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Llynoedd Ieuan

Llynoedd Ieuan is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion, Wales. The site is designated as a category IV by the International Union for Conservation of Nature on the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories scale.

Llynoedd Ieuan is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion, Wales. The site is designated as a category IV by the International Union for Conservation of Nature on the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories scale. See also List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion == References ==

Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims

Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims is one of the National Memorial Halls in Hiroshima, Japan.

Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims is one of the National Memorial Halls in Hiroshima, Japan. Overview The Hall was founded by the Japanese national government to mourn the atomic bomb victims in 2002. It was designed by Kenzo Tange. There is another National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims in Nagasaki built for the same purpose. The Hall is in Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park near Hiroshima Peace Memorial across the "Motoyasu River" by "Motoyasu Bridge". The Hall curators are collecting atomic bomb memories and stories from the survivors to mourn the victims, as the survivors are aging. They are also collecting names and photographs of atomic bomb victims for the same purpose and for the same reason. From the collection, they are developing a project to "read the stories of the atomic bombing". Admission is free of charge. See also Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park Hiroshima Peace Memorial Hiroshima Witness Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims External links Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims

Los Angeles Plays Itself

Los Angeles Plays Itself is an American video essay by Thom Andersen, finished in 2003, exploring the way Los Angeles has been presented in movies.

Los Angeles Plays Itself is an American video essay by Thom Andersen, finished in 2003, exploring the way Los Angeles has been presented in movies. Synopsis In the film, Andersen argues that the influence of Hollywood overshadows Los Angeles, and is one of the reasons the city's name is frequently abbreviated. He makes the case that directors have a distaste for modernist architecture, which is regularly used for villains' homes.The documentary also explores the early history of Los Angeles in film, often as a stand in for other cities like Chicago that were bigger in the 1930s, as well as how cinema managed to capture long-gone immigrant enclaves that were razed to make room for downtown skyscrapers in the 1960s and 70s. Production and release Andersen stated that the film idea occurred to him after a lecture he gave at the California Institute of the Arts, where he talked about his objections to L.A. Confidential, Curtis Hanson's 1997 Academy Award-winning neo-noir adapted from James Ellroy's novel about Los Angeles in the 1950s.Consisting almost entirely of clips from other films with narration, the film was not initially released commercially as it was only seen in screenings presented by Andersen, occasional presentations at American Cinematheque and copies distributed via filesharing and other person-to-person methods. In 2014, it was announced that the film would finally be released officially by Cinema Guild. Reception and legacy On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 96% based on 45 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A treat for cinephiles, this documentary is a comprehensive, academic, and enlightening film essay concerning Los Angeles and its depiction in the movies." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".Robert Koehler of Variety wrote: "Los Angeles may be the most photographed city in the world, but it has never have been captured with such complex layers of meaning and fascination as in Thom Andersen's remarkable Los Angeles Plays Itself." Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter called it: "A terrific cinematic essay that will have a very, very long shelf life." The film won the National Film Board Award for Best Documentary at the 2003 Vancouver International Film Festival, and was voted best documentary of 2004 by the Village Voice Critic's Poll. References External links Los Angeles Plays Itself at IMDb Collateral Damage: Los Angeles Continues Playing Itself by Thom Andersen Los Angeles Plays Itself on Metacritic List of movies mentioned in Los Angeles Plays Itself (in order of appearance) Official trailer

Harvey Monroe Hall

Harvey Monroe Hall (March 29, 1874 – March 11, 1932) was an American botanist particularly noted for his taxonomic work in the western United States. Hall was born in Lee County, Illinois, on March 29, 1874, and raised near Riverside, California. He studied botany at the University of California, earning a B.S. in 1901, M.S. in 1902, and Ph.D. in 1906.

Harvey Monroe Hall (March 29, 1874 – March 11, 1932) was an American botanist particularly noted for his taxonomic work in the western United States. Hall was born in Lee County, Illinois, on March 29, 1874, and raised near Riverside, California. He studied botany at the University of California, earning a B.S. in 1901, M.S. in 1902, and Ph.D. in 1906. In 1910, he married fellow University of California graduate Carlotta Case. Their daughter Martha was born in 1916. He died while in Washington, DC for a conference on March 11, 1932. Career and research University of California Studying plant taxonomy under W. L. Jepson at the University of California, Hall completed his doctoral dissertation, The Compositae of Southern California, in 1906. He went on to be a professor of botany at the university and botanist for the agricultural experiment station. His early work focused on taxonomic studies of plants in California, and he added over 200,000 specimens to the herbarium. He resigned from his professorship in 1919, but continued to maintain an office and relationships in Berkeley. Carnegie Institution While professionally established, Hall went to work for ecologist Frederic Clements at the Carnegie Institution Division of Plant Sciences at Stanford University in 1919 in an effort to explore experimental methods of taxonomy. The pair established methods for conducting reciprocal transplant experiments, whereas plants were moved and studied in the habitats of similar taxonomic species. These experiments provided methods for studying plant adaptation, but did not readily explain mechanisms of plant evolution. In 1924, Hall began to work with geneticist, and friend, E. B. Babcock to look beyond ecological methods to genetics and cytology as experimental methods to explore taxonomic and phylogenetic relationships. Hall left Clements group and started to assemble his own experimental team, hiring David Keck and William Hiesey in 1926 and Jens Clausen in 1931. In 1928, Carnegie president John Merriam sent Hall to Europe for a year to study national parks. His report suggested the creation of natural reserves with national parks for the purpose of scientific study. Eponyms Hall Natural Area, Sierra Nevada research area Tetracoccus hallii, Hall's shrubby-spurge Selected works 1902 A botanical survey of San Jacinto mountain (M.S. Thesis) 1907 Compositae of southern California (Ph.D. Thesis) 1910 Studies in ornamental trees and shrubs 1912 A Yosemite flora (with Carlotta Case Hall) 1915 Flora of the Pacific Coast 1918 Rubber-content of North American plants (with Thomas Harper Goodspeed) 1919 Life-zone indicators in California (with Joseph Grinnell) 1921 A rubber plant survey of western North America (with Frances L. Long) 1923 The North American species of Artemisia, Chrysothamnus, and Atriplex (with Frederic E. Clements) 1928 The genus Haplopappus; a phylogenetic study in the Compositae References Associated collections Harvey Monroe Hall Papers, 1859-1991, bulk 1896-1932 Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley Harvey M. and Carlotta C. Hall papers, 1895-1949, University and Jepson Herbaria Archives, University of California, Berkeley

Nabonidus

Nabonidus (Babylonian cuneiform: Nabû-naʾid, meaning "May Nabu be exalted" or "Nabu is praised") was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenian Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Nabonidus was the last native ruler of ancient Mesopotamia, the end of his reign marking the end of thousands of years of Sumero-Akkadian states, kingdoms and empires. He was also the last independent king of Babylon. Regarded as one of the most vibrant and individualistic rulers of his time, Nabonidus is characterised by some scholars as an unorthodox religious reformer and as the first archaeologist. The origins of Nabonidus, his connection to previous royalty, and subsequently what claim he had to the throne remain unclear, given that Nabonidus made no genealogical claims of kinship to previous kings.

Nabonidus (Babylonian cuneiform: Nabû-naʾid, meaning "May Nabu be exalted" or "Nabu is praised") was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenian Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Nabonidus was the last native ruler of ancient Mesopotamia, the end of his reign marking the end of thousands of years of Sumero-Akkadian states, kingdoms and empires. He was also the last independent king of Babylon. Regarded as one of the most vibrant and individualistic rulers of his time, Nabonidus is characterised by some scholars as an unorthodox religious reformer and as the first archaeologist. The origins of Nabonidus, his connection to previous royalty, and subsequently what claim he had to the throne remain unclear, given that Nabonidus made no genealogical claims of kinship to previous kings. This suggests that he was neither related nor connected to the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonian rulers. However, he is known to have had a prominent career of some kind before he became king. It is possible that he was connected to the Chaldean kings via marriage, possibly having married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC). Nabonidus's mother, Adad-guppi, was of Assyrian ancestry. His father, Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, of whom little is known, may also have been either Assyrian or Babylonian. Some historians have speculated that either Adad-guppi or Nabu-balatsu-iqbi were members of the Sargonid dynasty, rulers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire until its fall in 609 BC. Nabonidus was, to his own apparent surprise, proclaimed king after the deposition and murder of Labashi-Marduk (r. 556 BC) in a plot likely led by Nabonidus's son Belshazzar. Throughout his reign, inscriptions and later sources suggest that Nabonidus worked to increase the status of the moon god Sîn and decrease the status of Babylon's traditional national deity Marduk. While some have suggested that Nabonidus wished to go as far as to completely replace Marduk with Sîn as the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon, the extent to which Nabonidus's devotion to Sîn led to religious reforms is debated. Nabonidus was in self-imposed exile in Tayma, Arabia from 552 to 543/542 BC. The reason for this is unknown, though it might have been due to disagreements with the Babylonian clergy and oligarchy. Belshazzar acted as regent in Babylonia during this period, while Nabonidus continued to be recognised as the king. When Nabonidus returned to Babylonia in 543/542 BC, he escalated his religious efforts and rebuilt the Ekhulkhul, the temple dedicated to Sîn in the major northern city of Harran. Nabonidus's reign came to an abrupt end with the quick victory over his empire by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. After the decisive battle of Opis, the Persians entered Babylon without a fight. Several sources state that Nabonidus was captured but spared, and possibly allowed leave to the region of Carmania. He may have been alive in exile as late as the reign of Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC). Background Ancestry and connection to royalty The origins of Nabonidus are obscure, with the scarce available details about him leaving much room for interpretation and speculation. In one of his inscriptions, Nabonidus states the following: I am Nabonidus, the only son, who has nobody. In my mind there was no thought of kingship. Nabonidus's father was a man by the name Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, whom Nabonidus refers to in his inscriptions as a "learned counsellor", "wise prince", "perfect prince" and "heroic governor". That Nabu-balatsu-iqbi is not given a connection to any Babylonian king in Nabonidus's inscriptions, it is typically assumed to indicate that Nabonidus was not closely connected to Babylonia's ruling dynasty (the Chaldean dynasty). In his inscriptions, Nabonidus refers to those who preceded him as kings of Babylon, but he does not claim descent from any of them. In no inscription does Nabonidus elaborate on his father's origin and ethnicity, merely mentioning his name and writing that he was courageous, wise and devout. Curiously, no person named Nabu-balatsu-iqbi who can reasonably be identified as Nabonidus's father appears in documents prior to Nabonidus's reign, thus making his father's status and position unclear. The repeated references of Nabu-balatsu-iqbi as "prince" in Nabonidus's inscriptions suggests some sort of noble status and political importance.Nabonidus's mother was Adad-guppi, born in c. 648/649 BC. Although once assumed to have been part of the Babylonian royal harem, no evidence exists to date that Adad-guppi was indeed the concubine of Nabonidus's predecessors. She was, however, influential at the royal Babylonian court, according to her own inscriptions claiming that she wielded influence with the kings Nabopolassar (r. 626–605 BC), Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC) and Neriglissar (r. 560–556 BC). While no conclusive evidence currently exists, Adad-guppi is often assumed to have come from the major city Harran in northern Mesopotamia (where she later lived), and as having been of Assyrian ancestry.According to Canadian Assyriologist Paul-Alain Beaulieu, Nabonidus's later intense interest in Harran, a peripheral city of his empire, can only be explained if he and his mother had originated in Harran. The Dynastic Prophecy, a later document written after the conquest of Babylonia by Alexander the Great centuries later, corroborates that Nabonidus would have originated in Harran, as it regards Nabonidus as the founder, and sole representative, of the "dynasty of Harran". According to Beaulieu, Adagoppe may have been Aramean, rather than Assyrian, as her name "seems to be Aramean". In Harran, Adad-guppi served as a priestess devoted to the moon god, Sîn. There is no evidence that Adad-guppi was a high-ranking priestess, as the only titles she claims in her inscriptions are "mother of Nabonidus" and "worshipper of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku and Sadarnunna".Adad-guppi's association with Harran, and that she had likely married Nabu-balatsu-iqbi early in her life (as was the custom in ancient Mesopotamia), would mean that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi was most probably also a prominent resident of that city, and possibly of Assyrian or Aramean origin. Frauke Weiershäuser and Jamie Novotny speculated that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi could have been an Aramean chief. Stephen Herbert Langdon theorised that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi was a son of Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and thus one of Ashurbanipal's brothers, but there is no concrete evidence for this relation.Per Nabonidus's own inscriptions and the inscriptions by Adad-guppi, wherein Nabonidus is called her "only son" several times, it can be confidently ascertained that Nabonidus was an only child. It is probable that Adad-guppi first came to Babylon as a prisoner after the Babylonians and Medes sacked Harran in 610 BC during the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire. By 610 BC, she was already 39 years old. Presumably, Nabonidus was already born at this point, though his exact year of birth is yet unknown. In one of her inscriptions, Adad-guppi claims to have seen her descendants down to her great-great-grandchildren (i.e. Nabonidus's great-grandchildren) in her lifetime, totalling four generations of descendants. If the time between generations is estimated at approximately 20–25 years, and assuming that her great-great-grandchildren were approximately five years old by the time of Adad-guppi's death, Nabonidus could not have been born later than c. 615 BC, however he could very well have been born earlier.It is possible as well that Nabonidus married one of Nebuchadnezzar II's daughters, a marriage which could potentially have been secured through his mother's influence. Not only would such a connection explain Nabonidus's rise to the throne (being connected to the royal family) but it would also explain later historical traditions in which Nabonidus's son, Belshazzar, is described as Nebuchadnezzar II's descendant; as in the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible, where Belshazzar is referred to as Nebuchadnezzar II's (grand)son. The claim of Belshazzar being Nebuchadnezzar II's descendant however, could also alternatively derive from royal propaganda, rather than true genealogical information. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus names the "last great queen" of the Babylonian Empire as Nitocris, but neither that name, nor any other name, is attested in contemporary Babylonian sources. Herodotus's description of Nitocris contains a wealth of legendary material making it difficult to determine whether he uses the name to refer to Nabonidus's wife or mother. William H. Shea proposed in 1982, that Nitocris may tentatively be identified as the name of Nabonidus's wife and Belshazzar's mother.In her inscriptions, Adad-guppi also claimed that Nabonidus was from the dynastic line of Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC), king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. According to her inscriptions, Adad-guppi was born in Ashurbanipal's twentieth year as king. At the time of her birth, Harran had been a major Assyrian stronghold and when the Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in 609 BC, Harran was the capital of its government in exile. On account of her claims in regards to Nabonidus being of Sargonid (Ashurbanipal's dynasty) ancestry, Stephanie Dalley in 2003 considered it "almost certain" that Adad-guppi was a daughter of Ashurbanipal. Michael B. Dick opposed Dalley's conviction in 2004, pointing out that even though Nabonidus did go to some length to revive some old Assyrian symbols (such as wearing a wrapped cloak in his depictions, absent in those of other Neo-Babylonian kings but present in Assyrian art) and attempted to link himself to the Sargonid dynasty, there is "no evidence whatsoever that Nabonidus was related to the Sargonid dynasty". According to Beaulieu, that Adad-goppi did not explicitly claim any royal ancestors herself points to a humble origin. As inscriptions by female relatives of kings are relatively rare, it is however probable, according to Wilfred G. Lambert, that Adad-guppi was of some high status. Pre-royal career According to Herodotus, an official by the name Labynetus (the same name used for Nabonidus in ancient Greek sources) was present as a mediator and witness on behalf of Babylon at the negotiations conducted between the Median and Lydian kingdoms after the Battle of the Eclipse in 585 BC. It is possible that this ambassador was the same person as the Nabonidus who later became Babylon's king.The name of Nabonidus is otherwise poorly attested in sources prior to his reign. A Nabonidus is listed as the head witnesses in a 597 BC legal document; however, it is unclear whether this is the same person as the later king, especially given that the text could be interpreted as referring to Nabonidus as a son of Nebuchadnezzar II. However, it is unlikely that king Nabonidus would have failed to mention being a son of Nebuchadnezzar II. If they are the same person, and the document does not call him the son of the king, his office listed in the document, ša muḫḫi āli (an official in charge of a city) would mean that the date of Nabonidus's birth has to be pushed back further, to before 620 BC, to account for the age necessary to hold that office. If the Nabonidus mentioned is not Nebuchadnezzar II's son, then the document does not name the father of this Nabonidus, which suggests that he was of high rank (fathers and grandfathers were otherwise usually mentioned for distinguishing purposes), and he could then conceivably be the same person as the later king. The wording could be interpreted as "the son of a man of the king" (i.e. a prince), rather than "the son of the king", which in that case, would explain Nabonidus' references to his father as a prince, in his royal inscriptions.There is also another letter from some point between the early 590s BC and the 570s BC, wherein a Nabonidus is described as having requested the levies of a particular region to be raised. Whether this Nabonidus is the same person as the future king is also unclear. The lack of confident mentions of Nabonidus in sources before his rise to the throne could suggest the possibility that Nabonidus was not his birth name, but an assumed regnal name, however the meaning of the name, i.e., "may Nabû be exalted", weakens that possibility.The Babylonian historian Berossus, active centuries later during the Hellenistic period, wrote that Nabonidus had been a 'priest of Bêl'. A religious function could possibly explain Nabonidus's absence of mention in earlier documents. In her inscriptions, Adad-guppi claims to have introduced her son Nabonidus to king Nebuchadnezzar II and king Neriglissar, and that Nabonidus thereafter performed duties for them "day and night" and "regularly did whatever pleased them". As Nabonidus is considered to have been a learned man, one who knew how to write, and who quarreled with numerous priests and scholars, it is possible that he was a courtier at the royal court before he became king; however, no records of a prominent courtier by his name are known. Reign Rise to the throne Nabonidus rose to the throne in the aftermath of the collapse of the direct dynastic line of the Chaldean dynasty. After the brief reign of Neriglissar, a son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, the throne had been inherited in April 556 BC by Neriglissar's son Labashi-Marduk. Berossus erroneously wrote that Labashi-Marduk ruled for nine months (though this might be attributable to a scribal error) and stated that Labashi-Marduk's "evil ways" led to his friends plotting against him, eventually resulting in the "child king" being beaten to death. The plotters then agreed that Nabonnedos (Nabonidus), one of the plotters, should rule. The reason for the coup against Labashi-Marduk is unknown. It is possible that despite Labashi-Marduk and his father being well-connected and wealthy, they were ultimately seen as commoners, lacking noble blood. Though Labashi-Marduk may have been the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar II through his mother, making him part of the royal bloodline, it is also possible he was the son of Neriglissar and a different wife. Thus, Labashi-Marduk's rise to the throne might have signified a true break in the dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar II and might as such have aroused opposition from the Babylonian populace. Although Berossus refers to Labashi-Marduk as a child, it possible that he became king as an adult since commercial texts from two years earlier indicate that Labashi-Marduk was in charge of his own affairs at that time.Though Nabonidus in his inscriptions claims that he had few supporters and that he did not covet the throne himself, he must have been a leading figure in the conspiracy that led to the deposition and death of Labashi-Marduk. Nabonidus enjoyed consistent support from the Babylonian military throughout his reign and it is possible that the army played a role in his rise to the throne. Though Berossus claimed Labashi-Marduk ruled for nine months, the Uruk King List only gives Labashi-Marduk a reign of three months and contract tablets from Babylonia suggest that he might have ruled as briefly as just two months. It appears that there was a period of either confusion, after a discrete palace coup, or a brief civil war. Per contract tablets, Labashi-Marduk was still recognised as king at Uruk up until at least 19 June, and in the city of Sippar until at least 20 June. The earliest tablet dated to the reign of Nabonidus at Sippar is from 26 June. However, a tablet written as early as 25 May from Nippur is dated to Nabonidus's reign and the last tablet dated to Labashi-Marduk's reign at Babylon itself is from 24 May. The earliest tablet dated to Nabonidus at Babylon itself is from 14 July. This evidence can be reconciled by positing that Nabonidus may have been recognised in the Babylonian heartland, including Nippur and Babylon, already on 25 May, whereas some outlying cities continued to recognise Labashi-Marduk (even though he quite possibly was dead at the time on account of a possible palace coup) as king until June. By the end of June 556 BC, tablets dated to Nabonidus are known from across Babylonia.On account of his mother's age, and Nabonidus having had a long career in royal service before 556 BC, he must have been relatively old by the time he became king. It appears that Nabonidus had not intended to become king, and that he accepted the kingship reluctantly. Though a reluctance to accept royal power is often used as a form of royal propaganda, there are several inscriptions by Nabonidus, some dated more than a decade into his reign (at a point when he no longer needed to justify his rule with legitimacy) wherein he points out that he did not covet the throne. In one inscription, Nabonidus describes himself as visiting the sanctuaries of Marduk and Nabû in search for guidance, with a troubled conscience and questioning if his accession was legitimate: The heart of Marduk, my lord, calmed down. Reverently I praised (him) and sought after his sanctuary with prayers and supplications. Thus I addressed (my) prayers to him, telling him what was in my heart: Let me indeed be a king who pleases your heart, I who, not knowing, had no thought of kingship for myself, when you, O lord of lords, have entrusted me with (a rulership) more important than the rulerships which have been exerted in the past by other kings whom you have called. Lengthen my days, may my years become old, let me fulfill the function of the provider. It is thus possible that whereas Nabonidus was a prominent figure in the group of conspirators that deposed and killed Labashi-Marduk, he had no intention of assuming the throne himself but was convinced to by the other conspirators. It is probable that the chief orchestrator behind the conspiracy against Labashi-Marduk was Nabonidus's son, Belshazzar. Belshazzar was the chief beneficiary of the entire affair, as he became the designated heir to the throne, and also inherited the large private estates of Labashi-Marduk, becoming one of the richest and most prominent men in Babylonia overnight. Belshazzar could not have claimed the throne for himself while his father was still alive, but by placing his father on the throne, an old man (meaning that his reign could be expected to be transitional, only lasting a few years), Belshazzar thought the throne secured for himself in the future. Early reign The earliest recorded activity of Nabonidus as king was visiting the city of Sippar on 4 July 556 BC, where he donated three minas of gold in the city's temple, the Ebabbar temple. The purpose of the visit may have been political, given that Sippar recognised Labashi-Marduk as king just two weeks prior, nearly a month after Nabonidus had been proclaimed king.In the fall of 556 BC, Nabonidus led the Babylonian army on a campaign to Hume, eastern Cilicia, where Neriglissar had campaigned in 557 BC. That Nabonidus campaigned there so shortly after Neriglissar's campaign could suggest that Syria, which was under Bablyonian suzerainty, was threatened by raiders from Cilicia, or could point towards Nabonidus, in general, being concerned about the security of the empire. This initial campaign was successful and prisoners, gifts and booty were brought back to Babylon to use in the annual New Year's festival. Babylonian records give the number of prisoners later distributed as temple slaves as 2,850. After celebrating the New Year's festival, Nabonidus embarked on a short trip to southern Babylonia, visiting the cities of Kish, Larsa, Uruk and Ur. At Uruk, he conducted detailed reorganisations of the Eanna temple, making adjustments to the scheme of sacrificial offerings, and restored some offerings that had been interrupted under Neriglissar's reign. One inscription suggests that Nabonidus went on a second successful campaign to Cilicia in 555 BC, on the way perhaps attacking the city Hama in Syria, but the record is fragmentary.Though Nabonidus made the traditional royal donations to the temples in Babylon, the major building effort of his reign, proclaimed as his intention shortly after he became king, was restoring the temple Ekhulkhul, the temple dedicated to Sîn in Harran, which had been destroyed by the Medes in 610 BC. Nabonidus noted at the beginning of his reign that the date of the temple's destruction was a strange coincidence: it had been destroyed exactly 54 years before he became king. 54 years is three 18-year cycles, or a complete cycle of the moon. Though the Elhulkhul was not restored until after Nabonidus returned from a long period of staying in Tayma in Arabia, it is possible that construction work started considerably earlier and it appears to have been his goal since he assumed the throne. Nabonidus's inscriptions also mention that the Medes threatened Harran, "surrounding" it, and it is possible that building work was postponed until later in his reign due to the threat of Median raiders disturbing the building efforts. According to his inscriptions Nabonidus had been ordered to restore the temple by both Marduk and Sîn in a dream, and the gods had assured him that the Medes would eventually be restored so that construction could begin without being threatened by raids. In addition to Nabonidus's own religious beliefs, the restoration of the Ekhulkhul, and the city of Harran surrounding it, may also have been politically motivated. Since the downfall of Assyria, political hegemony in the Near East had been divided between Babylonia and the Medes, an issue that remained unresolved by the time of Nabonidus. As Nabonidus often refers to, and likens himself to, his predecessors Nebuchadnezzar II and Neriglissar, both conquerors and warriors, and several inscriptions allude to Nabonidus being preoccupied with military matters in his accession year, it seems that Nabonidus was preparing to resolve the matter. Nabonidus in Tayma In May 553 BC, Nabonidus departed to campaign in Arabia, initially to suppress a rebellion in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. The Babylonians achieved victory relatively quickly, and Nabonidus still remained near the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in August, overseeing the transport of supplies back to Babylon. After a period of illness, Nabonidus then moved on Amurru and Edom and captured an otherwise unknown city. By December 553 BC or January 552 BC, Nabonidus was campaigning in Arabia, fighting against the king of Dadanu. By March or April, Nabonidus had defeated the king of Dadanu, and had captured other cities in Arabia, including the city of Tayma, which he had established as a provisionary seat for himself by the summer of 552 BC. Babylonian sources state that Nabonidus conquered Arabian lands as far south as Medina (called Yatribu at this time). After conquering Tayma, Nabonidus would stay there for about a decade, not returning to Babylon until September or October of 543 or 542 BC. October 543 BC is the return date most supported by surviving Babylonian documentation. The purpose for this prolonged stay, effectively self-exile, in Tayma are unclear and debated, with no proposed explanation having universal support.The history of this period is poorly known and cannot be reconstructed in great detail, on account of a lack of sources. Entries in several royal chronicles for this period are completely, or nearly completely, missing. According to the Verse Account of Nabonidus, a biased document probably written in the reign of Cyrus the Great (who ultimately deposed Nabonidus), Nabonidus conducted extensive building work at Tayma, fortifying it with new walls, embellishing it with new buildings and constructing a royal palace similar to, but likely considerably smaller than, his royal palace at Babylon, essentially rebuilding the city in a Babylonian fashion. Modern archaeological excavations at Tayma has revealed that the city underwent considerable expansion during the 6th century, including the construction of an extensive irrigation system. Some motifs on some of the ruins point towards a clear Babylonian influence, such as an offering table with a crescent, a star and a winged disk (reminiscent of religious motifs in Babylonia).The reason for the Arabian campaign in the first place is not difficult to ascertain, as it probably represents the next step in the growing expansionism of Babylonia in the west. Babylonian forces had first come into contact with the Arabian kingdoms proper with the conquest of the Levant from Assyria, and the campaign was most likely intended to expand the Babylonian Empire westwards. Due to the many trade routes passing through Arabia, the region was incredibly wealthy and represented an appealing target. It is possible that the intention of conquering Tayma was to control these important trade routes that ran through the city (including the major trade route from Egypt to Babylon). To efficiently reap the benefits of the trade route, authority would have had to be enforced by a strong, local Babylonian force. However, stationing a Babylonian force at Tayma and leaving a governor in charge would have sufficed, the king would not have needed to stay in Arabia for ten years in order to pacify the region. Furthermore, beyond economical gains, the Tayma region was not of much strategic use. The Arabs were not a threat to Babylon, or any other power at this time, and though Egypt was a potentially powerful adversary, dealing with the Egyptians through fortifying a city isolated deep in Arabia, rather than fortifying and garrisoning the Babylonian lands in Palestine, would have been an unlikely strategy. Due to the remote and inaccessible location of Tayma, an argument that Nabonidus intended to move the centre of gravity of his empire westwards, through constructing a new capital there, has no basis.Though Nabonidus could have been motivated to stay in Tayma for religious reasons, given that there were several prominent lunar deities in the region and Nabonidus was a devotee of the moon god Sîn, it seems unlikely that such a large endeavour would have been motivated solely by faith. Per Wiseman, any religious explanations for the prolonged stay at Tayma can be discarded as no sources mention the presence or construction of Babylonian temples, or a temple dedicated to Sîn, in the city. Beaulieu also points out that the Verse Account of Nabonidus, otherwise very focused on the king's religious beliefs, makes no mention of any religious activities at Tayma, which it surely would have done had the campaign and prolonged stay been religiously motivated.During Nabonidus's stay at Tayma, his son and heir Belshazzar was put in charge of ruling in Babylon as regent. It is possible that the prolonged stay in Tayma was the result of a political struggle with a faction, possibly led by his own son Belshazzar, opposing Nabonidus's reformist religious stance, and an agreement was reached to go into self-imposed exile while Belshazzar ruled as regent in Babylon. In his own inscriptions, Nabonidus attributes his stay at Tayma to the "impiety of the Babylonians".Nabonidus probably only campaigned in the west after making sure that the Medes in the north were no longer a threat. Beaulieu believes it possible that Nabonidus had encouraged Cyrus the Great to rebel and wage war against the Medes, and had even allied with him, seeing as the beginning of Nabonidus's stay in Tayma coincides with the beginning of Cyrus's reign. Per, Beaulieu: "unless one assumes that the king was totally devoid of strategic ability, it seems hard to believe that he would have engaged a significant part of the Babylonian army in a long campaign to Arabia without making sure that the northern and eastern borders of the empire would be secure, at least for a certain number of years". As the stay in Tayma continued, Cyrus the Great consolidated a vast empire under his rule. Belshazzar as regent became acutely aware of the threat presented by Cyrus's growing Achaemenid Empire, as he is recorded as having expended resources at projects in Sippar and nearby defenses. Religious policies Nabonidus has typically been characterised as attempting religious reforms in Babylonia, wishing to raise the moon god Sîn to the status of supreme deity and demoting the Babylonian national deity Marduk. The elevation of Sîn was similar to how the deity Inanna was elevated to a prominent position in Uruk during the time of the Akkadian Empire, more than a thousand years prior, or how Marduk had originally been elevated in Babylonia under Nebuchadnezzar I (r. c. 1125–1104 BC). In contrast to these earlier successful exaltations, the attempt to elevate Sîn met with failure. This failure is because the exaltation of Sîn met with considerable opposition within Babylonia itself, and because the invasion and conquest by the Persians put an end to the political means with which the exaltation could be completed. In addition to building inscriptions, the Verse Account of Nabonidus also alludes to attempts to establish Sîn as the foremost god of the Mesopotamian pantheon. The publication of the Verse Account in 1924 saw scholarly attention being given to other inscriptions and records concerning Nabonidus. Notably, many of his inscriptions fail to acknowledge Marduk as the head of the pantheon, or omit him entirely, and they often contain disproportionate praise for Sîn. It seems probable that Nabonidus's devotion to Sîn steadily increased throughout his reign, as the epithets granted to Marduk and Sîn throughout his reign varied considerably. Even early in his reign, the epithets granted to Marduk were only the minimum, epithets such as "king of the gods", "lord of lords" and "leader of the gods", a notably smaller array of titles than usual. In contrast Sîn is granted a large array of epithets, including some previously unheard of, with examples such as "shining god", "light of mankind", "exalted god" and "exalted lord". Nabonidus could hardly have moved to issue religious reforms early in his reign, especially as he had only taken the throne through usurpation. His early inscriptions are ostensibly orthodox, though point towards intentional restraint in glorifying Marduk and intentional disproportionate glorification of Sîn.Inscriptions from the time Nabonidus spent in Tayma seem to suggest that the king returned to "orthodoxy" during this period, with inscriptions no longer glorifying Sîn to a disproportionate degree (the deity barely being mentioned) and instead giving Marduk more elaborate and appropriate epithets, such as "foremost of the gods", "lofty king of the gods", "lord of everything" and "king of heaven and the underworld". These inscriptions stand in sharp contrast to inscriptions by Nabonidus in the years after his return to Babylon, wherein Sîn is repeatedly exalted and Marduk is more or less ignored, with the exception of one inscriptions where he appears merely as Sîn's companion. It is possible that the return to orthodoxy during Nabonidus's time in Tayma was because Babylonia was under the regency of Belshazzar, who might have convinced Nabonidus to stay away from Babylonia and instituted a clear return to orthodoxy, fearing confrontation with the oligarchy and clergy.Inscriptions from the time after Nabonidus's return to Babylon suggest he was no longer hesitant to exalt Sîn, and that he began imposing a religious reform that went as far as to reject Marduk, who had been Babylon's undisputed supreme deity for at least six centuries. Several inscriptions attribute Marduk's traditional titles, for instance "king of the gods" and "father and creator of the gods" to Sîn, for instance this inscription concerning building work at the Ebabbar temple in Larsa (not the same temple as the one of the same name at Sippar), attributes Marduk's traditional titles to Sîn: As for the Ebabbar, the temple of Šamaš at Larsa, because in distant days Sîn, the king of the gods, the lord of the gods and goddesses dwelling in heaven and the underworld, became angry with that city and temple, big heaps of sand accumulated over it and its chapel could not be seen anymore. Some inscriptions also point towards an attempt at historical revisionism, with the successes of Nebuchadnezzar II being attributed to in inscriptions not to Marduk, but to Sîn, and one inscription describing Sîn, rather than the Assyrian deity Ashur, as having entrusted the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal with universal rule. Sîn also replaced Marduk's role of calling rulers forth for kingship. One inscription states that Nabonidus had been destined for kingship by the deities Sîn and Ningal (Sîn's consort) in his mother's womb. The exaltation of Sîn reached its height after the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul and Nabonidus's latest known text containing religious elements goes as far as to refer to Marduk's traditional dwellings in Babylon, the temples Esagila and Ezida, as the temples and dwellings of Sîn. Though it does not appear that the Esagila was ever "usurped" by Sîn, replacing Marduk in the temple by Sîn was a plan seriously considered by Nabonidus, who justified it by pointing out that there was lunar symbolism in temple through it being marked with a crescent symbol, which must have meant that it was originally intended for Sîn. In one inscription, Sîn is given the epithet "god of gods", the highest known epithet ever given to a Mesopotamian deity.Concrete evidence surrounding Nabonidus's religious ideas is relatively scarce and no surviving documents contain any theological foundations for the king's faith and beliefs. Not all historians share the view that Nabonidus was a religious reformer. According to Donald Wiseman, Nabonidus "did not seek to create any exclusive role for [Sîn] in Babylon". Wiseman characterises Nabonidus as deeply religious and in support of Marduk, as all other Babylonian kings. In addition to the Elhulkhul temple, Nabonidus is also recorded in inscriptions as having conducted restoration work at temples in Babylon itself, Larsa, Sippar and Nippur. Wiseman attributes the opposition by religious official towards Nabonidus to that the king had introduced a new royal cash box in temples and sanctuaries, wherein some of the income of the temples was to be provided to the king, under the supervision of royal officials, and notes that Cyrus the Great's later documents referring to Nabonidus as irreverent in regards to Marduk could be propaganda. Though Nabonidus uses uncharacteristically high epithets for Sîn in many inscriptions, Weiherhäuser and Novotny pointed out that a majority of these epithets are generally limited to inscriptions and texts that document work on the Ekhulkhul temple in Harran, Sîn's cultic centre. Thus, Weiherhäuser and Novotny do not consider the evidence strong enough to support the idea that Nabonidus fanatically promoted Sîn, and sought to fully replace Marduk, within Babylonia itself. Late reign and fall of Babylon It is unclear why Nabonidus returned to Babylon from Tayma. Potential explanations include fearing the growing power of Cyrus the Great or perhaps serious disagreements with Belshazzar on religion and the extent of his authority. Upon his return, he also swiftly began to seriously institute his intended religious reforms, perhaps expending so much effort because of his advanced age and wanting to see the reforms through before he died. The major project of Nabonidus's later reign was the completion of the building projects at the Ekhulkhul in Harran, with the temple rebuilt directly on top of its original foundation. Nabonidus himself considered the rebuilding of the temple to be the major achievement of his reign. Building work was also conducted in Ur, Larsa, Sippar and Akkad. Some evidence suggests that there was famine in Babylonia during Nabonidus's later reign. Nabonidus appears to have attributed it to a sign of Sîn's wrath that the people were not responsive to the king's religious reforms, whereas the populace likely attributed it to Marduk's wrath with the king's heretical faith.The New Year's festival, suspended during the king's absence in Tayma, was celebrated in its traditional manner annually once again after Nabonidus returned. It is noteworthy that the festival was suspended in Nabonidus's absence given that it was effectively an annual reinstatement of Marduk's authority and was conducted to ensure the well-being of Babylon. The threat of Cyrus loomed ever closer. Though the records are too fragmentary to tell with certainty, it appears that there was already a confrontation between Persian and Babylonian troops in the winter of 540/539 BC, near Uruk. After the celebration of the New Year's festival in 539 BC, Nabonidus had the statues of the gods of Uruk, Akkad, Kish, Marad and Khursagkalamma brought to the capital for safety, the conventional first step in anticipation of attacks from the north-east. This suggests that Nabonidus expected a Persian attack and was making preparations several months before it came. Though this was the conventional method to protect the divine statues in times of war (victorious enemies typically stole cultic statues), transport of statues in this fashion caused considerable disruption in the cults of the gods transported. For instance, the transport of the statue of Ishtar from Uruk to Babylon probably meant that offerings of food and drink had to be carried from Uruk to Babylon to give to the statue, to ensure that the cult was not interrupted. The gods of some cities close to Babylon, such as Cutha, Sippar and Borsippa, were not brought to the capital. The reason for this is not known, but speculative explanations have been proposed. Sidney Smith, who published the translation of the Nabonidus Cylinder, suggested in 1924 that Nabonidus could have summoned the statues of those cities to the capital as well, but that the local priesthoods were disgusted by Nabonidus's attempt at religious reform and thus refused. Smith later proposed an alternative hypothesis, wherein he postulated that Sippar, Borsippa and Cutha were in the Babylonian heartland, protected by strong fortifications and the Median Wall (built under Nebuchadnezzar II to protect against attacks from the north), and as such would not have needed to send their statues to Babylon for protection, whereas more outlying cities such as Uruk were not as well-protected. This seems unlikely given that Kish and Khursagkalamma were closer to Babylon than Sippar was. Furthermore, Stefan Zawadzki demonstrated in 2012 that Sippar did send certain gods to Babylon, just not their main statue of their patron deity Shamash. This means that the explanation of Sippar and the other cities refusing to send their gods to Babylon seems unlikely. Zawadzki offered several possible explanations, including that Sippar wished to celebrate its traditional cultic rituals, which were close in time to the Persian invasion, and that there thus was not any time to transfer the statue to Babylon, or that perhaps Nabonidus himself had ordered the statue to remain in Sippar. Nabonidus might have ordered this since he intended to stop the Persians a short distance north of Sippar, and removing the statue from Sippar could have been construed as Nabonidus not having faith in his own victory.Shortly after the last gods had entered Babylon, Cyrus invaded Babylonia. Despite Nabonidus's preparations, Babylonia fell to the Persians relatively quickly, the conflict lasting less than a month. It seems probable that the Persian invasion was preceded by a revolt by a man by the name Ugbaru, who might have been the appointed Babylonian governor of the region of Gutium. Ugbaru revolted against Nabonidus, joined Cyrus, and was made the primary general in the Babylonian campaign. Depending on when it took place, Ugbaru's revolt may have been one of the factors that made Nabonidus return from Tayma. Cyrus's first move was to attack the city of Opis. The battle of Opis was a decisive Persian victory, inflicting heavy casualties on the Babylonians and forcing the Babylonian forces to retreat beyond the Median Wall. Shortly thereafter, on 10 October 539 BC, Sippar was taken by Cyrus without a fight and Nabonidus retreated to Babylon. Why Sippar surrendered without a fight is not clear. It is possible the authorities at Sippar were disgruntled with Nabonidus's religious policies or else viewed the Babylonian defeat at Opis as so decisive that further resistance was pointless. Evidently there was some confusion at the time given that a tablet from Sippar, dated to 11 October (the day after the city's fall) was still dated to the reign of Nabonidus.On 12 October, the Persian army, led by the governor Ugbaru, entered Babylon without a fight. The last tablet dated to Nabonidus's reign is from Uruk and is dated to 13 October, which is usually considered the end date of his reign. Shield-bearing Persian troops were assigned to guard the temples of Babylon, so that priests in safety could continue their services and rituals. On 29 or 30 October, Cyrus himself entered Babylon as its new king. He received the acclamation of the people, though whether it was as a liberator from oppression, as Cyrus presented himself, or as a conqueror, is open to interpretation. The end of Nabonidus's reign is sometimes alternatively dated to Babylon's fall to the Persians on 12 October, a day earlier than the last tablet dated to Nabonidus's reign, or to Cyrus's entry into the city, when Cyrus formally became king. Fate Ancient accounts differ as to the fate of Nabonidus after the fall of Babylon. The 5th/4th-century BC Greek historian Xenophon wrote that Ugbaru (or 'Gobryas') killed Nabonidus upon the capture of Babylon, but it is possible that Xenophon meant Belshazzar, whose death at the fall of Babylon is also recorded in the Biblical Book of Daniel. Berossus wrote that Nabonidus surrendered to Cyrus at Borsippa after the fall of Babylon who dealt with him "in a gracious manner", sparing his life and allowing him to retire, or possibly appointing him to be a governor, in Carmania (approximately the modern Kerman Province in Iran), where Nabonidus lived out the rest of his life. The royal chronicle simply states that Nabonidus was captured in Babylon after retreating, leaving his subsequent fate unclear. The Dynastic Prophecy corroborates Berossus's account, by stating that Nabonidus was removed from his throne and settled "in another land". If Berossus is believed, Nabonidus lived into the reign of Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC), outliving both Cyrus and Cyrus's son and successor Cambyses II, given that Berossus claims that "King Darius, however, took away a part of his province for himself". Given the age of his mother at the time of her death, it is not impossible that Nabonidus too would have lived for over a century.The fate of Belshazzar is unknown, given that none of the sources describe what happened to him. It is typically assumed that Belshazzar was killed by the Persians at Babylon when the city fell, on 12 October, though he may alternatively already have been killed at the battle of Opis, captured and executed, or exiled together with his father. Family, children and descendants Details on Nabonidus's family are scarce. He likely had a large family even prior to becoming king, seeing as his mother Adad-guppi in her inscriptions claims that she had great-great-grandchildren, and Nabonidus was presumably Adad-guppi's only child. Adad-guppi having great-great-grandchildren means that Nabonidus would have had great-grandchildren early in his reign, though the names, lineage, number and genders of these descendants are not mentioned. The known children of Nabonidus are: Belshazzar (Akkadian: Bēl-šar-uṣur) – a son. Crown prince throughout Nabonidus's reign and regent 553–543/542 BC. Ennigaldi-Nanna (Akkadian: En-nigaldi-Nanna) – a daughter. Consecrated by her father as an entum-priestess in Ur. Ina-Esagila-remat or Ina-Esagila-risat (Akkadian: Ina-Esagil-rīšat) – a daughter. Mentioned as the recipient of a tithe at Sippar, otherwise little is known of her. Akkabuʾunma (Akkadian: Akkabuʾunma, exact reading uncertain) – a daughter. Recorded in archival texts at Sippar. Possibly another daughter recorded in archival texts at Sippar, however, her name is unknown.Some later Babylonians would lay claim to descent from Nabonidus. Nidintu-Bêl, who rebelled against the Achaemenid king Darius the Great in late 522 BC and was proclaimed as Babylon's king, took the name Nebuchadnezzar III and claimed to be a son of Nabonidus. Nidintu-Bêl's real father was a man named Mukīn-zēri from the local prominent Zazakku family. Less than a year after Nidintu-Bêl's defeat, Babylon rebelled against Darius again in 521 BC. This time, the leader was Arakha, who like Nidintu-Bêl proclaimed himself to be a son of Nabonidus and took the name Nebuchadnezzar IV. Arakha was actually the son of a man by the name of Haldita and was not a native Babylonian, but rather a Urartian (Armenian). Legacy Character and remembrance No other Neo-Babylonian king has been characterised in as varied a manner as Nabonidus. Though some Classical authors forgot, or omitted, details of Nabonidus in their accounts of Babylonia, only preserving him as a name in their lists of kings, the Achaemenid Empire that succeeded the reign of Nabonidus in Babylonia viewed his rule as an example that should never be emulated. The Achaemenids did not consider Nabonidus's more traditional work, restoring temples etc., to be important, but emphasised in their historiography the points when Nabonidus went contrary to what was expected of a Babylonian king. Cyrus the Great justified his conquest of Babylon by presenting himself as a champion divinely ordained by Marduk and by writing accounts of Nabonidus's "heretical" acts.After the fall of Babylon, a legend of Nabonidus having been mad, on account of his religious policies, gradually formed, which would eventually find its way into Hellenistic and Jewish tradition. In the Book of Daniel, Nabonidus's supposed madness is reattributed to Nebuchadnezzar II. The accusation of insanity is not found in any cuneiform sources. The Verse Account is highly critical of Nabonidus, especially his religious policies, and though it presents Cyrus the Great as a liberator rather than conqueror, it makes no direct claim that Nabonidus was insane. The Dynastic Prophecy and the Cyrus Cylinder offer similar accounts, criticising Nabonidus and his policies, but not characterising him as mad. Some Babylonian sources are more neutral. The Babylonian Chronicle, a more objective account of Babylonian history, records the king as being absent from Babylon for years on end, and the resulting suspension of the New Year's festival, but does not pass any judgement on these events. In his history of Babylonia, Berossus presents Nabonidus as a usurper, which Nabonidus himself admitted to being, but reports nothing that could be construed as negative assessment of the king. As such, it is clear that contemporary views of Nabonidus were not completely negative. Had the Babylonians universally dismissed Nabonidus as an incompetent and impious heretic, it is also unlikely that two later Babylonian rebels would have claimed to be his sons. Cuneiform sources suggest that the Babylonians remembered Nabonidus as unorthodox and misguided, but not insane.The Aramaic-language Prayer of Nabonidus, one of texts in the Dead Sea Scrolls, texts in Jewish tradition written centuries later, contains what might be the origin of the tale of Nabonidus being mad. The prayer claims that Nabonidus was afflicted with a terrible skin disease for seven years, which he was cured of by praying to the god of the Jews. The story is similar to Mesopotamian traditions of kings being cursed by the gods with skin diseases and being forced to wander the arid steppes like wild animals. There is a similar text from the Hellenistic period at Uruk, which ascribes Shulgi (r. c. 2094–2046 BC), a king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, as being cursed with a skin disease after desecrating Marduk and elevating Sîn in his place. It is not unlikely that this legend was then associated with Nabonidus, who had elevated Sîn in Marduk's place, with later Jewish chroniclers associating skin disease with madness, and associating the tale of being condemned to wander the desert like a wild animal with Nabonidus's prolonged stay at Tayma.Modern historians have characterised Nabonidus in various ways. When more of his inscriptions, combined with literary sources describing him and his time, were uncovered in the first half of the 19th century, Nabonidus came to be described in different eccentric ways. Some characterised him as an old antiquarian uninterested in government affairs, focused solely on archaeological excavations. Others viewed Nabonidus as an evil usurper, whose incompetence resulted in the fall of his ancient empire. Other saw Nabonidus as a religious fanatic, obsessed with making the moon god the supreme deity of his empire. According to Beaulieu, the picture historians have of Nabonidus today is as a clearly able ruler, who tried to save the Neo-Babylonian Empire, a powerful but hastily built and politically unstable realm, from its internal instability and its desperate geopolitical position. Lambert characterised Nabonidus as "the most individualist ruler of his time" on account of his unorthodox religious policies and his prolonged stay in Arabia. Weiershäuser and Novotny wrote that contrary to the overtly negative assessments from the Persian period, Nabonidus was a relatively successful ruler, undertaking many building projects, leading his armies in successful campaigns far away from the Babylonian heartland and ensuring that his empire prospered. Weierhäuser and Novotny considered Nabonidus to be "undoubtedly one of the most vibrant personalities of ancient Mesopotamia". Nabonidus as an archaeologist Nabonidus has sometimes been described as the "first archaeologist". Nabonidus conducted excavations founded on the well-established Mesopotamian idea that in order to properly renovate and rebuild a temple, its foundations had to be excavated so that it could be restored in accordance with its original plans. There is evidence that Nabonidus was more of an antiquarian than his predecessors, such as Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II, who conducted similar excavations during their restoration work on temples.Nabonidus's activities and his inscriptions suggest a particular interest in history. He notably revived the office of entum-priestess in Ur and consecrated his daughter in that office, and his inscriptions as king also mention previous Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, as far back as Eriba-Marduk (who reigned as king of Babylon in the 8th century BC). Evidence that Nabonidus was more interested in history than his predecessors also exists in that Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II were often very brief in their descriptions of items found during the excavations of the temples, only briefly mentioning finding the foundation deposits of temples and which king had deposited the stone. Nabonidus on the other hand is more explicit and in three known instances even attempted to date these preceding rulers, placing Shagarakti-Shuriash (r. c. 1245–1233 BC) 800 years before his own reign and Naram-Sin of Akkad (r. c. 2254–2218 BC) 3200 years before his own reign. His attempted dating of Naram-Sin's reign, based on what was found during the excavation of a temple built by the king, is the earliest known dating of an archaeological artifact, and though Nabonidus's proposed date is off by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good estimate considering the lack of accurate dating technology. Nabonidus is also the only Neo-Babylonian king to in his inscriptions provide historical insight into why the temples he restored had fallen into disrepair in the first place, such as explaining how the sack of Harran by the Medes had damaged the temples in the city.When rebuilding the Ebabbar temple in Sippar, Nabonidus discovered a statue of Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334–2279 BC). Nabonidus restored the damaged statue because of his "reverence of the gods" and his "respect for kingship". The reasoning for restoring the statue is thus not only attributed to religious factors, but also to an interest in Sargon as a king, and respect for the Akkadian Empire, the first imperial period of ancient Mesopotamia. Following the discovery of the statue, Nabonidus appears to have conducted other work that suggests an interest in the Akkadian Empire, such as restoring the temple dedicated to Ishtar at Akkad, as well as an excavation of Naram-Sin's palace in Akkad. These excavations, though mostly beginning as restorations of religious buildings, also uncovered archaeological artefacts that were used for political, as well as scholarly, purposes. In contrast to preceding Neo-Babylonian kings, who had been largely silent about Assyria, Nabonidus clearly positioned himself and the Babylonian kings as the successors of the Assyrian kings, calling them his "royal ancestors", who had ruled as universal monarchs throughout the Near East. Association with the Akkadian kings through excavations might thus have been partially politically motivated, linking the Neo-Babylonian Empire not only to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but also to the old Akkadian Empire. Titles In two of his known inscriptions, Nabonidus assumes the traditional titulary of the old Neo-Assyrian kings (though omitting the title 'king of Assyria'), in sharp contrast to the otherwise typically modest titularies of the Neo-Babylonian kings. His titulary, as used in an inscription intended for Harran (i.e. within former Assyria), after the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul, Nabonidus used the following titles: I am Nabonidus, the great king, the strong king, king of the Universe, king of Babylon, king of the Four Quarters, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, whose destiny Sîn and Ningal while he was in his mother's womb decreed for the lot of royalty; the son of Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, the wise prince, the reverer of the great gods, am I. The use of typical Assyrian titles such as 'king of the Universe' and 'king of the Four Quarters', as well as the epithets 'strong king' and 'great king', might derive from inscriptions by Assyrian kings being discovered at Harran during the building work at the Ekhulkhul, and Nabonidus assuming those titles as part of his claim to the heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. More noteworthy is the presence of certain Assyrian titles in some inscriptions intended for Babylonia proper. The title 'king of the Universe' was for instance incorporated into Nabonidus's titles as displayed in an inscription at Ur: Nabonidus, king of the Universe, king of Babylon, who (re)built the Enunmaḫ, the bīt ḫilṣi, in the midst of the Egišnugal, for Ningal his lady. There are also more standard Babylonian examples of Nabonidus's title, prior to the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul, without Assyrian elements: Nabonidus, king of Babylon, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, the performer of pious deeds, the son of Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, the perfect prince, am I. A longer variant, from an inscription describing renovation work on Babylon's walls, reads: Nabonidus, king of Babylon, attentive prince, the shepherd who provides, the one who is constantly attentive to the will of the gods, the wise (and) pious one, the one who constantly seeks out the shrines of the great gods, most befitting warrior, creation of the sage of the gods — the god Marduk — product of the goddess Erua — creator of all rulers — selected by the god Nabû — the heir of Esagil who controls (cosmic) harmony — creation of the god Ninšiku — the (all-)knowing creator of everything — chosen by the god Nannāru — the lord of the crown who makes astrological signs known — the one who strives every day (to show) devotion to the great gods (and) whose mind is focused on provisioning Esagil and Ezida, son of Nabû-balāssu-iqbi, wise prince, am I. Notes References Bibliography Web sources Lendering, Jona (1998). "Arakha (Nebuchadnezzar IV)". Livius. Retrieved 11 August 2020. Lendering, Jona (2005). "Uruk King List". Livius. Retrieved 10 December 2019. Lendering, Jona (2006). "Neriglissar". Livius. Retrieved 22 August 2020.

Sophia (Gnosticism)

Sophia (Koinē Greek: Σοφíα "Wisdom", Coptic: ⲧⲥⲟⲫⲓⲁ "the Sophia") is a major theme, along with Knowledge (γνῶσις gnosis, Coptic sooun), among many of the early Christian knowledge-theologies grouped by the heresiologist Irenaeus as gnostikoi (γνωστικοί), "knowing" or "men that claimed to have deeper wisdom". Gnosticism is a 17th-century term expanding the definition of Irenaeus' groups to include other syncretic and mystery religions.In Gnosticism, Sophia is a feminine figure, analogous to the human soul but also simultaneously one of the feminine aspects of God. Gnostics held that she was the syzygy (female twin divine Aeon) of Jesus (i.e. the Bride of Christ), and Holy Spirit of the Trinity. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamōth (Ἀχαμώθ, Hebrew: חכמה chokhmah) and as Prunikos (Προύνικος).

Sophia (Koinē Greek: Σοφíα "Wisdom", Coptic: ⲧⲥⲟⲫⲓⲁ "the Sophia") is a major theme, along with Knowledge (γνῶσις gnosis, Coptic sooun), among many of the early Christian knowledge-theologies grouped by the heresiologist Irenaeus as gnostikoi (γνωστικοί), "knowing" or "men that claimed to have deeper wisdom". Gnosticism is a 17th-century term expanding the definition of Irenaeus' groups to include other syncretic and mystery religions.In Gnosticism, Sophia is a feminine figure, analogous to the human soul but also simultaneously one of the feminine aspects of God. Gnostics held that she was the syzygy (female twin divine Aeon) of Jesus (i.e. the Bride of Christ), and Holy Spirit of the Trinity. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamōth (Ἀχαμώθ, Hebrew: חכמה chokhmah) and as Prunikos (Προύνικος). In the Nag Hammadi texts, Sophia is the lowest Aeon, or anthropic expression of the emanation of the light of God. Gnostic mythos Almost all Gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, or as the Monad by Monoimus. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, being pairs of progressively 'lesser' beings in sequence. Together with the source from which they emanate they form the Pleroma, or fullness, of God, and thus should not be seen as distinct from the divine, but symbolic abstractions of the divine nature. The transition from the immaterial to the material, from the noumenal to the sensible, is brought about by a flaw, or a passion, or a sin, in one of the Aeons. In most versions of the Gnostic mythos, it is Sophia who brings about this instability in the Pleroma, in turn bringing about the creation of materiality. According to some Gnostic texts, the crisis occurs as a result of Sophia trying to emanate without her syzygy or, in another tradition, because she tries to breach the barrier between herself and the unknowable Bythos. After cataclysmically falling from the Pleroma, Sophia's fear and anguish of losing her life (just as she lost the light of the One) causes confusion and longing to return to it. Because of these longings, matter (Greek: hylē, ὕλη) and soul (Greek: psychē, ψυχή) accidentally come into existence. The creation of the Demiurge (also known as Yaldabaoth, "Son of Chaos") is also a mistake made during this exile. The Demiurge proceeds to create the physical world in which we live, ignorant of Sophia, who nevertheless manages to infuse some spiritual spark or pneuma into his creation. In the Pistis Sophia, Christ is sent from the Godhead in order to bring Sophia back into the fullness (Pleroma). Christ enables her to again see the light, bringing her knowledge of the spirit (Greek: pneuma, πνευμα). Christ is then sent to earth in the form of the man Jesus to give men the Gnosis needed to rescue themselves from the physical world and return to the spiritual world. In Gnosticism, the Gospel story of Jesus is itself allegorical: it is the Outer Mystery, used as an introduction to Gnosis, rather than it being literally true in a historical context. For the Gnostics, the drama of the redemption of the Sophia through Christ or the Logos is the central drama of the universe. The Sophia resides in all humans as the Divine Spark. Book of Proverbs Jewish Alexandrine religious philosophy was much occupied with the concept of the Divine Sophia, as the revelation of God's inward thought, and assigned to her not only the formation and ordering of the natural universe (comp. Clem. Hom. xvi. 12) but also the communication of knowledge to mankind. In Proverbs 8 Wisdom (the noun is feminine) is described as God's Counsellor and Workmistress (Master-workman, R.V.), who dwelt beside Him before the Creation of the world and sported continually before Him. In accordance with the description given in the Book of Proverbs, a dwelling-place was assigned by the Gnostics to the Sophia, and her relation to the upper world defined as well as to the seven planetary powers which were placed under her. The seven planetary spheres or heavens were for the ancients the highest regions of the created universe. They were thought of as seven circles rising one above another, and dominated by the seven Archons. These constituted the (Gnostic) Hebdomad. Above the highest of them, and over-vaulting it, was the Ogdoad, the sphere of immutability, which was nigh to the spiritual world (Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromata, iv. 25, 161; comp. vi. 16, 138 sqq.). Now we read in Proverbs 9:1: Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars: These seven pillars being interpreted as the planetary heavens, the habitation of the Sophia herself was placed above the Hebdomad in the Ogdoad (Excerpt. ex Theodot. 8, 47). It is said further of the same divine wisdom (Proverbs 8:2): She standeth in the top of high places, by the way in the places of the paths. This meant, according to the Gnostic interpretation, that the Sophia has her dwelling-place "on the heights" above the created universe, in the place of the midst, between the upper and lower world, between the Pleroma and the ektismena. She sits at "the gates of the mighty," i.e. at the approaches to the realms of the seven Archons, and at the "entrances" to the upper realm of light her praise is sung. The Sophia is therefore the highest ruler over the visible universe, and at the same time the mediator between the upper and the lower realms. She shapes this mundane universe after the heavenly prototypes, and forms the seven star-circles with their Archons under whose dominion are placed, according to the astrological conceptions of antiquity, the fates of all earthly things, and more especially of man. She is "the mother" or "the mother of the living." (Epiph. Haer. 26, 10). As coming from above, she is herself of pneumatic essence, the mētēr phōteinē (Epiph. 40, 2) or the anō dynamis (Epiph. 39, 2) from which all pneumatic souls draw their origin. Descent In reconciling the doctrine of the pneumatic nature of the Sophia with the dwelling-place assigned her, according to the Proverbs, in the kingdom of the midst, and so outside the upper realm of light, there was envisioned a descent of Sophia from her heavenly home, the Pleroma, into the void (kenōma) beneath it. The concept was that of a seizure or robbery of light, or of an outburst and diffusion of light-dew into the kenōma, occasioned by a vivifying movement in the upper world. But inasmuch as the light brought down into the darkness of this lower world was thought of and described as involved in suffering, this suffering must be regarded as a punishment. This inference was further aided by the Platonic notion of a spiritual fall. Mythos of the soul Alienated through their own fault from their heavenly home, souls have sunk down into this lower world without utterly losing the remembrance of their former state, and filled with longing for their lost inheritance, these fallen souls are still striving upwards. In this way the mythos of the fall of Sophia can be regarded as having a typical significance. The fate of the "mother" was regarded as the prototype of what is repeated in the history of all individual souls, which, being of a heavenly pneumatic origin, have fallen from the upper world of light their home, and come under the sway of evil powers, from whom they must endure a long series of sufferings until a return into the upper world be once more vouchsafed them. But whereas, according to the Platonic philosophy, fallen souls still retain a remembrance of their lost home, this notion was preserved in another form in Gnostic circles. It was taught that the souls of the Pneumatici, having lost the remembrance of their heavenly derivation, required to become once more partakers of Gnosis, or knowledge of their own pneumatic essence, in order to make a return to the realm of light. In the impartation of this Gnosis consists the redemption brought and vouchsafed by Christ to pneumatic souls. But the various fortunes of such souls were wont to be contemplated in those of Sophia, and so it was taught that the Sophia also needed the redemption wrought by Christ, by whom she is delivered from her agnoia and her pathe, and will, at the end of the world's development, be again brought back to her long lost home, the Upper Pleroma, into which this mother will find an entrance along with all pneumatic souls her children, and there, in the heavenly bridal chamber, celebrate the marriage feast of eternity. Syrian Gnosis The Sophia mythos has in the various Gnostic systems undergone great variety of treatment. The oldest, the Syrian Gnosis, referred to the Sophia the formation of the lower world and the production of its rulers the Archons; and along with this they also ascribed to her the preservation and propagation of the spiritual seed. Formation of the lower world As described by Irenaeus, the great Mother-principle of the universe appears as the first woman, the Holy Spirit (rūha d'qudshā) moving over the waters, and is also called the mother of all living. Under her are the four material elements—water, darkness, abyss, and chaos. With her, combine themselves into two supreme masculine lights, the first and the second man, the Father and the Son, the latter being also designated as the Father's ennoia. From their union proceeds the third imperishable light, the third man, Christ. But unable to support the abounding fullness of this light, the mother in giving birth to Christ, suffers a portion of this light to overflow on the left side. While, then, Christ as dexios (He of the right hand) mounts upward with his mother into the imperishable Aeon, that other light which has overflowed on the left hand, sinks down into the lower world, and there produces matter. And this is the Sophia, called also Aristera (she of the left hand), Prouneikos and the male-female. There is here, as yet, no thought of a fall, properly so called, as in the Valentinian system. The power which has thus overflowed leftwards, makes a voluntary descent into the lower waters, confiding in its possession of the spark of true light. It is, moreover, evident that though mythologically distinguished from the humectatio luminis (Greek: ikmas phōtos, ἰκμὰς φωτός), the Sophia is yet, really nothing else but the light-spark coming from above, entering this lower material world, and becoming here the source of all formation, and of both the higher and the lower life. She swims over the waters, and sets their hitherto immoveable mass in motion, driving them into the abyss, and taking to herself a bodily form from the hylē. She compasses about, and is laden with material every kind of weight and substance, so that, but for the essential spark of light, she would be sunk and lost in the material. Bound to the body which she has assumed and weighed down thereby, she seeks in vain to make her escape from the lower waters, and hasten upwards to rejoin her heavenly mother. Not succeeding in this endeavour, she seeks to preserve, at least, her light-spark from being injured by the lower elements, raises herself by its power to the realm of the upper region, and there spreading herself out she forms out of her own bodily part, the dividing wall of the visible firmament, but still retains the aquatilis corporis typus. Finally seized with a longing for the higher light, she finds, at length, in herself, the power to raise herself even above the heaven of her own forming, and to fully lay aside her corporeity. The body thus abandoned is called "Woman from Woman." Creation and redemption The narrative proceeds to tell of the formation of the seven Archons by Sophia herself, of the creation of man, which "the mother" (i.e. not the first woman, but the Sophia) uses as a mean to deprive the Archons of their share of light, of the perpetual conflict on his mother's part with the self-exalting efforts of the Archons, and of her continuous striving to recover again and again the light-spark hidden in human nature, till, at length, Christ comes to her assistance and in answer to her prayers, proceeds to draw all the sparks of light to Himself, unites Himself with the Sophia as the bridegroom with the bride, descends on Jesus who has been prepared, as a pure vessel for His reception, by Sophia, and leaves him again before the crucifixion, ascending with Sophia into the world or Aeon which will never pass away (Irenaeus, i. 30; Epiph. 37, 3, sqq.; Theodoret, h. f. i. 14). As world-soul In this system the original cosmogonic significance of the Sophia still stands in the foreground. The antithesis of Christus and Sophia, as He of the right (ho dexios) and She of the Left (hē aristera), as male and female, is but a repetition of the first Cosmogonic Antithesis in another form. The Sophia herself is but a reflex of the "Mother of all living" and is therefore also called "Mother." She is the formatrix of heaven and earth, for as much as mere matter can only receive form through the light which, coming down from above has interpenetrated the dark waters of the hylē; but she is also at the same time the spiritual principle of life in creation, or, as the world-soul the representative of all that is truly pneumatic in this lower world: her fates and experiences represent typically those of the pneumatic soul which has sunk down into chaos. Prunikos In the Gnostic system described by Irenaeus (I. xxi.; see Ophites) the name Prunikos several times takes the place of Sophia in the relation of her story. The name Prunikos is also given to Sophia in the account of the kindred Barbeliot system, given in the preceding chapter of Irenaeus. Celsus, who shows that he had met with some Ophite work, exhibits acquaintance with the name Prunikos (Orig. Adv. Cels. vi. 34) a name which Origen recognizes as Valentinian. That this Ophite name had really been adopted by the Valentinians is evidenced by its occurrence in a Valentinian fragment preserved by Epiphanius (Epiph. Haer. xxxi. 5). Epiphanius also introduces Prunikos as a technical word in the system of the Simonians (Epiph. Haer. xxi. 2) of those whom he describes under the head of Nicolaitans (Epiph. Haer. xxv. 3, 4) and of the Ophites (Epiph. Haer. xxxvii. 4, 6). Etymology Neither Irenaeus nor Origen indicates that he knew anything as to the meaning of this word; and we have no better information on this subject than a conjecture of Epiphanius (Epiph. Haer. xxv. 48). He says that the word means "wanton" or "lascivious," for that the Greeks had a phrase concerning a man who had debauched a girl, Eprounikeuse tautēn. One feels some hesitation in accepting this explanation. Epiphanius was deeply persuaded of the filthiness of Gnostic morals, and habitually put the worst interpretation on their language. If the phrase reported by Epiphanius had been common, it is strange that instances of its use should not have been quoted from the Greek comic writers. It need not be denied that Epiphanius had heard the phrase employed, but innocent words come to be used in an obscene sense, as well by those who think double entendre witty, as by those who modestly avoid the use of plainer language. The primary meaning of the word prouneikos seems to be a porter, or bearer of burdens, the derivation being from enenkein, the only derivation indeed that the word seems to admit of. Then, modifying its meaning like the word agoraios, it came to be used in the sense of a turbulent violent person. The only distinct confirmation of the explanation of Epiphanius is that Hesychius (s. v. Skitaloi) has the words aphrodisiōn kai tēs prounikias tēs nykterinēs. This would be decisive, if we could be sure that these words were earlier in date than Epiphanius. In favour of the explanation of Epiphanius is the fact, that in the Gnostic cosmogonical myths, the imagery of sexual passion is constantly introduced. It seems on the whole probable that prouneikos is to be understood in the sense of propherēs which has for one of its meanings "precocious in respect of sexual intercourse." According to Ernst Wilhelm Möller (1860) the name is possibly meant to indicate her attempts to entice away again from the lower Cosmic Powers the seed of Divine light. In the account given by Epiphanius (Haer. 37:6) the allusion to enticements to sexual intercourse which is involved in this name, becomes more prominent. However, in the Exegesis on the Soul text found at Nag Hammadi, the soul is likened to a woman which fell from perfection into prostitution, and that the Father will elevate her again to her original perfect state. In this context, the female personification of the soul resembles the passion of Sophia as Prunikos. The womb, mētra Nigh related to this is the notion widely diffused among Gnostic sects of the impure mētra (womb) whence the whole world is supposed to have issued. As according to the Italian Valentinians the Soter opens the mētra of the lower Sophia, (the Enthymēsis), and so occasions the formation of the universe (Iren. I. 3, 4) so on the other hand the mētra itself is personified. So Epiphanius reports the following cosmogony as that of a branch of the Nicolaitans: In the beginning were Darkness, Chaos, and Water (skotos, kai bythos, kai hydōr), but the Spirit indwelling in the midst of them, divided them one from another. From the intermingling of Darkness with Spirit proceeds the mētra which again is kindled with fresh desire after the Spirit; she gives birth first to four, and then to other four aeons, and so produces a right and a left, light and darkness. Last of all comes forth an aischros aiōn, who has intercourse with the mētra, the offspring whereof are Gods, Angels, Daemons, and Spirits. The Sethians (Hippolytus. Philosophum. v. 7) teach in like manner that from the first concurrence (syndromē) of the three primeval principles arose heaven and earth as a megalē tis idea sphragidos. These have the form of a mētra with the omphalos in the midst. The pregnant mētra therefore contains within itself all kinds of animal forms in the reflex of heaven and earth and all substances found in the middle region. This mētra also encounters us in the great Apophasis ascribed to Simon where it is also called Paradise and Eden as being the locality of man's formation. These cosmogonic theories have their precedent in the Thalatth or Tiamat of Syrian mythology, the life-mother of whom Berossus has so much to relate, or in the world-egg out of which when cloven asunder heaven and earth and all things proceed. The name of this Berossian Thalatth meets us again among the Peratae of the Philosophumena (Hippolytus, Philosophum. v. 9) and is sometimes mistakenly identified with that of the sea—thalassa. Baruch–Gnosis A similar part to that of the mētra is played by Edem, consort of Elohim in Justin's Gnostic book Baruch (Hippolytus, Philosoph. v. 18 sqq.) who there appears as a two-shaped being formed above as a woman and from the middle downwards as a serpent (21). Among the four and twenty Angels which she bears to Elohim, and which form the world out of her members, the second female angelic form is called Achamōs [Achamōth]. Like to this legend of the Philosophumena concerning the Baruch-Gnosis is that which is related by Epiphanius of an Ophite Party that they fabled that a Serpent from the Upper World had had sexual intercourse with the Earth as with a woman (Epiphanius, Haer. 45: 1 cf. 2). Barbeliotae Very nigh related to the doctrines of the Gnostics in Irenaeus are the views of the so-called Barbeliotae (Iren. I. 29). The name Barbelo, which according to one interpretation is a designation of the upper Tetrad, has originally nothing to do with the Sophia. This latter Being called also Spiritus Sanctus and Prunikos is the offspring of the first angel who stands at the side of the Monogenes. Sophia seeing that all the rest have each its syzygos within the Pleroma, desires also to find such a consort for herself; and not finding one in the upper world she looks down into the lower regions and being still unsatisfied there she descends at length against the will of the Father into the deep. Here she forms the Demiurge (the Proarchōn), a composite of ignorance and self-exaltation. This Being, by virtue of pneumatic powers stolen from his mother, proceeds to form the lower world. The mother, on the other hand, flees away into the upper regions and makes her dwelling there in the Ogdoad. The Ophites We meet this Sophia also among the Ophiana whose "Diagram" is described by Celsus and Origen, as well as among various Gnostic (Ophite) parties mentioned by Epiphanius. She is there called Sophia or Prunikos, the upper mother and upper power, and sits enthroned above the Hebdomad (the seven Planetary Heavens) in the Ogdoad (Origen, Against Celsus. vi. 31, 34, 35, 38; Epiphan. Haer. 25, 3 sqq. 26, 1,10. 39, 2 ; 40, 2). She is also occasionally called Parthenos (Orig. c. Cels. vi. 31) and again is elsewhere identified with the Barbelo or Barbero (Epiph. Haer. 25, 3 ; 26, 1, 10). Simon Magus The Ennoia This mythos of the soul and her descent into this lower world, with her various sufferings and changing fortunes until her final deliverance, recurs in the Simonian system under the form of the All-Mother who issues as its first thought from the Hestōs or highest power of God. She generally bears the name Ennoia, but is also called Wisdom (Sophia), Ruler, Holy Spirit, Prunikos, Barbelo. Having sunk down from the highest heavens into the lowest regions, she creates angels and archangels, and these again create and rule the material universe. Restrained and held down by the power of this lower world, she is hindered from returning to the kingdom of the Father. According to one representation she suffers all manner of insult from the angels and archangels bound and forced again and again into fresh earthly bodies, and compelled for centuries to wander in ever new corporeal forms. According to another account she is in herself incapable of suffering, but is sent into this lower world and undergoes perpetual transformation in order to excite by her beauty the angels and powers, to impel them to engage in perpetual strife, and so gradually to deprive them of their store of heavenly light. The Hestōs himself at length comes down from the highest heaven in a phantasmal body in order to deliver the suffering Ennoia, and redeem the souls held in captivity by imparting gnosis to them. The lost sheep The most frequent designation of the Simonian Ennoia is "the lost" or "the wandering sheep." The Greek divinities Zeus and Athena were interpreted to signify Hestōs and his Ennoia, and in like manner the Tyrian sun-god Herakles-Melkart and the moon-goddess Selene-Astarte. So also the Homeric Helena, as the cause of quarrel between Greeks and Trojans, was regarded as a type of the Ennoia. The story which the fathers of the church handed down of the intercourse of Simon Magus with his consort Helena (Iren. i. 23; Tertullian de Anima, 34; Epiphanius Haer. 21; Pseudo-Tertullian Haer. 1; Philaster, Haer. 29; Philos. vi. 14, 15; Recogn. Clem. ii. 12; Hom. ii. 25), had probably its origin in this allegorical interpretation, according to Richard Adelbert Lipsius (1867). Hestōs In the Simonian Apophasis the great dynamis (also called Nous) and the great epinoia which gives birth to all things form a syzygy, from which proceeds the male-female Being, who is called Hestōs (Philos. vi. 13). Elsewhere nous and epinoia are called the upper-most of the three Simonian Syzygies, to which the Hestōs forms the Hebdomad: but on the other hand, nous and epinoia are identified with heaven and earth (Philos. vi. 9sqq.). Valentinus The most significant development of this Sophia mythos is found in the Valentinian system. The descent of the Sophia from the Pleroma is ascribed after Plato's manner to a fall, and as the final cause of this fall a state of suffering is indicated which has penetrated into the Pleroma itself. Sophia or Mētēr is in the doctrine of Valentinus the last, i.e. the thirtieth Aeon in the Pleroma, from which having fallen out, she now in remembrance of the better world which she has thus forsaken, gives birth to the Christus "with a shadow" (meta skias tinos). While Christus returns to the Pleroma, Sophia forms the Demiurge and this whole lower world out of the skia, a right and a left principle (Iren. Haer. i. 11, 1). For her redemption comes down to Sophia either Christus himself (Iren. i. 15, 3) or the Soter (Iren. i. 11, 1, cf. exc. ex Theod. 23; 41), as the common product of the Aeons, in order to bring her back to the Pleroma and unite her again with her syzygos. Motive The motive for the Sophia's fall was defined according to the Anatolian school to have lain therein, that by her desire to know what lay beyond the limits of the knowable she had brought herself into a state of ignorance and formlessness. Her suffering extends to the whole Pleroma. But whereas this is confirmed thereby in fresh strength, the Sophia is separated from it and gives birth outside it (by means of her ennoia, her recollections of the higher world), to the Christus who at once ascends into the Pleroma, and after this she produces an ousia amorphos, the image of her suffering, out of which the Demiurge and the lower world come into existence; last of all looking upwards in her helpless condition, and imploring light, she finally gives birth to the spermata tēs ekklēsias, the pneumatic souls. In the work of redemption the Soter comes down accompanied by the masculine angels who are to be the future syzygoi of the (feminine) souls of the Pneumatici, and introduces the Sophia along with these Pneumatici into the heavenly bridal chamber (Exc. ex Theod. 29–42; Iren. i. 2, 3). The same view, essentially meets us in the accounts of Marcus, (Iren. i. 18, 4; cf. 15, 3; 16, 1, 2; 17, 1) and in the Epitomators of the Syntagma of Hippolytus (Pseudo-Tertullian Haer. 12; Philaster, Haer. 38). Achamōth The Italic school distinguished on the other hand a two-fold Sophia, the ano Sophia and the katō Sophia or Achamoth. Ptolemaeus Fall According to the doctrine of Ptolemaeus and that of his disciples, the former of these separates herself from her syzygos, the thelētos through her audacious longing after immediate Communion with the Father of all, falls into a condition of suffering, and would completely melt away in this inordinate desire, unless the Horos had purified her from her suffering and established her again in the Pleroma. Her enthymēsis, on the other hand, the desire which has obtained the mastery over her and the consequent suffering becomes an amorphos kai aneideos ousia, which is also called an ektrōma, is separated from her and is assigned a place beyond the limits of the Pleroma. The place of the Midst From her dwelling-place above the Hebdomad, in the place of the Midst, she is also called Ogdoad (Ὀγδοάς), and further entitled Mētēr, Sophia also, and he Hierousalēm, Pneuma hagion, and (arsenikōs) Kyrios. In these names some partial reminiscences of the old Ophitic Gnosis are retained. Repentance The Achamoth first receives (by means of Christus and Pneuma hagion the Pair of Aeons within the Pleroma whose emanation is most recent), the morphōsis kat' ousian. Left alone in her suffering she has become endued with penitent mind (epistrophē). Now descends the son as the common fruit of the Pleroma, gives her the morphōsis kata gnōsin, and forms out of her various affections the Demiurge and the various constituents of this lower world. By his appointment the Achamoth produces the pneumatic seed (the ekklēsia). Redemption The end of the world's history is here also (as above) the introduction of the lower Sophia with all her pneumatic offspring into the Pleroma, and this intimately connected with the second descent of the Soter and his transient union with the psychical Christus; then follows the marriage-union of the Achamoth with the Soter and of the pneumatic souls with the angels (Iren. i. 1–7; exc. ex Theod. 43–65). Two-fold Sophia The same form of doctrine meets us also in Secundus, who is said to have been the first to have made the distinction of an upper and a lower Sophia (Iren. i. 11, 2), and in the account which the Philosophumena give us of a system which most probably referred to the school of Heracleon, and which also speaks of a double Sophia (Philos. vi.). The name Jerusalem also for the exō Sophia meets us here (Philos. vi. 29). It finds its interpretation in the fragments of Heracleon (ap. Origen. in Joann. tom. x. 19). The name Achamoth, on the other hand, is wanting both in Hippolytus and in Heracleon. One school among the Marcosians seems also to have taught a two-fold Sophia (Iren. i. 16, 3; cf. 21, 5). Etymology August Hahn (1819) debated whether the name Achamōth (Ἀχαμώθ) is originally derived from the Hebrew Chokhmah (חָכְמָ֑ה), in Aramaic Ḥachmūth or whether it signifies 'She that brings forth'—'Mother.' The Syriac form Ḥachmūth is testified for us as used by Bardesanes (Ephraim, Hymn 55), the Greek form Hachamōth is found only among the Valentinians: the name however probably belongs to the oldest Syrian Gnosis. Bardesanes Cosmogonic myths play their part also in the doctrine of Bardesanes. The locus foedus whereon the gods (or Aeons) measured and founded Paradise (Ephraim, Hymn 55) is the same as the impure mētra, which Ephraim is ashamed even to name (cf. also Ephraim, Hymn 14). The creation of the world is brought to pass through the son of the living one and the Rūha d' Qudshā, the Holy Spirit, with whom Ḥachmūth is identical, but in combination with "creatures," i.e. subordinate beings which co-operate with them (Ephraim, Hymn 3). It is not expressly so said, and yet at the same time is the most probable assumption, that as was the case with the father and mother so also their offspring the son of the Living One, and the Rūha d' Qudshā or Ḥachmūth, are to be regarded as a Syzygy. This last (the Ḥachmūth) brings forth the two daughters, the "Shame of the Dry Land" i.e. the mētra, and the "Image of the Waters" i.e. the Aquatilis Corporis typus, which is mentioned in connection with the Ophitic Sophia (Ephraim, Hymn 55). Beside which, in a passage evidently referring to Bardesanes, air, fire, water, and darkness are mentioned as aeons (Īthyē: Hymn 41) These are probably the "Creatures" to which in association with the Son and the Rūha d' Qudshā, Bardesanes is said to have assigned the creation of the world. Though much still remains dark as to the doctrine of Bardesanes we cannot nevertheless have any right to set simply aside the statements of Ephraim, who remains the oldest Syrian source for our knowledge of the doctrine of this Syrian Gnostic, and deserves therefore our chief attentions. Bardesanes, according to Ephraim, is able also to tell of the wife or maiden who having sunk down from the Upper Paradise offers up prayers in her dereliction for help from above, and on being heard returns to the joys of the Upper Paradise (Ephraim, Hymn 55). Acts of Thomas These statements of Ephraim are further supplemented by the Acts of Thomas in which various hymns have been preserved which are either compositions of Bardesanes himself, or at any rate are productions of his school. Hymn of the Pearl In the Syriac text of the Acts, we find the Hymn of the Pearl, where the soul which has been sent down from her heavenly home to fetch the pearl guarded by the serpent, but has forgotten here below her heavenly mission until she is reminded of it by a letter from "the father, the mother, and the brother," performs her task, receives back again her glorious dress, and returns to her old home. Ode to the Sophia Of the other hymns which are preserved in the Greek version more faithfully than in the Syriac text which has undergone Catholic revision, the first deserving of notice is the Ode to the Sophia which describes the marriage of the "maiden" with her heavenly bridegroom and her introduction into the Upper Realm of Light. This "maiden," called "daughter of light," is not as the Catholic reviser supposes the Church, but Ḥachmūth (Sophia) over whose head the "king," i.e. the father of the living ones, sits enthroned; her bridegroom is, according to the most probable interpretation, the son of the living one, i.e. Christ. With her the living Ones i.e. pneumatic souls enter into the Pleroma and receive the glorious light of the living Father and praise along with "the living spirit" the "father of truth" and the "mother of wisdom." First prayer of consecration The Sophia is also invoked in the first prayer of consecration. She is there called the "merciful mother," the "consort of the masculine one," "revealant of the perfect mysteries," "Mother of the Seven Houses," "who finds rest in the eighth house," i.e. in the Ogdoad. In the second Prayer of Consecration she is also designated, the "perfect Mercy" and "Consort of the Masculine One," but is also called "Holy Spirit" (Syriac Rūha d' Qudshā) "Revealant of the Mysteries of the whole Magnitude," "hidden Mother," "She who knows the Mysteries of the Elect," and "she who partakes in the conflicts of the noble Agonistes" (i.e. of Christ, cf. exc. ex Theod. 58 ho megas agōnistēs Iēsous). There is further a direct reminiscence of the doctrine of Bardesanes when she is invoked as the Holy Dove which has given birth to the two twins, i.e. the two daughters of the Rūha d' Qudshā (ap. Ephraim, Hymn 55). Pistis Sophia A special and richly coloured development is given to the mythical form of the Sophia of the Gnostic book Pistis Sophia. The two first books of this writing to which the name Pistis Sophia properly belongs, treat for the greater part (pp. 42–181) of the fall, the Repentance, and the Redemption of the Sophia. Fall She has by the ordinance of higher powers obtained an insight into the dwelling-place appropriated to her in the spiritual world, namely, the thēsauros lucis which lies beyond the XIIIth Aeon. By her endeavours to direct thither her upward flight, she draws upon herself the enmity of the Authadēs, Archon of the XIIIth Aeon, and of the Archons of the XII Aeons under him; by these she is enticed down into the depths of chaos, and is there tormented in the greatest possible variety of ways, in order that she may thus incur the loss of her light-nature. Repentance In her utmost need she addresses thirteen penitent prayers (metanoiai) to the Upper Light. Step by step she is led upwards by Christus into the higher regions, though she still remains obnoxious to the assaults of the Archons, and is, after offering her XIIIth Metanoia, more vehemently attacked than ever, until at length Christus leads her down into an intermediate place below the XIIIth Aeon, where she remains until the consummation of the world, and sends up grateful hymns of praise and thanksgiving. Redemption The earthly work of redemption having been at length accomplished, the Sophia returns to her original celestial home. The peculiar feature in this representation consists in the further development of the philosophical ideas which find general expression in the Sophia mythos. According to Karl Reinhold von Köstlin (1854), Sophia is here not merely, as with Valentinus, the representative of the longing which the finite spirit feels for the knowledge of the infinite, but at the same time a type or pattern of faith, of repentance, and of hope. After her restoration she announces to her companions the twofold truth that, while every attempt to overstep the divinely ordained limits, has for its consequence suffering and punishment, so, on the other hand, the divine compassion is ever ready to vouchsafe pardon to the penitent. Light-Maiden We have a further reminiscence of the Sophia of the older Gnostic systems in what is said in the book Pistis Sophia of the Light-Maiden (parthenos lucis), who is there clearly distinguished from the Sophia herself, and appears as the archetype of Astraea, the Constellation Virgo. The station which she holds is in the place of the midst, above the habitation assigned to the Sophia in the XIIIth Aeon. She is the judge of (departed) souls, either opening for them or closing against them the portals of the light-realm (pp. 194–295). Under her stand yet seven other light-maidens with similar functions, who impart to pious souls their final consecrations (pp. 291 sq. 327 sq. 334). From the place of the parthenos lucis comes the sun-dragon, which is daily borne along by four light-powers in the shape of white horses, and so makes his circuit round the earth (p. 183, cf. pp. 18, 309). Manichaeism This light-maiden (parthenos tou phōtos) encounters us also among the Manichaeans as exciting the impure desires of the Daemons, and thereby setting free the light which has hitherto been held down by the power of darkness (Dispuiat. Archelai et Manetis, c. 8, n. 11; Theodoret., h. f. I. 26). On the other hand, the place of the Gnostic Sophia is among Manichaeans taken by the "Mother of Life" (mētēr tēs zōēs), and by the World-Soul (psychē hapantōn), which on occasions is distinguished from the Life-Mother, and is regarded as diffused through all living creatures, whose deliverance from the realm of darkness constitutes the whole of the world's history (Titus of Bostra, adv. Manich. I., 29, 36, ed. Lagarde, p. 17 sqq. 23; Alexander Lycopolites c. 3; Epiphan. Haer. 66, 24; Acta dispatat. Archelai et Manetis, c. 7 sq. et passim). Their return to the world of light is described in the famous Canticum Amatorium (ap. Augustin. c. Faust, iv. 5 sqq). Nag Hammadi texts In On the Origin of the World, Sophia is depicted as the ultimate destroyer of this material universe, Yaldabaoth and all his Heavens: She [Sophia] will cast them down into the abyss. They [the Archons] will be obliterated because of their wickedness. For they will come to be like volcanoes and consume one another until they perish at the hand of the prime parent. When he has destroyed them, he will turn against himself and destroy himself until he ceases to exist. And their heavens will fall one upon the next and their forces will be consumed by fire. Their eternal realms, too, will be overturned. And his heaven will fall and break in two. His [...] will fall down upon the [...] support them; they will fall into the abyss, and the abyss will be overturned. The light will [...] the darkness and obliterate it: it will be like something that never was. Carl Jung Carl Jung linked the figure of Sophia to the highest archetype of the anima in depth psychology. The archetypal fall and recovery of Sophia is additionally linked (to a varying degree) to many different myths and stories (see damsel in distress). Among these are: Isis, who while still in the cosmic womb, brings forth the flawed Elder Horus without a consort The abduction and rescue of Helen of Troy Persephone and her descent into Hades, from which she returns to life [but is bound to return to Hades for 6 months every year] The fall of Eve and the birth of Christ through the Virgin Mary The descent of Orpheus into the underworld to rescue his wife, Eurydice The return of Odysseus to his kingdom, Ithaca, to reclaim his wife, Penelope The rescue of Andromeda by Perseus Ishtar's descent to the Underworld, in the Epic of Gilgamesh Pandora Cinderella and Sleeping Beauty The slaying of the Dragon by St. George to rescue the Princess The rescue of the kidnapped Sita by her husband, the god-king Rama, with the help of Hanuman in the RamayanaNote that many of these myths have alternative psychological interpretations. For example, Jungian psychologist Marie-Louise von Franz interpreted fairy tales like Sleeping Beauty as symbolizing the 'rescue' or reintegration of the anima, the more 'feminine' part of a man's unconscious, but not wisdom or sophia per se. See also References Attribution This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Lipsius, Richard Adelbert (1887), "Sophia", in Smith, William; Wace, Henry (eds.), A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines, vol. IV, London: John Murray, pp. 712–17

Pink Five

Pink Five is a Star Wars fan film that made its debut on the Internet in 2002 and was written and directed by Trey Stokes and stars Amy Earhart as Stacey (a.k.a. Pink Five), a fast-talking Valley Girl-type dropped into an X-wing cockpit during the Battle of Yavin, and presents familiar events and story points from Episode IV from a very different point of view.

Pink Five is a Star Wars fan film that made its debut on the Internet in 2002 and was written and directed by Trey Stokes and stars Amy Earhart as Stacey (a.k.a. Pink Five), a fast-talking Valley Girl-type dropped into an X-wing cockpit during the Battle of Yavin, and presents familiar events and story points from Episode IV from a very different point of view. Reception The film has proven popular with Star Wars fans, winning rave reviews and the George Lucas Selects Award in the AtomFilms- and Lucasfilm-sponsored 2003 Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, and even played at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival. In August 2010, Time magazine listed it as one of the Top 10 Star Wars fanfilms. Sequels and other appearances The success of the first short film inspired sequels: Pink Five Strikes Back (2004), Return of Pink Five, Vol. 1 (2006) and Return of Pink Five, Vol. 2 (2007). With each successive installment, the chapters grew in length and in sophisticated visuals. Unfortunately, the increased expense meant that funding to complete the final chapter (and resolve the cliffhanger at the end of Vol.2) was unavailable for nearly a decade.Finally, after a successful Kickstarter campaign in 2012, Return of Pink Five, Vol. 3 was finished, and the complete 59-minute Pink Five Saga was screened at conventions around the country in 2013. Later, the saga was released online in 2016. Originally available on Vimeo, the saga has been available on Amazon Video since July 2016. Stacey appears in Timothy Zahn's 2007 Star Wars novel Allegiance, making her one of the few fan-created Star Wars characters ever to become part of the Star Wars expanded universe. Stacey also has a brief cameo in the fan film Sith Apprentice, directed by John E. Hudgens. Additionally, Stacey has now been immortalized on a Topps 30th Anniversary Trading Card. Card #117 ("Fan Films") details the exploits of the Valley Girl X-wing Pilot and her faithful droid, R5-DD. An original Pink 5 poster also appears in The Star Wars Vault by Steve Sansweet. References External links Official website Pink Five at IMDb

Bruce Kinloch

Bruce Kinloch MC (27 August 1919 – 21 June 2011) was a British army officer, wildlife conservation leader and author. He was born at Saharanpur in India and educated at Berkhamsted School in England.

Bruce Kinloch MC (27 August 1919 – 21 June 2011) was a British army officer, wildlife conservation leader and author. He was born at Saharanpur in India and educated at Berkhamsted School in England. Military career Kinloch was commissioned into the 3rd Queen Alexandra's Own Gurkha Rifles after leaving Sandhurst in 1939, fought with them in Burma and on the Northwest Frontier, and won the Military Cross for his part in Battle of Sittang River Bridge in 1942. At the age of twenty-five, he commanded a battalion. Conservation career In 1947, Kinloch joined the Colonial Administrative Service, first as a Game Ranger on the Kilifi Coast of Kenya. He was Chief Game Warden in the Uganda Game and Fisheries Department for ten years; in 1960 he became Chief Game Warden of Tanganyika, a post he held until 1964. Later, he became the Chief Game Warden in Malawi.Kinloch also founded the College of African Wildlife Management on the slopes of Kilimanjaro which has trained thousands of game wardens. Later life Kinloch wrote several non-fiction books. Among these are Sauce for the Mongoose 1965 and The Shamba Raiders 1972, which was reprinted in 1988 and again in 2004. Major Kinloch lived with his wife Elizabeth at Scotch Firs in Fownhope, Herefordshire. Bibliography Sauce for the Mongoose (1964) Shamba Raiders: Memories of a Game Warden. (1972) Game wardens in Africa (1981) Tales from a Crowded Life (2009) Notes References The Telegraph (22 June 2011). "KINLOCH - Deaths Announcements". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012. Hereford Times (19 April 2006). "Eyeball to eyeball with bull elephant". Hereford Times. Hereford. Retrieved 20 August 2012. Kinloch, Bruce (1972). The shamba raiders : memories of a game warden (2 ed.). Hampshire: Ashford. ISBN 1852530359. Kinloch, Bruce (1974). Sauce for the mongoose. London: Fontana. ISBN 0006134475. Kinloch, Bruce (2008). Tales from a crowded life. Kinloss, Moray [Scotland]: Librario. ISBN 978-1906775056. Kinloch, Bruce (November 1962). "Orphans of the Wild". National Geographic. 122 (5): 683–699. Pringle, Robert (September 2005). "The Origins of the Nile Perch in Lake Victoria". BioScience. 55 (9): 780–787. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0780:TOOTNP]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 10.1641/0006-3568%282005%29055%5B0780%3ATOOTNP%5D2.0.CO%3B2. S2CID 13720490. External links Obituary of Major Bruce Kinloch, The Daily Telegraph, 4 September 2011

Alexander Robertson (New York politician)

Alexander Robertson (January 7, 1825 – August 5, 1902) was an American businessman and politician from New York.

Alexander Robertson (January 7, 1825 – August 5, 1902) was an American businessman and politician from New York. Life Robertson was born on January 7, 1825 in Warrensburg, New York. He moved with his family to Moreau, then Fort Edward.When he was 17, Robertson left school to work on his father's farm. In 1848, he moved to Whitehall and worked in the transportation business. In 1855, he moved to Albany and continued the business, transporting merchandise to and from Northern New York and Canada. He also conducted an extensive commercial business.In 1864, Robertson was elected to the New York State Assembly as a Democrat, representing the Albany County 3rd District. He served in the Assembly in 1865 and 1867. He was one of the originators of the bill to provide appropriations for a new New York State Capital.Robertson's children were Alexander, Charles E., Richard R., Mrs. Charles Parish, Mrs. Albert Brumaghim.Robertson died at home on August 5, 1902. He was buried in Albany Rural Cemetery. References External links The Political Graveyard Alexander Robertson at Find a Grave

Nathaniel Willis (1780–1870)

Nathaniel Willis (1780–1870) was an editor and publisher in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, in the 19th century. He established the Eastern Argus and the Boston Recorder newspapers, and The Youth's Companion magazine.

Nathaniel Willis (1780–1870) was an editor and publisher in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, in the 19th century. He established the Eastern Argus and the Boston Recorder newspapers, and The Youth's Companion magazine. Biography Willis was born in Boston in 1780 to newspaperman Nathaniel Willis (1755–1831). In 1787 he moved to "Winchester, [Virginia], and was employed in [a] newspaper office, and subsequently at Martinsburg, [Virginia], on the Potomac Guardian". Young Nathaniel was put to work at once in folding papers and setting types. At Martinsburg he used to ride post, with tin horn and saddle-bags, delivering papers to scattered subscribers in the thinly settled country. At the age of fifteen young Nathaniel returned to Boston and entered the office of the Independent Chronicle. He also found time, while in Boston, to drill with the "Fusiliers". In 1803, invited by a Maine congressman and other gentlemen of the Republican Party, he went to Portland, [Maine], and established the Eastern Argus in opposition to the Federalists.He married Hannah Parker in 1803; children included Nathaniel Parker Willis, Sara Willis Parton (Fanny Fern), Richard Storrs Willis, Lucy Douglas (born 1804), Louisa Harris (1807), Julia Dean (1809), Mary Perry (1813), Edward Payson (1816) and Ellen Holmes (1821).Back in Boston in 1816, Willis established The Recorder newspaper, "published every Wednesday afternoon at no.76 State-Street, ... entrance through Mr. H. Messinger's Hat-Store or in the rear of the building from Wilson's Lane". Associates included Sidney E. Morse. He later moved to Congress Square. Willis sold the paper to Martin Moore in 1844.In 1827 he established "a religious paper for children", The Youth's Companion (1827–1929). He served as editor "for about thirty years". References Further reading National cyclopaedia of American biography: being the history of the United States as illustrated in the lives of the founders, builders, and defenders of the republic, and of the men and women who are doing the work and moulding the thought of the present time, Volume 14, Part 1. James T. White & Co., 1910.

Riverdale High School (Quebec)

Riverdale High School (often abbreviated as RHS) was an English language secondary school, in the Pierrefonds-Roxboro borough of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The school was part of the Lester B. Pearson School Board and was designated a "community school".

Riverdale High School (often abbreviated as RHS) was an English language secondary school, in the Pierrefonds-Roxboro borough of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The school was part of the Lester B. Pearson School Board and was designated a "community school". History Riverdale had many athletic teams, including basketball, rugby, soccer, volleyball, track and field, and swim teams. The school also had a wide variety of community-based clubs and organizations. In 1971, the Riverdale Band won the International Band competition held in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.In 1972, an expansion of the original building took place.The logo visible to the right and the slogan "Reach Higher and Succeed" were adopted during the 1988-1989 school year after they were chosen in a schoolwide contest. Both were submitted by students at the time. The school's official colours were blue (a dark navy blue) and Grey, with the school paper having the matching name "Blue & Grey," but they were changed to match the uniforms adopted in 1993, whose colours were also selected by the student body. Before that the school had no uniform but only a dress code with rules such as "no jeans" and "no clothes with holes." A dwindling student populace made Riverdale apportion out half of its first floor to a French-language elementary school in 1988 to share costs, leaving the other two floors to the high school, along with the other half of the first floor, which included the cafeteria, shop classes, and music department. Later in 2007, the school got the full first floor back. In 2011, the main hallway, which was used for the junior grades was closed off for adult education because of its low student population, but the cafeteria was still very much part of the school, as were the drama department, music department and shop classes, situated on the first floor. In 2017, the second-floor hallway, which had previously run a full rectangular loop, was closed off roughly a fourth of the way through to make more space to be used for adult education which shared the building. In 2019, the school was forced to close and merge with the nearby Pierrefonds Comprehensive High School by the Minister of Education at the time, Jean-François Roberge. The building transferred over to the French-speaking Marguerite-Bourgeoys school board which had been struggling with overcrowding issues.The building now houses the De L'Altitude high school. Notable alumni Ian Beausoleil-Morrison, nee Morrison; professional engineer and academic, Head of the Sustainable Building and Energy Systems group, Faculty of Engineering and Design at Carleton University Michael Calce, denial-of-service attack hacker known as Mafiaboy Khem Birch, Professional basketball player for the Toronto Raptors (NBA) David Boys, World (1997) and Canadian (2003) Scrabble champion Craig Button (1980), former NHL executive, current hockey broadcast analyst Bill Coon (1976), jazz guitarist, composer Glen MacPherson (1975), cinematographer Harley Morenstein, Host and creator of YouTube show Epic Meal Time and host of Epic Chef Eric Prosh (1975), Director of Minerals and Petroleum Resources, Nunavut Harry Standjofski, actor, theater director, playwright. Jack W. Szostak (1968), cell biologist, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2009 André White (1976), musician, composer, recording engineer, and educator Alissa White-Gluz, former lead singer of Canadian Metalcore Band The Agonist and current lead singer of Swedish Melodic Death Metal Band Arch Enemy Charlene Wong, Olympic figure skater == References ==

Park Glienicke

Park Glienicke, (German: Park Klein-Glienicke or Glienicker Park) is an English landscape garden in the southwestern outskirts of Berlin, Germany. It is located in the locality of Wannsee in the Steglitz-Zehlendorf borough. Close to Glienicke Bridge (known as Bridge of Spies) the park is open to the general public. The park is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin (Potsdam cultural ensemble). Within the ensemble it is one of the five main parks, the others being Sanssouci Park, New Garden (Neuer Garten), Babelsberg Park and Peacock Island (Pfaueninsel).

Park Glienicke, (German: Park Klein-Glienicke or Glienicker Park) is an English landscape garden in the southwestern outskirts of Berlin, Germany. It is located in the locality of Wannsee in the Steglitz-Zehlendorf borough. Close to Glienicke Bridge (known as Bridge of Spies) the park is open to the general public. The park is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin (Potsdam cultural ensemble). Within the ensemble it is one of the five main parks, the others being Sanssouci Park, New Garden (Neuer Garten), Babelsberg Park and Peacock Island (Pfaueninsel). Regarding diversity in gardening styles within the Potsdam park ensemble Park Glienicke is only superseded by Sanssouci Park. Furthermore, it is a park especially characterized by one personality due to the intense involvement of Prince Charles of Prussia. The park covers approximately 116 hectares (290 acres) History In 1682 Frederick William of Brandenburg, the Great Elector, commissioned the first hunting lodge Jagdschloss Glienicke next to the uninhabited village Klein-Glienicke which suffered badly in the Thirty Years' War. The lodge had a garden with four carp ponds. South of the lodge was an enclosed wildlife park; north a tree garden and two vineyards. Already since 1660 the first wooden Glienicke Bridge linked the area to Potsdam. In 1715 under Frederick William, the Soldier King, the lodge became a military hospital for soldiers to be quarantined. In 1747 the hospital head Dr. Mirow bought the tree garden and the new vineyard which were neglected since the Soldier King's death and established there an estate where besides farming kilns for bricks and lime were operated. In 1758 the lodge itself was turned into a wallpaper factory which became an orphanage in 1827. From 1789 on the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee (de) was built distinctly separating former lodge and new estate. The Mirow estate had different owners until the Prussian lieutenant general and head equerry Count Carl von Lindenau (de) bought it in 1796: 378  and converted it into an ornamented farm./: 22-  After the Prussian Chancellor Karl August von Hardenberg had purchased the estate in 1814, he commissioned the Prussian gardener Peter Joseph Lenné to design a park in 1816. The first part was the pleasure ground inspired by English landscape gardening. In 1822 Germany's renowned landscape gardener Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau brought the English architect John Adey Repton(son of the great English landscape designer Humphry Repton) to Glienicke. After his return to England J.A. Repton designed a Hardenberg basket supposedly inspired by a wooden basket containing a bed of roses in Glienicke.: 85  In November 1822 Chancellor Hardenberg died. In 1824 the estate was sold to Prince Charles of Prussia. It has remained a mystery why the unmarried third-born son of the Prussian king was the first son to get his own estate.: 24  While the mansion was converted into Glienicke Palace, designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Prince Charles developed the park together with Lenné and other gardeners in the following decades to the extent which is still visible today. Being a particular anglophile he had the nickname „Sir Charles Glienicke“ within the Prussian royal family. Yet he never travelled to England as he was opposed to British politics like his anglophile sister Charlotte, the wife of Russian Emperor Nicholas I. Visiting his sister Prince Charles travelled several times to Saint Petersburg, where he was especially fascinated by Pavlovsk Park, which was designed as a classic English landscape garden. Park Glienicke was well known to the European aristocracy as the protocol for state visits to the Prussian capital required to pay also a visit to Prince Charles in Glienicke. On 14 August 1858 Queen Victoria and Prince Consort Albert visited Palace and Park Glienicke. Earlier that year their daughter Victoria had married Charles' nephew Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia. After the park had been officially called Prince's Charles of Prussia Park(Park des Prinzen Carl von Preußen) since 1824 it was renamed to Prince's Friedrich Leopold of Prussia Park(Park des Prinzen Friedrich Leopold von Preußen) in 1885. As Charles' son Friedrich Carl of Prussia survived him by only two years the grandson Friedrich Leopold inherited Palace and Park Glienicke. Despite the instruction in Charles' will that the heirs should spend each year 30,000 Mark on the park Friedrich Leopold neglected the park. When Germany became a republic in 1919 Palace and Park Glienicke remained part of the Prince's property. Palace and park suffered further neglect as Friedrich Leopold moved to Lugano in Switzerland and took several pieces of art with him to pay off his debts. In 1924 the Prussian state bought the part of Böttcherbergpark. A development plan of 1928 for that area was not carried out.: 367  Friedrich Leopold's intention to sell off the areas of the 1841 park extension was blocked by the Prussian state resulting in a lawsuit which ended with the Prince's death in 1931.: 185 After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 the City of Berlin bought most of the park in 1934 and 1935. Julius Lippert, Reichskommissar of Berlin pressed the legal guardian of the heir(a minor) to sell and used the confiscated assets of the German bank manager and art collector Herbert M. Gutmann to pay. The Prince's family kept a triangular area in the southwest of the park including palace and pleasure ground. The park was opened to the public and named Volkspark Glienicke(People's Park Glienicke) indicating Lippert's populist intention. The official opening was on Adolf Hitler's birthday.: 62  The following years the park suffered e.g. from the changes to the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee which became part of the Reichsstraße 1. After being appointed mayor of Berlin in 1937 Julius Lippert planned to have Glienicke as his official residence and let acquire the remaining part which was not owned by the city. In 1940 Lippert lost his office and the palace became a military hospital afterwards. After World War II early ideas to convert the park into a huge West Berlin sports complex close to the border to the Soviet occupation zone were dropped. In 1952 the park became a nature reserve. Besides the restoration of Palace Glienicke and some other buildings by Karl Friedrich Schinkel and his students since the 1950s it took until 1969 for the park itself being regarded as a work of art by the West Berlin city administration. Since 1978 a special department for the conservation and restoration of historic gardens focused on Tiergarten and Park Glienicke. In 1981 the "Schinkel Year" provided further public funding and in 1982 the whole ensemble of Palace and Park was registered as historic monument and historic garden respectively. The Berlin Wall along the Berlin-Potsdam Chaussee on the one hand caused the demolition of some Swiss chalets in the part of the Böttcherbergpark south of the chaussee, but on the other hand brought about the rebuilding of the chaussee to its original dimension.: 106 After the German reunification the Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin were registered as UNESCO World Heritage Site on 1 January 1991. Since 1992 the park is part of the EU special protection area for wild birds "Western Düppel Forest" (Westlicher Düppeler Forst). In 2000 the Foundation for Prussian Palaces and Gardens in Berlin-Brandenburg, formed in 1995, took over permanently the pleasure ground and the gardens near the palace. The rest of the park has remained with the Borough of Steglitz-Zehlendorf. Garden areas around the Palace Following the design guidelines by Humphry Repton for the classic English landscape garden Park Glienicke has the flower garden at the palace in the specific form of a garden courtyard. From 1816 on Lenné created the adjacent house garden, the pleasure ground, one of his early works and one of his masterpieces.: 275–277  The pleasure ground has seemingly a natural landscape, yet Lenné's whole design is artificial and artistic. The area was developed between palace, chaussee and bridge keeper's house. Lenné persuaded Hardenberg to buy a small farm estate, a so-called Büdnerei (de), on a flat terrain at the chaussee. The topography of the “Büdnerei” and of four terraces for growing fruit and wine(north of “Büdnerei”) vanished with the landscaping. Flower beds Elliptical and round flower beds with terracotta palmette borders are typical for garden courtyard and pleasure ground. The restoration was supported by discovering original border stones in the cellar of the Curiosity pavilion. In the underground the beds are walled in allowing for specific irrigation, therefore the pleasure ground has been crisscrossed with water pipes. As the clay pipes on Peacock Island lasted only ten years after being installed in 1824 expensive iron pipes supplied by the Prussian industrial pioneer F.A. Egells (de) were installed in Glienicke when in 1838 the pumping station started operating with a steam engine, a gift by Charles’ father which was also manufactured by F.A. Egells.: 202  The beds were filled with a loose subsoil which facilitated the quick replacement of plants. There are some figurative designed beds bordered with buxus which add to the pleasure ground an artificial aspect, e.g. the Oak Leaf bed near the Lions Fountain and the Diana(Greek:Artemis) or Pliny bed at the Casino. An Athena statue, which is now at the British Museum, stood in a niche on the northside of the Casino characterizing it as a place of art. Most striking is the Lilies bed beneath Charles' bedroom windows at the western facade of the palace. It is a heraldic sign referring to Charles' younger sister Louise who was married to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. She was very supportive sending bulbs to Charles. In Glienicke planting of roses has been almost non-existent in contrast to Babelsberg Park and Peacock Island. The pleasure ground in Glienicke is rather a portrayal of an antique villa complex as described by Pliny the Younger than a reflexion on a longing for Italy(Italiensehnsucht). Vine Pergola and Adjutants’ Peristyle are the architectural links between garden courtyard and pleasure ground. The pleasure ground itself has several architectural elements: Lions Fountain The planning for a big new fountain started after the construction of the pumping station began in 1836. On 23 October 1837 Prince Charles, Schinkel, Persius and Lenné met in Glienicke to discuss the fountain near the greenhouse which Count von Lindenau commissioned at the end of the 18th century.: 42  Schinkel drafted the fountain and a new greenhouse which never got beyond the design stage as on its site Persius build the Stibadium in 1840. The Lions Fountain has two gilded cast-iron sculptures of Medici lions which were a present by Charlotte to her brother Charles on his 30th birthday in 1831.: 41  The lions were placed on two high, zinc cast pedestals, which flank the fountain, each resting on four zinc cast Doric columns concealing the iron supporting structure. Charlotte and her husband, the Russian Emperor, were present at the official opening of the fountain on 2 June 1838. On the balustrade at the rear of the fountain, which is divided by the flight of steps from the palace, were placed four allegorical terracotta statues (created around 1855) describing both commerce, science, art and military as the cornerstones of the state and the four seasons.: 127  The creator of the statues was probably Christian Daniel Rauch's student Alexander Gilli (de) who was “court sculptor” in Glienicke.: 488–489  Through the years the jet of water changed. At first a simple jet of water was projected vertically from a triton statue. Later that changed to aigrette and bell shapes. Also the Lions sculptures spouted water.: 42  The Lions Fountain has become a symbol for Park Glienicke. The view from the chaussee to the fountain with the palace in the background was the most common subject of the numerous vedute of Park Glienicke. After World War II the whole fountain was in a ruinous state. During the restoration from 1960 to 1964 most of the parts above ground had to be renewed.: 188  Fifty years later the fountain had again serious construction defects. After the fall of a tree on the fountain the restoration could not be delayed anymore. As in 2009 the work started more defects were discovered and investigated. Financed by considerable private donations the restoration was completed in August 2010. Curiosity Pavilion The pavilion named Curiosity dates back to 1796 and was rebuilt in strict Doric order by Schinkel in 1825. It has a cellar.: 36  Its name derives from the fact that it could be used to watch the traffic on the adjacent Berlin-Potsdam chaussee through the shutters while being invisible to passers-by. Around 1848 the pavilion became a place for arts collection. Spolia were inserted in the entrance hall. At the same time a Florentine Renaissance arcade was installed as a cover on the garden façade. Already in 1842 the arcade was bought from the Russian arts collector Anatoly Demidov who lived in Florence. : 78 Stibadium The Stibadium was designed by Friedrich Ludwig Persius and built on the site of a neoclassical greenhouse with a garden room(built after 1796) in 1840.: 63  The semi-circular Tholos structure with a wooden half-cone roof was the main place for having tea. On the underside of the roof a twelve deities programme is painted. As there are 14 fields the Twelve Olympians were supplemented with Bacchus and Amphitrite. The middle pillar had originally a zinc-cast Kore designed by August Kiss which later was replaced with a marble copy of the Felicitas Publica in the monument Max-Joseph Denkmal by Christian Daniel Rauch in Munich. On the terrace stands a granite bowl by Christian Gottlieb Cantian which Charles inherited after his father died in 1840. The Stibadium had the function to be a shield between pleasure ground and Drive. It had also the opposite purpose of the Curiosity pavilion. While looking on the common people from such an elevated and prestigious building the Prince's tea party was on show to the people at the same time. The paintings of the Twelve Olympians may seem presumptuous, yet they are an artistic expression of how Prussian aristocrats saw themselves in the age of European Restoration. Rotunda After Glienicke Bridge was rebuilt in stone in 1834 Prince Charles asked for a round summerhouse at the new corner of the garden.: 36  Based on ancient examples Schinkel designed a Rotunda in which the first tea party took place on 2 July 1835.: 114  At Prince Charles’ instigation the pavilion was crowned with the reproduction of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. The completed rotunda was opened with a big party on 16 August 1837.: 120–121  Rotunda, stone bridge and the residence Villa Schöningen on the opposite bank of the river Havel formed a little architectural ensemble on its own. This was destroyed when the stone bridge was replaced by the steel bridge in 1907. In 1935 the Rotunda was moved furthermore when the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee was expanded and became part of the Reichsstraße 1. Casino North of the Rotunda at the shore of Jungfernsee lies the two-storey Casino from 1824. Its terrace, overlooking the lake, was the most beautiful place for having tea. It was the first building Schinkel designed for Prince Charles. On the one hand its name refers to a one-storey building previously used to play billiards in it, which Schinkel redesigned; on the other hand there is the Italian origin of the word "Casino" and that the building resembles country houses at the Gulf of Naples.: 33–38  In autumn and winter 1822/23 Charles had accompanied his father and his brother William on a four and a half month journey to Italy, where they spent four weeks in the Naples region visiting the excavation sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii.: 4–6 Dummy Frigate Just north of the Casino was a dummy frigate, designed by Schinkel, on an artificial peninsula which presumably was thrown up as a bank of earth only in the 18th century serving as wharf for the ships transporting bricks and limestone. After the kilns were closed down in 1824 the peninsula became a mooring and was included in the garden design. The wooden construction of the frigate with three tall masts was used as a toolshed for the sailors who operated the Prince's miniature fleet. The dummy frigate was singular in the German landscape architecture. Presumably the Prince was inspired to having such a construction by travelling as a 13-year-old aboard the miniature frigate (first Royal Luise) which in 1814 the Prussian King Frederick William III received as present from the British King George III, a coalition partner in the Napoleonic Wars. Orangery and Greenhouses After the pumping station at the shore was finished in 1838 Persius designed and built up-to-date greenhouses and an orangery in 1839. The buildings were erected to the west of the coach house at the edge of the pleasure ground where three little greenhouses stood previously. The arcade of the orangery referred to the adjacent coach house. The greenhouses, flanked by little water towers, were aligned to the south at the southern gable end of the orangery. Figs, peaches, pineapple, prunes and strawberries were grown in the greenhouses. The area in front of the greenhouses was used for extensive seedbeds. Orangery and one part of the greenhouses were demolished in 1940 and reconstructed in 1981. Cloister Courtyard In 1850 the Cloister Courtyard between Casino and the greenhouses was erected as the last building on the pleasure ground. The formal reason for the building was to house Charles' extensive collections of medieval art and Byzantine sculptures. Historic building parts were purchased in Venice to be used as spolia in the Cloister Courtyard where Charles developed the first collection of Byzantine works of art in modern Europe. The building has been described as a political statement by Prince Charles in the aftermath of the revolution of 1848. It is regarded as a tribute to the Byzantine Empire as a God-given unity of throne and altar in the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages. Furthermore, it is seen as a hidden tribute to Russia and its political order as the Russian emperors saw themselves as successors of the Byzantine Emperors.: 51-  The Cloister Courtyard represents an unusual mixture of a romantic architecture depicting the contemporary atmosphere and of the function as a museum, so to speak a very late Hermitage with scientific pretension and political statement.: 290–291  Part of the collection in the Cloister Courtyard was the Imperial Throne of Goslar which Charles acquired with the help of his former tutor Heinrich Menu von Minutoli who had fostered Charles’ interest in antiquities. The throne was kept together with other medieval treasures in a chapel-like vault. : 383  In 1871 Charles loaned the throne to his brother Emperor William I to be used as the Emperor's seat in the imperial ceremony opening the first Berlin Reichstag. Charles left the throne in his will to the town of Goslar. The most precious relief on the walls of the Cloister Courtyard was a late 12th century tondo of the Byzantine Emperor. Nowadays only a reproduction is on display. The original is part of the Byzantine Collection of the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Georgetown, Washington, D.C.. Coach House Courtyard and Palace Tower The Coach House Courtyard dates from 1828 (design by Schinkel) and housed Charles' collection of coaches. The four arches refer to the Roman Agoranomion in Athens which Schinkel and his contemporaries thought of as the most important arch architecture of the "Old Greeks". The Palace Tower adjacent to the coach house was built in 1832 and was used as a difficult to climb vantage point. Charles called the tower the “Good Charles”(Guter Carl).: 16  In 1874 a late neoclassical observation loggia was put on the tower and the coach house was expanded including a second storey which was removed after World War II. Garden Furniture and Pergolas The wrought iron garden furniture is missing. Due to its great weight it was probably kept at outdoor places for the tea parties during the summer season which lasted from 1 May(day of purchase of Glienicke) until 3 November (Hubertus's hunt). Some of the garden furniture was probably designed by Schinkel, other parts were in Louis Quinze style or Empire style.: 48  Wrought iron benches were presumably placed at smaller vantage points like e.g. the Lilac Pergola on the Lenné hill(as it is called nowadays) or the Lime Trees Pergola. The Lime Trees Pergola is the only non-architectural pergola in Glienicke which is still visible today. It consists of eight lime trees at a junction near the Cloister Courtyard which are the remains of the late 18th century geometrical aligned avenue trees. Near Lions Fountain and Stibadium the “Sphingentreppe”, a low rise flight of steps, is covered with a trellis designed by Persius. The flight of steps is named after the Sphinx statues placed at the foot of the steps which like the ill-fitting steps are from the demolished neoclassical greenhouse with a garden room at the site of today's Stibadium. Smaller Architectural Elements There are some smaller architectural elements on the pleasure ground. Near the Lions Fountain a mosaic floor marks a former place for tea parties under the former King's Lime Tree which was one of the most impressive solitary trees on the estate. In front of the Curiosity pavilion is the “La Laitière“ Fountain. It is an erratic crowned with a milkmaid bronze sculpture. The sculpture was a gift to Charles by his sister Charlotte in 1827. It was a copy of the original sculpture by Russian sculptor Pavel Sokolov (1764-1835) on the pleasure ground at the palace of Tsarskoye Selo. The sculpture refers to the fable about the milkmaid and her pail by Jean de La Fontaine. Today's copy was created in the Soviet Union in 1987.: 141  The Boy's Fountain is located in the middle of the pleasure ground. At its place was at first a sentimental memorial fountain called the “Monument“. Only after 1851 it was rebuilt into today's Boy's Fountain. It was inspired by a fountain design draft by Friedrich August Stüler published in 1850 on which the (destroyed) Frog's Fountain in Sanssouci was modelled. For the Frog's Fountain Friedrich Wilhelm Dankberg (de) created a statue of a boy carrying a bowl from which Prince Charles commissioned a zinc copy.: 205  On Lenné hill half hidden at bushes a „remnants of columns arrangement” is placed. The arrangement includes two column sections of the ancient Greek temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion, a capital from the Pantheon in Rome and another one from the St. Paul's outside the Walls basilica in Rome. : 383 Outlying Park areas The outlying park areas were separated from the pleasure ground by walls, fences or so-called invisible fences thus keeping out livestock and wildlife which roamed in the outlying park. In the middle of today's park lies the part of the Big Meadows(Großer Wiesengrund). In the west of it the part of the Shore Ridge Path(Ufer-Höhenweg) is located which is continued to the north by the part of the Hunter's Court (Jägerhof). In the northeast the part of the Karpathen is a mountain park with steep slopes. South of it and east of the Big Meadows stretches a part which is dominated by Wooded Valleys(Waldtäler-Partie). South of the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee are the Böttcherberg-Park with its Swiss chalets area and the adjacent Hunting Lodge Garden(Jagdschlossgarten). The east of the Hunter's Court and the wooded valleys became part of the park when Frederick William, who became King of Prussia in June 1840, gave the area on the basis of a kind of perpetual usufruct to his brother Charles as a Christmas present in 1840.: 186  The Böttcherberg-Park belonged already to the Lindenau estate since 1804, yet the main landscape design effort started only in 1841. : 137  The largest part of the Karpathen was bought in 1851. : 137  Charles’ work on the plans for the Hunting Lodge Garden started about the time when his brother, the King, suffered several strokes in summer 1857. The Swiss chalets in Böttcherberg-Park were built from 1863 to 1867.: 250  after the owner of the adjacent Babelsberg Park, Charles’ brother William, the Prince regent, became King in 1861. Some of the names of the parts are historical. Big Meadows, Shore Ridge Path, the part of the Hunter's Court and the part of the Wooded Valleys are auxiliary names as the traditional names by Charles and his family are not known. Lenné's park design is characterized by very many and seemingly surprising sightlines in the park itself as well as in the Potsdam cultural ensemble. The continuous interlocking of meadows creating the highest degree of views is also typical for Lenné. Figurative flower beds, lively structured ponds and mountainous designed park parts are typical for landscape gardening by Prince Pückler. In Glienicke Prince Charles united both approaches, yet the western parts of the park show clearly the hand of Lenné. Regarding the park design Charles did not meet Pückler in person for decades, although they were introduced at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Yet it is remarkable that Charles used the presence of Pückler's employee Jacob Rehder (de) at Babelsberg to consult him about Pückler's approach to landscape design while Pückler travelled through the north of Africa and the Near East from 1834 to 1840.: 149  Around 1837/38 Charles deviated from Lenné's design principles when he designed three ”gorges” in the part of the Shore Ridge Path and started to subdivide Lenné's unified designed park into parts. Pückler started the first of his eight visits to Prince Charles in Glienicke only in 1853, the same year the court gardener Friedrich Schojan, who had already served Hardenberg, retired.: 62–79, 124–161  Schojan was succeeded by August Gieseler who previously worked at Muskau Park.1824 was a busy year for Charles in Glienicke. Besides the architectural work with Schinkel and Persius he worked with Lenné and Schojan regarding the park design and ordered as much coppice as possible for planting in autumn and spring. For the first phase the planting of around 26,000 copses was recorded, mostly oaks, poplars, locust trees and lilac trees.: 30  The huge number of copses resulted in a big logistical effort. On the park terrain of that time planting on a massive scale of between 40,000 : 138  and 50.000 copses happened during the first years. Despite consisting mostly of young beeches procurement did get difficult. As neighbouring tree nurseries and forests ran fast out of copses sourcing took Lenné, who was in charge, to more distant regions, especially the state forest Lüdersdorf in the Uckermark.: 128  At more exposed places in the park up to 40-years old trees were planted at huge costs during the following years.: 72  Through a network of park roads and footpaths most of the park was accessible. Pure footpaths were to be found in difficult terrain. At very steep slopes footpaths with steps were available which were lost when most of the park became “Volkspark”. One path with steps was across the Karpathen, another one linked the main park road, the Drive, with the Big Hunting Parasol. There were also paths with steps to reach the lower parts of the Alders Bridge in the part of the Shore Ridge Path.: 170 Touring Park Glienicke by coach was done on the Drive, the main park road, which began at the Middle Gate, nowadays an inconspicuous flight of stairs at the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee(Königstraße). When the chaussee was expanded to become Reichsstraße 1 the street level was raised at the park. Middle Gate was not anymore at the level of the Big Meadows requiring a flight of stairs. To access the “Volkspark” a monumental limestone flight of stairs was probably built in 1935 which was replaced by a more modest construction after 1945.: 170  In the 19th century visitors drove through Middle Gate, then past the big erratic with the date 1 May 1824(date of purchase of estate by Prince Charles) and along Big Meadows where the Palace Pond and the Workers’ Quarters were on sight to finally reach the open part of the Garden Courtyard where they entered the Palace. From the Palace the Drive, allowing a view of Coach House Courtyard, went north along Shore Ridge with the Tent as highest vantage point. Close to Hunter's Court after a rather sharp bend the park road went south to the Big Meadows during the first years. Only at the end of the 1830s the completion of the three “gorges” with the pertinent bridges on Shore Ridge and buildings like the Court Gardener's House with the adjacent water tower of the pumping station increased significantly the number of sights inside the park along the sightlines from the Drive. With the park extensions after 1840 the Drive was also extended to include the new parts in the north and the east. Several times the curve in the north was redesigned to a larger radius enabling a new route in the north which offered e.g. a splendid view of Peacock Island from the Drive. In its design the main park road became more dramatic in the east. From a dam leading southeastward views were possible into “gorges” adorned with erratics. Passing the Hermitage the Drive descended into the wooded parts from where in a big westward curve it ascended to the edge of a steep slope which was impressive regarding the usual regional topography. From vantage points there magnificent long-distance views on the Potsdam cultural ensemble were possible. At the Upper Gate the Berlin-Potsdam chaussee was crossed and the tour continued into Böttcherberg-Park. Following another steep ascent the Alexandra Bench offered a view into the gorge there. At the Rondell the tour would usually be continued to the adjacent Babelsberg Park. On a shorter tour the coach would drive from the Rondell via the Middle Gate back to the Palace. The park roads were built in layers. Coarse material was covered with fine material. The camber ensured that rain ran fast off the surface. At slopes the park roads had narrow and flat gutters which were flanked by pebbles of erratics preventing erosion. At intersections the gutters crossed the road. See also Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin Notes References Julier, Jürgen et al.(Ed.): Schloss Glienicke: Bewohner, Künstler, Parklandschaft[Glienicke Palace: Occupiers, Artists, Landscaped Park], Catalogue of an exhibition at the Glienicke Palace, Berlin, 1 August – 1 November 1987 von Krosigk, Klaus; Wiegand, Heinz: Glienicke, Berliner Sehenswürdigkeiten[Berlin Sights] vol. 6, Verlag Haude und Spener, 3rd expanded ed., 1992, Berlin Schultheiß-Block, Gabriele (Ed.): Das Gantze Eyland muss ein Paradies werden, Jagdschloss Glienicke: 300 Jahre in Ansichten, Plänen, Portraits[The Whole Island has to become a paradise, Hunting lodge Glienicke: 300 years by Views, Plans, Portraits], Catalogue of an exhibition at the Haus am Waldsee (de), Berlin, 20 June – 9 August 1987 Seiler, Michael: Neue Untersuchungen zur ursprünglichen Gestaltung und zur Wiederherstellung des Pleasuregrounds von Klein-Glienicke.[New research into the original design and the restoration of the Pleasure Ground at Klein-Glienicke.] In: Heikamp, Detlef (Ed.): Schlösser, Gärten, Berlin. Festschrift für Martin Sperlich zum 60. Geburtstag 1979[Palaces, Gardens, Berlin. Festschrift on Martin Sperlich's 60th birthday 1979], Ernst Wasmuth Verlag, 1980, Tübingen, pp. 107–130 Seiler, Michael: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Landschaftsgartens Klein-Glienicke 1796–1883[The evolution of the landscape garden Klein-Glienicke 1796–1883], Dissertation, 1986, Hamburg Seiler, Michael; Sperlich, Martin: Schloß und Park Glienicke[Palace and Park Glienicke], Zehlendorfer Chronik[Chronicles of Zehlendorf], no. 6 (1987), Berlin Sievers, Johannes: Bauten für den Prinzen Carl von Preußen (Karl Friedrich Schinkel Lebenswerk) [Buildings for Prince Charles of Prussia (Karl Friedrich Schinkel's lifework], Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1942, Berlin External links Park Glienicke on www.spsg.de (Foundation for Prussian Palaces and Gardens in Berlin-Brandenburg)

Volkswagen Beetle

The Volkswagen Beetle—officially the Volkswagen Type 1, is an economy car that was built by the German company Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003. It has a rear-engine design with a two-door body style and is intended for five occupants (later, Beetles were restricted to four people in some countries).The need for a people's car (Volkswagen in German), its concept and its functional objectives were formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network (Reichsautobahn). Members of the National Socialist party, with an additional dues surcharge, were promised the first production, but the Spanish Civil War shifted most production resources to military vehicles to support the Nationalists under Francisco Franco. Lead engineer Ferdinand Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design. Béla Barényi is credited with conceiving the original basic design for this car in 1925, notably by Mercedes-Benz, on their website, including his original technical drawing, five years before Porsche claimed to have done his initial version.

The Volkswagen Beetle—officially the Volkswagen Type 1, is an economy car that was built by the German company Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003. It has a rear-engine design with a two-door body style and is intended for five occupants (later, Beetles were restricted to four people in some countries).The need for a people's car (Volkswagen in German), its concept and its functional objectives were formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network (Reichsautobahn). Members of the National Socialist party, with an additional dues surcharge, were promised the first production, but the Spanish Civil War shifted most production resources to military vehicles to support the Nationalists under Francisco Franco. Lead engineer Ferdinand Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design. Béla Barényi is credited with conceiving the original basic design for this car in 1925, notably by Mercedes-Benz, on their website, including his original technical drawing, five years before Porsche claimed to have done his initial version. The influence on Porsche's design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570, and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was the first Volkswagen, and one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era. With 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made. Although designed in the 1930s, due to World War II, civilian Beetles only began to be produced in significant numbers by the end of the 1940s. The car was then internally designated the Volkswagen Type 1, and marketed simply as the Volkswagen. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200, 1300, 1500, 1302, or 1303, the first three indicating engine displacement, the last two derived from the model number. The car became widely known in its home country as the Käfer (German for "beetle", cognate with English chafer) and was later marketed under that name in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle (French for ladybug).The original 18.6 kW (24.9 hp) Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h (62 mph), which would be a viable cruising speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the postwar years, its output was boosted to 27 kW (36 hp), then 30 kW (40 hp), the configuration that lasted through 1966 and became the "classic" Volkswagen motor. The Beetle gave rise to multiple variants: mainly the 1950 Type 2 'Bus', the 1955 Karmann Ghia, as well as the 1961 Type 3 'Ponton' and the 1968 Type 4 (411/412) family cars, ultimately forming the basis of an entirely rear-engined VW product range. The Beetle marked a significant trend, led by Volkswagen, and then by Fiat and Renault, whereby the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout increased from 2.6 percent of continental Western Europe's car production in 1946 to 26.6 percent in 1956. In 1959 even General Motors launched an air-cooled, rear-engined car, the Chevrolet Corvair—which also shared the Beetle's flat engine and swing axle architecture. Over time, front-wheel drive, and frequently hatchback-bodied cars would come to dominate the European small-car market. In 1974, Volkswagen's own front-wheel drive Golf hatchback succeeded the Beetle. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the Concept One, a "retro"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, and in 1998 introduced the "New Beetle", built on the contemporary Golf platform with styling recalling the original Type 1. It remained in production through 2010, and was succeeded in 2011 by the Beetle (A5), the last variant of the Beetle, which was also more reminiscent of the original Beetle. Production ceased altogether by 2019.In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the world's most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS. History "The People's Car" The original concept behind the first Volkswagen, the company, and its name is the notion of a people’s car – a car affordable and practical enough for common people to own. Hence the name, which is literally "people's car" in German, pronounced [ˈfɔlksˌvaːɡn̩] ). Although the Volkswagen Beetle was mainly the brainchild of Ferdinand Porsche and Adolf Hitler, the idea of a "people's car" is much older than Nazism and has existed since the mass-production of cars was introduced. In fact, Béla Barényi was able to prove in court in 1953 that Porsche's patents infringed on Barényi's ideas, and therefore Barényi has since been credited with first conceiving the original basic design for this car in 1925. This was noted on the Mercedes-Benz website, including Barényi's original technical drawing, dated five years before Ferdinand Porsche claimed to have made his initial version. Barényi also successfully sued Volkswagen for copyright infringement in 1955, whereby his contribution to the creation of the VW Type 1 was legally acknowledged. Contrary to the situation in the United States, where the Ford Model T had become the first car to motorize the masses, contributing to household car ownership of about 33% in 1920 and some 46% in 1930, in the early 1930s, the German auto industry was still mostly limited to luxury models, and few Germans could afford anything more than a motorcycle: one German out of 50 owned a car.In April 1934, Hitler gave the order to Porsche to develop a Volkswagen. The epithet Volks-, literally "people's-", had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods as well, such as the Volksempfänger ("people's radio"). In May 1934, at a meeting at Berlin's Kaiserhof Hotel, Hitler insisted on a basic vehicle that could transport two adults and three children at 100 km/h (62 mph) while not using more than 7 litres of fuel per 100 km (32 mpg US/39 mpg UK). The engine had to be powerful enough for sustained cruising on Germany's Autobahnen. Everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, not every country doctor had his own garage. (Ethylene glycol antifreeze was only just beginning to be used in high-performance liquid-cooled aircraft engines. In general, water in radiators would freeze unless the vehicle was kept in a heated building overnight or drained and refilled each morning.)The "People's Car" was to be made available to citizens of Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte (savings booklet), at 990 ℛ︁ℳ︁, about the price of a small motorcycle. (The average weekly income was then around 32 ℛ︁ℳ︁.) Due to the outbreak of war in 1939, none of the participants in the savings scheme ever received a car. In 1950 a lawsuit was issued that, after 12 years of trial, ultimately provided a credit of 12% off the list price of a new VW base model or less than five times the money paid into the saving scheme. Development Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or "Auto für Jedermann" (car for everybody) for Zündapp in 1931. Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension (invented by Edmund Rumpler), while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932 three prototypes were running; all were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, another motorcycle company. The Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSU discontinued car manufacturing, and the Type 32 was abandoned at the prototype stage.Initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type-60 prototypes, known as cars V1, a sedan, and V2 , a convertible (V for Versuchswagen, or "test car"), were ready. In 1936 testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsche's Stuttgart shop. A batch of thirty W30 development models, produced for Porsche by Daimler-Benz, underwent 2,900,000 km (1,800,000 mi) of further testing in 1937. All cars had the distinctive round shape and the air-cooled, rear-mounted engine. Included in this batch was a rollback soft top called the Cabrio Limousine. A further batch of 44 VW38 pre-production cars produced in 1938 introduced split rear windows; both the split window and the dash were retained on production Type 1s until 1953. The VW38 cars were followed by another batch of 50 VW39 cars, completed in July 1939.The car was designed to be as simple as possible mechanically. The air-cooled 19 kW (25 hp) 995 cc (60.7 cu in) motor's built-in oil cooler, and the flat-four engine configuration's superior performance was also effective for the German Afrika Korps in Africa's desert heat. The suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. According to a 1972 commercial, the Beetle was nearly airtight and would briefly float. Factory On 26 May 1938, Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory in Fallersleben. He gave a speech, in which he named the car Kraft-durch-Freude-Wagen ("Strength Through Joy Car", usually abbreviated to KdF-Wagen). The name refers to Kraft durch Freude ('Strength Through Joy'), the official leisure organization of Nazi Germany. The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created near Fallersleben in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit of the workers at the newly built factory. Volkswagen had only just started small scale production, building about 210 Beetles, when civilian production was halted at the start of the war. Except for two military prototype units, these KdF sedans were allocated to military officers as personal cars. Hitler was given the very first convertible Beetle built in 1938. Both 704 cc and 984 cc air-cooled engines were fitted in these early units.The first volume-produced versions of the car's running-gear and chassis were military vehicles, the Type 82 Kübelwagen (approximately 52,000 built) and the amphibious Type 128 and 166 Schwimmwagen (about 14,000 built). Wartime production A handful of KdF-Wagen were produced, primarily for the Nazi elite, from 1941 to 1944, as the Typ 60. During World War II, the factory primarily built the Kübelwagen (Typ 82), the Schwimmwagen (Typ 166), and a handful of other light wheeled vehicles, all mechanically derived from the Typ 1, for the Wehrmacht. These included several hundred Kommandeurswagen (Typ 87), with a Typ 1 Beetle body mounted on the rugged chassis of the four-wheel drive Typ 86 Kübelwagen prototype, and fitted with portal axle and a Schwimmwagen drive train, with wider fenders., to accommodate oversize Kronprinz all-terrain tires (reminiscent of the later Baja Bugs). Kommandeurswagen were produced up to 1944, when all production was halted because of heavy damage to the factory from Allied air raids. Much of the essential equipment had already been moved to underground bunkers for protection, which let production resume quickly after hostilities ended. Due to gasoline shortages late in the war, a few "Holzbrenner" Beetles were built, which were fueled with logs of wood. The logs were converted into combustible gases using pyrolysis gas producers located under the front hood, so the car could retain its carbureted Otto engine. Post-war production and boom In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10 percent of the 1936 car production numbers.Mass production of civilian VW cars did not start until post-war occupation. The Volkswagen factory was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. However, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; an official report included the phrases "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car… it is quite unattractive to the average buyer… To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." The factory survived by producing cars for the British Army instead. Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid-1947, although heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951. In March 1947, Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a "pastoral state". It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it. The re-opening of the factory is largely credited to British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst. Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. His first task was to remove an unexploded bomb that had fallen through the roof and lodged itself between some pieces of irreplaceable production equipment; if the bomb had exploded, the Beetle's fate would have been sealed. Knowing Germany needed jobs and the British Army needed vehicles, Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 cars, and by March 1946 the factory was producing 1,000 cars a month (in Army khaki, under the name Volkswagen Type 1), which Hirst said "was the limit set by the availability of materials". During this period, the car reverted to its original name of Volkswagen and the town was renamed Wolfsburg. The first 1,785 Type 1s were made in 1945.After initially building mostly Beetles for the British military, in 1947 production transitioned to purely civilian Beetles, for the first time featuring chromed bumpers, hubcaps, and body and running board trim. Aside from some remaining military production, civilian output reached almost 9,000 units in 1947, and for 1948 total production increased to 19,244 cars. The late 1940s Beetles still had an understressed 1131 cc engine with just 19 kW (25 hp), but it could effortlessly maintain cruising at the car's 100-kilometre-per-hour (62 mph) top speed. This was already an enlarged engine, compared to the finalized pre-war design, and in some export markets, these early civilian models were therefore labeled the Type 11. Following the British Army-led restart of production and Hirst's establishment of sales network and exports to Netherlands, former Opel manager (and formerly a detractor of the Volkswagen) Heinz Nordhoff was appointed director of the Volkswagen factory in 1949. Under Nordhoff, production increased dramatically over the following decade, with the one-millionth car coming off the assembly line by 1955. During this post-war period, the Beetle had superior performance in its category with a top speed of 115 km/h (71 mph) and 0–100 kilometres per hour (0–62 mph) in 27.5 seconds with fuel consumption of 6.7 litres per 100 kilometres (42 mpg‑imp; 35 mpg‑US) for the standard 25 kW (34 hp) engine. This was far superior to the Citroën 2CV, which was aimed at a low speed/poor road rural peasant market, and Morris Minor, designed for a market with no motorways or freeways; it was even competitive with more advanced small city cars like the Austin Mini upon its introduction in 1959. In Small Wonder, Walter Henry Nelson wrote: The engine fires up immediately without a choke. It has tolerable road-handling and is economical to maintain. Although a small car, the engine has great elasticity and gave the feeling of better output than its small nominal size. There were other, less-numerous models, as well. A total of 696 convertible Hebmüller Cabriolets were built between 1949 and 1953, and 203 Type 18As, a canvas-doored cabriolet, were produced by Austro-Tatra as a police and fire unit between January 1950 and March 1953.The chassis became a technological and parts donor to the original VW Bus, officially the Volkswagen Type 2, (also known as Bulli) and external coachbuilders such as Rometsch, Dannenhauer & Stauss, Wilhelm Karmann, Enzmann, Beutler, Ghia-Aigle, Hebmüller & Söhne, Drews, Wendler.On 17 February 1972 Beetle No. 15,007,034 was produced, surpassing total production of the previous record holder, the Ford Model T. By 1973, total production was over 16 million, and by 23 June 1992, over 21 million had been produced. Decline Though extremely successful in the 1960s, experiencing its greatest sales growth in North America between 1960 and 1965, the Beetle was increasingly faced with stiff competition from more modern designs globally. The Japanese had refined rear-wheel-drive, water-cooled, front-engine, small cars including the Datsun 510 and Toyota Corolla, whose sales in the North American market grew rapidly at the expense of Volkswagen in the late 1960s. Honda introduced the N600, based on the space-efficient transverse-engine, front-wheel-drive layout of the original Austin Mini, to the North American market in late 1969, and upgraded the model to the Honda Civic in 1972. The Japanese "big three" would soon dominate compact auto sales in North America. In 1971 Ford introduced its Pinto, which had some market impact as a low cost alternative in the wake of the drop of the US Dollar against the Deutsche Mark that same year. As the 1960s came to a close, Volkswagen faced increasingly stiff competition from European cars as well. The Beetle was faced with competition from new designs like the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, and more robust designs based on the Austin Mini layout such as the Superminis. German competitors, Ford and Opel also enjoyed strong sales of modern smaller cars like the Ford Escort and Opel Kadett. Volkswagen's attempts to boost the power of their air-cooled motor to meet the demands of higher highway speeds in the late 1960s, then comply with new pollution control regulations, caused problems for reliability and fuel efficiency that impaired the reputation of the aging design. Safety issues with the Beetle came under increasing scrutiny, culminating in the 1972 release of a rather scathing report. During the early 1970s, sales of the Beetle in Europe and North America plummeted. VW introduced other models to supplement the Beetle throughout the 1960s; the Type 3, Type 4, and the NSU-based and larger K70. None of these models, aimed at more upscale markets, achieved the level of success of the Beetle. The over-reliance on a single model, now in decline, meant that Volkswagen was in financial crisis by 1974. It needed German government funding to produce the Beetle's replacement. Production lines at Wolfsburg switched to the new water-cooled, front-engined, front-wheel-drive Golf designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro in 1974, sold in North America at the time as the "Rabbit". The Golf eventually became Volkswagen's most successful model since the Beetle. It was periodically redesigned over its lifetime, with only a few components carried over between generations, entering its eighth generation in 2019; the Beetle had only minor refinements of its original design. The Golf did not kill Beetle production, nor did the smaller Polo which was launched a year later. Production of the Beetle continued in smaller numbers at other German factories until 19 January 1978, when mainstream production shifted to Brazil and Mexico: markets where low operating cost was an important factor. After this shift in production, sales in Europe did not stop, but became very low. Beetle sedans were produced for U.S. markets until July 1977 and for European markets until 1985, with other companies continuing to import cars produced in Mexico after 1985. The Beetle convertible/Cabriolet ended production (as 1979 models) on 31 January 1980.The last Beetle was produced in Puebla, Mexico, in July 2003. The final batch of 3,000 Beetles were sold as 2004 models and badged as the Última Edición, with whitewall tires, a host of previously discontinued chrome trim, and the choice of two special paint colors taken from the New Beetle. Production in Brazil ended in 1986, then started again in 1993 and continued until 1996. The Beetle outlasted most other cars which had adopted the rear-engine, air-cooled layout such as those by Subaru, Fiat, and General Motors. Porsche's 356 series, which originally used some Volkswagen-sourced parts, continued to use the classic rear-engine layout, as did its successor, the 911 series (which switched to water cooling in the 996 generation of the 911 onwards). Worldwide end of production By 2002, over 21 million Type 1s had been produced, but by 2003, annual production had dropped to 30,000 from a peak of 1.3 million in 1971. VW announced the end of production in June 2003, citing decreasing demand, and the final original Type 1 VW Beetle (No. 21,529,464) rolled off the production line at Puebla, Mexico, on 30 July 2003, 65 years after its original launch. This last Beetle, nicknamed El Rey (Spanish for "The King" after a legendary Mexican song by José Alfredo Jiménez) was delivered to the company's museum in Wolfsburg, Germany.To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a final, special series of 3,000 Beetles marketed as "Última Edición" (Final Edition) in light blue (Aquarius Blue) or beige (Harvest Moon Beige). Each car included the 1.6 engine, whitewall tires, a CD player with four speakers, chrome bumpers, trim, hub caps and exterior mirrors, a Wolfsburg emblem above the front trunk's handle, an all-cloth interior, chrome glove box badge, body coloured wheels, tinted glass, a rear parcel shelf, and VW Última Edición plaque.A mariachi group serenaded production of the last car. In Mexico, there was an advertising campaign as a goodbye for the Beetle. In one of the ads was a very small parking space on the street, and many big cars tried to use it, but could not. After a while, a sign appears in that parking space saying: "Es increíble que un auto tan pequeño deje un vacío tan grande" (It is incredible that a car so small can leave such a large void). Another depicted the rear end of a 1954 Beetle (the year Volkswagen was established in Mexico) in the left side of the ad, reading "Erase una vez..." (Once upon a time...) and the last 2003 Beetle in the right side, reading "Fin" (The end). Other ads also had the same nostalgic tone. Engine: Fuel-injected (Bosch Digifant) four-cylinder horizontally opposed, 1,584 cc, 50 hp (37 kW), 98.1 N⋅m (72.4 lb⋅ft) @ 2,200 rpm, three-way catalytic converter Rated fuel mileage: 7.2 L/100 km (32.5 mpg‑US; 39.0 mpg‑imp) Max cruising speed: 130 km/h (81 mph) Brakes: front disc, rear drum Passengers: Five Tank: 40 L (11 US gal; 9 imp gal) Colours: Aquarius blue, Harvest Moon beige. Prototypes Diesel In 1951, Volkswagen prototyped a 1.3 L diesel engine. Volkswagen made only two of these naturally aspirated, air-cooled boxer diesel engines, and installed one engine in a Type 1 and another in a Type 2. The diesel Beetle was time tested on the Nürburgring and achieved 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) in 60 seconds. Design The Beetle featured a rear-located, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine and rear-wheel drive in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat—and offering a coefficient of drag of 0.48; to this – for a 1930s car – relatively good Cd, the also streamlined rear of the car was of help. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to the Beetle's nearly flat platform chassis which featured a central structural tunnel. Front and rear suspension featured torsion bars along with a front stabilizer bar—providing independent suspension at all wheels, albeit that the front axle was designed with double longitudinal trailing arms, whereas the rear axle was a simple swing axle. Certain initial features were subsequently revised, including mechanical drum brakes, split-window rear windows, mechanical direction-indicators, and the non-synchronized gearbox. Other features, including its distinctive overall shape, endured. In fact, the Beetle was prized for its seemingly unchanged appearance and "marketed to American consumers as the anti-GM and Ford: 'We do not believe in planned obsolescence. We don't change a car for the sake of change.'"The Beetle's engine, transmission, and cylinder heads were constructed of light alloy. An engine oil cooler (located in the engine fan's shroud) ensured optimal engine operating temperature and long engine life, optimized by a thermostat that bypassed the oil cooler when the engine was cold. Later models featured an automatic choke. Engine intake air passed through a metallic filter, while heavier particles were captured by an oil bath. After 1960, steering featured a hydraulic damper that absorbed steering irregularities. Indicative of the car's utilitarian design, the interior featured painted metal surfaces, a metal dash consolidating instruments in a single, circular binnacle, adjustable front seats, a fold-down rear seat, optional swing-out rear windows, front windows with pivoting vent windows, heating via air-to-air exchange manifolds operating off the engine's heat, and a windshield washer system that eschewed the complexity and cost of an additional electric pump and instead received its pressurization from the car's spare tire (located in the front luggage compartment) which was accordingly overinflated to accommodate the washer function. Throughout its production, VW marketed the Beetle with a four-speed manual transmission. From 1961 (and almost exclusively in Europe), VW offered an optional version of the Saxomat semi-automatic transmission: a regular 4-speed manual gearbox coupled to an electromagnetic clutch with a centrifugal clutch used for idle. Subsequently, (beginning in 1967 in Europe and 1968 in the United States), VW offered an optional semi-automatic transmission (marketed as Automatic Stick Shift and also called AutoStick,) which was a 3-speed manual coupled to an electro-pneumatic clutch and torque converter.While the overall appearance of the Beetle changed little over its life span, it received over 78,000 incremental changes during its production. Evolution and design changes Beetle cabriolet It was in 1948 that Wilhelm Karmann first bought a VW Beetle sedan and converted it into a four-seated convertible. After successfully presenting it at VW in Wolfsburg the Beetle Cabriolet began production in 1949 by Karmann in Osnabrück. The convertible was more than a Beetle with a folding top. To compensate for the strength lost in removing the roof, the sills were reinforced with welded U-channel rails, a transverse beam was fitted below the front edge of the rear seat cushion, and the side cowl-panels below the instrument panel were double-wall. In addition, the lower corners of the door apertures had welded-in curved gussets, and the doors had secondary alignment wedges at the B-pillar. The top was cabriolet-style with a full inner headliner hiding the folding mechanism and crossbars. In between the two top layers was 1 in (25 mm) of insulation. The rear window was tempered safety glass, and after 1968, heated. Due to the thickness of the top, it remained quite tall when folded. To enable the driver to see over the lowered top, the inside rearview was mounted on an offset pivot. By twisting the mirror 180 degrees on a longitudinal axis, the mirror glass would raise approximately 2 in (5.1 cm). The convertible was generally more lavishly equipped than the sedan with dual rear ashtrays, twin map pockets, a visor vanity mirror on the passenger side, rear stone shields, and through 1969, wheel trim rings. Many of these items did not become available on other Beetles until the advent of the optional "L" (Luxus) Package of 1970. After a number of stylistic and technical alterations made to the Karmann cabriolet, (corresponding to the many changes VW made to the Beetle throughout its history), the last of 331,847 cabriolets came off the production line on 10 January 1980. 1950–1959 models During this period, myriad changes were made throughout the vehicle beginning with the availability of hydraulic brakes and a folding fabric sunroof in 1950. The rear window of the VW Beetle evolved from a divided or "split" oval, to a singular oval. The change occurred between October 1952 and March 1953. Beetles built during this time were known as a "Zwitter", or "hybrid", as they used the split-window body shell with oval-model chrome trim, vent windows and dashboard.1953 models received a redesigned instrument panel. The one-piece "Pope's Nose" combination license plate/brake light was replaced by a smaller flat-bottomed license plate light. The brake light function was transferred to new heart-shaped lamps located in the top of the taillight housings.In 1954, Volkswagen added 2 mm (0.079 in) to the cylinder bore, increasing the displacement from 1,131 (1100) cc to 1,192 (1200) cc. This coincided with upgrades to various key components including a redesign of the crankshaft. This increased power from 30 hp (22 kW; 30 PS) to 36 hp (27 kW; 36 PS) and improved the engine's free revving abilities without compromising torque at lower engine speeds. At the same time, compression ratios were progressively raised as, little by little, the octane ratings of available fuel was raised in major markets during the 1950s and 1960s.In 1955, the separate brake lights were discontinued and were combined into a new larger taillight housing. The traditional VW semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicator lamps for North America. For 1956, the Beetle received what would become one of its more distinctive features, a set of twin chrome tailpipes. Models for North America gained taller bumper guards and tubular overrider bars. For 1958, the Beetle received a revised instrument panel, and a larger rectangular rear window replaced the previous oval design. 1960–1969 models 1960 models received a front anti roll bar along with hydraulic steering damper. For the 1961 model year (from August 1960 onwards), significant technical advances occurred in the form of a new engine (engine code D) and transmission. The engine displacement remained at 1,192 cc (72.7 in3) but the power was increased to 34 PS (34 bhp; 25 kW) at 3600 rpm, and the maximum torque output was slightly raised to 8.4 kp⋅m (82 N⋅m; 61 lb⋅ft) at 2000 rpm (all figures according to the DIN 70020 standard). Volkswagen achieved this by increasing the engine's compression (ε) from 6.6 to 7.0. This also resulted in the engine now requiring fuel with a higher octane rating of 87 RON. The single-barrel Solex carburetor received an electric automatic choke and the transmission was now synchronized on all forward gears. The traditional semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicators worldwide. The standard model called the TYPE 111–112, continued to use the 30 PS 1200 engine of the old architecture that dates back to Franz Reimspiess original design of 1937 all the way until the end of the 1965 model year. For 1962, the Beetle received a mechanical fuel level gauge in place of the former fuel tap. The Standard model continued without a gas gauge until the end of the 1965 model year. At the rear, larger tail lights were introduced incorporating a separate amber turn signal section to meet new European standards (these turn signals remained red in the US market until 1973). The former hand-pump style windscreen washer was replaced by a new design using compressed air. A Schrader valve located on the washer fluid tank allowed the system to be charged at a filling station to the recommended 35 psi (2.4 bar).1964 models could be identified by a widened light housing on the engine lid over the rear license plate, however the standard model continued to use the old teardrop style to the end of the 1965 model run. The largest change to date for the Beetle was in 1965: the majority of the body stampings were revised, which allowed for significantly larger windows. The windshield increased in area by 11% and was now slightly curved, rather than flat. Door windows increased accordingly by 6% (and door vent window edges were canted slightly back), rear side windows 17.5%, and the rear window 19.5%. The result was a more open, airy, modern look.For 1966, the big news was an optional new 1300cc 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) engine in lieu of the previous 1200cc engine that had been the sole engine since 1954. Models so equipped carried a "1300" badge on the engine lid. The 1300cc engine was standard for North America. For 1967, a yet-again larger-displacement engine was made available: 1500cc, 53 hp (40 kW; 54 PS) at 4,200 rpm. The 1200 and 1300 engines continued to be available, as many markets based their taxation on engine size. The 1500cc Beetles were equipped with front disc brakes and were identified with a "VW 1500" badge on the engine lid. North America received the 1500 engine as standard equipment, but did not receive front disc brakes. These models were identified by a "Volkswagen" badge on the engine lid. The rear suspension was significantly revised and included a widened track, softer torsion bars and the addition of a unique Z-configuration equalizing torsion spring. On US, UK, and Ireland models, the generator output was increased from 180 to 360 watts, and the entire electrical system was upgraded from 6 to 12 volts. The clutch disc also increased in size and changes were made to the flywheel. New equipment included a driver's armrest on the door and locking buttons on both doors. Safety improvements included two-speed windscreen wipers, reversing lights (in some markets), and a driver's side mirror. In accord with the newly enacted US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, North American models received a dual-circuit brake system, the clear glass headlamp covers were deleted; the headlamps were brought forward to the leading edge of the front fenders, and the sealed-beam units were exposed and surrounded by chrome bezels. In the rest of the world markets, the 1967 model retained the older headlights. For 1967 North American market Beetles the engine lid was shortened, and reshaped to accommodate the optional 1500 engine. Midway through the ‘67 model year, the North American market rear bumper overrider tubes were redesigned to taper downwards inboard of the bumper guards. The Brazilian market model (Volkswagen Fusca) retained the pre-1967 headlamps until 1972. 1968 was a year of major change. The most noticeable of which were the new larger, higher mounted C-section bumpers. At the rear, new larger taillamps were adopted and were able to accommodate reversing lamps, which were previously separate bumper-mounted units. Beetles worldwide received the '67 North American style vertical headlamp placement, but with replaceable-bulb headlamps compliant with ECE regulations rather than the US sealed beams. Other improvements were a new outside gas filler with spring-loaded flap, eliminating the need to open the trunk to refuel. The fuel gauge was integrated with the speedometer and was now electrically actuated rather than cable-operated. The windscreen washer was now pressured by the spare tire, which was to be maintained at a pressure of 42 psi (2.9 bar). A pressure valve in the connecting hose closed airflow to the fluid reservoir if spare tire pressure fell below 30 psi (2.1 bar), which was above the recommended pressures for the road tires. A ventilation system was introduced, which drew fresh air into the cabin from louvres on the front decklid. For improved shifting, the shift lever was shortened, stiffened and moved rearward by 78 mm (3.1 in). A number of safety improvements were made in order to comply with new American safety regulations: these included trigger-operated outside door handles, a secondary front hood latch, collapsing steering column, soft vent window latches, rotary glove compartment latch and instrument panel knobs labeled with pictographs. US models received a padded instrument panel that was optional in other markets. To meet North American head restraint requirements, VW developed the industry's first high-back bucket seat. The Standard model 111–112, called the 1200 "A" still used the 1200 engine but for the first time for Europe it came with a 12 volt system. A new 3-speed semi-automatic transmission with torque converter and vacuum-operated clutch became available mid-production year. The semi-automatic models received a vastly improved semi-trailing-arm rear suspension (also known as "independent rear suspension" although the earlier swing axle Beetles were also independent) and eliminated the need for the equalizing torsion spring. This new rear suspension layout would eventually become an option on later models. Beetles equipped with the automatic were identified with a "VW Automatic" badge on the engine lid and a matching decal in the rear window. In North America, the badging and decal were later revised to read, "Automatic Stick Shift". For 1969, the only exterior change was the fuel filler flap no longer had a finger indentation due to a new interior-mounted fuel door release. For North America, the Beetle received a heated rear window, day/night mirror and the semi-trailing, independent suspension with double jointed swing axles as standard equipment. In other markets, manual transmission models retained a swing axle independent suspension which would continue until the end of German Beetle production. 1970–1979 models In 1970, a new "L" (Luxus) Package was introduced including, among other items, twin map pockets, dual rear ashtrays, full carpeting, a passenger-side visor vanity mirror, and rubber bumper moldings. The optional 1500 cc engine now came with an engine lid having two rows of cooling louvers, while the convertible's engine lid gained two additional sets for a total of four. For North America, the 1500 cc engine was enlarged to 1600 cc engine and produced 57 hp (43 kW; 58 PS) There were two Beetles for the first time in 1971, the familiar standard Beetle and a new, larger version, different from the windscreen forward. All Beetles received an engine upgrade: the optional 1500 cc engine was replaced by a 1600 cc with twin-port cylinder heads and a larger, relocated oil cooler. The new engine produced 60 hp (45 kW; 61 PS). The ventilation system was improved with the original dash-top vents augmented by a second pair aimed directly at the driver and passenger. For the first time the system was a flow-through design with crescent-shaped air exits fitted behind the rear quarter windows. Airflow could be increased via an optional 2-speed fan. The standard Beetle was now badged as the VW 1300; when equipped with the 1600 engine, it was badged 1300 S, to avoid confusion with the Type 3, which wore VW 1600 badges. The new, larger Beetle was sold as the 1302/1302 S, offering nearly 43% more luggage capacity, up from 140 litres (4.9 cu ft) in front to 260 litres (9.2 cu ft) (remaining at 140 in back) A new MacPherson strut front suspension was incorporated, similar to what was used in the Type 4, and the front track was widened. The new suspension layout allowed the spare tire to be positioned flat under the trunk floor. Although the car had to be lengthened slightly to accomplish this, it allowed a reduction in turning radius. To gain additional trunk volume, the under-dash panel was lowered, allowing the fuel tank to be shifted rearward. From the windscreen back the big Beetle was identical to its smaller progenitor, except for having the also new semi-trailing arm rear suspension as standard equipment. Overall, the bigger Beetle was 50 mm (2.0 in) longer, 35 mm (1.4 in) wider, and rode on a 20 mm (0.79 in)-longer wheelbase. Both Beetles were available with or without the L Package. The convertible was now based on the 1302 body. In North America, the 1302 was marketed as the Super Beetle and came only with the L Package and 1600 cc engine. While it lacked the front disc brakes that normally accompanied the larger motor, it was fitted with brake drums that were slightly larger than the standard Beetle. With the Super Beetle being sold as the premium model in North America, the standard Beetle, while retaining the same 1600 cc engine, was stripped of many of its earlier features in order to reduce the selling price. Bright window and running board moldings disappeared, along with the day/night mirror, horn ring, map pocket, locking glove box and miscellaneous other items. 1972 models had an 11% larger rear window (40 mm [1.6 in] taller), and the convertible engine lid with four rows of louvres was now used on all Beetles. Inside the vehicle, a four-spoke energy-absorbing steering wheel was introduced, the windshield wiper/washer knob was replaced in favor of a steering column stalk, and intermittent wipers were a new option available in selected markets. An engine compartment socket for the proprietary VW Diagnosis system was also introduced. The rear luggage area was fitted with a folding parcel shelf. A limited-edition Commemorative model was launched in celebration of the Beetle's passing the record of the Ford Model T as the world's most-produced automobile. The Commemorative Beetle was a 1302 S finished in a special Marathon Blue Metallic paint and unique 4.5 x 15 styled steel wheels. In the U.S., it was marketed as the Super Beetle Baja Champion SE. 1973 models featured significantly enlarged "elephant foot" taillamps mounted in reshaped rear fenders. In the engine bay, the oil-bath air cleaner gave way to a dry element filter, and the generator was replaced with an alternator. The 1302/Super became the 1303 with a new taller wrap-around windscreen. The changes to the cowl and windshield resulted in slight redesign of the front hood. The instrument panel, formerly shared with the standard Beetle, was all-new and incorporated a raised speedometer pod, rocker-style switches and side-window defrosters. The limited-edition GSR (Gelb-Schwarzer Renner; German for "Yellow-Black Racer") was a 1303 S available only in Saturn Yellow paint equipped with special 5.5 in (140 mm) wide sport wheels fitted with 175/70-15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 high-performance radial tires. Front and rear deck lids were finished in matte black, as was all exterior trim with the exception of the chrome headlamp bezels. Inside were corduroy and leatherette high-bolstered sport seats and a small diameter three-spoke steering wheel with padded leather rim and a small red VW logo on the bottom spoke. In North America, the GSR was sold as the Super Beetle Sports Bug. The North American model had body-color deck lids and was available in Marathon Blue Metallic in addition to Saturn Yellow. In some markets, the sport wheels (in both 4.5-inch and 5.5-inch widths), sport steering wheel and sport seats became available as stand-alone options. For 1974, North American models received newly required 5 mph (8.0 km/h) impact bumpers mounted on self-restoring energy absorbers, which added approximately 25 mm (0.98 in) to the car's overall length. On the Super Beetle, the steering knuckle, and consequently the lower attachment point of the strut, was redesigned to improve handling and stability in the event of a tire blowout. A limited-edition Big Beetle was introduced based on the 1303 LS. Available in unique metallic paint colors, the car featured styled-steel 5.5 in (140 mm) wide sport wheels wrapped in 175/70-15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 tires, corduroy seat inserts, upgraded loop-pile carpet, wood-look instrument panel trim and a padded steering wheel with bright accents. In the North American market, a limited-edition Sun Bug was introduced as a standard Beetle or Super Beetle. Both were finished in metallic gold and featured styled-steel 4.5 in (110 mm)-wide sport wheels. Inside were brown corduroy and leatherette seats, loop-pile carpet, and padded four-spoke deluxe steering wheel. The Super Beetle Sun Bug included a sliding-steel sunroof. Mid-year, the Love Bug was introduced for North America: based on the standard Beetle, it was available only in Phoenix Red or Ravenna Green (both colors shared with the VW-Porsche 914) with all exterior trim finished in matte black. A price leader, the Love Bug retailed for less than a standard Beetle. In 1975, front turn indicators were moved from the top of the front fenders down into the bumper. At the rear, the license plate light housing was now molded of plastic with a ribbed top surface. To comply with tightening emission standards, the 1600 cc engine in Japanese and North American markets received Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection, rather than the D-Jetronic system formerly used in the VW Type 3 and Type 4. The injected engine received a new muffler and in California a catalytic converter. This necessitated a bulge in the rear apron under the rear bumper and replaced the distinctive twin "pea shooter" tailpipes with a single offset pipe, making injected models identifiable at a glance. Five miles per hour (8.0 km/h) bumper-equipped North American models retained fender-top front indicators. The 1303 received rack and pinion steering. In North America, the 1303/Super Beetle sedan was moved upmarket and was now christened La Grande Bug. Similar to the Big Beetle of 1974, La Grande Bug was available in blue or green metallic paint in the U.S. and blue, green or gold metallic in Canada and was equipped with the same features as the 1974 Sun Bug. The "Volkswagen" script on the engine lid of all North American Beetles was replaced with a "Fuel Injection" badge. In 1976, the 1303/La Grande Bug was discontinued, with the larger body continuing only in convertible form. To make up for the loss in North American markets, the standard Beetle was upgraded, regaining some of the features that were removed in 1971. In addition, the 2-speed ventilation fan was included, previously available in North America only on the larger Beetle. The automatic stickshift option was discontinued as well. 1977 models received new front seats with separate head restraints. This was the final model year for the Beetle sedan in North America. The convertible was offered in a "triple white" Champagne Edition in Alpine White with white top and interior with the padded deluxe steering wheel, tiger maple wood-grain dash trim and 4.5 in (110 mm) wide sport wheels. Approximately 1,000 Champagne Editions were produced. For 1978, a new Champagne second edition convertible was launched, available in blue or red metallic paint with white leatherette interior. Features included the 4.5 in (110 mm) wide styled steel sport wheels, AM/FM radio, analog quartz clock, padded deluxe steering wheel and rosewood-grain instrument panel trim. Approximately 1,100 were produced. In 1979, VW offered an Epilogue Edition of the convertible in triple black with features similar to the 1978 Champagne Edition. This would be the last year of convertible production worldwide as well as the final year for the Beetle in the US and Canada. Introduction to international markets Ireland Volkswagen began its involvement in Ireland when in 1949, Motor Distributors Limited, founded by Stephen O'Flaherty secured the franchise for the country at that year's Paris Motor Show. In 1950, Volkswagen Beetles started arriving into Dublin packed in crates in what was termed "completely knocked down" (CKD) form ready to be assembled. The vehicles were assembled in a former tram depot at 162 Shelbourne Road in Ballsbridge. As of 2021, this was the premises for Ballsbridge Motors, a Mercedes-Benz dealer. The first Volkswagen ever assembled outside Germany was built here. This vehicle is now on display at the Volkswagen Museum in Wolfsburg. United Kingdom In 1952, John Colborne-Baber began to import small numbers of Beetles largely to satisfy demand from US Air Force personnel stationed in Kent. Today, Colborne Garages still hold the Volkswagen franchises for Guildford and Walton-on-Thames. In 1953 J.Gilder & Co. Ltd. in Sheffield, began selling Beetles. Jack Gilder had been fascinated by both the design and engineering of the Beetle when he came across one in Belgium during the war. He applied for the franchise as soon as the opportunity presented itself and became Volkswagen's representative in the North of England. In 2013 the Gilder Group was acquired by JCT600. Japan The Type 1 was introduced to Japan in 1953, and was imported by Yanase dealerships in Japan. Its exterior dimensions and engine displacement were in compliance with Japanese Government regulations, which helped sales. Several Japanese vehicles were introduced after the Beetle was sold in Japan, using an air-cooled engine and rear mounting of the engine, such as the Subaru 360, or an engine installed in the front, like the Honda N360, the Suzuki Fronte, and the Mitsubishi Minica. International production German production of the Beetle took place initially at the parent Wolfsburg plant until the Golf's introduction in 1974, later expanding to the newer Emden and Hanover plants. Volkswagen's takeover of Auto Union in 1964 saw 60,000 cars per year being produced on the Audi assembly lines in Ingolstadt until 4 September 1969. The last German-made cars were assembled at Emden in 1978, after which the Puebla, Mexico, plant became the principal source of Beetle production. Other countries produced Beetles from CKD (complete knockdown kits): Ireland, Thailand, Indonesia, South Africa, Australia, Yugoslavia (city of Sarajevo), and Nigeria have assembled Beetles under licence from VW.Beetles produced in Mexico and Brazil had several differences: Brazil Brazilian assembly of the Beetle, where it is called "Fusca", started in 1953, with parts imported from Germany. By January 1959 the cars were built in the new São Bernardo do Campo plant, although they originally had 60% German parts content. By the mid-sixties, the cars had 99.93% Brazilian parts content, with four German parts of a combined value of about one US dollar still being imported. Production continued until 1986. In 1993 production resumed and continued to 1996. The Brazilian version retained the 1958–64 body style (Europe and U.S. version) with the thick door pillars and smaller side windows. This body style was also produced in Mexico until 1971. Around 1973, all Brazilian Beetles (1300 and 1500 series) were updated with the 1968-up sheet metal, bumpers, and four-lug rims; although the five-stud rims and "bugeye" headlights were produced as late as 1972 (the base VW 1200 and 1300 manufactured in Brazil was similar to the 1964 European/U.S. 1200 until the 1970 model year but came with vented wheels since the late-1960s). The 1971 and 1972 1300s had the 1964-era taillights and headlights, fuel tank, but fitted with the 1968-up raised bumpers. Brazilian CKD kits were shipped to Nigeria between 1975 and 1987 where Beetles were locally assembled. The Brazilian-produced versions have been sold in neighboring South American nations bordering Brazil, including Argentina, Uruguay, and Peru. The Brazilian Type 1s have four different engines: 1,200 cc, 1,300 cc, 1,500 cc, and 1,600 cc. In the 1970s, Volkswagen made the SP-2 (derived from the Type 1 pan and the Type 3 powertrain) with a 1,700 cc engine (a bored-out 1,600 cc). In Brazil, the Type 1 never received electronic fuel injection, instead retaining carburetors (one or two one-barrels) throughout its entire life, although the carburetion differs from engines of different years and specification. The production of the air-cooled engine finally ended in 2006, after more than 60 years. It was last used in the Brazilian version of the VW Bus, called the "Kombi", and was replaced by a 1.4 L water-cooled engine with a front-mounted cooling system. Volkswagen do Brasil engaged in some string pulling in the early sixties when a law requiring taxis to have four doors and five seats was being considered. After proving that the average taxi fare only carried 1.8 passengers and an overall saving of twenty percent for a smaller two-door car, the Brazilian government relented and the law never entered the books. The Fusca proceeded to have a long career as a taxi in urban Brazil. Southern Rhodesia The Volkswagen Type 1 chassis was used as the basis for a mine-protected APC called the Leopard security vehicle and the Pookie de-mining vehicle, fielded by the Republic of Rhodesia during the Rhodesian Bush War. Mexico Mexican production began in 1955 because of agreements with companies such as Chrysler in Mexico and the Studebaker-Packard Corporation which assembled cars imported in CKD form. In 1964, they began to be locally produced. These models have the larger windshield, rear window, door and quarter glass starting in 1972; and the rear window from 1965 to 1971 German built models was used on the Mexican models from 1972 to 1985, when it was replaced with the larger rear window used on 1972 and later German built Beetles. This version, after the mid-1970s, saw little change with the incorporation of electronic ignition in 1988, an anti-theft alarm system in 1990, a catalytic converter in 1991 (as required by law), as well as electronic Digifant fuel injection, hydraulic valve lifters, and a spin-on oil filter in 1993. The front turn signals were located in the bumper instead of the Beetle's traditional placement on top of the front fenders from the 1977 model year on, as they had been on German Beetles sold in Europe from 1975 onwards. Starting in 1995, the Mexican Beetle included front disc brakes, an alternator instead of a generator, and front automatic seat belts. During the 1995 model year, the chrome moldings disappeared leaving body colored bumpers and black moldings instead on some models. By the start of the 1996 model year, exterior chrome or matt moldings were dropped altogether and Volkswagen de Mexico (VWdM) dropped the Sedan's flow-through ventilation system with all its fittings, notably the exterior crescent-shaped vents behind the rear side windows the same year. In mid-1996, front drum brakes and fixed front seat belts were re-launched in a new budget version called the "Volkswagen Sedán City", which was sold alongside the upscale version "Volkswagen Sedán Clásico" which had front disc brakes, automatic seat belts, right side mirror, velour upholstery, optional metallic colors and wheel covers in matte finish (also found on some 1980s Beetles and Buses). These two versions were sold until mid 1998. From mid 1998–2003, The Sedán Clásico was discontinued and the Sedán City lost its prefix and gained disc brakes, automatic seat belts and optional metallic colors. This last version was named the "Volkswagen Sedán Unificado" or simply the "Volkswagen Sedán". Independent importers continued to supply several major countries, including Germany, France, and the UK until the end of production in 2003. Devoted fans of the car even discovered a way to circumvent US safety regulations by placing more recently manufactured Mexican Beetles on the floorpans of earlier, US-registered cars. The Mexican Beetle (along with its Brazilian counterpart) was on the US DOT's (Department of Transportation) hot list of grey market imports after 1978 as the vehicle did not meet safety regulations. In the Southwest US (Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas), Mexican Beetles (and some Brazilian T2c Transporters) are a fairly common sight since Mexican nationals can legally operate the vehicle in the United States, provided the cars remain registered in Mexico. Some of the Mexican Beetles have been registered in the United States since the 1998 NHTSA amendment granting the 25-year cutoff where it (and its Brazilian counterpart including the T2C) can be legally registered in any of the 50 states (this means a 1997 or earlier Mexican Beetle as of 2022 can be registered under the current NHTSA 25-year cutoff exemption). The end of production in Mexico can be attributed primarily to Mexican political measures: the Beetles no longer met emission standards for Mexico City, in which the ubiquitous Beetles were used as taxicabs; and the government outlawed their use as taxicabs because of rising crime rates, requiring only four-door vehicles be used. The last Vocho taxis in Mexico City were retired at the end of 2012. In addition, Volkswagen (now Germany's largest automaker) has been attempting to cultivate a more upscale, premium brand image, and the humble Beetle clashed with this identity, as seen in the Touareg and Passat luxury vehicles. In the late 1990s consumers strongly preferred more modern cars such as the Mexican Chevy, the Nissan Tsuru, and the Volkswagen Pointer and Lupo. However, demand for the Beetle was relatively high, especially in the 1990s, with the workforce increasing at the start of the decade. The price of the base model (without even a radio) was pegged with the official minimum wage, by an agreement between the company and the government. In 1990 it cost US$5,300. Australia Official importation of the Volkswagen Beetle into Australia began in 1953, with local assembly operations commencing the following year. Volkswagen Australia was formed in 1957, and by 1960 locally produced body panels were being used for the first time. When the European Type One body received the larger windows for the 1965 model year, Volkswagen Australia decided not to update, but continued to produce the smaller-windowed bodies, with unique features to the Australian versions. This was due to the limited size of the market and the costs involved in retooling. Australian content had reached almost 95% by this time. The Australian subsidiary continued to produce the earlier body style until 1967, when declining sales forced a switch to CKD assembly using imported components the following year. In 1968, Volkswagen Australia released its own locally designed utilitarian version of the Type 1, the Volkswagen Country Buggy or Type 197. The last Australian-assembled Beetle was produced in July 1976 with assembly of other models ending in February 1977. All Volkswagens for the Australian market have been fully imported since then. South Africa The Beetle was also produced in South Africa at the Uitenhage plant from 31 August 1951 to 1979. Several features from the Super Beetle were grafted onto the South African Beetle 1600S, such as curved windshield, new dashboard, and larger taillights, while retaining the Beetle chassis and mechanicals. The 1600 model was introduced to South Africa in 1972; it was marketed as the cheapest 1.6-liter car available there. In late 1976, the sporty SP 1600 Beetle arrived – this version received bright red, yellow, or silver paint with black stripes, a front spoiler, wide tyres, and a more powerful engine with twin carburettors and a freer flowing exhaust. The interior was also sporty, with red tartan upholstery, a small steering wheel, and much matte black. Power crept up to 43 kW (58 PS; 58 hp), from 50 PS. Also new for 1977 were rubber bumper strips for all 1600s, and the same taillights with backup lights were now fitted across the range.The bigger-engined model was then phased out around August 1978, leaving only the 1300 model in production. Influence claims Various cars and designs have each claimed to have been the original influencers of Porsche's Volkswagen concept, or subsequently been influenced by the original design. Béla Barényi The Austro-Hungarian automotive engineer Béla Barényi is credited with designing a similarly shaped car in 1925, as early as five years before Porsche's People's car concept was unveiled. Standard Superior German engineer Josef Ganz designed a car called "Maybug", that is very similar to the Volkswagen Beetle. Hitler saw the car in 1933 at an auto show. There is a strong resemblance to the Standard Superior, an automobile produced from 1933 to 1935 by Standard Fahrzeugfabrik of Ludwigsburg, Germany, founded by motorcycle maker Wilhelm Gutbrod and unrelated to the Standard Motor Company of England. These small cars were designed according to the patents by Josef Ganz and featured transverse, two-stroke, two-cylinder engines mounted in front of the rear axle. However, Porsche, two years prior to the Standard Superior's introduction, had developed the Type 12 for Zündapp, already featuring many design similarities with the Volkswagen Beetle. Tatra The Austrian car designer Hans Ledwinka was a contemporary of Porsche working at the Czechoslovakian company Tatra. In 1931, Tatra built the V570 prototype, which had an air-cooled flat-twin engine mounted at the rear. This was followed in 1933 by a second V570 prototype with a streamlined body similar to that of the Porsche Type 32. The rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout was a challenge for effective air cooling, and during development of the much larger V8 engined Tatra 77 in 1933 Tatra registered numerous patents related to air flow into the rear engine compartment. The use of Tatra's patented air cooling designs later became one of ten issues for which Tatra filed suit against VW. Both Hitler and Porsche were influenced by the Tatras. Hitler was a keen automotive enthusiast, and had ridden in Tatras during political tours of Czechoslovakia. He had also dined numerous times with Ledwinka. After one of these dinners Hitler remarked to Porsche, "This is the car for my roads". From 1933 onwards, Ledwinka and Porsche met regularly to discuss their designs, and Porsche admitted "Well, sometimes I looked over his shoulder and sometimes he looked over mine" while designing the Volkswagen. The Tatra 97 of 1936 had a 1,749 cc, rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder boxer engine. It cost 5,600 RM and accommodated five passengers in its extensively streamlined four-door body, which provided luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seats. It also featured a similar central structural tunnel found in the Beetle.Just before the start of the Second World War, Tatra had ten legal claims filed against VW for infringement of patents. Although Ferdinand Porsche was about to pay a settlement to Tatra, he was stopped by Hitler who said he would "solve his problem". Tatra launched a lawsuit, but this was stopped when Germany invaded Czechoslovakia in 1938, resulting in the Tatra factory coming under Nazi administration in October 1938. The T97, along with the T57, were ordered by Hitler to be removed from the Tatra display at the 1939 Berlin Autosalon and Tatra was later directed to concentrate on heavy trucks and diesel engines, with all car models, except for the V8-engined Tatra 87, being discontinued. The matter was re-opened after World War II and in 1965 Volkswagen paid Ringhoffer-Tatra 1,000,000 Deutsche Marks in an out of court settlement. Fedden On Sept 28, 1943, Roy Fedden, most known by his participation in the Bristol Single Sleeve valve engine research, headed by Harry Ricardo, applied for a British patent 'Improvements related to road vehicles', granted GB570814, 24 July 1945, describing a 2-door, rear-engined car, identical in arrangement and look to VW 'Käfer'. Espacenet - Original document Tjaarda's 'Briggs Dream Car' It has also been pointed out that the VW Beetle bears a striking resemblance to John Tjaarda's 1933 design for a streamlined, rear-engined car, that he created working for Briggs Manufacturing Company. At Briggs, a Detroit-based manufacturer of automobile bodies for Ford Motor Company, Chrysler Corporation and other U.S. and European automobile manufacturers, Tjaarda was developing a radical car for Ford to use as a new Lincoln. Ford displayed the show car at the 1933–34 Century of Progress Exhibition in Chicago as the "Briggs Dream Car". One of the later designs looked almost exactly like the Beetle, if you shortened the wheelbase, and took out two side windows. It is even claimed that Porsche had visited Briggs automobiles one summer, when Tjaarda was head of R&D there, and several auto historians claim Porsche's People's Car was influenced by Tjaarda's designs, including the "Sterkenburg series" of the late twenties. Motorsport Drag racing The Beetle has been modified for use in drag racing; its rearward (RR layout) weight distribution keeps the weight over the rear wheels, maximizing grip off the starting line. The car's weight is reduced for a full competition drag Beetle, further improving the grip and also the power-to-weight ratio. Combined with the Beetle's RR layout, wheelies can be achieved easily, but time "in the air" worsens 1/4-mile time. To prevent this, "wheelie bars" were added. A notable version, campaigned in the USA was the EMPI Inch Pincher. Formula Vee The Beetle is also used as the basis for the Formula Vee open-wheel racing category: specifically, the front suspension crossmember assembly (the shock absorber mounts are sometimes removed, depending on regulations in the class), and the engine and transaxle assembly (usually the earlier swing-axle type, not the later double-jointed axle). In original 1,200 cc Formula Vee spec, upgrades to the cars would only be allowed sparsely, so that the wheels, tires and engines did not differ very much from the original Beetle. At the end of the 1960s, Vee Beetle engine output on a single carburetor would reach up to 70 BHP; top speeds would gradually rise to nearly 200 km/h (124 mph). In this configuration, FV would become one of the most popular entry-level motorsports classes of its time. Later on, double carbs and more extensive modification would be allowed, leading to the more powerful Super Vee class featuring wings for downforce and 123 bhp (92 kW; 125 PS) engines, which in the end had fairly little in common with the original VW Beetle. Around 2000, worldwide Vee racing had re-established itself as a 1,200/1,300 cc beginner class with wingless cars and VW engines outputting about 60 bhp (45 kW; 61 PS), but incorporating more modern chassis and tyres. Uniroyal Fun Cup Volkswagen Beetle-style bodies are fitted to space frame racing chassis, and are used in the Uniroyal Fun Cup, which includes the longest continuous motor-race in the world, the 25 Hours of Spa. It is an affordable entry-level series that gentleman drivers race. Rally and Rallycross Especially the Austrian sole distributor Porsche Salzburg (now Porsche Austria) seriously entered the Volkswagen in local and European contests in the 1960s and early 1970s. Starting with the VW 1500, in the mid-1960s the peak of their racing performance was achieved with the VW 1302S and VW 1303S (known as the Salzburg Rally Beetle) from 1971 to 1973. The vehicles were entered in such famous races as TAP (Portugal), Austrian Alpine, Elba, Acropolis etc. Drivers were top performers such as Tony Fall (GB), Guenter Janger (AUT), Harry Källström (S), Achim Warmbold (D), Franz Wurz (A), etc. The engines were highly modified 1600s delivering 125 hp (93 kW), later on mated to a Porsche 914 five-speed manual gearbox. Victories were achieved in 1973 on Elba for overall and class, Acropolis for class (5th overall), Austrian championship 1972, 1973 January Rallye for overall and class. Rally of 1000 minutes for overall second (first in class). The fuel crisis, along with the arrival of the Volkswagen Golf (Rabbit), put an end to the days of unofficially supported rallying in 1974. All vehicles either used for training or actual racing were sold off to privateers, many kept racing with noticeable results until the early 1980s. Trans-Am Series Beetles were used in the Trans-Am Series for the two-litre class from 1966 to 1967 and again in 1972. Armstrong 500 A Volkswagen won its class in the Armstrong 500 in Australia in both 1962 and 1963. Baja 1000 The Baja 1000 off-road race in the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico includes specific vehicle classes for both standard Beetles and Baja Bugs. These can be seen in the documentary movie Dust to Glory. The classes are: Class 5: Unlimited Baja Bugs Class 5-1600: 1,600 cc Baja Bugs Class 11: Stock VW sedans Beetle Challenge The Beetle Challenge is a UK-based circuit racing championship for classic air-cooled Volkswagen Beetles. The general concept is to take any Beetle, of any age or model from the 40s through to 1303s, and with minimal restrictions, allowing parts from various years to be interchanged, and of course the cars being prepared to the MSA safety requirements (cage, restraints, fire system etc.) Essentially the cars must be air-cooled Beetles (any age and parts can be swapped between years and models), with a 15-inch x 6-inch max wheel size with a control tyre. Engines must be based on a Type 1 case, with no electronic fuel injection or ignition and no forced induction, with an unlimited capacity. Other regulations apply. Retrofit program Volkswagen has entered into partnership with eClassics to allow Beetle owners to convert their car to electric. The battery will have a total capacity of 36.8 kWh, which should allow for a range of about 200 kilometres (120 mi). It reaches a top speed of 150 kilometres per hour (93 mph) and charging for an hour allows to store enough energy for a journey of over 150 kilometres (93 mi). In popular culture The Volkswagen Beetle has made appearances in mass media which affected its popularity and sales. The Beetle would serve as the basis for Herbie, a fictional race car with a mind of its own, who had appeared in several movies, such as The Love Bug and Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo. Superbug is another fictional Volkswagen Beetle and the protagonist of a series of West German movies. The Beetle would also serve as the basis for the vehicle mode of the Transformers character Bumblebee, a fictional robot that transforms into a car, who had appeared as a Beetle in a series of toy lines, as well as tv shows and movies. It appeared in the iconic cover of The Beatles's Abbey Road See also Black Current Cal looker Cal-Style VW DKW F9 List of names for the Volkswagen Type 1 Meyers Manx ORA Punk Cat Punch buggy Saab 92 Steyr 50 Tatra 87 Trabant Volksrod Volkswagen advertising Volksworld (magazine) Explanatory notes References Further reading Copping, Richard, VW Beetle: The Car of the 20th Century, ISBN 978-1-901295-863, 2014. Hiott, Andrea (2012). Thinking Small: The Long Strange Trip. New York: Random House. ISBN 9780345521422. Margolius, Ivan, & John G Henry, Tatra: The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka, Dorchester: Veloce, 2015. ISBN 978-1-845847-99-9. Nelson, Walter Henry, Small Wonder: The Amazing Story of the Volkswagen, Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. Rieger, Bernhard, The People's Car: A Global History of the Volkswagen Beetle. Harvard University Press, 2013.Videos Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Why Did Volkswagen Kill The Beetle?". CNBC. 3 September 2019. External links Volkswagen Beetle at Curlie The Beetle: From Hitler to Hippies: slideshow by Life History of the Volkswagen Super Beetle

Lobster-tailed pot helmet

The lobster-tailed pot helmet, also known as the zischägge, horseman's pot and harquebusier's pot, was a type of post-Renaissance combat helmet. It became popular in Europe, especially for cavalry and officers, from c. 1600; it was derived from an Ottoman Turkish helmet type. The helmet gradually fell out of use in most of Europe in the late 17th century; however, the Austrian heavy cavalry retained it for some campaigns as late as the 1780s.

The lobster-tailed pot helmet, also known as the zischägge, horseman's pot and harquebusier's pot, was a type of post-Renaissance combat helmet. It became popular in Europe, especially for cavalry and officers, from c. 1600; it was derived from an Ottoman Turkish helmet type. The helmet gradually fell out of use in most of Europe in the late 17th century; however, the Austrian heavy cavalry retained it for some campaigns as late as the 1780s. Origin The lobster-tailed pot helmet had an oriental origin, being derived from the Ottoman Turkish çiçak helmet (pronounced 'chichak', in Turkish – çiçek - meaning 'flower' which is attributed to the shape of the helmet's skull), which developed in the 16th century. It was adopted by the Christian states of Europe in the early 17th century. The chichak was almost identical to the later European helmets – it had a forward projecting peak, sliding bar nasal, cheekpieces and neck guard; only its tendency to have a conical rather than rounded skull was distinctive. The European derivative of this helmet saw widespread use during the Thirty Years War when it became known as the zischägge, a Germanisation of the original Turkish name. Characteristics The lobster-tailed pot had a rounded skull-piece, which was sometimes fluted. The skulls of English-made helmets were usually formed from two sections, joined by a raised comb running from front to back; the skulls of helmets manufactured on the continent were most often raised from a single-piece of metal. Cheekpieces, commonly made in one piece but occasionally articulated, were attached to the skull by leather strapping; however, the better quality examples are sometimes hinged. To protect the face there was either a fixed forward projecting peak that incorporated a sliding nasal bar retained by a large screw, or a hinged peak with three attached bars. Finally, the helmet had a laminated defence (or a single-piece of plate ridged to imitate separate lames) to protect the back of the head and neck that was said to resemble the tail of a lobster. Another common name for the helmet was the "harquebusier's pot", the harquebusier being the most common type of cavalry in Western Europe during the 17th century. The single nasal-bar type was characteristic of Continental Europe, whilst the three-barred type with a pivoting peak was more widely used in the British Isles. Many European-made lobster-tailed pot helmets were later imported to Britain during the English Civil War. Occasionally, older helmets like the burgonet or sallet were modified to resemble the 'lobster-pot.' As stated by General George Monck in 1644, the "headpiece with three small bars" was intended to be pistol-proof. Decoration and appearance The appearance and finish of lobster-tailed pots varied greatly, from the highly decorated, superb-quality examples made for individual commanders down to crudely executed "munition-quality" types, which were mass-produced to equip large numbers of ordinary cavalry troopers. High quality helmets could be decorated using a range of techniques, including repoussé, engraving and blue-and-gilt finishes. An extant helmet made for King James II of England had the three bar face defence replaced by a pierced openwork plate depicting the full royal arms of England, sight being afforded by spaces within the design. Many helmets were blackened or browned as a treatment to weatherproof them and protect against rust. The better quality helmets given this treatment would often have had their sombre appearance relieved by the use of numerous gilded rivet heads. Some of the most flamboyantly decorated helmets were produced for the Polish winged hussars, with metal crests and enlarged, decoratively shaped, nasals being not uncommon. A number of extant helmets have tubular plume-holders attached, this, taken with the evidence of contemporary illustrations, indicates the use of feather plumes. Use This form of helmet was widely used during the Thirty Years War and the English Civil War; it was commonly known as a zischägge in Germany and a 'horseman's pot' or 'three-barred pot' in Britain; the term 'lobster-tailed pot' is widely used in modern scholarship. The typical cavalryman of the period, the harquebusier, would have worn the helmet with a buff coat, bridle-hand gauntlet and breastplate and backplate. It was also sometimes worn by a more heavily armoured type of cavalry, the cuirassier, combined with three-quarter armour. It was used by cavalry on both sides of the English Civil War including Oliver Cromwell's Ironside cavalry. The common misconception of Cavaliers wearing plumed wide-brimmed hats whilst the Roundheads wore helmets is definitively disproved by a surviving order signed by Charles I himself for 33 'potts', along with other cavalry armour, for the use of his own troop of horse in 1642. Another order, this time from the Parliamentarian authorities, dating to 1644 for 300 "potts with three barres English" indicates that each helmet, no doubt of basic quality, cost 7 shillings. Similar helmets were worn in the 17th century by Polish winged hussars and were termed "szyszak" in Polish, again a derivative of the original Turkish name. Austrian cuirassiers were equipped with the lobster-tailed pot helmet as late as the 1780s, long after its use had died out elsewhere, when campaigning against the Ottoman Turks. Gallery Notes References Blackmore, D. (1990) Arms & Armour of the English Civil Wars, Trustees of the Royal Armouries. ISBN 0-948092-08-4 Brzezinski, R. (McBride, A. - illustrator) (1987) Polish Armies 1569-1696 (1), Osprey Publishing, London. Bull, S. (1991) An Historical Guide to Arms and Armour, Studio Editions, London, ISBN 1 85170 723 9 Haythornthwaite, P. (1994) The Austrian Army, 1740-1780: Cavalry Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-415-6 Oakeshott, Ewart (1980) European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. Lutterworth Press. Robinson, H.R., (2002) Oriental Armour, Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41818-9 Tincey, J. (McBride, A. - illustrator) (1990) Soldiers of the English Civil War (2) Cavalry, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 0-85045-940-0

Sky-Watch

Sky-Watch A/S is a Danish developer and manufacturer of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Founded in 2009, Sky-Watch is based in Støvring, Denmark.In 2016 - Sky-Watch purchases the small startup company "Little Smart Things" in Nexø. And continues the Cumulus and Heidrun platforms.

Sky-Watch A/S is a Danish developer and manufacturer of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Founded in 2009, Sky-Watch is based in Støvring, Denmark.In 2016 - Sky-Watch purchases the small startup company "Little Smart Things" in Nexø. And continues the Cumulus and Heidrun platforms. Products Sky-Watch provides platforms with various configurations. Currently the platforms are: Huginn Heidrun CumulusDiscontinued products: Huginn X1 Huginn X1D Notable Uses In 2013 Sky-Watch provided a Huginn X1 quadcopter to the USAR teams deployed in the Philippines after the typhoon Haiyan raged over the islands. References External links Official Website

Heidi Cullen

Heidi Cullen is the Director of Communications and Strategic Initiatives at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). Her efforts there are focused on inspiring the next generation of ocean explorers, communicating about the ocean’s critical role in our climate system, and advancing the use of autonomous technology to protect ocean health. Cullen was previously the Chief Scientist for the non-profit science communication organization Climate Central, where she was part of the team that incubated and launched the World Weather Attribution initiative. She taught a course in science communication at nearby Princeton University and is the author of The Weather of the Future. A climate scientist and science communicator, she served as The Weather Channel's climate expert from 2003 to 2008 and co-hosted Forecast Earth, the first hour-long television show dedicated to communicating climate change science, impacts, and solutions.

Heidi Cullen is the Director of Communications and Strategic Initiatives at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). Her efforts there are focused on inspiring the next generation of ocean explorers, communicating about the ocean’s critical role in our climate system, and advancing the use of autonomous technology to protect ocean health. Cullen was previously the Chief Scientist for the non-profit science communication organization Climate Central, where she was part of the team that incubated and launched the World Weather Attribution initiative. She taught a course in science communication at nearby Princeton University and is the author of The Weather of the Future. A climate scientist and science communicator, she served as The Weather Channel's climate expert from 2003 to 2008 and co-hosted Forecast Earth, the first hour-long television show dedicated to communicating climate change science, impacts, and solutions. Life and career Heidi Cullen was born on Staten Island, a borough of New York City, and attended grade school at Blessed Sacrament. She received a B.S. in industrial engineering and operations research from Columbia University, followed by a doctorate in climatology and ocean-atmosphere dynamics from the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, also at Columbia. Her thesis centered on understanding the large-scale drivers of rainfall in the Middle East, including the role of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Interested in paleoclimatology and human history, Cullen collaborated with Harvey Weiss at Yale University to understand if climate was a factor in the collapse of the Akkadian Empire. Her research provided strong paleoclimatic evidence that the Akkadian collapse was coeval in time with a sustained period of widespread drought. Using marine sediment cores from the Persian Gulf, Cullen developed a record of drought for the Holocene that showed a fivefold increase in the mineral dolomite – a paleo proxy for drought – radiocarbon dated at 4025+/-125 calendar yr B.P.. The timing of the dolomite increase coincides with when the empire is believed to have collapsed. After completing her Ph.D., Cullen was awarded a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Climate and Global and Global Change Fellowship and was based at Columbia University’s International Research Institute for Climate and Society. Her post-doc focused on applying seasonal forecasts of El Niño to the hydropower sector in Brazil and Paraguay. In 2001, she accepted a research science appointment at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), located in Boulder, Colorado, where she continued to work on applying seasonal climate forecasts and understanding the large-scale climate drivers of drought.In 2003, Cullen joined The Weather Channel, becoming their first on-air climate expert. She helped educate viewers about climate change and provided a general introduction to climate science. In October 2006, The Weather Channel launched a new 30-minute program, The Climate Code, which Cullen hosted. In April of the following year, The Climate Code would change to an hour format, and be retitled, Forecast Earth; Cullen was part of the creation process of both shows. Cullen departed The Weather Channel in October of 2008 to help launch Climate Central, a non-profit science communication organization based in Princeton, New Jersey. She continued as a contributor to The Weather Channel until November 2008, when NBC, the parent company of The Weather Channel at the time, canceled the program and shuttered the climate division. While at Climate Central, she was part of the team that established the Climate Matters program, which produces free, localized climate science content for weathercasters. In 2013, Climate Central assembled a multi-institutional team of climate scientists with expertise in extreme event attribution to develop and launch an initiative called World Weather Attribution, whose goal is to quantify and communicate the role of climate change in individual extreme weather events (heat waves, droughts, floods) in near real-time. In addition to her responsibilities at Climate Central, she lectured at nearby Princeton University and served as a senior research fellow at the Penn's Wharton Risk Management and Decision Processes Center.In 2010 she authored the book The Weather of the Future, which reviews the history of climate science and extreme event attribution and ends with a look at future weather forecasts based on climate change scenarios. She also served as Chief Science Advisor for the Emmy-award-winning Showtime series, The Years of Living Dangerously.Since 2018, Cullen has focused her efforts on raising awareness of the ocean and the important climate services it provides. She is part of the SOCCOM project and GO-BGC initiative to deploy autonomous biogeochemical-sensing floats and is a champion for building an ocean health and carbon observatory. Boards, Awards, and Selected Media Oct. 11, 2019: Ocean Overlooked When it Comes to Climate Change, San Francisco Chronicle, op-ed June 22, 2019: What’s Killing Pacific Whales?, New York Times, op-ed contributor 2019 - Friend of the Planet Award - National Center for Science Education. 2017 - Rachel Carson Award - Audubon Society June 25, 2017: Most people don't see how climate change is affecting their lives–and that's a problem: Heidi Cullen is the blame changer August 20, 2016: Think It’s Hot Now? Just Wait, New York Times, op-ed contributor March 25, 2016: What Weather is the Fault of Climate Change?, New York Times, op-ed contributor May 25, 2014: Face The Nation to discuss IPCC report May 31, 2012: Clouded Forecast, New York Times, op-ed contributor Aug. 25, 2010: The Colbert Report on Comedy Central to discuss The Weather of the Future 2008 - National Conservationist Award for Science - National Wildlife Federation Associate Editor - Weather, Climate, Society American Geophysical Union - member American Meteorological Society - member Society of Environmental Journalists - member NOAA Science Advisory Board See also Scientific opinion on climate change Selected publications References External links Kakutani, Michiko (2 August 2010). "Warming is Real. Now What?". The New York Times. About Heidi Cullen Web

Jewish Cemetery, Kielce

The Kielce Jewish Cemetery (also known as the Pakosz Cemetery) is located in the Pakosz District of Kielce, Poland, at the intersections of Pakosz Dolny and Kusocińskiego Streets. It has an area of 3.12 hectares. There are about 330 tombstones saved and preserved inside the necropolis, of which about 150 are arranged in the form of a lapidary monument. The cemetery is closed to visitors without special permit.

The Kielce Jewish Cemetery (also known as the Pakosz Cemetery) is located in the Pakosz District of Kielce, Poland, at the intersections of Pakosz Dolny and Kusocińskiego Streets. It has an area of 3.12 hectares. There are about 330 tombstones saved and preserved inside the necropolis, of which about 150 are arranged in the form of a lapidary monument. The cemetery is closed to visitors without special permit. History The cemetery was founded in 1868 based on design by architect Franciszek Ksawery Kowalski. During World War II the cemetery was devastated by Nazi Germans. It was a place of regular mass executions of Poles and Jews. Notably, on 23 May 1943, the German paramilitary police murdered 45 Jewish children there, aged 15 months to 15 years.In 1946, the cemetery became a place of burial of 40 Jewish victims of the Kielce pogrom. In subsequent years, the bodies of victims of massacres committed by Nazi Germans inside the Kielce Ghetto during the Holocaust in occupied Poland were exhumed from the banks of the Silnica River and transferred to the cemetery. In 1965 the cemetery was declared a monument and closed for further burials. References Further reading Burchard, Przemysław (1990). Pamiątki i zabytki kultury żydowskiej w Polsce [Artefacts of Jewish History in Poland]. Warsaw Publishing House. pp. 138–139.

Aatram Dharamraobaba Bhagwantrao

Aatram Dharamraobaba Bhagwantrao is an Indian leader of Nationalist Congress Party and minister of Maharashtra government a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly elected from Aheri Assembly constituency in Gadchiroli city.

Aatram Dharamraobaba Bhagwantrao is an Indian leader of Nationalist Congress Party and minister of Maharashtra government a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly elected from Aheri Assembly constituency in Gadchiroli city. Positions held 2019: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly. == References ==

Oscar G. Mayer Jr.

Oscar Gustave Mayer (March 16, 1914, in Chicago, Illinois – July 6, 2009, in Fitchburg, Wisconsin) was an American business executive who served as chairman of the Oscar Mayer meat and cold cut production company headquartered in Madison, Wisconsin, the third Oscar Mayer to lead the family business, following his grandfather, company founder, Oscar F. Mayer, who died in 1955, and his father, Oscar G. Mayer Sr., who died in 1965.

Oscar Gustave Mayer (March 16, 1914, in Chicago, Illinois – July 6, 2009, in Fitchburg, Wisconsin) was an American business executive who served as chairman of the Oscar Mayer meat and cold cut production company headquartered in Madison, Wisconsin, the third Oscar Mayer to lead the family business, following his grandfather, company founder, Oscar F. Mayer, who died in 1955, and his father, Oscar G. Mayer Sr., who died in 1965. Oscar Mayer career Mayer graduated from Cornell University in 1934, where he was business manager of The Cornell Daily Sun and was elected to the Sphinx Head Society. He briefly attended Harvard Business School, but left due to health issues. He was hired in 1936 to work in the accounting department of the family business's Chicago offices. He relocated to the company's office in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1946, which became the site of the company's headquarters in 1955. In February 1966, Mayer was named the firm's chairman, filling the vacancy created in the post when his father died nearly a year earlier. P. Goff Beach was named to succeed Mayer as the firm's president.Mayer credited his success to his involvement in the smallest details of the company's operations during his career, recalling how he had processed the company's payroll account by hand when he was one of the firm's three accountants. He stated that "I've always felt I might have a little better understanding of what people in our plant have to do because I did it myself—I've always seen our employees as individuals and I respect the hard work they do."Few people believed that there was a real "Oscar Mayer" at the company, as the company for many years employed George Molchan, a little person, as a mascot called "Little Oscar," and Mayer himself avoided publicity. He would travel nationwide with Little Oscar and the Wienermobile. After being informed that there were choking risks from the whistles shaped like hot dogs that he would distribute to children on these publicity tours, he had 2 million of the whistles destroyed, despite assurances from doctors that the likelihood of risk was low.After leading the company to its first $1 billion in annual sales, he retired as chairman in 1977. A division of Kraft Foods at the time of his death, the company had been sold to General Foods, in 1981, some four years after Mayer's retirement. Personal life After being approached to contribute towards a renovation project at Madison's Capitol Theatre, Mayer offered to make a matching grant, coming through with a surprise contribution of $250,000. The main theater at what became the Madison Civic Center was named the "Oscar Mayer Theatre" in his honor. A later project folded the Civic Center into what became the Overture Center. Mayer attended ceremonies that renamed the theater, home of the Wisconsin Chamber Orchestra, as the "Capitol Theater". This project was just one of the many community and charitable organizations with which Mayer was involved.Mayer had three sons with his first wife, Rosalie Harrison Mayer, who died in 1998. A year later, he married Geraldine Fitzpatrick. He died on July 6, 2009, at HospiceCare Center in Fitchburg, Wisconsin, aged 95, and was survived by his second wife. His sons are Oscar Harrison Mayer, Donald Lawrence Mayer, and William Edward Mayer. In the next generation, his eight grandchildren are Oscar Henry Mayer, Stephanie Mayer Heydt, Patricia Mayer Lewis, Michelle Louise Gates, Chadwick Patterson Gates, Charlotte Marie Mathena, Donald Lee, and Wendy Ann. His great-grandchildren include Oscar Raymond Mayer. == References ==

Mauritian flying fox

The Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger), also known as Greater Mascarene flying fox or Mauritius fruit bat is a large megabat species endemic to Mauritius and La Réunion.

The Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger), also known as Greater Mascarene flying fox or Mauritius fruit bat is a large megabat species endemic to Mauritius and La Réunion. Description The Mauritian flying fox can reach a wingspan of 80 cm (31 in), making it the largest endemic mammal on Mauritius. Its fur is golden. It has small ears, thick hair on the tibiae, dorsal coloration of glossy, blackish brown mantle, tinged with rufous, which extends posteriorly into a dark brown median spinal tract, flanked by buff lateral patches. It is a medium-sized species; the adult forearm length averages 152 mm, with no difference between males and females. Mostly nocturnal, although some are occasionally seen during the day, they normally roost by sunrise. These fruit bats range in size from 40-800 g and occur from sea level to 1500 m above. Origin The split of Pteropus species from their megabat relatives was between 28.37 and 34.63 million years ago. Within the genus, the first evolutionary event arose probably between 12.41 and 15.39 million years ago. Location Fruit bats such as P. niger are extremely important to the Western Indian Island ecosystems. Their role in these ecosystems is as pollinators and seed dispersers. P. niger currently resides on the island of Mauritius. It became extinct on the island of Réunion between 1772 and 1801, but may more recently have recolonized the island from Mauritius. Ecology Individuals of the Mauritian flying fox roost in large groups and are active at dusk and dawn. Their diets consist of fruit and nectar, making them important seed dispersers and pollinators.P. niger is a pollinator and seed dispenser. As less than 1.9% of the island supports native vegetation, and reproduction of plant species is poor, the survival of this species is important to the ecosystem as whole. No roosts of the bats exist in village areas. The bats are mostly located in the Bel Ombre forest, with some smaller populations in the Combo Forest and Black River Village.The diet of the Mauritian flying fox consist mainly of fruits. One study found the bats consumed 20 species of plants, 18% of which were native to Mauritius. Of those native species, 36% are either vulnerable or rare. The bats disperse many seeds in flight through their feces, which is ultimately advantageous to many of the native species. P. niger is an opportunistic feeder, mostly adapting to and eating whatever plants or fruits are available to it at the time. While little evidence supported P. niger as valuable in the pollination process, its role as a seed dispenser is important to the survival of many species of plant life on Mauritius. Habitat It occurs in the forests within the national parks of Black River Gorges, Combo and Bel Ombre. Occasionally, it can also be found in fruit plantations, which causes conflicts with the farmers. Threats The Mauritian flying fox was once widespread on the Mascarenes. On Reunion, it became extinct between 1772 and 1801. Their closest extant relative occurs on Rodrigues and is very rare. On Mauritius, it was severely affected by deforestation and hunting. Even in 1974, 1000 specimens were shot annually. A cyclone devastated the population, but it slowly recovered to an estimated 20,000 animals in 2006. Currently, the population is regarded as declining by the IUCN; however, in September 2006, the Government of Mauritius decided to initiate culling of animals. This is controversial, though, as it leaves the species vulnerable to extinction.In October 2015, the Mauritian government declared that the population of P. niger had reached a 'threatening' 100000. Widespread anger and protest among fruit farmers erupted, leading Parliament to approve the culling of 20000 bats by the Special Mobile Force. This initiative was widely criticised by international conservation agencies, which questioned the counting process and true efficiency of the culling, as well as the actual causes of fruit damage/loss, noting that more damage/loss was caused by rats, invasive birds, and weather than by bats.On 26 October 2018 the Government of Mauritius announced there would be another cull, with immediate effect. The population is estimated at 65,000, (although this was questioned by the IUCN Bat Specialist Group) and a 20% cull is authorised, which would possibly bring their numbers low enough to be reclassed as 'Critically Endangered' by the IUCN. After the 2015 cull, the species, previously classed as 'Vulnerable', was downgraded to 'Endangered'. References External links Friday Fellow: Mauritius Fruit Bat at Earthling Nature.

Sidney Leithman

Sidney Leithman (14 October 1936 – 13 May 1991), better known as "Sid", was a Canadian lawyer known for representing numerous reputed organized crime figures in Montreal. Leithman was shot dead in a murder that remains unsolved.

Sidney Leithman (14 October 1936 – 13 May 1991), better known as "Sid", was a Canadian lawyer known for representing numerous reputed organized crime figures in Montreal. Leithman was shot dead in a murder that remains unsolved. Mob lawyer Leithman was born in Montreal into a poor Jewish family, the son of Jack Leithman and Ethel Greenstein. His father worked as a tailor and schmatta merchant. Leithman graduated with a law degree from McGill University in 1960 and in 1961, he joined the Quebec Bar Association. He had a reputation as an intelligent and ultra-aggressive lawyer known for winning his cases or at least greatly reducing the sentences imposed on the accused even if they were convicted. Leithman became the preferred defense counsel for gangsters in Montreal to such an extent that when a gangster was arrested, his first response was usually to say "get me Leithman!" Over the years, Leithman defended members of the Rizzuto family, the Hells Angels, the West End Gang, the Cotroni family and the Dubois brothers.A self-confessed workaholic known for his taste in expensive cigars and cocaine, Leithman became Montreal's best known defense lawyer and a millionaire. The Canadian author Robert Knuckle wrote that Leithman was a "stylishly-dressed McGill graduate with an effusive personality" who was "well known as a wheeler-dealer among the political and commercial leaders of the city". One journalist said of Leithman: "He was a likable guy, a real wheeler-dealer". A female friend of Leithman's recalled in 1991: "Well, he liked money and he liked to flash it around. When he paid for lunch he took out a wad like you wouldn’t believe." Another who knew Leithman said of him and his tendency to boast about his wealth: "If he'd buy you lunch, he'd make sure you knew how much it cost. If you complimented him on his tie, he'd tell you how much he paid for it."On 18 February 1971, Leithman hosted a press conference where his client, the Mafioso Frank Cotroni, spoke about his arrest in Mexico the previous month. At the press conference, Leithman poured drinks for the assembled journalists. Several times, Leithman successfully defended Frank "Dunie" Ryan, the boss of the West End Gang, and was rewarded with a golden Claddagh ring by Ryan. In November 1975, Leithman, together with another lawyer Rolland Blais, held a press conference where their clients, the Dubois brothers, stripped naked in front of the assembled reporters to support their claims that the police had beaten them.On 14 May 1976, a member of the West End Gang, John Slawvey, was killed in a shoot-out with the Montreal police. At about 10 pm on the next day, Leithman phoned André Savard, the policemen who killed Slawvey, to tell him: "There's a lot of talk going on and I think you should be careful, André. There's a lot of people not happy [about the killing of Slawvey], and you can push only so much...Call this a warning if you want, but be careful and take care". Ryan was furious with Slawvey's killing – which he viewed as an execution as he insisted that Slawvey was unarmed and surrendering to the police when Savard killed him – and placed a $50,000 dollar contract on the life of Savard, which Leithman was aware of. Savard denies the "execution" claim and argues that it was illogical for him to kill Slawvey as he wanted him alive so he could pressure him to turn Crown's evidence and testify against Ryan. On 25 April 1979, Cotroni returned from the United States to Montreal. Leithman spoke to the media at the return, stating: "I don't know what his plans are".After Ryan was murdered in 1984, he was replaced as West End Gang boss by Allan "The Weasel" Ross, and Leithman was retained as Ross's counsel. In 1983, Leithman was hired as the defense lawyer for Jair "El Mocho" Garcia, the Montreal agent for the Cali Cartel, and an associate of Ross's. In October of that year, Garcia was arrested and charged with importing 16 kilograms of cocaine from Colombia into Canada. In 1985, at Garcia's trial, Leithman won an acquittal and Garcia returned to Colombia. Leithman also served as the lawyer for Inès Cecila Barbosa, known as La Madrina ("the Godmother"), an agent of the Cali Cartel who served as their money launderer. Between 1989 and 1992, Barbosa sent some $75 million from Montreal to Cali. In the 1980s, Leithman frequently visited Colombia, where he had connections with a number of Colombian organized crime figures associated with the Cali Cartel.In 1983, the United States government requested the extradition of Cotroni to face charges of conspiracy to smuggle heroin in Connecticut. Leithman represented Cotroni and argued the extradition request was a violation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Leithman maintained that the United States Department of Justice had provided transcripts of Cotroni's telephone conversations and not the original tapes, which violated the rules about "best evidence" for extradition hearings. Leithman argued the extradition request should be rejected because the U.S. Department of Justice had alleged that Cotroni's references in his phone calls to buying diapers were to heroin, but Leithman noted that Cotroni really was buying diapers in bulk in the United States. Cotroni believed that American diapers were much superior to Canadian diapers and he was buying diapers in bulk for one of his lieutenants, Claude Faber, who recently became a father. On this basis, Leithman argued that the entire American extradition requests violated the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and should be rejected.As part of his work, Leithman had befriended Claude Savoie, the chief of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)'s national anti-drug squad. Although it was illegal on the part of both men, Savoie started to trade information with Leithman about ongoing cases, with Leithman informing on his own clients while Savoie told Leithman about what the RCMP knew. In 1985, Leithman told Ross via information he had learned from Savoie that one of Ross's men hiding in Florida, David Singer, was considering becoming an informer. Ross promptly had Singer killed.In 1989, Ross gave Leithman $300,000 in cash and asked him to use his connections to find information about what the police knew about him. In late 1989, at a meeting in Leithman's office, he introduced Savoie to Ross, where it was agreed that Savoie would sell information to Ross. Leithman served as the conduit, taking briefcases full of $200,000 in cash to Savoie in exchange for information about what the RCMP knew about the West End Gang. Murder On Monday, 13 May 1991, Leithman was driving in his black Saab automobile from his house in Mount Royal to his office. Leithman liked to work early and that day he was preparing to make his final arguments in a case concerned several Colombian men accused of drug smuggling. Leithman was representing Jairo Garcia of the Cali cartel. At 6:48 am, at where Rockland Road and Monmouth Avenue intersected, a car that was waiting for him suddenly pulled out onto the street, forcing Leithman to stop. A man who was standing in a telephone booth at the corner of Rockland and Monmouth stepped out, pulled out a .45 automatic handgun and opened fire on Leithman. The killer first shot out the window and then shot Leithman four times in the head and neck. After Leithman was killed, the gunman tossed a bag of smoked ham into his car, which may have been an anti-Semitic gesture. Found inside of Leithman's car was the unlisted phone number for Savoie, which became the first clue to the Savoie–Ross scandal that was to rock the RCMP in 1992. The murder remains unsolved, but is generally accepted that Leithman's murder was caused by his choice of clients. At the time of his murder, the United States government was considering asking for Leithman's extradition to face charges of obstruction of justice in Florida, arguing that Leithman had crossed the line from being a lawyer for gangsters to being a gangster himself. Leithman was laid to rest at Baron de Hirsch Cemetery in Montreal. On 12 April 1993, it was revealed that Leithman had been working as a paid informer for the RCMP since 1985 and in a major violation of the rules governing solicitor–client relations had been informing on his own clients. The British lawyer James Morton noted that Leithman's clients included Frank Cotroni of the Cotroni family and Vito Rizzuto of the Rizzuto family, both of whom would have been enraged if they had learned that the information that they had been sharing with Leithman was being sold to the RCMP. Morton wrote that although it remains a mystery as to who had Leithman killed, it was likely that Leithman was killed because one of his gangster clients had learned of his work as an informer. By contrast, the Canadian journalist D'Arcy O'Connor wrote that on the basis of interviews with various Mounties that Leithman was killed by one of his Colombian clients for reasons that remain unknown. Police theorized that he was assassinated by a Colombian hitman contracted by Allan Ross and his Colombian cocaine suppliers, who feared they may be implicated by Leithman. The journalist Robert Knuckle has argued that Barbosa ordered Leithman's murder from learning from Savoie that he was a paid RCMP informer. Barbosa committed suicide on 2 June 2006 by intentionally overdosing on medicinal pills, making the question impossible to answer. John Westlake, an Irish-Canadian detective with the Service de police de la Ville de Montréal has argued that the corrupt constable Jorge Leite of the RCMP was in some way involved in Leithman's murder, and has suggested that Leite may have been the gunman. Books Auger, Michel; Edwards, Peter (2004). The Encyclopedia of Canadian Organized Crime: From Captain Kidd to Mom Boucher. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0771030495. Cédilot, André; Noël, André (2012). Mafia Inc.: The Long, Bloody Reign of Canada's Sicilian Clan. Toronto: Vintage Canada. ISBN 9780307360410. Edwards, Peter (1990). Blood Brothers: How Canada's Most Powerful Mafia Family Runs Its Business. Toronto: Key Porter Books. ISBN 155013213X. Knuckle, Robert (2007). A Master of Deception: Working Undercover for the RCMP. Renfrew: General Store Publishing House. ISBN 978-1897113660. Morton, James (2001). Gangland The Lawyers. London: Virgin Publishers. ISBN 9781852279417. O'Connor, D'Arcy (2011). Montreal's Irish Mafia: The True Story of the Infamous West End Gang. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons. == References ==

Ermengarde of Anjou (died 1146)

Ermengarde of Anjou (c. 1068 – 1 June 1146), also known as Ermengarde of Brittany, was a member of the comital House of Anjou and by her two marriages was successively Duchess of Aquitaine and Brittany. She was also a patron of Fontevraud Abbey. Ermengarde was the regent of Brittany during the absence of her spouse, Duke Alan IV of Brittany, from 1096 until 1101.

Ermengarde of Anjou (c. 1068 – 1 June 1146), also known as Ermengarde of Brittany, was a member of the comital House of Anjou and by her two marriages was successively Duchess of Aquitaine and Brittany. She was also a patron of Fontevraud Abbey. Ermengarde was the regent of Brittany during the absence of her spouse, Duke Alan IV of Brittany, from 1096 until 1101. Life Early years Born in Angers she was the eldest child of Count Fulk IV of Anjou and Hildegarde of Beaugency. Having lost her mother in 1070, at only two years of age, she received an education, possibly at the abbey of Ronceray, and grew to be pious and concerned about religious reform, especially the struggle against the secular appropriation of church property. In her youth, Ermengarde was noted for her intelligence and beauty in a poem by Marbode of Rennes in which he offers also offers her spiritual guidance and advice. Possible Duchess of Aquitaine It has been recorded that Ermengard was the wife of William IX of Aquitaine. It has long been presumed that, in 1089, her marriage was arranged to the young Duke and poet, William IX of Aquitaine. However, this union proved a dismal failure. Her husband was a voracious philanderer, whose affairs infuriated his wife. She had severe mood swings, vacillating between vivacity and sullenness, and would nag her husband. She also had a habit of retiring in bad temper to a cloister after an argument, cutting off all contact with the outside world, before suddenly making a reappearance in the court as if her absence had never occurred. Such behavior, coupled with her failure to conceive a child, led William to send her back to her father and have the marriage dissolved in 1091. Her behavior during her marriage to the Duke has been described by both Marion Meade and Alison Weir as "schizophrenic", with Weir adding a suggestion of "manic depression".However, Ruth Harvey's 1993 critical investigation shows the assumption of William's marriage to Ermengarde to be based largely on an error in a nineteenth-century secondary source and it is highly likely that Philippa of Toulouse was William's only wife. Further research has found the claim that William was married to "Hermingerda", daughter of Fulk IV of Anjou is based on the very unreliable chronicle of William of Tyre, written between 1169 and 1187, more than 70 years after the events in question would have taken place. Tyre erroneously identifies Ermengarde's mother as Bertrand of Montfort, the sister of Amalricus de Montfort when her mother was in fact Audearde or Hildegarde of Beaugency. Tyre's chronicle lacks any contemporary corroboration, no primary text ever mentions a marriage between William and Ermengarde. It is therefore not only improbable that William married Ermengarde of Anjou, it is likely that he was never married to a woman named Ermengarde at all. But Stephen Philp, poet and mediaeval historian, has counter-argued that Tyre's apparent error in the names is not in itself proof a marriage between William and a woman named Ermengarde never took place, especially as several sources give colorful accounts of the marriage and its aftermath. Duchess and regent of Brittany In 1092 or 1093, her father married her to Duke Alan IV of Brittany, probably to secure an alliance against Normandy, then controlled by William the Conqueror's son, Robert Curthose. Though her marriage was arranged for political reasons this does not mean that Ermengarde would have been seen as inferior to her husband. It was not uncommon that noble women in twelfth century France actually wielded more political power than their husbands. The union produced three children: the future Duke Conan III, Hawise and, Geoffrey. It is also suggested that during her time as duchess, Ermengarde may have raised her half-brother Fulk V of Anjou alongside her own children.Ermengarde, seemingly unhappy in her marriage to Alan IV, repeatedly attempted to have her marriage annulled so that she could focus on religious rather than public life. Her requests were denied by religious authorities on the grounds that she did not have a witness to support her claim of consanguinity. Robert of Arbrissel, whom she kept correspondence with, told Ermengarde that it was her "duty to remain in the world, despite your desire to leave it, and to fulfill God's will concerning you." This letter from Robert of Arbrissel includes over 100 biblical references as well as references to religious leaders and Roman poets, showing that Robert knew Ermengarde to be intelligent and well read. It was not uncommon that noblewomen were better educated and more literate than noblemen during the Middle Ages as women were often expected to maintain their own properties and those of their husbands.Ermengarde was also known to receive advice from other religious leaders of the time including Geoffrey of Vendome and St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Some scholars such as Shawn Madison Krahmer have noted that the letters surviving from St. Bernard of Clairvaux to Ermengarde show a level of intimacy and fondness that would suggest a close friendship between the two rather than a simply advisory correspondence.When her husband left for Palestine in 1096 to take part in the First Crusade, Ermengarde served as Regent of the Duchy of Brittany from 1096 until 1101. Despite being a time of political instability in Brittany, Ermengarde proved to be a popular and effective ruler maintaining stability during the Duke's absence by utilizing her familial ties and alliances. Ermengarde remained active in ruling alongside Alan upon his return from the crusades. Ermengarde was also effective in her political role by having close ties and a level of influence over the church, becoming an important supporter of reforms. In a letter to Ermengarde Geoffrey of Vendome praised her abilities as a leader saying that she was "fighting for God rather than caught up in worldly affairs."She spent little time in Rennes or the west of Brittany, preferring Nantes and the Saumur region. Influenced by Robert of Arbrissel, she approved the expansion of the abbey at Fontevraud, to which she withdrew from 1103 to 1105 due to marital issues with Alan. In 1112, Ermengarde's husband, Alan, abdicated his position as Duke and entered the monastery of Redon as a monk where he remained until his death. Ermengarde continued to rule the county alongside her son, Conan III for many years. Later life During her marriage to Duke Alan IV of Brittany, Ermengarde repeatedly tried to become a nun, however she was continually refused due to her being married. It was not unusual that noblewomen would retire to a monastery in later life, but it was not common for these noblewomen to take up religious vows as Ermengarde tried to. By 1116 Ermengarde was living in Fontevrault Abbey, where she reputedly became a friend of her first husband's second wife, Philippa of Toulouse. In 1118 after the death of Philippa, Ermengarde decided to avenge her deceased friend. She went south from Fontevrault to the court of her former husband, Duke William of Aquitaine, where she demanded to be recognized as the rightful Duchess. William ignored this remarkable request. Accordingly, in October 1119, she suddenly appeared at the Council of Reims, being held by Pope Calixtus II, demanding that the Pope excommunicate William, oust his mistress from the ducal palace, and restore Ermengarde to her rightful place as the Duchess of Aquitaine. The Pope "declined to accommodate her"; however, Ermengarde continued to trouble William for several years afterwards. In 1121, Ermengarde and her half-brother, Fulk V, established a Cistercian monastery in Anjou at Louroux. The siblings signed a charter placing an endowment in the name of their father at the abbey of Ronceray in 1129, and donated gifts to the nuns.Following Fulk's departure for the Holy Land to become King of Jerusalem (c. 1128), Ermengarde was allowed to become a Cistercian nun by St Bernard of Clairvaux at the Priory of Larrey near Dijon in 1130. She left the priory by 1132 and visited her brother, Fulk, who had just become king of Jerusalem. While visiting King Fulk in the Holy Land, Ermengarde sponsored the building of a church in Nablus near Jacob's Well. She later spent some time at the convent of Saint Anne in Jerusalem until her brother was deposed in a revolt led by Count Hugh II of Jaffa. After returning to Brittany by 1134, she and her son Conan III founded the Cistercian monastery of Benzay near Nantes in 1135. Death Ermengarde at one point went on crusade to Palestine; she returned ten years later, and some historians believe her life ended in Jerusalem at the convent of Saint Anne. But obituary lists at Redon Abbey record a date of death in 1146 in Redon where her second husband, Alan IV was buried. It is believed that she died a nun. The contradictions about her death and the records of her burial maybe indicated that in fact she died in Jerusalem, and that her body was subsequently transferred to Redon. References Sources Livingstone, Amy (2018). "Daughter of Fulk, Glory of Brittany': Countess Ermengarde of Brittany (C.1070–1147)". In van Houts, Elisabeth (ed.). Anglo-Norman Studies XL. The Boydell Press. pp. 165–178. doi:10.1017/9781787443051.011. ISBN 9781787443051. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) Fajardo-Acosta, Fidel (2022). "Proscribed Communication: The Obscene Language of the Troubadour William IX, Duke of Aquitaine and VII Count of Poitiers". In Classen, Albrecht (ed.). Communication, Translation, and Community in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period: New Cultural-Historical and Literary Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. pp. 109–158.133 Further reading Livingstone, Amy (December 2017). "'You will dwell with barbarous and uneducated men': Countess Ermengarde and Political Culture in Twelfth-Century Brittany" (PDF). History. 102 (353): 858–873. doi:10.1111/1468-229x.12518. ISSN 0018-2648. S2CID 165423473.

Dio of Alexandria

Dio of Alexandria (; Greek: Δίων) was an Academic Skeptic philosopher and a friend of Antiochus of Ascalon who lived in the first century BC. Along with being an Academic Skeptic, Dio was an avid believer in the Greek gods and Titans, specifically worshipping the personification of time, Chronos. He was sent by his fellow citizens as ambassador to Rome, to complain about the conduct of their king, Ptolemy XII Auletes. In Rome he was poisoned by the king's secret agents, and the strongest suspicion of the murder fell upon Marcus Caelius. The defence of Caelius in April 56 BC, the Pro Caelio, is considered one of Cicero's and indeed Rome's greatest orations.His brother was the wrestler Topsius (Ancient Greek: Τόψιος).

Dio of Alexandria (; Greek: Δίων) was an Academic Skeptic philosopher and a friend of Antiochus of Ascalon who lived in the first century BC. Along with being an Academic Skeptic, Dio was an avid believer in the Greek gods and Titans, specifically worshipping the personification of time, Chronos. He was sent by his fellow citizens as ambassador to Rome, to complain about the conduct of their king, Ptolemy XII Auletes. In Rome he was poisoned by the king's secret agents, and the strongest suspicion of the murder fell upon Marcus Caelius. The defence of Caelius in April 56 BC, the Pro Caelio, is considered one of Cicero's and indeed Rome's greatest orations.His brother was the wrestler Topsius (Ancient Greek: Τόψιος). == References ==

Peter Diamandis

Peter H. Diamandis ( DEE-ə-MAN-diss; born May 20, 1961) is an American marketer, engineer, physician, and entrepreneur of Greek-American ethnicity. He is best known for being founder and chairman of the X Prize Foundation, cofounder and executive chairman of Singularity University and coauthor of The New York Times bestsellers Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think, The Future is Faster than You Think, How Converging Technologies Are Transforming Business, Industries, and Our Lives and BOLD: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World. He is former CEO and cofounder of the Zero Gravity Corporation, cofounder and vice chairman of Space Adventures Ltd., founder and chairman of the Rocket Racing League, cofounder of the International Space University, cofounder of Planetary Resources, cofounder of Celularity, founder of Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, vice chairman and cofounder of Human Longevity, Inc.

Peter H. Diamandis ( DEE-ə-MAN-diss; born May 20, 1961) is an American marketer, engineer, physician, and entrepreneur of Greek-American ethnicity. He is best known for being founder and chairman of the X Prize Foundation, cofounder and executive chairman of Singularity University and coauthor of The New York Times bestsellers Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think, The Future is Faster than You Think, How Converging Technologies Are Transforming Business, Industries, and Our Lives and BOLD: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World. He is former CEO and cofounder of the Zero Gravity Corporation, cofounder and vice chairman of Space Adventures Ltd., founder and chairman of the Rocket Racing League, cofounder of the International Space University, cofounder of Planetary Resources, cofounder of Celularity, founder of Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, vice chairman and cofounder of Human Longevity, Inc. Early life Diamandis was born in The Bronx, New York. His parents, both Greek immigrants, were in the medical business. His father was a physician. From a very early age, Diamandis expressed a keen interest in space exploration. At age 8, he began giving lectures on space to his family and friends. At age 12, Diamandis won first place in the Estes Rocket Design Competition for building a launch system able to simultaneously launch three rockets.After graduating from Great Neck North High School in 1979, Diamandis attended Hamilton College for his first year, then transferred to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to study biology and physics. During his second year at MIT in 1980, Diamandis cofounded Students for the Exploration and Development of Space.After graduating from MIT in 1983 he entered Harvard Medical School to pursue his M.D. During his second year of medical school, he cofounded the Space Generation Foundation to promote projects and programs that would help the "Space Generation"—all those born since the flight of Sputnik—get off the planet.In 1986, Diamandis put his medical degree on hold and returned to MIT to pursue a master's degree in aeronautics and astronautics, conducting research at NASA Johnson Space Center, the MIT Man Vehicle Laboratory and MIT's Whitehead Biomedical Institute. After completing his M.S. at MIT, Diamandis returned to Harvard completing his M.D.During his last year of medical school in 1989, Diamandis was acting as managing director of the International Space University and CEO of International Micro Space, a microsatellite launch company. Career Diamandis has participated on the boards of several companies throughout his career, including Hyperloop and Cogswell Polytechnical College. He has also won several awards in his field, including Economist "No Boundaries" Innovator of the Year, the Neil Armstrong Award for Aerospace Achievement and Leadership, the World Technology Award, presented by the World Technology Counsel, and the Arthur C. Clarke Award for Innovation, among others. International Space University In 1987, during his third year of medical school, Diamandis cofounded International Space University with Todd Hawley, Walter Anderson, Christopher Mau and Robert Richards. Diamandis served as the managing director and chief operating officer of the university until 1989. Today, ISU offers a Space Studies program and two accredited Master of Space Studies degrees. It has grown into a $30 million university campus headquartered in Strasbourg, France. International MicroSpace, Inc. Diamandis cofounded Microsat Launch Systems, later renamed International MicroSpace Inc., in 1989 during his fourth year of medical school and served as the company's CEO. IMI designed a small launcher called Orbital Express for taking 100-kg payloads to low-Earth orbit, collaborating with Bristol Aerospace for the manufacture. The company won a $100 million SDIO contract for one launch plus nine options and was sold to CTA Inc of Rockville, MD in 1993 for $250,000. Diamandis joined CTA for one year as VP of Commercial Space Programs post-acquisition. Constellation Communications In 1991, Diamandis founded Constellation Communications, Inc., one of five low-Earth orbit satellite constellations for voice telephony. The company was funded to deploy an equatorial ring of 10 satellites to provide communications primarily to Brazil and Indonesia. Constellation was sold to E-Systems and Orbital; Diamandis remained director until 1993. X PRIZE Foundation In 1994, Diamandis founded the X PRIZE Foundation after the failure of International MicroSpace, Inc and reading Charles Lindbergh's The Spirit of St. Louis. He serves as chairman and CEO of the foundation. X PRIZE was created to fund and operate a $10 million incentive competition intended to inspire a new generation of private passenger-carrying spaceships. The prize was announced on May 18, 1996, in St. Louis, MO without any purse money or any teams. The prize was ultimately funded through an insurance policy underwritten by the Anousheh and Hamid Ansari Family and renamed the Ansari X PRIZE in their honor. The $10 million competition attracted 26 teams from seven countries as teams and was won on October 4, 2004, by Mojave Aerospace Ventures, a team run by famed aviation designer Burt Rutan and funded by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen. The winning vehicle, SpaceShipOne, was piloted to space twice within two weeks to win the competition. The first flight was made on September 29, 2004, piloted by Mike Melvill, and the winning, second flight was made on October 4, 2004, by pilot Brian Binnie. SpaceShipOne was the world's first non-government piloted spacecraft and is now hanging in the National Air and Space Museum adjacent to the Spirit of St. Louis aircraft.In January 2005, the X PRIZE Foundation Board of Trustees expanded the focus of the X PRIZE to address four different group areas: Exploration (oceans and space), Life Sciences, Energy and Environment, and Education and Global Development.Since inception, the foundation has launched the $10M Ansari X PRIZE (awarded), the $10M Automotive X Prize (awarded), the $10M Archon X Prize (in progress), the $30M Google Lunar X PRIZE (in progress), the $10M Qualcomm Tricorder X PRIZE, the $2M Lunar Lander Challenge (awarded), the $1.4M Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge (awarded), and the Wendy Schmidt Ocean Health X PRIZE. In May 2012, the Robin Hood Foundation announced its plans to partner with the X PRIZE Foundation for several New York-based challenges targeted at eradicating poverty.The X PRIZE Foundation has a staff of approximately 50 individuals and is headquartered in Culver City, California. Its board of trustees includes Larry Page, Elon Musk, James Cameron, Dean Kamen, Ratan Tata, Ray Kurzweil, Jim Gianopulos, Naveen Jain, Arianna Huffington, Will Wright and Craig Venter. Zero Gravity Corporation In 1994, Diamandis cofounded ZERO-G with Byron Lichtenberg and Ray Cronise. The space entertainment company offers weightless experiences aboard its FAA-certified Boeing 727 aircraft and provides NASA with parabolic flight services for research, education and training. The company has flown over 10,000 customers. In 2007, physicist Stephen Hawking experienced eight rounds of weightlessness on a ZERO-G flight. Diamandis said that the successful outcome of that flight was proof that "everyone can participate in this type of weightless experience." He would recount the experience of taking Dr. Hawking into the upper atmosphere at TED2008. Angel Technologies Corporation Between 1995 and 1999, Diamandis was the president of Angel Technologies Corporation, a commercial communications company that develops wireless broadband communications networks. Space Adventures, Ltd. Founded in 1998, Space Adventures is a space tourism company that has flown eight private customer missions to the International Space Station since 2001. Diamandis is the cofounder and vice chairman of Space Adventures. BlastOff! Corporation Between 1999 and 2001, Diamandis was the CEO of BlastOff! Corporation, which proposed to fly a private rover mission to land on the Moon as a mix of entertainment, Internet and space. Diamandis commented on how the initial startup cost for the project was in the region of five million dollars, which was necessary to cover the costs of the servers, bandwidth and software. The company lost funding and ceased business in 2001. Rocket Racing League In 2005, Diamandis cofounded the Rocket Racing League. Developed as a cross between IndyCar racing and rockets, it envisioned enabling the public to enjoy speed, rockets and competitive spirits. Diamandis was the chairman of RRL until it ceased business. Singularity University In 2008, alongside American author, inventor and futurist Ray Kurzweil, Diamandis cofounded Singularity University (SU). Today Diamandis serves as the university's cofounder and executive chairman. SU is an interdisciplinary university based on the NASA Ames campus in Silicon Valley and supported by a number of corporate founders and partners including Autodesk, Cisco, Nokia, Kauffman Foundation and ePlanet Ventures. The university runs a 10-week Graduate Studies Program, a seven-day Executive Program and a five-day Exponential Medicine conference. Planetary Resources Inc. In April 2012, Diamandis cofounded Planetary Resources Inc., an organization dedicated to the identification, remote sensing and prospecting of near-Earth approaching asteroids, with Eric Anderson. He has also served on the company's board. and Charles Simonyi. Following financial troubles, it was announced in October 2018 that the company's human assets were purchased by the blockchain software technology company ConsenSys, Inc. Human Longevity Inc. In March 2014, Diamandis cofounded Human Longevity Inc. (HLI), a genomics and cell therapy-based diagnostic and therapeutic company focused on extending the healthy human lifespan, with Craig Venter and Robert Hariri. He also has supported SENS Research Foundation, a nonprofit organization that seeks to treat and cure the diseases of aging by repairing the underlying damage caused by aging. Celularity In February 2018, Diamandis launched Celularity, a biotechnology company productizing allogeneic cells and tissues derived from the postpartum placenta. Books In 2012, alongside Steven Kotler, Diamandis coauthored Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think. The nonfiction work discusses the potential for exponential technology and three other emerging market forces to significantly raise global standards of living within the next 25 years. Abundance was well-received; it was No. 2 on The New York Times Best Seller list and remained on the list for nine weeks. It was No. 1 on the non-fiction bestseller lists of Amazon and Barnes and Noble.At the 2014 Clinton Global Initiative, former US president Bill Clinton recommended Abundance to readers as an antidote to negative news. In 2015, again alongside of Steven Kotler, Diamandis coauthored another New York Times best selling book, Bold: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World. This nonfiction book provides analysis and instruction for entrepreneurs interested in learning about exponential technologies, moon-shot thinking and crowdsourcing.January 28, 2020, Kotler and Diamandis released the third and final book in their series "The Exponential Mindset Trilogy"; which includes the books "Abundance" and "Bold". The Future is Faster Than You Think: How Converging Technologies are Transforming Business, Industries, and Our Lives examines the revolutionary changes brought about by convergence.Diamandis also has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans. Additional notable achievements Diamandis also: Served as CEO of Desktop.tv, a spin-off company from BlastOff! designed to provide a global peer-to-peer television network for broadcasting unique content to the desktop. Served as chairman of Starport.com, an Internet channel for space exploration for kids of all ages. The site represents over 20 astronauts and features space heroes, missions and simulations. Sold to Space.com. Cofounded and served as director of the Space Generation Foundation, a nonprofit organization established in 1985 to create, in all people born since the advent of the Space Age on October 4, 1957, a sense of identity and awareness that they are born as members of a space-faring race. The foundation supports numerous educational and research projects. Founded SpaceFair in 1983. SpaceFair is a national space conference that was hosted by MIT in 1983, 1985 and 1987. Was a key subject in the 2007 documentary film, Orphans of Apollo. Is a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy. Personal life Diamandis is married to Kristen Hladecek, having proposed in 2004. They have twin boys born c. 2012. Santa Monica event In February 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, MIT Technology Review reported that Diamandis held a "mostly maskless" event in Santa Monica in violation of the local stay-at-home order that became a superspreading event. The event charged up to $30,000 for tickets. In a followup article, MIT Technology Review revealed that after COVID-19 started spreading among attendees, Diamandis tried to sell them "fraudulent" treatments including inhaled amniotic fluid and ketamine lozenges, which a professor of law and medicine at Stanford University characterized as "quackery". The superspreading event was covered widely by publications including the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times. See also List of Greek Americans Notes External links Official website X PRIZE Foundation website Testimony by Peter Diamandis to U.S. House Videos Peter Diamandis at TED Peter Diamandis: Our next giant leap (TEDGlobal 2005) Peter Diamandis: Stephen Hawking's zero g flight (TED2008) Peter Diamandis: Abundance is our future (TED2012) MIT Video: Peter Diamandis talks about the X PRIZE and future of space travel Open SSP08 Lecture: Peter Diamandis talks about the X PRIZE, Zero gravity, Rocket Race League SSP08 podcast Perimeter Institute: Peter Diamandis' lecture at the Quantum to Cosmos festival

Mary Chubb

Mary Chubb (22 March 1903 – 22 January 2003) was a British writer and archaeologist. She has been described as "the first professional excavation administrator". She was the daughter of John Burland Chubb (1861–1955), A.R.I.B.A., and a descendant the Bridgwater artist John Chubb (artist), 1746–1818.

Mary Chubb (22 March 1903 – 22 January 2003) was a British writer and archaeologist. She has been described as "the first professional excavation administrator". She was the daughter of John Burland Chubb (1861–1955), A.R.I.B.A., and a descendant the Bridgwater artist John Chubb (artist), 1746–1818. Career Archaeology Chubb has been described as an "accidental archaeologist". She took as job at the Egypt Exploration Society (EES) to fund her study of sculpture at the Central School of Art in London, and not because she had an interest in archaeology or Egyptology. After a year as the under-secretary at the EES's London base, doing odd jobs as the secretary refused to pass any real work onto her, she felt like quitting.: 11–12  Having been sent into the basement to look for a drawing that was to be included in one of the Society's publications, she found an object that would trigger her interest in archaeology, something that the previous twelve months of work had not. She described this moment in her book Nefertiti Lived Here:: 13–15  It was a piece of glazed tile—that was all—but at that blank, bleak moment of depression, it touched off some unguessed spring. ... When I turned it over, a trickle of fine yellow sand slipped through my fingers... Egyptian Sand. I was holding something that had scarcely been touched since it had been found in Egypt years before... Suddenly I was invaded by a great longing; I wanted to know all I could about the place where the tile had come from... I looked down at the tile again... a shutter in the mind that till then had separated my living self from everything I had heard about Ancient Egypt, lifted suddenly and quietly. Chubb left her under-secretary job at the Egypt Exploration Society and volunteered herself as a "secretarial dogsbody" to their excavation of Tell el-Amarna in Egypt. She slowly developed skills and became an important member of the team. Her administrative work "helped to set new standards in archaeological publication". After the end of the dig at Amarna, she joined the excavations in Iraq, at Ur and Eshnunna, run by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; she held the tile "Field Secretary to the Iraq Expedition of the Oriental Institute". She then spent 1938 at the University of Chicago writing up their recent excavations. Author After returning to England during World War II, Chubb was involved in an accident that would end her archaeological career. She was hit by a military lorry while riding a bicycle and was seriously injured; she survived the crash but lost her leg and lived the rest of her life physically disabled. In 1942, while recuperating from her injury, she realised it would stop her from attending any more archaeological excavation, and so she turned her talent to writing.: 180–81 Chubb wrote a number of books on archaeology for the general public and also wrote a number of children's books on people of the ancient world. She also branched out into journalism, writing for magazines such Punch and for the BBC. Her children's book were in the form of alphabet books in which each letter was a word linked to the book's topic and a paragraph followed that explained the word; e.g., in her An Alphabet of Ancient Egypt, the letter C was for Cartouches and this was followed by a basic explanation of how to read hieroglyphics. Her two main books were published in the 1950s; Nefertiti Lived Here (1954) and City in the Sand (1957). These books are about her involvement in the 1930s excavations of Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, and of Ur and Eshnunna in Iraq. They were republished in the 1990s with new introductions and added epilogues. She curated her family's archive of the art and papers of her ancestor, the Bridgwater artist John Chubb (artist), (1746 - 1816), and wrote two articles about it in The Countryman. The collection was sold to the Blake Museum, Bridgwater, in 2004. Selected works AutobiographicalChubb, Mary (1954). Nefertiti Lived Here (1st ed.). London: Geoffrey Bles. Chubb, Mary (1957). City in the Sand (1st ed.). London: Geoffrey Bles. Chubb, Mary (1998). Nefertiti Lived Here (republished ed.). London: Libri. ISBN 978-1901965018. Chubb, Mary (1999). City in the Sand (republished ed.). London: Libri. ISBN 978-1901965025.Children's booksChubb, Mary (1966). An Alphabet of Ancient Egypt. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713801231. Chubb, Mary (1967). An Alphabet of Greece, Book I: Early Days. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713801903. Chubb, Mary (1968). An Alphabet of Greece, Book II: The Golden Years. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713802269. Chubb, Mary (1969). An Alphabet of Assyria and Babylonia. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713802535. Chubb, Mary (1971). An Alphabet of Ancient Rome. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713802924. Chubb, Mary (1973). An Alphabet of the Holy Land. London: Geoffrey Bles. ISBN 978-0713805307. == References ==

Turbo-Union

Turbo-Union Limited is a joint venture between three European aero-engine manufacturers, FiatAvio (now Avio), MTU Aero Engines and Rolls-Royce.

Turbo-Union Limited is a joint venture between three European aero-engine manufacturers, FiatAvio (now Avio), MTU Aero Engines and Rolls-Royce. Products The company's only product is the RB199, a three-spool turbofan developed specifically for the Panavia Tornado. Structure The ownership of the company similarly split into- 40% Rolls-Royce 40% MTU Aero Engines 20% Avio S.p.A. (formerly Fiat Aviazione)It had an office on Arabellastraße in Munich near both NAMMA and Panavia, but the head office was initially at Filton. It was known as Turbo-Union Ltd. Turbo-Union was a fully integrated and collaborative European Company, whose formal language was English, by kind and charitable agreement of the Governments concerned. The organisation of the company was of FG (Functional Group) kind - for example, FG4 was Concept Design Engineering, FG6 was Customer Support Engineering and Provisioning, and so on. Each FG was chaired by a European person included people from all three companies as required. The FG also had subgroups - for example, FG4-4 was Development, FG6-2 was FTC (Flight Test Centre) support. The company is now based at the home of Rolls-Royce in Derby, but also has an office at the Panavia head office in Germany at Hallbergmoos. Production sites Turbo Union as a whole designed and produced the engine, albeit the GA (General Arrangement) drawing was assembled at Bristol (Filton) from all three partners' inputs. Over 2000 engines were built up to and including the 1990s, from components sourced in all three countries in approximate proportion to their Governmental support. The RAF had engines assembled and supported from Bristol, the German Air Force and Navy from Munchen, and the Italian Air Force from Torino. History When it was formed in October 1969 it was claimed to be the largest aero-engine consortium in the world. The RB199 would be Europe's biggest ever military engine programme, and was based n Munchen. Development of the RB199 started in September 1969, prior to the formation of Turbo-Union. The first RB199 engine ran in September 1971, with the first flight in a Tornado in August 1974. The engines are all electronically controlled with slightly different engine versions for each Tornado variant. In 1983, a Swiss organisation, the Arbeitsgruppe für Luft und Raumfahrt (ALR) based in Zurich, proposed an aircraft called the Piranha 6 powered by a single RB199. The first prototype Eurofighter planes used the RB199 engine, until in June 1995 when the first EJ200-engined plane took off from Turin. Its predecessor, the British Aerospace EAP, also used the engines. Management The first chairman was Hugh Conway, the managing director of the Bristol (Filton) plant of Rolls-Royce. Marshal of the Royal Air Force Denis Spotswood was chairman from 1975 to 1980. For many years, the designer of the Pegasus engine, Gordon Lewis, was managing director. Previous to him was Martin Steinberger of Motoren und Turbinen-Union (MTU - based in Munich). Karlheinz Koch was MD until 2008. References Gunston, Bill (2006). World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition. Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK: Sutton Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-7509-4479-X. See also EuroJet Turbo GmbH Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Limited - set up in 1965 between Rolls-Royce and France's Turbomeca to make the Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour for the SEPECAT Jaguar

Jane Jackson Thompson

Jane Jackson Thompson (also Thomson) (c. 1719–after 1792) was an enslaved person who lived with her common-law husband, Talbot Thompson, until he was able to purchase her freedom in 1769. Talbot was a successful sail-maker and provided a comfortable life for Jane and their family. They became Black Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War after all of their property was burned down in 1776. Her children and their families also became loyalists and joined the British between 1775 and 1780. Although her children were with several inter-connected slave owners mostly from the Norfolk, Virginia area.

Jane Jackson Thompson (also Thomson) (c. 1719–after 1792) was an enslaved person who lived with her common-law husband, Talbot Thompson, until he was able to purchase her freedom in 1769. Talbot was a successful sail-maker and provided a comfortable life for Jane and their family. They became Black Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War after all of their property was burned down in 1776. Her children and their families also became loyalists and joined the British between 1775 and 1780. Although her children were with several inter-connected slave owners mostly from the Norfolk, Virginia area. In accordance with Lord Dunmore's proclamation of 1775, Jane and her family members were loyal to the British and attained or maintained their freedom under the British. She came to Nova Scotia in 1783, when she was between 60 and 70 years of age. Her descendants lived in Birchtown and other towns in Nova Scotia. She was the matriarch of Nova Scotian Settlers who relocated to Sierra Leone in 1792. Early and personal life Jane Thompson, also known as Jenny, and her mother Sabina were slaves of John Tucker, who came with his brother to Virginia from the Caribbean about the turn of the 18th century. Her father may have been a man named "Old Joe" Tucker. In 1735, they were the only two women on Tucker's slave list. At that time, Jane was about 16 years of age, born about 1719. John Tucker died in 1737, and she was inherited by his nephew, Colonel Robert Tucker. Robert also inherited John's mercantile empire. Jane lived in Norfolk, Virginia as a slave. She was recorded on Tucker's tithable list in 1750 and called Old Jenny, worth five pounds in 1767. Marriage and children By 1737, when she was about 18 years of age, she already had several small children. Her children included: Betty and King Tucker; James, Edward, and John Jackson; and James and Samuel Thompson. They were in the records for Black Loyalists who moved to Nova Scotia.She had several children with the Jackson surname who also went to Nova Scotia. She was married to Talbot Thompson, who bought his freedom in 1761 and earned his living making sails. They lived together for a number of years, even though she was a slave of Robert Tucker. After Robert Tucker's death, Talbot purchased her freedom at the sale of Tucker's estate, the manumission was formalized on June 14, 1769. Tucker's son said that she provided "fidelity, extraordinary Services, and constant Obedience" to the Tuckers. Talbot Thompson was on the same tithables list as Robert Tucker. She may have had two or more children with Talbot, such as Samuel Thompson and James Thompson.Talbot Thompson was a successful sail-maker in Norfolk, and had a number of staff and apprentices. Jane and her husband bought a large property that included a main two-story house, other smaller houses, a garden and orchards just before Christmas in 1770. It had a dairy, piggery, and stables. They became interested in Methodism, likely inspired in 1772 by traveling preachers Joseph Pilmore or Robert Williams. They participated in racially-diverse religious meetings in houses of people in the maritime businesses. One of the attendees was his client, Andrew Sprowle, who controlled business for the Royal Navy. American Revolutionary War During the American Revolutionary War, son James Jackson, identified as a former slave of Robert Tucker, was recruited by Lord Dunmore, governor of the Colony of Virginia about 1775 to be a pilot for the Royal Navy. He was under Captain Henry Mowat and served on the ship London. Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation on November 14, 1775, that all blacks—whether slaves, free or indentured—would be freed if they served the British during the war.Talbot and Jane defected to Lord Dunbar by January 1776 when a fire in Norfolk resulted in the destruction of all of Talbot's property. Talbot ran away in December 1775, after Norfolk was destroyed, and joined the British. Jane joined Lord Dunmore in January 1776. Dunmore seized Tucker's Point in February and occupied the land and the mill there until May 1776, during which time Grace Thompson, Jane's daughter-in-law and Samuel Thompson's wife, was with Jane and Talbot Thompson at Tucker's Point. Grace embarked on the Dunluce on May 21, 1776, but at some point returned to Norfolk and ran away again with two girls in 1779.James Jackson's adult son, London Jackson, who had been a slave to William Ballad of Hampton, joined the British under Mowatt in late 1780. James and London Jackson were awarded land on Nutt Island (perhaps McNutts Island) for their service. Son John Jackson, served the British General Leslie in Hampton in late 1780. He was a slave of Anthony Walke, who was an associate of Robert Tucker.Talbot died in 1782 in New York. Jane filed a claim to the Loyalist Claims Commission for the destruction of their property in Norfolk in January 1776. Her nine-page claim was rejected by the British. Nova Scotia A Black Loyalist, Jane traveled to Nova Scotia on the L'Abondance and was described as being worn out, about 70 years of age, and formerly the property of Thomas Newton of Norfolk. She travelled with her five-year-old grandchild. She travelled with Hannah Jackson, her daughter-in-law, and Robert and Peter Jackson, her grandchildren. They lived together in Birchtown. Son John and his wife Nancy sailed on the same ship to Nova Scotia as Jane. In the Birchtown Muster of 1784, John was 41 (born about 1743) and Nancy was 32. Betty Tucker, listed on the Birchtown Muster next to Jane's name, may have been Jane's daughter. Grace Thompson, a widow, and her two daughters are likely the daughter-in-law and granddaughters of Jane. They were slaves of Edward Thruston, Robert Tucker's uncle. She traveled on the same ship as James Thompson, who was owned by Edward Cooper of Hampton, and is believed to be Jane's son. Grace and James lived near each other in Birchtown.In 1791, most of her family members relocated to Sierra Leone. She remained in Nova Scotia, where in 1792 she was listed as destitute. Family information Notes == References ==

Townshend Stith Brandegee

Townshend Stith Brandegee (February 16, 1843 – April 7, 1925) was an American botanist. He was an authority on the flora of Baja California and the Channel Islands of California.

Townshend Stith Brandegee (February 16, 1843 – April 7, 1925) was an American botanist. He was an authority on the flora of Baja California and the Channel Islands of California. Early life Brandegee was born on February 16, 1843, in Berlin, Connecticut. From 1862 to 1864 he served in the Connecticut Artillery and later decided to become an engineer. He got his degree in engineering from Sheffield Scientific School but then pursued botany after he participated at some classes with Daniel Cady Eaton in Yale University. When he graduated from there, he became a county surveyor and city engineer at Canon City, Colorado where in free time he also collected certain species of plants. He was accustomed with John H. Redfield and Asa Gray the later of which suggested him to join Ferdinand V. Hayden's expedition to southwest Colorado and Utah where he will use his surveyor skills as well as botanical. He was hired as a railroad surveyor in both Arkansas and New Mexico and continued with plant collecting. Later on, he was hired at the Northern Transcontinental Survey and created a map of Adirondack region. On his journey he visited Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands on one of which he collected wood for Charles Sprague Sargent. Work, marriage and publications Soon after it, he moved to San Francisco where he became a member California Academy of Sciences and continued studying plants there and in Baja California, Mexico. Besides being a member of the CAS he was also a member of Botanical Society of America, National Geographical Society, Sigma Xi and a fellow at the American Association for the Advancement of Science. From 1889 to 1906 he wrote a 12-volume work called Plantae Mexicanae Purpusianae which was published in collaboration with Carl A. Purpus. He married a fellow botanist named Katharine Layne Curran in San Diego in 1889. In 1906 he moved to Berkeley, California where he died on April 7, 1925. Further reading Carter, Nancy Carol (2011). "The Brandegees: Leading Botanists in San Diego" (PDF). Journal of San Diego History. 14 (4): 191–216. Republished ("somewhat abridged") in Eden 14(4): 1–9. == References ==

William Appleton (entrepreneur)

William "Bill" Appleton (born May 23, 1961) is an American entrepreneur and technologist best known as the programmer of the first rich media authoring tool World Builder, the multimedia programming language SuperCard, a best-selling CD-ROM Titanic: Adventure Out of Time, the DreamFactory REST API platform, and Snapshot Org Management for Salesforce.

William "Bill" Appleton (born May 23, 1961) is an American entrepreneur and technologist best known as the programmer of the first rich media authoring tool World Builder, the multimedia programming language SuperCard, a best-selling CD-ROM Titanic: Adventure Out of Time, the DreamFactory REST API platform, and Snapshot Org Management for Salesforce. Early life and background Originally from Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Appleton graduated from Oak Ridge High School in 1979 before moving on to Davidson College, where he studied philosophy, painting and economics. In 1984 Appleton passed up an economics graduate fellowship at Vanderbilt University and moved into his parents’ basement, where he developed programs for his Macintosh computer. Career Appleton has designed and written more than 30 professional software publications throughout his career, including World Builder, the first-ever rich media authoring tool. Appleton also created the multimedia programming language SuperCard and developed Titanic: Adventure Out of Time, a national best-selling CD-ROM game that sold more than 5 million copies worldwide. He was the founder and Chief Technology Officer of DreamFactory and developed a serverless REST API platform in the enterprise space. Currently he is the Chief Technology Officer at Metazoa working on Snapshot Org Management for Salesforce. In 1989, Appleton won the Silicon Beach Software Technical Innovation Award, presented for his work in hypermedia development environments. Appleton owns two patents. The first, issued in 1997, covers a method for the production of digital movies. The second, issued in 1998, describes a computer display system for the real-time display of digital movie frames.Appleton's software applications include the following: Silicon Beach Software 1985, Enchanted Scepters 1986, World Builder 1988, Apache Strike 1989, SuperCardTeleRobotics Inc. 1986, Course Builder 1987, Video BuilderSymmetry Corp 1988, HyperDAReactor 1991, Creepy CastleCyberflix 1993, Lunicus 1994, Jump Raven 1995, Dust: A Tale of the Wired West 1996, Skull Cracker 1996, Titanic: Adventure Out of Time 1996, Timelapse 1997, Power Rangers Zeo vs. The Machine Empire 1998, Redjack: Revenge of the BrethrenDisney Interactive 1997, MathQuest 1998, The D Show 1998, ReadingQuest 1999, Villains’ RevengeMessageBay 2000, VoiceAnimation 2001, VideoAnimatorDreamFactory 2002, DreamFactory Player 2003, SBuilder 2005, DreamTeam 2006, OrgView 2006, SnapShot 2006, Carousel 2006, FormFactory 2006, Web Meeting Mashup 2008, TableTop 2008, Monarch 2009, GamePlan 2010, Retail Relay 2011, LaunchPad 2013, DreamFactory API Platform CyberFlix After stints in Silicon Valley and Chicago, Appleton moved back home to Knoxville, Tennessee. From 1994 to 1998, Appleton served as founder and president of Cyberflix Inc., a Knoxville-based multimedia computer programming company specializing in interactive movie production. While at Cyberflix, Appleton worked on the hit titles Lunicus and Jump Raven, both of which were sold to Paramount Technology Group. In a 1993 interview with the Chicago Tribune, Appleton discussed what he saw as the future of video game characters. "Great dramatic issues will be played out on CD-ROM, things that will play all of the human emotions, love hate, joy, greed, childbirth, death, promotion, firing – you name it," he was quoted as saying. Cyberflix launched its hit title Titanic: Adventure Out of Time in November 1996. Production costs totaled $2 million, and the game retailed for $50. The Titanic title went on to sell millions of copies and become an international best-selling CD-ROM game. The game features an interactive, authentic replica of the Titanic ship that took two years of research to create digitally and included the use of the ship's original blueprints. At the time, the Discovery Channel called it "the most historically accurate digital model of Titanic available." Titanic: Adventure Out of Time earned a MacHome Journal Home Choice Award in 1997, as well as a first place prize for best animation at the World Animation Celebration. By 1998, Cyberflix had 35 employees, and annual revenue exceeded $3 million. Throughout his career, Appleton has worked with Disney, Paramount and Viacom to create applications for content development. DreamFactory Appleton served as the chief technology officer of DreamFactory, a Campbell, California-based company he co-founded. DreamFactory builds software tools for the enterprise, originally targeting Salesforce.com users and currently developing a cloud service platform for enterprise companies to move their apps and data freely without any lock-in restrictions to any hosted cloud. Appleton is also credited with developing third-party enterprise applications for Cisco WebEx Connect, Microsoft Windows Azure and Intuit WorkPlace. Personal life Appleton lives in Los Gatos, California. == References ==

Timotheus (general)

Timotheus (Greek: Τιμόθεος; died 354 BC) was a Greek statesman and general who sought to revive Athenian imperial ambitions by making Athens dominant in a Second Athenian League. He was the son of the Athenian general, Conon. Isocrates considered that Timotheus was superior to the other commanders of his time and showed all the requisites and abilities of a good general.

Timotheus (Greek: Τιμόθεος; died 354 BC) was a Greek statesman and general who sought to revive Athenian imperial ambitions by making Athens dominant in a Second Athenian League. He was the son of the Athenian general, Conon. Isocrates considered that Timotheus was superior to the other commanders of his time and showed all the requisites and abilities of a good general. Strategos From 378 BC to 356 BC, Timotheus frequently held command as "strategos" in the wars between Athens (in alliance with Thebes), and Sparta. At this time, Athens' ambition was to revive the Delian League and to regain command of the sea. In 375 BC, during the Boeotian War, Timotheus was sent with a fleet to sail round Peloponnesus by way of a demonstration of Athens' power against Sparta. He persuaded Cephallenia to side with Athens and secured the friendship of the Acarnanians and Molossians. In 373 BC, Timotheus was appointed to the command of a fleet for the relief of Corcyra, then beleaguered by the Spartans, but his ships were not fully manned, and to increase their manpower he cruised in the Aegean. The delay upset the Athenians, who brought him to trial; but, thanks to the intervention of his allies – Jason, tyrant of Pherae, and Alcetas I of Epirus, King of the Molossians, both of whom went to Athens to plead his cause he was acquitted. In way of support, Amyntas, King of Macedon, sent timber to Timeotheus' house in the Piraeus. Upon his acquittal, he went to sea with his fleet and captured Corcyra and then defeated the Spartans at sea off Alyzia (Acarnania). However, with little money to his name—for he had used his own funds to build up the Athenian fleet—he left Athens and took service with the king of Persia as a mercenary. Asia Minor Having returned to Athens, in 366 BC he was sent to support Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia. But, finding that the satrap was in open rebellion against Persia (Revolt of the Satraps), Timotheus, in line with his instructions, abstained from helping him and rather used his army against Samos, then occupied by a Persian garrison, and took it after a ten months' siege (366 BC-365 BC). He then took Sestus, Crithote, Torone, Potidaea, Methone, Pydna and many other cities; but two attempts to capture Amphipolis failed. Court case An action was brought against him by Apollodorus, the son of the banker Pasion, for the return of money lent by his father. The speech for the plaintiff is still extant, and is attributed to Demosthenes (see also Pseudo-Demosthenes). It is interesting as it describes the manner in which Timotheus had exhausted the large fortune inherited from his father and the straits to which he was reduced by his sacrifices in the public cause. Social War In 358 BC or 357 BC, an Athenian force, in response to a spirited appeal from Timotheus, crossed over to Euboea and expelled the Thebans in three days. In the course of the Social War Timotheus was dispatched with Iphicrates, Menestheus, son of Iphicrates, and Chares to put down the revolt. The hostile fleets sighted each other in the Hellespont; but a gale was blowing, and Iphicrates and Timotheus decided not to engage. Chares, disregarding the advice of his colleagues, lost many ships. Final years In his dispatches after the battle, Chares complained so bitterly about Iphicrates and Timotheus that the Athenians put them on their trial. The accusers were Chares and Aristophon. Iphicrates, who had fewer enemies than Timotheus, was acquitted; but Timotheus, who had always been disliked for his perceived arrogance, was condemned to pay a very heavy fine. Being unable to pay, he withdrew to Chalcis, where he died soon afterwards. The Athenians later showed their sorrow over the treatment of Timotheus by forgiving the greater part of the fine that had passed onto his son Conon to pay. Timotheus was buried in the Ceramicus and statues were erected to his memory in the Agora and the Acropolis. Reputation Timotheus inspired much jealousy among his rivals, his reputation somewhat tarnished by the record of his final years. Claudius Aelianus sums up much of the negative perception of Timotheus' generalship. Note that the Athenian general Timotheus was reckoned to be fortunate. People said fortune was responsible, and Timotheus had no part in it. They ridiculed him on the stage, and painters portrayed him asleep, with Tyche (Fortune) hovering above his head and pulling the cities into her net. This commentary is balanced by the credible picture (presented by Isocrates) of a skilled and cautious general, magnanimous victor and low-key diplomat. References Bibliography See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Diodorus Siculus xv., xvi.; Isocrates, De permutatione; Pseudo-Demosthenes, Adversus Timotheum; C. Rehdantz, Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae, Timothei (1845); and especially Holm, History of Greece (English translation, Volume III.). This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Timotheus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 991. Robinson, E. S. G.; Price, M. J. (1967). "An emergency coinage of Timotheos". Numismatic Chronicle. 7th Series. 7: 1–6. Burich, Nancy Jane (1994). Timotheus, son of Conon, prostates of the Second Athenian Confederacy (PhD). University of Kansas. Heskel, Julia (2016). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-11475-2. Sheedy, K. A. (2015). "The Emergency Coinage of Timotheus (364–362 BC)". In Wartenberg, U.; Amandry, M. (eds.). ΚΑΙΡΟΣ: Contributions to Numismatics in Honor of Basil Demetriadi. New York. pp. 203–223.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Sheedy, K.A.; Gore, D.; Ponting, M. (2015). "The Bronze Issues of the Athenian General Timotheus: Evaluating the Evidence of Polyaenus's Stratagemata". American Journal of Numismatics. 27: 1–20. Scafuro, Adele S.; Gagarin, Michael (2011). Demosthenes, speeches 39/49 (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292785908.

Lloviu virus

The species Lloviu cuevavirus ( YOV-ew KWEV-ə-VY-rəs) is the taxonomic home of a virus that forms filamentous virion, Lloviu virus (LLOV). The species is included in the genus Cuevavirus. LLOV is a distant relative of the commonly known Ebola virus and Marburg virus.

The species Lloviu cuevavirus ( YOV-ew KWEV-ə-VY-rəs) is the taxonomic home of a virus that forms filamentous virion, Lloviu virus (LLOV). The species is included in the genus Cuevavirus. LLOV is a distant relative of the commonly known Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Use of term The species Lloviu cuevavirus is a virological taxon (i.e. a man-made concept) included in the genus Cuevavirus, family Filoviridae, order Mononegavirales. The species has a single virus member, Lloviu virus. Lloviu virus is the sole member of the species Lloviu cuevavirus, which is included genus Cuevavirus, family Filoviridae, order Mononegavirales. The name Lloviu virus is derived from Cueva del Lloviu (the name of a Spanish cave in which it was first discovered) and the taxonomic suffix virus (which denotes a virus species).In 2010, the species and the genus cuevavirus were proposed as independent species and genus. In July 2013, the species and the genus cuevavirus were ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) to be included in its report, therefore the name is now to be italicized. Species inclusion criteria A virus that fulfills the criteria for being a member of the genus "Cuevavirus" is a member of the species "Lloviu cuevavirus" if it has the properties of "cuevaviruses" (because there is currently only "cuevavirus" species) and if its genome differs from that of Lloviu virus (variant Bat86) by <30% at the nucleotide level.Lloviu virus ( YOV-yoo; LLOV) is a virus distantly related to the well-known pathogens Ebola virus and Marburg virus.According to the rules for taxon naming established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), the name Lloviu virus is always to be capitalized (because "Lloviu" is a proper noun), but is never italicized, and may be abbreviated (with LLOV being the official abbreviation). History LLOV was discovered in 2011 in Schreibers's long-fingered bats (species Miniopterus schreibersii) that were found dead in Cueva del Lloviu in 2002, Asturias, Spain, as well as in caves in Spanish Cantabria and in caves in France and Portugal. It has not yet been proven that the virus is the etiological agent of a novel bat disease, but healthy Schreibers' long-fingered bats were not found to contain traces of the viruses, thereby at least suggesting that the virus may be pathogenic for certain bats. Necropsies of dead bats did not reveal macroscopic pathology, but microscopic examination suggested viral pneumonia. No information is available about whether or not LLOV infects humans. However, Cueva del Lloviu is frequented by tourists and no human infections or disease has yet been observed, suggesting that it is possible that LLOV might be the second filovirus that is not pathogenic for humans (the first one being Reston virus (RESTV)).Seroreactivity of additional Schreibers's long-fingered bats were reported from North Spain from 2015, suggesting the circulation of the virus among those bat colonies. However PCR positive animals were not found.Additional Schreibers's long-fingered bat die-off events were reported from Hungary in 2013, 2016 and 2017. The presence of LLOV was confirmed in bat carcasses from 2016, presenting hemorrhagic symptoms. Updated genome data was obtained from the Hungarian samples in 2020, using the Nanopore sequencing technique. The infectious virus was isolated from Schreibers's long-fingered bat in Hungary, making it only the third filovirus along with Marburg and Ravn viruses ever isolated from bats. Virology Genome Although LLOV was isolated in tissue culture, yet its genome has been determined in its entirety with exception of the 3' and 5' UTRs. Like all mononegaviruses, LLOV virions contain a non-infectious, linear nonsegmented, single-stranded RNA genome of negative polarity that most likely possesses inverse-complementary 3' and 5' termini, does not possess a 5' cap, is not polyadenylated, and is not covalently linked to a protein. The LLOV genome is probably approximately 19 kb long and contains seven genes in the order 3'-UTR-NP-VP35-VP40-GP-VP30-VP24-L-5'-UTR. In contrast to ebolaviruses and Marburgviruses, which synthesize seven mRNAs to express the seven structural proteins, LLOV seems to produce only six mRNAs, i.e. one mRNA (VP24/L) is thought to be bicistronic. LLOV genomic transcriptional termination sites are identical to those of ebolavirus genomes but different from those of Marburgvirus genomes. LLOV transcriptional initiation sites are unique. Structure The structure of LLOV virions has not yet been described. Like all other filoviruses, LLOV virions are expected to be filamentous particles that may appear in the shape of a shepherd's crook or in the shape of a "U" or a "6", and they may be coiled, toroid, or branched. Their diameter is expected to be 80 nm in width, but vary in length. The LLOV genome suggests that LLOV particles consist of seven structural proteins. At the center would be the helical ribonucleocapsid, which would consist of the genomic RNA wrapped around a polymer of nucleoproteins (NP). Associated with the ribonucleoprotein would be the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L) with the polymerase cofactor (VP35) and a transcription activator (VP30). The ribonucleoprotein would be embedded in a matrix, formed by the major (VP40) and minor (VP24) matrix proteins. These particles would be surrounded by a lipid membrane derived from the host cell membrane. The membrane would anchor a glycoprotein (GP1,2) that projects 7 to 10 nm spikes away from its surface. While nearly identical to ebolavirions and marburgvirions in structure, lloviuvirions may be antigenically distinct from both (just as they are from each other). Replication The LLOV life cycle is hypothesized to begin with virion attachment to specific cell-surface receptors, followed by internalization, fusion of the virion envelope with endosomal membranes and the concomitant release of the virus nucleocapsid into the cytosol. LLOV glycoprotein (GP) is cleaved by endosomal cysteine proteases (cathepsins) and the cleaved glycoprotein interacts with the intracellular entry receptor, Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1). The virus RdRp would partially uncoat the nucleocapsid and transcribe the genes into positive-stranded mRNAs, which would then be translated into structural and nonstructural proteins. LLOV L would bind to a single promoter located at the 3' end of the genome. Transcription would either terminate after a gene or continue to the next gene downstream. This means that genes close to the 3' end of the genome would be transcribed in the greatest abundance, whereas those toward the 5' end would be least likely to be transcribed. The gene order would therefore be a simple but effective form of transcriptional regulation. The most abundant protein produced would be the nucleoprotein, whose concentration in the cell would determine when L switches from gene transcription to genome replication. Replication would result in full-length, positive-stranded antigenomes that would in turn be transcribed into negative-stranded virus progeny genome copies. Newly synthesized structural proteins and genomes would self-assemble and accumulate near the inside of the cell membrane. Virions would bud off from the cell, gaining their envelopes from the cellular membrane they bud from. The mature progeny particles would then infect other cells to repeat the cycle. References External links International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

Daily Basharat

The Daily Basharat (Urdu: روزنامہ بشارت) is an Urdu newspaper published from Karachi with publications for Karachi, Hyderabad and Gilgit -Pakistan. It is the oldest Urdu newspaper of Sindh in continuous publication since the last 61 years.

The Daily Basharat (Urdu: روزنامہ بشارت) is an Urdu newspaper published from Karachi with publications for Karachi, Hyderabad and Gilgit -Pakistan. It is the oldest Urdu newspaper of Sindh in continuous publication since the last 61 years. See also List of newspapers in Pakistan == References ==

Death of Sumila Ronghangpi

On 22 April 2021, an underage housemaid, Sumila Ronghangpi (Assamese: চুমিলা ৰংহাংপী) was found charred to death in her employer's house in Raha, Assam. She was resident of West Karbi Anglong district.

On 22 April 2021, an underage housemaid, Sumila Ronghangpi (Assamese: চুমিলা ৰংহাংপী) was found charred to death in her employer's house in Raha, Assam. She was resident of West Karbi Anglong district. Death Sumila was brought to her employer Borthakur's house in 2017 with the promise of education. On 22 April 2021, she was found charred to death in her employer's house. As per a neighbour, her employer and his son were present at time of her death, and she was occasionally abused too. Her employer stated it was a suicide case. Arrests Two of Ronghangpi's employers have been arrested in the case related to her death. Initial investigation revealed she was murdered and then burned to cover up the murder. Repercussion The victim was 12 years old, underage from the tribal Karbi community, employed as domestic help, a resident of Sar Kro Kudam Ronghang village in West Karbi Anglong, Assam. The death of Sumila Ronghangpi created hue and cry among various tribes of Assam. Protests and processions were held seeking justice for Sumila Ronghangpi. Social organisations spoke out against the failure of government in the protection of women. The incident happened against the backdrop of violence against women in India. The incident exposed endemic cases of child abuse, death, neglecting children's right to education, exploitation of children from rural areas in the name of education, employing children below 14 years as domestic help in urban places. Timeline 22 April 2021 - Sumila Ronghangpi found dead. 26 April 2021 - Probe ordered and to report back within 30 days. 9 July 2021 - Proposed establishment of a school in honour of Sumila Ronghangpi. 20 July 2021 - Chargesheet filed and submitted to lower court. See also Child abuse Domestic violence Child labour in India Violence against women in India == References ==

Statutory Professor in the Analysis of Partial Differential Equations

The Statutory Professorship in the Analysis of Partial Differential Equations is a chair at the Mathematical Institute of the University of Oxford, England. Since its inception in 2009, the chair has been held by Professor Gui-Qiang Chen. It is associated with Keble College, Oxford.

The Statutory Professorship in the Analysis of Partial Differential Equations is a chair at the Mathematical Institute of the University of Oxford, England. Since its inception in 2009, the chair has been held by Professor Gui-Qiang Chen. It is associated with Keble College, Oxford. Holders of the chair 2009–0000 Prof. Gui-Qiang George Chen See also List of professorships at the University of Oxford References External links * Professor Gui-Qiang G. Chen's profile at Oxford

2000 HEW Cyclassics

The 2000 HEW Cyclassics was the fifth edition of the HEW Cyclassics cycle race and was held on 6 August 2000. The race started and finished in Hamburg. The race was won by Gabriele Missaglia.

The 2000 HEW Cyclassics was the fifth edition of the HEW Cyclassics cycle race and was held on 6 August 2000. The race started and finished in Hamburg. The race was won by Gabriele Missaglia. General classification == References ==

Goguryeo language

The Goguryeo language, or Koguryoan, was the language of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BCE – 668 CE), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Early Chinese histories state that the language was similar to those of Buyeo, Okjeo and Ye. Lee Ki-Moon grouped these four as the Puyŏ languages. The histories also stated that these languages were different from those of the Yilou and Mohe. All of these languages are unattested except for Goguryeo, for which evidence is limited and controversial.The most cited evidence is a body of placename glosses in the Samguk sagi.

The Goguryeo language, or Koguryoan, was the language of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BCE – 668 CE), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Early Chinese histories state that the language was similar to those of Buyeo, Okjeo and Ye. Lee Ki-Moon grouped these four as the Puyŏ languages. The histories also stated that these languages were different from those of the Yilou and Mohe. All of these languages are unattested except for Goguryeo, for which evidence is limited and controversial.The most cited evidence is a body of placename glosses in the Samguk sagi. Most researchers in Korea, assuming that the people of Goguryeo spoke a dialect of Old Korean, have treated these words as Korean, while other scholars have emphasized similarities with Japonic languages. Lee and Ramsey suggest that the language was intermediate between the two families. Other authors suggest that these placenames reflect the languages of other peoples in the part of central Korea captured by Goguryeo in the 5th century, rather than Goguryeo itself. Other evidence is extremely sparse, and is limited to peculiarities in the Chinese language of Goguryeo inscriptions and a very few Goguryeo words glossed in Chinese texts. Vovin and Unger suggest that it was the original form of Koreanic, which subsequently replaced Japonic languages in the south of the peninsula. Others maintain that it was Tungusic, or that there is insufficient evidence to establish its affiliation. Descriptions in Chinese sources Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era. They contain impressionistic remarks about the languages of the area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict one another. Later Korean histories, such as the Samguk sagi, do not describe the languages of the three kingdoms.The state of Buyeo, in the upper Songhua basin, was known to the Chinese from the 3rd century BCE. Chapter 30 "Description of the Eastern Barbarians" of the Records of the Three Kingdoms records a survey carried out by the Chinese state of Wei after their defeat of Goguryeo in 244. Another version of this report, likely from a common source, is found in chapter 85 of the Book of the Later Han (5th century). The report states that the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo and Ye were similar, and that the language of Okjeo was only slightly different from them. Goguryeo, originally inhabiting the valley of the Hun River, believed themselves to be a southern offshoot of Buyeo. Over the next few centuries they would expand to rule much of eastern Manchuria and northern Korea.To the south of the Chinese Lelang Commandery lay the Samhan ('three Han'), Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan, who the Records of the Three Kingdoms described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo. Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into Puyŏ and Han groups.The same text states that the language of the Yilou to the northeast differed from that of Buyeo and Goguryeo. Chapter 94 of the History of the Northern Dynasties (compiled in 659) states that the language of the Mohe in the same area was different from that of Goguryeo. These languages are completely unattested, but are believed, on the basis of their location and the description of the people, to have been Tungusic.The Book of Liang (635) states that the language of Baekje was the same as that of Goguryeo. According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan. Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the Samguk sagi, a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in Classical Chinese and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant. This chapter surveys the part of Goguryeo annexed by Silla, with entries like 七重縣一云難隱別 The phrase 一云 'one calls' separates two alternative names for a place. The first part, 七重縣, can be read in Chinese as 'seven-fold county', while 難隱別 is meaningless, and hence seems to use Chinese characters to represent the sound of the name. From other examples, scholars infer that 難隱 means 'seven' and 別 means '-fold, layer', while the 'county' part of the gloss is not represented. In this way, a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted from these place names. Although the pronunciations recorded using Chinese characters are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble Koreanic, Japonic and Tungusic words. It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers.Scholars who take these words as representing the language of Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language. Most Korean scholars view it as a form of Old Korean and focus on Korean interpretations of the data. In the early 20th century, Japanese scholars such as Naitō Konan and Shinmura Izuru pointed out similarities to Japanese, particularly in the only attested numerals, 3, 5, 7 and 10. Beckwith proposed Japonic etymologies for most of the words, and argued that Koguryoan was Japonic. Beckwith's linguistic analysis has been criticized for the ad hoc nature of his Chinese reconstructions, for his handling of Japonic material and for hasty rejection of possible cognates in other languages. Lee and Ramsey argue that it was somehow intermediate between Koreanic and Japonic.Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the Taedong River. By the 5th century, Goguryeo ruled a huge area encompassing many ethnic groups and languages. These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo. This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups. Other data Other data on the language of Goguryeo is extremely sparse, and its affiliation remains unclear.A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo territory, including the Gwanggaeto Stele (erected in Ji'an in 414), four inscriptions on the walls of Pyongyang Castle, and a stele in Jungwon, Chungju (590s). All are written in Chinese, but some of them contain irregularities, including a few examples of object–verb order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of the usual Chinese verb–object order, and some uses of the characters 之 and 伊, which some authors have connected to their use to represent Korean particles in later Idu texts from Unified Silla.Beckwith identified a dozen names of places and people in Chinese histories that he argued were Goguryeo words. In his review of Beckwith's book, Byington criticized the historical basis of these identifications, as well as Beckwith's theories of Goguryeo origins in western Liaoning.Chinese histories contain a few glosses of Goguryeo words: Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (late 3rd century) states that 溝漊 (Eastern Han Chinese *koro, Middle Chinese kuw-luw) is the Goguryeo word for 'castle'. Beckwith compared this word with Old Japanese kura 'storehouse'. Alexander Vovin compared it with Middle Mongolian qoto-n and Manchu hoton 'fortified town', but with lenition of t as in Korean. Chapter 100 of the Book of Wei (mid-6th century) gives 謁奢 ʔjot-syæ 'big elder brother' and 太奢 thajH-syae 'little elder brother'. Vovin compared ʔjot with Late Middle Korean nyěys 'old' and thajH with an Early Middle Korean word 'small, young' transcribed as ʔæH-thwojH (亞退) in the Jilin leishi (1103–1104). The word syæ is closely matched by Old Japanese se 'elder brother', but this has a limited distribution in Japonic, and may be a loanword. The same chapter gives the name of Jumong, the legendary founder of Goguryeo, as 朱蒙 (Middle Chinese tsyu-muwng), glossed as 'good archer'. This name appears in the Gwanggaeto Stele as 鶵牟 (Eastern Han Chinese *dẓo-mu, Middle Chinese tsrhju-mjuw). Vovin compared the first syllable with Middle Korean tywǒh- 'be good', but was unable to identify a match for the second part. Chapter 41 of the Book of Zhou (early 7th century) gives 骨蘇 kwot-su 'ceremonial headgear', which Vovin compared with the first part of Middle Korean kwoskál 'ceremonial headgear'.Vovin also pointed to Koreanic loanwords in Jurchen and Manchu, and argued that the Goguryeo language was the ancestor of Koreanic, and spread southwards to replace the Japonic languages of the Samhan. James Unger has proposed a similar model on historical grounds.Other authors suggest that the Goguryeo language was a Tungusic language.Juha Janhunen argues for a Tungusic affiliation based on historical evidence that the Jurchens of the Jin dynasty and later the Manchus of the Qing dynasty that rose from the former territory of Goguryeo were Tungusic speakers. See also Baekje language Balhae History of the Korean language Old Korean References Citations Sources Further reading Beckwith, Christopher I. (2006), "Methodological Observations on Some Recent Studies of the Early Ethnolinguistic History of Korea and Vicinity", Altai Hakpo, 16: 199–234. ——— (2005), "The Ethnolinguistic History of the Early Korean Peninsula Region: Japanese-Koguryŏic and other Languages in the Koguryŏ, Paekche, and Silla kingdoms" (PDF), Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies, 2 (2): 33–64, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-26. Vovin, Alexander (2006), "Why Manchu and Jurchen Look so Un-Tungusic?", in Pozzi, Alessandra; Janhunen, Juha Antero; Weiers, Michael (eds.), Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary, Tunguso Sibirica, vol. 20, Otto Harrassowitz, pp. 255–266, ISBN 978-3-447-05378-5.

Fit-up

Fit-up refers to the old style of theatre or circus where companies of travelling players or performers would tour from town or village to village in the provinces of Ireland, Britain and elsewhere, particularly throughout the 19th century. The term is theatre slang to describe a stage or tent that can be transported and erected quickly for shows. A fit-up company would be a travelling company of players which carries its scenery, props and costumes that can be set up in a temporary venue, which might be a large tent, a barn or a village hall. Fit-up companies were particularly prevalent in 19th century Ireland and a study of the performance histories of these has been made by Irish academics. The oldest of these Irish companies included the J.

Fit-up refers to the old style of theatre or circus where companies of travelling players or performers would tour from town or village to village in the provinces of Ireland, Britain and elsewhere, particularly throughout the 19th century. The term is theatre slang to describe a stage or tent that can be transported and erected quickly for shows. A fit-up company would be a travelling company of players which carries its scenery, props and costumes that can be set up in a temporary venue, which might be a large tent, a barn or a village hall. Fit-up companies were particularly prevalent in 19th century Ireland and a study of the performance histories of these has been made by Irish academics. The oldest of these Irish companies included the J. B. Carrickford Company and Tommy Conway/Keegan, who formed the Bohemian Minstrels in the early 19th century.The number of fit-up companies grew at the beginning of the 20th century with estimates of about 60 companies touring the Irish countryside by 1930. Their performances usually involved some form of variety act and a melodrama followed by a farce. While World War I made times difficult for theatres in Ireland with conscription and travelling restrictions making it difficult for overseas performers to get to venues, the fit-up companies were able to continue largely unaffected. The company of the actor Anew McMaster formed in 1925 continued this earlier tradition and travelled to the remote parts of Ireland to perform until the middle of the 20th century. Examples in the 21st century would include travelling circuses, travelling fairs and Punch and Judy shows. Generally, a fit-up company carried all their props, costumes, scenery, curtains and light systems and if necessary the materials for a temporary improvised stage which they would fit-up in whatever sort of venue was available. Theatrical companies would travel to often remote locations and fit up the local theatres or halls. Very often these travelling shows might be the only entertainment a village might see for some time and would therefore usually play to capacity audiences. They would often perform the works of classic authors such as Shakespeare. In literature the novel Nicholas Nickleby (1838) by Charles Dickens includes the Crummles troupe of travelling players that Nickleby joins. Headed by Vincent Crummles, a larger-than-life actor-manager who takes Nicholas under his wing, he and his family take their act to America to pursue greater success on the theatrical stage. == References ==

Supernatural

Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin supernaturalis, from Latin super- (above, beyond, or outside of) + natura (nature). Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in the Middle Ages and did not exist in the ancient world.The supernatural is featured in folklore and religious contexts, but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal. The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and spirits. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition, and extrasensory perception.

Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin supernaturalis, from Latin super- (above, beyond, or outside of) + natura (nature). Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in the Middle Ages and did not exist in the ancient world.The supernatural is featured in folklore and religious contexts, but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal. The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and spirits. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition, and extrasensory perception. Etymology and history of the concept Occurring as both an adjective and a noun, antecedents of the modern English compound supernatural enter the language from two sources: via Middle French (supernaturel) and directly from the Middle French's term's ancestor, post-Classical Latin (supernaturalis). Post-classical Latin supernaturalis first occurs in the 6th century, composed of the Latin prefix super- and nātūrālis (see nature). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation of Catherine of Siena's Dialogue (orcherd of Syon, around 1425; Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not).The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean "belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal" or "more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary". Obsolete uses include "of, relating to, or dealing with metaphysics". As a noun, the term can mean "a supernatural being", with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. History of the concept The ancient world had no word that resembled "supernatural". Dialogues from Neoplatonic philosophy in the third century AD contributed to the development of the concept the supernatural via Christian theology in later centuries. The term nature had existed since antiquity, with Latin authors like Augustine using the word and its cognates at least 600 times in City of God. In the medieval period, "nature" had ten different meanings and "natural" had eleven different meanings. Peter Lombard, a medieval scholastic in the 12th century, asked about causes that are beyond nature, in that how there could be causes that were God's alone. He used the term praeter naturam in his writings. In the scholastic period, Thomas Aquinas classified miracles into three categories: "above nature", "beyond nature", and "against nature". In doing so, he sharpened the distinction between nature and miracles more than the early Church Fathers had done. As a result, he had created a dichotomy of sorts of the natural and supernatural. Though the phrase "supra naturam" was used since the 4th century AD, it was in the 1200s that Thomas Aquinas used the term "supernaturalis" and despite this, the term had to wait until the end of the medieval period before it became more popularly used. The discussions on "nature" from the scholastic period were diverse and unsettled with some postulating that even miracles are natural and that natural magic was a natural part of the world. Epistemology and metaphysics The metaphysical considerations of the existence of the supernatural can be difficult to approach as an exercise in philosophy or theology because any dependencies on its antithesis, the natural, will ultimately have to be inverted or rejected. One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of "natural" and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the supernatural domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality and occultism or spiritualism. For sometimes we use the word nature for that Author of nature whom the schoolmen, harshly enough, call natura naturans, as when it is said that nature hath made man partly corporeal and partly immaterial. Sometimes we mean by the nature of a thing the essence, or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the quiddity of a thing, namely, the attribute or attributes on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be corporeal or not, as when we attempt to define the nature of an angle, or of a triangle, or of a fluid body, as such. Sometimes we take nature for an internal principle of motion, as when we say that a stone let fall in the air is by nature carried towards the centre of the earth, and, on the contrary, that fire or flame does naturally move upwards toward firmament. Sometimes we understand by nature the established course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day, nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of powers belonging to a body, especially a living one, as when physicians say that nature is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or such diseases nature left to herself will do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the corporeal works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera, that there is no such thing in nature, i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by nature a semi-deity or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of.And besides these more absolute acceptions, if I may so call them, of the word nature, it has divers others (more relative), as nature is wont to be set or in opposition or contradistinction to other things, as when we say of a stone when it falls downwards that it does it by a natural motion, but that if it be thrown upwards its motion that way is violent. So chemists distinguish vitriol into natural and fictitious, or made by art, i.e. by the intervention of human power or skill; so it is said that water, kept suspended in a sucking pump, is not in its natural place, as that is which is stagnant in the well. We say also that wicked men are still in the state of nature, but the regenerate in a state of grace; that cures wrought by medicines are natural operations; but the miraculous ones wrought by Christ and his apostles were supernatural. Nomological possibility is possibility under the actual laws of nature. Most philosophers since David Hume have held that the laws of nature are metaphysically contingent—that there could have been different natural laws than the ones that actually obtain. If so, then it would not be logically or metaphysically impossible, for example, for you to travel to Alpha Centauri in one day; it would just have to be the case that you could travel faster than the speed of light. But of course there is an important sense in which this is not nomologically possible; given that the laws of nature are what they are. In the philosophy of natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying scientific theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. Some philosophers, such as Sydney Shoemaker, have argued that the laws of nature are in fact necessary, not contingent; if so, then nomological possibility is equivalent to metaphysical possibility.The term supernatural is often used interchangeably with paranormal or preternatural—the latter typically limited to an adjective for describing abilities which appear to exceed what is possible within the boundaries of the laws of physics. Epistemologically, the relationship between the supernatural and the natural is indistinct in terms of natural phenomena that, ex hypothesi, violate the laws of nature, in so far as such laws are realistically accountable. Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to an assumed unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Psi is defined in the Journal of Parapsychology as "personal factors or processes in nature which transcend accepted laws" (1948: 311) and "which are non-physical in nature" (1962:310), and it is used to cover both extrasensory perception (ESP), an "awareness of or response to an external event or influence not apprehended by sensory means" (1962:309) or inferred from sensory knowledge, and psychokinesis (PK), "the direct influence exerted on a physical system by a subject without any known intermediate energy or instrumentation" (1945:305). Views on the "supernatural" vary, for example it may be seen as: indistinct from nature. From this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it did not lead to a logical contradiction. Some religions posit immanent deities, however, and do not have a tradition analogous to the supernatural; some believe that everything anyone experiences occurs by the will (occasionalism), in the mind (neoplatonism), or as a part (nondualism) of a more fundamental divine reality (platonism). incorrect human attribution. In this view all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, and the origin of life. Anthropological studies Anthropological studies across cultures indicate that people do not hold or use natural and supernatural explanations in a mutually exclusive or dichotomous fashion. Instead, the reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive across cultures. Cross cultural studies indicate that there is coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in both adults and children for explaining numerous things about the world, such as illness, death, and origins. Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations. The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in individuals may be the outcomes two distinct cognitive domains: one concerned with the physical-mechanical relations and another with social relations. Studies on indigenous groups have allowed for insights on how such coexistence of explanations may function. Supernatural concepts Deity A deity ( or ) is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as "a god or goddess (in a polytheistic religion)", or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life." A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess. Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as God), polytheistic religions accept multiple deities. Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as equivalent aspects of the same divine principle; and nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity but accept a pantheon of deities which live, die, and are reborn just like any other being.: 35–37 : 357–358 Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God. A deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal, The monotheistic God, however, does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms,: 96  while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous and gender neutral.Historically, many ancient cultures – such as Ancient India, Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Greek, Ancient Roman, Nordic and Asian culture – personified natural phenomena, variously as either their conscious causes or simply their effects, respectively. Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind. Deities have also been envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) after rebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven, but are also subject to death when their merit runs out.: 35–38 : 356–359 Angel An angel is generally a supernatural being found in various religions and mythologies. In Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism, angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries between God or Heaven and Earth. Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings, and carrying out God's tasks. Within Abrahamic religions, angels are often organized into hierarchies, although such rankings may vary between sects in each religion, and are given specific names or titles, such as Gabriel or "Destroying angel". The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of spirits or figures found in other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as "angelology". In fine art, angels are usually depicted as having the shape of human beings of extraordinary beauty; they are often identified using the symbols of bird wings, halos, and light. Prophecy Prophecy involves a process in which messages are communicated by a god to a prophet. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come (compare divine knowledge). Prophecy is not limited to any one culture. It is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world, some more than others. Many systems and rules about prophecy have been proposed over several millennia. Revelation In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Some religions have religious texts which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired. For instance, Orthodox Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that the Torah was received from Yahweh on biblical Mount Sinai. Most Christians believe that both the Old Testament and the New Testament were inspired by God. Muslims believe the Quran was revealed by God to Muhammad word by word through the angel Gabriel (Jibril). In Hinduism, some Vedas are considered apauruṣeya, "not human compositions", and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti, "what is heard". Aleister Crowley stated that The Book of the Law had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself Aiwass. A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a vision. Direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity, or physical marks such as stigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint Juan Diego, physical artifacts accompany the revelation. The Roman Catholic concept of interior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient. In the Abrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by which God reveals knowledge of himself, his will, and his divine providence to the world of human beings. In secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, prophecy, and other divine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays a less important role in some other religious traditions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Reincarnation Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar, and as an esoteric belief in many streams of Orthodox Judaism. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.Although the majority of denominations within Christianity and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teaches reincarnation. In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. Karma Karma (; Sanskrit: कर्म, romanized: karma, IPA: [ˈkɐɽmɐ] ; Pali: kamma) means action, work or deed; it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect). Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and future suffering.With origins in ancient India's Vedic civilization, the philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism) as well as Taoism. In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one's saṃsāra. Christian theology In Catholic theology, the supernatural order is, according to New Advent, defined as "the ensemble of effects exceeding the powers of the created universe and gratuitously produced by God for the purpose of raising the rational creature above its native sphere to a God-like life and destiny." The Modern Catholic Dictionary defines it as "the sum total of heavenly destiny and all the divinely established means of reaching that destiny, which surpass the mere powers and capacities of human nature." Process theology Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and further developed by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000). It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as a "supernatural" intervention into the "natural" order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation ex nihilo. In process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if "the natural" is defined more neutrally as "what is in the nature of things," then process metaphysics characterizes the natural as the creative activity of actual entities. In Whitehead's words, "It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity" (Whitehead 1978, 21). It is tempting to emphasize process theism's denial of the supernatural and thereby highlight that the processed God cannot do in comparison what the traditional God could do (that is, to bring something from nothing). In fairness, however, equal stress should be placed on process theism's denial of the natural (as traditionally conceived) so that one may highlight what the creatures cannot do, in traditional theism, in comparison to what they can do in process metaphysics (that is, to be part creators of the world with God). Heaven Heaven, or the heavens, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, spirits, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter heaven alive. Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come. Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svarga loka, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld. Underworld The underworld is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself". Common features of underworld myths are accounts of living people making journeys to the underworld, often for some heroic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently dead Patroclus haunting Achilles until his body could be properly buried for this purpose. Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld.A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination. Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors". Spirit A spirit is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a non-physical entity; such as a ghost, fairy, jinn, or angel. The concepts of a person's spirit and soul, often also overlap, as both are either contrasted with or given ontological priority over the body and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions, and "spirit" can also have the sense of "ghost", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person. In English Bibles, "the Spirit" (with a capital "S"), specifically denotes the Holy Spirit. Spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. Historically, it was also used to refer to a "subtle" as opposed to "gross" material substance, as in the famous last paragraph of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica. Demon A demon (from Koine Greek δαιμόνιον daimónion) is a supernatural and often malevolent being prevalent in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology and folklore. In Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity, below the heavenly planes which may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. In Western occultism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled. Magic Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures, or language with the aim of utilizing supernatural forces.: 6–7 : 24  Belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important spiritual, religious, and medicinal role in many cultures today. The term magic has a variety of meanings, and there is no widely agreed upon definition of what it is. Scholars of religion have defined magic in different ways. One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer, suggests that magic and science are opposites. An alternative approach, associated with the sociologists Marcel Mauss and Emile Durkheim, argues that magic takes place in private, while religion is a communal and organised activity. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term magic and it has become increasingly unpopular within scholarship since the 1990s. The term magic comes from the Old Persian magu, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC, this term was adopted into Ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations, to apply to religious rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous. This meaning of the term was then adopted by Latin in the first century BC. The concept was then incorporated into Christian theology during the first century AD, where magic was associated with demons and thus defined against religion. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the early modern period Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, with the former largely influencing early academic usages of the word. Throughout history, there have been examples of individuals who practiced magic and referred to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the modern period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the esoteric milieu. British esotericist Aleister Crowley described magic as the art of effecting change in accordance with will. Divination Divination (from Latin divinare "to foresee, to be inspired by a god", related to divinus, divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets of existence such that they provide insight into a problem at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion. Divination is dismissed by the scientific community and skeptics as being superstition. In the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, "Alexander the false prophet", trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates". Witchcraft Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of and belief in magical skills and abilities exercised by solitary practitioners and groups. Witchcraft is a broad term that varies culturally and societally, and thus can be difficult to define with precision, and cross-cultural assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religious divinatory or medicinal role, and is often present within societies and groups whose cultural framework includes a magical world view. Miracle A miracle is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws. Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being (a deity), a miracle worker, a saint or a religious leader. Informally, the word "miracle" is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature, such as surviving a natural disaster, or simply a "wonderful" occurrence, regardless of likelihood, such as a birth. Other such miracles might be: survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or 'beating the odds'. Some coincidences may be seen as miracles.A true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible (that is, requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity) or impossible to confirm by their nature (because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out). The former position is expressed for instance by Thomas Jefferson and the latter by David Hume. Theologians typically say that, with divine providence, God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the existence of God. Skepticism Skepticism (American English) or scepticism (British English; see spelling differences) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains such as the supernatural, morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or of certainty). In fiction and popular culture Supernatural entities and powers are common in various works of fantasy. Examples include the television shows Supernatural and The X-Files, the magic of the Harry Potter series, The Lord of the Rings series, The Wheel of Time series and A Song of Ice and Fire series. See also Journal of Parapsychology Liberal naturalism Magical thinking Paranormal Parapsychology Religious naturalism Romanticism Spirit photography Spirit world (Spiritualism) Transcendence (religion) References Further reading Economic Production and the Spread of Supernatural Beliefs ~ Daniel Araújo (PDF). January 7, 2022. Bouvet R, Bonnefon J. F. (2015). "Non-Reflective Thinkers Are Predisposed to Attribute Supernatural Causation to Uncanny Experiences". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 41 (7): 955–61. doi:10.1177/0146167215585728. PMID 25948700. S2CID 33570482. McNamara P, Bulkeley K (2015). "Dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 283. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00283. PMC 4365543. PMID 25852602. Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T. (2014). "Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics: An fMRI Study". Social Neuroscience. 9 (4): 400–411. doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.906366. PMID 24720663. S2CID 33940568.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Purzycki Benjamin G (2013). "The Minds of Gods: A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency". Cognition. 129 (1): 163–179. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.06.010. PMID 23891826. S2CID 23554738. Thomson P, Jaque S. V. (2014). "Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation: A Mediation Analysis". Attachment and Human Development. 16 (5): 499–514. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.926945. PMID 24913392. S2CID 10290610. Vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A. (2012). "Exploring the Existential Function of Religion and Supernatural Agent Beliefs Among Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 38 (10): 1288–1300. doi:10.1177/0146167212449361. PMID 22700240. S2CID 2019266.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Yann-Fañch Kemener

Yann-Fañch Loeiz Kemener (April 7, 1957 – March 16, 2019) was a traditional singer and ethnomusicologist from Brittany, born in Sainte-Tréphine, Côtes-d'Armor, France. Known in French as Jean-François Louis Quémener. He took part in reviving Kan ha diskan (French: chant et contre-chant) in the 1970s and 1980s, especially with Erik Marchand. He collected songs from the oral tradition in the Breton language.He sang in numerous Festoù Noz. Kemener died in Tréméven on March 16, 2019 at age 61.

Yann-Fañch Loeiz Kemener (April 7, 1957 – March 16, 2019) was a traditional singer and ethnomusicologist from Brittany, born in Sainte-Tréphine, Côtes-d'Armor, France. Known in French as Jean-François Louis Quémener. He took part in reviving Kan ha diskan (French: chant et contre-chant) in the 1970s and 1980s, especially with Erik Marchand. He collected songs from the oral tradition in the Breton language.He sang in numerous Festoù Noz. Kemener died in Tréméven on March 16, 2019 at age 61. Discography Chants profonds et sacrés de Bretagne, 1977 Chants profonds et sacrés de Bretagne 2, 1978 Chants profonds et sacrés de Bretagne 3, 1982 Kan ha diskan, 1982, with Marcel Guilloux Chants profonds et sacrés de Bretagne 4, 1983 Chants profonds de Bretagne, 1983 Dibedibedañchaou, 1987, edited again by Dastum in 1999 (small songs for children in Breton language) Gwerziou et soniou, 1988 Ec'honder, 1989, in Barzaz band Chants profonds de Bretagne, 1991 Un den kozh dall, 1992, in Barzaz band Roue Gralon Ni Ho Salud, 1993, with Anne Auffret Chants profanes et sacrés de Bretagne - Roue Gralon ni ho salud, 1993 Enez eusa, 1995, with Didier Squiban Ile-exil, 1996, with Didier Squiban Karnag / Pierre Lumière, 1996 Carnet de route, 1996 (collected amongst old people) Kan ha diskan, 1997, with Valentine Collecter, Erik Marchand, Marcel Guilloux, Annie Ebrel, Claudine Floc'hig, Patrick Marie, Ifig Troadeg Kimiad, 1998, with Didier Squiban Barzaz Breiz, 1999, with La Maîtrise de Bretagne An Eur Glaz, 2000, with Aldo Ripoche An dorn, 2004, with Aldo Ripoche Dialogues, 2006, with Aldo Ripoche and Florence Pavie Si je savais voler, chants de Bretagne et d'Occitanie, 2010, avec Laurent Audemard, François Fava and Renat Sette Requiem d'Anne de Bretagne, 2011, on a cd with a recording of a Renaissance Requiem, with Ensemble Doulce Mémoire and Denis Raisin-Dadre YFK~2016, 2016, with band ba.fnu References External links Official website Personal blog

Self-actualization

Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled. Self-actualization was coined by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential: "the tendency to actualize itself as fully as possible is the basic drive ... the drive of self-actualization." Carl Rogers similarly wrote of "the curative force in psychotherapy – man's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities ... to express and activate all the capacities of the organism."

Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled. Self-actualization was coined by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential: "the tendency to actualize itself as fully as possible is the basic drive ... the drive of self-actualization." Carl Rogers similarly wrote of "the curative force in psychotherapy – man's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities ... to express and activate all the capacities of the organism." Abraham Maslow's theory Definition Maslow defined self-actualization to be "self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him [the individual] to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." He used the term to describe a desire, not a driving force, that could lead to realizing one's capabilities. He did not feel that self-actualization determined one's life; rather, he felt that it gave the individual a desire, or motivation to achieve budding ambitions. Maslow's idea of self-actualization has been commonly interpreted as "the full realization of one's potential" and of one's "true self."A more explicit definition of self-actualization according to Maslow is "intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately of what is the organism itself ... self-actualization is growth-motivated rather than deficiency-motivated.": 66  This explanation emphasizes the fact that self-actualization cannot normally be reached until other lower order necessities of Maslow's hierarchy of needs are satisfied. While Goldstein defined self-actualization as a driving force, Maslow uses the term to describe personal growth that takes place once lower order needs have essentially been met, one corollary being that, in his opinion, "self-actualisation ... rarely happens ... certainly in less than 1% of the adult population." The fact that "most of us function most of the time on a level lower than that of self-actualization" he called the psychopathology of normality.Maslow's usage of the term is now popular in modern psychology when discussing personality from the humanistic approach. History and development of the concept Maslow's work is considered to be part of humanistic psychology, which is one of several frameworks used in psychology for studying, understanding, and evaluating personality. The humanistic approach was developed because other approaches, such as the psychodynamic approach made famous by Sigmund Freud, focused on unhealthy individuals that exhibited disturbed behavior; whereas the humanistic approach focuses on healthy, motivated people and tries to determine how they define the self while maximizing their potential. Humanistic psychology in general and self-actualisation in particular helped change our view of human nature from a negative point of view – man is a conditioned or tension reducing organism – to a more positive view in which man is motivated to realize his full potential. This is reflected in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and in his theory of self-actualization. Instead of focusing on what goes wrong with people, Maslow wanted to focus on human potential, and how we fulfill that potential. Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who are fulfilled and doing all they are capable of. It refers to the person's desire for self-fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. "The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions."One of Abraham Maslow's earliest discussions of self-actualization was in his 1943 article "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review 50, pp. 370–396. Here, the concept of self-actualization was first brought to prominence as part of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory as the final level of psychological development that can be achieved when all basic and mental needs are essentially fulfilled and the "actualization" of the full personal potential takes place.In this treatment, self-actualization is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and is described as becoming "'fully human' ... maturity or self-actualization."According to Maslow, people have lower order needs that in general must be fulfilled before high order needs can be satisfied: 'five sets of needs – physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualization'.As Abraham Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans must be met (e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belonging) before a person can achieve self-actualization. Yet, Maslow argued that reaching a state of true self-actualization in everyday society was fairly rare. Research shows that when people live lives that are different from their true nature and capabilities, they are less likely to be happy than those whose goals and lives match. For example, someone who has inherent potential to be a great artist or teacher may never realize their talents if their energy is focused on attaining the basic needs of humans. As a person moves up Maslow's hierarchy of needs, they may eventually find themselves reaching the summit — self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs begins with the most basic necessities deemed "the physiological needs" in which the individual will seek out items like food and water, and must be able to perform basic functions such as breathing and sleeping. Once these needs have been met, a person can move on to fulfilling "the safety needs", where they will attempt to obtain a sense of security, physical comfort and shelter, employment, and property. The next level is "the belongingness and love needs", where people will strive for social acceptance, affiliations, a sense of belongingness and being welcome, sexual intimacy, and perhaps a family. Next are "the esteem needs", where the individual will desire a sense of competence, recognition of achievement by peers, and respect from others.Once these needs are met, an individual is primed to achieve self-actualization. While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow's later-career ideas In his later work, Maslow suggested that there are two additional phases an individual must progress through before achieving self-actualization. These are "the cognitive needs," where a person will desire knowledge and an understanding of the world around them, and "the aesthetic needs," which include a need for "symmetry, order, and beauty."Maslow also added a further step beyond self-actualization, which is self-transcendence. Self-transcendence occurs at the "very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness." Characteristics of self-actualizers A self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or her potentials. It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for a person to become actualized in what they are potentially. Maslow based his theory partially on his own assumptions or convictions about human potential and partially on his case studies of historical figures whom he believed to be self-actualized, including Albert Einstein and Henry David Thoreau. He considered self-actualizing people to possess "an unusual ability to detect the spurious, the fake, and the dishonest in personality, and in general to judge people correctly and efficiently." Maslow examined the lives of each of these people in order to assess the common qualities that led each to become self-actualized. In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers really do share similarities. He also believed that each of these people had somehow managed to find their core-nature that is unique to them, and is one of the true goals of life. Whether famous or unknown, educated or not, rich or poor, self-actualizers tend to fit the following profile.Maslow's self-actualizing characteristics are: Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are able to judge situations correctly and honestly. They are very sensitive to the superficial and dishonest. Comfortable acceptance of self, others and nature. Self-actualizers accept their own human nature with all its flaws. The shortcomings of others and the contradictions of the human condition are accepted with humor and tolerance. Reliant on own experiences and judgement. Independent, not reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views. Spontaneous and natural. True to oneself, rather than being how others want. Task centering. Most of Maslow's subjects had a mission to fulfill in life or some task or problem 'beyond' themselves (instead of outside themselves) to pursue. Humanitarians such as Albert Schweitzer are considered to have possessed this quality. Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and independent. Continued freshness of appreciation. The self-actualizer seems to constantly renew appreciation of life's basic goods. A sunset or a flower will be experienced as intensely time after time as it was at first. There is an "innocence of vision", like that of a child. Profound interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationships of self-actualizers are marked by deep loving bonds. Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying relationships with others, self-actualizing people value solitude and are comfortable being alone. Non-hostile sense of humor. This refers to the ability to laugh at oneself. Peak experiences. All of Maslow's subjects reported the frequent occurrence of peak experiences (temporary moments of self-actualization). These occasions were marked by feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling at one with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before, filled with light, beauty, goodness, and so forth. Socially compassionate. Possessing humanity. Few friends. Few close intimate friends rather than many perfunctory relationships. Gemeinschaftsgefühl. According to Maslow, the self-actualizers possess "Gemeinschaftsgefühl", which refers to "social interest, community feeling, or a sense of oneness with all humanity." Discussion Maslow's writings are used as inspirational resources. The key to Maslow's writings is understanding that there are no quick routes to self-actualization: rather it is predicated on the individual having their lower deficiency needs met. Once a person has moved through feeling and believing that they are deficient, they naturally seek to grow into who they are, i.e. self-actualization. Elsewhere, however, Maslow (2011) and Carl Rogers (1980) both suggested necessary attitudes and/or attributes that need to be inside an individual as a pre-requisite for self-actualization. Among these are a real wish to be themselves, to be fully human, to fulfill themselves, and to be completely alive, as well as a willingness to risk being vulnerable and to uncover more "painful" aspects in order to learn about/grow through and integrate these parts of themselves (this has parallels with Jung's slightly similar concept of individuation). Although their studies were initially biologically centered (or focused around the more ordinary, psychological self-nature), there have been many similarities and cross-references between various spiritual schools or groups (particularly Eastern spiritual ways) in the past 40 years.Maslow early noted his impression that "impulsivity, the unrestrained expression of any whim, the direct seeking for 'kicks' and for non-social and purely private pleasures...is often mislabelled self-actualization." In this sense, "self-actualization" is little more than what Eric Berne described as the game of '"Self-Expression"...based on the dogma "Feelings are Good"'.Broader criticism from within humanistic psychology of the concept of self-actualization includes the danger that 'emphasis on the actualizing tendency...can lead to a highly positive view of the human being but one which is strangely non-relational'. According to Fritz Perls there is also the risk of confusing "self-actualizing and self-image actualizing...the curse of the ideal." By conflating "the virtue of self-actualization and the reality of self-actualization," the latter becomes merely another measuring rod for the "topdog" – the nagging conscience: "You tell me to do things. You tell me to be – real. You tell me to be self-actualized...I don't have to be that good!"Barry Stevens remarks: "Abe Maslow was unhappy with what happened with many people when they read what he wrote about 'self-actualizing people'. What they did with it was very strange. I have received a fair number of letters saying 'I am a self-actualized person'. Maslow said that he must have left something out. Fritz (Perls) put it in. He saw that most people actualized a self-concept. This is not self-actualizing." Kurt Goldstein's concept The term "self-actualization" was first used by the German psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein. Maslow attributed the term "self-actualization" to Goldstein in his original 1943 paper. Concept 'Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of the organism as a whole,' which is built on the assumption that "every individual, every plant, every animal has only one inborn goal – to actualize itself as it is."Kurt Goldstein's book, The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man (1939), presented self-actualization as "the tendency to actualize, as much as possible, [the organism's] individual capacities" in the world. The tendency toward self-actualization is "the only drive by which the life of an organism is determined." However, for Goldstein self-actualization cannot be understood as a kind of goal to be reached sometime in the future. At any moment, the organism has the fundamental tendency to actualize all its capacities and its whole potential, as it is present in that exact moment, under the given circumstances. Discussion Goldstein's work was in the context of Classical Adlerian psychotherapy, which also promotes this level of psychological development by utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to realistically satisfy the basic needs. This then leads to an advanced stage of "meta-therapy", creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Goldstein's work is also seen in the context of Gestalt therapy. The German term used by Goldstein, translated as "self-actualization", is "Selbstverwirklichung." "Self-realization" may be a more adequate translation than the "self-actualization" used in the translation of "The Organism". Goldstein sets this notion of self-actualization in contrast to "self-preservation" (Selbsterhaltung). "Self-actualization" for Goldstein means something that comes close to realization of one's "essence", one's identity, one's felt sense of oneself; which may in consequence mean that a person is willing to risk his or her life in order to maintain "self-actualization" (Selbsverwirklichung), the realization of his or her "essence" of the person he or she feels that she/he IS. Carl Rogers' concept Carl Rogers used the term "self-actualization" to describe something distinct from the concept developed by Maslow: the actualization of the individual's sense of 'self.' In Rogers' theory of person-centered therapy, self-actualization is the ongoing process of maintaining and enhancing the individual's self-concept through reflection, reinterpretation of experience, allowing the individual to recover, develop, change, and grow. Self-actualization is a subset of the overall organismic actualizing tendency, and begins with the infant learning to differentiate what is "self" and what is "other" within its "total perceptual field," as their full self-awareness gradually crystallizes. Interactions with significant others are key to the process of self-actualization: As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluational interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed – an organized, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the 'I' or the 'me', together with the values attached to these concepts. The process of self-actualization is continuous as the individual matures into a socially competent, interdependent autonomy, and is ongoing throughout the life-cycle. When there is sufficient tension between the individual's sense of self and their experience, a psychopathological state of incongruence can arise, according to Rogers, "individuals are culturally conditioned, rewarded, reinforced, for behaviors which are in fact perversions of the natural directions of the unitary actualizing tendency." In Rogers' theory self-actualization is not the end-point; it is the process that can, in conducive circumstances (in particular the presence of positive self-regard and the empathic understanding of others), lead to the individual becoming more "fully-functioning". Criticism Maslow early noted his impression that "impulsivity, the unrestrained expression of any whim, the direct seeking for 'kicks' and for non-social and purely private pleasures ... is often mislabelled self-actualization." In this sense, "self-actualization" is little more than what Eric Berne described as the game of "'Self-Expression' ... based on the dogma 'Feelings are Good'". Broader criticism from within humanistic psychology of the concept of self-actualization includes the danger that 'emphasis on the actualizing tendency ... can lead to a highly positive view of the human being but one which is strangely non-relational.' According to Fritz Perls there is also the risk of confusing "self-actualizing and self-image actualizing ... the curse of the ideal." For Perls, by conflating "the virtue of self-actualization and the reality of self-actualization," the latter becomes merely another measuring rod for the "topdog" – the nagging conscience: "You tell me to do things. You tell me to be – real. You tell me to be self-actualized ... I don't have to be that good!" Barry Stevens remarked: Maslow was unhappy with what happened with many people when they read what he wrote about 'self-actualizing people'. What they did with it was very strange. I have received a fair number of letters saying 'I am a self-actualized person'. Maslow said that he must have left something out. Fritz (Perls) put it in. He saw that most people actualized a self-concept. This is not self-actualizing. According to Paul Vitz, this may be connected with the charge that "Rogers and Maslow both transform self-actualization from a descriptive notion into a moral norm." However, if it is indeed as good a reality as they purport, then a certain eagerness in their communication is understandable. In general, during the early twenty-first-century, "the usefulness of the concepts of self and self-actualization continue to attract discussion and debate." The concept has also been criticized in recent years for its Western-centrism, as it is not indicative of the values of many cultures that do not value individualism as highly. See also Autodidacticism Enlightenment Humanism Ikigai Individuation Jonah complex Outline of self Perfectionism (philosophy) Positive disintegration Self Self-awareness Self-esteem Self-fulfillment Self-handicapping Self-help Self-knowledge (psychology) Self-realization Self-reflection References Further reading Harrington, Anne: Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Includes a comprehensive chapter on Kurt Goldstein and his work.) Heylighen, Francis. (1992). A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of Maslow's theory of self-actualization. Behavioral Science, 37(1), 39–58. doi:10.1002/bs.3830370105 Kress, Oliver (1993)."A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation". Evolution and Cognition 2(4): 319–332. David, R. W. (2011). Montessori, Maslow, and Self-actualization. Montessori Life, 23(4), 16–21. [1]

2005 Logan Airport runway incursion

The 2005 Logan Airport runway incursion was a near-collision that occurred at approximately 7:40 p.m. EDT on June 9, 2005 between US Airways Flight 1170 (US1170) and Aer Lingus Flight 132 (EI132). EI132 was an Airbus A330-300 aircraft, owned and operated by the Irish airline Aer Lingus, destined for Shannon, Ireland, and carrying 12 crew members and 260 passengers. US1170 was a Boeing 737-300 US Airways flight destined for Philadelphia and carrying six crew members and 103 passengers. The near-collision took place on the runway at Logan International Airport (BOS) in Boston, Massachusetts.

The 2005 Logan Airport runway incursion was a near-collision that occurred at approximately 7:40 p.m. EDT on June 9, 2005 between US Airways Flight 1170 (US1170) and Aer Lingus Flight 132 (EI132). EI132 was an Airbus A330-300 aircraft, owned and operated by the Irish airline Aer Lingus, destined for Shannon, Ireland, and carrying 12 crew members and 260 passengers. US1170 was a Boeing 737-300 US Airways flight destined for Philadelphia and carrying six crew members and 103 passengers. The near-collision took place on the runway at Logan International Airport (BOS) in Boston, Massachusetts. Incident To reduce radio congestion and consequences resulting from pilot or controller error, airports with a large number of operations will typically split the tower (local) controller into two or more positions. This was the case on the evening of June 9, 2005, when the two incident flights were handled by different controllers. The local control west controller was responsible for Aer Lingus Flight 132 and the local control east controller was responsible for US Airways Flight 1170.At 19:39:10, Aer Lingus Flight 132 was cleared for takeoff from Runway 15R by local control west. Five seconds later, local control east cleared US Airways Flight 1170 for takeoff from Runway 9, which intersects with Runway 15R; the aircraft had essentially been sent on a collision course. With the airport terminals between the two aircraft as the takeoffs began, the flight crews could not initially see each other.During the takeoff roll, the US Airways first officer noticed the other plane and realized that they could collide. He realized that at the runway intersection both aircraft would be slightly airborne. Telling the captain to "keep it down," he pushed the control column forward. He was able to keep the aircraft from lifting off the runway, allowing it to reach the intersection and pass under the other aircraft as it took off. The two planes passed within an estimated 70 feet (21 m) of one another, with the Aer Lingus aircraft flying over the US Airways aircraft. According to the NTSB report, the US Airways flight had already achieved its V1 speed and could no longer safely abort takeoff. Therefore, the flight crew continued down the runway and lifted off after passing through the intersection. Superior Airmanship Award US Airways captain Henry Jones and first officer Jim Dannahower were later awarded a Superior Airmanship Award from the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA) for their quick reactions and expert adjustment of their takeoff maneuver. Probable cause The NTSB completed its investigation and found that the east tower controller had given the west tower controller permission for the Aer Lingus to depart on 15R. While coordinating other traffic, he forgot about releasing that aircraft and cleared the US Airways flight for takeoff. Local procedures required the east controller to wait until the departure on 15R had passed through the intersection before clearing the aircraft on Runway 9 for takeoff. The NTSB reported that the probable cause of the incident was that the east local controller failed to follow FAA Order 7110.65 and local procedures, which resulted in a runway incursion.After the incident, the Boston tower changed its procedures so that only the west local controller may initiate a departure on the crossing Runway 15R, and that once the east controller accepts the release, the aircraft must be cleared for takeoff within five seconds. Further, to reduce the chance of this type of incident happening again, aircraft must not be held on Runway 9 waiting for their takeoff clearance while there is a departure on 15R. Once the departure has cleared the intersection, local west must inform the east controller that the intersection has been cleared. See also List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft 2001 Japan Airlines mid-air incident, a near miss of two Japan Airlines aircraft caused by ATC error 2007 San Francisco International Airport runway incursion, a narrowly avoided runway incursion in San Francisco caused by ATC error Air Canada Flight 759 References External links Photos of the US Airways jet Photos of the Aer Lingus jet CGI rendering of the incident as prepared by the NTSB on YouTube National Transportation Safety Board Aer Lingus jet Flight Data Recorder readout US Airways jet Flight Data Recorder readout

W. T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium

W. T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium was a tennis facility located on the campus of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, LA. The facility, built in 1976, served as the home of the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers tennis teams from 1976 to 2014. The stadium had a seating capacity of 550. It was named in honor of former standout head coach W.T. "Dub" Robinson, a coach that elevated the LSU tennis program to national prominence.The facility provided six varsity tennis courts with an individual scoreboard on every court plus an additional six practice courts.

W. T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium was a tennis facility located on the campus of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, LA. The facility, built in 1976, served as the home of the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers tennis teams from 1976 to 2014. The stadium had a seating capacity of 550. It was named in honor of former standout head coach W.T. "Dub" Robinson, a coach that elevated the LSU tennis program to national prominence.The facility provided six varsity tennis courts with an individual scoreboard on every court plus an additional six practice courts. The stadium also offered the Tigers and Lady Tigers state-of-the-art locker rooms, a meeting room, players lounge, media room and equipment room.W.T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium was the site for both the 2007 SEC Tennis Championships and NCAA Regionals and was also home of the 2009 NCAA Regionals.In 2015, the facility was replaced by the LSU Tennis Complex as the home venue for the tennis teams. The stadium was demolished in 2018 and the LSU Tigers women's beach volleyball stadium was built on the site. See also LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers LSU Tennis Complex References External links W. T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium at LSUSports.net

Rugby league

Rugby league football, commonly known as rugby league in English-speaking countries, rugby XIII in non-Anglophone Europe and South America, and referred to colloquially as rugby, football, footy or league in its heartlands, is a full-contact sport played by two teams of thirteen players on a rectangular field measuring 68 m (74 yd) wide and 112–122 m (122–133 yd) long with H shaped posts at both ends. It is one of the two major codes of rugby football, the other being rugby union. It originated in 1895 in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England, as the result of a split from the Rugby Football Union (RFU) over the issue of payments to players. The rules of the game governed by the new Northern Rugby Football Union progressively changed from those of the RFU with the specific aim of producing a faster and more entertaining game to appeal to spectators, on whose income the new organisation and its members depended. In rugby league, points are scored by carrying an oval shape ball and touching it to the ground beyond the opposing team's goal line; this is called a try, and is the primary method of scoring, worth 4 points.

Rugby league football, commonly known as rugby league in English-speaking countries, rugby XIII in non-Anglophone Europe and South America, and referred to colloquially as rugby, football, footy or league in its heartlands, is a full-contact sport played by two teams of thirteen players on a rectangular field measuring 68 m (74 yd) wide and 112–122 m (122–133 yd) long with H shaped posts at both ends. It is one of the two major codes of rugby football, the other being rugby union. It originated in 1895 in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England, as the result of a split from the Rugby Football Union (RFU) over the issue of payments to players. The rules of the game governed by the new Northern Rugby Football Union progressively changed from those of the RFU with the specific aim of producing a faster and more entertaining game to appeal to spectators, on whose income the new organisation and its members depended. In rugby league, points are scored by carrying an oval shape ball and touching it to the ground beyond the opposing team's goal line; this is called a try, and is the primary method of scoring, worth 4 points. The opposing team attempts to stop the attacking side scoring points by tackling the player carrying the ball and denying forward progress. On occasion, where a clear try scoring opportunity has been thwarted by foul play, a penalty try may be awarded without the ball being grounded over the try line. In addition to tries, points can be scored by kicking goals. Field goals or drop goals can be attempted from the hand at any time for a single point, and following a successful try, the scoring team gains a free kick to try at goal with a conversion worth a further two points. Penalty kicks at goal, known simply as penalties, may also be awarded for general foul play, and are also worth two points. Unlike drop goals, penalty kicks and conversions are taken from the ground, with the ball usually set in a kicking tee, and the opposing team not allowed to directly challenge the kicker. The Super League in Europe and the National Rugby League (NRL) in Australasia are the world's premier club competitions. Globally, rugby league is played internationally, predominantly by European, Australasian, and Pacific Island countries, and is governed by the International Rugby League. Rugby league is the national sport of Papua New Guinea, and is a popular sport in countries such as England, Australia, New Zealand, France, Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, South Africa and Lebanon.The first Rugby League World Cup was held in France in 1954, the first World Cup of either rugby code, and has been held sporadically ever since, settling into a four-yearly cycle in the 2010's; as of 2023, the holders are Australia.A short-sided version of the sport, rugby league nines, using modified rugby league rules also exists, and is comparable to rugby sevens. Wheelchair rugby league is a mixed-gender sport using heavily modified rugby league rules for disabled and able-bodied players. Unlike wheelchair rugby which adopted its name after the invention of the sport previously called murderball and is not directly linked to rugby union, wheelchair rugby league has grown out of the parent sport, and retains key aspects of that sport such as an egg shaped ball, the forward-pass rule and conversions. While not a Paralympic sport, the sport has its own Wheelchair Rugby League World Cup. A further variation for ambulatory disabled players, physical disability rugby league, was created and had its first world cup in 2022 to coincide with the rescheduled 2021 Rugby League World Cup competitions. Etymology Rugby league football takes its name from the bodies that split to create a new form of rugby, distinct from that run by the Rugby Football Unions, in Britain, Australia, and New Zealand between 1895 and 1908. The first of these, the Northern Rugby Football Union, was established in 1895 as a breakaway faction of England's Rugby Football Union (RFU). Both organisations played the game under the same rules at first, although the Northern Union began to modify rules almost immediately, thus creating a new simpler game that was intended to be a faster-paced form of rugby football. Similar breakaway factions split from RFU-affiliated unions in Australia and New Zealand in 1907 and 1908, renaming themselves "rugby football leagues" and introducing Northern Union rules. In 1922, the Northern Union also changed its name to the Rugby Football League and thus over time the sport itself became known as "rugby league" football. History In 1895, a schism in Rugby football resulted in the formation of the Northern Rugby Football Union (NRFU). The success of working class northern teams led to some compensating players who otherwise would be on their job and earning income on Saturdays. This led to the RFU reacting to enforce the amateur principle of the sport, preventing "broken time payments" to players who had taken time off work to play rugby. Northern teams typically had more working class players (coal miners, mill workers etc.) who could not afford to play without this compensation, in contrast to affluent southern teams who had other sources of income to sustain the amateur principle. In 1895, a decree by the RFU banning the playing of rugby at grounds where entrance fees were charged led to twenty-two clubs (including Stockport, who negotiated by telephone) meeting at the George Hotel, Huddersfield on 29 August 1895 and forming the "Northern Rugby Football Union". Within fifteen years of that first meeting in Huddersfield, more than 200 RFU clubs had left to join the rugby league. In 1897, the line-out was abolished and in 1898 professionalism introduced. In 1906, the Northern Union changed its rules, reducing teams from 15 to 13 a side and replacing the ruck formed after tackles with the play-the-ball. By this point, rule changes meant the game organised by the RFL was distinct as a sport from its union cousin.A similar schism to that which occurred in England took place in Sydney, Australia. There, on 8 August 1907 the New South Wales Rugby Football League was founded at Bateman's Hotel in George Street. Unlike in England, where both codes maintained their own geographic areas of dominance, in Australia rugby league went on to displace rugby union entirely as the primary football code in New South Wales and Queensland, while Australian rules football dominated in Victoria.On 5 May 1954 over 100,000 (official figure 102,569) spectators watched the 1953–54 Challenge Cup Final replay at Odsal Stadium, Bradford, England, setting a new record for attendance at a rugby football match of either code. Also in 1954 the Rugby League World Cup, the first for either code of rugby, was formed at the instigation of the French. In 1966, the International Board introduced a rule that a team in possession was allowed three play-the-balls and on the fourth tackle a scrum was to be formed. This was increased to six tackles in 1972 and in 1983 the scrum was replaced by a handover. 1967 saw the first professional Sunday matches of rugby league played. The first sponsors, Joshua Tetley and John Player, entered the game for the 1971–72 Northern Rugby Football League season. Television had an enormous impact on the sport of rugby league in the 1990s, when News Corporation paid for worldwide broadcasting rights. The media giant's "Super League" movement created changes for the traditional administrators of the game. In Europe, it resulted in a move from Rugby League being a winter sport to a summer one, as the new Super League competition tried to expand its market. In Australasia, the Super League war resulted in long and costly legal battles and changing loyalties, causing significant damage to the code in an extremely competitive sporting market. In 1997 two competitions were run alongside each other in Australia, after which a peace deal in the form of the National Rugby League was formed. The NRL has since become recognised as the sport's flagship competition and since that time has set record TV ratings and crowd figures. Rules Laws of the game The objective in rugby league is to score more points through tries, goals and field goals (also known as drop goals) than the opposition within the 80 minutes of play. If after two-halves of play, each consisting of forty minutes, the two teams are drawing, a draw may be declared, or the game may enter extra time under the golden point rule, depending on the relevant competition's format. The try is the most common form of scoring, and a team will usually attempt to score one by running and kicking the ball further upfield or passing from player-to-player in order to manoeuvre around the opposition's defence. A try involves touching the ball to the ground on or beyond the defending team's goal-line and is worth four points. A goal is worth two points and may be gained from a conversion or a penalty. A field goal, or drop goal, is only worth one point and is gained by dropping and then kicking the ball on the half volley between the uprights in open play. Field position is crucial in rugby league, achieved by running with or kicking the ball. Passing in rugby league may only be in a backward or sideways direction. Teammates, therefore, have to remain on-side by not moving ahead of the player with the ball. The ball may be kicked ahead, but if teammates are in front of the kicker when the ball is kicked, they are deemed off-side. Tackling is a key component of rugby league play. Only the player holding the ball may be tackled. A tackle is complete, for example, when the player is held by one or more opposing players in such a manner that he can make no further progress and cannot part with the ball, or when the player is held by one or more opposing players and the ball or the hand or arm holding the ball comes into contact with the ground. An attacking team gets a maximum of six tackles to progress up the field before possession is changed over. Once the tackle is completed, the ball-carrier must be allowed to get to his feet to 'play-the-ball'. Ball control is also important in rugby league, as a fumble of the ball on the ground forces a handover, unless the ball is fumbled backwards. The ball can also be turned over by going over the sideline. Comparison with rugby union Rugby league and rugby union are distinct sports with many similarities and a shared origin. Both have the same fundamental rules, are played for 80 minutes and feature an oval-shaped ball and H-shaped goalposts. Both have rules that the ball cannot be passed forward, and dropping it forwards leads to a scrum. Both use tries as the central scoring method and conversion kicks, penalty goals and drop goals as additional scoring methods. However, there are differences in how many points each method is worth. One of the main differences is the rules of possession. When the ball goes into touch, possession in rugby union is contested through a line-out, while in rugby league a scrum restarts play. The lesser focus on contesting possession means that play focuses more on powerful running, hard tackling, forward progression and the contest for field position (commonly compared to an "arm wrestle"); as a result play stops much less frequently in rugby league, with the ball typically in play for 50 out of the 80 minutes compared to around 35 minutes for professional rugby union. Other differences include that there are fewer players in rugby league (13 compared to 15) and different rules for tackling. Rugby union has more detailed rules than rugby league and has changed less since the 1895 schism.Since rugby union turned professional in the mid-1990s, it has increasingly borrowed techniques, tactics and even laws from rugby league, while high profile players and coaches from the league game have increasingly gone on to success in the union code in those countries where both codes are popular (e.g. Andy Farrell, Jason Robinson and Henry Paul). The inherent similarities between rugby league and rugby union have at times led to experimental hybrid games being played that use a mix of the two sports' rules. Comparison with gridiron codes Much more so than rugby union, rugby league shares significant similarities with North American gridiron codes. Although described as evolving from both rugby and association football, the basic structures of American and Canadian football are remarkably similar to rugby league through a process of parallel evolution: a try-and-goal based scoring system, a set number of plays before handover of the football, each play restarting from a set piece position and ended by a tackle. Although the Canadian Football League in particular maintained the word 'rugby' in its name for many years, alluding to that share past, the introduction of the forward pass and unlimited substitution in North America created a fundamentally different species of game from either original rugby code. Although the historic link between the codes continues to be acknowledged, neither Canadian or American football is commonly considered a rugby code today. Positions Players on the pitch are divided into forwards and backs, although the game's rules apply to all players the same way. Each position has a designated number to identify himself from other players. These numbers help to identify which position a person is playing. The system of numbering players is different depending on which country the match is played in. In Australia and New Zealand, each player is usually given a number corresponding to their playing position on the field. However, since 1996 European teams have been able to grant players specific squad numbers, which they keep without regard to the position they play, similarly to association football.Substitutes (generally referred to as "the bench") are allowed in the sport, and are typically used when a player gets tired or injured, although they can also be used tactically. Each team is currently allowed four substitutes, and in Australia and New Zealand, these players occupy shirt numbers 14 to 22. There are no limitations on which players must occupy these interchangeable slots. Generally, twelve interchanges are allowed in any game from each team, although in the National Rugby League, this was reduced to ten prior to the 2008 season and further reduced to eight prior to the 2016 season. If a team has to interchange a player due to the blood bin rule or due to injury, and this was the result of misconduct from the opposing team, the compromised team does not have to use one of its allocated interchanges to take the player in question off the field. Backs The backs are generally smaller, faster and more agile than the forwards. They are often the most creative and evasive players on the field, relying on running, kicking and handling skills, as well as tactics and set plays, to break the defensive line, instead of brute force. Generally forwards do the majority of the work (hit-ups/tackling). The title of fullback (numbered 1) comes from the fullback's defensive position where the player drops out of the defensive line to cover the rear from kicks and runners breaking the line. Therefore, fullbacks are usually good ball catchers and clinical tacklers. In attack, the fullback will typically make runs into the attack or support a runner in anticipation of a pass out of the tackle. Fullbacks can play a role in attack similar to a halfback or five-eighth and the fact that the fullback does not have to defend in the first defensive line means that a coach can keep a playmaker from the tackling responsibilities of the first line whilst allowing them to retain their attacking role. The wingers (numbered 2 and 5) are normally the fastest players in a team and play on the far left and right fringes of the field (the wings). Their main task is to receive passes and score tries. The wingers also drop back on the last tackle to cover the left and right sides of the field for kicks while the fullback covers the middle. The centres (numbered 3 and 4) are positioned one in from the wings and together complete what is known as the three-quarter line. Usually the best mixture of power and vision, their main role is to try to create attacking opportunities for their team and defend against those of the opposition. Along with the wingers, the centres score plenty of tries throughout a season. They usually have a large build and therefore can often play in the second-row.Usually, the stand-off/five-eighth and scrum-half/half-back are a team's creative unit or 'playmakers'. During the interactions between a team's 'key' players (five-eighth, half-back, fullback, lock forward, and hooker), the five-eighth and half-back will usually be involved in most passing moves. These two positions are commonly called the "halves". The stand-off half, or five-eighth (numbered 6): There is not much difference between the stand-off half and the scrum half (halfback), in that both players may operate in front of the pack during 'forward play' (as prime receiver [7] and shadow receiver [6], one on each side of the ruck, or both on same side of the ruck), and both players may operate in front of the backs during 'back play' (as prime pivot [6] and shadow pivot [7], one on each side of the pack, or both on same side of the ruck / pack). The Five-Eighth position is named with regard to the distance that the player stands in relevance to the team. The halfback (numbered 7): There is not much difference between the halfback and the five-eighth, in that both players may operate in front of the pack during 'forward play' (as prime receiver [7] and shadow receiver [6], one on each side of the ruck, or both on same side of the ruck). Both players may operate in front of the backs during 'back play' (as prime pivot [6] and shadow pivot [7], one on each side of the ruck/pack, or both on same side of the ruck/pack). The halfback position is named with regard to halfway between the fullback and the forwards. Forwards The forwards' two responsibilities can be broken into "normal play" and "scrum play". For information on a forward's role in the scrum see rugby league scrummage. Forward positions are traditionally named after the player's position in the scrum yet are equal with respect to "normal play" with the exception of the hooker. Forward positions are traditionally assigned as follows: The props or front-row forwards (numbered 8 and 10) are normally the largest players on field. They are positioned in the centre of the line. The prop will be an "enforcer", dissuading the opposition from attacking the centre of the defensive line and, in attack, will give the team momentum by taking the ball up to the defence aggressively. The hooker (numbered 9) is most likely to play the role of dummy half. In defence the hooker usually defends in the middle of the line against the opposition's props and second-rowers. The hooker will be responsible for organising the defence in the middle of the field. In attack as dummy-half this player is responsible for starting the play from every play-the-ball by either passing the ball to the right player, or, at opportune moments, running from dummy-half. It is vital that the hooker can pass very well. Traditionally, hookers "hooked" the ball in the scrum. Hookers also make probably more tackles than any other player on the field. The hooker is always involved in the play and needs to be very fit. They need to have a very good knowledge of the game and the players around them. The second-row forwards (numbered 11 and 12) The modern day second row is very similar to a centre and is expected to be faster, more mobile and have more skills than the prop and will play amongst the three-quarters, providing strength in attack and defence when the ball is passed out to the wings. Good second-rowers combine the skills and responsibilities of props and centres in the course of the game. The Loose forward or Lock (numbered 13) is the only forward in the third (last) row of the scrum. They are usually among the fittest players on the field, covering the entire field on both attacking and defending duties. Typically they are big ball-runners who can occasionally slot in as a passing link or kick option; it is not uncommon for locks to have the skills of a five-eighth and to play a similar role in the team. Rugby league worldwide Rugby league is played in over 70 nations throughout the world. Five countries – Australia, South Africa, England, France, and New Zealand – have teams that play at a professional level, while the rest are semi-professional, mainly Papua New Guinea and Wales, or amateur. 45 national teams are ranked by the RLIF and a further 32 are officially recognized and unranked. The strongest rugby league nations are Australia, England, New Zealand, Samoa and Tonga. Two countries, Papua New Guinea and Cook Islands, have Rugby league as their national sport. World Cup The Rugby League World Cup is the highest form of representative rugby league. Countries that have contested are Australia, Cook Islands, England, Fiji, France, Ireland, Italy, Lebanon, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Russia, Samoa, Scotland, South Africa, Tonga, US and Wales. The 2021 Rugby League World Cup was hosted by England during October and November 2022, staged the Men's, Women's and Wheelchair competitions together for the first time. The competition currently features 16 teams. Oceania and South Pacific The Asia-Pacific Rugby League Confederation's purpose is to spread the sport of rugby league throughout their region along with other governing bodies such as the ARL and NZRL. Since rugby league was introduced to Australia in 1908, it has become the largest television sport and 3rd most attended sport in Australia. Neighbouring Papua New Guinea is one of two countries to have rugby league as its national sport (with Cook Islands). Australia's elite club competition also features a team from Auckland, New Zealand's biggest city. Rugby league is the dominant winter sport in the eastern Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland. The game is also among the predominant sports of Tonga and is played in other Pacific nations such as Samoa and Fiji. Researchers have found that rugby league has been able to help with improving development in the islands. In Australia, and indeed the rest of the region, the annual State of Origin series ranks among the most popular sporting events. Europe The Rugby League European Federation are responsible for developing rugby league in Europe and the Northern Hemisphere. In England, rugby league has traditionally been associated with the historic northern counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cumberland, where the game originated, especially in towns and cities along the M62 corridor. Its popularity has also increased elsewhere. As of 2021, only one of the twelve Super League teams are based outside of these traditional counties: Catalans Dragons (Perpignan, France). One other team from outside the United Kingdom, Toulouse Olympique, competes in the British rugby league system, although not at the highest tier Super League level, but rather in the second tier Championship. Super League average attendances are in the 8,000 to 9,500 range. The average Super League match attendance in 2014 was 8,365. In 2018 average Super League match attendance was 8,547. Ranked the eighth most popular sport in the UK overall, rugby league is the 27th most popular participation sport in England according to figures released by Sport England; the total number of rugby league participants in England aged 16 and over was 44,900 in 2017. This is a 39% drop from 10 years ago. While the sport is largely concentrated in the north of England there have been complaints about its lack of profile in the British media. On the eve of the 2017 Rugby League World Cup final where England would face Australia, English amateur rugby league coach Ben Dawson stated, "we're in the final of a World Cup. First time in more than 30 years and there's no coverage anywhere". France first played rugby league as late as 1934, where in the five years prior to the Second World War, the sport's popularity increased as Frenchmen became disenchanted with the state of French rugby union in the 1930s. However, after the Allied Forces were defeated by Germany in June 1940, the Vichy regime in the south seized assets belonging to rugby league authorities and clubs and banned the sport for its association with the left-wing Popular Front government that had governed France before the war. The sport was unbanned after the Liberation of Paris in August 1944 and the collapse of the Vichy regime, although it was still actively marginalised by the French authorities until the 1990s. Despite this, the national side appeared in the finals of the 1954 and 1968 World Cups, and the country hosted the 1954 event. In 1996, a French team, Paris Saint-Germain was one of eleven teams which formed the new Super League, although the club was dissolved in 1997. In 2006, the Super League admitted the Catalans Dragons, a team from Perpignan in the southern Languedoc-Roussillon region. They have subsequently reached the 2007 Challenge Cup Final and made the playoffs of the 2008 Super League XIII season. The success of the Dragons in Super League has initiated a renaissance in French rugby league, with new-found enthusiasm for the sport in the south of the country where most of the Elite One Championship teams are based. In other parts of Europe, the game is played at semi-professional and amateur level. North America As of 2023, there is no professional rugby league in North America. From 2017 to 2020, the Toronto Wolfpack were North America's only active professional Rugby League team, competing in the English Rugby League system. They won the 2017 Kingstone Press League 1 in their inaugural season and earned promotion to the 2018 Rugby League Championship. In 2019 The Wolfpack won promotion to the Super League, lasting only a few months before having to withdraw due to the ongoing worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. New ownership is currently trying to revive the club with matches against amateur clubs in the US and Canada. Beginning in 2022, the Ottawa Aces were scheduled to join the English league pyramid, becoming the only Canadian team in the system after the Wolfpack were denied re-entry. They instead play out of CornwallIn 2021, the North American Rugby League announced an attempt to be North America's professional championship, with Canadian club Toronto Wolfpack joining several USA Rugby League clubs, New York Freedom and Cleveland Rugby League to form the league's inaugural season. Several brand new clubs from Western USA were scheduled to join in 2022 but never played. The new competition is sanctioned by Canada Rugby League, but not yet by the United States governing body. Unfortunately, while some exhibition matches were played in 2021 and 2022, NARL was defunct by 2023 Other countries The early 21st century has seen other countries take up the game and compete in international rugby league with the Rugby League European Federation and Asia-Pacific Rugby League Confederation expanding the game to new areas such as Chile, Canada, Ghana, Philippines, Czech Republic, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Spain, Hungary, Turkey, Thailand and Brazil to name a few. Domestic professional competitions The two most prominent full-time professional leagues are the Australian/New Zealand National Rugby League and the British Super League. Other professional and semi professional leagues include Australia's Queensland Cup (which includes a team from Papua New Guinea) and NSW Cup, the British RFL Championship and RFL League 1, the French Elite One Championship and Elite Two Championship and the new North American Rugby League. The Papua New Guinea National Rugby League operates as a semi-professional competition and enjoys nationwide media coverage, being the national sport of the country. Variants Three main variant sports of rugby league exist worldwide; Touch, OzTag, and League tag. Touch Touch (also known as touch football or touch rugby) is a variant of rugby league that is conducted under the direction of the Federation of International Touch (FIT). Though it shares similarities and history with rugby league, it is recognised as a sport in its own right due to its differences which have been developed over the sport's lifetime. Touch is a variation of rugby league with the tackling of opposing players replaced by a touch. As touches must be made with minimal force, touch is therefore considered a limited-contact sport. The original basic rules of touch were established in the 1960s by members of the South Sydney Junior Rugby League Club in Sydney, Australia. OzTag OzTag is a non-contact form of rugby league, and can be seen as a variation of British tag rugby. Cronulla Sharks and St George Dragons halfback Perry Haddock introduced the sport in Australia while coaching the 1992 St George Jersey Flegg side. Together with Chris Parkes, the two took the sport to fields across Australia. Today, it is played by over 200,000 players in organised leagues across the country. League Tag League Tag replaces tackling with the removal of one of two tags carried on an opponent's hips, attached directly to specific League Tag shorts with Velcro patches, but otherwise retains almost all other rules of traditional rugby league (such as kicking). A number of additional rules are also added relating to the specific issues associated with a tag based game. Attendances International The top five attendances for rugby league test matches (International) are: Domestic The top five attendances for domestic based rugby league matches are: * NRL double header played to open Round 1 of the 1999 NRL season. Figure shown is the total attendance which is officially counted for both games.** The official attendance of the 1954 Challenge Cup Final replay was 102,569. Unofficial estimates put the attendance as high as 150,000, Bradford Police confirming 120,000. See also History of rugby league List of rugby league terms Playing rugby league List of international rugby league teams List of official Rugby League organisations Rugby league nines Rugby league sevens Tag Rugby (OzTag) – a completely non-contact version of rugby league Touch football – an almost non-contact version League tag – A semi-contact version of Rugby League Comparison topics Comparison of rugby league and rugby union Comparison of American football and rugby league Comparison of Canadian football and rugby league Geography of rugby league Footnotes References Further reading RLIF (2004). "The International Laws of the Game and Notes on the Laws" (PDF). Rugby League International Federation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2008. Andrews, Malcolm (1981). Rugby league, the greatest game of all. Horwitz. ISBN 978-0-7255-1338-2. Andrews, Malcolm (1995). The A-Z of Rugby League. Hodder Moa Beckett. ISBN 978-0-340-59956-3. External links Quotations related to Rugby league at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of Rugby league at Wiktionary Official website of the International Rugby League Rugby League Record Keepers' Club Rugby League News

James C. Browne

James Clayton "Jim" Browne (January 16, 1935 – January 19, 2018) was an American computer scientist.

James Clayton "Jim" Browne (January 16, 1935 – January 19, 2018) was an American computer scientist. Early life and education Born in Conway, Arkansas, he attended Hendrix College, where he studied chemistry. In 1960, he earned a doctorate in physical chemistry from the University of Texas and joined the faculty. Between 1963 and 1967, Browne worked at Queen's University Belfast in Ireland, where he helped establish the school's first computational center. He was named a full professor upon his return to the University of Texas in 1968. For a time, Browne was chair of the department of computer science, and held the regents' chair #2 in computer sciences. Career Browne founded the James C. Browne Graduate Fellowship Fund at the University of Texas, and was named a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, the American Physical Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the British Computer Society.Brown was married to Gayle, with whom he had three children, from 1959 to his death on January 19, 2018, aged 83. References "Browne, James Clayton". WorldCat. Retrieved 1 December 2019. "James C. Browne". Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2019.

Hu Xiansu

Hu Xiansu or Hu Hsien-Hsu (simplified Chinese: 胡先骕; traditional Chinese: 胡先驌; pinyin: Hú Xiānsù; Wade–Giles: Hsu Hsien-Hsu, 24 May 1894 – 16 July 1968), was a prominent Chinese botanist and influential traditional scholar. He was the founder of plant taxonomy in China and a pioneer of modern botany research and paleobotany in the country.In the 1940s, he played a key role, along with Wan Chun Cheng, in identifying the modern existence of the long thought extinct genus Metasequoia, an achievement widely hailed as "the greatest discovery of botany in 20th century".Hu also co-founded The Critical Review, a major Chinese-language journal promoting traditional Chinese culture and values during the New Culture Movement.

Hu Xiansu or Hu Hsien-Hsu (simplified Chinese: 胡先骕; traditional Chinese: 胡先驌; pinyin: Hú Xiānsù; Wade–Giles: Hsu Hsien-Hsu, 24 May 1894 – 16 July 1968), was a prominent Chinese botanist and influential traditional scholar. He was the founder of plant taxonomy in China and a pioneer of modern botany research and paleobotany in the country.In the 1940s, he played a key role, along with Wan Chun Cheng, in identifying the modern existence of the long thought extinct genus Metasequoia, an achievement widely hailed as "the greatest discovery of botany in 20th century".Hu also co-founded The Critical Review, a major Chinese-language journal promoting traditional Chinese culture and values during the New Culture Movement. Early life Hu was born on May 24th 1894 in Xinjian (now Xinjian district, Nanchang), Jiangxi to Hu Chengbi and Chen Caizhi. Considered a prodigy, he was reading the Three Character Classic and the Thousand Character Classic at the age of three, at four he knew thousands of characters, at five he finished learning the Analects and knew more than ten thousand characters.His father died of sickness when he was nine. He was raised by his widowed mother thereafter. Education and career Hu studied preparatory course at Imperial University of Peking in 1909. In spring 1912 the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing Empire, discontinuing the operations of the university and ending Hu’s studies there. Hu went to the United States in December 1912 and enrolled in University of California (now University of California, Berkeley). During his years in Berkeley, Hu became an active member of the newly founded Science Society of China and joined the editorial board of the Society's journal Science. At the same time, Hu read extensively of literature works in English. In May 1916, Hu graduated with honor in botany. In 1918, he became a faculty member of National Nanking Higher Normal School (later renamed National Southeastern University, National Central University and Nanking University).In 1920 and 1921, Hu conducted large scale plant collections in Zhejiang and Jiangxi, naming the new genus (Sinojackia) in 1920, the first Chinese to do so. In 1922, Hu and Ping Chih founded the first biology department in Chinese public universities (Previously, only missionary universities in China had biology departments). In 1923, Hu and colleagues published their textbook Advanced Botany, which was the first of such textbook complied by Chinese scholars and became widely used in universities around China.Hu went to the United States again in 1923 and received his doctorate from Harvard University in 1925. His doctoral dissertation, under supervision of dendrologist John George Jack, is the first comprehensive survey of plants in the whole of China. After his wife died in Nanking in 1926, Hu resigned from Department of Biology of Southeastern University and became a full-time research fellow at Institute of Biology of China Science Society. In 1928, he moved to Beijing and co-founded the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology. Hu directed the botanical branch of the Fan Memorial and from 1932 served as the director of the Institute until 1949. Meanwhile, he taught part-time in the biology departments of Peking University and Beijing Normal University. Hu founded Lushan Botanical Garden in Jiangxi in 1934. Through Hu's influence, Lushan Botanical Garden established wide exchange networks with botanical gardens and research institutes around the world. In 1936, fearing for the likelihood of war in north China, Hu established the Yunnan Institute of Agriculture and Forest (later renamed Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences) in southwestern China.In 1934, Hu named the new plant family Torricelliaceae. Becoming the first Chinese botanist to describe a new family. Over his career, Hu named and described several hundred new species of plants.Hu co-authored The Miocene Flora of Shandong Province, China between 1938 and 1940 with Ralph W. Chaney, it was the first work investigating China’s Cenozoic fossil plants, and is considered the cornerstone of current knowledge of Asian Cenozoic plants.Along with his colleagues of the Science Society of China, Hu was a key leader of the first biological research institute in the country, and played an important role in founding the Botanical Society of China, serving as its second president. Hu later established the first plantation for botanical research at Mount Lu in Jiujiang, and initiated or conducted large-scale survey of flora of China. Between 1940 and 1944, he was the founding president of the National Chung Cheng University (renamed National Nanchang University in 1949). In the 1940s, he played a key role, along with Wan Chun Cheng, in identifying the modern existence of the genus Metasequoia, an achievement widely regarded as "the greatest discovery of botany in 20th century", also co-naming the newly discovered species previously known only from fossils, in Sichuan, China.In the 1950s, Lysenko's anti-Mendelian doctrines in genetics dominated biological science and agricultural practices in China. Despite this environment, Hu was openly critical of Lysenko's doctrines, stating it as pseudoscience. For this Hu was publicly denounced, and the textbook which he wrote containing material related was banned. Later Hu was not elected as an Academician to the Chinese Academy of Sciences despite his numerous contributions, something partially attributed to his opposition to Lysenkoism.Between 1950 and 1968, he served as a researcher at the Institute of Plant Taxonomy and the Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Later life and death In may 1968 during the midst of the Cultural Revolution, Hu's workplace informed him that his salary had been suspended. His home was repeatedly ransacked and the books, calligraphy and paintings he had collected throughout his lifetime were confiscated by the workplace. As an intellectual, Hu endured repeated struggle sessions, in which he was ordered to wear a Kuomintang flag to signify his past relation. On July 15, he was notified to go to his workplace the next day to attend extended struggle sessions, the stress that the news caused on Hu was massive. On the early morning of July 16, 1968, Hu was found dead on his bed, having suffered a heart attack.Hu's funeral was held in the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery on May 15, 1979. He was buried at Lushan Botanical Garden at Mount Lu on May 15, 1984. See also Science Society of China Notes References and further reading Bell, Andrew W. (2016). "A Tree Grows in China". Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 23 (3): 257–281. doi:10.1163/18765610-02303006. External links THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE “LIVING FOSSIL” METASEQUOIA GLYPTOSTROBOIDES (TAXODIACEAE): A REVIEW (1943–2003)

Shandur Polo Festival

Shandur Polo Festival (Urdu: شندور چوگان میلہ) is a sports festival held annually from 7 to 9 July in the Shandur Top in Pakistan. The polo tournament is played between the teams of Gilgit District and Chitral District, under freestyle rules.Organized and financed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Government, the tournament is held at Shandur Top which is the world highest polo ground at an altitude of 3,700 meters (the pass itself is at 3,800 meters). The festival also includes folk music, dancing and a camping village is set up. The polo tournament is featured in the first episode of Himalaya with Michael Palin.

Shandur Polo Festival (Urdu: شندور چوگان میلہ) is a sports festival held annually from 7 to 9 July in the Shandur Top in Pakistan. The polo tournament is played between the teams of Gilgit District and Chitral District, under freestyle rules.Organized and financed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Government, the tournament is held at Shandur Top which is the world highest polo ground at an altitude of 3,700 meters (the pass itself is at 3,800 meters). The festival also includes folk music, dancing and a camping village is set up. The polo tournament is featured in the first episode of Himalaya with Michael Palin. History Polo is an equestrian sport first played in Central Asia in 6th century BC. Its objective was to train the cavalry and simulate a real-life battle. The world’s highest polo ground is in the small village of Shindoor in Pakistan. Located at an altitude of 12,000 feet above sea level, the ground sits in the shadow of the towering Hindukash mountain range. The unique location of the polo ground makes it a popular destination for adventure seekers and polo enthusiasts. In 1935, UK Administrator for Northern Areas Evelyn Hey Cobb asked Balti Raja of Skardu, Ali Sher Khan Anchan, and Nambardar of Chitral, Niat Qabool Hayat Kakakhel, to construct a polo ground in Shandur, which was duly completed with the help of the local population. This polo ground was later on named as "Mas Junali". The word "Mass Junali" is derived from Khowar language. The word "Mas" means moon and "Junali" means polo ground. Cobb was impressed by Kakakhail's resourcefulness and efficiency and wished to reward him for his service, but Kakakhail refused to accept any reward for his work. Instead, for the common benefit, Kakakhail asked Cobb to bring trout to stock the local streams. Cobb ordered live trout from England and dropped them into the Ghizer River. Due to this service, the Directorate of Fisheries was established and hundreds of people were employed. Now, the mass of those fishes in Hundarap Lake reaches 24 kg and in Baha Lake Khukush Nallah, their mass reaches 40 kg. Therefore, Mas Junali became a source of connection between the people of Chitral District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and neighbouring Gilgit-Baltistan. Tournament format and rules Free-styled mountain polo is arguably polo in its purest form. This version of the game played at Shandur Top has attained legendary status and is of great interest to international and domestic adventure tourists alike. There are no umpires and there are no holds barred. In The Roof of the World, Amin/Willets/Tetley write: "by comparison, an American Wild West rodeo might pass for choir practice." As one player once mentioned: "You can ride head-on into the opponent, if you dare." In order to decide the final teams to play at the Shandur Polo Festival, preliminary matches are played both in Chitral and Gilgit, in which the best horses and players are chosen for the final games by the local juries. The festival begins on 7 July. During the course of the tournament A, B, C and D teams of Chitral and Gilgit battle it out on the polo field. Each team has six members with 2 to 4 reserve players in case of injury etc. The match usually lasts one hour. It is divided into two halves, with a ten-minute interval. During intervals, the locals enthrall the audiences with traditional and cultural performances. The game is decided in favour of the team scoring more goals. The final is held on 9 July. The field measures about 200 meters by 56 meters (a regular polo field is about 270m by 150m), with 60 cm high stone walls running the length of the field on both sides instead of boards. As six players make up one side, the field can get fairly crowded. This has the advantage of slightly slowing down the pace, which, all things considered, is probably somewhat safety-enhancing. Players rarely wear helmets, the horses' legs often have no bandages, and mallets often have no grips or straps. See also Lowari Pass Tirich Mir References Further reading Khan, Aurangzaib. "How teams compete for the Shandur Polo Festival". Herald. "Shandor Polo Festival". "Shandor Polo Festival Details".

List of dam removals in Rhode Island

This is a list of dams in Rhode Island that have been removed as physical impediments to free-flowing rivers or streams.

This is a list of dams in Rhode Island that have been removed as physical impediments to free-flowing rivers or streams. Completed removals See also List of dam removals in Massachusetts List of dam removals in Connecticut References External links Media related to Removed dams in Rhode Island at Wikimedia Commons

Bonytail chub

The bonytail chub or bonytail (Gila elegans) is a cyprinid freshwater fish native to the Colorado River basin of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming in the southwestern United States; it has been extirpated from the part of the basin in Mexico. It was once abundant and widespread in the basin, its numbers and range have declined to the point where it has been listed as endangered since 1980 (ESA) and 1986 (IUCN), a fate shared by the other large Colorado basin endemic fish species like the Colorado pikeminnow, humpback chub, and razorback sucker. It is now the rarest of the endemic big-river fishes of the Colorado River. There are 20 species in the genus Gila, seven of which are found in Arizona.

The bonytail chub or bonytail (Gila elegans) is a cyprinid freshwater fish native to the Colorado River basin of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming in the southwestern United States; it has been extirpated from the part of the basin in Mexico. It was once abundant and widespread in the basin, its numbers and range have declined to the point where it has been listed as endangered since 1980 (ESA) and 1986 (IUCN), a fate shared by the other large Colorado basin endemic fish species like the Colorado pikeminnow, humpback chub, and razorback sucker. It is now the rarest of the endemic big-river fishes of the Colorado River. There are 20 species in the genus Gila, seven of which are found in Arizona. Description A bonytail chub can grow to 62 cm (2.03 ft) long. Like many other desert fishes, its coloring tends to be darker above and lighter below, serving as a camouflage. Breeding males have red fin bases. They have a streamlined body and a terminal mouth. Bonytail chubs have bodies that sometimes arch into a smooth, predorsal hump (in adults). While their skull is quite concave, their caudal peduncle (tailside) is thin, and almost looks like a pencil (hence, “bony tail”). The coloration of bonytail chubs is usually dark dorsally and lighter ventrally, however, in very clear waters, they looks almost black all over. During breeding season, males and females have distinct coloration as well. Mature males have bright red-orange lateral bands between their paired fins; while females have a more subdued coloration that is described with the males. Range and status The bonytail chub was once found in the Colorado River basin in many U.S. states, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. It also occurred in the part of the basin in Mexico, but it has been extirpated from this country. This fish species experienced the most abrupt decline of any of the long-lived fishes native to the main-stems of the Colorado River system. No remaining wild population is self-sustaining and it is functionally extinct. Its survival currently relies on release of hatchery-produced fish; several hatcheries maintain this species. Bonytail chubs were one of the first fish species to reflect the changes that occurred in the Colorado River basin after the construction of Hoover Dam; the fish was extirpated from the lower basin between 1926 and 1950. They may still be found in the Green River of Utah and perhaps in the larger Colorado River water bodies. Gila elegans was added to the US list of endangered species on April 23, 1980 and was first recognized as Endangered in 1986 by IUCN. In 2013, its IUCN status was upgraded to Critically Endangered.There is contention about the reintroduction of the bonytail chub. Some are concerned about the amount of water used to increase stream flows that are required for adequate bonytail chub habitat. Bass fishermen are concerned about facilitating the recovery of the bonytail chub by the removal of smallmouth bass, a popular gamefish. Fears of spreading the quagga mussel, an invasive species that clogs water pipelines and fouls marine equipment, has halted the reintroduction of the bonytail chub in Arizona, pending establishment of a stocking protocol that is satisfactory to Arizona wildlife officials. Habitat Bonytail chub prefer backwaters with rocky or muddy bottoms and flowing pools, although they have been reported in swiftly moving water. They are mostly restricted to rocky canyons today but were historically abundant in the wide downstream sections of rivers. Biology Young bonytail chubs typically eat aquatic plants, while adults feed mostly on small fish, algae, plant debris, and terrestrial insects.Bonytail chubs are long-lived and may reach an age of up to 50 years. Reproduction Little is known about their reproductive habits, but they are thought to spawn in mid-summer and perhaps hybridize with both roundtail and humpback chubs. Spawning in Lake Mohave has been observed during May, while in the upper Green River, it occurs in the months of June and July. Eggs are laid randomly over the bottom, and no parental care occurs. Conservation The bonytail chub's population sizes are small, and continue to become even smaller. The depletion of the population is primarily due to the habitat alterations caused by dams and due to competition and predation by non-native fish.A USFWS Recovery Plan was established in 1990, and included objectives of protecting the habitats of the bonytail chub, and even reintroducing hatchery-reared fish into the wild.The Bonytail Chub Recovery Plan was approved on September 4, 1990, and refugia for the bonytail chub exist today in several places: Dexter National Fish Hatchery, New Mexico; Arizona Game and Fish Page Springs Hatchery; Ouray National Wildlife Refuge, Ouray, Utah; Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge, Sasabe, Arizona; Niland Native Fish Ponds, California. References External links Gila elegans Species Profile, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (Accessed 2007 Mar 04) USFWS Environmental Conservation Online System page for Bonytail chub USFWS Upper Colorado Endangered Fish Recovery Program USFWS List of Fish Listed under Endangered Species Act

Ahmed Vefik Pasha

Ahmed Vefik Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: احمد وفیق پاشا) (3 July 1823 – 2 April 1891) was an Ottoman statesman, diplomat, scholar, playwright, and translator during the Tanzimat and First Constitutional Era periods. He was commissioned with top-rank governmental duties, including presiding over the first Ottoman Parliament in 1877. He also served as Grand Vizier for two brief periods. He also established the first Ottoman theatre and initiated the first Western style theatre plays in Bursa and translated Molière's major works. His portrait was depicted on the Turkish postcard stamp dated 1966.

Ahmed Vefik Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: احمد وفیق پاشا) (3 July 1823 – 2 April 1891) was an Ottoman statesman, diplomat, scholar, playwright, and translator during the Tanzimat and First Constitutional Era periods. He was commissioned with top-rank governmental duties, including presiding over the first Ottoman Parliament in 1877. He also served as Grand Vizier for two brief periods. He also established the first Ottoman theatre and initiated the first Western style theatre plays in Bursa and translated Molière's major works. His portrait was depicted on the Turkish postcard stamp dated 1966. Biography Ahmed Vefik Pasha was born of Greek extraction, his ancestors having previously converted to Islam, like many other Greek Muslims particularly from Crete (Cretan Turks) and Southern Macedonia in what is now northwestern Republic of Greece (see Vallahades). He started his education in 1831 in Constantinople and later went to Paris with his family, where he graduated from Saint Louis College. In 1844 Ahmed Vefik was appointed to review claims of special exemptions from the jizya tax. Under some agreements, European officials had started to extend their extraterritorial privileges to "proteges" - Ottoman Christians of Maltese and Ionian origins. Concerned with the massive revenue loss from unpaid jizya taxes in Izmir province, where around two thirds of the tax had become uncollectable, Ahmed Vefik was chosen to assess over 1,500 claims of British protection.Ahmed Vefik became the Minister of Education of the Ottoman Empire and Grand Vizier two times. He built a theatre in Bursa when he was made the governor of the city. In 1860, he became the Ottoman ambassador to France. He wrote the first Turkish dictionary and is considered to be among the first Pan-Turkists. References Further reading Media related to Ahmed Vefik Pasha at Wikimedia Commons Edgar Whitaker (1911). "Ahmed Vefik" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 432–433. This contains a more detailed biography, although comparison with the newer Encyclopædia Britannica entry suggests the information about his early life is in error.

Mr Cruel

Mr Cruel is the moniker for an unidentified Australian serial child rapist who attacked three girls in the northern and eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He is also the prime suspect in the 1991 abduction and murder of a fourth girl, Karmein Chan. His moniker came from a headline in the Melbourne newspaper The Sun. Mr Cruel has never been identified, and his three confirmed attacks and the suspected murder remain unsolved cold cases. There is a reward of A$200,000 for the two abductions.

Mr Cruel is the moniker for an unidentified Australian serial child rapist who attacked three girls in the northern and eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He is also the prime suspect in the 1991 abduction and murder of a fourth girl, Karmein Chan. His moniker came from a headline in the Melbourne newspaper The Sun. Mr Cruel has never been identified, and his three confirmed attacks and the suspected murder remain unsolved cold cases. There is a reward of A$200,000 for the two abductions. In April 2016, twenty-five years after the death of Karmein Chan, Victoria Police increased the reward for information that leads to the perpetrator's arrest and conviction, from A$100,000 to A$1,000,000.Police describe Mr Cruel as highly intelligent. He meticulously planned each attack, conducted surveillance on the victims and their families, ensured he left no forensic traces, protected his identity by covering his face at all times, and left red herrings to divert family and/or police attention. He was soft-spoken, and his behaviour was unhurried; in one attack he took a break during the attack in a victim's house to eat a meal. He threatened to injure his victims or their family members with a knife or a handgun. Crimes On 22 August 1987 in Lower Plenty, a man wearing a balaclava broke into a family home at 4:00 am, armed with a knife and a handgun. He tied the hands and feet of both parents, and locked them in a wardrobe. He then tied the son to a bed, and raped the 11-year-old daughter. He had cut the phone lines.On 27 December 1988 in Ringwood, he broke into a family home via the back door at about 5:20 am, wearing a balaclava and armed with a handgun. He bound and gagged the parents, and demanded money. He then grabbed their 10-year-old daughter, put tape over her eyes and a ball gag in her mouth, and abducted her. She was released eighteen hours later on the grounds of Bayswater High School.On 3 July 1990 in Canterbury, he broke into a family home at 11:30 pm, armed with a knife and a gun, and wearing a balaclava. He tied and gagged a 13-year-old girl, placed tape over her eyes, disabled the phones, and searched for money. He then drove her to another house and molested her for fifty hours before releasing her at a power sub-station in the suburb of Kew. Suspected On 13 April 1991 in Templestowe, a man wearing a balaclava broke into a family home at about 8:40 pm, armed with a knife. He abducted 13-year-old Karmein Chan, who went to the same school as the Canterbury victim. Chan's decomposed body, with three gunshot wounds to the head, was found a year later. It has been reported that some detectives had doubts about whether this crime was committed by Mr Cruel. Detective Chris O'Connor answered a journalist's question in 2013 about whether Mr Cruel was responsible, saying "we just don't know if it was Mr Cruel who murdered Karmein ... we just can't be sure because there isn't enough evidence to make a value judgement about whether it was or wasn't him in the Karmein case." Investigation Mr Cruel is believed to have videotaped, or perhaps taken still photographs, of his attacks. Detectives believe that, if he is still alive, he will have kept the tapes and/or photos, and will still collect, and possibly swap, child pornography. They say he almost certainly continues to collect pornography through the internet, and may communicate with children using chat lines. Mr Cruel meticulously planned his crimes; for example, in one case, he abducted a girl and told her he would release her in exactly fifty hours, which he did. He bathed his victims carefully, with one victim describing the act as "like a mother washing a baby". In two cases, he took a second set of clothes from the girls' homes to dress them before they were freed. The modus operandi was the same in each of the three attacks, and victim statements provided confirmation to police that it was the same offender.Two of Mr Cruel's victims were able to provide police with details of the house where they had been kept. Both had been leashed to a bed. The same two victims told detectives that they had heard planes landing, leading police to believe the house was on one of the flight paths to Melbourne Airport.Police established the Spectrum Task Force in May 1991, dedicated to catching Mr Cruel. The task force searched 30,000 homes and interviewed 27,000 suspects over the attacks, at a cost of A$3.8 million. There was a A$300,000 reward offered by the police for information that led to the conviction of Mr Cruel. A reward poster for the abductions was distributed in 1991 to all Victorian homes, and in certain areas in South Australia and New South Wales. Huge posters were placed in public places. The task force was disbanded in January 1994.The task force investigated earlier sexual crimes from 1985 to 1987 with similar modus operandi, but could not locate some witness statements and crime scene exhibits, including a tape used to tie up a victim and also a rope used to tie a victim. The head of the Spectrum Task Force, David Sprague, said that some exhibits had not ever been examined by forensics, and had either been lost or thrown out. The police established a Rape Squad in April 1989, with nine detectives dedicated to investigating serial rapists throughout Victoria, particularly in Melbourne. The police established the unit after a review into the effectiveness of their rape investigations, by the Rape Investigation and Evaluation Group, found they needed a more coordinated and professional approach to investigations.On 14 December 2010, police announced that the Apollo Task Force had been established about eight months earlier, following substantial new intelligence. The new task force had been reviewing both the Spectrum Task Force investigation and some new leads that had surfaced in the last year or so. The Apollo Task Force closed in June 2013 after finding the intelligence was not credible, ruling out the suspect.Earlier in 2013, the Herald Sun reported that convicted serial child rapist Robert Keith Knight who died in 2013 had been a person of interest. In Detective Chris O'Connor's opinion Knight wasn't Mr Cruel.On 9 April 2016, the Herald Sun newspaper published details of the Spectrum Task Force's dossiers on seven suspects, known as the Sierra Files, that were produced with the assistance of the US FBI. The newspaper also published details of police witness statements from the victims and their families.On 13 April 2016, on the twenty-fifth anniversary of Karmein Chan's murder, the police increased the reward for information on her death to A$1 million. Earlier crimes There had been varying reports by the media of suspected attacks prior to 1987. The police have never released specific details of suspected attacks. Detective Stephen Fontana answered a journalist's question in 2001 on earlier attacks, saying "that there just wasn't enough known about him and he didn't want to speculate".In a 2019 television documentary, retired Detective Chris O'Connor said that there was "broadly speaking perhaps up to a dozen" victims for the investigation. The first victim was a 14-year-old girl who was abducted from her home in Hampton in February 1985. During her assault, the attacker told her, "My liberty, my freedom, is more important than your life". An intimate swab was taken from the victim. Moniker The Sun newspaper gave the perpetrator the moniker of "Mr Cruel" after police described a serial home invasion rapist in November 1987 as "super cool and super cruel". The name was adopted by the rest of the media. At the time, police believed the same perpetrator was responsible for three rapes: the first in 1985 of a woman, the second in 1987 of a girl and the third in 1987 of a woman. See also References External links Melbourne Marvels Mr Cruel 1 – Overview of Case Casefile True Crime Podcast - Case 41: Mr Cruel - 7 January 2017

Thomas E. Hogan

Tom Hogan is currently the Executive Chairman of the Board of Cellebrite (NASDAQ:CLBT). Tom is also a current member of the OneMeta board of directors. Prior to his Cellebrite assignment, he served as an Operating Managing Director at Vista Equity Partners from January 2021 to February, 2023. While at Vista Hogan served on the private boards of Pluralsight, Infoblox, Drift, and Gainsight. Hogan also served as a public company board director at Citrix, Vignette, Inforte, and Vastera.

Tom Hogan is currently the Executive Chairman of the Board of Cellebrite (NASDAQ:CLBT). Tom is also a current member of the OneMeta board of directors. Prior to his Cellebrite assignment, he served as an Operating Managing Director at Vista Equity Partners from January 2021 to February, 2023. While at Vista Hogan served on the private boards of Pluralsight, Infoblox, Drift, and Gainsight. Hogan also served as a public company board director at Citrix, Vignette, Inforte, and Vastera. Prior to joining Vista in January 2021, Tom was the Chairman and CEO of Kony, Inc. from 2014 to its acquisition in the fall of 2019 by Swiss-based Temenos. Hogan assisted with the integration and transition of Kony for three months and exited in February, 2020. Prior to his Kony assignment, Hogan was the executive vice president of Sales and Marketing for HP's $57B Enterprise Business in 2010 after serving as the head of HP's Software business from 2006 - 2009. While EVP of HP's Software business, Hogan led several acquisitions including the acquisition of Mercury Interactive and Opsware. Following his HP assignment, Tom served twelve months as the executive vice president and general manager of CSC. Prior to HP, Hogan served as president and CEO of Vignette (NASDAQ:VIGN) and SVP of Global Sales at Siebel Systems. Hogan began his career at IBM in 1982. Tom Hogan holds a master's degree from Northwestern’s Kellogg School of Management with distinction and a BS in biomedical engineering from the University of Illinois. References NASDAQ - [1] – December 2023 VentureBeat – Thomas E Hogan Appointed Chief Executive Officer of Kony – March 2014 CNET – HP taps Vignette CEO for software job – Jan 2006 HP Delivers Instant-on Enterprise – Nov 2010 Information Week – HP attacks Innovation Gridlock – May 2010 HP Announces Leadership Changes for HP Enterprise Sales, Marketing and Strategy – April 5, 2010 Forbes – Hewlett-Packard's Move Into Software – June 2009 ZD net – HP's expanding software portfolio – Aug 2007 InfoWorld – InfoWorld NewsMakers: Hewlett-Packard's Tom Hogan – Aug 2006 Business Wire – HP Opens HP Sales University – Dec 2010

Luftschiffbau Zeppelin

Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH is a German aircraft manufacturing company. It is perhaps best known for its leading role in the design and manufacture of rigid airships, commonly referred to as Zeppelins due to the company's prominence. The name 'Luftschiffbau' is a German word meaning building of airships. The company was founded by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1908 as a formal entity to continue advancing his pioneering research into rigid airships. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin became the leading manufacturer in the field of large lighter-than-air vehicles; its products were used in both military and civilian capacities.

Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH is a German aircraft manufacturing company. It is perhaps best known for its leading role in the design and manufacture of rigid airships, commonly referred to as Zeppelins due to the company's prominence. The name 'Luftschiffbau' is a German word meaning building of airships. The company was founded by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1908 as a formal entity to continue advancing his pioneering research into rigid airships. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin became the leading manufacturer in the field of large lighter-than-air vehicles; its products were used in both military and civilian capacities. The firm founded DELAG, the world's first airline to use an aircraft in revenue service, in 1909 on the back of public interest and using its own airships. During the First World War, Zeppelins were employed as the first long distance strategic bombers, launching numerous raids upon Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. Following Count von Zeppelin's death in 1917, control of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin fell to Dr. Hugo Eckener, an enthusiastic proponent of the civil value of airships. However, Germany's zeppelins were claimed by the Allies as war reparations. The company continued to innovate during the Interwar period, constructing the largest rigid airship in history, the LZ 129 Hindenburg, lead ship of the Hindenburg class. However, the company's fortunes soured during the Nazi era, particularly following the high-profile Hindenburg disaster. Its airships were grounded and scrapped in 1940 to produce fixed-wing combat aircraft for Nazi Germany's war machine. During the Second World War, the company became involved in the manufacture of the V2 rocket; its facilities were hit by Allied bombing raids and it all but ceased to exist in the final months of the conflict. During the 1980s, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH was revived from its residual assets. It has since become a major shareholder in the company ZLT Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH, which developed and produces the Zeppelin NT, a next generation airship. History Formative years During 1900, Count von Zeppelin's first airship performed its maiden flight. Initially, his research was being financed by the count himself, as well as by private donations, and even a lottery; public interest in Zeppelin's activities grew with the success of each flight. In 1908, the Zeppelin LZ 4 was destroyed during a high-profile test flight. However, this apparent setback proved fortunate in the long run since its loss caused a flood of public support; the ensuing donation campaign collected over six million German marks, which was used to set up both 'Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH' as well as the Zeppelin Foundation.Luftschiffbau Zeppelin proceeded to design and manufacture a range of Zeppelin airships, which found use within both the civilian and military sectors. The company played a leading role in the field of large lighter-than-air vehicles, establishing numerous firsts and innovations over the following decades. One such innovation was the founding of DELAG in 1909, the world's first airline to use an aircraft in revenue service. At the time, orders from the German Army were not immediately forthcoming, thus Alfred Colsman, Zeppelin Luftschiffbau's business manager, suggested harnessing the German public's enthusiasm for airships via the establishment of a commercial passenger-carrying company. By July 1914, DELAG's Zeppelins had transported 34,028 passengers on 1,588 commercial flights; the fleet had flown 172,535 kilometres in 3,176 hours. World War One During the First World War, Imperial Germany decided to deploy Zeppelins as long-distance bombers, launching numerous attacks upon Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. While the direct military effect of these zeppelin raids has been seen as limited, their novelty generated widespread alarm and caused substantial resources to be diverted from the Western Front to address them. At the time, the impact of such raids was overestimated in terms of both the material and psychological effects of the bombing of cities. One inadvertent consequence was the launch of a parliamentary inquiry under Jan Smuts, whose report led to the creation of the Royal Air Force (RAF) on 1 April 1918.Zeppelin technology improved considerably as a result of the conflict. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin came under government control and new personnel were recruited to cope with the increased demand, including the aerodynamicist Paul Jaray and the stress engineer Karl Arnstein. Many technological advances originated from the firm's competitor, the Mannheim-based Schütte-Lanz company. While their dirigibles were never as successful, Professor Schütte's more scientific approach to airship design led to innovations such as a streamlined hull shape, simpler cruciform fins (replacing the more complicated box-like arrangements of older Zeppelins), individual direct-drive engine cars, anti-aircraft machine-gun positions, and gas ventilation shafts that transferred vented hydrogen to the top of the airship. New production facilities were set up to assemble Zeppelins from components fabricated in Friedrichshafen.In 1917, Count von Zeppelin died; control of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin fell to Dr. Hugo Eckener, who had long envisioned dirigibles as vessels of peace rather than of war and hoped to quickly resume civilian flights. Despite considerable difficulties, they completed two small passenger airships: LZ 120 Bodensee (Scrapped July 1928), which first flew in August 1919 and in the following months transported passengers between Friedrichshafen and Berlin, and sister ship LZ 121 Nordstern (Scrapped September 1926), which was intended for use on a regular route to Stockholm.However, in 1921, the Allied Powers demanded that these airships should be handed over as war reparations as compensation for the dirigibles destroyed by their crews in 1919. Germany was not allowed to construct military aircraft and only airships of less than 28,000 m3 (1,000,000 cu ft) were permitted. This brought a halt to Zeppelin's plans for airship development, and the company temporarily resorted to the manufacture of aluminium cooking utensils. Interwar and Second World War Between the mid 1920s and 1940, the company worked closely with the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company to manufacture a pair of Zeppelins in the United States; to cement this relationship, a joint venture company, the Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation, was created to handle such activities. The first airship to be produced under this initiative, the LZ 126, performed its first flight on 27 August 1924. However, the Goodyear-Zeppelin partnership was terminated following the outbreak of the Second World War. Despite this, the American company continued to produce blimps for several decades under the Goodyear name. During 1926, restrictions on airship construction were relaxed by the Locarno treaties, but acquiring the necessary funds for Luftschiffbau Zeppelin's next project proved problematic in the difficult economic situation of post–First World War Germany, requiring two years of lobbying and publicity work to secure the realization of Graf Zeppelin, christened in honour of the firm's founder. On 18 September 1928, when the completed Graf Zeppelin flew for the first time. In the following years, it was not only commenced transatlantic commercial passenger flights but performed several record-breaking flights, including a successful circumnavigation of the globe. Luftschiffbau Zeppelin was keen to continue advancing the capabilities of its airships and begun design work on an even larger airship during the late 1920s.Perhaps the single most famous airship was the LZ 129 Hindenburg, the first of two airships of the Hindenburg class. It was a large commercial passenger-carrying rigid airship, being the longest class of flying machine and the largest airship by envelope volume. Hindenburg was constructed by the company between 1931 and 1936, and performed its maiden test flight from the Zeppelin dockyards at Friedrichshafen on 4 March 1936, with 87 passengers and crew aboard. It subsequently performed propaganda flight around Germany in conjunction with other airships, in addition to transatlantic commercial passenger flights to destinations in both North and South America.The company's fortunes were greatly influenced by the rise of the Nazis to power in Germany during 1933. On the whole, Nazi Germany placed a greater value on 'heavier than air' aircraft over that of zeppelins due to their military superiority. Despite this, zeppelins were prominently used by the nation for a number of major propaganda campaigns, allegedly to great effect. As a consequence of accepting 11 million marks from Goebbels' Ministry of Propaganda and Göring's Air Ministry, the company was effectively divided, with Luftschiffbau Zeppelin making the airships and the Deutsche Zeppelin-Reederei company (affiliated with Lufthansa) operating them. Officially, Hugo Eckener was the head of both entities but, in practice, Ernst Lehmann, who was less opposed to the Nazi regime, ran the latter. As a result of Eckener's criticism of the Nazi regime, Goebbels had ordered his censoring across all forms of public media in 1936.However, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin lost much of its favour amongst political circles following the high-profile Hindenburg disaster in 1937; the event compelled the firm to terminate Zeppelin manufacturing in 1938, while all operations of existing airships was ceased by 1940. In August 1939, the Graf Zeppelin II conducted a reconnaissance flight along Great Britain's coastline in an attempt to determine whether the 100 metre towers erected from Portsmouth to Scapa Flow were used for aircraft radio location. The frames of Graf Zeppelin and Graf Zeppelin II, along with scrap material from Hindenburg, were subsequently scrapped that same year for their materials, which were used to fulfil wartime demands for fixed-wing military aircraft for the Luftwaffe.During the autumn of 1941, the company accepted contracts to produce elements of the V-2 rocket, specifically propellant tanks and fuselage sections. By 17 August 1942, the Allies had suspected that the Zeppelin Works in Friedrichshafen (as well as the Henschel Raxwerke) were involved in the supply chain of the V-2, and on 25 July 1943, British MP Duncan Sandys reported that Friedrichshafen photos depicted rocket firing sites like Test Stand VII at Peenemünde. During the previous month, Allied bombing during Operation Bellicose had hit the Zeppelin V-2 facility, leading to production being subsequently relocated to the Mittelwerk. During the final months of the conflict, the company effectively ceased to exist, disappearing sometime around 1945. Re-emergence Almost 50 years following its disappearance, the company was regenerated from its residual assets. During 1993, the parent group company of the current Zeppelin maker was re-established, while the operating company producing the current Zeppelins was created in 2001.The modern development and construction that is embodied by the Zeppelin NT had been financed by a long-standing endowment, which had been initially funded with money left over from the earlier Zeppelin company, that had been under the trusteeship of the Mayor of Friedrichshafen. A stipulation had been placed upon the endowment that limited the use of its funds to the field of airships. Over the many years, the investment value of the endowment grew to a point where it had become viable for the funds to be put to use for the purpose of designing, developing, and constructing of a new generation of Zeppelins. In 1988, the first considerations into the technological and economic feasibility of reviving the Zeppelin industry began; this included examinations of historic Zeppelin documentation as well as current designs for airships. In December 1990, a feasibility study and accompanying market research program found an initial sales potential for around 80 Zeppelin airships for purposes such as tourism, advertising, and scientific research. In mid 1991, the newly formed development team filed several patents on various technologies that would be later used on the subsequent airship, these included propeller arrangements, structure and girder design, and ballonet implementation. In March 1991, a flyable remote control proof of concept model was demonstrated, which is claimed to have revealed excellent flight characteristics from the onset.In September 1993, the Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH (ZLT) was founded in Friedrichshafen as a corporate spin-off of the original Zeppelin company to pursue development and production of the new generation of Zeppelins, later known as the Zeppelin NT (New Technology). By spring 1994, preparatory studies for a full-sized prototype were underway. In 1995, the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt, Germany's civil aviation authority, officially recognized ZLT as a design organisation, and approved new construction regulations for airships. In November 1995, final assembly of the first airship prototype commenced, it was promoted as being the first rigid airship to be produced by the firm since the Second World War. In July 1996, the under-construction prototype of the Zeppelin NT 07 was presented to the public and the media. In September 1997, the prototype performed its maiden flight at Friedrichshafen; piloted by US test pilot Scott Danneker, it flew for a total of 40 minutes.On 3 May 2011, Goodyear confirmed their intentions to reinstate their historic partnership with Luftschiffbau Zeppelin. Accordingly, Goodyear placed an order for three Zeppelin NT LZ N07-101 models with plans to commence operation in January 2014. The Zeppelin NT is the successor to Goodyear's non-rigid airship, the GZ-20 in Goodyear airship advertising. The first of these airships, referred to as Wingfoot One, was introduced during mid-2014. Fixed-wing aircraft World War I, primarily for the Luftstreitkräfte) Zeppelin-Staaken Riesenflugzeuge Zeppelin-Friedrichshafen C.I & C.II Zeppelin-Lindau D.I Zeppelin-Lindau CL.I & CL.II Zeppelin-Lindau CS.I Zeppelin-Lindau V.IWorld War 2 Fliegende Panzerfaust Zeppelin Rammer See also List of Zeppelins References Citations Bibliography External links Official website Operation Bellicose map from Newsweek 1943 The Zeppelin museum in Friedrichshafen Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH — The original company, now developing the Zeppelin NT US Centennial of Flight Commission — The Zeppelin Documents and clippings about Luftschiffbau Zeppelin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Social network analysis

Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social media networks, meme spread, information circulation, friendship and acquaintance networks, peer learner networks, business networks, knowledge networks, difficult working relationships, collaboration graphs, kinship, disease transmission, and sexual relationships. These networks are often visualized through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines. These visualizations provide a means of qualitatively assessing networks by varying the visual representation of their nodes and edges to reflect attributes of interest.Social network analysis has emerged as a key technique in modern sociology.

Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social media networks, meme spread, information circulation, friendship and acquaintance networks, peer learner networks, business networks, knowledge networks, difficult working relationships, collaboration graphs, kinship, disease transmission, and sexual relationships. These networks are often visualized through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines. These visualizations provide a means of qualitatively assessing networks by varying the visual representation of their nodes and edges to reflect attributes of interest.Social network analysis has emerged as a key technique in modern sociology. It has also gained significant popularity in the following: anthropology, biology, demography, communication studies, economics, geography, history, information science, organizational studies, physics, political science, public health, social psychology, development studies, sociolinguistics, and computer science, education and distance education research, and is now commonly available as a consumer tool (see the list of SNA software).The advantages of SNA are twofold. Firstly, it can process a large amount of relational data and describe the overall relational network structure. tem and parameter selection to confirm the influential nodes in the network, such as in-degree and out-degree centrality. SNA context and choose which parameters to define the “center” according to the characteristics of the network. Through analyzing nodes, clusters and relations, the communication structure and position of individuals can be clearly described. History Social network analysis has its theoretical roots in the work of early sociologists such as Georg Simmel and Émile Durkheim, who wrote about the importance of studying patterns of relationships that connect social actors. Social scientists have used the concept of "social networks" since early in the 20th century to connote complex sets of relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to international.In the 1930s Jacob Moreno and Helen Jennings introduced basic analytical methods. In 1954, John Arundel Barnes started using the term systematically to denote patterns of ties, encompassing concepts traditionally used by the public and those used by social scientists: bounded groups (e.g., tribes, families) and social categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity). Starting in the 1970's, scholars such as Ronald Burt, Kathleen Carley, Mark Granovetter, David Krackhardt, Edward Laumann, Anatol Rapoport, Barry Wellman, Douglas R. White, and Harrison White expanded the use of systematic social network analysis.Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced a further resurgence with work by sociologists, political scientists, economists, computer scientists, and physicists such as Duncan J. Watts, Albert-László Barabási, Peter Bearman, Nicholas A. Christakis, James H. Fowler, Mark Newman, Matthew Jackson, Jon Kleinberg, and others, developing and applying new models and methods, prompted in part by the emergence of new data available about online social networks as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks. Computational SNA has been extensively used in research on study-abroad second language acquisition. Even in the study of literature, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and Romo, Wouter De Nooy, and Burgert Senekal. Indeed, social network analysis has found applications in various academic disciplines as well as practical contexts such as countering money laundering and terrorism. Metrics Size: The number of network members in a given network. Connections Homophily: The extent to which actors form ties with similar versus dissimilar others. Similarity can be defined by gender, race, age, occupation, educational achievement, status, values or any other salient characteristic. Homophily is also referred to as assortativity. Multiplexity: The number of content-forms contained in a tie. For example, two people who are friends and also work together would have a multiplexity of 2. Multiplexity has been associated with relationship strength and can also comprise overlap of positive and negative network ties.Mutuality/Reciprocity: The extent to which two actors reciprocate each other's friendship or other interaction.Network Closure: A measure of the completeness of relational triads. An individual's assumption of network closure (i.e. that their friends are also friends) is called transitivity. Transitivity is an outcome of the individual or situational trait of Need for Cognitive Closure.Propinquity: The tendency for actors to have more ties with geographically close others. Distributions Bridge: An individual whose weak ties fill a structural hole, providing the only link between two individuals or clusters. It also includes the shortest route when a longer one is unfeasible due to a high risk of message distortion or delivery failure.Centrality: Centrality refers to a group of metrics that aim to quantify the "importance" or "influence" (in a variety of senses) of a particular node (or group) within a network. Examples of common methods of measuring "centrality" include betweenness centrality, closeness centrality, eigenvector centrality, alpha centrality, and degree centrality.Density: The proportion of direct ties in a network relative to the total number possible.Distance: The minimum number of ties required to connect two particular actors, as popularized by Stanley Milgram's small world experiment and the idea of 'six degrees of separation'. Structural holes: The absence of ties between two parts of a network. Finding and exploiting a structural hole can give an entrepreneur a competitive advantage. This concept was developed by sociologist Ronald Burt, and is sometimes referred to as an alternate conception of social capital. Tie Strength: Defined by the linear combination of time, emotional intensity, intimacy and reciprocity (i.e. mutuality). Strong ties are associated with homophily, propinquity and transitivity, while weak ties are associated with bridges. Segmentation Groups are identified as 'cliques' if every individual is directly tied to every other individual, 'social circles' if there is less stringency of direct contact, which is imprecise, or as structurally cohesive blocks if precision is wanted.Clustering coefficient: A measure of the likelihood that two associates of a node are associates. A higher clustering coefficient indicates a greater 'cliquishness'.Cohesion: The degree to which actors are connected directly to each other by cohesive bonds. Structural cohesion refers to the minimum number of members who, if removed from a group, would disconnect the group. Modelling and visualization of networks Visual representation of social networks is important to understand the network data and convey the result of the analysis. Numerous methods of visualization for data produced by social network analysis have been presented. Many of the analytic software have modules for network visualization. Exploration of the data is done through displaying nodes and ties in various layouts, and attributing colors, size and other advanced properties to nodes. Visual representations of networks may be a powerful method for conveying complex information, but care should be taken in interpreting node and graph properties from visual displays alone, as they may misrepresent structural properties better captured through quantitative analyses.Signed graphs can be used to illustrate good and bad relationships between humans. A positive edge between two nodes denotes a positive relationship (friendship, alliance, dating) and a negative edge between two nodes denotes a negative relationship (hatred, anger). Signed social network graphs can be used to predict the future evolution of the graph. In signed social networks, there is the concept of "balanced" and "unbalanced" cycles. A balanced cycle is defined as a cycle where the product of all the signs are positive. According to balance theory, balanced graphs represent a group of people who are unlikely to change their opinions of the other people in the group. Unbalanced graphs represent a group of people who are very likely to change their opinions of the people in their group. For example, a group of 3 people (A, B, and C) where A and B have a positive relationship, B and C have a positive relationship, but C and A have a negative relationship is an unbalanced cycle. This group is very likely to morph into a balanced cycle, such as one where B only has a good relationship with A, and both A and B have a negative relationship with C. By using the concept of balanced and unbalanced cycles, the evolution of signed social network graphs can be predicted.Especially when using social network analysis as a tool for facilitating change, different approaches of participatory network mapping have proven useful. Here participants / interviewers provide network data by actually mapping out the network (with pen and paper or digitally) during the data collection session. An example of a pen-and-paper network mapping approach, which also includes the collection of some actor attributes (perceived influence and goals of actors) is the * Net-map toolbox. One benefit of this approach is that it allows researchers to collect qualitative data and ask clarifying questions while the network data is collected. Social networking potential Social Networking Potential (SNP) is a numeric coefficient, derived through algorithms to represent both the size of an individual's social network and their ability to influence that network. SNP coefficients were first defined and used by Bob Gerstley in 2002. A closely related term is Alpha User, defined as a person with a high SNP. SNP coefficients have two primary functions: The classification of individuals based on their social networking potential, and The weighting of respondents in quantitative marketing research studies.By calculating the SNP of respondents and by targeting High SNP respondents, the strength and relevance of quantitative marketing research used to drive viral marketing strategies is enhanced. Variables used to calculate an individual's SNP include but are not limited to: participation in Social Networking activities, group memberships, leadership roles, recognition, publication/editing/contributing to non-electronic media, publication/editing/contributing to electronic media (websites, blogs), and frequency of past distribution of information within their network. The acronym "SNP" and some of the first algorithms developed to quantify an individual's social networking potential were described in the white paper "Advertising Research is Changing" (Gerstley, 2003) See Viral Marketing.The first book to discuss the commercial use of Alpha Users among mobile telecoms audiences was 3G Marketing by Ahonen, Kasper and Melkko in 2004. The first book to discuss Alpha Users more generally in the context of social marketing intelligence was Communities Dominate Brands by Ahonen & Moore in 2005. In 2012, Nicola Greco (UCL) presents at TEDx the Social Networking Potential as a parallelism to the potential energy that users generate and companies should use, stating that "SNP is the new asset that every company should aim to have". Practical applications Social network analysis is used extensively in a wide range of applications and disciplines. Some common network analysis applications include data aggregation and mining, network propagation modeling, network modeling and sampling, user attribute and behavior analysis, community-maintained resource support, location-based interaction analysis, social sharing and filtering, recommender systems development, and link prediction and entity resolution. In the private sector, businesses use social network analysis to support activities such as customer interaction and analysis, information system development analysis, marketing, and business intelligence needs (see social media analytics). Some public sector uses include development of leader engagement strategies, analysis of individual and group engagement and media use, and community-based problem solving. Longitudinal SNA in schools Large numbers of researchers worldwide examine the social networks of children and adolescents. In questionnaires, they list all classmates, students in the same grade, or schoolmates, asking: "who are your best friends?". Students may sometimes nominate as many peers as they wish; other times, the number of nominations is limited. Social network researchers have investigated similarities in friendship networks. The similarity between friends was established as far back as classical antiquity. Resemblance is an important basis for the survival of friendships. Similarity in characteristics, attitudes, or behaviors means that friends understand each other more quickly, have common interests to talk about, know better where they stand with each other, and have more trust in each other. As a result, such relationships are more stable and valuable. Moreover, looking more alike makes young people more confident and strengthens them in developing their identity. Similarity in behavior can result from two processes: selection (birds of a feather flock together) and influence (one rotten apple spoils the barrel). These two processes can be distinguished using longitudinal social network analysis in the R package SIENA (Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analyses), developed by Tom Snijders and colleagues. Longitudinal social network analysis became mainstream after the publication of a special issue of the Journal of Research on Adolescence in 2013, edited by René Veenstra and containing 15 empirical papers. Security applications Social network analysis is also used in intelligence, counter-intelligence and law enforcement activities. This technique allows the analysts to map covert organizations such as an espionage ring, an organized crime family or a street gang. The National Security Agency (NSA) uses its electronic surveillance programs to generate the data needed to perform this type of analysis on terrorist cells and other networks deemed relevant to national security. The NSA looks up to three nodes deep during this network analysis. After the initial mapping of the social network is complete, analysis is performed to determine the structure of the network and determine, for example, the leaders within the network. This allows military or law enforcement assets to launch capture-or-kill decapitation attacks on the high-value targets in leadership positions to disrupt the functioning of the network. The NSA has been performing social network analysis on call detail records (CDRs), also known as metadata, since shortly after the September 11 attacks. Textual analysis applications Large textual corpora can be turned into networks and then analysed with the method of social network analysis. In these networks, the nodes are Social Actors, and the links are Actions. The extraction of these networks can be automated by using parsers. The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from network theory to identify the key actors, the key communities or parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or centrality of certain nodes. This automates the approach introduced by Quantitative Narrative Analysis, whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object. In other approaches, textual analysis is carried out considering the network of words co-occurring in a text. In these networks, nodes are words and links among them are weighted based on their frequency of co-occurrence (within a specific maximum range). Internet applications Social network analysis has also been applied to understanding online behavior by individuals, organizations, and between websites. Hyperlink analysis can be used to analyze the connections between websites or webpages to examine how information flows as individuals navigate the web. The connections between organizations has been analyzed via hyperlink analysis to examine which organizations within an issue community. Netocracy Another concept that has emerged from this connection between social network theory and the Internet is the concept of netocracy, where several authors have emerged studying the correlation between the extended use of online social networks, and changes in social power dynamics. Social media internet applications Social network analysis has been applied to social media as a tool to understand behavior between individuals or organizations through their linkages on social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook. In computer-supported collaborative learning One of the most current methods of the application of SNA is to the study of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). When applied to CSCL, SNA is used to help understand how learners collaborate in terms of amount, frequency, and length, as well as the quality, topic, and strategies of communication. Additionally, SNA can focus on specific aspects of the network connection, or the entire network as a whole. It uses graphical representations, written representations, and data representations to help examine the connections within a CSCL network. When applying SNA to a CSCL environment the interactions of the participants are treated as a social network. The focus of the analysis is on the "connections" made among the participants – how they interact and communicate – as opposed to how each participant behaved on his or her own. Key terms There are several key terms associated with social network analysis research in computer-supported collaborative learning such as: density, centrality, indegree, outdegree, and sociogram. Density refers to the "connections" between participants. Density is defined as the number of connections a participant has, divided by the total possible connections a participant could have. For example, if there are 20 people participating, each person could potentially connect to 19 other people. A density of 100% (19/19) is the greatest density in the system. A density of 5% indicates there is only 1 of 19 possible connections. Centrality focuses on the behavior of individual participants within a network. It measures the extent to which an individual interacts with other individuals in the network. The more an individual connects to others in a network, the greater their centrality in the network.In-degree and out-degree variables are related to centrality. In-degree centrality concentrates on a specific individual as the point of focus; centrality of all other individuals is based on their relation to the focal point of the "in-degree" individual. Out-degree is a measure of centrality that still focuses on a single individual, but the analytic is concerned with the out-going interactions of the individual; the measure of out-degree centrality is how many times the focus point individual interacts with others. A sociogram is a visualization with defined boundaries of connections in the network. For example, a sociogram which shows out-degree centrality points for Participant A would illustrate all outgoing connections Participant A made in the studied network. Unique capabilities Researchers employ social network analysis in the study of computer-supported collaborative learning in part due to the unique capabilities it offers. This particular method allows the study of interaction patterns within a networked learning community and can help illustrate the extent of the participants' interactions with the other members of the group. The graphics created using SNA tools provide visualizations of the connections among participants and the strategies used to communicate within the group. Some authors also suggest that SNA provides a method of easily analyzing changes in participatory patterns of members over time.A number of research studies have applied SNA to CSCL across a variety of contexts. The findings include the correlation between a network's density and the teacher's presence, a greater regard for the recommendations of "central" participants, infrequency of cross-gender interaction in a network, and the relatively small role played by an instructor in an asynchronous learning network. Benefits of SNA There are two benefits of social network analysis. It may first characterize the overall topology of the relational network and analyze a significant amount of relational data. In terms of construction safety, the likelihood that an accident may spark a broad spectrum of public discourse increases with its severity. Through large data mining, social network analysis can display the vast network of all people taking part in public discourse as well as its internal organization. Since social network analysis places more emphasis on relationships than on separate people or organizations, this approach enables to look at the "two-way dialogue between the organization and the public." Second, SNA gives researchers the ability to choose parameters and a customizable measurement system to validate the network's influential nodes, including in-degree and out-degree centrality. SNA gives researchers the flexibility to select parameters based on the context of their study and define the "center" based on the properties of the network. It is possible to characterize the communication structure and individual positions by examining nodes, clusters, and relations. Other methods used alongside SNA Although many studies have demonstrated the value of social network analysis within the computer-supported collaborative learning field, researchers have suggested that SNA by itself is not enough for achieving a full understanding of CSCL. The complexity of the interaction processes and the myriad sources of data make it difficult for SNA to provide an in-depth analysis of CSCL. Researchers indicate that SNA needs to be complemented with other methods of analysis to form a more accurate picture of collaborative learning experiences.A number of research studies have combined other types of analysis with SNA in the study of CSCL. This can be referred to as a multi-method approach or data triangulation, which will lead to an increase of evaluation reliability in CSCL studies. Qualitative method – The principles of qualitative case study research constitute a solid framework for the integration of SNA methods in the study of CSCL experiences.Ethnographic data such as student questionnaires and interviews and classroom non-participant observations Case studies: comprehensively study particular CSCL situations and relate findings to general schemes Content analysis: offers information about the content of the communication among members Quantitative method – This includes simple descriptive statistical analyses on occurrences to identify particular attitudes of group members who have not been able to be tracked via SNA in order to detect general tendencies. Computer log files: provide automatic data on how collaborative tools are used by learners Multidimensional scaling (MDS): charts similarities among actors, so that more similar input data is closer together Software tools: QUEST, SAMSA (System for Adjacency Matrix and Sociogram-based Analysis), and Nud*IST See also References Further reading Introduction to Stochastic Actor-Based Models for Network Dynamics – Snijders et al. Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS) at Carnegie Mellon NetLab at the University of Toronto, studies the intersection of social, communication, information and computing networks Program on Networked Governance, Harvard University Historical Dynamics in a time of Crisis: Late Byzantium, 1204–1453 (a discussion of social network analysis from the point of view of historical studies) Social Network Analysis: A Systematic Approach for Investigating Networks, Crowds, and Markets (2010) by D. Easley & J. Kleinberg Introduction to Social Networks Methods (2005) by R. Hanneman & M. Riddle Social Network Analysis with Applications (2013) by I. McCulloh, H. Armstrong & A. Johnson External links International Network for Social Network Analysis Awesome Network Analysis – 200+ links to books, conferences, courses, journals, research groups, software, tutorials and more Netwiki – wiki page devoted to social networks; maintained at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

KrasAir

KrasAir or Krasnoyarsk Airlines (Russian: Красноярские авиалинии) was a Russian airline with its head office on the grounds of Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo Airport in Krasnoyarsk. It operated scheduled regional and international passenger services, freight transport, cargo handling and charter services from the main base is Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo Airport, as part of AiRUnion alliance. In 2008 Krasair suffered a liquidity crisis, and after a string of operational shutdowns, administrative and strikes, the company ceased operations in October 2008.

KrasAir or Krasnoyarsk Airlines (Russian: Красноярские авиалинии) was a Russian airline with its head office on the grounds of Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo Airport in Krasnoyarsk. It operated scheduled regional and international passenger services, freight transport, cargo handling and charter services from the main base is Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo Airport, as part of AiRUnion alliance. In 2008 Krasair suffered a liquidity crisis, and after a string of operational shutdowns, administrative and strikes, the company ceased operations in October 2008. History Privatization The company traces its roots to the Krasnoyarsk-based Yenisey air wing, established by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route in May, 1934. The air wing eventually differentiated into traditional airline operations, and was as Krasnoyarsk Civil Aviation Directorate (1946–1982) and Krasnoyarsk Aviation Enterprize (1982–1993). In 1993 it was privatized with the state retaining 51% controlling share. AiRUnion KrasAir was managed by Boris Abramovich (CEO, no relation to Roman Abramovich) and his brother Alexander Abramovich (deputy CEO). The Abramovich brothers' aggressive expansion campaign led to the creation of AiRUnion alliance in 2005, the first airline alliance in Russia. It includes KrasAir, Domodedovo Airlines, Samara Airlines, Omskavia and Sibaviatrans and was the third largest domestic carrier in Russia. All of the member airlines were controlled by Krasair management.In 2005 KrasAir attempted to expand internationally, placing a winning bid in Hungary's national carrier Malév privatisation tender. The tender results were initially annulled by Hungarian authorities before finally being sold in February 2007. During 2006 1,118,543 passengers were transported by KrasAir and AiRUnion transported 3,342,815 passengersKrasAir managers were part of a venture together with the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development to create a new low-cost airline called Sky Express. This airline was to be based at Vnukovo Airport and fly initially to domestic routes, using as many as 44 Boeing 737-300/500s. The airline's airfares were to be 30-40% cheaper than other carriers. 2008 crisis In June and August 2008 Krasair and AiRUnion fleets were grounded as the fuel suppliers denied further credit fuel to debt-ridden airlines. In June, Krasair and its principal supplier, Krasnoyarsk-based Sibir Avia Service, reached an agreement to resume fuel supply on condition that Krasair debt did not exceed 100 million roubles. By the middle of August the debt rose to 223 million roubles, and on August 19 Sibir Avia stopped refuelling, leaving thousands of passengers stranded in airports. Krasair blamed the crisis on rising oil prices. In first six months of 2008, fuel accounted for 54% of Krasair costs. Flights were also grounded in Moscow and Omsk airports.Analysts predicted that the fuel crisis would be resolved through intervention of Rostechhologii, a newly formed state conglomerate that controls substantial shares of AiRUnion companies, including Krasair; alternatively, the state may prefer to complete formal bankruptcy process and restructure AiRUnion assets under a new management. On August 24, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin specifically addressed the problem of the grounded airline, authorizing Sergey Ivanov to issue state funds and enable further operations.On August 26, media reports appeared to indicate that bankruptcy was inevitable. Russian Technologies, the principal shareholder, refused to pay AiRUnion's bills and its fleet remained grounded. The same day, the Russian Ministry of Transportation negotiated with Aeroflot, Transaero, S7 Airlines and Rossiya about taking over the routes previously operated by Krasair.On October 27, Krasair was unable to fly most of their aircraft due to a pilots' strike as a refusal by refuelling companies to extend credit to the airline. It was announced that Krasair would cease to exist on November 1, 2008. Destinations Fleet Throughout their history, KrasAir operated the following types of aircraft: References External links KrasAir (Archive) (in Russian) KrasAir Fleet

R. Norris Williams

Richard "Dick" Norris Williams II (January 29, 1891 – June 2, 1968), generally known as R. Norris Williams, was an American tennis player and RMS Titanic survivor. He won the U.S. National Tennis Championships in men's singles in 1914 and 1916. He was ranked the U.S. No. 1 player for 1916 by the USLTA, and world No. 2 for 1914.

Richard "Dick" Norris Williams II (January 29, 1891 – June 2, 1968), generally known as R. Norris Williams, was an American tennis player and RMS Titanic survivor. He won the U.S. National Tennis Championships in men's singles in 1914 and 1916. He was ranked the U.S. No. 1 player for 1916 by the USLTA, and world No. 2 for 1914. Biography Williams was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the son of Philadelphia parents Charles Duane Williams, a direct descendant from Benjamin Franklin, and Lydia Biddle White. He was tutored privately at a Swiss boarding school and spoke fluent French and German. He started playing tennis at age 12, mainly under the guidance of his father.On January 11, 1919, in Paris, France, Williams married Jean Haddock (1890–1929), daughter of Arthur Henry and Matilda (Stewart) Haddock. They had four children. Jean died aged 38 on April 20, 1929, in Philadelphia. Williams remarried to Frances West Gillmore (1908–2001), daughter of Major General Quincy Adams Gillmore II and Frances West (Hemsley) Gillmore, on October 2, 1930. She was a great-granddaughter of Quincy Adams Gillmore. Tennis career In 1911, Williams won the Swiss Championship. A year later, he entered Harvard University and became the intercollegiate tennis champion in singles (1913, 1915) and doubles (1914, 1915).In 1913, Williams lost to Maurice McLoughlin at both the Wimbledon Championships and at the U.S. Championships. Williams is best known for his two men's singles titles at the U.S. Championships. In 1914 he defeated Bill Johnston in the second round and McLoughlin in the final. In 1916 he defeated Bill Johnston in the final.Williams also won the U.S. Clay Court Championships in 1912 and again in 1915.He won the Pennsylvania Lawn Tennis Championships at the Merion Cricket Club on grass in 1912 defeating eight-time champion Wallace F. Johnson in the final and again in 1914 defeating Bill Tilden in the final.He won the Newport Casino Championships in 1915 defeating McLoughlin in the final. In 1920, after returning from WWI, Williams won at Norwood on grass in Britain in 1920 defeating Johnston, the ranking world No. 1 at that time, in the semifinal and James Cecil Parke, the world ranked No. 4 for that year, in the final.In 1922 at Glen Cove, Long Island, N.Y. on grass Williams won the Nassau Bowl defeating Frank Hunter in the final in three straight sets.At age 36, Williams won the Pennsylvania Lawn Tennis Championships at Merion Cricket Club again in 1927 defeating Manuel Alonso Areizaga, ranked world No. 5 for that year, in the final in four sets.He was also on the victorious American Davis Cup team twice: in 1925 and 1926 and was considered a fine doubles player.During the 1924 Olympics, at the age of 33 (and with a sprained ankle), Richard Norris Williams became a gold medalist in the mixed doubles, partnering Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman. He went on to captain several winning Davis Cup teams from 1921 through 1926 as well as the 1934 team. At age 44, he retired from Championship Tennis. Rankings Williams was ranked among the world’s top ten from 1912 to 1914, reaching No. 2 in 1914, and again from 1919 to 1923. In the U.S. he was ranked No. 2 by the USLTA for four straight years from 2012 to 2015 and reached U.S. No. 1 in 2016. Williams was ranked U.S. No. 3 by the USLTA in 1920 and again in 1923. Style Williams had a reputation in singles of always hitting as hard as possible and always trying to hit winners near the lines. This made him an extremely erratic player, but when his game was sporadically "on", he was considered unbeatable. New York Times tennis writer Allison Danzig claimed that Williams had “one of the most daring attacks tennis had seen. He never played safe. He stood in close, took the ball on the rise, often on the half volley, and played for the lines.” “At his best he was unbeatable, and more dazzling than Tilden."He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame (Newport, Rhode Island) in 1957. RMS Titanic Williams also gained fame as being a survivor of the RMS Titanic disaster in April 1912. He and his father, Charles Duane Williams, were traveling first class on the liner when it struck an iceberg and sank. Shortly after the collision, Williams freed a trapped passenger from a cabin by breaking down a door. He was reprimanded by a steward, who threatened to fine him for damaging White Star Line property, an event that inspired a scene in James Cameron's film Titanic (1997). Williams remained on the doomed liner almost until the very end. At one point Williams' father tried to get a steward to fill his flask. The flask was given to Williams and remains in the Williams family. As Titanic began her final plunge, father and son jumped into the water. While Dick was able to save himself, his father was killed by the first funnel falling from the ship. The 21-year-old Williams recalled, "I saw one of the four great funnels come crashing down on top of him. Just for one instant I stood there transfixed – not because it had only missed me by a few feet … curiously enough not because it had killed my father for whom I had a far more than normal feeling of love and attachment; but there I was transfixed wondering at the enormous size of this funnel, still belching smoke. It seemed to me that two cars could have been driven through it side by side." He made his way to the partially submerged Collapsible A, holding onto its side for quite a while before getting in. When Williams entered the water, he was wearing a fur coat which he quickly discarded along with his shoes. Those in Collapsible A who survived were transferred to Collapsible Boat D, which reached RMS Carpathia. Although abandoned by RMS Carpathia, Collapsible A was recovered a month later. On board the lifeboat was the discarded fur coat which was returned to Williams by White Star.After entering the lifeboat, he spent several hours knee-deep in the freezing water. Carpathia arrived on the scene to rescue survivors. The ordeal left his legs so severely frostbitten that the Carpathia's doctor wanted to amputate them. Williams, who did not want his tennis career to be cut short, opted instead to work through the injury by simply getting up and walking around every two hours, around the clock. The choice worked out well for him: later that year, he won his first U.S. Tennis Championship, in mixed doubles, and went on to win many more championships including the Davis Cup with fellow survivor Karl Behr. It was not until after the publication of A Night to Remember (1955), a book about the Titanic disaster, that Williams became acquainted with its author Walter Lord. In 1962, Williams met with Lord and gave a detailed account of the sinking. Military service, business career, historical society Williams served in the United States Army during World War I and was awarded the Croix de Guerre and the Legion of Honor. After the war, he continued playing championship tennis. Williams, also a noted Philadelphia investment banker, was president of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Death Richard Norris Williams died of emphysema on June 2, 1968, aged 77, in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. He was interred at St. David's Episcopal Church in Radnor, Pennsylvania. Grand Slam finals Singles: 3 (2 titles, 1 runner-up) Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runners-up) Mixed doubles: 1 title References External links R. Norris Williams at the International Tennis Hall of Fame R. Norris Williams at the International Tennis Federation R. Norris Williams at the Davis Cup R. Norris Williams at the Association of Tennis Professionals R. Norris Williams collection of World War I material, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.

Porhoët

The noble Breton family line of Porhoët (French pronunciation: [pɔʁwɛt]) was a French noble family in the middle ages, from around 990 through the 1200's. Notable members included Odo I, Odo II, and Alan I. Alan I would go on to form the Franco-Breton House of Rohan, which survives to the modern day.

The noble Breton family line of Porhoët (French pronunciation: [pɔʁwɛt]) was a French noble family in the middle ages, from around 990 through the 1200's. Notable members included Odo I, Odo II, and Alan I. Alan I would go on to form the Franco-Breton House of Rohan, which survives to the modern day. History The first recognised Vicomte de Porhoët was Guithenoc (c. 990–1040CE), was born in Guilliers. He married Allurum (994–?) of Guilliers. He became Vicomte, and in about 1008 he moved to La Trinite, in Porhoet. Both Guilliers and Porhoet are located in the modern day French departement of Morbihan in the province of Brittany. In Porhoët Guithenoc built Josselin Castle, which he named for his son, Josselin (1020–1074). It is still owned by the descendants of Porhoët and is the longest continuously held private estate in the world. Vicomte Josselin de Porhoët had three sons with the surname Rohan: Mainguy De Rohan, Jostho de Rohan, and Roger de Rohan. He had a fourth son, the third vicomte de Porhoët, Odo I, Viscount of Porhoët (1049–?). Odo I married Anne de Leon (1065–?). They had two children, Vicomte Geoffrey de Porhoët (1092–1141) and Alan I, Viscount of Rohan. Geoffrey is said to have married Hawisa Fergant of Brittany (abt. 1105–?). They had two sons, one of which was Odo II, Viscount of Porhoët (1122-?). The title Count of Porhoët was joined to the Breton Ducal crown. Pierre Mauclerc bestowed the title on his daughter Yolande; upon her death the title was rejoined to the Duchy by her brother John I. Franco-Breton House of Rohan Alain le Noir was the 1st Viscount de Rohan. He was the third son of Eudes I de Porhoët and his wife Emma de Léon (the daughter of Guihomar II, Viscount of Léon). The name Rohan comes from the name of the castle he built, and passed on to his descendants, on the shores of the Oust. Viscount of Porhoët as Duke of Brittany Eudes II of Porhoët, also known as Odo II, is a notable figure in the history of the Duchy of Brittany. Odo II married into the ruling duchy of Brittany though his first marriage to Bertha (b.1114–?). This was Bertha's second marriage. She was the daughter of Conan III, Duke of Brittany. Upon Bertha's death, Odo II served as Regent to Bertha's son Conan IV of Penthièvre. Bertha and Odo II had three children permitting the Porhoët line to continue. Bertha's sister Constance (1118–?) was next in line to the duchy (after Bertha); she married Alan, younger brother to Odo II, thus cementing Porhoët claims to Brittany. When Bertha died, Odo II tried to deny Conan IV his inheritance and usurp the rule of Brittany. He formed an alliance with Hoel, Count of Nantes, Conan III's disinherited son. In order to counter Odo II, Henry II of England invaded Brittany. In 1156 Odo was deposed by his step son and imprisoned by Conan IV's ally Raoul de Fougères. Henry II razed Josselin Castle. Odo II had a second marriage with Jeanne/Eléonore de Léon, daughter of Guiomar III, Vicomte de Léon. Their son became Odo III. The Viscounts and Counts of Porhoët Guithenoc (990–1040), becomes Viscount. Josselin (1025–1074), son of Guithenoc. Odo I, Viscount of Porhoët (1049–1092), son of Josselin. Geoffrey (1082–1141), son of Odo I. Odo II, Viscount of Porhoët (1122–1170), son of Geoffrey, married Bertha and so became son-in-law of Conan III, Duke of Brittany; contested the Ducal Crown of Brittany. Odo III (1160–1239), son of Odo II; he was made Count of Porhoët. Also of note Alan de Porhoët, son of Odo I, was created Viscount of Rohan and was the founder of the House of Rohan. Alan de Porhoët, younger brother of Odo II, left for England and became Alan la Zouche, great-grandfather of two English Barons and great-great-grandfather of a third - see Baron Zouche. Notes References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20070814061819/http://www.peterjoslin.btinternet.co.uk/chateau_josselin.htm http://www.casteland.com/puk/castle/bretagne/morbihan/josselin/josselin.htm

MIT Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department

The MIT Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department is an engineering department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious in the world, and offers degrees of Master of Science, Master of Engineering, Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science.

The MIT Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department is an engineering department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious in the world, and offers degrees of Master of Science, Master of Engineering, Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science. History The curriculum for the electrical engineering program was created in 1882, and was the first such program in the country. It was initially taught by the physics faculty. In 1902, the Institute set up a separate Electrical Engineering department. The department was renamed to Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in 1975, to highlight the new addition of computer science to the program. Current faculty Professors Silvio Micali Harold Abelson Anant Agarwal Akintunde I. Akinwande Dimitri A. Antoniadis Arvind Arthur B. Baggeroer Hari Balakrishnan Dimitri P. Bertsekas Robert C. Berwick Duane S. Boning Louis D. Braida Rodney A. Brooks Vincent W. S. Chan Anantha P. Chandrakasan Paul E. Gray (S.B. 1954, S.M. 1955, Ph.D. 1960) Marvin Minsky Pablo A. Parrilo L. Rafael Reif Jerome H. Saltzer (Sc.D. 1966) Kenneth N. Stevens (Sc.D. 1952) Gerald J. Sussman (S.B. 1968, Ph.D. 1973, both in Mathematics) Patrick H. Winston Regina Barzilay (website) Associate professors Saman P. Amarasinghe Krste Asanovic Marc Baldo Sangeeta Bhatia Vladimir Bulovic Isaac L. Chuang Michael Collins Karl K. Berggren Elfar Adalsteinsson Tomas Palacios Professors emeriti Michael Anthans Abraham Bers Amar Bose (S.B. 1951, S.M. 1952, Sc.D. 1956) James D. Bruce Fernando J. Corbató Shaoul Ezekiel Robert Fano (S.B. 1941, Sc.D. 1947) Former faculty Leo Beranek Gordon S. Brown (S.B. 1931, S.M. 1934, Ph.D. 1938) Vannevar Bush (Eng.D. 1916) Jack Dennis (S.B. 1953, S.M. 1954, Sc.D. 1958) Harold Edgerton (S.M. 1927, Sc.D. 1931) Jay Wright Forrester (S.M. 1945) Irwin M. Jacobs (S.M. 1957, Sc.D. 1959) William B. Lenoir (S.B. 1961, S.M. 1962, Ph.D. 1965) John McCarthy Julius Stratton (S.B. 1923, S.M. 1926) Notable alumni References External links MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Rob Fowler (meteorologist)

Rob Fowler is a meteorologist in the South Carolina Lowcountry, and chief meteorologist for WCBD-TV. Fowler is married with three children: Trey, Kylie, and Tate.

Rob Fowler is a meteorologist in the South Carolina Lowcountry, and chief meteorologist for WCBD-TV. Fowler is married with three children: Trey, Kylie, and Tate. Meteorologist with WCBD Rob Fowler became a meteorologist for WCBD in Charleston, SC in 1987. Before this, he worked for WBAY in Green Bay, Wisconsin. He was hired as Chief meteorologist at WCBD. Fowler has won many national awards for his work. Hurricane Hugo Fowler stayed in Charleston, before, during, and after Hurricane Hugo in 1989. He also gave a special report on the hours leading up to the hurricane and on the destruction left in its wake. Shaving the mustache In May 2007, Fowler announced that he was going to shave off his famous mustache for the American Cancer Society, after recovering from cancer himself. The mustache is gone, and Fowler has not grown it back since, other than when he agreed to grow the mustache for the 30 days of "Movember", a Men's Health Awareness Activity in November, 2013. On December 19, 2008, a group of students from across South Carolina including Wando High School, Clemson University, College of Charleston, and The Citadel Military College formed a protest in front of the News 2 studio, led by Wando High School senior, Joey Nelson, to try to convince Rob Fowler to grow the mustache back.In October 2009, five Charleston residents, Matt Stanley, Thomas McElwee, Chris Richter, John Tankersley, and Kristin Abbott, started a band named Fowler's Mustache. Regarding the band's name choice, McElwee said "Rob Fowler decided to shave his mustache off, which we all agree was a terrible idea. We joke that we're bringing back the best thing that the Lowcountry has been missing out on." Toys for Tots Fowler has been working with the Marines to help give toys to underprivileged children. He works with the Boy Scouts, Papa Johns, and Chick-Fil-A to collect toys. He usually lets his children come with him to deliver toys. == References ==

Superman: Doomsday

Superman: Doomsday is a 2007 American adult animated superhero film adapted from the DC Comics storyline "The Death of Superman", which focuses on the death and return of the superhero Superman. Released by Warner Bros. Animation, it is the first film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the animation and more violent tone than previous adaptations but called it a disappointment. However, it grossed $10 million on a budget of $3.5 million, making it a commercial success.

Superman: Doomsday is a 2007 American adult animated superhero film adapted from the DC Comics storyline "The Death of Superman", which focuses on the death and return of the superhero Superman. Released by Warner Bros. Animation, it is the first film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the animation and more violent tone than previous adaptations but called it a disappointment. However, it grossed $10 million on a budget of $3.5 million, making it a commercial success. Plot Superman and Lois Lane are romantically involved, but Lois is not happy with him not revealing his secret identity to her. While digging, workers from LexCorp unearth the spaceship of Doomsday, a genetically-engineered super-soldier that is highly hostile toward any life form it comes across. It massacres the digging crew and begins a rampage towards Metropolis, killing animals and humans on sight. When Doomsday reaches Metropolis, it decimates the military until Superman arrives. Superman and Doomsday engage in a fierce battle across Metropolis, with Superman being brutally beaten but eventually winning. However, the victory is short-lived as Superman dies in Lois' arms. Lex Luthor kills Mercy Graves, his personal assistant, to ensure no one else knows of LexCorp's involvement with Doomsday's release. The world mourns Superman and Metropolis honors him with a memorial. Superman's friends cope with his death in various ways. Jimmy Olsen takes a job at a tabloid newspaper The National Voyeur, Perry White becomes an alcoholic, and Lois, having realized that Clark was Superman, visits Martha Kent for counsel. In Superman's absence, Metropolis is overwhelmed by criminals. Toyman uses a giant mechanical spider to hold children hostage. Lois decides to save them herself, but Toyman tries to kill her and a little girl. Superman digs out of his grave and saves Lois and the girl, apprehending Toyman. He doesn't seem quite the same, but Lois dismisses it as shock. She becomes suspicious, however, when Martha tells her that Clark has not called home. The resurrected Superman is revealed to be a clone created by Luthor who is keeping the real Superman's body preserved in a tube, unaware that Superman is, barely, still alive. He periodically tortures the clone Superman in a special lead-lined room. A robot from the Fortress of Solitude detects that Superman is still alive, recovers his body, and begins restoring him to health. Meanwhile, the clone's attitude darkens when he hears that Toyman killed a child. In retaliation, the clone abducts the villain and kills him in front of the police station. The city is stunned and the clone threatens the populace into abiding by the law. This convinces Lois and Martha that this is not the real Superman. Lex berates the clone, orders him to find Superman's corpse, and threatens to kill him if he misbehaves again. The clone deduces that a lead-shielded kryptonite pellet is in his brain, and removes it. Lois tranquilizes Luthor and searches his files with Jimmy, discovering that Luthor is cloning an army of Supermen. Lex awakens armed with a gun, but the original clone saves Lois and Jimmy, destroying the cloning facility and the yet-to-be-awakened clones. Luthor hopes to ambush the clone in a panic room, but the clone simply locks him inside and tosses the entire room into the street. This latest presumed murder triggers military action which fails. Superman is revived and resolves to confront the clone, although his powers are not fully restored. To improve his odds he dons a "solar suit" and brings a Kryptonite gun. The two battle and Lois manages to hit the clone with a kryptonite blast. The clone destroys the gun, but the Kryptonite canister sticks to the clone's chest and Superman vaporizes it with his heat vision. Before dying, the clone tells Superman to protect the people. Lois is sure of the real Superman once he kisses her, and the crowd is similarly happy now that they know that the real Superman is alive. At Lois' apartment, Superman reveals himself to be Clark Kent, and Lois embraces him with elation. At LexCorp, Lex is revealed to be critically injured and in a wheelchair, but still alive. He smiles, musing that there may still be a way for him to destroy Superman. Voice cast Production Despite similar animation styles, the film used new animation models, and is only loosely based on the DC Animated Universe that lasted from 1992 to 2006, with a few allusions to the older series, as well as the Fleischer Superman series, found in the Fortress of Solitude. Kevin Smith cameo Writer/director Kevin Smith made a brief cameo in the film, during the scene in which Superman apprehends Toyman. As Superman carries Toyman off, a man (modeled after and voiced by Smith) remarks, "Like we really needed him to bust up a mechanical spider, right? Lame!" This is a reference to the Warner Bros. Superman project that he and film producer Jon Peters collaborated on, which never came to fruition. According to Smith, Peters wanted Superman to fight a giant spider in the film's third act. Smith revealed in his interview film An Evening with Kevin Smith that he incorporated this and Peters' other ideas into his script. Tim Burton was eventually brought onto the project, and discarded Smith's screenplay, wishing to employ a different screenwriter. A giant mechanical spider eventually was used in the climax of the 1999 Warner Bros. film Wild Wild West, which Peters co-produced. Release The film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray September 18, 2007. Before the DVD release, the movie was first screened at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 26, 2007. It made its U.S. broadcast premiere on Cartoon Network on July 12, 2008, in a heavily edited format. One of the aforementioned edits appears only in the South Korean release, wherein Superman is seen flying over South Korea congratulating Ban Ki-Moon for becoming the 8th Secretary-General of the U.N.Superman: Doomsday was exclusively available on DVD with a collectible packaging depicting Superman bursting through the movie's logo. It was the only film in the series originally released without a special edition. Following a year later was a two-disc special edition DVD release. The special features included a retrospective look at how the Death of Superman comic came to be, a look at voice actors, as well as a Defeat Doomsday game with a 10-minute preview to the next animated film; Justice League: The New Frontier. Release of a Blu-ray version was announced with a release date of February 26, 2008, but was delayed.Warner Home Video released a new "Special Edition" Blu-ray and DVD, featuring new bonus materials on November 25, 2008. Rating The film's generous amount of violence and profane language garnered a PG-13 rating from the MPAA. This is the first time an animated Superman project has ever received such a strong rating. Most of the more visceral deaths take place off-camera; however, the fight sequences are very intense. During the Doomsday vs. Superman fight scene, Superman coughs a puddle of blood onto the ground, perhaps the most visual use of blood in the entire film. This marked the start of DC animated films featuring more adult content compared to previous projects, and a majority of subsequent DC Universe Original Animated Movies would receive a PG-13 or R rating. Soundtrack The soundtrack to Superman: Doomsday was released on October 26, 2007. The music was composed by Robert J. Kral. The soundtrack listing: Reception Critical response The film received favorable reviews from critics. Following the screening at Comic-Con, and its release on DVD, the movie garnered mostly positive reviews, with some reviewers commenting it was a marked improvement compared to other recent DC animated adaptations; some commented it raised the bar for the follow-up to the live-action Superman Returns which had been released the previous summer. Many also agreed it was also better in comparison to the recent animated films Marvel Studios had released based on their characters (such as Ultimate Avengers), in part due to the more adult and action-packed story in keeping with its PG-13 rating. Many reviews spoke highly of James Marsters' and Adam Baldwin's voice acting as Lex Luthor and Superman, while reviews of Anne Heche's portrayal of Lois Lane were mixed.Not all reviews of the film were positive. DVDTalk.com, while praising the film's look and its technical presentation, called the film "a massive disappointment" and also negatively commented on the film's short running time and its lack of adherence to the storyline of The Death of Superman comics. James Deaux of Earth-2.net gave the movie a score of 5.5 out of 10, claiming the movie was far too overhyped and the result was not a bad, but a mediocre product with "many instances of...lazy writing, confusing animation, a couple of glaring plot holes and some mediocre voice acting." He also criticized the title of the movie given that Doomsday has such a minimal role in the film. Sales The Top 100 DVD sales chart for September 18–23, 2007 revealed that the film was placed at #4, and was two spots ahead of the season six release of Smallville, a Superman related television show. Variety made a report three months after the DVD's release, on DTV movies becoming very popular, and revealed that the DVD sold 600,000 copies, 30% more than what the studio predicted. At the present time, Superman Doomsday is the highest selling film from the DC direct-to-video series selling more than 680,000 units. References External links Official website Superman: Doomsday @ The World's Finest Superman: Doomsday at IMDb

Asenath Nicholson

Asenath Hatch Nicholson (February 24, 1792 – May 15, 1855) was an American vegan, social observer and philanthropist. She wrote at first hand about the Great Hunger in Ireland in the 1840s. She wrote about the life of Ireland both before and during the crop failures that caused famine as she walked the country distributing copies of the Bible, food and clothing.

Asenath Hatch Nicholson (February 24, 1792 – May 15, 1855) was an American vegan, social observer and philanthropist. She wrote at first hand about the Great Hunger in Ireland in the 1840s. She wrote about the life of Ireland both before and during the crop failures that caused famine as she walked the country distributing copies of the Bible, food and clothing. Life Nicholson was born in Chelsea in Vermont in 1792. Her family belonged to the Protestant Congregation Church and she was named after the biblical Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah and wife of Joseph. She trained and became a successful teacher in her hometown before she married Norman Nicholson, a widower with three children, and went to live in New York. They family became interested in the diet recommended by Sylvester Graham. In the 1840s they ran a boarding house that offered this vegetarian diet. Nicholson also advocated exercise and occasional fasting. She published the first Graham recipes.In May 1844, after her husband's death: 406  she left New York for Ireland and when she arrived she walked around the country, visiting virtually every county. She noted that people lacked work and they relied almost entirely on their crop of potatoes. She left for Scotland in August having observed Ireland just before the outbreak of the Irish Famine. Upon her return to America, she wrote Ireland's Welcome to the Stranger, or, An Excursion through Ireland in 1844 & 1845, for the Purpose of Personally Investigating the Condition of the Poor, which was published in New York by Baker & Scribner in 1847. She had a sharp eye for inequality and exploitation - exploring the grounds of Clifden Castle in Connemara she wrote of a grotto she discovered: Now appeared a fairy castle, a house with variegated pillars and open door, made of shells of the most delicate shades, arranged in stars and circles of beautiful workmanship. These showed exquisite taste in the designer, and must have been done with great cost and care. I found that a laboring peasant was the architect of this wonderful fabric, but he was kept most religiously in his rank, laboring for eight pence a day.: 397  In Roundstone a man described potatoes to her as "The greatest curse that ever was sent on Ireland; and I never sit down, see, use, or eat one, but I wish every divil of 'em was out of the island. The blackguard of a Raleigh who brought 'em here, entailed a curse upon the laborer that has broken his heart. Because the landholder sees we can live and work hard on 'em, he grinds us down in our wages, and then despises us because we are ignorant and ragged." She comments: This is a pithy truth, one which I had never seen in so vivid a light as now. She returned in 1846 during the second of the five annual crop failures of the potatoes on which the poor of Ireland depended, which, together with high unemployment, was creating a national disaster. Nicholson was concerned that she would just have to witness the suffering but she wrote to the New-York Tribune and The Emancipator in New York and assistance from their readers was organised. In the following July five barrels of corn arrived from New York. On the same ship were 50 barrels for the Central Relief Committee, but Nicholson preferred to go it alone.She wrote an eyewitness account of the Great Hunger in Ireland in the 1840s, Annals of the Famine in Ireland, 1847, 1848 and 1849, which she had observed as she walked the country distributing bibles, food, and clothing.Nicholson died in Jersey City in 1855. Vegetarianism In 1835, Nicholson authored the first American vegetarian cookbook, Nature's Own Book. Nicholson stated that "good bread, pure water, ripe fruit, and vegetables are my meat and drink exclusively." The book utilized some recipes with dairy, but Nicholson personally advocated against its use.Nicholson also authored, Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians. The book was published by William Horsell in 1849. A review in the Vegetarian Advocate, noted that "butter and eggs are excluded" from the recipes. The Vegan Society have cited the book as the first vegan cookbook. Selected publications Nature's Own Book (1835) Ireland's Welcome to the Stranger: Or An Excursion Through Ireland, in 1844 & 1845, for the Purpose of Personally Investigating the Condition of the Poor (1847) Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians (1849) Annals of the Famine in Ireland in 1847, in 1848 and 1849 (1851) Loose Papers: Or, Facts Gathered During Eight Years' Residence in Ireland, Scotland, England, France, and Germany (1853) == References ==

Henry Sylvester Williams

Henry Sylvester-Williams (24 March 1867 or 15 February 1869 – 26 March 1911) was a Trinidadian lawyer, activist, councillor and writer who was among the founders of the Pan-African movement. As a young man, Williams travelled to the United States and Canada to further his education, before subsequently moving to England, where he founded the African Association in 1897 to "promote and protect the interests of all subjects claiming African descent, wholly or in part, in British colonies and other place, especially Africa, by circulating accurate information on all subjects affecting their rights and privileges as subjects of the British Empire, by direct appeals to the Imperial and local Governments." In 1900, Williams organised the First Pan-African Conference, held at Westminster Town Hall in London. In 1903 he went to practise as a barrister in Southern Africa, becoming the first black man to be called to the bar in the Cape Colony.

Henry Sylvester-Williams (24 March 1867 or 15 February 1869 – 26 March 1911) was a Trinidadian lawyer, activist, councillor and writer who was among the founders of the Pan-African movement. As a young man, Williams travelled to the United States and Canada to further his education, before subsequently moving to England, where he founded the African Association in 1897 to "promote and protect the interests of all subjects claiming African descent, wholly or in part, in British colonies and other place, especially Africa, by circulating accurate information on all subjects affecting their rights and privileges as subjects of the British Empire, by direct appeals to the Imperial and local Governments." In 1900, Williams organised the First Pan-African Conference, held at Westminster Town Hall in London. In 1903 he went to practise as a barrister in Southern Africa, becoming the first black man to be called to the bar in the Cape Colony. Early life The date and place of birth for Williams is contested. He was born in 1869 in Arouca, Trinidad, He was the eldest son of Elizabeth and Henry Bishop Williams, a wheelwright from Barbados. Williams grew up in Arouca, a village where the majority of residents were of African descent. He attended the Arouca School, which at the time was run by a Chinese Trinidadian known as Stoney Smith.Williams started his working life at the age of 17, becoming a teacher with a Class III Certification, and in 1887 he was posted to the government school in San Fernando. According to the records, he was one of only three teachers with certificates in that year. A year later he was the only certified teacher at the school in Canaan, just south of San Fernando; and the following year he was transferred to San Juan, where he remained until he left Trinidad in 1891. A cultured man, he was also qualified to teach singing and played the piano regularly. In January 1890, Williams became a founding member of the Trinidad Elementary Teachers Union. The feature address was given by Chief Justice Sir John Gorrie, was in favour of reform in government and was constantly at odds with the white ruling class. He frequently gave judgments against the establishment and was so beloved by the man in the street that he was known as "Papa Gorrie". Williams exhorted the teachers to act as professionals. This is a free country, he reminded them, even if it is a Crown Colony. Gorrie undoubtedly would have influenced his thinking. Around that time, one of Williams' acquaintances, a coloured lawyer named Edgar Maresse Smith, petitioned the Governor to declare 1 August a holiday for the celebration of Emancipation. Robinson did not support it but Gorrie did. Even at that time, there was in Trinidad a highly educated, articulate and race-conscious group of black men, among them John Jacob Thomas, Maresse Smith, Mzumbo Lazare, C. E. Petioni, the Reverend Phillip Henry Douglin. Thomas particularly was famous for his book Froudacity (1889), in which he refuted and questioned the view espoused by Oxford historian James Anthony Froude that black people could not be entrusted with self-government. Thomas's ideas certainly inspired Williams. In 1891 Williams went to New York City, but could only get work shining shoes. He moved in 1893 to Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to study for a law degree. While living in Canada, Henry became a co-founder of the pioneering and innovative Coloured Hockey League (1895–1936), featuring teams from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.In 1895, he went to London and entered King's College London, but although it is known he studied there, there is no record of his enrolment at that time. In his book on the life of Williams, Owen Mathurin notes: "Williams was not as fortunate as some of his fellow Trinidadians who had come to study for professions at the expense of wealthy parents or as young winners of a government scholarship who received singular remittances." It was therefore not until 1897 he enrolled as a student of Gray's Inn to read for the bar. He satisfied the entrance requirements by passing a preliminary examination in Latin, English and History. Williams wrote to newspapers and journals on matters touching on Pan-African interests and during this time earned some money through lecturing for the Church of England Temperance Society. This took him to all parts of the British Isles speaking under the auspices of parish churches. He also lectured on thrift for the National Thrift Society whose chairman, Dr Greville Walpole, wrote that Williams's "heroic struggle to make ends meet won his admiration because the little he was able to earn by his lectures simply defrayed the cost of living."The then 29-year-old Williams became friendly with 32-year-old Agnes Powell, who worked as a secretary with the Temperance Society. She was the eldest of a family of three sons and four daughters of Captain Francis Powell of Kent, who was prominent in local Masonic and Conservative political circles. Williams and Agnes Powell married in 1898 in the face of the strongest opposition of her father, who refused to give his consent and thereafter refused to receive Williams. They had five children; the first, Henry Francis Sylvestre, was born the following year. Henry Sylvester Pan-African perspective Some time after June 1897, Williams formed the African Association (later called the Pan-African Association). His good friend, Trinidad attorney Emmanuel Mzumbo Lazare, who at the time was in London taking part in Queen Victoria's 60th anniversary celebrations as an officer of the Trinidad Light Infantry Volunteers, mentioned to Williams a South African woman, Mrs A. V. Kinloch, whom Lazare had heard discuss "under what oppressions the black races of Africa lived" at a meeting of the Writers' Club in London. Williams himself subsequently met Kinloch, who was touring Britain on behalf of the Aborigines' Protection Society (APS), speaking in particular about South Africa. The meeting of these minds resulted in the formation of the African Association. Stating that "the time has come when the voice of Black men should be heard independently in their own affairs", Williams gave his first address as honorary general secretary in the common-room at Gray's Inn, and Kinloch was the association's first treasurer.Some English people felt the Association would not last three months but by 1900 Williams was ready to hold the first Pan-African Conference (subsequent gatherings were known as Congresses). The three-day gathering took place at Westminster Town Hall on 23, 24, and 25 July with delegates comprising "men and women of African blood and descent" from West and South Africa, the West Indies, the United States and Liberia. W. E. B. Du Bois, who was to become the movement's torchbearer at subsequent Pan-African Congresses, was a participant and his Address to the Nations with its prophetic statement "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colour-line" came to be regarded as the defining statement of the conference.After this Williams set about spreading the word and he embarked on lecture tours to set up branches in Jamaica, Trinidad and the United States. On 28 June 1901 the Trinidad branch of the Pan African Association was formed, with branches in Naparima, Sangre Grande, Arima, Manzanilla, Tunapuna, Arouca and Chaguanas. He spent two months here and after his departure for the US even more local branches were formed. However, after this the profile of the Association suffered because he was not able to give it his full attention. Returning to London that year, he published a monthly journal called the Pan-African, which lasted only a few issues. He finished his bar exams and, like Mahatma Gandhi around the same time, went on to practise in South Africa, staying there from 1903 to 1905. Williams was the first black man to be admitted to the bar in the Cape Colony, on 29 October 1903, having presented to the court in Cape Town a certificate issued on 20 September confirming his credentials: Mr. Sylvester Williams was admitted as a barrister in the Supreme Court of Cape Colony last month. He is a West Indian. He was educated for the most part at Dalhousie University, Canada, where he spent eight years and took his degree. Afterwards he became a member of Gray's Inn, London. He has practised for several years in London, mainly at the Old Bailey. – Indian Opinion, 12 November 1903. He knew that non-whites were badly treated, but still he took this step. He was soon agitating for the rights of blacks. He also presided over the opening of a coloured preparatory school staffed by West Indians. He was eventually boycotted by the Cape Law Society for it was felt he was "preaching seditious doctrines to the natives against the white man". Return to London On his return to London, Williams decided to run for public office, as he felt there should be an African spokesman in Parliament and his South African experience had given him the knowledge he needed to speak competently on these affairs. The blacks and coloureds were "my people" and on his arrival he gave the Colonial Office his views. "We should not be deprived of equal justice because of the colour of our skins," he said. Williams joined the Fabian Society and the National Liberal Club, but did not make it to Parliament. He became involved in municipal politics and won a seat as a Progressive on Marylebone Borough Council in November 1906. He and John Archer were among the first people of African descent to be elected to public office in Britain. However, service as a councillor did not take him away from his interest in and devotion to Africa. He became involved with Liberian affairs and went there in 1908 at the invitation of president Arthur Barclay. In 1908, he returned to Trinidad, where he rejoined the bar and practised until his death four years later. Williams died on 26 March 1911, at the age of 42. He was buried at Lapeyrouse Cemetery, Port of Spain. Legacy The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, held a conference on "Henry Sylvester Williams and Pan-Africanism: A Retrospection and Projection" on 7–12 January 2001. A memorial plaque on the site of his former London home at 38 Church Street, Marylebone, was unveiled on 12 October 2007.Williams was named 16th on a 2003 list of the "100 Great Black Britons". References Further reading Imanuel Geiss, The Pan-African Movement: A History of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe and Africa, London: Methuen, 1974. James R. Hooker, Henry Sylvester Williams: Imperial Pan-Africanist, London: Rex Collings, 1975, 135 pp. Owen C. Mathurin, Henry Sylvester Williams and the Origins of the Pan-African Movement, 1869–1911 (Contributions in Afro-American & African Studies), Greenwood Press, 1976, 224 pp. Marika Sherwood, Origins of Pan-Africanism: Henry Sylvester Williams, Africa, and the African Diaspora, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-87959-0, 354 pp. Eichhorn N. (2019), "Henry Sylvester Williams’s Black Atlantic". In Atlantic History in the Nineteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. == External links ==

Robert Hunt (Parliamentarian)

Robert Hunt (c. 1609 – 20 February 1680) was an English lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1641 and 1660. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War, although he was mistakenly disabled from parliament as a Royalist. Hunt was the eldest son of John Hunt of Forston, Charminster, Dorset and Compton Pauncefoot, Somerset and his wife Catharine Pepham, daughter. of Alexander Popham of Huntworth, North Petherton, Somerset. He was educated at Rampisham, Dorset under Mr Allott and was admitted at Caius College, Cambridge on 5 October 1625, aged 16.

Robert Hunt (c. 1609 – 20 February 1680) was an English lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1641 and 1660. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War, although he was mistakenly disabled from parliament as a Royalist. Hunt was the eldest son of John Hunt of Forston, Charminster, Dorset and Compton Pauncefoot, Somerset and his wife Catharine Pepham, daughter. of Alexander Popham of Huntworth, North Petherton, Somerset. He was educated at Rampisham, Dorset under Mr Allott and was admitted at Caius College, Cambridge on 5 October 1625, aged 16. He entered Middle Temple in 1625 and was called to the bar in 1633. He was a J.P. for Somerset by the early 1640s.In November 1640, Hunt was elected Member of Parliament for Ilchester, but his election was declared void. However he was re-elected in February 1641. He was disabled from sitting in 1644 when the local sequestrator claimed that he had attended the King's Parliament. However he was able to prove that he had given £100 to support the parliamentary cause. He was cleared delinquency but did not resume his seat. He was JP for Somerset from 1654 to 1659, a commissioner for scandalous ministers in 1654, a commissioner for security in 1655, and a commissioner for assessment in 1657. As High Sheriff of Somerset for 1654–55 during the Interregnum he was in charge of the trial of the Royalists after the Penruddock uprising which he conducted with reliability and impartiality. In 1659 he was elected MP for Somerset in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was JP for Somerset from March 1660 until his death and a commissioner for militia in March 1660.In April 1660 Hunt was elected MP for Ilchester in the Convention Parliament. He was commissioner for sewers in August 1660. He was commissioner for assessment from 1661 until his death and Deputy Lieutenant from 1666. He was considered "the most reputed justice in Somerset" and personally uncovered "a hellish knot of witches" in spite of official discouragement. He was a commissioner for recusants 1675. In the first general election of 1679 he stood for parliament together with Edward Phelips, but there was a double return and they never took their seats.Hunt died at the age of 70 and was buried at Compton Pauncefoot.Hunt married Elizabeth Browne, daughter of John Browne of Frampton, Dorset on 24 September 1635. They had three sons and five daughters. His wife died on 24 September 1675. == References ==

Chanao I

Chanao I or Canao was king of Vannetais in Brittany, France, in 550–560. Chanao was the son of king Waroch I and he claimed power over the whole south of Breton Armorica, using political assassination to achieve his ends.

Chanao I or Canao was king of Vannetais in Brittany, France, in 550–560. Chanao was the son of king Waroch I and he claimed power over the whole south of Breton Armorica, using political assassination to achieve his ends. Biography Chanao was the brother of Macliau, bishop of Vannes. He killed three of his brothers to ensure complete control of the throne. Macliau, the last survivor, was the prisoner of his brother, who wanted to kill him as well. Felix, bishop of Nantes, was able to release him on the condition that he swear allegiance. Chanao, learning that his brother wanted to break his oath, pursued him again. Macliau fled to Conomor, another regional count, who gave him protection. It is believed that Conomor was married to Macliau and Chanao's sister, Tryphine.Canao and his ally Chram, a Frankish prince, took part in the first attack against the Frankish king Clotaire I on the Armorican Bretons (559); he and Chramme were killed during this battle.After Chanao's death, Macliau took power over the region. Macliau's son was Waroch II. == References ==

Quentin Pain

Quentin Pain FIoEE FIAB (born 1956) is a published author, speaker, and entrepreneur.

Quentin Pain FIoEE FIAB (born 1956) is a published author, speaker, and entrepreneur. Biography Pain was a founding member of Accountz.com Ltd (a British software company)Pain wrote Prophet, which won the Acorn User Best Business software Award for 1995 and 1996. This was used to help launch the Acorn A4000 in New Zealand. Pain is also the author of the book Accounting For Everyone, which was notable as the first book to change the way people think about double-entry and provides the online course Accounting For Everyone. The core changes to double-entry described in the book are: The replacement of the terms credit and debit with the terms from and to Entering the credited or debited account in the credit or debit columns (as opposed to the amount) Reversing the order of those columnsThese changes aim to simplify the double-entry process. Pain, together with co-authors David Bradforth and John Taylor, wrote the book Home Accountz for Dummies for the American publishers John Wiley & Sons. Pain self-published his first book on business principles, entitled Legendary, in October 2015 through publishers CreateSpace. Pain wrote and self-published the book Step by Step Marketing in 2013, which tells the story of how he grew Accountz.com Ltd. Pain has appeared in numerous publications, including The Independent, The Sunday Times, MoneyWeek, and the Financial Times.Pain was named among the top 10 business advisors in the UK in 2015 by a panel of judges, including Emma Jones MBE and the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. He was nominated for the International Association of Book-keepers Small Business Mentor of the Year award, and won the award on 21 June 2013. == References ==

Senchineoil

Senchineoil or Seincheinéal was the name of the early rulers, possibly pre-Gaelic, of what is now central and east County Galway and south County Roscommon, Ireland.

Senchineoil or Seincheinéal was the name of the early rulers, possibly pre-Gaelic, of what is now central and east County Galway and south County Roscommon, Ireland. Overview The term Senchineoil (sen = old; chineoil = people/tribe/kindred) was used by the Uí Maine to describe aithechtuatha—unfree, enslaved vassal peoples—who they subjugated during the founding of their kingdom sometime prior to the 5th century AD. They are described as: "Seincheinéal of the old plain of Soghan/stretched eastward over [the river] Suck/until it reached Delbhna of Dealbhaoth; manly were the good heroes, like a flame." It is not known by what term the Senchineoil described themselves, or even if it was in Gaelic. Their last recorded ruler was Cian d'Fhearaibh Bolg. See also Uí Fiachrach Aidhne Clann Fhergail Clann Taidg Delbhna Tir Dha Locha Muintir Murchada Uí Maine Soghain Trícha Máenmaige Uí Díarmata Cóiced Ol nEchmacht Síol Anmchadha Iar Connacht Maigh Seola Cenél Áeda na hEchtge Cenél Guaire Muintir Máelfináin Conmaícne Cenéoil Dubáin Conmaícne Cúile Toland Bunrath Uí Briúin Rátha Tír Maine Uí Briúin Seola Machaire Riabhach Maigh Mucruimhe Airthir Connacht Meadraige Corca Moga Óic Bethra References The Senchineoil and the Sogain: Differentiating between the pre-Celtic and early Celtic Tribes of Central East Galway, Joseph Mannion, Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society, Volume 58, pp. 165–170, 2006.

Megaloglossus

Megaloglossus is a genus of bats in the family Pteropodidae. It is native to Africa. It contains two species, Megaloglossus azagnyi and Megaloglossus woermanni. Prior to 2012, it was considered a monotypic genus. In 2012, however, M. woermanni was split into two species with the description of M. azagnyi.

Megaloglossus is a genus of bats in the family Pteropodidae. It is native to Africa. It contains two species, Megaloglossus azagnyi and Megaloglossus woermanni. Prior to 2012, it was considered a monotypic genus. In 2012, however, M. woermanni was split into two species with the description of M. azagnyi. It was described as a new species in 2012. Range Both species are found in West and Central Africa. == References ==

Charles Henry Bond

Charles Henry Bond (1846–1908) was an American businessman who was president and general manager of Waitt & Bond, one of Boston's largest real estate holders, and a patron of the arts.

Charles Henry Bond (1846–1908) was an American businessman who was president and general manager of Waitt & Bond, one of Boston's largest real estate holders, and a patron of the arts. Early life Bond was born on July 13, 1846, in the Cliftondale neighborhood of Saugus, Massachusetts, to Charles Milton Bond Jr. and Mary (Amerige) Bond. During his youth, Bond developed a love for music which would last throughout his life. Cigars In 1863, at the age of seventeen, Bond entered the cigar business. In 1870, he and Henry Waitt established Waitt & Bond in a small shop in Saugus. The business grew rapidly, and it was relocated to a large factory in Boston. Waitt & Bond eventually became the largest cigar manufacturer in New England and one of the largest in the United States. Real estate With a fortune accumulated from his cigar business, Bond became involved in real estate. He was one of the most active dealers and largest holders of real estate in Boston. He became especially involved in real estate during the final year of his life. Among the properties Bond owned were the Oceanside Hotel in Gloucester's Magnolia village, the Hotel Netherlands on Boylston Street in Boston, and Brandon Hall in Brookline. In 1908, Bond began work on the construction of a theater on Tremont Street in Boston, which was to be known as the Lyric Theatre. The project struggled as a result of the financial hit Bond took in the Panic of 1907 and remained unfinished at the time of Bond's death. In the spring of 1909 the project was taken over by The Shubert Organization, and the theater was renamed the Shubert Theatre.Bond also owned a number of properties in Washington, D.C., including the Bond Building. Personal life Bond was twice married. In 1872 he married Martha A. Morrison of Lawrence, Massachusetts. The couple had two children. His second wife was Isabelle "Belle" Bacon of Washington, D.C. She and Bond had five children.He maintained a residence in Cliftondale until 1899, when he moved to a home on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston. He also owned Peacehaven, a summer estate in Swampscott, Massachusetts.A Unitarian, Bond and was a member of the Second Church of Boston. For many years he was a member of the church's standing committee as well as its music committee. During his later years, Bond became interested in Christian Science.Bond was a staunch member of the Republican Party. He was occasionally involved in politics, but never held elected office. He was also a member of numerous clubs and fraternal organizations, including the Freemasons, Knights Templar, the Tedesco Country Club, and the Sons of Colonial Wars. Philanthropy In 1885, Bond founded the Cliftondale Public Library. He served as the Library Association president and was a member of Saugus' first Water Board and a trustee of the Saugus Public Library as well. Bond also gave Saugus land to construct the Cliftondale School. His donations to the Saugus camp of the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War were credited for its success, and the camp was named in Bond's honor.A patron of the arts, he provided funding for the training of many vocal artists, including Geraldine Farrar. He was a member of the Boston Art Club and served on its entertainment committee. Bond was also a trustee of the New England Conservatory of Music.Bond offered an award known as the Bond Speaking Prize to the most proficient students at Saugus High School, Wesleyan University, and New Orleans University. He also aided students at St. Lawrence University. Death On July 3, 1908, Bond was found dead in a bathtub in his summer residence. Medical Examiner Joseph G. Pinkham ruled the cause of death as drowning and that the death was accidental. However, it was reported that Bond left a note in his bedroom which read, "I have been killed by my friends and enemies. It is more than I can bear. I can stand it no longer. My heart is broken. I leave everything to my wife." At the time of his death, it was believed that Bond's real estate ventures threatened his fortune. One month before his death, all of Bond's properties were placed in the hands of trustees. The Washington Post reported that Bond's dissatisfaction with the trustees' actions may have caused him to take his life.After his death, Bond's wife donated money for Bond Hall to be built in his honor at the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough, New Hampshire. == References ==

Avengers assemble scene

The "Avengers assemble" scene is the sequence leading up to the climactic battle of the film Avengers: Endgame (2019) which sees the Avengers and their allies arrive on the battlefield through sling ring portals, in preparation for a clash with the film's antagonist, Thanos. It culminates with Steve Rogers / Captain America uttering the phrase, "Avengers... assemble", a catchphrase and rallying cry associated with the team in the Marvel Comics. The scene features many cast members and characters who had appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) up to that point, including the return of characters who had been killed off in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) during an event known as the Blip. The musical piece that accompanies the scene, "Portals", was composed by Alan Silvestri.

The "Avengers assemble" scene is the sequence leading up to the climactic battle of the film Avengers: Endgame (2019) which sees the Avengers and their allies arrive on the battlefield through sling ring portals, in preparation for a clash with the film's antagonist, Thanos. It culminates with Steve Rogers / Captain America uttering the phrase, "Avengers... assemble", a catchphrase and rallying cry associated with the team in the Marvel Comics. The scene features many cast members and characters who had appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) up to that point, including the return of characters who had been killed off in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) during an event known as the Blip. The musical piece that accompanies the scene, "Portals", was composed by Alan Silvestri. Plot summary After Tony Stark and Thor are knocked out of battle by Thanos, Steve Rogers watches as Thanos' army arrives. Rogers then hears static in his earpiece before hearing the voice of Sam Wilson, thought to be gone because of the Blip, announcing his arrival to assist. As Rogers turns to look, a magical portal opens from Wakanda, showing the arrival of additional allies to aid in the battle. Dr. Stephen Strange, Wong, and other sorcerers continue to open many additional portals from elsewhere on Earth and around the galaxy. Everyone gathers together as Thanos and his army look on, and Rogers says "Avengers... Assemble", leading everyone into battle. Background and development The phrase "Avengers Assemble" is the team's most famous catchphrase in the comics, traditionally said by Captain America, but he was not the first character to utter the line. Thor said it in Avengers (1963) #10 from 1964 and multiple additional rally cries were used by the Avengers over the next few issues, with the phrase being established as their official one in Avengers (1963) #14 from 1965. In the following issue, Giant-Man shouts the phrase, but in Avengers (1963) #16 from 1965, Captain America is featured on the cover saying the phrase, and since then he has become the one most associated with the line. As a result, starting with The Avengers (2012), people familiar with the comics started wondering when Captain America would finally say the iconic line in the MCU. Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige said soon after the film's release that the phrase was not included because there was not a good place for it. With the 360-degree shot of the team showing they were assembled, Feige felt that had more of an impact than the line being said in the moment. The phrase was teased at the end of Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) with Captain America saying "Avengers..." as the film cuts to the credits. Writer and director Joss Whedon talked about the decision, saying he did not want to include the line, while also making sure that the scene could not be altered in the future by the studio. Captain America actor Chris Evans was never filmed saying the whole phrase, although the "Avengers..." line was written into the script exactly how it was shown in the film. Creating the scene The scene was not originally in Avengers: Endgame (2019), but was put together as a way to get Dr. Stephen Strange from the planet Titan to the Avengers Compound in New York. In the first draft, everyone returned immediately, there was no "cavalry" moment, but co-writer Christopher Markus said that killed all momentum of the film. The conceptual part of the scene also changed, as it was originally more around Rogers, but it was changed to where the audience experienced the portals from his perspective. There were several ideas for the scene according to the film's visual effects supervisor Dan DeLeeuw, including one long panning shot of all the actors on the day they were all on set which "didn't play as well as [the crew] wanted". DeLeeuw worked with the previsualization team and editor Jeffrey Ford, where they decided that they needed to use the portals, which they then began the process of the order of each character's return who had been killed off in the Blip, the climactic event of the preceding film Avengers: Infinity War (2018) in which Thanos eradicated half of all life in the universe. The team also knew that they needed to slow the returns down to "give the audience a chance to welcome their heroes back". The scene was being worked on until a month before Endgame's theatrical release, with the directors the Russo brothers explaining that they had wanted the scene to start with the previously killed-off character Sam Wilson communicating with Steve Rogers by uttering "On your left" immediately before the portals open. They said it was logical for the first portal to be from Wakanda, where Wilson was killed in Infinity War, and to have T'Challa and his Wakandan army arrive from it as a result. Peter Parker / Spider-Man was chosen as the last character to return as it was designed to be emotional for audiences, following him being the last one to die in Infinity War.In October 2017, Tessa Thompson revealed that she and other actresses from the MCU films—including Brie Larson, Zoe Saldaña, Scarlett Johansson, Pom Klementieff, Karen Gillan, and Letitia Wright—had approached Feige during the production of Infinity War and Endgame to propose an all-female team-up film. Thompson cited the Lady Liberators comic book team as precedent for such a team-up, and said that Feige was interested in the idea. Feige later said a scene featuring many of these actresses and others who played female characters throughout the MCU together had already been filmed for an upcoming film. The scene, filmed on the day all the actors were on set, is featured in Endgame following the "Avengers Assemble" scene and during the film's final battle, and includes Carol Danvers / Captain Marvel (played by Larson), Wanda Maximoff (Elizabeth Olsen), Valkyrie (Thompson), Hope van Dyne / Wasp (Evangeline Lilly), Gamora (Saldaña), Nebula (Gillan), Okoye (Danai Gurira), Shuri (Wright), and Pepper Potts / Rescue (Gwyneth Paltrow). The scene was compared to the comic book team A-Force by commentators. Filming The portals part of the scene was shot a couple of times, with the first version being much quicker. The characters were just back and the music was "at a 10 early" according to co-writer Stephen McFeely. The Russo brothers decided to reshoot everyone's return in order to give them their "hero shots". There was never a take filmed of Evans screaming the "Avengers assemble" line, although he initially felt that should have been the case. He said it felt like a nice juxtaposition in the end where the line was spoken lower and then had everyone yelling around him. The Russo brothers liked the softer delivery, which was done on the first take, telling Evans "That’s it, don’t even do the screaming one." On the Endgame commentary track, the Russos told the film's writers, Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely that it was their idea for Evans to deliver the line that way, acknowledging that the idea was not without its downside. Joe Russo said the brothers thought it would be more interesting, but with Captain America catching Thor's hammer, Mjolnir minutes before creating a lot of energy in the theaters, they thought a lot of people may not have even heard the line the first weekend of the film's release. Visual effects Weta Digital worked on the portals, with visual effects supervisor Matt Aitken said that the simulation team had to find a "recipe that would recognizably" make sure the portals were recognized as Doctor Strange's, but they had to be optimized because so many of them were featured in the money shots of the returning characters. They would have been prohibitive to generate and render, so Weta used the original technique of creating them from previous MCU films. Another challenge was creating all the worlds that the portals were opening from as they were all computer-generated imagery. It was necessary because the environments had to be filmed with the same camera as the destroyed Avengers Compound on the other side of the portal in order for it to "lock together and parallax". For the characters returning from Titan there were four separate plates used. Drax and Mantis were together, Strange's return was filmed separately due to him floating, so Benedict Cumberbatch filmed his part on a green screen. Tom Holland and Chris Pratt were both unavailable on the day, so they were both brought back at a later date with Pratt picked up with a separate motion control green screen element.One of the last VFX additions to the film was a quick cameo of Howard the Duck. The character was not meant to appear in the finished film, but during an examination of the portals part of the scene, Joe Russo or Feige had suggested to VFX producer Jen Underdahl for his inclusion three weeks prior to the completion of visual effects. There was a gap when the Ravagers were coming out of Contraxia where he could be added and Underdahl contacted Weta to do so. They used older models of Howard the Duck from various MCU projects as reference, and Howard ended up appearing for approximately 17 or 18 frames in the film. Additionally, a rig and feather groom was also used in order to put Howard into the VFX team's pipeline and animation. Music A song titled "Portals" was written for the scene by Endgame's composer, Alan Silvestri. Silvestri was told early on that the scene would be a key moment in the film. It took a while to get a sense of what was going on in the scene, with Silvestri saying that there was an initial temptation to "become too segmented" by having every character do something special as they returned. Ultimately, it was decided to make it more of an overview of the characters and that a new theme was needed because nothing else would fit. Silvestri describes "Portals" as a piece where parts repeat multiple times, but with keys changing and getting "bigger and more grand". The original Avengers theme had to ramp up after Captain America utters "Avengers... assemble" which leads to the Avengers and their allies charging into battle. The song was not always a unifying piece because the idea of the music changing while each character arrives was tossed around by the creative team "similar to the entrance themes used by professional wrestlers". Silvestri said the idea was not to just mash together various themes of characters or places like Wakanda, but instead, it would have been about making a "bigger sonic deal out of every single portal opening". Due to Rogers being down and out as everyone returned, the theme had to be almost celebratory according to Silvestri. "Portals" transitioning into the Avengers theme after Rogers says "Assemble" was one of the things that changed the most in development, but in the end, Silvestri felt it was fitting as everyone was charging, saying it just felt like "pure Avengers".A video for the track "Portals", composed for the scene was released on June 13, 2019. Reception The sequence has been well received, with fans in the theaters cheering, and the scene being considered one of the best in Endgame as well as the MCU. In other media The "Avengers Assemble" scene was recreated by Disney Live Entertainment for the World of Color – One attraction at Disney California Adventure, which debuted on January 27, 2023, and featured archive footage from Endgame alongside strobe lighting and pyrotechnics, as well as the Avengers musical themes. Notes References External links Official stills via Twitter Alan Silvestri – Portals (From Avengers: Endgame / Official Audio) on YouTube

Dongpo Park

Su Park, also called Dongpo Park is located in the eastern of Changzhou, an area of 2.667 hectares. It is the typical garden of southern Changjiang delta combined of natural scenery and places of interest. In the Song Dynasty, people of Changzhou built ”boat outfitting, Pavilion” as a souvenir in order to commemorate the boating tour of the literary giant Su Dongpo here.

Su Park, also called Dongpo Park is located in the eastern of Changzhou, an area of 2.667 hectares. It is the typical garden of southern Changjiang delta combined of natural scenery and places of interest. In the Song Dynasty, people of Changzhou built ”boat outfitting, Pavilion” as a souvenir in order to commemorate the boating tour of the literary giant Su Dongpo here. Legend There’s a legend says that Changzhou is a place full of elites and talents. In order not to cause the eastern drain of young talents, so they build dams on the Grand Canal to make the river around a big bend to the East. Su Su has been eleven to Changzhou, and finally end up in Changzhou, but actually he only departed the boat here twice, once in 1073, he went from Hangzhou to Zhenjiang through Changzhou. In wild places outside Changzhou, he made a famous poem. The second time was in 1101 he returned from Hainan. The weather was hot, he drew a fantastic picture. At night, he went sightseeing around the canal. It was said at that time the bank was full of people and took the city by storm. Into the garden door, I saw white walls separating the mountain. Portal for box King, leaking window is by the King, the corridor is connected with Bamboo planting flowers and trees, have caused layers, showing a style of classical gardens. Bypass a corridor, suddenly see the light with heavily timbered, what a wonderful scenery! References Su Dongpo Park Cultural China.

Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind

Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind is an enclosed roller coaster at Epcot at Walt Disney World, manufactured by Dutch company Vekoma. Based on the Marvel Cinematic Universe Guardians of the Galaxy films, the attraction is the first at Walt Disney World to feature characters from the Marvel Universe. Opened on May 27, 2022, it is Epcot's first roller coaster and Disney's first backwards-launched roller coaster. It replaced the Universe of Energy pavilion, which closed on August 13, 2017.Originally set to open in 2021, the roller coaster was delayed in part due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on The Walt Disney Company and its theme parks. It was instead given a summer 2022 opening as part of Epcot's 40th anniversary celebration, which in turn, was part of Walt Disney World's 50th anniversary celebration.

Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind is an enclosed roller coaster at Epcot at Walt Disney World, manufactured by Dutch company Vekoma. Based on the Marvel Cinematic Universe Guardians of the Galaxy films, the attraction is the first at Walt Disney World to feature characters from the Marvel Universe. Opened on May 27, 2022, it is Epcot's first roller coaster and Disney's first backwards-launched roller coaster. It replaced the Universe of Energy pavilion, which closed on August 13, 2017.Originally set to open in 2021, the roller coaster was delayed in part due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on The Walt Disney Company and its theme parks. It was instead given a summer 2022 opening as part of Epcot's 40th anniversary celebration, which in turn, was part of Walt Disney World's 50th anniversary celebration. History The attraction was announced as part of an overhaul of Epcot at the 2017 D23 Expo. Ellen's Energy Adventure closed on August 13, 2017 and construction of the roller coaster began later in the same month. The show building that housed Universe of Energy was reused and retrofitted for the new attraction. The roller coaster itself is housed in a new, massive show building situated backstage behind the Universe of Energy building and the PLAY! pavilion, which utilized 960 truckloads of concrete for its foundation. The first track piece of the ride was installed November 2018.At D23 Japan in 2018, it was confirmed that the ride would be one of the world's longest enclosed roller coasters, set to open during the 50th anniversary celebration of Walt Disney World, late 2021.The name of the ride, Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind, was announced on August 25, 2019, at the D23 Expo 2019. Much like its sister attraction Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout! at Disney's California Adventure, the attraction cannot use the Marvel brand in its title or in advertising due to the 1994 contract with Universal Parks & Resorts, which pre-dates Disney's 2009 purchase of Marvel Entertainment.Filming for the ride commenced in October 2021. Guardians of the Galaxy film series cast members Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldaña, Dave Bautista, and Glenn Close reprised their roles from the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) as Peter Quill / Star-Lord, Gamora, Drax, and Nova Prime Irani Rael, respectively. The first footage from the ride was released in March 2022. Disney Parks, through social media, also revealed on April 25, 2022, that actor Terry Crews would be part of the pre-show experience, playing Centurion Tal Marik, a new character created specifically for the attraction.Cast Member previews for the attraction began on April 17, 2022, while Walt Disney World Annual Passholders received an early look at the ride beginning on May 8, 2022. The attraction eventually held its grand opening ceremony on May 27, 2022, opening to the public on the same day. Similar to the attractions within Avengers Campus, the attraction is inspired by, but not canonical to, the MCU.On June 23, 2022, Disney announced that Cosmic Rewind would receive a Christmas overlay with a holiday mixtape soundtrack, featuring "a mash-up of seasonal jams". The limited offering began on November 25, 2022, coinciding with the release of The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special on Disney+ the same day, running until December 30, 2022. Attraction The attraction is presented as the Wonders of Xandar Pavilion, the first Other-world Pavilion at Epcot. Much like the pavilions at the World Showcase, it features exhibits and models of the history and culture of the capital of the Nova Empire, Xandar, presented by the Nova Corps as a cultural exchange from them to the people of Terra (the name by which they refer to Earth). At the entrance of the attraction sits a Starblaster ship of the Xandarian Nova Corps on a perch, with a dedication plaque that reads: FROM OUR WORLD TO YOURSThis Starblaster is presented as a gift from the Nova Corps to the people of Terra.May it, like EPCOT, serve to inspire peace through understanding. Queue The queue begins in the "Galaxarium", a galaxy-equivalent to a planetarium, where a Xandarian super computer named World Mind explains how they are learning about the culture of Terrans (as the Xandarians refer to the inhabitants of Earth). The queue continues up a ramp into the gallery that features a projection mapping model of Xandar, along with screens showcasing their culture, noting the similarities of the capital of the Nova Empire with Walt Disney's EPCOT concept. Along the gallery, models of Xandarian ships are also displayed, as well as uniforms of the Nova Corps high-ranking officers and interviews with each member of the Guardians of the Galaxy, especially Peter Quill / Star-Lord, who exclaims his excitement to go back and experience the attractions he visited as a child at EPCOT, unaware that the ones he mentions no longer exist. Pre-show At the end of the gallery, Terrans are ushered to the final stop of the Wonders of Xandar Pavilion, hosted by Nova Prime Irani Rael (portrayed by Glenn Close) of the Nova Corps. She welcomes the guests and begins by explaining how both Xandar and Terra were born of the same moment - the Big Bang. She then details how the Xandarians travelled through the galaxy to reach Terra to showcase their culture: by utilizing a Cosmic Generator, a piece of Xandarian technology that creates "jumpholes" that allowed them to create shortcuts to reach their destination much quicker. As a culmination of the Wonders of Xandar Pavilion, Terrans will be teleported to a Nova ship in space to demonstrate the Cosmic Generator. After Nova Prime's presentation, Centurion Tal Marik (portrayed by Terry Crews) of the Nova Corps, welcomes Terrans and advises the prohibition of communication devices with recording capabilities (i.e. cellphones and smartphones), after which Terrans are ushered into the teleportation chamber. After Terrans have been teleported to the Nova ship, the Cosmic Generator is stolen and the ship loses its power before a demonstration could be presented, prompting Nova Prime to urgently call the Guardians of the Galaxy for help. Peter Quill / Star-Lord (portrayed by Chris Pratt), Gamora (portrayed by Zoe Saldaña), Drax (portrayed by Dave Bautista), Rocket and Groot all appear on screen answering the distress call, only to discover that a Celestial named Eson, seen outside the Nova ship, has stolen the Cosmic Generator. Unhappy with the Terrans, the Celestial uses the Cosmic Generator to send Terra through a jumppoint to the dawn of time, with the intention of erasing its existence, before entering the jumppoint itself. Quill urges Centurion Tal Marik to follow Eson while the Guardians rendezvous with the Nova ship to stop the Celestial but is unable to do so due to the lack of power in the ship and needing to send Terrans to evacuation shuttles. However, Rocket suggests he can control the shuttles to have the Terrans follow Eson via jumpholes and rendezvous with them instead, as they are their only way of tracking the Celestial in order to recover the Cosmic Generator. Terrans are then led to the corridors of the loading platforms to board their evacuation shuttles. Ride experience As the shuttles depart, Terrans begin making their way out of the Nova ship to enter the jumppoint in their evacuation shuttles. Peter Quill / Star-Lord and Gamora assure them that they're tracking the shuttles to meet them, while Drax and Rocket instead make pessimistic remarks about the situation. The Guardians wish the Terrans luck as they set off, and after crossing the jumppoint the Terrans arrive at Eson's location, where it holds the Cosmic Generator. Shortly after, the Guardians of the Galaxy arrive in their ship as Eson prepares to throw the Cosmic Generator towards Terra, who disregards Quill's music from the Guardians' ship as "noise". The Guardians then blast the Cosmic Generator from the Celestial's hands, opening another jumppoint which proceeds to suck everything in, taking them all the way back in time to the Big Bang and eventually fading into complete darkness. Suddenly, the evacuation shuttles are launched backwards in an explosion, and it is at this point that the vehicles begin their spinning profiles on their axis to achieve a sensation of "space travel" while the story develops around them with a randomized song selection out of six. As the evacuation shuttles travel through multiple jumpholes along the way, the Guardians of the Galaxy engage in combat with Eson around the Terrans as they also cross multiple jumppoints. The Guardians finally lead a fleet of Nova Corp Starblasters to Eson, who manage to contain the Celestial and recover the Cosmic Generator. As the Guardians of the Galaxy travel far from the scene, they lead the Terrans to a final series of jumpholes that takes them to the Milky Way, then around the Moon before locking the coordinates for EPCOT and sending them back to Terra. As they arrive, Peter Quill welcomes the Terrans to the Guardians of the Galaxy, the rest of the team remarking amongst themselves as they disembark. Cast Actors from the Guardians of the Galaxy films reprised their roles for the attraction. However, Bradley Cooper and Vin Diesel, who voice Rocket and Groot, respectively in the films, were not involved in the project. Terry Crews plays a new character created specifically for the attraction. Chris Pratt as Peter Quill / Star-Lord Zoe Saldaña as Gamora Dave Bautista as Drax the Destroyer Glenn Close as Nova Prime Irani Rael Terry Crews as Centurion Tal Marik Music Like in the Guardians of the Galaxy films, music plays a key role in the attraction. Over a hundred songs were considered by Walt Disney Imagineering for the ride experience, narrowing it down to six randomly-selected featured songs, each fitting the same motion profile of the ride vehicles: "September" by Earth, Wind and Fire "Disco Inferno" by the Trammps "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" by Tears for Fears "One Way or Another" by Blondie "I Ran (So Far Away)" by A Flock of Seagulls "Conga" by Miami Sound MachineAdditionally, Tyler Bates, composer of Guardians of the Galaxy and Guardians of the Galaxy: Vol. 2, scored over two hours of original music for the queue. An electric guitar cover of the original Universe of Energy attraction's theme song (written by Joel Hirschhorn and Al Kasha) can also be heard before the attraction's backwards launch. On September 21, 2023, every train in the roller coaster played "September" by Earth, Wind and Fire for the entire day to coincide with the song lyric "Do you remember the 21st night of September". Christmas overlay On June 23, 2022, Disney announced that Cosmic Rewind would receive a Christmas overlay with a holiday mixtape soundtrack. On October 7, 2022, at New York Comic Con, Disney announced the overlay's title: Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind Holiday Remix. The limited offering began on November 25, 2022, coinciding with the release of The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special on Disney+ the same day, running until December 30, 2022. The attraction's soundtrack was replaced by "Run Rudolph Run", with the lyrics changed to reflect Rocket, titled "Run Run Rocket". However, on November 24, 2023, EPCOT announced that the Christmas overlay of Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind: Holiday Remix will not return on this year in Wonders of Xandar Pavilion, as part of The Walt Disney Company's 100th Anniversary celebration, due to EPCOT International Festival of the Holidays 2023. See also Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout! Avengers Campus Marvel Super Hero Island References External links Official website Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind at the Roller Coaster DataBase

Amber alert

An Amber Alert (alternatively styled AMBER alert) or a child abduction emergency alert (SAME code: CAE) is a message distributed by a child abduction alert system to ask the public for help in finding abducted children. The system originated in the United States.AMBER is a backronym standing for America's Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response. It was created in reference to Amber Rene Hagerman, who was abducted and later found murdered in 1996. Alternative regional alert names were once used; in Georgia, "Levi's Call" (in memory of Levi Frady); in Hawaii, "Maile Amber Alert" (in memory of Maile Gilbert); in Arkansas, "Morgan Nick Amber Alert" (in memory of Morgan Nick); and in Utah, "Rachael Alert" (in memory of Rachael Runyan), and "Monkey's Law" in Idaho, (in memory of Michael Joseph Vaughan.) In the United States, the alerts are distributed via commercial and public radio stations, Internet radio, satellite radio, television stations, text messages, and cable TV by the Emergency Alert System and NOAA Weather Radio (where they are termed "Amber Alerts").

An Amber Alert (alternatively styled AMBER alert) or a child abduction emergency alert (SAME code: CAE) is a message distributed by a child abduction alert system to ask the public for help in finding abducted children. The system originated in the United States.AMBER is a backronym standing for America's Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response. It was created in reference to Amber Rene Hagerman, who was abducted and later found murdered in 1996. Alternative regional alert names were once used; in Georgia, "Levi's Call" (in memory of Levi Frady); in Hawaii, "Maile Amber Alert" (in memory of Maile Gilbert); in Arkansas, "Morgan Nick Amber Alert" (in memory of Morgan Nick); and in Utah, "Rachael Alert" (in memory of Rachael Runyan), and "Monkey's Law" in Idaho, (in memory of Michael Joseph Vaughan.) In the United States, the alerts are distributed via commercial and public radio stations, Internet radio, satellite radio, television stations, text messages, and cable TV by the Emergency Alert System and NOAA Weather Radio (where they are termed "Amber Alerts"). The alerts are also issued via e-mail, electronic traffic-condition signs, commercial electronic billboards, or through wireless device SMS text messages. AMBER Alert has also teamed up with Google, and Facebook to relay information regarding an AMBER Alert to an ever-growing demographic: AMBER Alerts are automatically displayed if citizens search or use map features on Google, Yahoo, Bing, and other search engines. With Google public alert (also called Google AMBER Alert in some countries), citizens see an AMBER Alert if they search for related information in a particular location where a minor has recently been abducted and an alert was issued. This is a component of the AMBER Alert system that is already active in the US (there are also developments in Europe). Those interested in subscribing to receive AMBER Alerts in their area via SMS messages can visit Wireless Amber Alerts, which are offered by law as free messages. In some states, the display scrollboards in front of lottery terminals are also used. The decision to declare an AMBER Alert is made by each police organization (in many cases, the state police or highway patrol) investigating the abduction. Public information in an AMBER Alert usually includes the name and description of the abductee, a description of the suspected abductor, and a description and license plate number of the abductor's vehicle if available. Activation criteria The alerts are broadcast using the Emergency Alert System, which had previously been used primarily for weather bulletins, civil emergencies, or national emergencies. In Canada, alerts are broadcast via Alert Ready, a Canadian emergency warning system. Alerts usually contain a description of the child and of the likely abductor. To avoid both false alarms and having alerts ignored as a "wolf cry", the criteria for issuing an alert are rather strict. Each state's or province's AMBER alert plan sets its own criteria for activation, meaning that there are differences between alerting agencies as to which incidents are considered to justify the use of the system. However, the U.S. Department of Justice issues the following "guidance", which most states are said to "adhere closely to" (in the U.S.): Law enforcement must confirm that an abduction has taken place. The child must be at risk of serious injury or death. There must be sufficient descriptive information of child, captor, or captor's vehicle to issue an alert. The child must be 17 years of age or younger.Many law enforcement agencies have not used #2 as a criterion, resulting in many parental abductions triggering an Amber Alert, where the child is not known or assumed to be at risk of serious injury or death. In 2013, West Virginia passed Skylar's Law to eliminate #1 as a criterion for triggering an Amber Alert. It is recommended that AMBER Alert data immediately be entered into the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) National Crime Information Center. Text information describing the circumstances surrounding the abduction of the child should be entered, and the case flagged as child abduction. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police's (RCMP) requirements in Canada are nearly identical to the above list, with the exception that the RCMP is notified. One organization might notify the other if there is reason to suspect that the border may be crossed. When investigators believe that a child is in danger of being taken across the border to either Canada or Mexico, U.S. Customs and Border Protection, United States Border Patrol and the Canada Border Services Agency are notified and are expected to search every car coming through a border checkpoint. If the child is suspected to be taken to Canada, a Canadian Amber Alert can also be issued, and a pursuit by Canadian authorities usually follows. Incidents not meeting alert criteria For incidents which do not meet AMBER Alert criteria, the United States Department of Justice developed the Child Abduction Response Teams (CART) program to assist local agencies. This program can be used in all missing children's cases with or without an AMBER alert. CART can also be used to help recover runaway children who are under the age of 18 and in danger. As of 2010, 225 response teams have been trained in 43 states, as well as Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and Canada. Namesake Amber Rene Hagerman (November 25, 1986 – January 15, 1996) was a nine-year-old girl abducted while riding her bike in Arlington, Texas. Her younger brother, Ricky, had gone home without her because Amber had wanted to stay in the parking lot for a while. When he returned with his grandfather, they only found her bicycle. A neighbor who had witnessed the abduction called 911. On hearing the news, Hagerman's father, Richard, called Marc Klaas, whose daughter, Polly, had been kidnapped and murdered in Petaluma, California, in 1993. Amber's mother, Donna Whitson (now Donna Williams), called the news media and the FBI. They and their neighbors began searching for Amber.Four days after her abduction, near midnight, a man walking his dog discovered Amber's naked body in a creek behind an apartment complex with severe laceration wounds to her neck. The site of the discovery was less than five miles (8 km) from where she was abducted. Her murder remains unsolved as of 2023. Texas program development Within days of Amber's death, Donna Williams was "calling for tougher laws governing kidnappers and sex offenders". Amber's parents soon established People Against Sex Offenders (PASO). They collected signatures hoping to force the Texas Legislature into passing more stringent laws to protect children.God's Place International Church donated the first office space for the organization, and as the search for Amber's killer continued, PASO received almost-daily coverage in local media. Companies donated various office supplies, including computer and Internet service. Congressman Martin Frost, with the help of Marc Klaas, drafted the Amber Hagerman Child Protection Act. Both of Hagerman's parents were present when President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law, creating the national sex offender registry. Williams and Richard Hagerman then began collecting signatures in Texas, which they planned to present to then-Governor George W. Bush as a sign that people wanted more stringent laws for sex offenders.In July 1996, Bruce Seybert (whose own daughter was a close friend of Amber) and Richard Hagerman attended a media symposium in Arlington. Although Hagerman had remarks prepared, on the day of the event the organizers asked Seybert to speak instead. In his 20-minute speech, he spoke about efforts that local police could take quickly to help find missing children and how the media could facilitate those efforts. C.J. Wheeler, a reporter from radio station KRLD, approached the Dallas police chief shortly afterward with Seybert's ideas and launched the first ever Amber Alert.Williams testified in front of the U.S. Congress in June 1996, asking legislators to create a nationwide registry of sex offenders. Representative Martin Frost, the Congressman who represents Whitson's district, proposed an "Amber Hagerman Child Protection Act." Among the sections of the bill was one that would create a national sex offender registry.Diana Simone, a Texas resident who had been following the news, contacted the KDMX radio station and proposed broadcasts to engage passers-by in helping locate missing children. Her idea was picked up and for the next two years, alerts were made manually to participating radio stations. In 1998, the Child Alert Foundation created the first fully automated Alert Notification System (ANS) to notify surrounding communities when a child was reported missing or abducted. Alerts were sent to radio stations as originally requested but included television stations, surrounding law enforcement agencies, newspapers and local support organizations. These alerts were sent all at once via pagers, faxes, emails, and cell phones with the information immediately posted on the Internet for the general public to view.Following the automation of the AMBER Alert with ANS technology created by the Child Alert Foundation, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) expanded its role in 2002 to promote the AMBER Alert. International adoption United States In October 2000, the United States House of Representatives adopted H.Res. 605 which encouraged communities nationwide to implement the AMBER Plan. In October 2001, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children that had declined to be a part of the Amber Alert in February 1996, launched a campaign to have AMBER Alert systems established nationwide. In February 2002, the Federal Communications Commission officially endorsed the system. In 2002, several children were abducted in cases that drew national attention. One such case, the kidnapping and murder of Samantha Runnion, prompted California to establish an AMBER Alert system on July 24, 2002. According to Senator Dianne Feinstein, in its first month California issued 13 AMBER alerts; 12 of the children were recovered safely and the remaining alert was found to be a misunderstanding.By September 2002, 26 states had established AMBER Alert systems that covered all or parts of the state. A bipartisan group of US Senators, led by Kay Bailey Hutchison and Dianne Feinstein, proposed legislation to name an AMBER Alert coordinator in the U.S. Justice Department who could help coordinate state efforts. The bill also provided $25 million in federal matching grants for states to establish AMBER Alert programs and necessary equipment purchases, such as electronic highway signs. A similar bill was sponsored in the U.S. House of Representatives by Jennifer Dunn and Martin Frost. The bill passed the Senate unanimously within a week of its proposal. At an October 2002 conference on missing, exploited, and runaway children, President George W. Bush announced changes to the AMBER Alert system, including the development of a national standard for issuing AMBER Alerts. A similar bill passed the House several weeks later on a 390–24 vote. A related bill finally became law in April 2003.The alerts were offered digitally beginning in November 2002, when America Online began a service allowing people to sign up to receive notification via computer, pager, or cell phone. Users of the service enter their ZIP Code, thus allowing the alerts to be targeted to specific geographic regions.By 2005, all fifty states had operational programs and today the program operates across state and jurisdictional boundaries. As of January 1, 2013, AMBER Alerts are automatically sent through the Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) program.In 2023, California enacted a law to create the "Ebony Alert" system to focus particularly on missing Black children and young women. Supporters of the law say that this will dedicate resources to missing Black youths that may not be given sufficient attention through AMBER alerts. Canada Canada's system began in December 2002, when Alberta launched the first province-wide system. At the time, Alberta Solicitor-General Heather Forsyth said "We anticipate an Amber Alert will only be issued once a year in Alberta. We hope we never have to use it, but if a child is abducted Amber Alert is another tool police can use to find them and help them bring the child home safely." The Alberta government committed to spending more than CA$1 million to expanding the province's emergency warning system so that it could be used effectively for Amber Alerts. Other Canadian provinces soon adopted the system, and by May 2004, Saskatchewan was the only province that had not established an Amber Alert system. Within the next year, the program was in use throughout the country. Amber Alerts may also be distributed via the Alert Ready emergency alert system, which disrupts programming on all radio, television stations, and television providers in the relevant region to display and play audio of Amber Alert information. In 2018, Alert Ready introduced alerts on supported mobile devices. When an alert is broadcast, a distinct sound is played and a link to find more information is displayed onscreen. Currently, there is no way to deactivate Amber Alerts on mobile devices in Canada, even if the device is in silent and/or Do Not Disturb modes, which has provoked controversy. These series of multiple blaring alarms going off in the middle of the night have caused residents to complain, often by calling 911. However, there are concerns that hearing repeated alarms may cause Canadians to ignore the alarm when the system is used to warn of life-threatening emergencies. British Columbia Translink, the corporation responsible for the regional transportation network of Metro Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada, displays Amber alerts on all their buses' digital signs reading "AMBER ALERT | Listen to radio | Bus #". Details of the Amber alert information are also available on screens at transit stations. Quebec The program was introduced in Quebec on May 26, 2003. The name AMBER alert was then adapted in French to Alerte Médiatique But Enfant Recherché, which directly translates as "Media Alert for Child Recovery". In order to launch an AMBER alert, police authorities need to meet 4 criteria simultaneously and with no exceptions: The missing person is a child under the age of 18. The police have reason to believe that the missing child has been abducted. The police have reason to believe that the physical safety or the life of the child is in serious danger. The police have information that may help locate the child, the suspect and/or the suspect's vehicle.Once all 4 conditions are met, the police service may call an AMBER alert. Simultaneously, all of Quebec's Ministry of transport message boards will broadcast the police's messages. The Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ) road traffic controllers also help with the search. Television and radio stations broadcast a description of the child, the abductor and/or the abductor's car. On the radio, the information is broadcast every 20 minutes for two hours or less if the child is found. On the television, the information is broadcast on a ticker tape at the bottom of the screen for two hours with no interruptions. After this, the ticker tape is withdrawn, but the police continue to inform the public through the usual means of communication. Over the years, the program gathered more partners in order for the alert to be communicated on different media platforms. As in Ontario, lottery crown corporation Loto-Québec puts to the disposition of the police forces their 8500 terminals located throughout the province. Some of these terminals are equipped with a screen that faces the customer which makes it the largest network of its kind to operate in Canada. The technology employed enables them to broadcast the message on the entire network in under 10 minutes. In addition, The Canadian Wireless Telecommunications Association (CWTA) offers to most Canadians, upon free subscription, the possibility to receive, via text message, on their mobile devices AMBER alert notices. Ontario Ontario furthered its reach beyond media and highway signs by offering Amber Alerts on the province's 9,000 lottery terminal screens.After the abduction and murder of Victoria Stafford, an online petition was started by Suzie Pereira, a single mother of 2 children who gathered over 61,000 signatures, prompting a review of the Amber Alert. There was some concern regarding the strict criteria for issuing the alerts – criteria that were not met in the Stafford case – that resulted in an alert not being issued. Ontario Provincial Police have since changed their rules for issuing an alert from having to confirm an abduction and confirm threat of harm, to believe that a child has been abducted and believe is at risk of harm. Mexico Mexico joined international efforts to spread the use of the AMBER alert at an official launch ceremony on April 28, 2011. Australia The Australian state of Queensland implemented a version of the AMBER Alerts in May 2005. Other Australian states joined Queensland in Facebook's Amber Alert program in June 2017. Europe AMBER Alert Europe is a foundation that strives to improve the protection of missing children by empowering children and raising awareness on the issue of missing children and its root causes. AMBER Alert Europe advocates that one missing child is one too many and aims for zero missing children in Europe. AMBER Alert Europe is a neutral platform for the exchange of knowledge, expertise, and best practices on the issue of missing children and its roots causes. To contribute to a safer environment for children, it connects experts from 44 non-governmental and governmental organisations, as well as business entities from 28 countries across Europe. Its activities cover prevention and awareness-raising, training, research, and child alerting, as well as launching initiatives aimed at impacting policies and legislation in the area of children’s rights. All activities are implemented in line with the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child and with respect for the privacy of children and data protection laws. Its beginnings As a response to missing children cases exceeding geographical borders, the AMBER Alert Europe Foundation was founded in 2013 to contribute to better cross-border coordination and cooperation in the search for missing children. Since then, its network has expanded and now encompasses different experts from a variety of backgrounds who make their know-how and experiences available to improve existing practices and procedures for a fast and safe recovery of children gone missing. Its joint efforts with police experts in the field of missing children even paved the way for a European police expert network in this area. With the objective to prevent children from going missing, it also develop activities in the area of prevention, awareness-raising, research, and training together with its network of experts. France In February 2006, France's Justice ministry launched an apparatus based on the AMBER alerts named Alerte-Enlèvement (abduction alert) or Dispositif Alerte-Enlèvement (abduction alert apparatus) with the help of most media and railroad and motorway companies. Netherlands AMBER Alert Netherlands was launched in 2008. On February 14, 2009, the first Dutch AMBER Alert was issued when a 4-year-old boy went missing in Rotterdam. He was found safe and sound after being recognized by a person who saw his picture on an electronic billboard in a fast food restaurant. He was recovered so quickly, that the transmission of the AMBER Alert was halted before all recipients received it. An AMBER Alert is issued when a child is missing or abducted and the Dutch police fear that the life or health of the child is in imminent danger. The system enables the police to immediately alert press and public nationwide, by means of electronic highway signs, TV, radio, social media, PCs, large advertising screens (digital signage), email, text messages, apps, RSS news feeds, website banners and pop-ups. There are four key criteria in The Netherlands to be met before an AMBER Alert is issued: The child is (very likely) abducted by an unknown person or persons or the child is missing and its life is in imminent danger The victim is a minor (under 18 years of age); There is enough information about the victim to increase the chances of the child being found by means of an AMBER Alert, such as a photo, information about the abductor or the vehicle used during the abduction; The AMBER Alert is issued as soon as possible after the abduction or disappearance of the child. United Kingdom On April 1, 2007, the AMBER Alert system became active in North West England. An implementation across the rest of Britain was planned at that time. This was realized on May 25, 2010, with the nationwide launch of the Child Rescue Alert, based on the AMBER Alert system. The first system in the UK of this kind was created in Sussex on November 14, 2002. This was followed by versions in Surrey and Hampshire. By 2005, every local jurisdiction in England and Wales had its own form of alert system. The system was first used in the UK on October 3, 2012, with regard to missing 5 year-old April Jones in Wales. Ireland In April 2009, it was announced that an AMBER Alert system would be set up in Ireland, In May 2012, the Child Rescue Ireland (CRI) Alert was officially introduced. Ireland's first AMBER alert was issued upon the disappearance of two boys, Eoghan (10) and Ruairí Chada (5). Slovakia Since April 2015, an emergency child abduction alert system "AMBER Alert Slovakia" is also available in Slovakia. (www.amberalert.sk) Ukraine On 22 September 2021, Ukraine's Ministry of Digital Transformation, the National Police of Ukraine and Facebook announced the launch of AMBER Alert in Ukraine. China On 15 May 2016, the Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China announced the Ministry of Public Security Emergency Release Platform for Children's Missing Information in Beijing, which was soon rolled out to the rest of the country. It is run by the Criminal Investigation Department of the Ministry of Public Security and receives technical support from Alibaba Group. The platform pushes information of missing children confirmed by the police to the mobile phones of the people around the place where the children disappeared, to mobilise people in the area to find and provide feedback on clues related to abductions, trafficking, and related crimes in the area. Ecuador In 2018, Ecuador's Department of Security introduced its own AMBER Alert called EMILIA Alert, named after the abducted girl Emilia Benavides in December 2017. Malaysia In September 2007, Malaysia implemented the Nurin Alert. Based on the AMBER alert, it is named for a missing eight-year-old girl, Nurin Jazlin. Morocco In March 2023, the General Directorate of National Security of Morocco developed a system in cooperation with Meta Platforms based on the AMBER Alert, named "Tifli Moukhtafi" (lit. 'my child is missing'). The alerts are distributed via SMS and on platforms owned by Meta. Russia In 2019, Megafon developed its own alert system called MegaFon.Poisk. It is oriented for all regions of Russia where MegaFon is represented and is used for searches of children and adults as well. For less than half of a year, the service has been used for searching of more than 250 people and in more than 30% of situations people called back with information about a lost person. Retrieval rates According to the U.S. Department of Justice, of the children abducted and murdered by strangers, 75% are killed within the first three hours of their abduction. Amber Alerts are designed to inform the general public quickly when a child has been kidnapped and is in danger so "the public [would be] additional eyes and ears of law enforcement". As of August 2013, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children said 657 children were recovered because of the AMBER Alert program.A Scripps Howard study of the 233 AMBER Alerts in the United States in 2004 found that most issued alerts did not meet the Department of Justice's criteria. That is, 50% (117 alerts) were categorized as family abductions", e.g., a parent involved in a custody dispute. There were 48 alerts for children who had not been abducted at all, but were lost, ran away, involved in family misunderstandings (for example, two instances where the child was with grandparents), or as the result of hoaxes. Another 23 alerts were issued in cases where police did not know the name of the allegedly abducted child, often as the result of misunderstandings by witnesses who reported an abduction. Seventy of the 233 AMBER Alerts issued in 2004 (30%) were actually children taken by strangers or who were unlawfully travelling with adults other than their legal guardians.According to the 2014 Amber Alert Report, 186 Amber Alerts were issued in the US, involving 239 children – 60 who were taken by strangers or people other than their legal guardians. Controversies Crime control theater Some outside scholars examining the system in depth disagree with the "official" results. A research team led by criminologist Timothy Griffin reviewed hundreds of abduction cases that occurred between 2003 and 2006 and found that AMBER Alerts actually had little apparent role in the eventual return of abducted children. The AMBER Alerts tended to be "successful" in relatively mundane abductions, such as when the child was taken by a noncustodial parent or other family member. There was little evidence that AMBER Alerts routinely "saved lives", although a crucial research constraint was the impossibility of knowing with certainty what would have happened if no alert had been issued in a particular case.Griffin and coauthor Monica Miller articulated the limits to AMBER Alert in a subsequent research article. They stated that alerts are inherently constrained, because to be successful in the most menacing cases there needs to be a rapid synchronization of several events (rapid discovery that the child is missing and subsequent alert, the fortuitous discovery of the child or abductor by a citizen, and so forth). Furthermore, there is a contradiction between the need for rapid recovery and the prerogative to maintain the strict issuance criteria to reduce the number of frivolous alerts, creating a dilemma for law enforcement officials and public backlash when alerts are not issued in cases ending as tragedies. Finally, the implied causal model of alert (rapid recovery can save lives) is in a sense the opposite of reality: in the worst abduction scenarios, the intentions of the perpetrator usually guarantee that anything public officials do will be "too slow". Because the system is publicly praised for saving lives despite these limitations, Griffin and Miller argue that AMBER Alert acts as "crime control theater" in that it "creates the appearance but not the fact of crime control". AMBER Alert is thus a socially constructed "solution" to the rare but intractable crime of child-abduction murder. Griffin and Miller have subsequently applied the concept to other emotional but ineffective legislation such as safe-haven laws and polygamy raids. Griffin considers his findings preliminary, reporting his team examined only a portion of the Amber Alerts issued over the three-year period they focused on, so he recommends taking a closer look at the evaluation of the program and its intended purpose, instead of simply promoting the program. Overuse and desensitization Advocates for missing children have expressed concerns that the public is gradually becoming desensitized to AMBER Alerts because of a large number of false or overly broad alarms, where police issue an AMBER Alert without strictly adhering to the U.S. Department of Justice's activation guidelines.The timing of a July 2013 New York child abduction alert sent through the Wireless Emergency Alerts system at 4 a.m. raised concerns that many cellphone users would disable WEA alerts. Health effects A family in Texas, USA, claimed their child suffered a ruptured eardrum and inner ear damage, resulting in permanent hearing loss and tinnitus, when an AMBER Alert was pushed through his earphones at an "ear-shattering volume". Effects on traffic AMBER alerts are often displayed on electronic message signs. The Federal Highway Administration has instructed states to display alerts on highway signs sparingly, citing safety concerns from distracted drivers and the negative impacts of traffic congestion.Many states have policies in place that limit the use of AMBER alerts on freeway signs. In Los Angeles, an AMBER alert issued in October 2002 that was displayed on area freeway signs caused significant traffic congestion. As a result, the California Highway Patrol elected not to display the alerts during rush hour, citing safety concerns. The state of Wisconsin only displays AMBER alerts on freeway signs if it is deemed appropriate by the transportation department and a public safety agency. AMBER alerts do not preempt messages related to traffic safety. Influence The United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp commemorating AMBER Alerts in May 2006. The 39-cent stamp features a chalk pastel drawing by artist Vivienne Flesher of a reunited mother and child, with the text "AMBER ALERT saves missing children" across the pane. The stamp was released as part of the observance of National Missing Children's Day.In 2006, a TV movie, Amber's Story, was broadcast on Lifetime. It starred Elisabeth Röhm and Sophie Hough. A comic book entitled Amber Hagerman Deserves Justice: A Night Owl Story was published by Wham Bang Comics in 2009. Geared toward a young audience by teen author Jake Tinsley and Manga artist Jason Dube, it tells Amber's story, recounts the investigation into her murder, and touches on the effect her death has had on young children and parents everywhere. It was created to promote what was then a reopened investigation into her murder. See also Silver Alert References Cited works and further reading Douglas, John; Olshaker, Mark (1996). Journey Into Darkness. United Kingdom: Arrow Books. ISBN 978-0-749-32394-3. Murphy, Paul (2011). Guide for Implementing Or Enhancing an Endangered Missing Advisory (EMA). Washington: U. S. Department of Justice. ISBN 978-1-437-98383-8. Williams, Charles (2005). Faces of the Amber Alert. Bloomington, Indiana: Author House. ISBN 978-1-420-86783-1. External links U.S. government AMBER alert site Our Missing Children (Government of Canada) Congressional Research Service (CRS) report on Amber Alert program technology AMBER Alert Nederland site, the Dutch Amber alert National Center for Missing & Exploited Children Crime Library on Amber Hagerman

Karumadikkuttan

Karumadikkuttan (Malayalam: കരുമാടിക്കുട്ടൻ) is the nickname of a Buddha statue found in Karumady near Alappuzha, Kerala, India. The name literally means boy from Karumady. This 3 feet tall, black granite statue, believed to be old as 9th to 14th century, was abandoned for centuries in a nearby stream named "Karumady thodu". Later in 1930s, Sir Robert Bristow, a colonial British engineer found the statue, and did appropriate actions to protect it. Currently the statue is under the protection of Kerala state government.

Karumadikkuttan (Malayalam: കരുമാടിക്കുട്ടൻ) is the nickname of a Buddha statue found in Karumady near Alappuzha, Kerala, India. The name literally means boy from Karumady. This 3 feet tall, black granite statue, believed to be old as 9th to 14th century, was abandoned for centuries in a nearby stream named "Karumady thodu". Later in 1930s, Sir Robert Bristow, a colonial British engineer found the statue, and did appropriate actions to protect it. Currently the statue is under the protection of Kerala state government. The left side of the statue is missing. The statue is a subject of historical debate as the reason for its partial destruction is still elusive. Dalai Lama has visited Karumadi in 1965. As per travancore state manual the idol of Karumadikkuttan is of Jain Theerthankara. The style of idol is of Jain idol style. == References ==

Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge

Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge is a 2020 American direct-to-video adult animated martial arts film based on the Mortal Kombat franchise created by Ed Boon and John Tobias. South Korean studio Mir animated the film and was produced by Warner Bros. Animation. It is the first installment in the Legends series. Borrowing source material from Mortal Kombat, the film contains two plots: one dealing with Scorpion seeking his revenge on those who murdered his family and clan after being resurrected by Quan Chi, the other follows Johnny Cage, Liu Kang and Sonya Blade, who are chosen to participate on the Mortal Kombat tournament for the fate of Earthrealm.

Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge is a 2020 American direct-to-video adult animated martial arts film based on the Mortal Kombat franchise created by Ed Boon and John Tobias. South Korean studio Mir animated the film and was produced by Warner Bros. Animation. It is the first installment in the Legends series. Borrowing source material from Mortal Kombat, the film contains two plots: one dealing with Scorpion seeking his revenge on those who murdered his family and clan after being resurrected by Quan Chi, the other follows Johnny Cage, Liu Kang and Sonya Blade, who are chosen to participate on the Mortal Kombat tournament for the fate of Earthrealm. It marks the first Mortal Kombat based property to be produced at Warner Bros. Animation after its parent company acquired the franchise in 2009 from Midway Games, and the first Mortal Kombat animated project since the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm, featuring co-creator Ed Boon involved as creative consultant as well as the first Mortal Kombat film to be rated R by the MPA.The film was released on April 14, 2020, on digital, and on April 28 for 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD releases. It received positive reviews. A sequel, Mortal Kombat Legends: Battle of the Realms, was released on August 31, 2021. Plot In Japan, Shirai Ryu grandmaster Hanzo Hasashi and his young son Satoshi are ambushed on their way home by several assassins from the rival Lin Kuei clan. Hasashi kills them after discovering that the Lin Kuei have slaughtered the rest of the Shirai Ryu, including his wife, Harumi. The Lin Kuei's Grandmaster Sub-Zero appears, uses his freezing abilities to restrain Hanzo in ice, and then slaughters Satoshi by crushing his neck. He then impales Hanzo through the neck with an icicle, killing him. The thunder god Raiden and the Shaolin monk Liu Kang make preparations to defend Earthrealm by participating in the Mortal Kombat tournament, hosted by the aging warlock Shang Tsung. The tournament's victor will battle Goro to decide the fate of Earthrealm. The pair are accompanied by out-of-work Hollywood actor Johnny Cage and Special Forces agent Sonya Blade, with both having their reasons for participating: Sonya is in pursuit of Black Dragon crime syndicate leader Kano, while Cage believes that he is participating in a film project. Meanwhile, in the Netherrealm, Hasashi awakens to impending torment from the Demon Torturer. Hasashi escapes and kills the Demon Torturer and several other demons. He finally meets with the sorcerer Quan Chi, who persuades Hanzo to fight for him in the Mortal Kombat tournament so that he can exact his revenge on Sub-Zero. Hanzo agrees, dubbing himself Scorpion. Upon arrival on Shang Tsung's island, Scorpion attempts to steal Shinnok's amulet on Quan Chi's orders, but Raiden persuades him not to follow through on the deal. Meanwhile, Cage, Sonya, and Liu Kang witness Sonya's partner Jackson "Jax" Briggs having his arms ripped off by Goro until Raiden intervenes, and cauterizes Jax's arms. During the course of the tournament, Cage barely claims victory over a Tarkatan and realizes he is in an actual fighting tournament, not an action film. Sonya successfully garrotes Reptile, and Kano fights Kitana, emerging as the winner when she yields. In an attempt to stop the Earthrealm heroes, Kano has his assassins infiltrate the island to kill them, but they are all killed by Scorpion. While attempting to fight Kano, Sub-Zero appears and helps deal with the assassins, but a vengeful Scorpion attacks him and tackles him off a bridge into a spike pit, impaling them both and killing Sub-Zero. Cage and Sonya pursue Kano to rescue Jax while Kang rushes to Shang Tsung's throne room to face Goro. Quan Chi appears before Scorpion and reveals that he was directly responsible for the slaughter of the Shirai Ryu, having disguised himself as Sub-Zero and manipulated the Lin Kuei into doing his bidding and that the real Sub-Zero had no part in the massacre. Enraged, Scorpion removes himself from the spike to exact revenge. At the climax of the tournament, Shang Tsung is revealed to have already known of Quan Chi's true intentions from the beginning and captures him. Liu Kang is almost killed during his match with Goro but is saved when Scorpion kills Goro with his kunai, while Cage, Sonya, and Jax successfully kill Kano. Shang Tsung attempts to have Scorpion fight Kang, but the spectre outsmarts the sorcerer and attacks him instead, forcing him to give him the amulet and willingly forfeit his status as a fighter, in turn securing Kang's position as the victor of the tournament. Tsung warns that Shao Kahn will have his revenge as he retreats to Outworld. The island begins to collapse, forcing the Earthrealm heroes to evacuate by a nearby boat. At the same time, Scorpion succeeds in killing Quan Chi in kombat before joining his family and clan in the afterlife. Later on the ship, Raiden tells Liu Kang that it was not his destiny to defeat Goro but to defeat Shao Kahn himself. In the aftermath, Shang Tsung is tortured by Shao Kahn for his failure before being ordered to prepare for Earthrealm's invasion. Voice cast Production Development Reports of a new animated Mortal Kombat film was hinted at in January 2019 as a tie–in to the upcoming live–action reboot film Mortal Kombat. A year later, the animated film was announced officially as Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge. Upon the film's official release, a special variant of the Warner Bros. Animation logo featured Scorpion strangling the Looney Tunes character Daffy Duck in place of Porky Pig for the normal opening logo. The logo originally was going to be where Daffy was impaled through the head by Scorpion's Kunai, but that was changed due to the studio having to adhere to age-appropriation regulations for their opening logos. This would follow up a year later in the film's sequel, Mortal Kombat Legends: Battle of the Realms featuring Shaggy Rogers from Scooby-Doo strangling Scorpion. Casting Patrick Seitz returned as the voice of Scorpion after his absence from Mortal Kombat 11. Steve Blum, who voiced the Kuai Liang version of Sub-Zero in Mortal Kombat X, voiced Bi-Han in the film. Grey Griffin returned as Kitana after missing Mortal Kombat X due to her pregnancy at the time. Goro was voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, who had voiced the character in the 1995 feature film. Release Rating Ed Boon confirmed on his Twitter account that the film will receive an "R" rating, marking the first time a Mortal Kombat film has been rated R. Marketing The first trailer was released online on January 28, 2020. A red-band trailer for the film was released on March 8, 2020, during the "Final Kombat" tournament following the trailer debut of Mortal Kombat 11 guest fighter Spawn. Home media The film earned $508,501 from domestic DVD sales and $2,126,194 from domestic Blu-ray sales, bringing its total home video earning to $2,634,695. Reception Scorpion's Revenge holds an approval rating of 90% based on 21 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.3/10.Critical reception was mostly positive. Andrew Pollard of Starburst said, "Brimming with jaw-dropping brutality, the slickest of slick stunning animation, [and] a solid and engaging driving narrative ... this truly feels like the Mortal Kombat movie that people have for so long been clamouring for." Alessandro Fillari of GameSpot called the film "a fun ride that is faithful to the series" that excelled when it focused on Scorpion, but felt the character-heavy storyline "makes for an overstuffed plot ... that fans have seen several times before in the games." Sam Stone of Comic Book Resources described Scorpion's Revenge as "a bloody good time" and praised its development of the characters' backstories, while Screen Rant called it "an excellent debut for Warner Bros. Animation's Mortal Kombat movies, taking all of the aspects that fans love most about the franchise and executing them with style." Bloody Disgusting wrote, "Scorpion’s Revenge wears its love and respect for the source material on its sleeve, while in the process delivering a kick-ass entertaining animated movie." However, Bob Chipman of The Escapist opined that the film "is pretty good when it’s about Scorpion and not so much when it’s about...anything else from Mortal Kombat," and Joshua Yehl of IGN commented, "The movie’s biggest problem is that it tries to do the epic Mortal Kombat tournament arc on top of a more personal Scorpion story and ends up doing justice to neither." References External links Mortal Kombat Legends: Scorpion's Revenge at IMDb