperature of minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit (−30 °C). During the 1990s, a few railcar manufacturers experimented with the use of liquid carbon dioxide (CO2) as a cooling agent. The move was in response to rising fuel costs, and was an attempt to eliminate the standard mechanical refrigeration systems that required periodic maintenance. The CO2 system can keep the cargo frozen solid as long as 14 to 16 days. Several hundred "cryogenic" refrigerator cars were placed in service transporting frozen foodstuffs, though they failed to gain wide acceptance (due, in part, to the rising cost of liquid carbon dioxide). Because cryogenic refrigeration is a proven technology and environmentally friendly, the rising price of fuel and the increased availability of carbon dioxide from Kyoto Protocol-induced capturing techniques may lead to a resurgence in cryogenic railcar usage. Experimentation Aluminum and stainless steel Several experimental cars were built when wartime production restrictions were relaxed in 1946: Illinois Central Railroad number 51000 was built in the McComb, Mississippi shops with an aluminum superstructure to reduce weight with steel where required for strength and provided the standard dimensions, cushioned draft gear, easy-riding trucks, minimum 4 inches (10 cm) of insulation, adjustable ice bunker bulkheads and half-stage icing racks with forced air circulation through side wall flues and floor racks recommended by UFF&VA. Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch number 13000 was built of stainless steel by the Consolidated Steel Corporation of Wilmington, California with convertible ice bunkers, side ventilation ducts, and axle-driven circulation fans. It was thought that stainless steel would better resist the corrosive deterioration resulting from salting the ice. The one-of-a-kind unit entered service as #13000, but was subsequently redesignated as #1300, and later given #4150 in 1955. The car spent most of its life in express service. Cost was cited as the reason no additional units were ordered. The car was dismantled at Clovis, New Mexico in February 1964. Pacific Fruit Express rebuilt two steel-sided ventilator refrigerator cars in their Los Angeles shops with aluminum car bodies to test durability of lightweight alloys versus that of steel. It was hoped that weight savings (the units weighed almost 10,000 lb (4,536 kg) less than a like-sized all-steel car) and better corrosion resistance would offset the higher initial cost. Alcoa provided the body for number 44739, and Reynolds Aluminum Company provided number 45698. The cars (outfitted with state-of-the-art fiberglass insulation and axle-driven fans for internal air circulation) traveled throughout the Southern Pacific and Union Pacific systems, where they were displayed to promote PFE's post-World War II modernization. Though both units remained in service over 15 years (#45698 was destroyed in a wreck in May 1962, while #44739 was scrapped in 1966), no additional aluminum reefers were constructed. Fruit Growers Express number 38374 was equipped with an experimental aluminum body in the Indiana Harbor, Indiana shops. "Depression Baby" During the 1930s, the North American Car Company produced a one-of-a-kind, four-wheeled ice bunker reefer intended to serve the needs of specialized shippers who did not generate sufficient product to fill a full-sized refrigerator car. NADX #10000 was a 22-foot (6.71 m)-long, all-steel car that resembled the forty-and-eights used in Europe during World War I. The prototype weighed 13.5 short tons (12.2 t; 12.1 long tons) and was outfitted with a 1,500 lb (680 kg) ice bunker at each end. The car was leased to Hormel and saw service between Chicago, Illinois and the southern United States. The concept failed to gain acceptance with eastern railroads and no additional units were built. Dry ice The Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch (SFRD) briefly experimented with dry ice as a cooling agent in 1931. The compound was readily available and seemed like an ideal replacement for frozen water. Dry ice melts at −109 °F or −78.33 °C (versus 32 °F or 0 °C for conventional ice) and was twice as effective thermodynamically. Overall weight was reduced as the need for brine and water was eliminated. While the higher cost of dry ice was certainly a drawback, logistical issues in loading long lines of cars efficiently prevented it from gaining acceptance over conventional ice. Worst of all, it was found that dry ice can adversely affect the color and flavor of certain foods if placed too closely to them. Hopper cars In 1969, the Northern Pacific Railroad ordered a number of modified covered hopper cars from American Car and Foundry for transporting perishable food in bulk. The 55-foot (16.76 m)-long cars were blanketed with a layer of insulation, equipped with roof hatches for loading, and had centerflow openings along the bottom for fast discharge. A mechanical refrigeration unit was installed at each end of the car, where sheet metal ducting forced cool air into the cargo compartments. The units, rated at 100 short tons (91 t; 89 long tons) capacity (more than twice that of the largest conventional refrigerator car of the day) were economical to load and unload, as no secondary packaging was required. Apples, carrots, onions, and potatoes were transported in this manner with moderate success. Oranges, on the other hand, tended to burst under their own weight, even after wooden baffles were installed to better distribute the load. The Santa Fe Railway leased 100 of the hoppers from ACF, and in April 1972 purchased 100 new units, known as "Conditionaire" cars.The cars' irregular, orange-colored outer surface (though darker than the standard AT&SF yellow-orange used on reefers) tended to collect dirt easily, and proved difficult to clean. Santa Fe eventually relegated the cars to more typical, non-refrigerated applications. Preservation Examples of many styles of refrigerator and ice cars can be found at railroad museums around the world. The Western Pacific Railroad Museum at Portola, California features a very complete roster of 20th century cars, including wood bodied ice cars, steel bodied ice cars, one of the earliest mechanical refrigerator cars, later mechanical refrigerator cars and a cryogenic reefer, as well as several "insulated" boxcars also used for food transport. Refrigerator cars in Japan The first refrigerated cars in Japan entered service in 1908, primarily for fish transport. They were of the ReSo 200 type, from 1909 followed by the ReSo 210 type and from 1912 followed by the ReSo 230 type; all reclassified into Re 1 type in 1928. Many of these cars were equipped with ice bunkers, however the bunkers were not generally used. Fish were packed in wooden or foam polystyrene boxes with crushed ice. Fruit, vegetables and meat transportation in refrigerated rail cars was not common in Japan. For fruits and vegetables, ventilator cars were sufficient due to the relatively short distances involved, whereas since meat require low temperature storage, they were therefore typically transported by ship, since most major Japanese cities are located along the coast. Refrigerator cars suffered heavy damage in World War II. After the war, the occupation forces confiscated many cars for their own use, utilizing the ice bunkers as originally intended. Supplies were landed primarily at Yokohama, and reefer trains ran from the port to U.S. bases around Japan. Around this time, the surviving pre-war refrigerator cars were gradually retired and replaced with newer types. In 1966, JNR developed the ReSa 10000 and ReMuFu 10000 type refrigerated cars that could travel at 100 km/h (62 mph) They were used in fish freight express trains. "Tobiuo" (Flying fish) train from Shimonoseki to Tokyo, and "Ginrin" (Silver scale) train from Hakata to Tokyo, were operated. By the 1960s, refrigerator trucks had begun to displace railcars. Strikes in the 1970s resulted in the loss of reliability and punctuality, important to fish transportation. In 1986, the last refrigerated cars were replaced by reefer containers. Most Japanese reefer cars were four-wheeled due to small traffic demands. There were very few bogie wagons in late years. The total number of Japanese reefers numbered approximately 8,100. At their peak, about 5,000 refrigerated cars operated in the late 1960s. Mechanical refrigerators were tested, but did not see widespread use. There were no privately owned reefers in Japan. This is because fish transportation was protected by national policies and rates were kept low, and there was little profit in refrigerated car ownership. Refrigerated trains in the United Kingdom Due to the shorter distance to be travelled in the United Kingdom, the need for refrigeration was limited to specialised goods, which could in express-train format - mostly run overnight to avoid delays from passenger traffic - be transported in suitable timescales of less than a day from the area of production to processing, or onwards to the point of consumer consumption. Hence whilst similar cattle, fish, fruit and farm-fresh produce shipping requirements existed, the need to refrigerate was often minimised by the use of non-stop express train service to the required destination. In example, the London Midland and Scottish Railway ran specialised express trains from meat producer hubs in Scotland and the North of England to the Smithfield Meat Market in London, with a dedicated goods station located below ground level directly into the market's slaughtering house. The LMS and the LNER also ran express fish trains from Fleetwood and Grimsby to Broad Street to access Billingsgate Fish Market.The big four railway companies standardised within their own networks their own ice-chilled wagons, which being built with more insulation again minimised the need for onboard mechanical refrigeration. The Great Western Railway designed and built their own Mica A (ventilated) and Mica B (Non-ventilated) vans for such express produce trains, with ice supplied by the original product producer from their own plant. One specialised form of fresh produce train which existed in the UK was the milk train, which through use of specialised chilled glass-lined wagons remained in service until 1981. Like many railways around the world, modern UK railways do ship specialised refrigerated containers on intermodal trains, with such trains now taking-over the roll again from long-distance trucking on hub-to-hub routes to reduce carbon foot print. DB Cargo UK runs Europe's longest-distance single-operator handled train from Valencia, Spain to Barking in East London twice weekly, in partnership with Eddie Stobart Logistics and retailer Tesco's, shipping fresh fruit and produce 1,800 km in refrigerated ISO containers. Timeline 1842: The Western Railroad of Massachusetts experimented with innovative freight car designs capable of carrying all types of perishable goods without spoilage. 1851: The first refrigerated boxcar entered service on the Northern Railroad (New York). 1857: The first consignment of refrigerated, dressed beef traveled from Chicago to the East Coast in ordinary box cars packed with ice. 1866: Horticulturist Parker Earle shipped strawberries in iced boxes by rail from southern Illinois to Chicago on the Illinois Central Railroad. 1867: First U.S. refrigerated railroad car patent was issued. 1868: William Davis of Detroit, Michigan developed a refrigerator car cooled by a frozen ice-salt mixture, and patented it in the U.S. The patent was subsequently sold to George Hammond, a local meat packer who amassed a fortune in refrigerated shipping. 1875: Samuel Rumph invented a railcar specifically to ship peaches, and a mortised-end peach crate., making possible large scale growing and long-distance shipping of peaches 1876: German engineer Carl von Linde developed one of the first mechanical refrigeration systems. 1878: Gustavus Swift (along with engineer Andrew Chase) developed the first practical ice-cooled railcar. Soon Swift formed the Swift Refrigerator Line (SRL), the world's first. 1880: The first patent for a mechanically refrigerated railcar issued in the United States was granted to Charles William Cooper. 1884: The Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch (SFRD) was established as a subsidiary of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway to carry perishable commodities. 1885: Berries from Norfolk, Virginia were shipped by refrigerator car to New York. 1887: Parker Earle joined F.A. Thomas of Chicago in the fruit shipping business. The company owned 60 ice-cooled railcars by 1888, and 600 by 1891. 1888: Armour & Co. shipped beef from Chicago to Florida in a car cooled by ethyl chloride-compression machinery. Florida oranges were shipped to New York under refrigeration for the first time. 1889: The first cooled shipment of fruit from California was sold on the New York market. 1898: Russia's first refrigerator cars entered service. The country's inventory reached 1,900 by 1908, 3,000 two years later, and peaked at approximately 5,900 by 1916. The cars were utilized mainly for transporting butter from Siberia to the Baltic Sea, a 12-day journey. 1899: Refrigerated fruit traffic within the U.S. reached 90,000 short tons (81,647 t; 80,357 long tons) per year; Transport from California to NY averaged 12 days in 1900. 1901: Carl von Linde equipped a Russian train with a mobile, central mechanical refrigeration plant to distribute cooling to cars carrying perishable goods. Similar systems were used in Russia as late as 1975. 1905: U.S. traffic in refrigerated fruit reached 430,000 short tons (390,089 t; 383,929 long tons). As refrigerator car designs become standardized, the practice of indicating the "patentee" on the sides was discontinued. 1907: The Pacific Fruit Express began operations with more than 6,000 refrigerated cars, transporting fruit and vegetables from Western producers to Eastern consumers. U.S. traffic in refrigerated fruit hit 600,000 short tons (544,311 t; 535,714 long tons). 1908: Japan's first refrigerator cars entered service. The cars were for seafood transportation, in the same manner as most other Japanese reefers. 1913: The number of thermally insulated railcars (most of which were cooled by ice) in the U.S. topped 100,000. 1920: The Fruit Growers Express (or FGE, a former subsidiary of the Armour Refrigerator Line) was formed using 4,280 reefers acquired from Armour & Co. 1923: FGE and the Great Northern Railway form the Western Fruit Express (WFE) in order to compete with the Pacific Fruit Express and Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch in the West. 1925 to 1930: Mechanically refrigerated trucks enter service and gain public acceptance, particularly for the delivery of milk and ice cream. 1926: The FGE expanded its service into the Pacific Northwest and the Midwest through the WFE and the Burlington Refrigerator Express Company (BREX), its other partly owned subsidiary. FGE purchased 2,676 reefers from the Pennsylvania Railroad. 1928: The FGE formed the National Car Company as a subsidiary to service the meat transportation market. Customers include Kahns, Oscar Mayer, and Rath. 1930: The number of refrigerator cars in the United States reached its maximum of approximately 183,000. 1931: The SFRD reconfigured seven reefers to utilize dry ice as a cooling agent. 1932: Japanese Government Railways built vehicles specially made for dry ice coolant. 1934: The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) regulation #201 came into effect banning billboard advertisements on freight cars. 1936: The first all-steel reefers entered service. 1946: Two experimental aluminum-body refrigerator cars entered service on the PFE; an experimental reefer with a stainless-steel body was built for the SFRD. 1950: The U.S. refrigerator car roster dropped to 127,200. 1955: East of Eden popularizes refrigerator cars by featuring a major plotline where James Dean's father tries to go into the business and fails when all the produce melts during transit. 1957: The last ice bunker refrigerator cars were built. 1958: The first mechanical reefers (utilizing diesel-powered refrigeration units) entered revenue service. 1959: The flush, "plug" style sliding door was introduced as an option, providing a larger door to ease loading and unloading. The tight-fitting doors were better insulated and allowed the car to be maintained at a more even temperature. Early example is the DT&I XL-1 car by Evans. 1966: Japanese National Railways started operation of fish freight express trains by newly built "resa 10000" type refers. 1969: ACF constructed several experimental center flow hopper cars incorporating mechanical cooling systems and insulated cargo cells. The units were intended for shipment of bulk perishables. 1971: The last ice-cooled reefers were retired. 1980: The U.S. refrigerator car roster dropped to 80,000. 1986: The last reefers in Japan were replaced by reefer containers. 1990s: The first cryogenically cooled reefers entered service. 2001: The number of refrigerator cars in the United States bottomed out at approximately 8,000. 2005: The number of reefers in the United States climbs to approximately 25,000, due to significant new refrigerator car orders. 2006 Railex launches 55-car unit train reefer service between U.S. west coast and New York. 2013 Additional unit train reefer services to Florida and Chicago are announced. Specialized applications Express service Standard refrigerated transport is often utilized for goods with less than 14 days of refrigerated "shelf life" — avocados, cut flowers, green leafy vegetables, lettuce, mangoes, meat products, mushrooms, peaches and nectarines, pineapples and papayas, sweet cherries, and tomatoes. "Express" reefers are typically employed in the transport of special perishables: commodities with a refrigerated shelf life of less than seven days, such as human blood, fish, green onions, milk, strawberries, and certain pharmaceuticals. The earliest express-service refrigerator cars entered service around 1890, shortly after the first express train routes were established in North America. The cars did not come into general use until the early 20th century. Most units designed for express service are larger than their standard counterparts, and are typically constructed more along the lines of baggage cars than freight equipment. Cars must be equipped with speed-rated trucks and brakes, and — if they are to be run ahead of the passenger car, must also incorporate an air line for pneumatic braking, a communication signal air line, and a steam line for train heating. Express units were typically painted in passenger car colors, such as Pullman green. The first purpose-built express reefer emerged from the Erie Railroad Susquehanna Shops on August 1, 1886. By 1927, some 2,218 express cars traveled America's rails, and three years later that number rose to 3,264. In 1940, private rail lines began to build and operate their own reefers, the Railway Express Agency (REA) being by far the largest. In 1948, the REA roster (which would continue to expand into the 1950s) numbered approximately 1,800 cars, many of which were World War II "troop sleepers" modified for express refrigerated transport. By 1965, due to a decline in refrigerated traffic, many express reefers were leased to railroads for use as bulk mail carriers. Intermodal For many years, virtually all of the perishable traffic in the United States was carried by the railroads. While railroads were subject to government regulation regarding shipping rates, trucking companies could set their own rate for hauling agricultural products, giving them a competitive advantage. In March 1979, the ICC exempted rail transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables from all economic regulation. Once the "Agricultural Exemption Clause" was removed from the Interstate Commerce Act, railroads began aggressively pursuing trailer-on-flatcar (TOFC) business (a form of intermodal freight transport) for refrigerated trailers. Taking this one step further, a number of carriers (including the PFE and SFRD) purchased their own refrigerated trailers to compete with interstate trucks. Tropicana "Juice Train" In 1970, Tropicana orange juice was shipped in bulk via insulated boxcars in one weekly round-trip from Bradenton, Florida, to Kearny, New Jersey. By the following year, the company was operating two 60-car unit trains a week, each carrying around 1,000,000 US gallons (3,800,000 L; 830,000 imp gal) of juice. On June 7, 1971, the "Great White Juice Train" (the first unit train in the food industry, consisting of 150 100-short-ton (91 t; 89-long-ton) insulated boxcars fabricated in the Alexandria, Virginia, shops of Fruit Growers Express) commenced service over the 1,250 miles (2,010 km) route. An additional 100 cars were soon added, and small mechanical refrigeration units were installed to keep temperatures constant. Tropicana saved $40 million in fuel costs during the first ten years in operation. Railex and other unit trains In 2006 Railex LLC launched service in partnership with the Union Pacific Railroad and CSX between Wallula, Washington, and Rotterdam, New York, followed in 2008 by a Delano, California, to NY line, and Jacksonville, Florida service from the west coast in 2014. Railex runs unit trains of 55 large, "plate F" refrigerated cars. Two additional refrigerated unit-train services were announced in 2013, the Green Express, from Tampa, Florida to Kingsbury, Indiana, operated by CSX and the Tampa Port Authority, and the TransCold Express operated by McKay Transcold, LLC and BNSF, connecting the California Central Valley with the midwest. AAR classifications Note: Class B refrigerator cars are those designed for passenger service; insulated boxcars are designated Class L. See also References Notes Bibliography External links Guide to Rail Cars	[ "Engineering" ]
3,904,882	American School of Classical Studies at Athens	The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA; Greek: Αμερικανική Σχολή Κλασικών Σπουδών στην Αθήνα) is one of 19 foreign archaeological institutes in Athens, Greece. It is a member of the Council of American Overseas Research Centers (CAORC). CAORC is a private not-for-profit federation of independent overseas research centers that promote advanced research, particularly in the humanities and social sciences, with focus on the conservation and recording of cultural heritage and the understanding and interpretation of modern societies.	The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA; Greek: Αμερικανική Σχολή Κλασικών Σπουδών στην Αθήνα) is one of 19 foreign archaeological institutes in Athens, Greece. It is a member of the Council of American Overseas Research Centers (CAORC). CAORC is a private not-for-profit federation of independent overseas research centers that promote advanced research, particularly in the humanities and social sciences, with focus on the conservation and recording of cultural heritage and the understanding and interpretation of modern societies. General information With an administrative base in Princeton, New Jersey, and a campus in Athens, the American School of Classical Studies at Athens is one of the leading American research and teaching institutions in Greece, dedicated to the advanced study of all aspects of Greek culture, from antiquity to the present. Founded in 1881, the School is a consortium of nearly 200 colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. It was the first American overseas research center, and today it is the largest of the eighteen foreign institutes in Athens. It also provides the opportunity for students and scholars from around the world to explore the full range of scholarly resources in Greece. The American School operates excavations in the Athenian Agora and Ancient Corinth, two distinguished libraries, an archaeological science laboratory, and a publications department. The School remains, as its founders envisioned, primarily a privately funded, nonprofit educational and cultural institution. Governance The School's academic programs and research facilities are supervised by an academic advisory body known as the Managing Committee, which consists of elected representatives from a consortium of more than 190 North American colleges and universities. The Board of Trustees, composed of distinguished women and men from the world of business, law, philanthropy, and academia, is responsible for the management of the School's endowment, finances, and property, and has legal responsibility for the ASCSA. Archaeological projects The ASCSA has been involved in a large number of archaeological projects, as well as a major program of primary archaeological publications. It is responsible for two of the most important archaeological sites in Greece, the Athenian Agora and Ancient Corinth. The Corinth Excavations commenced in 1896 and have continued to present day with little interruption, and the Athenian Agora excavations first broke ground in 1932. At both sites, the ASCSA operates important museums and extensive facilities for the study of the archaeological record. Excavation records and artifacts are made available to wider audiences via ASCSA.net Affiliated projects Other archaeological projects with ASCSA involvement, past and present, include surveys in the Southern Argolid, in Messenia and at Vrokastro (Crete) and excavations at Olynthus (Greek Macedonia), Samothrace (North Aegean), the islet of Mitrou (Central Greece), Halai (Phthiotis), Isthmia, Kenchreai, Nemea, Sicyon (all in Corinthia), Lerna, Argos, Franchthi cave and Halieis (Argolid), Mt. Lykaion (Acadia), Nichoria and the Palace of Nestor at Pylos (Messenia), Haghia Irini (Keos), as well as Azoria, Mochlos, Gournia, Kavousi and Kommos on Crete. Publications ASCSA publishes the peer-reviewed journal Hesperia quarterly as well as monographs for final reports of archaeological fieldwork conducted under School auspices, supplements to Hesperia, Gennadeion monographs; and miscellaneous volumes relating to the work of the School. These books range in format from large hardbacks to slim paperback guides. List of directors William W. Goodwin (1882 to 1883); first director Lewis R. Packard (1883 to 1884) James Cooke Van Benschoten (1884 to 1885) Frederick De Forest Allen (1885 to 1886) Martin L. D'Ooge (1886 to 1887) Augustus C. Merriam (1887 to 1888) Charles Waldstein (1889 to 1892) Frank B. Tarbell (1892 to 1893) Rufus B. Richardson (1893 to 1903) Theodore Woolsey Heermance (1903 to 1905) William Nickerson Bates (1905 to 1906); acting Bert Hodge Hill (1906 to 1926) Carl Blegen (1926 to 1927); acting Rhys Carpenter (1927 to 1932) Richard Stillwell (1932 to 1935) Edward Capps (1935 to 1936) Charles Hill Morgan (1936 to 1938) Henry Lamar Crosby (1938 to 1939); acting Gorham Phillips Stevens (1939 to 1941) Arthur Wellesley Parsons (1941 to 1946); on leave for war service Gorham Phillips Stevens (1941 to 1947); acting Rhys Carpenter (1946 to 1948); not in residence Oscar Broneer (1947 to 1948); acting Carl Blegen (1948 to 1949) John Langdon Caskey (1949 to 1959) Henry S. Robinson (1959 to 1969) James Robert McCredie (1969 to 1977) Richard Stillwell (1974); acting Henry R. Immerwahr (1977 to 1982) Stephen G. Miller (1982 to 1987) William D. E. Coulson (1987 to 1997) James D. Muhly (1997 to 2002) Stephen V. Tracy (2002 to 2007) Jack L. Davis (2007 to 2012) James C. Wright (2012 to 2017) Jenifer Neils (2017 to 2022) Bonna Daix Wescoat (2022 to 2027) List of Assistant Directors Carl Blegen (1920 to 1926) Benjamin Dean Meritt (1926 to 1928) Stephen Luce (1928 to 1929) Richard Stillwell (1931 to 1932) Charles Hill Morgan (1935 to 1936) Arthur Wellesley Parsons (1931 to 1941) John Langdon Caskey (1948 to 1949) Henry S. Robinson (1958 to 1959) Nick Blackwell (2012 to 2015) Dylan K. Rogers (2015 to 2019) Eric W. Driscoll (2019 to 2021) Simone Agrimonti (2021 to 2022) Carolin (Katie) Garcia Fine (2022 to present) References Bibliography E. Korka et al. (eds.): Foreign Archaeological Schools in Greece, 160 Years, Athens, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 2006, p. 18–29. L. Lord: A History of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens: An Intercollegiate Experiment, 1882–1942. L. Shoe Meritt: A History of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens: 1939–1980. External links ASCSA website AMBROSIA The Union Catalogue of the Blegen and Gennadius Libraries of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and the Libraries of the British School at Athens ASCSA.net Online database of the ASCSA ASCSA Publications The Archivist's Notebook Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, digital reproduction Heidelberg University Library	[ "Education" ]
798,595	Saturnin	Saturnin of Toulouse (Latin: Saturninus, Occitan: Sarnin, French: Saturnin, Sernin, Catalan: Serni, Sadurní, Galician: Sadurninho and Portuguese: Saturnino, Sadurninho, Basque: Satordi, Saturdi, Zernin, and Spanish: Saturnino, Serenín, Cernín) was one of the "Apostles to the Gauls" sent out (probably under the direction of Pope Fabian, 236–250) during the consulate of Decius and Gratus (250–251) to Christianise Gaul after the persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian communities. Fabian sent out seven bishops from Rome to Gaul to preach the Gospel: Gatien to Tours, Trophimus to Arles, Paul to Narbonne, Saturnin to Toulouse, Denis to Paris, Austromoine to Clermont, and Martial to Limoges. His feast day is 29 November.	Saturnin of Toulouse (Latin: Saturninus, Occitan: Sarnin, French: Saturnin, Sernin, Catalan: Serni, Sadurní, Galician: Sadurninho and Portuguese: Saturnino, Sadurninho, Basque: Satordi, Saturdi, Zernin, and Spanish: Saturnino, Serenín, Cernín) was one of the "Apostles to the Gauls" sent out (probably under the direction of Pope Fabian, 236–250) during the consulate of Decius and Gratus (250–251) to Christianise Gaul after the persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian communities. Fabian sent out seven bishops from Rome to Gaul to preach the Gospel: Gatien to Tours, Trophimus to Arles, Paul to Narbonne, Saturnin to Toulouse, Denis to Paris, Austromoine to Clermont, and Martial to Limoges. His feast day is 29 November. Background Saturnin is styled the first Bishop of Tolosa (Toulouse). The lost Acts of Saturninus were employed as historical sources by the chronicler Gregory of Tours. The martyrology gave a genealogy for Saturnin: the son of Aegeus, King of Achaea, by his wife Cassandra, who, herself, was the daughter of Ptolemy, King of the Ninevites. The Acts placed Saturninus in the 1st century, made him one of the 72 disciples of Christ, placed him at the Last Supper. Legends associated with Saturninus state that after Peter consecrated him a bishop, "he was given for his companion Papulus, later to become Saint Papulus the Martyr." Legend states that besides Papulus, Saturninus also had Honestus as a disciple. The detail from the Acts that is selected for remembering today describes his martyrdom: to reach the Christian church Saturninus had to pass before the capitol (not to be confused with the present Capitole de Toulouse whose site was founded in the 12th century, the Roman Capitol of the city was towards the present Place Esquirol), where there was an altar, and according to the Acts, the pagan priests ascribed the silence of their oracles to the frequent presence of Saturninus. One day they seized him and on his unshakeable refusal to sacrifice to the images they condemned him to be tied by the feet to a bull which dragged him about the town until the rope broke. (Tellingly, the identical fate was ascribed to his pupil Fermin whose site of martyrdom is at Pamplona.) The bull, it is said, finished at the place since named Matabiau, that is, matar ("the killing") and biau or bœuf ("bull"). An inversion of this martyrdom, the tauroctony, the "killing of the bull," is precisely the central rite of Mithraism, the most important icon in the mithraeum, a depiction of Mithras in the act of killing a bull. The tauroctony was either painted or depicted in a sculptural relief, sometimes on the altar. Two Christian women (puellae remembered as "les Puelles") piously gathered up the remains and buried them in a "deep ditch", that they might not be profaned by the pagans. It is not beyond possibility, in this part of Gaul, where even today the greatest bull among many in Toulouse is honored with the name "Le Grand Taur", that the deep ditch was in fact a mithraeum. The site, said to be "where the bull stopped", is on the rue du Taur ("Street of the Bull"). The street with the Mithraic name is one of the original Roman cross streets running straight from the Capitole now to the Romanesque basilica honoring Saint Saturnin ("St Sernin"). "Notre-Dame du Taur" Saturnin's successors at Toulouse, Hilary (bishop 358 – 360) and Exuperius (Exupère) (died ca. 410), gave him more honorable burial, once Christian rites were no longer illicit, by erecting a simple wooden oratory over the "Roman crypt" (as modern guides describe it) where he had been interred. The noteworthy 14th-century Gothic church that eventually replaced earlier buildings is Notre-Dame du Taur ("Our Lady of the Bull"). At the end of the century, the press of pilgrims to the cramped site encouraged Bishop Silvius (360–400) to build a larger church, finished by his successor Exuperius (Exupère) (400 – ?) in 402. The body of Saturnin was translated to the new church, which now forms the crypt of the present Romanesque basilica, one of the buildings that defines the Romanesque style in southern France. The basilica is not the cathedral, which is dedicated to Saint Stephen. The reburial place was at the crossing, before the altar, where the Saturnin's relics remained until 1284. At the same time the bishop took the official Acts of Saturnin, the Passio antiqua, and rewrote them as a panegyric that took the place of the originals embellishing them with colorful details, and with pious legends linking Saturnin to the founding of the churches of Eauze, Auch, Pamplona, and Amiens. Even so, they are among the oldest documents of the Gallican Church. Places named after him numerous places in France named Saint-Saturnin numerous places in France named Saint-Sernin Burgo de San Cernín, Navarre, Spain. It was the Languedocian borough of Pamplona. In Catalonia, Spain. Sant Sadurní d'Anoia Sant Sadurní d'Osormort Sant Sadurní de l'Heura In Asturias, Spain. San Saturnino In Portugal São Saturnino, Fronteira In Wales Llansadwrn, Anglesey See also Saint Saturnin, patron saint archive References Relevant literature Oškerová, Martina. 2014. "Zdeněk Jirotka: Saturnin Analysis of English translation by Mark Corner." Thesis, Masaryk University. Sehnalová, Kamila. 2013. "Comparative Analysis of Czech, English and German Proverbs in Jirotka's Saturnin." Thesis, Charles University. External links The Golden Legend: The Life of Saint Saturnine	[ "History" ]
486,068	Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens	The Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens is one of the oldest zoological and botanical centres in the world, and the oldest park in Hong Kong. Founded in 1864, its first stage was opened to the public in 1871. It occupies an area of 5.6 hectares (14 acres), in Central, on the northern slope of Victoria Peak.Similar to Hong Kong Park, Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens provides a natural environment and atmosphere. While physically smaller than Hong Kong Park it contains more plants, animals and facilities.	The Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens is one of the oldest zoological and botanical centres in the world, and the oldest park in Hong Kong. Founded in 1864, its first stage was opened to the public in 1871. It occupies an area of 5.6 hectares (14 acres), in Central, on the northern slope of Victoria Peak.Similar to Hong Kong Park, Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens provides a natural environment and atmosphere. While physically smaller than Hong Kong Park it contains more plants, animals and facilities. History The park was previously named Bing Tau Fa Yuen (「兵頭花園」). "Bing Tau" literally means "the head of the soldiers" or the "Commander-in-Chief". According to Hong Kong's Leisure and Cultural Services Department, it was nicknamed as such by the city's Cantonese community, as it was the former site of the city's Government House. Others said Bing Tau was just the phonetic transliteration of the first two syllables of the word botanical. In the old days, many lovers liked to go there on a date. During the Japanese occupation, it was renamed as Taishō Kōen (Hiragana: たいしょうこうえん, Kanji: 大正公園). The founder of The Garden Company Limited discussed at the Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens and came up with the idea of starting a company; therefore, it was named after "Garden" and its Cantonese transliteration "Garden". The park was closed from 1931 to 1933 to allow for the construction of a reservoir under the park.。 In the past, many world famous people visited the park under the name of Wildlife Fund, such as Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1983) and Princess Anne of England (1988). Memorials At the southern entrance to the gardens, at Upper Albert Road, is the Chinese War Memorial, dedicated to the Chinese who died assisting the Allies during World War I and World War II. The inscription on the lintel reads: "In Memory of the Chinese who died loyal to the Allied cause in the Wars of 1914-1918 and 1939-1945". The granite arch in the shape of a paifang was erected in 1928. Reference to the Second World War was added later.A bronze statue of King George VI was erected in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of British colonial rule over Hong Kong (1841–1941). Plants There are more than 1,000 species of plants in the gardens, mostly indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical regions. It includes some rare species like the dawn redwood and the local Ailanthus. Besides these, some species which can produce flowers throughout the year can also be found there, like the Hong Kong orchid tree. Different Species are grown in the Thematic gardens in the Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens. Bamboo Garden This garden grows about ten times bigger than other gardens. Camellia Garden More than 30 species are grown in this garden. Crapnell's camellia (Camellia crapnelliana), Grantham's camellia (Camellia granthamiana) and Hong Kong camellia (Camellia hongkongensis) are native to Hong Kong. Some introduced rare species such as Yunnan camellia (Camellia reticulata) and golden camellia (Camellia nitidissima and Camellia euphlebia) can also be found in this garden. Magnolia Garden This garden grows 5 species of magnolia: Chinese magnolia (Magnolia coco) Yulan (Magnolia denudata) Purple magnolia (Magnolia liliiflora) Saucer magnolia (Magnolia × soulangeana) Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora). Greenhouse Various species of orchids, ferns, bromeliads, vines and carnivorous plants are grown in the greenhouse. Palm Garden This garden grows over 30 species under 22 genera of the palm family. Bauhinia Garden This garden grows 8 species including Hong Kong orchid tree (Bauhinia blakeana), purple camel's foot (Bauhinia purpurea) and camel's foot tree (Bauhinia variegata). Azalea Garden This garden grows over 10 azalea species including red azalea (Rhododendron simsii), lovely azalea (Rhododendron pulchrum), purple azalea (Rhododendron pulchrum var. phoeniceum) and white azalea (Rhododendron mucronatum), those are native to Hong Kong. There are also rare species such as yellow azalea (Rhododendron molle) and Westland's rhododendron (Rhododendron moulmainense). Herb Garden Various species of herb are grown in the garden. Animals The size of the garden precludes the keeping of very large mammal species such as giraffes. Nevertheless, the collection of primates is varied, including such diverse creatures such as the Hoffmann's two-toed sloth, Red necked wallaby, golden lion tamarin, gibbon, orangutan, ring-tailed lemur and black-and-white ruffed lemur. Apart from the plants, there are over 400 birds, 50 mammals and 20 reptiles. Mammals and reptiles A taxidermy specimen of Siu Fa, the female jaguar that lived in Hong Kong for nearly 20 years is on display at the Education and Exhibition Centre of HKZBG from 5 March 2009.A pigeon pair of Bornean orangutan twins were born in the HKZBG in July 2011, joining the big family of the gardens. This is the first-ever successful breeding of Bornean orangutan twins in the HKZBG, bringing to five the total number of this primate in the gardensTo enhance public understanding and appreciation of all living creatures, the two female meerkats introduced to the HKZBG are aged 4 and 5, and are housed in the newly-decorated "Meerkat's Home".In 2020, The mammal and reptile section of the Zoological & Botanical Gardens were temporarily closed due to the COVID-19 epidemic. The mammal families at the gardens expanded during the epidemic. To celebrate its 150s anniversary in 2021, a female Asian small-clawed otter introduced to the HKZBG. Yellow-cheeked gibbons, ring-tailed lemurs, white-faced saki, black-and-white ruffed lemurs and cotton-top tamarins all welcomed new additions to the family.The reptiles are primarily snakes, crocodilians, and turtles such as the African spurred tortoise, radiated tortoise, Chinese alligator and Burmese python. Birds Over 100 avian species have successfully reared young, including the Japanese red-crowned crane, peacock pheasant and the Bali mynah, all of which are highly endangered in the wild. Just outside the greenhouse are several large aviaries housing species of waterfowl, such as the wood duck, flamingo, blue crane and intensely-coloured scarlet ibis, perching atop a man-made waterfall. There are also terrestrial birds; many of them small, and with several species from East Asia and Africa. Yellow-casqued hornbill are among the HKZBG's larger avian species.An injured black-faced spoonbill was rescued in Nam Sang Wai by staff of the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, and transferred to the KFBG Wild Animal Rescue Centre in March 2018. This spoonbill, which was unable to fly after an operation, will be able to join the other waterfowl at HKZBG, and so will have excellent human-provided care as well as companions in captivity.To celebrate its 150th anniversary this year, the Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens will hold a number of free public activities, in addition to adding black-crowned cranes, great white pelicans, and great curassow, in addition to bird-watching platforms.The small brick buildings that house some of the smaller birds were once staff quarters, for Chinese workers at the park. These were recently renovated, resulting in the destruction of a row of defunct Victorian gas lamp posts; these may have been the last remaining such lamps in Hong Kong, and possibly in all of East Asia. Animal welfare concerns The gardens have come under fire for 'outdated' facilities, and ‘inadequate, overcrowded conditions’ for the animals housed within its confines.In 2015, the South China Morning Post reported that the Kadoorie Institute, the SPCA, Animals Asia Foundation and the orangutan foundation Orangutanaid all have expressed “sincere doubts over the welfare of its animals,” and recommended that the park be “returned to its original status as a botanical garden". Later that year, Jane Goodall expressed her concern over the “treatment of orangutans in Hong Kong's zoo", saying that they were “not in a good situation", and adding that "large animals in small cages with nothing to do are not happy animals". Transport The main entrance is located at Upper Albert Road. A number of bus routes give access to the facility. Admission is free to all parts of the Zoological and Botanical Gardens. See also Central and Western Heritage Trail King George V Memorial Park, Hong Kong List of urban public parks and gardens of Hong Kong Edward Youde Aviary Ocean Park Hong Kong Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden References Further reading Griffiths, D.A. (Autumn 1988). "A Garden on the Edge of China: Hong Kong, 1848". Garden History. 16 (2): 189–198. doi:10.2307/1586970. JSTOR 1586970. External links Official website	[ "Geography" ]
62,337,917	Monster Girl Doctor	Monster Girl Doctor (Japanese: モンスター娘のお医者さん, Hepburn: Monsutā Musume no Oisha-san), also known as Doctor for Monster Girls, is a Japanese light novel series written by Yoshino Origuchi and illustrated by Z-Ton. Shueisha published ten volumes of the series under their Dash X Bunko imprint. Seven Seas Entertainment has licensed the light novel series in English for North America. A manga adaptation by Tetsumaki Tomasu began serialization online in Tokuma Shoten's Comic Ryū Web magazine in February 2018. A second manga adaptation titled Monster Girl Doctor 0 began serialization in Shueisha's Suiyōbi wa Mattari Dash X Comic in July 2020.	Monster Girl Doctor (Japanese: モンスター娘のお医者さん, Hepburn: Monsutā Musume no Oisha-san), also known as Doctor for Monster Girls, is a Japanese light novel series written by Yoshino Origuchi and illustrated by Z-Ton. Shueisha published ten volumes of the series under their Dash X Bunko imprint. Seven Seas Entertainment has licensed the light novel series in English for North America. A manga adaptation by Tetsumaki Tomasu began serialization online in Tokuma Shoten's Comic Ryū Web magazine in February 2018. A second manga adaptation titled Monster Girl Doctor 0 began serialization in Shueisha's Suiyōbi wa Mattari Dash X Comic in July 2020. An anime television series adaptation by Arvo Animation aired from July to September 2020. Premise Taking place after a long war between humans and monsters ended, the story focuses on the human Dr. Glenn Litbeit and his lamia assistant, Saphentite "Sapphee" Neikes, as they run a clinic in the city of Lindworm, which is home to many species of monsters living alongside humans. Characters Glenn Litbeit (グレン・リトバイト, Guren Ritobaito) Voiced by: Shun'ichi Toki (Japanese); Griffin Puatu (English) Glenn is a human male from a merchant family from the far east, who specialized in medicines during the war. He strives to become a doctor for the monster population of the city of Lindworm. His calm demeanor and quick mind and focus allow him to treat everyone from a harpy girl to an immortal dragon; this tends to make him have a cadre of girls vying for his affection, much to the annoyance of Sapphee. It is implied he reciprocates Sapphee's affections, but cannot act on it until his clinic is paid off. Saphentite Neikes (サーフェンティット・ネイクス, Sāfentitto Neikusu) Voiced by: Saori Ōnishi (Japanese); Cristina Vee (English) Glenn's childhood friend and assistant in the clinic who goes by the nickname of "Sapphee". She organizes the clinic and monitors the fairies that assist them. She is a rare albino lamia, so she has to wear a special outfit whenever she goes out into the sunlight. Her family were also merchants during the war, allying with the Litbeit family to aid the wounded and ensure medicine production on both sides. She was sent to the Litbeits as a political hostage, where she met Glenn and fell in love with him; however, her family are also well known assassins, and if the Litbeits were to betray them she was set to kill Glenn's family. She also has a low tolerance for alcohol. Tisalia Scythia (ティサリア・スキュテイアー, Tisaria Sukyuteiā) Voiced by: Sarah Emi Bridcutt (Japanese); Julia McIlvaine (English) A centaur who is the sole heiress of Scythia Transportation. A high ranked arena fighter, she was on a losing streak until Glenn realized her problem and was able to help her by giving her horseshoes. She is very open about her infatuation for Glenn and is not afraid to say so in public, mostly to annoy Sapphee, whom she considers a friend and romantic rival. Lulala Heine (ルララ・ハイネ, Rurara Haine) Voiced by: Yukiyo Fujii (Japanese); Ryan Bartley (English) A mermaid who sings at the Merrow Waterways in order to provide financial support for her family. Even while suffering from inflammation of her gills due to staying above and out of water too much, she continued singing. She saved a boy from drowning and Glenn saves her from drowning due to her gills. She develops feelings for Glenn after he saved her and treated the inflammation. Arahnia Taranterra Arachnida (アラーニャ・タランテラ・アラクニダ, Arānya Tarantera Arakunida) Voiced by: Yū Shimamura (Japanese); Wendee Lee (English) An arachne who is a fashion designer, sewing clothes with her own silk. She is a friend of Sapphee and has known her for a long time, and has made several of her sunblocking outfits due to arachne silk being very durable. Her skill is so good, she can do minute stitchwork swiftly and efficiently. She tries to seduce Glenn originally to get a response from Sapphee and Tisalia, but soon realizes that she has fallen for him herself. Skadi Dragenfelt (スカディ・ドラーゲンフェルト, Sukadi Dorāgenferuto) Voiced by: Atsumi Tanezaki (Japanese); Cherami Leigh (English) The chairwoman and head council representative of Lindworm. She was the dragon that was able to bring the humans and monsters together before they could destroy each other completely, bringing an end to the war and founding the city as an experiment to see if monsters and humans can co-exist. She is hundreds of years old, yet has the body of a young girl. She dresses head to toe in robes and a veil so few have seen her face, but they are used to hide a parasitic condition. Due to said condition she rarely speaks above a whisper, so her words are relayed by Kunai (in a very loud tone). Kunai Zenow (苦無・ゼナウ) Voiced by: Maki Kawase (Japanese); Lizzie Freeman (English) Lady Skadi's personal assistant and bodyguard. A rare flesh golem from the east, she was taken in by Skadi and became entirely devoted to her, and takes her job seriously. However, due to her nature, she has been known to lose parts if she is damaged. Due to how she was created, she is not fond of doctors and she can hear the voices of those whose body parts she is created from. While she is very proud of her warrior nature, her heart is that of a pure maiden, and she develops feelings for Glenn after he helps repair her during a mission. Now she goes to him whenever she needs to replace her stitches or parts, because as he helps her the voices are a lot quieter. Illy (イリィ, Irii) Voiced by: Sayumi Suzushiro (Japanese); Kira Buckland (English) A harpy who was captured by bandits and forced to lay eggs, which were to be illegally sold. However, she had an impacted egg from stress until Glenn helped her while Skadi and Sapphee held off the remaining bandits. Afterward, she and the others went to a nearby harpy village to live. Memé Redon (メメ・ルドン) Voiced by: Miho Okasaki (Japanese); Giselle Fernandez (English) A cyclops who works at the Kuklo Workshop. She has dry eye issues because hers is larger than the others; however, it gives her more clarity in very fine work such as detailing and making surgical instruments like scalpels and needles that the hospital and Glenn use. She was inspired by Skadi to try to make things people could use to live. She also likes wearing Gothic Lolita outfits created by Arahnia. While she seems to have feelings for Glenn, she often feels embarrassed when she get closer to him. Kay Arte (ケイ・アルテ, Kei Arute) Voiced by: Fairouz Ai (Japanese); Erica Mendez (English) A centaur who is one of Tisalia's attendants. She was a war orphan who was adopted by the Arte family, servants of the Scythia family. Lorna Arte (ローナ・アルテ, Rōna Arute) Voiced by: M.A.O (Japanese); Sarah Anne Williams (English) A centaur who is one of Tisalia's attendants. Like Kay, Lorna was a war orphan who was adopted by the Arte family. Due to her being more sensitive than Tisalia and Kay, she suffers from self-esteem issues and needs a more controlling hand than Kay. She is unknowingly into binding, which actually calms her down. Dione Nephilim (ディオネ・ネフィリム, Dione Nefirimu) Voiced by: Hisako Kanemoto (Japanese); Lizzie Freeman (English) A rare gigas who lives near the harpy village and sees Glenn for a head cold while he was performing examinations at the village. Due to her size, she moves very slowly and carefully so not to injure any smaller creatures, but every step causes earthquakes and landslides. Though young for her race, she still is hundreds of years old and has known Cthulhy and Skadi for a long time. She is friends with Illy, who goes to her mountaintop to visit her. Cthulhy Squele (クトゥリフ・スキュル, Kuturifu Sukyuru) Voiced by: Yukana (Japanese); Jeannie Tirado (English) A Cecaelia who is the head medical doctor of the Lindworm Central Hospital. Cthulhy is the mentor and primary teacher of both Glenn and Sapphee, and she had them start the clinic in order to expand their learning of medicine and to groom Glenn to take over for her one day. She has known Skadi for a long time, hinting that she is hundreds of years old, despite looking like she is in her 30s. She enjoys openly flirting with Glenn, much to the annoyance of Sapphee. Aluloona Loona (アルルーナ・ルーナ, Arurūna Rūna) Voiced by: Yō Taichi (Japanese); Cherami Leigh (English) An alraune who is a member of the city council. Second-in-command to Skadi, she is in charge of agriculture. Molly Vanitas (モーリー・ヴァニタス, Mōrī Vuanitasu) The former shoggoth that was attached to Skadi. Once collected, she joined the skeleton of the former supervisor of the dead district and is working to make it a tourist attraction with the help of the undead residents. She uses a shovel as a weapon in order to keep the more unruly monsters in line. She is also highly interested in Glenn, but more as a lover than a mate. Sioux Litbeit (スー・リトバイト, Sū Ritobaito) Glenn's sister from the east who suffers from Demonitis. She began sprouting horns from her forehead, which proves her family has more than just human blood in their ancestry, which lead her to overheating if she becomes flustered or overexerts herself until Glenn was able to help her. She currently works in the red light district as a patrol member. She considers Sapphee as her sister, and is friends with Memé and Arahnia. Due to all the women flocking to Glenn, she takes it upon herself, by orders of her mother, to find Glenn the most suitable to be his wife. Media Light novel The Monster Girl Doctor light novel series is written by Yoshino Origuchi and illustrated by Z-Ton, who is one of the artists featured in the Monster Musume: I ♥ Monster Girls manga anthology. Shueisha published ten volumes of the series under their Dash X Bunko imprint from June 24, 2016 to March 25, 2022. Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the series for its North American distribution, and the first volume was released on December 19, 2017. Manga A manga adaptation is illustrated by Tetsumaki Tomasu and has been serialized online in Tokuma Shoten's Comic Ryū Web magazine since February 26, 2018. It has been collected in two tankōbon volumes as of March 2020. Volumes Monster Girl Doctor Monster Girl Doctor 0 Anime An anime television series adaptation was announced by Bandai Namco Arts on November 14, 2019. The series was animated by Arvo Animation and directed by Yoshiaki Iwasaki, with Hideki Shirane handling series composition, Hiromi Kato designing the characters, and TO-MAS composing the music. While the anime had an advanced streaming debut on the d Anime Store on July 4, 2020, the series officially aired from July 12 to September 27, 2020 on Tokyo MX and other channels. The opening theme is "Campanella Hibiku Sora de" (カンパネラ響く空で, "In the Sky Where the Bells Ring") performed by ARCANA PROJECT, while the ending theme is "Yasashisa no Namae" (やさしさの名前, "The Name of Kindness") performed by Aina Suzuki.The series is licensed by Crunchyroll in North America. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, the series is licensed by Muse Communication and released on Muse Asia YouTube channel and streaming service iQIYI in Southeast Asia. On August 11, 2020, Crunchyroll announced that the series would receive an English dub, which premiered on August 16.On May 18, 2021, it was announced Sentai Filmworks picked up the home video rights. See also Nurse Hitomi's Monster Infirmary, a manga series with a similar premise Notes References External links Official website (in Japanese) Official anime (in Japanese) Monster Girl Doctor (light novel) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia Monster Girl Doctor at IMDb	[ "Knowledge" ]
5,669,825	Midlands Electricity	The Midlands Electricity Board was the public sector utility company responsible for the purchase of electricity from the electricity generator (the Central Electricity Generating Board from 1958) and its distribution and sale of electricity to customers in the Midlands of England prior to 1990. As Midlands Electricity plc it was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was once a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.	The Midlands Electricity Board was the public sector utility company responsible for the purchase of electricity from the electricity generator (the Central Electricity Generating Board from 1958) and its distribution and sale of electricity to customers in the Midlands of England prior to 1990. As Midlands Electricity plc it was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was once a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. History The Midlands Electricity Board was formed in 1947, under the Electricity Act of that year. The counterpart of the East Midlands board, it served southern, and western parts of Warwickshire, as well as the counties of Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, as well as most of Gloucestershire, the West Midlands conurbation and northern Oxfordshire. The key people on the board were: Chairman G. S. Buckingham (1964, 1967), deputy chairman R. Mallet (1967), full-time members R. Mallet (1964) R. Cook and H. A. P. Caddell (1967).As with the EMEB, it kept a network of showrooms across its area, to allow customers to pay bills, and order many types of electrical goods. The MEB, Southern Electric and Eastern Electricity merged their showrooms, forming the Powerhouse store chain in the early 1990s. The total number of customers supplied by the board was: The amount of electricity, in GWh, sold by Midlands Electricity Board was:In 1990, as part of the privatisation of the UK electricity industry, the board became Midlands Electricity plc. The new business was split up, and sold several times: the supply business to Npower in 1999, the distribution business to GPU Power UK, who continued to use the ‘a Midlands Electricity company’ tagline for a couple of years, and then sold to Aquila, under whose short ownership it was renamed Aquila Networks, before being purchased by Powergen in 2004, becoming Central Networks, part of E.ON. The company was then sold in 2011 to American utilities company PPL who owns the UK distribution company Western Power Distribution, who were already operating in the license area of the previous company SWEB (South West) and Infralec (Wales), and rebranded the Midlands areas WPD West Midlands PLC and WPD East Midlands PLC (previously EMEB). In 2021, PPL placed Western Power Distribution up for sale, being purchased by National Grid, who as of the 21st September 2022 has rebranded the WPD business as National Grid. The distribution business is internally known as National Grid Electricity Distribution (NGED) to differentiate from National Grid Electricity Transmission (NGET). See also Companies merged into MEB Npower == References ==	[ "Energy" ]
19,816,093	Sanjiva Weerawarana	Sanjiva Weerawarana is a CEO, software developer and open-source software evangelist. He is known for his work on Web Services standards including WSDL, BPEL, and WS-Addressing. He is the founder, chairman and CEO of WSO2, an open-source middleware company, and creator of the Ballerina programming language. His involvement with the Apache Software Foundation includes project work on SOAP, Apache Axis and Apache Axis2.	Sanjiva Weerawarana is a CEO, software developer and open-source software evangelist. He is known for his work on Web Services standards including WSDL, BPEL, and WS-Addressing. He is the founder, chairman and CEO of WSO2, an open-source middleware company, and creator of the Ballerina programming language. His involvement with the Apache Software Foundation includes project work on SOAP, Apache Axis and Apache Axis2. Early life and education Weerawarana attended Kent State University, majoring in applied mathematics / computer science, before completing a PhD at Purdue University. Career After graduation, Weerawarana joined IBM Research working in Hawthorne, New York, until he left to found the startup WSO2. Weerawarana has been involved with the Apache Software Foundation since 2000 when he worked on the original Apache SOAP project. Weerawarana is an elected Member of the Foundation and is a committer on several projects.Weerawarana set up the Lanka Software Foundation, and was involved with the Sahana FOSS Disaster Management System. He is an advisory board member of the company 24/7 Techies. He is a visiting professor and lecturer at the University of Moratuwa and a board alumnus of the Open Source Initiative. He currently lives in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Publications Notable research publications include: Colombo: Lightweight middleware for service-oriented computing Enterprise Services Books Sanjiva Weerawarana, Francisco Curbera, Frank Leymann and Donald F. Ferguson (2005). Web Services Platform Architecture. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-148874-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Maria E. Orlowska, Sanjiva Weerawarana, Michael P. Papazoglou, Jian Yang (2003). Service-Oriented Computing -- ICSOC 2003 : First International Conference, Trento, Italy, December 15–18, 2003, Proceedings. Springer. ISBN 3-540-20681-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) See also Apache Software Foundation Open Source Initiative WSO2 References External links Sanjiva Weerawarana's Blog Lanka Software Foundation W3C Working Draft on WSDL ver 1.2 Sanjiva Weerawarana's profile Page at wso2.com WSO2 home page Board of Directors - Lanka Software Foundation Sanjeeva Weerawarana in Business Week	[ "Technology" ]
6,330,656	List of canals in Texas	== Transportation canals == Intracoastal Waterway Houston Ship Channel Sabine–Neches Waterway	== Transportation canals == Intracoastal Waterway Houston Ship Channel Sabine–Neches Waterway Irrigation canals See Texas Irrigation Canals Franklin Canal (Texas) Riverside Canal (El Paso) American Canal See also Sheep Creek	[ "Lists" ]
25,901,647	Globish (Nerrière)	Globish is a name for a subset of the English language formalized in 2004 by Jean-Paul Nerrière. It uses a subset of standard English grammar and a list of 1500 English words. Nerrière claims that it is "not a language" in and of itself, but rather it is the common ground that non-native English speakers adopt in the context of international business. "Globish," a trademark, is a portmanteau of "global" and "English." The first attested reference to the term as Global English, i.e., to refer to a set of dialects of English spoken outside of traditional English-speaking areas, was in an issue of The Christian Science Monitor in 1997: Indeed, the "globish" of world youth culture is more and more interactive.	Globish is a name for a subset of the English language formalized in 2004 by Jean-Paul Nerrière. It uses a subset of standard English grammar and a list of 1500 English words. Nerrière claims that it is "not a language" in and of itself, but rather it is the common ground that non-native English speakers adopt in the context of international business. "Globish," a trademark, is a portmanteau of "global" and "English." The first attested reference to the term as Global English, i.e., to refer to a set of dialects of English spoken outside of traditional English-speaking areas, was in an issue of The Christian Science Monitor in 1997: Indeed, the "globish" of world youth culture is more and more interactive. Non-Western forms of English now are as creative and lively as Chaucerian or Shakespearean or Dickensian English once were. Nerrière's project differs from a controlled language of the same name devised by Madhukar Gogate six years earlier. Usage Jean-Paul Nerrière uses the term Globish for his subset of the English grammar and vocabulary. He claims that the language described in his books is naturally occurring. He has marked his codification of that language by acquiring trademark protection on the term, similar to I.A. Richards who trademarked Basic English in order to prevent dilution and misrepresentation of his work. Instances of attested prior usage, it can be seen, were incidental or not intended for the same purpose. Development As an IBM executive and as a result of his vast travels, Jean-Paul Nerrière realized that a new global language was becoming more and more important. While serving as vice president of international marketing at IBM, Jean-Paul Nerriere first observed patterns of English that non-native English speakers used to communicate with each other in international conferences. In 1989, he proposed Globish as an international language focussing most of his efforts to its promotion. He developed rules and training in the form of various publications to help non-native English speakers better communicate with each other by using Globish as a lingua franca. He conducted dozens of interviews and wrote or co-authored 6 books about Globish in four different languages. Promotion and publications Nerrière formulated his ideas in two books he authored, Découvrez le globish (meaning Discover the Globish) and Do Not Speak English, Parlez Globish. Both books have been translated into a number of international languages. In French, he has published Parlez globish!: l'anglais planétaire du troisième millénaire and co-authored with Philippe Dufresne and Jacques Bourgon, the instruction book Découvrez le globish: l'anglais allégé en 26 étapes. Nerrière's 2004 codification work began to legitimize the language purpose to the extent it drew some press attention. Clearly, and with much subsequent reference, the term Globish has grown increasingly as a generic term since the date of his first publications. Nerrière trademarked Globish as a subset of the English language formalized by him. He also launched the website globish.com to promote his ideas. In 2009, intending to demonstrate that "Good Globish is correct English", Nerriere and David Hon published Globish the World Over, the first book written entirely in Globish-English. Robert McCrum, literary editor of The Observer, is quoted as supporting the efficacy of the language. By 2011, Globish the World Over had been translated into 12 languages including French, German, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, Polish, Hungarian, Slovakian, Uzbek etc. It was a best seller in Japan. In 2011, the Globish Foundation was formed as a non-profit organization in Australia, for the purpose of maintaining and promulgating the standards of Globish. By 2013, the Globish Foundation had 8 national affiliates and an online Globish Communications Test available 24/7.Barbara Cassin claims that Globish is not a language of culture, but a language of service. Robert McCrum wrote the book Globish: How the English Language Became the World's Language (ISBN 9780393062557), describing Globish as an economic phenomenon, unlike "global English" whose uses are much more diverse than just business. Related systems Special English is also a controlled subset of the English language with about 1500 words, short sentences, and slower delivery than traditional English. Special English was first used on October 19, 1959, and is still presented daily by the United States broadcasting service Voice of America. Specialized English is a controlled subset of the English language derived from Special English by Feba Radio. It also has about 1500 words, with some differences in the word list from Special English. Criticism Critics of Globish either feel that its codifications are not sufficiently clearly rendered, or that an artificial language is preferable to any natural one. Although Nerrière claims that the Globish described in his book is a natural language, he has never published any statistical evidence of his observations. Joachim Grzega, a German linguist, has even gone as far as to state "Obviously, it is not based on any empirical observations, neither on native–non-native nor on non-native–non-native discourse." Globish is suspected of cultural imperialism, because it spreads only one language from which the subset of words is taken: this criticism is often by the speakers of other "neutral" languages, meant as languages not spoken in any nation. Clearly, derivative forms which have "English" in their titles are doubly suspect. According to CIA's The World Factbook, native English speakers represent only 4.68% of the world population, including native and non-native speakers the total proportion of all English speakers is estimated to be 10–15%. Globish is criticized for having an ulterior economic motive. It is a registered trademark and some marketing is done with it, since its owner did not renounce his rights to it (as for example L.L. Zamenhof did for Esperanto; on the other hand, I.A. Richards discussed why he trademarked Basic English, in order to prevent dilution and misrepresentation). The Globish Text Scanner accepts some 2000 extra words. See also Anglish Controlled natural language Engrish Globish (Gogate) International auxiliary language List of dialects of the English language Newspeak Simple English (disambiguation) References External links Official international Globish site Official ebook about Globish: "Globish The World Over"- free sample chapters Interview with Jean-Paul Nerrière (creator of Globish) Nerrière's Globish site BASIC GLOBISH (Text) (Globish Word Listing 1,500 words) Globish vocabulary (PDF) (1500 words; from Nerrière's site) Globish words explained in English (PDF) GLOBISH TEXT SCANNER Yvan Baptiste's site about Nerrière's Globish (in French; gives pronunciations for the 1500 words) Critical comments on Globish by Joachim Grzega in the article Globish and Basic Global English (BGE), published in the Journal for EuroLinguistiX So, what's this Globish revolution? Guardian Unlimited 3 December 2006 Nerrière on Globish (Video)	[ "Education" ]
6,004,370	St. Anne's Church, Miskolc	The St. Anne's Church (Hungarian: Szent Anna-templom) is a Roman Catholic parish church on St. Anna Square, Miskolc, Hungary. Locally it is often referred to as "Red Church", because of its red roof. The construction of the building started on July 21, 1816. The church was consecrated on August 3, 1823. The parsonage was completed in 1826, and the church functions as a parish church since then.	The St. Anne's Church (Hungarian: Szent Anna-templom) is a Roman Catholic parish church on St. Anna Square, Miskolc, Hungary. Locally it is often referred to as "Red Church", because of its red roof. The construction of the building started on July 21, 1816. The church was consecrated on August 3, 1823. The parsonage was completed in 1826, and the church functions as a parish church since then. The church was built in late Baroque style with some Neoclassical elements; the altar and the pulpit are late Neoclassical. The first public clock of the city was in the church's tower. Actress Róza Széppataki-Déry and the sister of painter Mihály Munkácsy, Cecília Lieb are buried in the church's cemetery. The church also used to be the end terminus of the first tram line of Miskolc between 1897 (the beginning of tram service) and 1905. References The church (Hungarian only) The church on HelloMiskolc.hu	[ "Religion" ]
3,161,217	Boyd Coddington	Boyd Coddington (August 28, 1944 – February 27, 2008) was an American hot rod designer, the owner of the Boyd Coddington Hot Rod Shop, and star of American Hot Rod on TLC.	Boyd Coddington (August 28, 1944 – February 27, 2008) was an American hot rod designer, the owner of the Boyd Coddington Hot Rod Shop, and star of American Hot Rod on TLC. Early life, education and early career Coddington grew up in Rupert, Idaho, reading all the car and hot rod magazines he could, and got his first car (a 1931 Chevrolet truck) at age 13. He attended machinist trade school and completed a three-year apprenticeship in machining. In 1968, he moved to California building hot rods by day and working as a machinist at Disneyland during the night. He soon became known for building unique hot rods and in 1977 he opened his own shop, Hot Rods by Boyd, in Stanton, California. His first major customer was Vern Luce whose car, a 1933 coupe, won the Al Slonaker Award at the 1981 Oakland Roadster show. Design innovations Coddington was known for clean, elegant designs combining old school with what would come to be known as the "Boyd Look". Some of Coddington's signature innovations were his custom-fabricated alloy wheels, typically machined from a solid aluminium billet, an industry first. Together with John Buttera, Boyd pioneered this "billet" machined look and applied it not only to wheels, but broadly throughout the car.In 1988, Coddington founded Boyd's Wheels, Inc. to manufacture and market his custom billet wheels. CadZZilla In 1989, CadZZilla, a customized 1949 Cadillac, was commissioned by ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons, conceived by Jack Chisenhall, and designed by Chisenhall and Larry Erickson. It is acclaimed as one of the great expressions of automotive customization. Columnist Gray Baskerville called CadZZilla "the most incredible transformation he'd ever witnessed", and in their "History of Hot Rods & Customs" the auto editors of Consumer Guide praised it as "the first really new type of custom since the heyday of the 1950s". Artistic legacy Many of the next generation of customizers started their career with Coddington. Larry Erickson, later the chief designer of the Mustang and Thunderbird for Ford Motor Co., worked with Coddington early on, and specifically credits the CadZZilla collaboration for jump-starting his career. Designer Chip Foose (Overhaulin') and fabricator Jesse James (Motorcycle Mania) both started their careers in his shop. Coddington hosted the Discovery Channel show American Hot Rod. Coddington's creations have won the Grand National Roadster Show's "America's Most Beautiful Roadster (AMBR)" award seven times (the only back-to-back winner of America's Most Beautiful Roadster) and the Daimler-Chrysler Design Excellence award twice, and earned him entry into the Grand National Roadster Show Hall of Fame, the SEMA Hall of Fame, the Route 66 Hall of Fame, and the National Rod & Custom Museum Hall of Fame. In 1997, Coddington was inducted into the Hot Rod Hall of Fame. Later financial trouble In 1998, financial trouble due to a $465,000 loss from a bankrupt customer led Coddington to re-organize Boyd's Wheels and partner with his eldest son (Boyd Coddington, Jr.). In his later days, he began registering cars that were essentially completely custom fabrications as antique automobiles, avoiding major emissions restrictions and tax liabilities. California officials considered this a "ship of Theseus" fraud, claiming that so many central elements were replaced, the cars ceased to be the same entity. Coddington was charged with a misdemeanor and pleaded guilty on April 7, 2005. Death Coddington was hospitalized on December 31, 2007. He was discharged shortly after New Year's Eve, but was readmitted a few days later to Presbyterian Intercommunity Hospital in Whittier, California. Doctors performed surgery; despite the prognosis of a complete recovery, Coddington died on February 27, 2008. His publicist stated that Coddington was a long-time diabetic who died from complications that were brought on from a recent surgery for a perforated colon along with sepsis and kidney complications.Coddington was buried at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier, California. References External links American Hot Rod TV series Boyd Coddington Helps Exhume Buried 1957 Plymouth Belvedere in Tulsa, Oklahoma The Boyd Coddington Virtual Museum Boyd Coddington at Find a Grave	[ "Engineering" ]
40,825,624	United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of threatened and endangered arthropods	List of threatened and endangered arthropods, including insects, arachnids, and crustaceans under the United States Endangered Species Act as of October 2013.Key to Listing Status codes: E - Endangered. An animal or plant species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.T - Threatened. An animal or plant species likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. SAE or SAT - Listed as Endangered or Threatened due to similarity of appearance. A species may be treated as endangered or threatened if it resembles in appearance a species which has been listed and enforcement personnel would have difficulty distinguishing between the listed and the unlisted species; if the effect of this difficulty is an additional threat to the listed species; and if such treatment of the unlisted species would improve protection for the listed species.	List of threatened and endangered arthropods, including insects, arachnids, and crustaceans under the United States Endangered Species Act as of October 2013.Key to Listing Status codes: E - Endangered. An animal or plant species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.T - Threatened. An animal or plant species likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. SAE or SAT - Listed as Endangered or Threatened due to similarity of appearance. A species may be treated as endangered or threatened if it resembles in appearance a species which has been listed and enforcement personnel would have difficulty distinguishing between the listed and the unlisted species; if the effect of this difficulty is an additional threat to the listed species; and if such treatment of the unlisted species would improve protection for the listed species. See also Endangered arthropods United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species of mammals and birds Conservation biology References External links U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species website The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation	[ "Life" ]
8,576,617	Jilin Self-Defence Army	The Jilin Self-Defence Army was an anti-Japanese volunteer army formed in 1931 to defend local Chinese residents against the Japanese invasion of northeast China. General Ding Chao, Li Du, Feng Zhanhai, Xing Zhanqing, and Zhao Yi organised the Jilin Self-Defence Army in order to prevent the fall and occupation of Harbin city, Jilin province. This brought all their forces under a unified command. Calling for civilians to form volunteer units and join in the defense of the city, the army reached a strength of 30,000 men in six brigades of Zhang Xueliangs Northeastern army. Jilin Self-Defense Corps – Commander-in-Chief Li Du Frontline commander-in-chief – Wang Yu Chief of the general staff – Yang Yaojun Chinese Eastern Railroad Defense Army – Commander-in-Chief – Ding Chao 28th Brigade – Ding Chao 22nd Brigade – Zhao Yi 25th Brigade – Ma Xianzhang 26th Brigade – Song Wenjun 29th Brigade – Wang Ruihua Temporary 1st Brigade – Feng Zhanhai 1st Cavalry Brigade – Gong Changhai 2nd Cavalry Brigade – Yao Dianchen Wooded Mountain Guerrilla Force – Song XizengThe defense of Harbin was at first successful and succeeded in repulsing the Manchukuo forces sent against them for a time.	The Jilin Self-Defence Army was an anti-Japanese volunteer army formed in 1931 to defend local Chinese residents against the Japanese invasion of northeast China. General Ding Chao, Li Du, Feng Zhanhai, Xing Zhanqing, and Zhao Yi organised the Jilin Self-Defence Army in order to prevent the fall and occupation of Harbin city, Jilin province. This brought all their forces under a unified command. Calling for civilians to form volunteer units and join in the defense of the city, the army reached a strength of 30,000 men in six brigades of Zhang Xueliangs Northeastern army. Jilin Self-Defense Corps – Commander-in-Chief Li Du Frontline commander-in-chief – Wang Yu Chief of the general staff – Yang Yaojun Chinese Eastern Railroad Defense Army – Commander-in-Chief – Ding Chao 28th Brigade – Ding Chao 22nd Brigade – Zhao Yi 25th Brigade – Ma Xianzhang 26th Brigade – Song Wenjun 29th Brigade – Wang Ruihua Temporary 1st Brigade – Feng Zhanhai 1st Cavalry Brigade – Gong Changhai 2nd Cavalry Brigade – Yao Dianchen Wooded Mountain Guerrilla Force – Song XizengThe defense of Harbin was at first successful and succeeded in repulsing the Manchukuo forces sent against them for a time. After its initial success, the army was forced out of Harbin when the Japanese sent their own troops under Jiro Tamon.Ding Chao's beaten Jilin Self-Defence Army retired from Harbin and marched to the northeast down the Songhua River, to join the Lower Songhua garrison of General Li Du and together reorganized, swelling its ranks with volunteers to 30,000 men in nine brigades by April 1932. It continued to resist, occupying the towns along the eastern section of the Chinese Eastern Railway, between Harbin and the Soviet border.Feng Zhanhai, former regimental commander of the Jilin Guards Division, retreating from Harbin into the west of Jilin province raised a sizeable independent volunteer force, the Northeastern Loyal and Brave Army estimated by the Japanese as 15,000 men in June 1932. See also Pacification of Manchukuo Second Sino-Japanese War References Coogan, Anthony, The volunteer armies of Northeast China, History Today; July 1993, Vol. 43 Issue 7, pp.36-41 Notes On A Guerrilla Campaign, from http://www.democraticunderground.com accessed November 4, 2006 a more readable version here and some photos, from http://forum.axishistory.com, accessed November 4, 2006 China's Anti-Japanese War combat operations Author : Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang Press : Jiangsu People's Publishing House Date published : 2005-7-1 ISBN 7-214-03034-9 第二部分：从“九一八”事变到西安事变哈尔滨保卫战	[ "Military" ]
142,463	Life Is Beautiful	Life Is Beautiful (Italian: La vita è bella, Italian pronunciation: [la ˈviːta ˈɛ bˈbɛlla]) is a 1997 Italian comedy-drama film directed by and starring Roberto Benigni, who co-wrote the film with Vincenzo Cerami. Benigni plays Guido Orefice, a Jewish Italian bookshop owner, who employs his imagination to shield his son from the horrors of internment in a Nazi concentration camp. The film was partially inspired by the book In the End, I Beat Hitler by Rubino Romeo Salmonì and by Benigni's father, who spent two years in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp during World War II. The film was an overwhelming critical and commercial success. It received widespread acclaim, with critics praising its story, performances and direction, and the union of drama and comedy, despite some criticisms of using the subject matter for comedic purposes.	Life Is Beautiful (Italian: La vita è bella, Italian pronunciation: [la ˈviːta ˈɛ bˈbɛlla]) is a 1997 Italian comedy-drama film directed by and starring Roberto Benigni, who co-wrote the film with Vincenzo Cerami. Benigni plays Guido Orefice, a Jewish Italian bookshop owner, who employs his imagination to shield his son from the horrors of internment in a Nazi concentration camp. The film was partially inspired by the book In the End, I Beat Hitler by Rubino Romeo Salmonì and by Benigni's father, who spent two years in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp during World War II. The film was an overwhelming critical and commercial success. It received widespread acclaim, with critics praising its story, performances and direction, and the union of drama and comedy, despite some criticisms of using the subject matter for comedic purposes. The movie grossed over $230 million worldwide, including $57.6 million in the United States, is the second highest-grossing foreign language film in the U.S. (after Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon) and one of the highest-grossing non-English language movies of all time. The National Board of Review included it in the top five best foreign films of 1998.The movie won the Grand Prix at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival, nine David di Donatello Awards (including Best Film), five Nastro d'Argento Awards in Italy, two European Film Awards, and three Academy Awards, including Best Foreign Language Film and Best Actor for Benigni, the first for a male non-English performance. Plot Part IIn 1939, in Fascist Italy, Guido Orefice is a young Italian Jewish man who arrives to work in the city of Arezzo, in Tuscany, where his uncle Eliseo works in the restaurant of a hotel. Guido is comical and sharp and falls in love with a Gentile girl named Dora. Later, he sees her again in the city where she is a teacher and set to be engaged to Rodolfo, a rich but arrogant local government official with whom Guido has regular run-ins. Guido sets up many "coincidental" incidents to show his interest in Dora. Finally, Dora sees Guido's affection and promise and gives in, against her better judgment. He steals the lady from her engagement party, on a horse, humiliating her fiancé and mother. They are later married, have a son Giosuè, and run a bookstore. Part IIDuring World War II, in 1944 when Northern Italy is occupied by Nazi Germany, Guido, his uncle Eliseo, and Giosuè are seized on Giosuè's birthday. They and many other Jews are forced onto a train bound for a concentration camp. After confronting a guard about her husband and son and being told there is no mistake, Dora volunteers to get on the train in order to be close to her family. However, as men and women are separated in the camp, Dora and Guido do not see each other during the internment. Guido pulls off various stunts, such as using the camp's loudspeaker to send messages—symbolic or literal—to Dora to assure her that he and their son are safe. Eliseo is murdered in a gas chamber shortly after their arrival. Giosuè narrowly avoids being gassed himself as he hates to take baths and showers, and did not follow the other children when they had been ordered to enter the gas chambers and were told they were showers. In the camp, Guido hides the true situation from his son. Guido tells Giosuè that the camp is a complicated game in which he must perform the tasks Guido gives him. Each of the tasks will earn them points and whoever gets to one thousand points first will win a tank. He tells him that if he cries, complains that he wants his mother, or says that he is hungry, he will lose points, while quiet boys who hide from the camp guards earn extra points. Giosuè is at times reluctant to go along with the game, but Guido convinces him each time to continue. At one point Guido takes advantage of the appearance of visiting German officers and their families to show Giosuè that other children are hiding as part of the game, and he also takes advantage of a German nanny thinking Giosuè is one of her charges in order to feed him as Guido serves the German officers. Guido and Giosuè are almost found out to be prisoners by another server until Guido is found teaching all of the German children how to say "Thank you" in Italian, effectively providing a ruse. Guido maintains this story right until the end when, in the chaos of shutting down the camp as the Allied forces approach, he tells his son to stay in a box until everybody has left, this being the final task in the competition before the promised tank is his. Guido goes to find Dora, but he is caught by a German soldier. An officer orders Guido to be executed and Guido is led off by the soldier. While he is walking to his death, Guido passes by Giosuè one last time and winks, still in character and playing the game. Guido is then shot and left for dead in an alleyway. The next morning, Giosuè emerges from the sweat-box, just as a U.S. Army unit led by a Sherman tank arrives and the camp is liberated. Giosuè is overjoyed about winning the game (unaware that his father is dead), thinking that he won the tank, and an American soldier allows Giosuè to ride on the tank. While traveling to safety, Giosuè soon spots Dora in the procession leaving the camp and reunites with his mother. While the young Giosuè excitedly tells his mother about how he had won a tank, just as his father had promised, the adult Giosuè, in an overheard monologue, reminisces on the sacrifices his father made for him and his story. Cast Production Director Roberto Benigni, who wrote the screenplay with Vincenzo Cerami, was inspired by the story of Rubino Romeo Salmonì and his book In the End, I Beat Hitler, which incorporates elements of irony and black comedy. Salmoni was an Italian Jew who was deported to Auschwitz, survived and was reunited with his parents, but found his brothers were murdered. Benigni stated he wished to commemorate Salmoni as a man who wished to live in the right way. He also based the story on that of his father Luigi Benigni, who was a member of the Italian Army after Italy became a co-belligerent of the Allies in 1943. Luigi Benigni spent two years in a Nazi labour camp, and to avoid scaring his children, told about his experiences humorously, finding this helped him cope. Roberto Benigni explained his philosophy, "to laugh and to cry comes from the same point of the soul, no? I'm a storyteller: the crux of the matter is to reach beauty, poetry, it doesn't matter if that is comedy or tragedy. They're the same if you reach the beauty."His friends advised against making the film, as he is a comedian and not Jewish, and the Holocaust was not of interest to his established audience. Because he is Gentile, Benigni consulted with the Center for Documentation of Contemporary Judaism, based in Milan, throughout production. Benigni incorporated historical inaccuracies in order to distinguish his story from the true Holocaust, about which he said only documentaries interviewing survivors could provide "the truth".The film was shot in the centro storico (historic centre) of Arezzo, Tuscany. The scene where Benigni falls off a bicycle and lands on Nicoletta Braschi was shot in front of Badia delle Sante Flora e Lucilla in Arezzo. Music The original score to the film was composed by Nicola Piovani, with the exception of a classical piece which figures prominently: the "Barcarolle" by Jacques Offenbach and A Musical Joke by Mozart. The soundtrack album won the Academy Award for Best Original Dramatic Score and was nominated for a Grammy Award: "Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media", but lost to the score of A Bug's Life. Release In Italy, the film was released in 1997 by Cecchi Gori Distribuzione. The film was screened in the Cannes Film Festival in May 1998, where it was a late addition to the selection of films. In the U.S., it was released on 23 October 1998, by Miramax Films. In Germany, it was released on 12 November 1998. In Austria, it was released on 13 November 1998. In the UK, it was released on 12 February 1999. After the Italian, English subtitled version became a hit in English speaking territories, Miramax reissued Life Is Beautiful in an English dubbed version, but it was less successful than the subtitled Italian version.The film was aired on the Italian television station RAI on 22 October 2001 and was viewed by 16 million people. This made it the most watched Italian film on Italian TV. Reception Box office Life Is Beautiful was commercially successful, making $48.7 million in Italy. It was the highest-grossing Italian film in its native country until 2011, when surpassed by Checco Zalone's What a Beautiful Day.The film was also successful in the rest of the world, grossing $57.6 million in the United States and Canada and $123.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $230.1 million. It surpassed fellow Italian film Il Postino: The Postman as the highest-grossing foreign language film in the United States until Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). Critical response The film was praised by the Italian press, with Benigni treated as a "national hero." Pope John Paul II, who received a private screening with Benigni, placed it in his top five favourite films. It holds a "Fresh" 81% approval rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 93 reviews with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's consensus reads: "Benigni's earnest charm, when not overstepping its bounds into the unnecessarily treacly, offers the possibility of hope in the face of unflinching horror". Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5/4 stars, stating: "At Cannes, it offended some left-wing critics with its use of humor in connection with the Holocaust. What may be most offensive to both wings is its sidestepping of politics in favor of simple human ingenuity. The film finds the right notes to negotiate its delicate subject matter ... The movie actually softens the Holocaust slightly, to make the humor possible at all. In the real death camps there would be no role for Guido. But Life Is Beautiful is not about Nazis and Fascists, but about the human spirit. It is about rescuing whatever is good and hopeful from the wreckage of dreams. About hope for the future. About the necessary human conviction, or delusion, that things will be better for our children than they are right now." Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune gave the movie a score of 100/100, calling it: "A deeply moving blend of cold terror and rapturous hilarity. Lovingly crafted by Italy's top comedian and most popular filmmaker, it's that rare comedy that takes on a daring and ambitious subject and proves worthy of it."Richard Schickel, writing for Time, argued, "There are references to mass extermination, but that brutal reality is never vividly presented". He concluded that "even a hint of the truth about the Holocaust would crush [Benigni]'s comedy." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B−, calling it "undeniably some sort of feat—the first feel-good Holocaust weepie. It's been a long time coming." However, Glieberman stated: "There's only one problem. As shot, it looks like a game".Michael O'Sullivan, writing for The Washington Post, called it "sad, funny and haunting."Nell Minow of Common Sense Media gave it 5/5 stars, saying: "This magnificent film gives us a glimpse of the Holocaust, but it is really about love, and the indomitability of humanity even in the midst of inhumanity." Janet Maslin wrote in The New York Times that the film took "a colossal amount of gall" but "because Mr. Benigni can be heart-rending without a trace of the maudlin, it works."The Los Angeles Times's Kenneth Turan noted the film had "some furious opposition" at Cannes, but said "what is surprising about this unlikely film is that it succeeds as well as it does. Its sentiment is inescapable, but genuine poignancy and pathos are also present, and an overarching sincerity is visible too."David Rooney of Variety said the film had "mixed results," with "surprising depth and poignancy" in Benigni's performance but "visually rather flat" camera work by Tonino Delli Colli. In 2002, BBC critic Tom Dawson wrote "the film is presumably intended as a tribute to the powers of imagination, innocence, and love in the most harrowing of circumstances," but "Benigni's sentimental fantasy diminishes the suffering of Holocaust victims."In 2006, Jewish American comedic filmmaker Mel Brooks spoke negatively of the film in Der Spiegel, saying it trivialized the suffering in concentration camps.By contrast, Nobel Laureate Imre Kertész argues that those who take the film to be a comedy, rather than a tragedy, have missed the point of the film. He draws attention to what he terms 'Holocaust conformism' in cinema to rebuff detractors of Life Is Beautiful.Israeli screenwriter, author and art critic Kobi Niv published the book Life Is Beautiful, But Not for Jews (in 2000 in Hebrew and an English translation in 2003) in which he analyzed the movie from a highly critical perspective, suggesting that the film's underlining narrative is harmful for Jews.Another academic analysis of the movie was undertaken by Ilona Klein, who analyzes the film's success and refers to the "ambiguous themes hidden within." Klein suggests that one of the reasons the movie was so successful was its appeal of "sentimental optimism". At the same time, she points out that "Miramax's hype billed this film as a fable about 'love, family, and the power of imagination,' yet most Jewish victims of the Nazis' 'Final Solution' were loving, concerned, devoted parents. No amount of love, family, and power of imagination helped their children survive the gas chambers."David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor highlighted that "Enthusiasm for the movie has not been as unanimous as its ad campaign suggests, however, and audiences would do well to ponder its implicit attitudes." He pointed out that the movie implicitly suggests quick-witted confidence was a match for the terrors of fascist death camps, then added that "[Benigni's] fable ultimately obscures the human and historical events it sets out to illuminate." Accolades Life Is Beautiful was shown at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival, and went on to win the Grand Prix. Upon receiving the award, Benigni kissed the feet of jury president Martin Scorsese.At the 71st Academy Awards, Benigni won Best Actor for his role, with the film winning two more awards for Best Music, Original Dramatic Score and Best Foreign Language Film. Benigni jumped on top of the seats as he made his way to the stage to accept his first award, and upon accepting his second, said, "This is a terrible mistake because I used up all my English!" See also List of submissions to the 71st Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film List of Italian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film References Bibliography Bullaro, Grace Russo (2005). Beyond "Life is Beautiful": Comedy and Tragedy in the Cinema of Roberto Benigni. Troubador Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-904744-83-4. Norden, Martin F., ed. (2007). The Changing Face of Evil in Film and Television. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi. ISBN 978-9042023246. Perren, Alisa (2012). Indie, Inc.: Miramax and the Transformation of Hollywood in the 1990s. University of Texas Press. Piper, Kerrie (2003). Life is Beautiful. Pascal Press. ISBN 1741250307. External links Life Is Beautiful at IMDb Life Is Beautiful at the TCM Movie Database Life Is Beautiful at AllMovie Life Is Beautiful at Box Office Mojo Life Is Beautiful at Metacritic Life Is Beautiful at Rotten Tomatoes Life Is Beautiful at the Arts & Faith Top 100 Spiritually Significant Films list	[ "Internet" ]
3,057,073	John Leighfield	John Percival Leighfield (born 1938) is a British IT industry businessman and was previously chairman of RM plc from 1993 until 2011.Currently John Leighfield is a Director of Getmapping, a UK supplier of aerial photography, mapping products and data hosting solutions. He is also Chairman of Governors of the WMG Academy Trust (which operates two University technical colleges). John Leighfield was born in Oxford, England, and was a pupil at Magdalen College School. He then read Greats at Exeter College, Oxford. He has an MA from Oxford, Honorary Doctorates from the University of Central England in Birmingham (DUniv), from De Montfort University (DTech), from Wolverhampton University (DTech) and from the University of Warwick (DLL).	John Percival Leighfield (born 1938) is a British IT industry businessman and was previously chairman of RM plc from 1993 until 2011.Currently John Leighfield is a Director of Getmapping, a UK supplier of aerial photography, mapping products and data hosting solutions. He is also Chairman of Governors of the WMG Academy Trust (which operates two University technical colleges). John Leighfield was born in Oxford, England, and was a pupil at Magdalen College School. He then read Greats at Exeter College, Oxford. He has an MA from Oxford, Honorary Doctorates from the University of Central England in Birmingham (DUniv), from De Montfort University (DTech), from Wolverhampton University (DTech) and from the University of Warwick (DLL). He is a Fellow of the RSA, RGS, CMI, IET, and BCS. Leighfield has pursued a career in IT, initially in the 1960s with the Ford Motor Company, where he did pioneering work on computer systems in finance and manufacturing, Plessey (where he was head of management services) and British Leyland (from the early 1970s). In 1987, he led an employee buy out of Istel Ltd, which he had established as a subsidiary of British Leyland. In 1989, the company was subsequently taken over by AT&T. He was the executive chairman of AT&T Istel until April 1993. In November 1993, he joined RM (a British educational computing company) as a non-executive director and in October 1994 became the non-executive chairman. He has been a non-executive director of a number of other companies as well, including Halifax plc and Synstar plc (of which he is also non-executive chairman). Leighfield was president of the British Computer Society (1993–4) and the Computing Services and Software Association (1995–6). He is president of the Institute for the Management of Information Systems (IMIS), a UK professional association. He has been a member of the council of University of Warwick, chairman of the advisory board, and an honorary visiting professor at the Warwick Business School. He was pro-chancellor and chairman of the council at the University of Warwick from 2002 to 2011. In the Queen's Birthday Honours 1998 Leighfield was appointed as a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. In 2006, Leighfield was awarded the Mountbatten Medal. In 2005, he was appointed as a non-executive director of Getmapping plc and Master of the Worshipful Company of Information Technologists. Leighfield lives in Oxford. He was formerly Chairman of the Governors of Magdalen College School. He is Chairman of the Oxford Philomusica Advisory Council, the Resident Professional Orchestra at the University of Oxford. In his spare time, he has an interest in maps, especially of Oxfordshire. He is married with children and grandchildren. On 15 January 2016 Leighfield gave an in-depth interview to Alan Cane, Former Editor of the Financial Times, on his life and career for Archives of IT. References External links Synstar information BCS Strategic Panel Members Intellect UK information BCS Oxfordshire Branch photograph	[ "Technology" ]
15,979,061	Bosphorus Airways	Bosphorus Airways was a Charter Airline from Turkey that operated for a brief period of time from 1992 to 1993.	Bosphorus Airways was a Charter Airline from Turkey that operated for a brief period of time from 1992 to 1993. History Bosphorus Airways began services in April 1992 with two Boeing 737-3H9 for charter flights to and from Turkey. In May 1993, one of the B737 was temporarily impounded for violations of the flight embargo into Serbia. The company planned for the summer season flights with larger McDonnell Douglas DC-10 to start. However, these ideas were dashed, since utilization and demand due to the effects of the Second Gulf War, declined rapidly. The financial situation for the airline worsened and by the end of 1993 the airline was shut down. Fleet 2 Boeing 727 2 Boeing 737-300 References External links Impounded Plane Determinations Airport Transportation Information	[ "Business" ]
12,538,690	Puerto Rican flower bat	The Puerto Rican flower bat (Phyllonycteris major) is an extinct species of bat from the family Phyllostomidae (leaf-nosed bats). It was native to Puerto Rico and is known only from subfossil skeletal material.	The Puerto Rican flower bat (Phyllonycteris major) is an extinct species of bat from the family Phyllostomidae (leaf-nosed bats). It was native to Puerto Rico and is known only from subfossil skeletal material. Sources UNEP-WCMC Species Database Archived 2008-03-29 at the Wayback Machine Bucknell University - Wilson & Reeder's: Mammal Species of the World (Third edition) ZipCodeZoo.com == References ==	[ "Communication" ]
3,039,067	High-context and low-context cultures	In anthropology, high-context culture and low-context culture are ends of a continuum of how explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are and how important the context is in communication. The continuum pictures how people communicate with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages. "High-" and "low-" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, the concept may also apply to corporations, professions, and other cultural groups, as well as to settings such as online and offline communication. High-context cultures often exhibit less-direct verbal and nonverbal communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading more meaning into these less-direct messages.	In anthropology, high-context culture and low-context culture are ends of a continuum of how explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are and how important the context is in communication. The continuum pictures how people communicate with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages. "High-" and "low-" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, the concept may also apply to corporations, professions, and other cultural groups, as well as to settings such as online and offline communication. High-context cultures often exhibit less-direct verbal and nonverbal communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading more meaning into these less-direct messages. Low-context cultures do the opposite; direct verbal communication is needed to properly understand a message being communicated and relies heavily on explicit verbal skills. The model of high-context and low-context cultures offers a popular framework in intercultural-communication studies but has been criticized as lacking empirical validation. History of differing context cultures These concepts were first introduced by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1959 book The Silent Language. Cultures and communication in which the context of the message is of great importance to structuring actions are referred to as high context. High-context defines cultures that are usually relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Hall identifies high-context cultures as those in which harmony and the well-being of the group are preferred over individual achievement. In low context, communication members' communication must be more explicit, direct, and elaborate because individuals are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories or backgrounds, and communication is not necessarily shaped by long-standing relationships between speakers. Because low-context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues. A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that the model was "unsubstantiated and underdeveloped". Characteristics of high-context and low-context cultures Denotation and connotation High-context cultures are related to connotation. People within high-context cultures tend to be more aware and observant of facial expressions, body language, changes in tone, and other aspects of communication that are not directly spoken. Denotation tends to be attributed to low-context culture People in low-context cultures communicate in a more direct way, with explicitly speaking what they want to communicate. Interpersonal relationships Individualism and collectivism are related to low-context and high-context cultures, respectively. Within high-context cultures, people rely on their networks of friends and family, viewing their relationships as part of one large community. In low-context cultures, relationships are not viewed as important figures to identity. People within low-context cultures see their relationships much looser and the lines between networks of people are more flexibly drawn. Examples of higher- and lower-context cultures Cultural contexts are not absolutely "high" or "low". Instead, a comparison between cultures may find communication differences to a greater or lesser degree. Typically a high-context culture will be relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. They place a high value on interpersonal relationships and group members are a very close-knit community. Typically a low-context culture will be less close-knit, and so individuals communicating will have fewer relational cues when interpreting messages. Therefore, it is necessary for more explicit information to be included in the message so it is not misinterpreted. Not all individuals in a culture can be defined by cultural stereotypes, and there will be variations within a national culture in different settings. For example, Hall describes how Japanese culture has both low- and high-context situations. However, understanding the broad tendencies of predominant cultures can help inform and educate individuals on how to better facilitate communication between individuals of different cultural backgrounds. Although the concept of high- and low-context cultures is usually applied in the field of analyzing national cultures, it can also be used to describe scientific or corporate cultures or specific settings such as airports or law courts. A simplified example mentioned by Hall is that scientists working in "hard science" fields (like chemistry and physics) tend to have lower-context cultures: because their knowledge and models have fewer variables, they will typically include less context for each event they describe. In contrast, scientists working with living systems need to include more context because there can be significant variables which impact the research outcomes. Croucher's study examines the assertion that culture influences communication style (high/low-context) preference. Data was gathered in India, Ireland, Thailand, and the United States where the results confirm that "high-context nations (India and Thailand) prefer the avoiding and obliging conflict styles more than low-context nations (Ireland and the United States), whereas low-context nations prefer the uncompromising and dominating communication style more than high-context nations."In addition, Hall identified countries such as Japan, Arabic countries, and some Latin American Countries to practice high-context culture; "High context communication carries most of its information within physical acts and features such as avoiding eye contact or even the shrug of a shoulder." On the other hand, he identified countries such as Germany, the United States, and Scandinavia as low-context cultures. These countries are quite explicit and elaborate without having prior knowledge of each member's history or background. Cultures and languages are defined as higher or lower contexts on a spectrum. For example, it could be argued that the Canadian French language is a higher context than Canadian English, but a lower context than Spanish or French French. An individual from Texas (a higher-context culture) may communicate with a few words or use of a prolonged silence characteristic of Texan English, whereas a New Yorker would be very explicit (as typical of New York City English), although both speak the same language (American English) and are part of a nation (the United States of America) which is lower-context relative to other nations. Hall notes a similar difference between Navajo-speakers and English speakers in a United States school.Hall and Hall proposed a "spectrum" of national cultures from "High-Context cultures" to "Low-Context Cultures. This has been expanded to further countries by Sheposh & Shaista. Some recognized examples include: Higher-context culture: China, India, Korea, Japan, other Asian countries, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Mauritania, Oman, and Yemen, African countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Nigeria, Latin America, the Pacific islands, France, Greece, Finland, Ireland, Italy, and Russia. In the United States, Native Americans and Hawaiian islanders are also considered high-context. Lower-context culture: United States, Germany, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden, Canada, and other European nations. Cultural context can also shift and evolve. For instance, a study has argued that both Japan and Finland (high-context cultures) are becoming lower-context with the increased influence of Western Europe and United States culture. Case studies US, China, and Korea Kim Donghoon conducted a study to test the major aspects of high-context versus low-context culture concepts. The study collected three samples from different cultures - the US, China, and Korea - with 96 business managers surveyed in the American and Chinese samples and 50 managers in the Korean sample. According to Hall's theory, the Chinese and Korean samples represented higher-context cultures while the American sample represents a lower-context culture. The study tested 16 items, covering various aspects of the high-versus-low context concept, including social orientation, responsibility, confrontation, communication, commitment, and dealing with new situations. The results show significant differences between the American, Chinese, and Korean samples on 15 out of 16 items, with 11 items significant at the .01 level, one at the .05 level, and three at the .10 level. The composite score also indicates a significant difference among the three samples at the .01 level. The American sample scored the lowest compared to the two "Oriental samples," which aligns with Hall's concept. Overall, this study provides further evidence to support the high versus low-context culture concepts with Chinese, Korean, and American participants. The study suggests that in high-context cultures, such as China and Korea, people tend to be more socially oriented, less confrontational, and more complacent with existing ways of living compared to people from low-context cultures like the US. Russia and Romania A case study was done on 30 Romanian and 30 Russian employees, to compare high- and low-context cultures, and the results strongly suggested that Russia and Romania are both high-context cultures. The table shows the major differences and similarities between individual queries. Mexico and the U.S. This study is a result of a cross-cultural examination between students from the United States, a low-context culture, and Mexico, a high-context culture, to study the reasons people communicate in each culture. There were 225 Mexican participants from three different undergraduate universities in Mexico City and 447 participants from Kent State University in the U.S. The case study looked into culture shock experienced by Mexicans studying in the U.S. The hypotheses tested indicated the high-context culture in Mexico would provide different motives for communication when compared with the low-context culture of the U.S. The results found that U.S. participants used communication for pleasure more often than Mexican participants. Pleasure, affection, and inclusion were the highest motives for communication in both cultures and control was the lowest for both cultures. Overlap and contrast between context cultures The categories of context cultures are not totally separate. Both often take many aspects of the other's cultural communication abilities and strengths into account. The terms high- and low-context cultures are not classified with strict individual characteristics or boundaries. Instead, many cultures tend to have a mixture or at least some concepts that are shared between them, overlapping the two context cultures.Ramos suggests that "in low context culture, communication members' communication must be more explicit. As such, what is said is what is meant, and further analysis of the message is usually unnecessary." This implies that communication is quite direct and detailed because members of the culture are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories, past experiences, or backgrounds. Because low-context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues. The Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice states that "high context defines cultures that are relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Cultures and communication in which context is of great importance to structuring actions are referred to as high context." In such cultures, people are highly perceptive of actions. Furthermore, cultural aspects such as tradition, ceremony, and history are also highly valued. Because of this, many features of cultural behavior in high-context cultures, such as individual roles and expectations, do not need much detailed or thought-out explanation. According to Watson, "the influence of cultural variables interplays with other key factors – for example, social identities, those of age, gender, social class, and ethnicity; this may include a stronger or weaker influence." A similarity that the two communication styles share is its influence on social characteristics such as age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. For example, for someone who is older and more experienced within a society, the need for social cues may be higher or lower depending on the communication style. The same applies to the other characteristics in varied countries. On the other hand, certain intercultural communication skills are unique for each culture and it is significant to note that these overlaps in communication techniques are represented by subgroups within social interactions or family settings. Many singular cultures that are large have subcultures inside of them, making communication and defining them more complicated than the low-context and high-context culture scale. The diversity within a main culture shows how the high and low scale differs depending on social settings such as school, work, home, and in other countries; variation is what allows the scale to fluctuate even if a large culture is categorized as primarily one or the other. Online Punctuation marks and emojis are more often used by high-context users than low-context users. The tools are used to establish context by adding additional information as personal and social cues are not as presentable as they are in face-to-face negotiations. Miscommunication within cultural contexts Between each type of culture context, there will be forms of miscommunication because of the difference in gestures, social cues, and intercultural adjustments; however, it is important to recognize these differences and learn how to avoid miscommunication to benefit certain situations. Since all sets of cultures differ, especially from a global standpoint where language also creates a barrier for communication, social interactions specific to a culture normally require a range of appropriate communication abilities that an opposing culture may not understand or know about. This significance follows into many situations such as the workplace, which can be prone to diversified cultures and opportunities for collaboration and working together. Awareness of miscommunication between high- and low-context cultures within the workplace or intercultural communication settings advocates for collected unification within a group through the flexibility and ability to understand one another. How higher context relates to other cultural metrics Diversity Families, subcultures, and in-groups typically favor higher-context communication. Groups that are able to rely on a common background may not need to use words as explicitly to understand each other. Settings and cultures where people come together from a wider diversity of backgrounds such as international airports, large cities, or multi-national firms, tend to use lower-context communication forms. Language Hall links language to culture through the work of Sapir-Whorf on linguistic relativity. A trade language will typically need to explicitly explain more of the context than a dialect which can assume a high level of shared context. Because a low-context setting cannot rely on a shared understanding of potentially ambiguous messages, low-context cultures tend to give more information or to be precise in their language. In contrast, a high-context language like Japanese or Chinese can use a high number of homophones but still be understood by a listener who knows the context. Elaborated and restricted codes The concept of elaborated and restricted codes was introduced by sociologist Basil Bernstein in his book Class, Codes and Control. The use of an elaborated code indicates that the speaker and listener do not share significant amounts of common knowledge, and hence they may need to "spell out" their ideas more fully: elaborated codes tend to be more context-independent. In contrast, the use of restricted codes indicates that speakers and listeners do share a great deal of common background and perspectives, and hence much more can be taken for granted and thus expressed implicitly or through nuance: restricted codes tend to be more context-dependent.Restricted codes are commonly used in high-context culture groups, where group members share the same cultural background and can easily understand the implicit meanings "between the lines" without further elaboration. Conversely, in cultural groups with low context, where people share less common knowledge or 'value individuality above group identification', elaborated codes are necessary to avoid misunderstanding. Collectivism and individualism The concepts of collectivism and individualism have been applied to high- and low-context cultures by Dutch psychologist Geert Hofstede in his Cultural Dimensions Theory. Collectivist societies prioritize the group over the individual, and vice versa for individualist ones. In high-context cultures, language may be used to assist and maintain relationship-building and to focus on process. India and Japan are typically high-context, highly collectivistic cultures, where business is done by building relationships and maintaining respectful communication.Individualistic cultures promote the development of individual values and independent social groups. Individualism may lead to communicating to all people in a group in the same way, rather than offering hierarchical respect to certain members. Because individualistic cultures may value cultural diversity, a more explicit way of communicating is often required to avoid misunderstanding. Language may be used to achieve goals or exchange information. The USA and Australia are typically low-context, highly individualistic cultures, where transparency and competition in business are prized. Stability and durability of tradition High-context cultures tend to be more stable, as their communication is more economical, fast, efficient, and satisfying; but these are gained at the price of devoting time to preprogramming cultural background, and their high stability might come with a price of a high barrier for development. By contrast, low-context cultures tend to change more rapidly and drastically, allowing extension to happen at faster rates. This also means that low-context communication may fail due to the overload of information, which makes culture lose its screening function.Therefore, higher-context cultures tend to correlate with cultures that also have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time. For example, Native Americans in the United States have higher-context cultures with a strong sense of tradition and history, compared to general American culture. Focusing on tradition creates opportunities for higher-context messages between individuals of each new generation, and the high-context culture feeds back to the stability hence allowing the tradition to be maintained. This is in contrast to lower-context cultures in which the shared experiences upon which communication is built can change drastically from one generation to the next, creating communication gaps between parents and children, as in the United States. Facial expression and gesture Culture also affects how individuals interpret other people's facial expressions. An experiment performed by the University of Glasgow shows that different cultures have different understanding of the facial expression signals of the six basic emotions, which are the so-called "universal language of emotion"—happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and sadness. In high-context cultures, facial expressions and gestures take on greater importance in conveying and understanding a message, and the receiver may require more cultural context to understand "basic" displays of emotions. Marketing and advertising perspective Cultural differences in advertising and marketing may also be explained through high- and low-context cultures. One study on McDonald's online advertising compared Japan, China, Korea, Hong Kong, Pakistan, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and the United States, and found that in high-context countries, the advertising used more colors, movements, and sounds to give context, while in low-context cultures the advertising focused more on verbal information and linear processes. Website communication Website design among cross-cultural barriers includes factoring in decisions about culture-sensitive color meanings, layout preferences, animation, and sounds. In a case study conducted by the IT University of Copenhagen, it was found that websites catering to high-context cultures tended to have more detailed and advanced designs, including various images and animations. Low-context websites had less animation and more stagnant images, with more details on information. The images found on the websites used in the study promoted individualistic and collectivist characteristics within the low-context and high-context websites, respectively. The low-context websites had multiple images of individuals, while the high-context websites contained images and animations of groups and communities. Limitations of the model In a 2008 meta-analysis of 224 articles published between 1990 and 2006, Peter W. Cardon wrote:[T]he theory was never described by Hall with any empirical rigor, and no known research involving any instrument or measure of contexting validates it. ... Ironically, contexting is most frequently discussed in terms of directness, yet empirical studies nearly all fail to support this relationship. In other words, the relationship between directness and contexting based on traditional classifications of [high-context] and [low-context] cultures is particularly tenuous. Most of the context categories simply have not been researched enough to make firm conclusions. But the fact that contexting has not been empirically validated should not necessarily be construed as a failure of the theory. ... Nonetheless, the contexting model simply cannot be described as an empirically validated model.: 422–3 See also Phatic expression Taarof References Further reading Hall, Edward, T. Beyond Culture. Anchor Books (December 7, 1976). ISBN 978-0385124744 Samovar, Larry A. and Richard E. Porter. Communication Between Cultures. 5th Ed. Thompson and Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-56929-3 External links High and low context cultures	[ "Culture" ]